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2018-02273	Why can we only see so many stars in our own galaxy, but we can see the Andromeda Galaxy billions of light-years away with the naked eye?	That's kind of like asking why you can see the moon, but why can't you see a grain of sand 100 yards away. The sand is much closer, but the moon is much bigger. Andromeda Galaxy is 220,000 light years across and contains a trillion stars. A typical star is 1.4 million kilometers across. That means a star is 0.00000000006726% as big as a galaxy. Also, Andromeda is "only" 2.5 million light years away - not billions of light years.	[ "The constellation of Andromeda lies well away from the galactic plane, so it does not contain any of the open clusters or bright nebulae of the Milky Way. Because of its distance in the sky from the band of obscuring dust, gas, and abundant stars of our home galaxy, Andromeda's borders contain many visible distant galaxies. The most famous deep-sky object in Andromeda is the spiral galaxy cataloged as Messier 31 (M31) or NGC 224 but known colloquially as the Andromeda Galaxy for the constellation. M31 is one of the most distant objects visible to the naked eye, 2.2 million light-years from Earth (estimates range up to 2.5 million light-years); it is seen under a dark, transparent sky as a hazy patch in the north of the constellation. M31 is the largest neighboring galaxy to the Milky Way and the largest member of the Local Group of galaxies. In absolute terms, M31 is approximately 200,000 light-years in diameter, twice the size of the Milky Way. It is an enormous – 192.4 by 62.2 arcminutes in apparent size – barred spiral galaxy similar in form to the Milky Way and at an approximate magnitude of 3.5, is one of the brightest deep-sky objects in the northern sky. Despite being visible to the naked eye, the \"little cloud\" near Andromeda's figure was not recorded until AD 964, when the Arab astronomer al-Sufi wrote his \"Book of Fixed Stars\". M31 was first observed telescopically shortly after its invention, by Simon Marius in 1612.\n", "With an apparent magnitude of 3.4, the Andromeda Galaxy is among the brightest of the Messier objects making it visible to the naked eye from Earth on moonless nights, even when viewed from areas with moderate light pollution.\n\nSection::::Observation history.\n\nAround the year 964, the Persian astronomer Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi was the first to describe the Andromeda Galaxy. He referred to it in his \"Book of Fixed Stars\" as a \"nebulous smear\".\n", "BULLET::::- Stars vary far more in brightness than they do in distance.\n\nBULLET::::- Our line of sight through the Milky Way Galaxy is interrupted by great clouds of gas and dust, which block our view of stars more than a few thousand light-years away.\n", "The estimated distance of the Andromeda Galaxy from our own was doubled in 1953 when it was discovered that there is another, dimmer type of Cepheid. In the 1990s, measurements of both standard red giants as well as red clump stars from the \"Hipparcos\" satellite measurements were used to calibrate the Cepheid distances.\n\nSection::::General.:Formation and history.\n\nThe Andromeda Galaxy was formed roughly 10 billion years ago from the collision and subsequent merger of smaller protogalaxies.\n", "Studies of the extended halo of the Andromeda Galaxy show that it is roughly comparable to that of the Milky Way, with stars in the halo being generally \"metal-poor\", and increasingly so with greater distance. This evidence indicates that the two galaxies have followed similar evolutionary paths. They are likely to have accreted and assimilated about 100–200 low-mass galaxies during the past 12 billion years. The stars in the extended halos of the Andromeda Galaxy and the Milky Way may extend nearly one third the distance separating the two galaxies.\n\nSection::::Nucleus.\n", "Section::::History and mythology.:In non-Western astronomy.\n", "Other variable stars are U Camelopardalis, VZ Camelopardalis, and Mira variables T Camelopardalis, X Camelopardalis, and R Camelopardalis. RU Camelopardalis is one of the brighter Type II Cepheids visible in the night sky.\n\nIn 2011 a supernova was discovered in the constellation.\n\nSection::::Features.:Deep-sky objects.\n\nCamelopardalis is in the part of the celestial sphere facing away from the galactic plane. Accordingly, many distant galaxies are visible within its borders. \n", "Typically, when looking at an area of sky filled with stars, only stars that are brighter than a limiting apparent magnitude can be seen. As discussed above, the very luminous stars that are farther away will be seen, as well as luminous and faint stars that are closer. There will appear to be more luminous objects within a certain distance from Earth than faint objects. However, there are many more faint stars, they simply cannot be seen because they are so dim. The bias towards luminous stars when observing a patch of sky affects calculations of the average absolute magnitude and average distance to a group of stars. Because of the luminous stars that are at a further distance, it will appear as if our sample of stars is farther away than it actually is, and that each star is intrinsically brighter than it actually is. This effect is known as the Malmquist bias.\n", "A few galaxies outside the Milky Way are visible on a dark night to the unaided eye, including the Andromeda Galaxy, Large Magellanic Cloud, the Small Magellanic Cloud, and the Triangulum Galaxy. In the 10th century, the Persian astronomer Al-Sufi made the earliest recorded identification of the Andromeda Galaxy, describing it as a \"small cloud\". In 964, Al-Sufi probably mentioned the Large Magellanic Cloud in his \"Book of Fixed Stars\" (referring to \"Al Bakr of the southern Arabs\", since at a declination of about 70° south it was not visible where he lived); it was not well known to Europeans until Magellan's voyage in the 16th century. The Andromeda Galaxy was later independently noted by Simon Marius in 1612.\n", "Section::::Amateur observing.\n", "List of Andromeda's satellite galaxies\n\nThe Andromeda Galaxy (M31) has satellite galaxies just like the Milky Way. Orbiting M31 are at least 14 dwarf galaxies: the brightest and largest is M32, which can be seen with a basic telescope. The second-brightest and closest one to M32 is M110. The other galaxies are fainter, and were mostly discovered only starting from the 1970s.\n", "Section::::General.:Luminosity estimates.\n", "With the exception of supernovae, individual stars have primarily been observed in the Local Group, and especially in the visible part of the Milky Way (as demonstrated by the detailed star catalogues available for our\n\ngalaxy). But some stars have been observed in the M100 galaxy of the Virgo Cluster, about 100 million light years from the Earth.\n", "In 2005, astronomers discovered a completely new type of star cluster in the Andromeda Galaxy. The new-found clusters contain hundreds of thousands of stars, a similar number of stars that can be found in globular clusters. What distinguishes them from the globular clusters is that they are much larger—several hundred light-years across—and hundreds of times less dense. The distances between the stars are, therefore, much greater within the newly discovered extended clusters.\n\nSection::::Satellites.\n", "The Andromeda Galaxy is bright enough to be seen with the naked eye, even with some light pollution. Andromeda is best seen during autumn nights in the Northern Hemisphere, when from mid-latitudes the galaxy reaches zenith (its highest point at midnight) so can be seen almost all night. From the Southern Hemisphere, it is most visible at the same months, that is in spring, and away from our equator does not reach a high altitude over the northern horizon, making it difficult to observe. Binoculars can reveal some larger structures and its two brightest satellite galaxies, M32 and M110. An amateur telescope can reveal Andromeda's disk, some of its brightest globular clusters, dark dust lanes and the large star cloud NGC 206.\n", "The visibility of diffuse objects such as star clusters and galaxies is much more strongly affected by light pollution than is that of planets and stars. Under typical dark conditions only a few such objects are visible. These include the Pleiades, h/χ Persei, the Andromeda Galaxy, the Carina Nebula, the Orion Nebula, Omega Centauri, 47 Tucanae, the Ptolemy Cluster Messier 7 near the tail of Scorpius and the globular cluster M13 in Hercules. The Triangulum Galaxy (M33) is a difficult averted vision object and only visible at all if it is higher than 50° in the sky. The globular clusters M 3 in Canes Venatici and M 92 in Hercules are also visible with the naked eye under such conditions. Under really dark sky conditions, however, M33 is easy to see, even in direct vision. Many other Messier objects are also visible under such conditions. The most distant objects that have been seen by the naked eye are nearby bright galaxies such as Centaurus A, Bode's Galaxy, Sculptor Galaxy, and Messier 83.\n", "The rate of star formation in the Milky Way is much higher, with Andromeda Galaxy producing only about one solar mass per year compared to 3–5 solar masses for the Milky Way. The rate of novae in the Milky Way is also double that of Andromeda Galaxy. This suggests that the latter once experienced a great star formation phase, but is now in a relative state of quiescence, whereas the Milky Way is experiencing more active star formation. Should this continue, the luminosity of the Milky Way may eventually overtake that of Andromeda Galaxy.\n", "BULLET::::5. The distribution of atmospheric seeing through the atmosphere (the C profile described below) causes the image quality in adaptive optics systems to degrade the further you look from the location of reference star\n", "Section::::Extrasolar planets.:View from more distant stars (10 ly – ).\n\nFrom 40 Eridani, 16 light years away, the Sun would be an average looking star of about apparent magnitude 3.3 in the constellation Serpens Caput. At this distance most of the stars nearest to us would be in different locations to those in our sky, including Alpha Centauri, Sirius, and Procyon.\n", "From a viewpoint in the LMC, the Milky Way's total apparent magnitude would be −2.0—over 14 times brighter than the LMC appears to us on Earth—and it would span about 36° across the sky, the width of over 70 full moons. Furthermore, because of the LMC's high galactic latitude, an observer there would get an oblique view of the entire galaxy, free from the interference of interstellar dust that makes studying in the Milky Way's plane difficult from Earth. The Small Magellanic Cloud would be about magnitude 0.6, substantially brighter than the LMC appears to us.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Exosphere\n", "Compared to the Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy appears to have predominantly older stars with ages 7 years. The estimated luminosity of Andromeda Galaxy, , is about 25% higher than that of our own galaxy. However, the galaxy has a high inclination as seen from Earth and its interstellar dust absorbs an unknown amount of light, so it is difficult to estimate its actual brightness and other authors have given other values for the luminosity of the Andromeda Galaxy (some authors even propose it is the second-brightest galaxy within a radius of 10 mega-parsecs of the Milky Way, after the Sombrero Galaxy, with an absolute magnitude of around -22.21 or close).\n", "Research released in 2016 revised the number of galaxies in the observable universe from a previous estimate of 200 billion () to a suggested 2 trillion () or more, containing more stars than all the grains of sand on planet Earth. Most of the galaxies are 1,000 to 100,000 parsecs in diameter (approximately 3000 to 300,000 light years) and separated by distances on the order of millions of parsecs (or megaparsecs). For comparison, the Milky Way has a diameter of at least 30,000 parsecs (100,000 ly) and is separated from the Andromeda Galaxy, its nearest large neighbor, by 780,000 parsecs (2.5 million ly.)\n", "Like the Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy has satellite galaxies, consisting of 14 known dwarf galaxies. The best known and most readily observed satellite galaxies are M32 and M110. Based on current evidence, it appears that M32 underwent a close encounter with the Andromeda Galaxy in the past. M32 may once have been a larger galaxy that had its stellar disk removed by M31, and underwent a sharp increase of star formation in the core region, which lasted until the relatively recent past.\n", "The number of known HH objects has increased rapidly over the last few years, but that is a very small proportion of the estimated up to 150,000 in the Milky Way, the vast majority of which are too far away to be resolved. Most HH objects lie within about one parsec of their parent star. Many, however, are seen several parsecs away.\n", "The surface brightness fluctuation (SBF) method takes advantage of the use of CCD cameras on telescopes. Because of spatial fluctuations in a galaxy's surface brightness, some pixels on these cameras will pick up more stars than others. However, as distance increases the picture will become increasingly smoother. Analysis of this describes a magnitude of the pixel-to-pixel variation, which is directly related to a galaxy's distance.\n\nSection::::Extragalactic distance scale.:D–σ relation.\n" ]	[ "If we can barely see any stars within our own galaxy, we should not be able to see any stars in the Andromeda Galaxy which is billions of light years away. " ]	[ "The stars in the Andromeda Galaxy are much larger than the stars in our galaxy, therefore they are visible, in addition, the Andromeda Galaxy is not billions of light years away, it is only 2.5 million light years away. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "If we can barely see any stars within our own galaxy, we should not be able to see any stars in the Andromeda Galaxy which is billions of light years away. ", "If we can barely see any stars within our own galaxy, we should not be able to see any stars in the Andromeda Galaxy which is billions of light years away. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The stars in the Andromeda Galaxy are much larger than the stars in our galaxy, therefore they are visible, in addition, the Andromeda Galaxy is not billions of light years away, it is only 2.5 million light years away. ", "The stars in the Andromeda Galaxy are much larger than the stars in our galaxy, therefore they are visible, in addition, the Andromeda Galaxy is not billions of light years away, it is only 2.5 million light years away. " ]
2018-09487	Why is it easier to stay on a bicycle that's in motion compared to one that isn't?	The main reason for a moving bicycle being more stable than a stationary bicycle is that a moving bicycle tends to steer into a fall. If the bicycle starts falling left, it tends to steer to the left. If it starts falling to the right, it tends to steer to the right. Steering into the fall counteracts the fall, keeping the bike upright. Others in this thread mention the gyroscopic effect of the spinning wheels, and while that does contribute somewhat to the stability of a moving bicycle, it is not the primary source of stability. In fact, a bicycle can be built without any gyroscopic effect at all (by adding wheels of equal mass that spin in the opposite direction), such a bike can still be stable. For anyone who might be interested, here is a video showing a stable bicycle without gyroscopic effect: [ URL_0 ]( URL_0 )	[ "Steering may be supplied by a rider or, under certain circumstances, by the bike itself. This self-stability is generated by a combination of several effects that depend on the geometry, mass distribution, and forward speed of the bike. Tires, suspension, steering damping, and frame flex can also influence it, especially in motorcycles.\n", "Section::::Lateral dynamics.:Balance.:Forward speed.\n\nThe rider applies torque to the handlebars in order to turn the front wheel and so to control lean and maintain balance. At high speeds, small steering angles quickly move the ground contact points laterally; at low speeds, larger steering angles are required to achieve the same results in the same amount of time. Because of this, it is usually easier to maintain balance at high speeds. As self-stability typically occurs at speeds above a certain threshold, going faster increases the chances that a bike is contributing to its own stability.\n\nSection::::Lateral dynamics.:Balance.:Center of mass location.\n", "A factor that influences how easy or difficult a bike will be to ride is trail, the distance that the front wheel ground contact point trails behind the steering axis ground contact point. The steering axis is the axis about which the entire steering mechanism (fork, handlebars, front wheel, etc.) pivots. In traditional bike designs, with a steering axis tilted back from the vertical, positive trail tends to steer the front wheel into the direction of a lean, independent of forward speed. This can be simulated by pushing a stationary bike to one side. The front wheel will usually also steer to that side. In a lean, gravity provides this force. The dynamics of a moving bike are more complicated, however, and other factors can contribute to or detract from this effect.\n", "A bike is also an example of an inverted pendulum. Just as a broomstick is more easily balanced in the hand than a pencil, a tall bike (with a high center of mass) can be easier to balance when ridden than a low one because the tall bike's lean rate (rate at which its angle of lean increases as it begins to fall over) will be slower. However, a rider can have the opposite impression of a bike when it is stationary. A top-heavy bike can require more effort to keep upright, when stopped in traffic for example, than a bike which is just as tall but with a lower center of mass. This is an example of a vertical second-class lever. A small force at the end of the lever, the seat or handlebars at the top of the bike, more easily moves a large mass if the mass is closer to the fulcrum, where the tires touch the ground. This is why touring cyclists are advised to carry loads low on a bike, and panniers hang down on either side of front and rear racks.\n", "BULLET::::- the influence of the position of the center of pressure of wind forces coming from the side is eliminated\n\nBULLET::::- the wheel flop effect (see below) is eliminated\n\nSkilled and alert riders may have more path control if the mechanical trail is lower while a higher trail is known to make a bicycle easier to ride \"no hands\" and thus more subjectively stable.\n\nSection::::Wheel flop.\n", "Another factor that can also contribute to the self-stability of traditional bike designs is the distribution of mass in the steering mechanism, which includes the front wheel, the fork, and the handlebar. If the center of mass for the steering mechanism is in front of the steering axis, then the pull of gravity will also cause the front wheel to steer in the direction of a lean. This can be seen by leaning a stationary bike to one side. The front wheel will usually also steer to that side independent of any interaction with the ground. Additional parameters, such as the fore-to-aft position of the center of mass and the elevation of the center of mass also contribute to the dynamic behavior of a bike.\n", "At low forward speeds, the precession of the front wheel is too quick, contributing to an uncontrolled bike’s tendency to oversteer, start to lean the other way and eventually oscillate and fall over. At high forward speeds, the precession is usually too slow, contributing to an uncontrolled bike’s tendency to understeer and eventually fall over without ever having reached the upright position. This instability is very slow, on the order of seconds, and is easy for most riders to counteract. Thus a fast bike may feel stable even though it is actually not self-stable and would fall over if it were uncontrolled.\n", "If the steering of a bike is locked, it becomes virtually impossible to balance while riding. On the other hand, if the gyroscopic effect of rotating bike wheels is cancelled by adding counter-rotating wheels, it is still easy to balance while riding. One other way that a bike can be balanced, with or without locked steering, is by applying appropriate torques between the bike and rider similar to the way a gymnast can swing up from hanging straight down on uneven parallel bars, a person can start swinging on a swing from rest by pumping their legs, or a double inverted pendulum can be controlled with an actuator only at the elbow.\n", "Bike maneuverability and handling is difficult to quantify for several reasons. The geometry of a bike, especially the steering axis angle makes kinematic analysis complicated. Under many conditions, bikes are inherently unstable and must always be under rider control. Finally, the rider's skill has a large influence on the bike's performance in any maneuver. Bike designs tend to consist of a trade-off between maneuverability and stability.\n\nSection::::Lateral dynamics.:Maneuverability and handling.:Rider control inputs.\n", "Even when staying relatively motionless, a rider can balance a bike by the same principle. While performing a track stand, the rider can keep the line between the two contact patches under the combined center of mass by steering the front wheel to one side or the other and then moving forward and backward slightly to move the front contact patch from side to side as necessary. Forward motion can be generated simply by pedaling. Backwards motion can be generated the same way on a fixed-gear bicycle. Otherwise, the rider can take advantage of an opportune slope of the pavement or lurch the upper body backwards while the brakes are momentarily engaged.\n", "When discussing bike balance, it is necessary to distinguish carefully between \"stability\", \"self-stability\", and \"controllability\". Recent research suggests that \"rider-controlled stability of bicycles is indeed related to their self-stability.\"\n\nA bike remains upright when it is steered so that the ground reaction forces exactly balance all the other internal and external forces it experiences, such as gravitational if leaning, inertial or centrifugal if in a turn, gyroscopic if being steered, and aerodynamic if in a crosswind.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nThe self-stability of bicycles was reported as early as 1876. Emmanuel Carvallo in 1897 and Francis Whipple in 1899 both developed equations of motion for a bicycle that showed this self-stability.\n", "The history of the study of bike dynamics is nearly as old as the bicycle itself. It includes contributions from famous scientists such as Rankine, Appell, and Whipple. In the early 19th century Karl von Drais, credited with inventing the two-wheeled vehicle variously called the laufmaschine, velocipede, draisine, and dandy horse, showed that a rider could balance his device by steering the front wheel. In 1869, Rankine published an article in \"The Engineer\" repeating von Drais's assertion that balance is maintained by steering in the direction of a lean.\n", "On firm, flat ground, a person requires about 60 watts to walk at . That same person on a bicycle, on the same ground, with the same power output, can travel at using an ordinary bicycle, so in these conditions the energy expenditure of cycling is one-third that of walking.\n\nSection::::Energy efficiency.:Energy output.\n", "BULLET::::- ‘Report on Stability of the Dahon Bicycle’ by John Forester\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nVideos:\n\nBULLET::::- Video of riderless bicycle demonstrating self-stability\n\nBULLET::::- Why bicycles do not fall: Arend Schwab at TEDx Delft 2012\n\nBULLET::::- Wobble movie (AVI)\n\nBULLET::::- Weave movie (AVI)\n\nBULLET::::- Wobble Crash (Flash)\n\nBULLET::::- Video on \"Science Friday\"\n\nResearch centers:\n\nBULLET::::- Bicycle Dynamics at Delft University of Technology\n\nBULLET::::- Bicycle Mechanics at Cornell University\n\nBULLET::::- Bicycle Science at the University of Illinois\n\nBULLET::::- Motorcycle Dynamics at the University of Padova\n\nBULLET::::- Control and Power Research Group at Imperial College\n\nBULLET::::- Bicycle dynamics, control and handling at UC Davis\n", "Between the two unstable regimes mentioned in the previous section, and influenced by all the factors described above that contribute to balance (trail, mass distribution, gyroscopic effects, etc.), there may be a range of forward speeds for a given bike design at which these effects steer an uncontrolled bike upright. It has been proven that neither gyroscopic effects nor positive trail are sufficient by themselves or necessary for self-stability, although they certainly can enhance hands-free control.\n", "BULLET::::- Gyroscopic forces or geometric trail are not required for a rider to balance a bicycle or for it to demonstrate self-stability. Although gyroscopic forces and trail can be contributing factors, it has been demonstrated that those factors are neither required nor sufficient by themselves.\n", "Although longitudinally stable when stationary, bikes often have a high enough center of mass and a short enough wheelbase to lift a wheel off the ground under sufficient acceleration or deceleration. When braking, depending on the location of the combined center of mass of the bike and rider with respect to the point where the front wheel contacts the ground, bikes can either skid the front wheel or flip the bike and rider over the front wheel. A similar situation is possible while accelerating, but with respect to the rear wheel.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Lateral dynamics.:Balance.:Steering mechanism mass distribution.\n", "The load borne by the two wheels varies not only with center of mass location, which in turn varies with the amount and location of passengers and luggage, but also with acceleration and deceleration. This phenomenon is known as load transfer or weight transfer, depending on the author, and provides challenges and opportunities to both riders and designers. For example, motorcycle racers can use it to increase the friction available to the front tire when cornering, and attempts to reduce front suspension compression during heavy braking has spawned several motorcycle fork designs.\n", "Section::::Lateral dynamics.:Balance.:Trail.\n", "When braking, the inertial force \"ma\" in the line of travel, not being co-linear with \"f\", tends to rotate \"m\" about \"f\". This tendency to rotate, an overturning moment, is resisted by a moment from \"mg\". \n\nTaking moments about the front wheel contact point at an instance in time:\n\nBULLET::::- When there is no braking, mass \"m\" is typically above the bottom bracket, about 2/3 of the way back between the front and rear wheels, with \"Nr\" thus greater than \"Nf\".\n", "They conclude: As a rule we have found that almost any selfstable bicycle can be made unstable by mis-adjusting only the trail, or only the front-wheel gyro, or only the front-assembly center-of-mass position. Conversely many unstable bicycles can be made stable by appropriately adjusting any one of these three design variables, sometimes in an unusual way.\n\nSection::::Physical implementation.\n", "where formula_47 is the coefficient of friction, formula_48 is the total mass of the bike and rider, and formula_34 is the acceleration of gravity. Therefore, if\n\nwhich occurs if the center of mass is anywhere above or in front of a line extending back from the front wheel contact patch and inclined at the angle\n\nabove the horizontal, then the normal force of the rear wheel will be zero (at which point the equation no longer applies) and the bike will begin to flip or loop forward over the front wheel.\n", "Bicycles and motorcycles are both single-track vehicles and so their motions have many fundamental attributes in common and are fundamentally different from and more difficult to study than other wheeled vehicles such as dicycles, tricycles, and quadracycles. As with unicycles, bikes lack lateral stability when stationary, and under most circumstances can only remain upright when moving forward. Experimentation and mathematical analysis have shown that a bike stays upright when it is steered to keep its center of mass over its wheels. This steering is usually supplied by a rider, or in certain circumstances, by the bike itself. Several factors, including geometry, mass distribution, and gyroscopic effect all contribute in varying degrees to this self-stability, but long-standing hypotheses and claims that any single effect, such as gyroscopic or trail, is solely responsible for the stabilizing force have been discredited.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-12813	Carbon-14 half-life and why it's only useful for dating organic materials less than 50,000 years old?	I think you're confused as to what a half life is. A half life is how long it takes for half of the material (in this case the radioactive carbon-14 isotope) to decay. I've never heard of a full life. For example, take 100g of Carbon-14. After ~5,700 years (it's half life) you'll have 50g of Carbon-14. Now take another ~5,700 years and that 50g will be cut in half to 25g. Then in half to 12.5g. Repeat. We say it's only good for about 50,000 years because after that point there's too little of the isotope left for us to reliably measure. You'd need to pick something with a longer half life to reliably date farther back.	[ "Section::::Radiocarbon dating.\n\nRadiocarbon dating is a radiometric dating method that uses (C) to determine the age of carbonaceous materials up to about 60,000 years old. The technique was developed by Willard Libby and his colleagues in 1949 during his tenure as a professor at the University of Chicago. Libby estimated that the radioactivity of exchangeable carbon-14 would be about 14 disintegrations per minute (dpm) per gram of pure carbon, and this is still used as the activity of the \"modern radiocarbon standard\". In 1960, Libby was awarded the Nobel Prize in chemistry for this work.\n", "BULLET::::- For burnt bone, testability depends on the conditions under which the bone was burnt. If the bone was heated under reducing conditions, it (and associated organic matter) may have been carbonized. In this case the sample is often usable.\n", "Particularly for older samples, it may be useful to enrich the amount of in the sample before testing. This can be done with a thermal diffusion column. The process takes about a month and requires a sample about ten times as large as would be needed otherwise, but it allows more precise measurement of the / ratio in old material and extends the maximum age that can be reliably reported.\n", "A correction must also be made for fractionation. The fractionation correction converts the / ratio for the sample to the ratio it would have had if the material was wood, which has a value of -25‰. This is necessary because determining the age of the sample requires a comparison of the amount of in the sample with what it would have had if it newly formed from the biosphere. The standard used for modern carbon is wood, with a baseline date of 1950.\n", "Radiocarbon is also used to date carbon released from ecosystems, particularly to monitor the release of old carbon that was previously stored in soils as a result of human disturbance or climate change. Recent advances in field collection techniques also allow the radiocarbon dating of methane and carbon dioxide, which are important Greenhouse gases.\n\nSection::::Use in archaeology.:Notable applications.\n\nSection::::Use in archaeology.:Notable applications.:Pleistocene/Holocene boundary in Two Creeks Fossil Forest.\n", "It takes 5,730 years for half the carbon-14 to change to nitrogen; this is the half-life of carbon-14. After another 5,730 years only one-quarter of the original carbon-14 will remain. After yet another 5,730 years only one-eighth will be left. \n\nBy measuring the carbon-14 in organic material, scientists can determine the date of death of the organic matter in an artifact or ecofact.\n\nSection::::Radiometric techniques.:Radiocarbon dating.:Limitations.\n", "Section::::Samples.:Material considerations.\n\nBULLET::::- It is common to reduce a wood sample to just the cellulose component before testing, but since this can reduce the volume of the sample to 20% of its original size, testing of the whole wood is often performed as well. Charcoal is often tested but is likely to need treatment to remove contaminants.\n", "One of the frequent uses of the technique is to date organic remains from archaeological sites. Plants fix atmospheric carbon during photosynthesis, so the level of C in plants and animals when they die approximately equals the level of C in the atmosphere at that time. However, it decreases thereafter from radioactive decay, allowing the date of death or fixation to be estimated. The initial C level for the calculation can either be estimated, or else directly compared with known year-by-year data from tree-ring data (dendrochronology) up to 10,000 years ago (using overlapping data from live and dead trees in a given area), or else from cave deposits (speleothems), back to about 45,000 years before the present. A calculation or (more accurately) a direct comparison of carbon-14 levels in a sample, with tree ring or cave-deposit carbon-14 levels of a known age, then gives the wood or animal sample age-since-formation. Radiocarbon is also used to detect disturbance in natural ecosystems; for example, in peatland landscapes, radiocarbon can indicate that carbon which was previously stored in organic soils is being released due to land clearance or climate change.\n", "Both beta counting and AMS measure standard samples as part of their methodology. These samples contain carbon of a known activity. The first standard, Oxalic Acid SRM 4990B, also referred to as HOxI, was a 1,000 lb batch of oxalic acid created in 1955 by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). Since it was created after the start of atomic testing, it incorporates bomb carbon, so measured activity is higher than the desired standard. This is addressed by defining the standard to be 0.95 times the activity of HOxI.\n", "A carbon-based life form acquires carbon during its lifetime. Plants acquire it through photosynthesis, and animals acquire it from consumption of plants and other animals. When an organism dies, it ceases to take in new carbon-14, and the existing isotope decays with a characteristic half-life (5730 years). The proportion of carbon-14 left when the remains of the organism are examined provides an indication of the time elapsed since its death. This makes carbon-14 an ideal dating method to date the age of bones or the remains of an organism. The carbon-14 dating limit lies around 58,000 to 62,000 years.\n", "Particularly for older samples, it may be useful to enrich the amount of in the sample before testing. This can be done with a thermal diffusion column. The process takes about a month, and requires a sample about ten times as large as would be needed otherwise, but it allows more precise measurement of the / ratio in old material, and extends the maximum age that can be reliably reported.\n\nSection::::Preparation.\n", "BULLET::::- Soil contains organic material, but because of the likelihood of contamination by humic acid of more recent origin, it is very difficult to get satisfactory radiocarbon dates. It is preferable to sieve the soil for fragments of organic origin, and date the fragments with methods that are tolerant of small sample sizes.\n\nBULLET::::- Other materials that have been successfully dated include ivory, paper, textiles, individual seeds and grains, straw from within mud bricks, and charred food remains found in pottery.\n\nSection::::Samples.:Preparation and size.\n", "Section::::Use in archaeology.\n\nSection::::Use in archaeology.:Interpretation.\n", "Section::::Isotopic fractionation.\n", "The relatively short half-life of carbon-14, 5,730 years, makes dating reliable only up to about 50,000 years. The technique often cannot pinpoint the date of an archeological site better than historic records, but is highly effective for precise dates when calibrated with other dating techniques such as tree-ring dating.\n", "In 2004 a new radiocarbon calibration curve, INTCAL04, was internationally ratified to provide calibrated dates back to 26,000 B.P. For the period back to 12,400 B.P., the radiocarbon dates are calibrated against dendrochronological dates.\n\nDendrochronology practice faces many obstacles, including the existence of species of ants that inhabit trees and extend their galleries into the wood, thus destroying ring structure.\n\nSection::::Reference sequences.\n", "Section::::Use in archaeology.:Notable applications.:Dead Sea Scrolls.\n", "Carbon-14 can be used as a radioactive tracer in medicine. In the initial variant of the urea breath test, a diagnostic test for \"Helicobacter pylori\", urea labeled with approximately carbon-14 is fed to a patient (i.e., 37,000 decays per second). In the event of a \"H. pylori\" infection, the bacterial urease enzyme breaks down the urea into ammonia and radioactively-labeled carbon dioxide, which can be detected by low-level counting of the patient's breath. The C urea breath test has been largely replaced by the C urea breath test, which has no radiation issues.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Isotopic labeling\n", "Dendrochronology can also be used in concert with radiocarbon dating to allow for more accurate date measurements using radiocarbon dating on archaeological sites. It is known that the concentration of carbon-14 in the atmosphere is not constant. By performing radiocarbon dating on timber samples in a known chronology, radiocarbon dates can be plotted against real time generating a calibration curve that can be used for future radiocarbon samples.\n", "Section::::Use in archaeology.:Use outside archaeology.\n", "The precision of a dating method depends in part on the half-life of the radioactive isotope involved. For instance, carbon-14 has a half-life of 5,730 years. After an organism has been dead for 60,000 years, so little carbon-14 is left that accurate dating cannot be established. On the other hand, the concentration of carbon-14 falls off so steeply that the age of relatively young remains can be determined precisely to within a few decades.\n\nSection::::Fundamentals.:Closure temperature.\n", "In nature, carbon exists as two stable, nonradioactive isotopes: carbon-12 (), and carbon-13 (), and a radioactive isotope, carbon-14 (), also known as \"radiocarbon\". The half-life of (the time it takes for half of a given amount of to decay) is about 5,730 years, so its concentration in the atmosphere might be expected to reduce over thousands of years, but is constantly being produced in the lower stratosphere and upper troposphere, primarily by galactic cosmic rays, and to a lesser degree by solar cosmic rays. These generate neutrons that in turn create when they strike nitrogen-14 () atoms. The following nuclear reaction is the main pathway by which is created:\n", "In the early years of using the technique, it was understood that it depended on the atmospheric / ratio having remained the same over the preceding few thousand years. To verify the accuracy of the method, several artefacts that were datable by other techniques were tested; the results of the testing were in reasonable agreement with the true ages of the objects. However, in 1958, Hessel de Vries was able to demonstrate that the / ratio had changed over time by testing wood samples of known ages and showing there was a significant deviation from the expected ratio. This discrepancy, often called the de Vries effect, was resolved by the study of tree rings. Comparison of overlapping series of tree rings allowed the construction of a continuous sequence of tree-ring data that spanned 8,000 years. (Since that time the tree-ring data series has been extended to 13,900 years.) Carbon-dating the wood from the tree rings themselves provided the check needed on the atmospheric / ratio: with a sample of known date, and a measurement of the value of \"N\" (the number of atoms of remaining in the sample), the carbon-dating equation allows the calculation of \"N\" – the number of atoms of in the sample at the time the tree ring was formed – and hence the / ratio in the atmosphere at that time. Armed with the results of carbon-dating the tree rings, it became possible to construct calibration curves designed to correct the errors caused by the variation over time in the / ratio. These curves are described in more detail below.\n", "Frink and others have published multiple studies demonstrating that OCR dates can correlate well with radiocarbon dates (see list of published references provided below). Fullen's study of the Sarah Peralta site in Louisiana found that the OCR method served as an effective means of inferring time at the site in the absence of radiometrically dateable charcoal. He concludes that whereas debate remains concerning the OCR procedure, \"the well-corroborated dates that the LSU Museum of Natural Science has had returned on material processed with OCR and conventional radiocarbon dating...the dates returned on material from Zone 3 will be considered accurate until such time that OCR dating is proven invalid.\" (\"ibid\". p. 65)\n", "All of this first standard has long since been consumed, and later standards have been created, each of which has a given ratio to the desired standard activity. A secondary standard, Oxalic Acid SRM 4990C, also referred to as HOxII, 1,000 lb of which was prepared by NIST in 1977 from French beet harvests, is now in wide use.\n\nSection::::Calculations.:Calculations for beta counting devices.\n\nTo determine the age of a sample whose activity has been measured by beta counting, the ratio of its activity to the activity of the standard must be found. The equation:\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Carbon-14 half-life can date organic materials less than 50,000 years old." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Something with a longer half life than Carbon-14 is needed." ]
2018-19875	How can a home owners association have any power over you?	You sign a contract agreeing to all of the rules and the fines if you break them when you buy the house.	[ "Once notified by a homeowner, attorney or other government official that an HOA organization is not meeting the state's statutes, the boards have the responsibility to correct their governance. Failure to do so in certain states, such as Texas, can result in the levy of misdemeanor charges against the board and open the board (and HOA) to potential lawsuits to enforce state laws of governance. In some instances, a known failure to rectify the board's governance to meet the state's statutes can open the board's members to personal liability as most insurance policies indemnifying the board members against legal action do not cover willful misconduct.\n", "\"It is obvious from the complaints [to DCA] that that [home]owners did not realize the extent association rules could govern their lives.\"\n\n\"Curiously, with rare exceptions, when the State has notified boards of minimal association legal obligation to owners, they dispute compliance. In a disturbing number of instances, those owners with board positions use their influence to punish other owners with whom they disagree. The complete absence of even minimally required standards, training or even orientations for those sitting on boards and the lack of independent oversight is readily apparent in the way boards exercise control\"\n", "Depending on the state, board meetings may be required to be open to the public, excepting instances where a board may enter into \"executive session\" for discussion on confidential matters (e.g. discussions with its attorney on an upcoming lawsuit).\n", "Section::::Undemocratic.\n\nSome scholars and officials of the AARP have charged that, in a variety of ways, HOAs suppress the rights of their residents. Due to their nature as a non-governmental entity, HOA boards of directors are not bound by constitutional restrictions on governments, although they are \"de facto\" a level of government. If a homeowner believes a breach of duty has occurred by the board of directors, they may run for the board at the next election or, in extreme cases, sue the association at personal expense.\n", "Of great concern is the fact that several court decisions have held that private actors may restrict individuals' exercise of their rights on private property. A 2007 decision in New Jersey held that private residential communities had the right to place reasonable limitations on political speech, and that in doing so, they were not acting as municipal governments. With few exceptions, courts have held private \"actors\" are not subject to constitutional limitations — that is, enforcers of private contracts are not subject to the same constitutional limitations as police officers or courts.\n", "The Council is responsible for ensuring that the interests of consumers who use the services of real estate licensees are adequately protected against wrongful actions by the licensees. A wrongful action may be deliberate or may be the consequence of inadequate exercise of reasonable judgment by a licensee in carrying out their duties and responsibilities.\n", "Although in some cases membership in an HOA may be voluntary for a property owner, in the majority of cases membership in an HOA is mandatory. Once an owner purchases property within the subdivision, that owner becomes a mandatory member of the HOA, and must pay assessments to, and abide by the rules of, the HOA. In return, the owner/member is permitted to participate in the HOA's governance and use the amenities offered by the HOA, provided that they are current on assessments (or on a payment plan to become current). Once an owner sells or otherwise transfers interest in all the property owned within the HOA, the owner ceases to be a member of the HOA and loses all rights previously held.\n", "Corporation and homeowner association laws provide a limited role for HOA homeowners. Unless either statutory law or the corporation's governing documents reserve a particular issue or action for approval by the members, corporation laws provide that the activities and affairs of a corporation shall be conducted and \"all corporate powers shall be exercised\" by or under the direction of the board of directors. Many boards are operated outside of their state's non-profit corporation laws. Knowledge of corporate laws and state statutes is essential to properly managing an HOA.\n", "Section::::Operation.:Board of directors.\n\nThe HOA will be governed by a board of directors.\n", "Education requirements for managers varies from state to state, with some requiring certification under all circumstances and others having a more lenient approach. For instance, while California does not require HOA managers to be certified, it does require that managers meet certain educational requirements to claim certification.\n\nSection::::Operation.:Powers.\n\nThrough its board an HOA will provide some level of amenities (though differing greatly between HOAs), regulate activities within a development, levy assessments, and may (if authorized by CC&Rs or a state legislature) impose fines for noncompliance.\n", "Associations are also required to comply with applicable laws concerning structural and other components of the condominium or other applicable building to help ensure the safety of owners.\n\nOnce the developer arrives at a certain percentage of sales or permanent leasing of units within the association, the developer is statutorily required to transfer control of the association to owners other than the developer including control of a majority of the board of directors and delivery of financial records, all association records and all association property. \"E.g.\", Fla. Stat. sec. 718.301(1).\n", "California law has strictly limited the prerogatives of boards by requiring hearings before fines can be levied and then reducing the size of such fines even if the owner-members do not appear. In California, any rule change made by the board is subject to a majority affirmation by the membership if only five percent of the membership demand a vote. This part of the civil code also ensures that any dissenting individual who seeks a director position must be fully represented to the membership and that all meetings be opened and agenda items publicized in advance. In states like Massachusetts, there are no laws to prohibit unilateral changes to the documents by the association board.\n", "The association really does not want to punish anyone. It tries to make rules that encourage understanding and compliance.\n\nEven though homeowners are responsible to know and follow the rules, it’s a good practice to remind residents to review the rules and regulations that are in place.\n\nThe HOA board should follow legal requirements to inform homeowners about any changes made to the rules and regulations.\n\nThe board should make sure it’s adopting fair and reasonable policies it can enforce.\n\nHOA rules are not a “quick fix” for problems a board is having with only a few homeowners.\n", "In 2006, the AARP voiced concern that homeowners associations pose a risk to the financial welfare of their members. They have proposed that a homeowners \"Bill of Rights\" be adopted by all 50 states to protect seniors from rogue HOAs.\n\nSection::::Limits to powers.\n\nThe Supreme Court of Virginia has ruled that a HOAs power to fine residents is an unconstitutional delegation of police and judicial power in the case: Shadowood Condominium Association et al., v. Fairfax County Redevelopment and Housing Authority - June, 2012.\n", "The HOA's board may enact rules which are legally binding upon residents as long as they do not conflict with the CC&Rs or state or federal law. Board meetings, like the boards of government agencies, are generally open to HOA members, with some exceptions. As with government agencies, courts generally defer to the broad discretion HOAs enjoy in discharging their duties.\n", "Section::::Operation.:Governance.\n\nUsually HOAs are structured as private corporations or private unincorporated associations (commonly as non-profit ones). HOAs are governed by federal and state statutes applicable to corporations (or unincorporated associations if so structured), as well as the HOA's own \"governing documents\".\n\nThe HOA's governing documents generally \"run with the land\", which means that all current and future owners of property within the HOA will be bound by them as a condition of property ownership. They usually include:\n", "Certain states are pushing for more checks and balances in HOAs. The North Carolina Planned Community Act, for example, requires a due process hearing to be held before any homeowner may be fined for a covenant violation. It also limits the amount of the fine and sets other restrictions.\n", "BULLET::::- In Wales, the regulation and funding of housing associations is carried out by the Welsh Government.\n", "Deed restrictions apply to purchasers of residential interests within such communities pursuant to a recorded Declaration, By-Laws, Covenants and Restrictions and/or Rules and Regulations for the particular community. Associations and all owners therein are subject to state statutes enacted for the particular form of community. Thus, compliance with such restrictions is mandatory and will be enforce by an applicable court of law and/or arbitration unless such restrictions are declared to be invalid or otherwise illegal.\n", "\"...Owners associations 'can be a powerful force for good or for ill' in their members' lives. Therefore, anyone who buys a unit in a common interest development with knowledge of its owners association's discretionary power accepts 'the risk that the power may be used in a way that benefits the commonality but harms the individual.'\"\n\nBenefits to homeowners may include maintenance and management services, provision of recreational amenities such as pools and parks, insurance coverage, enforcement of community appearance standards which may lead to higher property values, and the opportunity for members to plan development in accordance with community values.\n", "Depending on the governing documents or state law, the HOA may have the authority to place liens on a property (for non-payment of assessments and/or noncompliance with CC&Rs, an example would be the costs to remove a noncompliant structure such as a mobile home on a lot restricted to \"site built\" housing) and to, ultimately, foreclose on it. Homeowners have the ability to defend against such actions, and are usually entitled to sue HOA's for contractual or statutory violations, or for a legal determination as to the enforceability of a provision in the governing documents. However, because HOA's are private associations, they are not considered \"state actors\" subject to constitutional constraints, and therefore homeowners cannot sue for civil rights violations under 42 U.S.C. 1983.\n", "HOAs establish a new community as a municipal corporation. Voting in an HOA is based on property ownership, Only property owners are eligible to vote. Renters are prohibited from directly voting the unit, although they can deal directly with their landlords under their lease contract, since that is the party who has responsibility to them.\n", "BULLET::::- In England, housing associations are funded and regulated by the Homes and Communities Agency (HCA), the exception being funding in London which from April 2012 is the responsibility of the Greater London Authority. The HCA's predecessor until 2008 was the Housing Corporation. The Housing Corporation's regulatory role was split out to a separate body from 2010, the Tenant Services Authority (TSA), but merged again into the HCA from April 2012.\n\nBULLET::::- In Northern Ireland, the same role is carried out by the Northern Ireland Housing Executive.\n\nBULLET::::- In Scotland, this function is fulfilled by the Scottish Government.\n", "In some U.S. states (such as Texas) a HOA can foreclose a member's house without any judicial procedure in order to collect special assessments, fees and fines, or otherwise place an enforceable lien on the property which, upon the property's sale, allows the HOA to collect otherwise unpaid assessments. A proposed constitutional amendment in Texas would limit the power of HOAs in such matters. A case in point involves a soldier who, in 2008, was informed his fully paid-for $300,000 home in Frisco, Texas, had been foreclosed on and sold for $3,500 by his HOA over unpaid dues of $800 while he was serving in Iraq. In 2010, the case was settled and the soldier regained ownership of the home. Federal laws protecting military personnel from civil action may have been his defense; however, a gag order prevents details from being known.\n", "An example of letting the indemnitor control costs is (in this case a contractor for a homeowners association-HOA), \"\"Contractor shall indemnify, defend (by counsel reasonably acceptable to Association) and hold harmless the Association\"\" Companies and HOAs also use indemnity to protect directors, since few would serve as directors if their risks were not indemnified. Negotiation is important for both parties, \" \"Just about all homeowner association management contracts have a provision which states that the HOA shall indemnify the manager under certain circumstances... There are several ways the indemnification clause can be drafted and both management and HOA must take into account what protects each the best\"\"\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-10450	What kind of actual work do Historians do?	Many of course are teachers. If we do not remember our history we are condemned to repeat it. There are many ideas floating around, political ideas mostly, about how to run the government. Most have been tried. If we read our history we can try to avoid the mistakes of the past. History is a broad field. Genealogy is a special subset of it which fascinates a lot of people. Anything we do today becomes history tomorrow. Anywhere we go we see things. As soon as we say,"What is that? What did it do?" We involve historians.	[ "Section::::Historians.\n\nProfessional and amateur historians discover, collect, organize, and present information about past events.They discover this information through archaeological evidence, written primary sources from the past and other various means such as place names. In lists of historians, historians can be grouped by order of the historical period in which they were writing, which is not necessarily the same as the period in which they specialized. Chroniclers and annalists, though they are not historians in the true sense, are also frequently included.\n\nSection::::The judgement of history.\n", "Some popular historians are without academic affiliation while others are academics, or former academics, that have (according to one writer) \"become somehow abstracted from the academic arena, becoming cultural commentators\". Many worked as journalists, perhaps after taking an initial degree in history.\n\nPopular historians may become nationally renowned or best-selling authors and may or may not serve the interests of particular political viewpoints in their roles as \"public historians\". Many authors of \"official histories\" and \"authorized biographies\" would qualify as popular historians serving the interests of particular institutions or public figures.\n", "Section::::Career as a historian.\n", "Section::::Career as historian.\n", "Section::::Early life and education.\n", "Professional historians typically work in colleges and universities, archival centers, government agencies, museums, and as freelance writers and consultants. The job market for new PhDs in history is poor and getting worse, with many relegated to part-time \"adjunct\" teaching jobs with low pay and no benefits.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of historians\n\nBULLET::::- Antiquarian\n\nBULLET::::- Auxiliary sciences of history\n\nBULLET::::- Historiography\n\nBULLET::::- Historical revisionism (negationism)\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "The great majority of leading scholars have been teachers at universities and colleges. However, professionalization and the academic advancement system gives priority to graduate-level research and publication, and to the teaching of advanced graduate students. Issues regarding the teaching at the undergraduate level or below have been promoted by the associations, but have not become main themes.\n", "During the mid-1980s, Gust returned to graduate school at the University of Minnesota. There she studied with some of the nation’s top historians to gain a greater understanding in the interpretation of the project’s photographic collections.\n", "Section::::Historiography.:Professionalization in Germany.\n\nThe modern academic study of history and methods of historiography were pioneered in 19th-century German universities. Leopold von Ranke was a pivotal influence in this regard, and is considered as the founder of modern source-based history.\n", "Section::::Description.\n\nHistorians write in the context of their own time, and with due regard to the current dominant ideas of how to interpret the past, and sometimes write to provide lessons for their own society. In the words of Benedetto Croce, \"All history is contemporary history\". History is facilitated by the formation of a \"true discourse of past\" through the production of narrative and analysis of past events relating to the human race. The modern discipline of history is dedicated to the institutional production of this discourse.\n", "Section::::19th century.:Von Ranke and professionalization in Germany.\n\nThe modern academic study of history and methods of historiography were pioneered in 19th-century German universities, especially the University of Göttingen. Leopold von Ranke (1795–1886) at Berlin was a pivotal influence in this regard, and was the founder of modern source-based history. According to Caroline Hoefferle, \"Ranke was probably the most important historian to shape historical profession as it emerged in Europe and the United States in the late 19th century.\"\n", "Section::::Career.\n\nSection::::Career.:Professional/research work.\n", "Section::::Career.\n\nHelen moved to Edinburgh in 1977 where she volunteered at the National Museum before getting her first job as an Art Assistant at the Royal Scottish Museum, now the National Museum of Scotland. In 1982, she became Assistant Keeper of Social History at Beamish North of England Open Air Museum in County Durham, where she first began getting involved in recording oral history.\n", "In addition to discipline, the kind of research methodology used in archival research can vary depending on its organization and its materials. For example, in an archives that has a large number of materials still unprocessed, a researcher may find consulting directly with archive staff who have a clear understanding of collections and their organization to be useful as they can be a source of information regarding unprocessed materials or of related materials in other archives and repositories. When an archive is not entirely oriented towards one or relevant to a single discipline, researchers, for example genealogists, may rely upon formal or informal networks to support research by sharing information about specific archives' organization and collections with each other.\n", "Section::::Career.\n", "The founding figure of the discipline in the United States was George Sarton, later the founding editor of the journal \"Isis\". Sarton and his family fled Belgium after the German invasion in World War I, and after a brief stay in England, he arrived in the United States penniless and unemployed. Sarton began lecturing part-time at several academic institutions, and in 1916 began a two-year appointment at Harvard University. When his appointment did not look like it would be renewed, he appealed to Robert S. Woodward, president of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, for patronage. Woodward gave Sarton a two-year position and in 1920 extended it to a permanent tenured appointment as a Research Associate in the Institution's Department of History.\n", "Historiometry started in the early 19th century with studies on the relationship between age and achievement by Belgian mathematician Adolphe Quetelet in the careers of prominent French and English playwrights but it was Sir Francis Galton, a pioneering English eugenist who popularized historiometry in his 1869 work, \"Hereditary Genius\". It was further developed by Frederick Adams Woods (who coined the term \"historiometry\") in the beginning of the 20th century. Also psychologist Paul E. Meehl published several papers on historiometry later in his career, mainly in the area of medical history, although it is usually referred to as \"cliometric metatheory\" by him.\n", "While the AHA is the largest organization for historians working in the United States, the Organization of American Historians (OAH) is the major organization for historians who study and teach about the United States. Formerly known as the Mississippi Valley Historical Association, its membership comprises college and university professors, as well as graduate students, independent historians, archivists, museum curators, and other public historians. The OAH publishes the quarterly scholarly journal \"Journal of American History\". In 2010 its individual membership was 8,000 and its institutional membership 1,250, and its operating budget was approximately $2.9 million\n", "Section::::Methods of recording history.:Historical method.\n\nThe historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by which historians use primary sources and other evidence to research and then to write history. Primary sources are first-hand evidence of history (usually written, but sometimes captured in other mediums) made at the time of an event by a present person. Historians think of those sources as the closest to the origin of the information or idea under study. These types of sources can provide researchers with, as Dalton and Charnigo put it, \"direct, un-mediated information about the object of study.\"\n", "Section::::Career.\n\nSection::::Career.:Employment and professional memberships.\n", "Section::::Life and work.:Role of historians.\n", "Oral historians in different countries have approached the collection, analysis, and dissemination of oral history in different modes. However, it should also be noted that there are many ways of creating oral histories and carrying out the study of oral history even within individual national contexts.\n", "BULLET::::- Lucien Febvre (1878–1956) – French historian\n\nBULLET::::- Alistair Horne – modern French military history\n\nBULLET::::- Julian T. Jackson (born 1954) – French historian\n\nBULLET::::- Douglas Johnson – historian of modern France\n\nBULLET::::- Simon Kitson – historian of Vichy France\n\nBULLET::::- Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie – history of the French peasantry\n\nBULLET::::- Michael Marrus – Vichy France\n\nBULLET::::- John M. Merriman (Born 1946) - French Historian\n\nBULLET::::- Jules Michelet (1798–1874) – French historian\n\nBULLET::::- Roland Mousnier – early modern France\n\nBULLET::::- Robert Roswell Palmer, French revolution\n\nBULLET::::- Robert Paxton – Vichy France\n\nBULLET::::- Pierre Renouvin – French diplomatic history\n", "BULLET::::- Adrian Goldsworthy – British military historian\n\nBULLET::::- Jack Granatstein – Canadian military historian\n\nBULLET::::- Bruce Barrymore Halpenny – writer and military historian\n\nBULLET::::- Victor Davis Hanson – American classicist and military historian\n\nBULLET::::- Andreas Hillgruber – German military historian\n\nBULLET::::- Richard Holmes – British military history\n\nBULLET::::- Alistair Horne – British historian of French military history\n\nBULLET::::- Michael Howard – modern military history\n\nBULLET::::- John Keegan (born 1934, English) – Died 2 August 2012 specialised in 20th-century wars\n\nBULLET::::- Anthony Kemp (1939–2018) – English historian of history of World War II\n", "BULLET::::- Eugene D. Genovese – Marxist historian of southern US history and slavery\n\nBULLET::::- Ranajit Guha – Indian Marxist historian\n\nBULLET::::- Christopher Hill – 17th century England\n\nBULLET::::- Eric Hobsbawm – Marxist historian of the modern world\n\nBULLET::::- Gerald Horne – African American Marxist historian\n\nBULLET::::- Timothy Wright Mason – Marxist historian who worked on the history of National Socialism and the German working-class\n\nBULLET::::- Maxime Rodinson – French Marxist historian on the history of Islam\n\nBULLET::::- Sumit Sarkar – Indian Marxist historian\n\nBULLET::::- Edward Palmer Thompson – British Marxist historian, author of \"The Making of the English Working Class\"\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-11362	Why does water in tropical areas look so crystal clear and light blue, but in other areas is darker blue and murky?	Lack of nutrients/plankton/sediments. The ocean near Louisiana/Texas is murky due to outflow of Mississippi river. The water near Galveston is usually pretty brown but turned clear recently due to change in currents. URL_0	[ "Some constituents of sea water can influence the shade of blue of the ocean. This is why it can look greener or bluer in different areas. Water in swimming pools (which may also contain various chemicals) with white-painted sides and bottom will appear as a turquoise blue.\n\nClean or uncontaminated water appears blue in white-tiled swimming pools as well as in indoor pools where there is no blue sky to be reflected. The deeper the pool, the bluer the water.\n", "The \"color\" of the ocean is determined by the interactions of incident light with substances or particles present in the water. White light from the sun is made up of a combination of colors that are broken apart by water droplets in a \"rainbow\" spectrum. Large quantities of water, even in a swimming pool, would appear blue as well. When light hits the water surface, the different colors are absorbed, transmitted, scattered, or reflected in differing intensities by water molecules and other so-called optically-active constituents in suspension in the upper layer of the ocean. The reason that open ocean waters often appear blue is due to the absorption and scattering of light. The blue wavelengths of light are scattered, similar to the scattering of blue light in the sky but absorption is a much larger factor than scattering for the clear ocean water. In water, absorption is strong in the red and weak in the blue and so red light is absorbed quickly in the ocean leaving blue. Almost all sunlight that enters the ocean is absorbed, except very close to the coast. The red, yellow, and green wavelengths of sunlight are absorbed by water molecules in the ocean. When sunlight hits the ocean, some of the light is reflected back directly, but most of it penetrates the ocean surface and interacts with the water molecules that it encounters. The red, orange, yellow, and green wavelengths of light are absorbed and so the remaining light we see is composed of the shorter wavelength blues and violets.\n", "In near-shore (coastal) waters, sea water contains more phytoplankton than the very clear central ocean waters. Chlorophyll-a pigments in the phytoplankton absorb light, and the plants themselves scatter light, making coastal waters less clear than open waters. Chlorophyll-a absorbs light most strongly in the shortest wavelengths (blue and violet) of the visible spectrum. In near-shore waters where there are high concentrations of phytoplankton, the green wavelength reaches the deepest in the water column and the color of water to an observer appears green-blue or green.\n\nSection::::Seismic waves.\n", "A. For murky, turbid water of low visibility (rivers, harbors, etc.)\n\nB. For moderately turbid water (sounds, bays, coastal water).\n\nC. For clear water (southern water, deep water offshore, etc.).\n\nThe most difficult colors at the limits of visibility with a water background are dark colors such as gray or black.\n\nSection::::Color vision.:Physiological variations.\n", "BULLET::::- dissolved gases – oxygen levels in particular, can be increased by wave actions and decreased during algal blooms\n\nBULLET::::- acidity – this is partly to do with dissolved gases above, since the acidity of the ocean is largely controlled by how much carbon dioxide is in the water.\n\nBULLET::::- turbulence – ocean waves, fast currents and the agitation of water affect the nature of habitats\n\nBULLET::::- cover – the availability of cover such as the adjacency of the sea bottom, or the presence of floating objects\n", "BULLET::::- Particles and solutes can absorb light, as in tea or coffee. Green algae in rivers and streams often lend a blue-green color. The Red Sea has occasional blooms of red \"Trichodesmium erythraeum\" algae.\n", "Section::::Sedimentation and blue carbon burial.:Spatial variability in sedimentation.:Submarine Canyons.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Section::::Distribution and habitat.:Landscape effects.\n", "While monochromatic photos make this effect appear white, Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute scientist Steven Haddock (an author of a milky seas effect study) has commented, \"the light produced by the bacteria is actually blue, not white. It is white in the graphic because of the monochromatic sensor we used, and it can appear white to the eye because the rods in our eye (used for night vision) don't discriminate color.\" In Shetland (where generally caused by \"Noctiluca scintillans\"), mareel has sometimes been described as being green, rather than the traditional blue or white milky seas effect seen by the rest of the world. It is not known whether this difference depends on the area, or simply a perception of a cyanic colour as being green.\n", "BULLET::::- temperature – is affected by geographical latitude, ocean currents, weather, the discharge of rivers, and by the presence of hydrothermal vents or cold seeps\n\nBULLET::::- sunlight – photosynthetic processes depend on how deep and turbid the water is\n\nBULLET::::- nutrients – are transported by ocean currents to different marine habitats from land runoff, or by upwellings from the deep sea, or they sink through the sea as marine snow\n\nBULLET::::- salinity – varies, particularly in estuaries or near river deltas, or by hydrothermal vents\n", "The primary obstacle faced by underwater photographers is the loss of color and contrast when submerged to any significant depth. The longer wavelengths of sunlight (such as red or orange) are absorbed quickly by the surrounding water, so even to the naked eye everything appears blue-green. The loss of color increases not only vertically through the water column, but also horizontally, so subjects farther away from the camera also appear colorless and indistinct. This effect occurs in apparently clear water, such as that found around tropical coral reefs.\n", "Although variations in CDOM are primarily the result of natural processes including changes in the amount and frequency of precipitation, human activities such as logging, agriculture, effluent discharge, and wetland drainage can affect CDOM levels in fresh water and estuarine systems.\n\nSection::::Measurement.\n", "Section::::Coral reef tropical fish.\n\nMany marine tropical fish, particularly those of interest to fishkeepers, are those that live among or in close relation to coral reefs. Coral reefs form complex ecosystems with tremendous biodiversity. Among ocean inhabitants, tropical fish stand out as particularly colorful. Hundreds of species can exist in a small area of a healthy reef, many of them hidden or well camouflaged. Reef fish have developed many ingenious specialisations adapted to survival on the reefs.\n\nSome recreational SCUBA divers keep lists of fish species they have observed while diving, especially in tropical marine environments.\n", "Absorption intensity decreases markedly with each successive overtone, resulting in very weak absorption for the third overtone. For this reason, the pipe needs to have a length of a meter or more and the water must be purified by microfiltration to remove any particles that could produce Mie scattering.\n\nSection::::Color of lakes and oceans.\n\nLakes and oceans appear blue for several reasons. One is that the surface of the water reflects the color of the sky. While this reflection contributes to the observed color, it is not the sole reason.\n", "Section::::Pigmentation.\n\nMany species are highly pigmented, e.g. the blue \"Stentor coeruleus\". In \"Blepharisma\", the red pigment is associated with light sensitivity. Species of blue-pigmented \"Eufolliculina\" form extensive mats in the deep sea that have been called \"blue mats\".\n\nSection::::Systematics.\n", "Section::::Modern fishkeeping.:Lighting.:Natural sunlight.\n\nThe most primitive lighting source is natural sunlight. This is only effective in areas near the equator because the intensity of sunlight is greatest there. Efficiently utilizing natural sunlight requires complex planning and, as such, this method is applied on only the largest reef systems. Many times in the hobby natural sunlight is actually avoided due to the low spectrum of lighting it has. The yellow tint is often undesirable and is believed to encourage problem algae, though studies show it does not.\n\nSection::::Modern fishkeeping.:Lighting.:Incandescent.\n", "For very shallow clear water there is a good chance the bottom may be seen. For example, in the Bahamas, the water is quite clear and only a few metres deep, resulting in an apparent high turbidity because the bottom reflects a lot of the band 1 light. For areas with consistently high turbidity signals, particularly areas with relatively clear water, part of the signal may be due to bottom reflection. Normally this will not be a problem with a post-hurricane turbidity image since the storm easily resuspends enough sediment such that bottom reflection is negligible.\n", "BULLET::::- PFG 26: \"A Field Guide to the Atmosphere\" (1981), by Vincent J. Schaefer and John A. Day; Illustrated by Christy E. Day\n\nBULLET::::- PFG 27: \"A Field Guide to Coral Reefs of the Caribbean and Florida: A Guide to the Common Invertebrates and Fishes of Bermuda, the Bahamas, Southern Florida, the ...\" (1982), by Eugene H. Kaplan; Illustrations by Susan L. Kaplan\n\nBULLET::::- PFG 28: \"A Field Guide to Pacific Coast Fishes: The Gulf of Alaska to Baja California\" (1983), by William N. Eschmeyer, Earl S. Herald, Howard E. Hammann and Katherine P. Smith\n", "Section::::Ocean pollution.\n", "In clear open waters, visible light is absorbed at the longest wavelengths first. Thus, red, orange, and yellow wavelengths are absorbed at higher water depths, and blue and violet wavelengths reach the deepest in the water column. Because the blue and violet wavelengths are absorbed last compared to the other wavelengths, open ocean waters appear deep-blue to the eye.\n", "Low nutrient concentrations and thus a low density of living organisms characterize the surface waters of the NPSG. The low biomass results in clear water, allowing photosynthesis to occur to a substantial depth. The NPSG is classically described as a two-layered system. The upper, nutrient-limited layer accounts for most of the primary production, supported primarily by recycled nutrients. The lower layer has nutrients more readily available, but photosynthesis is light-limited.\n", "Scattering from suspended particles also plays an important role in the color of lakes and oceans. A few tens of meters of water will absorb all light, so without scattering, all bodies of water would appear black. Because most lakes and oceans contain suspended living matter and mineral particles, known as colored dissolved organic matter (CDOM), light from above is reflected upwards. Scattering from suspended particles would normally give a white color, as with snow, but because the light first passes through many meters of blue-colored liquid, the scattered light appears blue. In extremely pure water—as is found in mountain lakes, where scattering from white-colored particles is missing—the scattering from water molecules themselves also contributes a blue color.\n", "The terrestrial component of the Maya Golden Landscape comprises habitats of spectacular diversity and variety. The karst limestone hills of the Maya Mountains down to the Caribbean Sea are evidence of possible stream action within the hills. Habitats to be encountered in the terrestrial component of the landscape includes tropical rainforests, pine savannas, coastal wetlands and mangrove forests.\n\nThe Marine component of this landscape is most recognizable for its protected barrier reefs. Recognised under the Meso-American Barrier Reef System, the Barrier Reef is a keystone agent in maintaining and protecting the marine environment for endangered marine species. \n\nSection::::Disturbance History.\n", "A recent theory of DVM, termed the Transparency Regulator Hypothesis, argues that water transparency is the ultimate variable that determines the exogenous factor (or combination of factors) that causes DVM behavior in a given environment. In less transparent waters, where fish are present and more food is available, fish tend to be the main driver of DVM. In more transparent bodies of water, where fish are less numerous and food quality improves in deeper waters, UV light can travel farther, thus functioning as the main driver of DVM in such cases.\n\nSection::::Unusual events.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-19029	does the infrastructure difference between downtown and the suburbs change weather patterns in the area?	Absolutely. Alot of urban and downtown infrastructure generates alot of heat. NYC literally has underground steam pipes pumping hot steam around. Blacktop roads also contribute to heat patterns, and of course dense urban roads cause more contributing than sparse rural roads. And not to mention the cars on those roads.	[ "Urban environments are typically warmer than their surroundings, as documented over a century ago by Howard. Urban areas are islands or spots on the broader scale compared with more rural surrounding land. The spatial distribution of temperatures occurs in tandem with temporal changes, which are both causally related to anthropogenic sources.\n", "Several factors influence the urban climate, including city size, the morphology of the city, land-use configuration, and the geographic setting (such as relief, elevation, and regional climate). Some of the differences between urban and rural climates include air quality, wind patterns, and changes in rainfall patterns, but one of the most studied is the urban heat island effect.\n\nSection::::Influential factors.:Temperature and Urban Heat Island Effect.\n", "Section::::Influential factors.:Pollution.\n\nThe field also includes the topics of air quality, Radiation Fluxes, Micro-Climates and even issues traditionally associated with architectural design and engineering, such as Wind Engineering. Causes and effects of pollution as understood through Urban Climatology are becoming more important for Urban Planning.\n\nSection::::Influential factors.:Precipitation.\n\nChanges in winds and convection patterns over and around cities impacts precipitation. Contributing factors are believed to be urban heat island, heightened surface roughness, and increased aerosol concentration.\n\nSection::::Climate change.\n", "Urban climatology\n\nUrban climatology refers to a specific branch of climatology that is concerned with interactions between urban areas and the atmosphere, the effects they have on one another, and the varying spatial and temporal scales at which these processes (and responses) occur.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nLuke Howard is considered to have established urban climatology with his book \"The Climate of London\", which contained continuous daily observations from 1801 to 1841 of wind direction, atmospheric pressure, maximum temperature, and rainfall.\n", "The effects of the urban heat island may be overstated. One study stated, \"Contrary to generally accepted wisdom, no statistically significant impact of urbanization could be found in annual temperatures.\" This was done by using satellite-based night-light detection of urban areas, and more thorough homogenisation of the time series (with corrections, for example, for the tendency of surrounding rural stations to be slightly higher in elevation, and thus cooler, than urban areas). If its conclusion is accepted, then it is necessary to \"unravel the mystery of how a global temperature time series created partly from urban in situ stations could show no contamination from urban warming.\" The main conclusion is that microscale and local-scale impacts dominate the mesoscale impact of the urban heat island. Many sections of towns may be warmer than rural sites, but surface weather observations are likely to be made in park \"cool islands.\"\n", "Urban climate\n\nThe climate in urban areas differs from that in neighboring rural areas, as a result of urban development. Urbanization greatly changes the form of the landscape, and also produces changes in an area's air.\n\nIn 1950 Åke Sundborg published one of the first theories on the climate of cities.\n\nSection::::Temperature.\n", "The UHI can be defined as either the air temperature difference (the canopy UHI) or the surface temperature difference (surface UHI) between the urban and the rural area. These two show slightly different diurnal and seasonal variability and have different causes \n\nSection::::Diurnal behavior.\n", "However, over the Northern Hemisphere land areas where urban heat islands are most apparent, both the trends of lower-tropospheric temperature and surface air temperature show no significant differences. In fact, the lower-tropospheric temperatures warm at a slightly greater rate over North America (about 0.28°C/decade using satellite data) than do the surface temperatures (0.27°C/decade), although again the difference is not statistically significant.\n", "Some cities exhibit a heat island effect, largest at night. Seasonally, UHI shows up both in summer and winter.. The typical temperature difference is several degrees between the center of the city and surrounding fields. The difference in temperature between an inner city and its surrounding suburbs is frequently mentioned in weather reports, as in \" downtown, in the suburbs\". \"The annual mean air temperature of a city with 1 million people or more can be warmer than its surroundings. In the evening, the difference can be as high as .\"\n", "BULLET::::- Calgary, Alberta is also known for its microclimates. Especially notable are the differences between the downtown and river valley/flood plain regions and the areas to the west and north. This is largely due to an elevation difference within the city's boundaries of over , but can also be attributed somewhat, to the effects of the seasonal Chinooks.\n", "BULLET::::- Sources, by urbanization level – whether the source is within a city or not is relevant in that urban areas constitute a so-called \"heat island\" and the heat rising from an urban area causes the atmosphere above an urban area to be more turbulent than the atmosphere above a rural area\n\nBULLET::::- Urban source – emission is in an urban area\n\nBULLET::::- Rural source – emission is in a rural area\n\nBULLET::::- Sources, by elevation\n\nBULLET::::- Surface or ground-level source\n\nBULLET::::- Near surface source\n\nBULLET::::- Elevated source\n\nBULLET::::- Sources, by duration\n", "Finally, many cities are vulnerable to the projected consequences of climate change (sea level rise, changes in temperature, precipitation, storm frequency) as most develop on or near coast-lines, nearly all produce distinct urban heat islands and atmospheric pollution: as areas in which there is concentrated human habitation these effects potentially will have the largest and most dramatic impact (e.g. France's heat wave in 2003) and thus are a major focus for urban climatology.\n\nSection::::Spatial planning and public health.\n\nUrban Climatology impacts decision-making for municipal planning and policy in regards to pollution, extreme heat events, and stormwater modeling.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Studies in 2004 and 2006 attempted to test the urban heat island theory, by comparing temperature readings taken on calm nights with those taken on windy nights. If the urban heat island theory is correct then instruments should have recorded a bigger temperature rise for calm nights than for windy ones, because wind blows excess heat away from cities and away from the measuring instruments. There was no difference between the calm and windy nights, and one study said that \"we show that, globally, temperatures over land have risen as much on windy nights as on calm nights, indicating that the observed overall warming is not a consequence of urban development.\"\n", "Because some parts of some cities may be hotter than their surroundings, concerns have been raised that the effects of urban sprawl might be misinterpreted as an increase in global temperature. Such effects are removed by homogenization from the raw climate record by comparing urban stations with surrounding stations. While the \"heat island\" warming is an important local effect, there is no evidence that it biases \"trends\" in the homogenized historical temperature record. For example, urban and rural trends are very similar.\n\nThe Third Assessment Report from the IPCC says:\n", "January averages , with temperatures in the suburbs slightly cooler. Warm, maritime air can bring springlike conditions while strong Arctic air masses can push lows to between . Snow may not occur in every season in the city and inner suburbs but does every season in the northern metro. When snow falls it is almost always during the period of December through March: there have occurred only three measurable falls outside these months in the past ninety years, the largest being on November 11, 1968.\n", "The same urban area that is hotter in the day can be colder than surrounding rural areas at ground level at night, leading to a new term \"urban cold island\". Snow cover in rural areas, for example, insulates plants. This was an unexpected discovery when studying the response of plants to urban environments. The urban cold island effect takes place in the early morning because the building within cities block the sun's solar radiation, as well as the wind speed within the urban centre. Both the urban heat island and urban cold island effects are most intense at times of stable meteorological conditions. \n", "Monthly rainfall is greater downwind of cities, partially due to the UHI. Increases in heat within urban centers increases the length of growing seasons, and decreases the occurrence of weak tornadoes. The UHI decreases air quality by increasing the production of pollutants such as ozone, and decreases water quality as warmer waters flow into area streams and put stress on their ecosystems.\n", "BULLET::::- upstream – those processes necessary before a particular activity is completed e.g. for a manufactured product this would be the extraction, transport of materials etc. needed prior to the process of manufacture cf. downstream.\n\nBULLET::::- urban Heat Island - the tendency for urban areas to have warmer air temperatures than the surrounding rural landscape, due to the low albedo of streets, sidewalks, parking lots, and buildings. These surfaces absorb solar radiation during the day and release it at night, resulting in higher night temperatures.\n\nBULLET::::- urban metabolism – the functional flow of materials and energy required by cities.\n\nSection::::V.\n", "Not all cities show a warming relative to their rural surroundings. After trends were adjusted in urban weather stations around the world to match rural stations in their regions, in an effort to homogenise the temperature record, in 42 percent of cases, cities were getting \"cooler\" relative to their surroundings rather than warmer. One reason is that urban areas are heterogeneous, and weather stations are often sited in \"cool islands\" – parks, for example – within urban areas.\n", "The urban environment has two atmosphere layers, besides the planetary boundary layer outside and extending well above the city: (1) The urban boundary layer is due to the spatially integrated heat and moisture exchanges between the city and its overlying air. (2) The surface of the city corresponds to the level of the urban canopy layer. Fluxes across this plane comprise those from individual units, such as roofs, canyon tops, trees, lawns, and roads, integrated over larger land-use divisions (for example, suburbs). The urban heat island effect has been a major focus of urban climatological studies, and in general the effect the urban environment has on local meteorological conditions.\n", "Wang et al. (2005) showed that deviations in energy demand due to local variability in weather data were smaller than the ones due to operational parameters linked with occupants’ behaviour. For those, the ranges were (-29% to 79%) for San Francisco and (-28% to 57%) for Washington D.C. The conclusion of this paper is that occupants will have a larger impact in energy calculations than the variability between synthetically generated weather data files.\n", "Studies that have looked at hemispheric and global scales conclude that any urban-related trend is an order of magnitude smaller than decadal and longer time-scale trends evident in the series (e.g., Jones et al., 1990; Peterson et al., 1999). This result could partly be attributed to the omission from the gridded data set of a small number of sites (1%) with clear urban-related warming trends. In a worldwide set of about 270 stations, Parker (2004, 2006) noted that warming trends in night minimum temperatures over the period 1950 to 2000 were not enhanced on calm nights, which would be the time most likely to be affected by urban warming. Thus, the global land warming trend discussed is very unlikely to be influenced significantly by increasing urbanisation (Parker, 2006). ... Accordingly, this assessment adds the same level of urban warming uncertainty as in the TAR: 0.006°C per decade since 1900 for land, and 0.002°C per decade since 1900 for blended land with ocean, as ocean UHI is zero.\n", "Parker (2006) found that there was no difference in warming between calm and windy nights. Since the urban heat island effect is strongest for calm nights and is weak or absent on windy nights, this was taken as evidence that global temperature trends are not significantly contaminated by urban effects. Pielke and Matsui published a paper disagreeing with Parker's conclusions.\n", "Annual snowfall in Portland is , which usually falls during the December to March time frame. . The city of Portland avoids snow more frequently than its suburbs, due in part to its low elevation and urban heat island effect. Neighborhoods outside of the downtown core, especially in slightly higher elevations near the West Hills and Mount Tabor, can experience a dusting of snow while downtown receives no accumulation at all. The city has experienced a few major snow and ice storms in its past with extreme totals having reached at the airport in 1949–50 and at downtown in 1892–93.\n", "There are several causes of an urban heat island (UHI); for example, dark surfaces absorb significantly more solar radiation, which causes urban concentrations of roads and buildings to heat more than suburban and rural areas during the day; materials commonly used in urban areas for pavement and roofs, such as concrete and asphalt, have significantly different thermal bulk properties (including heat capacity and thermal conductivity) and surface radiative properties (albedo and emissivity) than the surrounding rural areas. This causes a change in the energy budget of the urban area, often leading to higher temperatures than surrounding rural areas. Another major reason is the lack of evapotranspiration (for example, through lack of vegetation) in urban areas. The U.S. Forest Service found in 2018 that cities in the United States are losing 36 million trees each year. With a decreased amount of vegetation, cities also lose the shade and evaporative cooling effect of trees.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-18627	How do a persons contact lens stay centered on the cornea at all times?	Your eye is not perfectly spherical and the area where your iris begins forms a small mound on top of it, contact lenses are shaped in such a way that they cling to the edges of this mound keeping them firmly in place until removed	[ "BULLET::::- Use contact lenses in place of eyeglasses. A contact lens rests directly on the surface of the cornea and moves in sync with all eye movements. Consequently, the contact lens is always directly aligned on center with the pupil and there is never any off-axis misalignment between the pupil and the optical center of the lens.\n\nSection::::Optical quality.:Power error.\n", "Section::::Structural change.\n", "There is some evidence to show that rigid gas permeable contact lenses are capable of slowing myopic progression after long-term wear. This same effect was not found in patients who had worn soft contact lenses for an extended period of time. Greater corneal steepening was found in patients wearing soft contact lenses than in patients wearing rigid gas permeable contact lenses, suggesting that the latter may slow the progression of myopia by flattening the cornea.\n\nSection::::Functional change.\n", "Increased corneal curvature is yet another change known to arise from long-term contact lens wear; this increase in corneal curvature can be as much as 0.5 diopters greater than normal. Corneal surface irregularity and asymmetry are also caused by long-term contact lens wear; these problems are sometimes correlated with astigmatism in contact lens wearers and are thought to be caused by hypoxia, surface molding, and chronic and mild trauma to the cornea from contact lens use.\n\nLong-term use of PMMA or thick hydrogel contact lenses have been found to cause corneal warpage (shape distortion).\n", "A small number of hybrid lenses exist. Typically these contact lenses consist of a rigid center and a soft \"skirt\". A similar technique is the \"piggybacking\" of a smaller, rigid lens on the surface of a larger, soft lens. These techniques are often chosen to give the vision correction benefits of a rigid lens and the comfort of a soft lens.\n\nSection::::Types.:Wear schedule.\n", "Section::::Usage.:Removal.\n", "Section::::Current research.\n", "Wesley and Jessen eventually developed the plastic lenses known as rigid contact lenses. The lens fit over just the cornea, unlike its predecessor, which also rested on the sclera (the white area), said Neil Hodur, a professor at the Illinois College of Optometry and a colleague and friend of Dr. Wesley's. The end product was lenses that were smaller, thinner and longer-wearing, said Alfred Rosenbloom, a former dean and president of the Illinois College of Optometry.\n", "New studies found that the use of Scleral contact lens, a type of rigid gas permeable (RGP) lens, may be a good option for most people with PMD. Most of these lenses are in the range of 15.5mm to 18.0mm in diameter. Regardless of the lens size, it is thought that the larger the RGP lens will in most cases be more comfortable then standard rigid corneal lenses, and at times more comfortable than soft lenses, regardless of the fact that it is a rigid lens. The highlight to the scleral design and the correction of eye disorders such as pellucid marginal degeneration is that vision with these types of lenses is exceptional when fit correctly.\n", "Knowledge concerning the form and function of the cornea and the various types of contact lenses and their common complications is important to understanding this article.\n\nSection::::Changes in function and morphology.\n", "The number of corneal keratocytes in the epithelial stroma has not been found to change with long-term contact lens wear. Endothelial cell density also does not change with long-term contact lens wear. No strong relationship has been found between long-term contact lens wear and corneal astigmatism.\n\nSection::::Reversibility of damage.\n", "Pesudovs is trained in Contact Lenses (under AJ Phillips).\n\nSection::::Honours.\n", "Contact lenses are typically inserted into the eye by placing them on the pad of the index or middle finger with the concave side upward and then using that finger to place the lens on the eye. Rigid lenses should be placed directly on the cornea. Soft lenses may be placed on the sclera (white of the eye) and then slid into place. Another finger of the same hand, or a finger of the other hand, is used to keep the eye wide open. Alternatively, the user may close their eyes and then look towards their nose, sliding the lens into place over the cornea. Problems may arise if the lens folds, turns inside-out, slides off the finger prematurely, or adheres more tightly to the finger than the eye surface. A drop of solution may help the lens adhere to the eye.\n", "A rigid lens is able to cover the natural shape of the cornea with a new refracting surface. This means that a spherical rigid contact lens can correct corneal astigmatism. Rigid lenses can also be made as a front-toric, back-toric, or bitoric. Rigid lenses can also correct corneas with irregular geometries, such as those with keratoconus or post surgical ectasias. In most cases, patients with keratoconus see better through rigid lenses than through glasses. Rigid lenses are more chemically inert, allowing them to be worn in more challenging environments than soft lenses.\n\nSection::::Types.:Materials.:Soft lenses.\n", "Wearing lenses designed for daily wear overnight has an increased risk for corneal infections, corneal ulcers and corneal neovascularization—this latter condition, once it sets in, cannot be reversed and will eventually spoil vision acuity through diminishing corneal transparency. The most common complication of extended wear is giant papillary conjunctivitis (GPC), sometimes associated with a poorly fitting contact lens.\n\nSection::::Types.:Replacement schedule.\n", "Long-term wear (over five years) of contact lenses may \"decrease the entire corneal thickness and increase the corneal curvature and surface irregularity.\" Long-term wear of rigid contacts is associated with decreased corneal keratocyte density and increased number of epithelial Langerhans cells.\n\nAll contact lenses sold in the United States are studied and approved as safe by the FDA when specific handling and care procedures, wear schedules, and replacement schedules are followed.\n\nSection::::Usage.\n", "Different types of contact lenses may be used to delay or eliminate the need for corneal transplantation in corneal disorders.\n\nSection::::Alternatives.:Phototherapeutic keratectomy.\n\nDiseases that only affect the surface of the cornea can be treated with an operation called phototherapeutic keratectomy (PTK). With the precision of an excimer laser and a modulating agent coating the eye, irregularities on the surface can be removed. However, in most of the cases where corneal transplantation is recommended, PTK would not be effective.\n\nSection::::Alternatives.:Intrastromal corneal ring segments.\n", "The diameter of regular contact lenses that are sold in the United States are on average 14mm–16mm. Similar to the diameter of regular contact lenses, circle lenses have no more than 15mm diameter since larger sizes would be harmful to the eyes at daily wear. When the diameter of the circle lens is described as 16mm or 18mm, it is only the provided visual effect of the circle lens. The difference between the two types of lenses is that circle lenses are tinted not only in areas that cover the iris of the eye, but also prominently in the extra-wide outer rim of the lens. The result is the appearance of a bigger, wider iris with a limbal ring, creating an illusion of large eyes.\n", "In people with keratoconus, rigid contact lenses improve vision by means of tear fluid filling the gap between the irregular corneal surface and the smooth regular inner surface of the lens, thereby creating the effect of a smoother cornea. Many specialized types of contact lenses have been developed for keratoconus, and affected people may seek out both doctors specialized in conditions of the cornea, and contact lens fitters who have experience managing people with keratoconus. The irregular cone presents a challenge and the fitter will endeavor to produce a lens with the optimal contact, stability and steepness. Some trial-and-error fitting may prove necessary.\n", "In 2016, work on Interscatter from the University of Washington has shown the first Wi-Fi enabled contact lens prototype that can communicate directly with mobile devices such as smart phones at data rates between 2–11Mbit/s.\n\nSection::::Development.\n\nExperimental versions of these devices have been demonstrated, such as one developed by Sandia National Laboratories. The lens is expected to have more electronics and capabilities on the areas where the eye does not see. Radio frequency power transmission and solar cells are expected in future developments. Recent work augmented the contact lens with Wi-Fi connectivity.\n", "Scleral lenses differ from corneal contact lenses in that they create a space between the cornea and the lens, which is filled with fluid. The prosthetic application of the lenses is to cover or \"bandage\" the ocular surface, providing a therapeutic environment for managing severe ocular surface disease. The outward bulge of scleral lenses and the liquid-filled space between the cornea and the lens also conforms to irregular corneas and may neutralize corneal surface irregularities.\n\nSection::::Custom scleral lenses.\n\nBULLET::::1. EyePrintPro\n\nBULLET::::2. GVR Scleral Lenses\n\nBULLET::::3. PVR PROSE\n\nBULLET::::4. Laserfit Lenses\n\nSection::::Usage.\n\nSection::::Usage.:Insertion.\n", "Recent developments show new innovations from EyePrintPRO pro a scleral lens design where a mold is taken of the cornea and sent to a lab where 3D software designs a lens to fit over every area of the patients specific cornea, other advances include experimental wavefront optics incorporated into scleral lenses which several others manufacturers like iZon are working on to further correct higher order aberrations, current scleral lenses without any additional optics correct 70 percent or more of higher order aberrations varrying between patient, these and other technologies look forward to correct all aberrations.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Mishandling of contact lenses can also cause problems. Corneal abrasions can increase the chances of infection. When combined with improper cleaning and disinfection of the lens, a risk of infection further increases. Decreased corneal sensitivity after extended contact lens wear may cause a patient to miss some of the earliest symptoms of such complications.\n\nThe way contact lenses interact with the natural tear layer is a major factor in determining lens comfort and visual clarity. People suffering from dry eyes are particularly vulnerable to discomfort and episodes of brief blurry vision. Proper lens selection can minimize these effects.\n", "Corrective contact lenses are designed to improve vision, most commonly by correcting refractive error. This is done by directly focusing light so it enters the eye with the proper power for clear vision.\n", "Injuries can also be incurred by \"hard\" or \"soft\" contact lenses that have been left in too long. Damage may result when the lenses are removed, rather than when the lens is still in contact with the eye. In addition, if the cornea becomes excessively dry, it may become more brittle and easily damaged by movement across the surface. Soft contact lens wear overnight has been extensively linked to gram negative keratitis (infection of the cornea) particularly by a bacterium known as \"Pseudomonas aeruginosa\" which forms in the eye's biofilm as a result of extended soft contact lens wear. When a corneal abrasion occurs either from the contact lens itself or another source, the injured cornea is much more susceptible to this type of bacterial infection than a non-contact lens user's would be. This is an optical emergency as it is sight (in some cases eye) threatening. Contact lens wearers who present with corneal abrasions should never be pressure patched because it has been shown through clinical studies that patching creates a warm, moist dark environment that can cause the cornea to become infected or cause an existing infection to be greatly accelerated on its destructive path.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00072	How would the average first-world life change if technology was made at its "true" price without immoral labor?	I mean, there was a time not long ago when even the most basic desktop PC cost $5,000 in the low end. It's not like things were unbearable back then. So I'm going to go with: not much.	[ "BULLET::::- Con Blomberg's 1959 short story \"Sales Talk\" depicts a post-scarcity society in which society incentivizes consumption to reduce the burden of overproduction. To further reduce production, virtual reality is used to fulfill peoples' needs to create.\n\nBULLET::::- The science fiction novella \"Riders of the Purple Wage\" by Philip José Farmer paints a vision of a highly regulated, state-dominated post-scarcity society, in which a renaissance in arts coincides with mass illiteracy.\n", "BULLET::::- the comparative labour efforts required to make the products are also valued in an increasingly standardized way at the same time. For almost any particular type of labour, it can then be specified, fairly accurately, how much money it would take, on average, to employ that labour and get the use out of that labour. To get any type of job done, there is then a normal price tag for the labour involved.\n\nSix main effects of this are:\n", "For the last three decades, it has been argued that technology development is neither an autonomous process, determined by the \"inherent progress\" of human history, nor a process completely determined by external conditions like the prices of the resources that are needed to operate (develop) a technology, as it is theorized in neoclassical economic thinking. In mainstream neoclassical economic thinking, technology is seen as an exogenous factor: at the moment a technology is required, the most appropriate version can be taken down from the shelf based on costs of labor, capital and eventually raw materials.\n", "Section::::Effects of technological rationality.:Government.\n\nUnder technological rationality, the Welfare State rises in both need and prominence. Increased productivity, the rational goal under technological rationality, requires planning on the scale that only the Welfare State can provide. This new Welfare State is less free. It requires the restriction of leisure time, the availability of goods and services, and the cognitive ability to understand and desire self-realization. Yet as long as one's quality of life is improved under the new state as compared to the previous one, the people will not revolt.\n", "Section::::Issues within the debates.:Compensation effects.\n", "In his afterword to the story, Farmer mentions the Triple Revolution memo, a document sent to United States President Lyndon Johnson in 1964, with policy suggestions for the future of the nation in the face of \"three separate and mutually reinforcing revolutions.\" These were identified as \"The Cybernation Revolution,\" (massive automatic production, requiring progressively less human labor), \"The Weaponry Revolution\" (the development of new forms of weaponry which can obliterate civilization), and \"The Human Rights Revolution\" (a universal demand for human rights).\n", "However the socially necessary labor theory of value only becomes inapplicable for uncultivated land when that land can never be productive no matter how much commercial labor is expended on it. Desert sand, gibber plains and icy wastes have very small land values because no commercial labor can be diverted from other uses to be usefully employed. In other cases, the price-form represents the indirect socially necessary labor that could be usefully employed:\n\nBULLET::::- Pieces of art could be explained as instances of monopoly.\n", "The American economist Thorstein Veblen wrote a seminal tract on the development of the term as discussed in this article: \"The Engineers and the Price System\". Its chapter VI, \"A Memorandum on a Practicable Soviet of Technicians\" discusses the possibility of socialist revolution in the United States comparable to that then occurring in Russia (the Soviets had not yet at that time become a state (USSR formed in 1922)).\n", "An interesting example is one involving a company achieving lower productions costs for a product produced in a socially evolved country than for the same product produced in a socially weak country. In this case lower production costs are easily achieved by virtue of to lower wages and social costs. This type of market and corporate cannibalism is one factor that makes it hard today in Europe for example to find any computer not produced in China. At the same time companies like Foxconn achieved not only low production costs, but also made it possible for innovative products to get on the market.\n", "Marcuse writes that technological progress has the potential to free humanity from its requirement to labor for survival. Freedom from labor is true freedom for humanity, and this freedom from labor can be achieved from technological rationality. But instead of embracing this freedom, humanity has been subsumed by a new system of reason rooted in technological innovation. This new rationality, technological rationality, encompasses all elements of life and replaces political rationality.\n", "BULLET::::- Labour power that creates no commodity value or does not have the potential to do so, has no value for commercial purposes, and is therefore usually not highly valued economically, except insofar as it reduces costs that would otherwise be incurred.\n", "The government should expect to pay for products made in decent working conditions, in compliance with all applicable labor standards, by workers who earn a living wage—that is, a fair price. ... In the context of procurement, paying a fair price is the way the government \"invests\" in compliance.\n", "The proof of this is supposed to be the experience of Soviet-type societies where a very large amount of goods was effectively \"bartered\" or allocated by government decree. Even if there was no trade at all, however, the Soviet authorities knew very well that the products of human labour had value, and, with experience, planners could estimate fairly accurately how much labour would need to be employed to produce various kinds of outputs.\n", "Today, futurists who speak of \"post-scarcity\" suggest economies based on advances in automated manufacturing technologies, often including the idea of self-replicating machines, the adoption of division of labour which in theory could produce nearly all goods in abundance, given adequate raw materials and energy.\n\nMore speculative forms of nanotechnology (such as molecular assemblers or nanofactories, which do not currently exist) raise the possibility of devices that can automatically manufacture any specified goods given the correct instructions and the necessary raw materials and energy, and so many nanotechnology enthusiasts have suggested it will usher in a post-scarcity world.\n", "Section::::Effects of technological rationality.\n\nBecause of the totalitarian nature of technological rationality, Marcuse demonstrates in \"One-Dimensional Man\" the various ways that technological rationality has changed various facets of life.\n\nSection::::Effects of technological rationality.:Labor.\n", "In keeping with the tradition of Adam Smith's \"The Wealth of Nations\", the \"cost\" of labor is considered to be the subjective cost; i.e., the amount of suffering involved in it.\n\nSection::::Development.\n\nThe principle was set forth in Warren's \"Equitable Commerce\" (among other writings) and has been called a \"mainstay of 19th century individualist anarchism.\" It was further advocated and popularized by Benjamin Tucker in his individualist anarchist periodical \"Liberty\", and in his books. Tucker explained it so:\n", "In the former case, ethics of such things as computer security and computer viruses asks whether the very act of innovation is an ethically right or wrong act. Similarly, does a scientist have an ethical obligation to produce or fail to produce a nuclear weapon? What are the ethical questions surrounding the production of technologies that waste or conserve energy and resources? What are the ethical questions surrounding the production of new manufacturing processes that might inhibit employment, or might inflict suffering in the third world?\n", "Even with fully automated production, limitations on the number of goods produced would arise from the availability of raw materials and energy, as well as ecological damage associated with manufacturing technologies. Advocates of technological abundance often argue for more extensive use of renewable energy and greater recycling in order to prevent future drops in availability of energy and raw materials, and reduce ecological damage. Solar energy in particular is often emphasized, as the cost of solar panels continues to drop (and could drop far more with automated production by self-replicating machines), and advocates point out the total solar power striking the Earth's surface annually exceeds our civilization's current annual power usage by a factor of thousands.\n", "Different interpretations are offered by Shane Mage, Murray Smith, Anwar Shaikh and Fred Moseley. One aspect often overlooked in this controversy is that wages costs and labour costs are not the same thing. Employers and employees must also pay social insurance levies of various types, and there may be other imposts on wages; also, the \"buying power\" of wages is reduced by indirect tax imposts and profit imposts. This affects the magnitude of a society's variable capital and the value of labour power.\n", "Increasingly versatile forms of rapid prototyping machines, and a hypothetical self-replicating version of such a machine known as a RepRap, have also been predicted to help create the abundance of goods needed for a post-scarcity economy. Advocates of self-replicating machines such as Adrian Bowyer, the creator of the RepRap project, argue that once a self-replicating machine is designed, then since anyone who owns one can make more copies to sell (and would also be free to ask for a lower price than other sellers), market competition will naturally drive the cost of such machines down to the bare minimum needed to make a profit, in this case just above the cost of the physical materials and energy that must be fed into the machine as input, and the same should go for any other goods that the machine can build.\n", "The novel depicts a world where genetic selection for increased health, longevity, and intelligence has become so widespread that the unmodified 'control naturals' are a carefully managed and protected minority. Dueling and the carrying of arms are socially accepted ways of maintaining civility in public; a man can wear distinctive clothing to show his unwillingness to duel, but this results in an inferior social status. The world has become an economic utopia; the \"economic dividend\" is so high that work has become optional. The chief economic problem is in fact using up the economic surplus: many high-quality goods actually cost \"less\" than those of lower quality. Many people use lower-quality goods as status symbols. The government invests heavily in scientific research, but this has the side effect of further increasing productivity a decade or more later, so long-term projects with no expected economic return are favored above anything but medical research, on the theory that longer lifespans will consume more surplus.\n", "When Nikita Khrushchev took over after Stalin, he tried to make improvements, including considering prices in the plan. The head of the USSR State Committee for Organization and Methodology of Price Creation is shown with a tall stack of price logbooks declaring, \"This shows quite clearly that the system is rational.\" Academician Victor Glushkov proposed the use of cybernetics to control people as a remedy for the problems of planning. In the 1960s, computers began to be used to process economic data. Consumer demand was calculated by computers from data gathered by surveys. But the time delay in the system meant that items were no longer in demand by the time they had been produced.\n", "The view that technology is unlikely to lead to long term unemployment has been repeatedly challenged by a minority of economists. In the early 1800s these included Ricardo himself. There were dozens of economists warning about technological unemployment during brief intensifications of the debate that spiked in the 1930s and 1960s. Especially in Europe, there were further warnings in the closing two decades of the twentieth century, as commentators noted an enduring rise in unemployment suffered by many industrialised nations since the 1970s. Yet a clear majority of both professional economists and the interested general public held the optimistic view through most of the 20th century.\n", "BULLET::::- By the late 2020s, nanotech-based manufacturing will be in widespread use, radically altering the economy as all sorts of products can suddenly be produced for a fraction of their traditional-manufacture costs. The true cost of any product is now the amount it takes to download the design schematics.\n\nBULLET::::- By the later part of this decade, virtual reality will be so high-quality that it will be indistinguishable from real reality.\n\nBULLET::::- The threat posed by genetically engineered pathogens permanently dissipates by the end of this decade as medical nanobots—infinitely more durable, intelligent and capable than any microorganism—become sufficiently advanced.\n", "Section::::Issues within the debates.:Skill levels and technological unemployment.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-09020	How Are Graphics Cards Used To "Mine" For Digital Currency?	"Basically mining is the process of solving tough calculations. This is somewhat said to increase security in someway, which makes Bitcoin a safe platform for payment. Now there are programs that solve these calculations but they need so much hardware juice. Initially Mining was done one Processors. But then they realised that graphic cards can mine faster. And then they started mining in graphics cards. Usually 3 or more graphic cards are put into a mining rig and powered up. For every calculations solved the miner earns. 0.0000000001 or something(it's really hard to get Bitcoin and small amounts like this pops up because of the value and amount received for calculations that I have provided is not correct) So as the value of Bitcoin increase, miners around the globe jump in and get graphics cards that has enough juice and pops them in. AMD cards usually do the task better and are commonly used but people use Nvidia cards too. And when the stocks run out, the producers basically increase the prices until the next stock reaches the market." Credit: URL_0 Hope it helps! :)	[ "An increase in cryptocurrency mining increased the demand of graphics cards (GPU) in 2017. Popular favorites of cryptocurrency miners such as Nvidia's GTX 1060 and GTX 1070 graphics cards, as well as AMD's RX 570 and RX 580 GPUs, doubled or tripled in price or were out of stock. A GTX 1070 Ti which was released at a price of $450 sold for as much as $1100. Another popular card GTX 1060's 6 GB model was released at an MSRP of $250, sold for almost $500. RX 570 and RX 580 cards from AMD were out of stock for almost a year. Miners regularly buy up the entire stock of new GPU's as soon as they are available.\n", "Section::::Process details.:Replication.\n\nAfter stripping, the released metallic components can be used for mass replication through standard means of replication such as stamping or injection molding.\n\nSection::::Commercialization.\n", "In November 2008, CCP introduced PLEX, the CONCORD Pilots License EXtension, which is an in-game item that can be used to extend a subscription for 30 days. PLEX can be purchased on the Eve Online website for real money, or inside the game for ISK. 60-day ETCs can be converted to two 30-day PLEX within the Eve Online client, which can then be sold via the in-game market. PLEX is the reason that the cost of in-game assets can be translated into real-life money. As the price of a PLEX is around €15, it can be calculated how much a certain ship or implant is theoretically worth in a real currency.\n", "Paying Gaia users generally spend about $30 USD per month to purchase Gaia Cash, which is then used to buy virtual things such as evolving, chance, collectible, and limited edition items.\n\nSection::::Economy.:AutoCash.\n\nOn September 13, 2010, Gaia announced the introduction of AutoCash.\n", "Mythic cards are upgraded through a separate system where Mythic Stones are turned into card-specific shards that are used to acquire or upgrade that one Mythic.\n\nSection::::Heroes.\n", "When a player rolls a one or a six, in addition to producing a unit (or units), they also receive a card. Each card has an event that can be either positive or negative ranging from free transportation for units to one of the foreign ports, to an earthquake that destroys all the units in the warehouse.\n\nSection::::Strategy.\n\nOne of the key strategies is to compel other players to complete inland barge loads from their minehead to the warehouse and to complete sea transport loads and these lessees are charged money for the privilege.\n\nSection::::Strategy.:The end game.\n", "The term \"closed-loop\" means the funds and or data are physically stored on the token or card in the form of binary-coded data. This is unlike cryptocurrencies or payment cards where data is maintained on the card issuer's computers. Like payment cards, value can be accessed using a magnetic stripe, chip or radio-frequency identification (RFID) embedded in the card; or by entering a code number, printed on the card, into a telephone or other numeric keypad.\n\nSection::::Names.\n", "Attributes of a real currency, as defined in 2011 in the Code of Federal Regulations, such as real paper money and real coins are simply that they act as legal tender and circulate \"customarily\".\n", "EMV is a common standard used by major credit card and smartphone companies for use in general commerce. Contactless smart cards that function as stored-value cards are becoming popular for use as transit system farecards, such as the Oyster card or RioCard. These can often store non-currency value (such as monthly passes) in additional to fare value purchased with cash or electronic payment.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Colored coin\n\nColored coins are a class of methods for associating real world assets with addresses on the bitcoin network. Examples could be a deed for a house, stocks, bonds or futures.\n", "The first phase of the game is referred to as the lorry phase. Lorries can carry two units (unlike barges and ships, lorries do not have to be fully loaded and may travel with a single unit; lorries can also not carry units belonging to other players) and can travel as far as the Newport Warehouse at the centre of the board. Since lorries are cheap and the players start with very little money and few units, lorries are used to build initial capital.\n", "Usually the graphics card is made in the form of a printed circuit board (expansion board) and inserted into an expansion slot, universal or specialized (AGP, PCI Express). Some have been made using dedicated enclosures, which are connected to the computer via a docking station or a cable.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nStandards such as MDA, CGA, HGC, Tandy, PGC, EGA, VGA, MCGA, 8514 or XGA were introduced from 1982 to 1990 and supported by a variety of hardware manufacturers.\n", "Most cryptocurrency tokens are fungible and interchangeable. However, unique non-fungible tokens also exist. Such tokens can serve as assets in games like CryptoKitties.\n\nSection::::Economics.\n\nCryptocurrencies are used primarily outside existing banking and governmental institutions and are exchanged over the Internet.\n\nSection::::Economics.:Transaction fees.\n", "In 2004, mining entrepreneur Ian Telfer created Silver Wheaton which aimed to apply volumetric production payment transactions to the mining sector. The business model came to be known as metal streaming and structures VPP transactions in such a way that an upfront payment is exchanged for a percentage of metal production, with a fixed payment being made for each ounce of metal delivered. The model has proven to be wildly successful as Silver Wheaton became a multibillion-dollar company within a few years of operation. Franco Nevada Corp., Royal Gold Inc. and Sandstorm Gold Ltd. are other companies that have deployed the metal streaming business model.\n", "The Prices of different pieces of graphics hardware vary due to the power and speed of the piece. Most high end gaming pieces of hardware are dedicated graphics cards, and cost over $200, and can go as high as the price of a new computer, depending on the quality desired. In the graphics cards department, using integrated chips is much cheaper than buying a dedicated card, however the performance conforms to the price.\n", "In cryptocurrency networks, \"mining\" is a validation of transactions. For this effort, successful miners obtain new cryptocurrency as a reward. The reward decreases transaction fees by creating a complementary incentive to contribute to the processing power of the network. The rate of generating hashes, which validate any transaction, has been increased by the use of specialized machines such as FPGAs and ASICs running complex hashing algorithms like SHA-256 and Scrypt. This arms race for cheaper-yet-efficient machines has been on since the day the first cryptocurrency, bitcoin, was introduced in 2009. With more people venturing into the world of virtual currency, generating hashes for this validation has become far more complex over the years, with miners having to invest large sums of money on employing multiple high performance ASICs. Thus the value of the currency obtained for finding a hash often does not justify the amount of money spent on setting up the machines, the cooling facilities to overcome the enormous amount of heat they produce, and the electricity required to run them.\n", "Flexibility – Being a completely online solution, using a virtual debit card provides a great deal of flexibility to the user. These cards can be created for any online bank accounts and there often is no limit to the amount that can be loaded into these cards, and can use any supported currency to charge up your card, with even having the option to buy a virtual debit card with bitcoin if you want. You also have the option to get virtual visa cards and virtual credit cards if you require them.\n", "Section::::Virtual money.\n\nVirtual money (or in-game currency) is used to purchase virtual goods within a variety of online communities, which include social networking websites, virtual worlds and online gaming sites.\n", "Debit cards and charge cards are accepted worldwide as alternative payment and in some cases, debit cards are designed exclusively for use on the Internet, and there is no physical card only a virtual card. Certain systems also require the use of a PIN when a debit is used for online purchases.\n\nCrypto debit cards have become increasingly popular with the rise of digital currencies like bitcoin. These cards operate on traditional card infrastructure, but use digital currencies as the exchange of value.\n", "Section::::Installation.\n\nDedicated graphics cards are not bound to the motherboard, and therefore most are removable, replaceable, or upgradable. They are installed in an expansion slot and connected to the motherboard. \n\nOn the other hand, an integrated graphics card cannot be changed without buying a new motherboard with a better chip, as they are bound to the motherboard.\n", "Generally, a photomask is purchased/generated, which consists of opaque Chromium patterns on a transparent glass plate. A sample (or \"substrate\") is coated with a thin film of UV-sensitive photoresist. The sample is then placed underneath the photomask, and pressed into \"contact\" against it. The sample is \"exposed\", during which UV light is then shone from the top side of the photomask. Photoresist lying beneath transparent glass is exposed, and becomes able to be dissolved by a developer, while photoresist lying under Chrome did not receive any UV exposure and will remain intact after developing.\n", "BULLET::::- Nixon Coins, showing the living head of Richard M. Nixon in a jar from Futurama, are earned in Arena and Adventure mode, and from event rewards. They are primarily used to buy random (mostly common) cards from the Shop.\n\nBULLET::::- Giggitywatts, a nod to Family Guy character Quagmire's signature exclamation \"Giggity!\", are primarily earned by recycling cards or farming Adventure mode, and spent to upgrade cards. Upgraded cards recycle for more Giggitywatts, though there is never a full return on the investment.\n", "E-micro\n\nAn E-micro is a futures contract traded on the Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME) Globex electronic trading platform, that represents an even smaller fraction of the value of the normal futures contracts than the corresponding E-mini.\n\nCurrently, CME offers one E-micro stock market index contract, \"E-micro S&P CNX Nifty (Nifty 50) Futures\", with a notional value of $2 x the S&P CNX Nifty index of Indian stocks, and E-micro contracts for a number of currency futures pegged against the US Dollar (AUD, CAD, CHF, EUR, GBP, JPY). E-micro gold futures contracts were introduced in October 2010.\n", "To this end, a Host Interface Processor, an embedded RISC core, is used to fetch display list objects using direct memory access (DMA). The Host Interface Processor is accompanied by 16 MB of synchronous dynamic random access memory (SDRAM), of which 15 MB is used to cache display leaf objects. The cache can deliver data to the next stage at over 300 MB/s. The next stage is the Geometry Distributor, which transfers data and instructions from the Host Interface Processor to individual Geometry Engines.\n", "Gacha game\n\n\"Gacha\" games are video games that adapt and virtualize the \"gacha\" (capsule-toy vending machine) mechanic. In the monetization of video games it is similar to loot box, in inducing players to spend money. Most of these games are free-to-play mobile games. In \"gacha\" games, players spend virtual currency, which can be from a machine; however real money is usually eventually spent to obtain the virtual currency and opportunities to use it.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01762	Why do scrambled eggs, omelettes, etc. go bad so quickly at room temperature, while baked goods with eggs in them do not?	Cooked food left in room temp goes bad fast because bacteria grows rapidly and the food can become unsafe to eat. Eggs (in shells) can last for long outside and they aren't refrigerated in a lot of countries. When you crack open the egg, the protective layer is lost and bacteria can easily grow on it. When you use eggs to bake anything, the structure is changed. As soon as bread has been baked it slowly begins a process called retrogration where the starch molecules begin to dry out or crystallize. Bacteria's growth is hampered in dry conditions so baked goods can last for a couple days outside.	[ "Once the liquid has mostly set, additional ingredients such as ham, herbs, cheese or cream may be folded in over low heat until incorporated. The eggs are usually slightly undercooked when removed from heat, since the eggs will continue to set. If any liquid is seeping from the eggs (syneresis), this is a sign of undercooking, overcooking or adding undercooked high-moisture vegetables.\n", "BULLET::::- Serving temperature: Room temperature (for more even cooking and to prevent cracking) or from a refrigerator; eggs may be left out overnight to come to room temperature.\n", "Salmonella is killed instantly at , but also is killed from , if held at that temperature for sufficiently long time periods. To avoid the issue of salmonella, eggs may be pasteurized in-shell at for an hour and 15 minutes. Although the white then is slightly milkier, the eggs may be used in normal ways. Whipping for meringue takes significantly longer, but the final volume is virtually the same.\n", "BULLET::::- English style – in English style the scrambled eggs are stirred very thoroughly during cooking to give a soft, fine texture.\n", "BULLET::::- In the classic French cooking method, Escoffier describes using a double boiler as the heating source, which does not need adjustment as the direct heating method would. The eggs are directly placed in the cooker and mixed during the heating and not before. Cooking by this method prevents the eggs from browning while being cooked and gives aerated and creamy scrambled eggs. This method was used in the \"old classical kitchen\" and guarantees the eggs are always cooked perfectly; it is, however, more time-consuming than the modern skillet method, taking up to 40 minutes to ensure perfect quality.\n", "The mixture can be poured into a hot pan containing melted butter or oil, where it starts coagulating. The heat is turned down and the eggs are stirred as they cook. This creates small, soft curds of egg. Unlike pancake or omelette, scrambled egg is virtually never browned. A thin pan is preferable to prevent browning. With continuous stirring, and not allowing the eggs to stick to the pan, the eggs themselves will maintain the pan temperature at about the boiling point of water, until they coagulate.\n", "Royal icing is traditionally prepared with raw egg whites, which have a very small chance of transmitting salmonella poisoning. Meringue powder or ready-to-use, pasteurized, refrigerated egg whites (wet eggs) can be used with similar results.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- Steaming: Eggs can be taken straight from the refrigerator and placed in the steamer at full steam. The eggs will not crack due to sudden change in temperatures. At full steam, \"soft-boiled\" eggs can be ready in about 6 minutes and \"hard-boiled\" eggs in about twice that time. However due to variations in the starting temperature and the size of the egg as well as the altitude of the location (longer needed for higher altitudes), these times can only be an approximation.\n", "The freezing process tends to degrade the taste of food and the meals are thus heavily processed with extra salt and fat to compensate. In addition, stabilizing the product for a long period typically means that companies will use partially hydrogenated vegetable oils for some items (typically dessert). Partially hydrogenated vegetable oils are high in trans fats and are shown to adversely affect cardiovascular health. The dinners are almost always significantly less nutritious than fresh food and are formulated to remain edible after long periods of storage, thus often requiring preservatives such as butylated hydroxytoluene. There is, however, some variability between brands.\n", "BULLET::::- Cooling: After eggs are removed from heat, some cooking continues to occur, particularly of the yolk, due to residual heat, a phenomenon called carry over cooking, also seen in roast meat. For this reason some allow eggs to cool in air or plunge them into cold water as the final stage of preparation. If time is limited, adding a few cubes of ice will quickly reduce the temperature for easy handling.\n", "Product designers were familiar with the IKEA effect long before it was given a name. Norton and his colleagues noted that, while not yet named or scientifically established, it had been recognized by marketers for a long time. For instance, when instant cake mixes were first marketed in the 1950s, many homemakers were resistant because the instant mixes made cooking \"too easy\", which made their labor and skill feel \"undervalued.\" Because homemakers didn't feel \"invested\" in the baking process, they put no value on the product. In response to this problem, the producers of the cake mixes made a simple change in the recipe: homemakers were required to add an egg. By adding one more step – cracking an egg – homemakers felt like they were actually baking, which resulted in increased instant cake mix sales.\n", "Time and temperature control plays a critical role in food safety. To prevent time-temperature abuse, the amount of time food spends in the danger zone must be minimized. A logarithmic relationship exists between microbial cell death and temperature: a significantly large number of cells may survive slightly lower temperatures. In addition to reducing the time spent in the danger zone, foods should be moved through the danger zone as few times as possible when reheating or cooling.\n\nFoods that are potentially hazardous inside the danger zone:\n\nBULLET::::- Meat: beef, poultry, pork, seafood\n\nBULLET::::- Eggs and other protein-rich foods\n", "BULLET::::- The \"stirring method\" (also known as the \"quick-bread method\", \"blending method\", or \"muffin method\") is used for pancakes, muffins, corn bread, dumplings, and fritters. It calls for measurement of dry and wet ingredients separately, then quickly mixing the two. Often the wet ingredients include beaten eggs, which have trapped air that helps the product to rise. In these recipes, the fats are liquid, such as cooking oil. Usually mixing is done using a tool with a wide head such as a spoon or spatula to prevent the dough from becoming over-beaten, which would break down the egg's lift.\n", "The primary risk associated with eggs is food-borne illness caused by \"Salmonella enteritidis\" bacteria. \"Salmonella enteritidis\" is a dangerous bacterium that can be transferred to humans through ingestion of raw or undercooked eggs. Nearly four out of five \"Salmonella\"-related foodborne illness cases share a common vehicle: raw or undercooked shell eggs.\n", "Nearly all chemical reactions can occur at normal temperatures (although different reactions proceed at different rates). However most reactions are accelerated by high temperatures, and the degradation of foods and pharmaceuticals is no exception. The same applies to the breakdown of many chemical explosives into more unstable compounds. Nitroglycerine is notorious. Old explosives are thus more dangerous (i.e. liable to be triggered to explode by very small disturbances, even trivial jiggling) than more recently manufactured explosives. Rubber products also degrade as sulphur bonds induced during vulcanization revert; this is why old rubber bands and other rubber products soften and get crispy, and lose their elasticity as they age.\n", "Only eggs are necessary to make scrambled eggs, but salt and pepper are often used, and other ingredients such as water, milk, butter, chives, cream or in some cases crème fraîche or grated cheese may be added. The eggs are cracked into a bowl with some salt and pepper, and the mixture is stirred or whisked: alternatively, the eggs are cracked directly into a hot pan or skillet, and the whites and yolks stirred together as they cook. Ground black pepper is also sometimes used as an ingredient. More consistent and far quicker results are obtained if a small amount of thickener such as cornstarch, potato starch or flour is added; this enables much quicker cooking with reduced risk of overcooking, even when less butter is used.\n", "Scrambled eggs can be cooked in a microwave oven, and can also be prepared using sous-vide cooking, which gives the traditional smooth creamy texture and requires only occasionally mixing during cooking. Another technique for cooking creamy scrambled eggs is to pipe steam into eggs with butter via a steam wand (as found on an espresso machine).\n\nSection::::Variations.\n\nBULLET::::- American style – in American style the eggs are scooped in towards the middle of the pan as they set, giving larger curds.\n", "List of twice-baked foods\n\nThe following is a list of twice-baked foods. Twice-baked foods are foods that are baked twice in their preparation. Baking is a food cooking method using prolonged dry heat acting by convection, and not by thermal radiation, normally in an oven, but also in hot ashes, or on hot stones. When the desired temperature is reached within the heating instrument, the food is placed inside and baked for a certain amount of time. Such items are sometimes referred to as \"baked goods,\" and are sold at a bakery.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of baked goods\n", "Asian cultures have adopted steam baskets to produce the effect of baking while reducing the amount of fat needed.\n\nSection::::Process.\n\nEleven events occur concurrently during baking, some of which (such as starch gelatinization) would not occur at room temperature.\n\nBULLET::::1. Fats melt;\n\nBULLET::::2. Gases form and expand\n\nBULLET::::3. Microorganisms die\n\nBULLET::::4. Sugar dissolves\n\nBULLET::::5. Egg, milk, and gluten proteins coagulate\n\nBULLET::::6. Starches gelatinize or solidify\n\nBULLET::::7. Liquids evaporate\n\nBULLET::::8. Caramelization and Maillard browning occur on crust\n\nBULLET::::9. Enzymes are denatured\n\nBULLET::::10. Changes occur to nutrients\n\nBULLET::::11. Pectin breaks down.\n", "Drying: The press cake is dried by tumbling inside a heated drum. Under-drying may result in the growth of molds or bacteria; over-drying can cause scorching and reduction in the meal's nutritional value.\n\nTwo alternative methods of drying are used:\n\nBULLET::::- Direct: Very hot air at a temperature of 500 °C (932 °F) is passed over the material as it is tumbled rapidly in a cylindrical drum. While quicker, heat damage is much more likely if the process is not carefully controlled.\n\nBULLET::::- Indirect: The meal is tumbled inside a cylinder containing steam-heated discs.\n", "The 2013 FDA Food Code states that in serving highly susceptible populations (preschool age children; older adults; individuals with compromised immune systems; and individuals who receive meals through custodial care-giving environments such as child or adult day care centers, kidney dialysis centers, hospitals, or nursing homes ): “Pasteurized eggs or egg products shall be substituted for raw eggs in the preparation of Foods such as Caesar salad, hollandaise or Béarnaise sauce, mayonnaise, meringue, eggnog, ice cream, egg-fortified beverages and recipes in which more than one egg is broken and the eggs are combined.”\n", "Eggs can also be used in baking to produce savoury or sweet dishes. In combination with dairy products especially cheese, they are often prepared as a dessert. For example, although a baked custard can be made using starch (in the form of flour, cornflour, arrowroot, or potato flour), the flavor of the dish is much more delicate if eggs are used as the thickening agent. Baked custards, such as crème caramel, are among the items that need protection from an oven's direct heat, and the \"bain-marie\" method serves this purpose. The cooking container is half submerged in water in another, larger one, so that the heat in the oven is more gently applied during the baking process. Baking a successful soufflé requires that the baking process be carefully controlled. The oven temperature must be absolutely even and the oven space not shared with another dish. These factors, along with the theatrical effect of an air-filled dessert, have given this baked food a reputation for being a culinary achievement. Similarly, a good baking technique (and a good oven) are also needed to create a baked Alaska because of the difficulty of baking hot meringue and cold ice cream at the same time.\n", "Section::::Cooking.\n\nA cake can fall, whereby parts of it sink or flatten, when baked at a temperature that is too low or too hot, when it has been underbaked and when placed in an oven that is too hot at the beginning of the baking process. The use of excessive amounts of sugar, flour, fat or leavening can also cause a cake to fall. A cake can also fall when subjected to cool air that enters an oven when the oven door is opened during the cooking process.\n\nSection::::Cake decorating.\n", "Slow cookers are less dangerous than ovens or stove tops due to their lower operating temperatures and closed lids. However, they still contain a large amount of foods and liquids at temperatures close to boiling, and they can cause serious scalds if spilled.\n\nSection::::Hazards.:Poisoning concerns.\n", "BULLET::::- Friends: “The One Where Rosita Dies” Season 7, Episode 13. Ross and Monica are cleaning out their family home after their parents decide to sell and their father mentions the 6 or 7 Easy Bake Ovens that are in the attic. Ross reveals that Monica used to eat the batter and Monica complains “it’s unreasonable for a child to wait for a light bulb to cook brownies!”\n" ]	[ "If scrambled eggs can go bad at room temperature, then baked goods that contain eggs should also go bad." ]	[ "When food is baked, the structure of the food changes that allows the food to dry out or crystallize. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "If scrambled eggs can go bad at room temperature, then baked goods that contain eggs should also go bad.", "If scrambled eggs can go bad at room temperature, then baked goods that contain eggs should also go bad." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "When food is baked, the structure of the food changes that allows the food to dry out or crystallize. ", "When food is baked, the structure of the food changes that allows the food to dry out or crystallize. " ]
2018-03794	Why was Germany not divided by the victorious Entente after World War 1?	Germany wasn't defeated in WW1. WW1 ended with an Armistice which is effectively a cease fire. Everyone was war weary and just ended things, it's not like the British were sitting in Berlin and capable of dictating whatever terms they wanted. If they gave terms that were too unreasonable (splitting up Germany) then fighting would have resumed immediately WW2 ended with the Allies and Soviets racing towards Berlin and all of German territory under non-german control. Germany was soundly defeated after WW2 unlike WW1	[ "Through the chairman of the Paris conference, the German government were invited to send a representative on March 1 to London, to discuss the reparation question. The government accepted the invitation, but smarting from their experiences at Versailles and Spa, the German government wanted to make sure that their views would be well represented.\n", "The Allied and Associated governments had assumed the task of revising territorial changes and arrangements dating back to the latter half of the 18th century. The conference cancelled completely the expansion of Germany over the past 150 years; but did not cancel the schism in Germany—the exclusion of Austria—which had been incidental to that expansion.\n", "For example, in order to live up to the ideal of self-determination laid out in the Fourteen Points, Germans, whether Austrian or German, should be able to decide their own future and government. However, the French especially were concerned that an expanded Germany would be a huge security risk. Further complicating the situation, delegations such as the Czechs and Slovenians made strong claims on some German-speaking territories.\n", "Section::::Reactions.:League of Nations.\n", "Ethnic minorities made the location of the frontiers generally unstable. Where the frontiers have remained unchanged since 1918, there has often been the expulsion of an ethnic group, such as the Sudeten Germans. Economic and military cooperation amongst these small states was minimal, ensuring that the defeated powers of Germany and the Soviet Union retained a latent capacity to dominate the region. In the immediate aftermath of the war, defeat drove cooperation between Germany and the Soviet Union but ultimately these two powers would compete to dominate eastern Europe.\n\nSection::::Political upheavals.\n\nSection::::Political upheavals.:New nations break free.\n", "Section::::Troubles complying with the Treaty of Versailles.:Upper Silesia plebiscite.\n\nThe clause of the Treaty of Versailles demanding a plebiscite in Upper Silesia was next taken in hand. The German government had already declared during the negotiations in London that the possession of Upper Silesia was indispensable to Germany if she was to fulfill her obligations in regard to reparations. After some negotiation the plebiscite was fixed for March 20, and resulted in 717,122 votes being cast for Germany against 483,514 for Poland, the result very different from the last 1910 census, where Poles had clear 60% majority.\n", "Frank Russell wrote that, in regards to the Saar plebiscite, the inhabitants \"were not terrorized at the polls\" and the \"totalitarian [Nazi] German regime was not distasteful to most of the Saar inhabitants and that they preferred it even to an efficient, economical, and benevolent international rule.\" When the outcome of the vote became known, 4,100 (including 800 refugees who had previously fled Germany) residents fled over the border into France.\n\nSection::::Historical assessments.:Military terms and violations.\n", "Section::::Background.:The foreign policies of the interested powers.\n\nThe foreign policy of Fascist Italy was to maintain an \"equidistant\" stance from all the major powers in order to exercise \"determinant weight\", which by whatever power Italy chose to align with would decisively change the balance of power in Europe, and the price of such an alignment would be support for Italian ambitions in Europe and/or Africa.\n", "In 1920, under massive French pressure, the Saar was separated from the Rhine Province and administered by the League of Nations until a plebiscite in 1935, when the region was returned to the \"Deutsches Reich\". At the same time, in 1920, the districts of Eupen and Malmedy were transferred to Belgium (see German-Speaking Community of Belgium). Shortly after, France completely occupied the Rhineland, strictly controlling all important industrial areas.\n\nSection::::History.:Years of crisis (1919–1923).:Burden from the First World War.:Reparations.\n", "Also on 9 November 1918, Max von Baden handed over the office of Chancellor to Friedrich Ebert, a Social Democrat. Ebert's SPD and Erzberger's Catholic Centre Party had enjoyed an uneasy relationship with the Imperial government since Bismarck's era in the 1870s and 1880s. They were well represented in the Imperial Reichstag, which had little power over the government, and had been calling for a negotiated peace since 1917. Their prominence in the peace negotiations would cause the new Weimar Republic to lack legitimacy in right-wing and militarist eyes.\n\nSection::::Negotiation process.\n", "Section::::Interbellum.:Rhineland.\n\nOn 7 March 1936, Hitler sent a small expeditionary force into the demilitarized Rhineland. This was a clear violation of the Treaty of Versailles (1919, official end of World War I), and as such, France and Britain were within their rights, via the Treaty, to oust the German forces. British public opinion blocked any use of military force, thus preventing French action, as they were internally divided and would not act without British support.\n\nSection::::Interbellum.:Saar region.\n", "On March 10, 1920, Beaumont wrote of numerous continuing difficulties being made by Polish officials and stressed the \"ill-will between Polish and German nationalities and the irritation due to Polish intolerance towards the German inhabitants in the Corridor (now under their rule), far worse than any former German intolerance of the Poles, are growing to such an extent that it is impossible to believe the present settlement (borders) can have any chance of being permanent...\"\n", "In 1933, a considerable number of anti-Nazi Germans fled to the Saar, as it was the only part of Germany left outside the Third Reich's control. As a result, anti-Nazi groups campaigned heavily for the Saarland to remain under control of League of Nations as long as Adolf Hitler ruled Germany. However, long-held sentiments against France remained entrenched, with very few sympathizing openly with France. When the 15-year-term was over, a plebiscite was held in the territory on 13 January 1935: 90.3% of those voting wished to join Germany.\n", "Section::::History.:End of World War I, decision to join Bavaria.\n", "Former imperial administrators and the councils depended on each other: the former had the knowledge and experience, the latter had political clout. In most cases, SPD members had been elected into the councils who regarded their job as an interim solution. For them, as well as for the majority of the German population in 1918–19, the introduction of a Council Republic was never an issue, but they were not even given a chance to think about it. Many wanted to support the new government and expected it to abolish militarism and the authoritarian state. Being weary of the war and hoping for a peaceful solution, they partially overestimated the revolutionary achievements.\n", "Ever since the creation of the consolidated German nation state in 1871, the German Problem as to what interests, ambitions, and borders Germany would have and how it would fit into the international system, was a major concern not just for the neighbours but also for German policy-makers themselves. This Problem was temporarily suspended during the Cold War as with Germany being a divided nation, the question as to how to reunify the country (the German Question) would take precedence over other considerations. During the Cold War, both Germanys also lacked the power to challenge the system more generally. \n", "Section::::History.:World War I.:Revolt and demise.\n\nMany Germans wanted an end to the war and increasing numbers began to associate with the political left, such as the Social Democratic Party and the more radical Independent Social Democratic Party, which demanded an end to the war. The entry of the U.S. into the war in April 1917 changed the long-run balance of power in favour of the Allies.\n", "The Hagenbund operated for almost a decade in the shadow of the popular and successful Secession, and only in the years that followed the damaging resignation of the Klimt Group from the Secession did its members succeed in developing a more moderate, independent line, in which atmosphere played a major role.\n\nSection::::After World War I.\n", "Germany saw relatively small amounts of territory transferred to Denmark, Czechoslovakia, and Belgium, a larger amount to France (including the temporary French occupation of the Rhineland) and the greatest portion as part of a reestablished Poland. Germany's overseas colonies were divided between a number of Allied countries, most notably the United Kingdom in Africa, but it was the loss of the territory that composed the newly independent Polish state, including the German city of Danzig and the separation of East Prussia from the rest of Germany, that caused the greatest outrage. Nazi propaganda would feed on a general German view that the treaty was unfair – many Germans never accepted the treaty as legitimate, and lent their political support to Adolf Hitler.\n", "BULLET::::- German Chancellor Hans Luther gave a nationally broadcast speech in which he stated that Germany's entry into the League of Nations was understood to be contingent on no other changes being made to the League's membership council. \"All Germany's debates on whether it should enter the League now were based on a contemplation of the League as it existed when Germany was asked to join. Therefore, it is illogical to try to combine Germany's entry into the League with changes in the membership of the council.\" Germany was displeased about the prospect of a temporary council seat being granted to Poland, a country Germany considered hostile.\n", "Although the Allies were committed to upholding the terms of the Treaty of Versailles and those of St. Germain, which specifically prohibited the union of Austria and Germany, their reaction was only verbal and moderate. No military confrontation took place, and even the strongest voices against the annexation, particularly Fascist Italy, France, and Britain (the \"Stresa Front\") remained at peace. The loudest verbal protest was voiced by the government of Mexico.\n\nSection::::Actions against the Jews.\n", "As a CBS correspondent in Germany during the climactic event under discussion, and as a frequent visitor to and correspondent from France during the prewar years, Shirer was left to question how Germany had overrun France within weeks in 1940. These two countries had fought each other for four years in 1914-1918, with France successfully resisting Germany at every turn of battle along the Western Front during World War I.\n", "The Franco-British difference of opinion was, however, of short duration (see 1920 in France); and it was soon made clear that whilst the British government were disposed to think that there had been a genuine necessity to send the German troops into the Ruhr valley, they were equally as determined as the French to see that the terms of the treaty were observed. And the extreme rapidity with which the German troops overcame the revolutionaries tended to bring the whole crisis to an end.\n", "In the mid-1920s, there were secret negotiations between Germany and the kingdom of Belgium that seemed to be inclined to sell the region back to Germany as a way to improve Belgium's finances. A price of 200 million gold marks has been mentioned. At this point, the French government, fearing for the complete postwar order, intervened at Brussels and the Belgian-German talks were called off.\n", "It was just fine with me when Army and Army Command remained as guiltless as possible in these wretched truce negotiations, from which nothing good could be expected.\n" ]	[ "Germany should have been divided by the victorious entente." ]	[ "Germany wasn't divided because WW1 ended in an armistice where everyone just stopped. No terms were made." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Germany should have been divided by the victorious entente.", "Germany should have been divided by the victorious entente." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Germany wasn't divided because WW1 ended in an armistice where everyone just stopped. No terms were made.", "Germany wasn't divided because WW1 ended in an armistice where everyone just stopped. No terms were made." ]
2018-17619	Why does amazon purchase all of these different companies completely unrelated to online shopping like whole foods?	Their goal is to control as much of each person's total shopping as they can. For items that are better sold in person than by shipping, they are tired of missing out on that business.	[ "On August 23, 2017, it was reported that the Federal Trade Commission approved the merger between Amazon.com and Whole Foods Market. The following day it was announced that the deal would be closed on August 28, 2017.\n\nSection::::Subsidiaries.:Junglee.\n", "On June 15, 2017, Amazon announced it would acquire Whole Foods Market, adding some 400 physical stores to Amazon's e-commerce assets. The purchase was valued at $13.7 billion, and caused Whole Foods stock prices to soar after the announcement was made.\n\nIn 2018, Whole Foods Market announced its possible intention to take over some vacant Sears and Kmart stores and refurbish them after Sears Holdings Corporation, which owned both chains, filed for bankruptcy in October.\n\nSection::::Product quality.\n", "AmazonFresh is a home grocery delivery service first trialed in 2007, and later made available in Boston, Seattle, Los Angeles, San Francisco, California, San Diego, Brooklyn, New York and Philadelphia, PA. In 2017 Amazon purchased Whole Foods and began selling 365 (whole foods store brand products) through Amazon Fresh.\n\nAmazon Prime Pantry is a similar service covering the 48 contiguous United States, allowing the order of up to 45 pounds of dry goods and non-perishable groceries for a flat delivery fee.\n\nSection::::Amazon Dash.\n", "Whole Foods Market\n\nWhole Foods Market Inc. is an American multinational supermarket chain headquartered in Austin, Texas, which exclusively sells products free from hydrogenated fats and artificial colors, flavors, and preservatives. A USDA Certified Organic grocer in the United States, the chain is popularly known for its organic selections. Whole Foods has 500 stores in North America and the United Kingdom .\n\nOn August 23, 2017, it was reported that the Federal Trade Commission had approved a merger between Amazon and Whole Foods Market; the deal was closed on August 28, 2017.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Early years.\n", "In early 2017, Amazon launched a line of snack foods under the name Wickedly Prime. The products, such as chips and cookies are only available to Amazon Prime members in the United States.\n\nSection::::Food and beverages.:365.\n\n365 is the store brand at Whole Foods Market, which was acquired by Amazon in 2017. The brand consists of grocery items and household essentials, many of which are organic or GMO-free. Following Amazon's acquisition of Whole Foods, the non-perishable 365-brand products became available on Amazon's site in the United States, United Kingdom, and Canada.\n\nSection::::Food and beverages.:AmazonFresh.\n", "BULLET::::- Cambridge\n\nBULLET::::- Edinburgh\n\nBULLET::::- London\n\nBULLET::::- Africa\n\nBULLET::::- South Africa\n\nBULLET::::- Cape Town\n\nSection::::Customer service centers.\n\nBULLET::::- Africa\n\nBULLET::::- South Africa\n\nBULLET::::- Cape Town\n\nBULLET::::- Europe\n\nBULLET::::- United Kingdom\n\nBULLET::::- Edinburgh\n\nBULLET::::- Ireland\n\nBULLET::::- Cork\n\nBULLET::::- Central America\n\nBULLET::::- Costa Rica\n\nBULLET::::- San Jose\n\nBULLET::::- South America\n\nBULLET::::- Colombia\n\nBULLET::::- Bogotá\n\nSection::::Retail.\n\nBelow is a list of Amazon's retail locations, as of October 2018. Most of the stores are located inside of the United States, but Whole Foods also operates stores in Canada and the United Kingdom.\n\nBULLET::::- Whole Foods Market (479)\n\nBULLET::::- 365 by Whole Foods Market (10)\n", "In January 2019, as part of expansion further to some unreachable areas, Amazon announced to acquire some former Sears and Kmart locations from Sears Holdings which filed for Chapter 11 Bankruptcy protection on October 15, 2018. These vacant locations would be demolished or remodel into new Whole Foods Market locations.\n\nSection::::History.:Expansion.:United Kingdom and Canada.\n", "Whole Foods opened its second store in western New York in Amherst, a suburb of Buffalo in September, 2017.\n\nAs part of a streamlining campaign, in January 2017 the company reported that it would close three remaining regional kitchens in Everett, Landover and Atlanta.\n\nIn June 2017, Amazon purchased Whole Foods Market for $13.7 Billion. Amazon plans for Whole Foods customers who also have an Amazon prime account to be able to order groceries online and then pick them up in store for free.\n", "On November 2, 2017, Amazon announced it was discontinuing its Fresh service to areas in New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland and California.\n\nSection::::Product lines.\n\nAmazonFresh offers grocery items for sale, as well as a subset of items from the main Amazon.com storefront. Items ordered through AmazonFresh are available for home delivery on the same day or the next day, depending on the time of the order and the availability of trucks. Many grocery items are for sale.\n\nAs of the 11th October 2017, AmazonFresh sell a range of Booths branded products for home delivery in selected areas.\n", "In June 2017, Amazon announced that it would acquire Whole Foods, a high-end supermarket chain with over 400 stores, for $13.4 billion. The acquisition was seen by media experts as a move to strengthen its physical holdings and challenge Walmart's supremacy as a brick and mortar retailer. This sentiment was heightened by the fact that the announcement coincided with Walmart's purchase of men's apparel company Bonobos. On August 23, 2017, Whole Foods shareholders, as well as the Federal Trade Commission, approved the deal.\n", "AmazonFresh is a private label grocery delivery service that allows users to order groceries and household goods for delivery. Grocery pickup services are also available in some locations. The brand was introduced in 2017. The service is available in several US states, Tokyo, Berlin and central/eastern London. \n\nSection::::Food and beverages.:Happy Belly.\n\nHappy Belly is an Amazon private label that sells snack food items. It was introduced in 2016 and first include packaged nuts and granola mixes. In February 2019, the brand expanded to include milk delivery service.\n\nSection::::Apparel.\n\nSection::::Apparel.:Mae.\n", "CreateSpace, which offers self-publishing services for independent content creators, publishers, film studios, and music labels, became a subsidiary in 2009.\n\nSection::::Subsidiaries.:Eero.\n\nEero is a company that manufactures mesh-capable routers. The company was founded in 2015 and is based in San Francisco. Amazon announced it would buy Eero in 2019.\n\nSection::::Subsidiaries.:Goodreads.\n", "BULLET::::- Amazon Drive\n\nBULLET::::- Echo\n\nBULLET::::- Kindle\n\nBULLET::::- Fire tablets\n\nBULLET::::- Fire TV\n\nBULLET::::- Video\n\nBULLET::::- Kindle Store\n\nBULLET::::- Music\n\nBULLET::::- Music Unlimited\n\nBULLET::::- Amazon Digital Game Store\n\nBULLET::::- Amazon Studios\n\nBULLET::::- AmazonWireless\n\nSection::::Subsidiaries.\n\nAmazon owns over 40 subsidiaries, including Zappos, Shopbop, Diapers.com, Kiva Systems (now Amazon Robotics), Audible, Goodreads, Teachstreet, Twitch and IMDb.\n\nSection::::Subsidiaries.:A9.com.\n\nA9.com, a company focused on researching and building innovative technology, has been a subsidiary since 2003.\n\nSection::::Subsidiaries.:Amazon Maritime.\n", "In 2016, Hampton Creek voluntarily recalled one batch of its Just Mayo product due to \"Salmonella\" contamination concerns. In June 2017, Bloomberg reported that Target and Target.com had stopped selling Hampton Creek products, representing the loss of one-third of the company's retail business. Two months later, Target severed ties with Hampton Creek, citing complaint letters received from unnamed parties. Following the conclusion of a federal investigation by the Food and Drug Administration in August 2017, Alternet investigated further, determining that the complaints against the company were unfounded and a \"malicious hoax.\" Nonetheless, as of March 2018, food products labeled either Hampton Creek or JUST remained unavailable from any Target outlets.\n", "BULLET::::- 2007: Acquired the salsa and picante business of San Antonio Farms, acquired jam, jelly, syrup and pie-filling (both brand name and private-label) producer E.D. Smith, founded by the Canadian politician E.D. Smith\n\nBULLET::::- 2010: Acquired Sturm Foods and S.T. Specialty Foods\n\nBULLET::::- 2013: Acquired Naturally Fresh, Inc., Cains Foods, and Associated Brands\n\nBULLET::::- 2014: Made a bid to acquire Michael Foods Group Inc\n\nBULLET::::- 2016: Acquired Ralcorp, the ConAgra Foods private-brand business division, for $2.7B.\n\nSection::::History.:Acquisitions and subsidiaries.:Sturm Foods.\n", "Section::::History.:2017–present: Amazon subsidiary.\n\nIn February 2017, Whole Foods Market said it would close nine of its stores and lowered its financial projections for the year, as the natural-foods company struggled with increased competition and slowing sales growth. In late April 2017, Whole Foods reported their sixth consecutive quarter of declining sales, and announced that the company would be closing nine stores: two each in Colorado and California, and one each in Georgia, Arizona, Utah, New Mexico, and Illinois. The loss of revenue was attributed to foot traffic being down and other supermarkets offering a similar experience for a lower cost.\n", "List of Amazon brands\n\nAmazon offers multiple store brands. The products are available on Amazon.com, AmazonFresh, Prime Pantry, Prime Now, Amazon Go, and/or Whole Foods Market. Amazon houses its in-house brand offerings under the “Our Brands” label, which is separate from exclusive brands. Exclusive brand items are third party offerings sold exclusively through Amazon. Some of Amazon's store brands require an Amazon Prime membership to purchase.\n\nSection::::Pinzon.\n", "BULLET::::- Sahmyook Foods – South Korean food company producing a large range of soy milks and vegetarian products, which is owned by the Seventh-day Adventist Church.\n\nBULLET::::- Sanitarium Health and Wellbeing Company – Trading name of two sister food companies (Australian Health and Nutrition Association Ltd and New Zealand Health Association Ltd). wholly owned by the Seventh-day Adventist Church.\n\nBULLET::::- Somenoya – manufacturer of tofu and eco-friendly soy-based foods located in Chuo Ward, Tokyo.\n\nBULLET::::- Sweet Earth Foods – manufacturer of vegan, ready-made meals based in Moss Landing, California. Acquired by Nestlé in 2017.\n", "In January 2018, Sobeys announced an agreement with Ocado to open an e-commerce grocery fulfilment centre in Toronto during late 2020. In contrast, Sobeys-owned Thrifty Foods and IGA use their stores as fulfilment centres for online orders.\n", "Section::::Evolution.:GoPago technology acquisition.\n\nAmazon in 2013 acquired GoPago’s technology (mPayment) and hired their engineering and product teams. Amazon was interested in the mobile payment business. GoPago’s app allows shoppers to order and pay for goods and services before they arrive at a business.\n\nSection::::Security.\n", "In March 2017, Amazon announced AmazonFresh Pickup, a drive-in-type grocery store for Amazon Prime subscribers, launching in beta on March 29. It's a delivery service that lets users shop online, reserve times to pick up the groceries and have them loaded into their cars at the store.\n\nIn the United Kingdom, Amazon signed a deal with British SuperMarket chain Morrisons to provide supplies for Pantry and Fresh.\n\nIn Germany the product range is 85000 products. The Rewe grocery delivery accounts to 9000 products.\n\nIn July 2017, it was reported that Amazon Fresh was selling meal kits.\n", "In November 2018 Giant-Carlisle announced that it would acquire 5 Shop 'n Save supermarkets from SuperValu, Inc. and operate them under its Martin's Food Markets banner.\n\nSection::::Martin's.\n\nMartin's Food Markets is a chain of supermarkets operating in Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia and western Pennsylvania. Like Giant stores, they are operated by Giant-Carlisle and are owned by Ahold Delhaize. The stores are generally identical to Giant-Carlisle stores.\n", "BULLET::::- Cambridge Food (operates in South Africa)\n\nBULLET::::- Shield (operates in South Africa, Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, and Swaziland)\n\nSection::::Walmart acquisition.\n", "H-E-B acquired Favor Delivery as a wholly owned subsidiary in February 2018. The details of the merger were not disclosed.\n\nIn the light of increased self-checkout usage via kiosk or smartphone app in 2019, H-E-B is gradually shifting towards creating more self-checkout smartphone apps and lanes than cashier lanes. The company has been investing millions of dollars, in replacing many cashier stations with self-checkout kiosks or apps by 2023. As many other supermarkets (such as Walmart, Target, etc) are also shifting towards more self-checkout lane and app usage, and displacing cashiers in the near future.\n\nSection::::Operations.\n", "In addition to delivery, grocery pickup is also available in some markets.\n\nSection::::Groceries.:India.\n\nAmazon launched its 2-hour grocery delivery service, Amazon Now, in India in February, 2016 in Bangalore. The service spread to Delhi, Mumbai, and Hyderabad the same year. Available only as an app on Android and iOS devices, the service was re-branded as Prime Now in May, 2018. Apart from tying up with local hypermarkets and supermarkets like Big Bazaar and More, Amazon has also set up its own fulfillment centers in these cities to meet consumer demand.\n\nSection::::Amazon Flex.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-15273	If fever is a natural reaction of our bodies to kill an intruder virus, isn't it bad if we take some pills to lower the temperature?	A rise from normal body temperature (37.0 celcius) to high fever (38.5 celcius) isn’t enough to kill most viruses. As a non-living shell of proteins they are extremely resistant to heat. Most viral heat treatments require temperature exceeding 50 celcius. H5N1 (bird flu) requires 70 celcius to inactivate. Bacteria are more sensitive to temperature changes, but again a 1.5 degree difference will only affect heat-sensitive bacteria. Bacteria like E.Coli grow just fine at 39 degrees celcius. How fever works: your body has white blood cells called macrophages. These cells release a compound called Interleukin-1 (IL-1). The purpose of IL-1 is to widen your blood vessels and recruit more white blood cells to fight off the infection. It just so happens than IL-1 binds to the hypothalamus region of the brain and signal it to raise body temperature. So fever is more of a side-effect of the immune response, rather than a primary goal.	[ "Treatment to reduce fever is generally not required. Treatment of associated pain and inflammation, however, may be useful and help a person rest. Medications such as ibuprofen or paracetamol (acetaminophen) may help with this as well as lower temperature. Measures such as putting a cool damp cloth on the forehead and having a slightly warm bath are not useful and may simply make a person more uncomfortable. Children younger than three months require medical attention, as might people with serious medical problems such as a compromised immune system or people with other symptoms. Hyperthermia does require treatment.\n", "There is some debate over the appropriate use of such medications, as fever is part of the body's immune response to infection. A study published by the Royal Society claims fever suppression causes at least 1% or more influenza cases of death in the United States, which results in at least 700 extra deaths per year.\n\nSection::::Non-pharmacological treatment.\n", "Fever during treatment can be due to a number of causes. It can occur as a natural effect of tuberculosis (in which case it should resolve within three weeks of starting treatment). Fever can be a result of drug resistance (but in that case the organism must be resistant to two or more of the drugs). Fever may be due to a superadded infection or additional diagnosis (patients with TB are not exempt from getting influenza and other illnesses during the course of treatment). In a few patients, the fever is due to drug allergy. The clinician must also consider the possibility that the diagnosis of TB is wrong. If the patient has been on treatment for more than two weeks and if the fever had initially settled and then come back, it is reasonable to stop all TB medication for 72 hours. If the fever persists despite stopping all TB medication, then the fever is not due to the drugs. If the fever disappears off treatment, then the drugs need to be tested individually to determine the cause. The same scheme as is used for test dosing for drug-induced hepatitis (described below) may be used. The drug most frequently implicated as causing a drug fever is RMP: details are given in the entry on rifampicin.\n", "If fever-reducing drugs lower the body temperature, even if the temperature does not return entirely to normal, then hyperthermia is excluded.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "Bathing or sponging with lukewarm or cool water can effectively reduce body temperature in those with heat illness, but not usually in those with fever. The use of alcohol baths is not an appropriate cooling method, because there have been reported adverse events associated with systemic absorption of alcohol.\n\nSection::::Medications.\n\nMany medications have antipyretic effects and thus are useful for fever but not in treating illness, including:\n\nBULLET::::- NSAIDs such as ibuprofen, naproxen, ketoprofen, and nimesulide\n\nBULLET::::- Aspirin, and related salicylates such as choline salicylate, magnesium salicylate, and sodium salicylate\n\nBULLET::::- Paracetamol (USAN and JAN: acetaminophen)\n", "Despite all this, diagnosis may only be suggested by the therapy chosen. When a patient recovers after discontinuing medication it likely was drug fever, when antibiotics or antimycotics work it probably was infection. Empirical therapeutic trials should be used in those patients in which other techniques have failed.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Definition.\n\nIn 1961 Petersdorf and Beeson suggested the following criteria:\n\nBULLET::::- Fever higher than 38.3 °C (101 °F) on several occasions\n\nBULLET::::- Persisting without diagnosis for at least 3 weeks\n\nBULLET::::- At least 1 week's investigation in hospital\n\nA new definition which includes the outpatient setting (which reflects current medical practice) is broader, stipulating:\n", "Some limited evidence supports sponging or bathing feverish children with tepid water. The use of a fan or air conditioning may somewhat reduce the temperature and increase comfort. If the temperature reaches the extremely high level of hyperpyrexia, aggressive cooling is required (generally produced mechanically via conduction by applying numerous ice packs across most of the body or direct submersion in ice water). In general, people are advised to keep adequately hydrated. Whether increased fluid intake improves symptoms or shortens respiratory illnesses such as the common cold is not known.\n\nSection::::Management.:Medications.\n", "To counter this, Francesco Torti, who first systematically studied the effect of cinchona in the treatment of malaria, wrote a book which he titled \"Therapeutice Specialis ad Febres Periodicas Perniciosas\".\n\nSection::::Tree of fevers.\n", "BULLET::::- Aged individuals—the burden of tolerating infection will exist for a short time which reduces the actuarial future benefits of clearing an infection compared to the costs of its removal. This change favors reduced or no deployment of fever.\n\nBULLET::::- When internal resources are limited (such as in winter), and the ability to afford high expenditure on increased metabolism is reduced. This increases the risks of activating fever relative to its potential benefit, and animals are less likely to use fever to fight infections.\n\nBULLET::::- Late Pregnancy\n\nSection::::Antioxidants.\n", "BULLET::::- Enhanced leukocyte phagocytosis\n\nBULLET::::- Endotoxin effects decreased\n\nBULLET::::- Increased proliferation of T cells\n\nSection::::Management.\n\nFever should not necessarily be treated. Most people recover without specific medical attention. Although it is unpleasant, fever rarely rises to a dangerous level even if untreated. Damage to the brain generally does not occur until temperatures reach 42 °C (107.6 °F), and it is rare for an untreated fever to exceed 40.6 °C (105 °F). Treating fever in people with sepsis does not affect outcomes.\n\nSection::::Management.:Conservative measures.\n", "The primary treatment strategy is to eliminate or discontinue the offensive agent. Supportive therapy, such as ice packs, may be provided to get the body temperature within physiologic range. In severe cases, when the fever is high enough (generally at or above ~104° F or 40° C), aggressive cooling such as an ice bath and pharmacologic therapy such as benzodiazepines may be deemed appropriate.\n", "There are arguments for and against the usefulness of fever, and the issue is controversial. There are studies using warm-blooded vertebrates with some suggesting that they recover more rapidly from infections or critical illness due to fever. Studies suggest reduced mortality in bacterial infections when fever was present.\n\nIn theory, fever can aid in host defense. There are certainly some important immunological reactions that are sped up by temperature, and some pathogens with strict temperature preferences could be hindered.\n\nResearch has demonstrated that fever assists the healing process in several important ways:\n\nBULLET::::- Increased mobility of leukocytes\n", "A wide range for normal temperatures has been found. Central temperatures, such as rectal temperatures, are more accurate than peripheral temperatures.\n\nFever is generally agreed to be present if the elevated temperature is caused by a raised set point and:\n\nBULLET::::- Temperature in the anus (rectum/rectal) is at or over\n\nBULLET::::- Temperature in the mouth (oral) is at or over\n\nBULLET::::- Temperature under the arm (axillary) or in the ear (tympanic) is at or over\n", "Normal body temperatures vary depending on many factors, including age, sex, time of day, ambient temperature, activity level, and more. A raised temperature is not always a fever. For example, the temperature of a healthy person rises when he or she exercises, but this is not considered a fever, as the set point is normal. On the other hand, a \"normal\" temperature may be a fever, if it is unusually high for that person. For example, medically frail elderly people have a decreased ability to generate body heat, so a \"normal\" temperature of may represent a clinically significant fever.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Types.\n", "Limited supplies and resources may prevent a health facility from using all the standard precautions all the time. However, health facilities should establish and maintain a basic, practical level of standard precautions that can be used routinely with patients in their health facility. This requires a source of clean water, routine handwashing before and after any contact with a person who has fever, and safe handling and disposal of sharp instruments and equipment.\n", "Infections are the most common cause of fevers, but as the temperature rises other causes become more common. Infections commonly associated with hyperpyrexia include roseola, measles and enteroviral infections. Immediate aggressive cooling to less than has been found to improve survival. Hyperpyrexia differs from hyperthermia in that in hyperpyrexia the body's temperature regulation mechanism sets the body temperature above the normal temperature, then generates heat to achieve this temperature, while in hyperthermia the body temperature rises above its set point due to an outside source.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Hyperthermia.\n", "Fever can also be behaviorally induced by invertebrates that do not have immune-system based fever. For instance, some species of grasshopper will thermoregulate to achieve body temperatures that are 2–5 °C higher than normal in order to inhibit the growth of fungal pathogens such as \"Beauveria bassiana\" and \"Metarhizium acridum\". Honeybee colonies are also able to induce a fever in response to a fungal parasite \"Ascosphaera apis\".\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Rhoades, R. and Pflanzer, R. Human physiology, third edition, chapter 27 \"Regulation of body temperature\", p. 820 \"Clinical focus: pathogenesis of fever\".\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Fever and Taking Your Child's Temperature\n", "This contrasts with hyperthermia, in which the normal setting remains, and the body overheats through undesirable retention of excess heat or over-production of heat. Hyperthermia is usually the result of an excessively hot environment (heat stroke) or an adverse reaction to drugs. Fever can be differentiated from hyperthermia by the circumstances surrounding it and its response to anti-pyretic medications.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.:Pyrogens.\n", "As a result of these misconceptions parents are anxious, give the child fever-reducing medicine when the temperature is technically normal or only slightly elevated, and interfere with the child's sleep to give the child more medicine.\n\nSection::::Other animals.\n", "Treating fever in sepsis, including people in septic shock, has not been associated with any improvement in mortality over a period of 28 days. Treatment of fever still occurs for other reasons.\n\nA 2012 Cochrane review concluded that N-acetylcysteine does not reduce mortality in those with SIRS or sepsis and may even be harmful.\n", "Unless the patient is acutely ill, no therapy should be started before the cause has been found. This is because non-specific therapy is rarely effective and mostly delays diagnosis. An exception is made for neutropenic patients in which delay could lead to serious complications. After blood cultures are taken this condition is aggressively treated with broad-spectrum antibiotics. Antibiotics are adjusted according to the results of the cultures taken.\n\nHIV-infected persons with pyrexia and hypoxia will be started on medication for possible \"Pneumocystis jirovecii\" infection. Therapy is adjusted after a diagnosis is made.\n\nSection::::Prognosis.\n", "Fever is one of the most common medical signs. It is part of about 30% of healthcare visits by children and occurs in up to 75% of adults who are seriously sick. While fever is a useful defense mechanism, treating fever does not appear to worsen outcomes. Fever is viewed with greater concern by parents and healthcare professionals than it usually deserves, a phenomenon known as fever phobia.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nA fever is usually accompanied by sickness behavior, which consists of lethargy, depression, anorexia, sleepiness, hyperalgesia, and the inability to concentrate.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "In areas where TB is highly endemic, it is not unusual to encounter patient with a fever, but in whom no source of infection is found. The physician may then, after extensive investigation has excluded all other diseases, resort to a trial of TB treatment. The regimen used is HEZ for a minimum of three weeks; RMP and STM are omitted from the regimen because they are broad spectrum antibiotics, whereas the other three first-line drugs treat only mycobacterial infection. Resolution of the fever after three weeks of treatment is good evidence for occult TB and the patient should then be changed to conventional TB treatment (2HREZ/4HR). If the fever does not resolve after three weeks of treatment then it is reasonable to conclude that the patient has another cause for his fever.\n", "Continuous fever\n\nContinuous fever is a type or pattern of fever in which temperature does not touch the baseline and remains above normal throughout the day. The variation between maximum and minimum temperature in 24 hours is less than 1°C (1.5°F). It usually occurs due to some infectious disease. Diagnosis of continuous fever is usually based on the clinical signs and symptoms but some biological tests, chest X-ray and CT scan are also used. Typhoid fever is an example of continuous fever and it shows a characteristic step-ladder pattern, a step-wise increase in temperature with a high plateau.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n", "A temperature \"setpoint\" is the level at which the body attempts to maintain its temperature. When the setpoint is raised, the result is a fever. Most fevers are caused by infectious disease and can be lowered, if desired, with antipyretic medications.\n\nAn early morning temperature higher than or a late afternoon temperature higher than is normally considered a fever, assuming that the temperature is elevated due to a change in the hypothalamus's setpoint. Lower thresholds are sometimes appropriate for elderly people. The normal daily temperature variation is typically , but can be greater among people recovering from a fever.\n" ]	[ "It may be bad to take medication to reduce a fever since the fever is attempting to kill viruses.", "It is a bad idea to take pills to reduce fever or cool a person down because a fever or warming of the body is done to remove the virus or bacteria causing the illness and fever to begin with." ]	[ "Fever is a side-effect of the immune response rather than a direct killer of viruses so taking medication if needed is not bad.", "A fever does not warm a body up enough to rid the body of the bacteria and/or virus in the first place, therefore cooling a fever would not cause someone to lose the ability to rid themselves of the current illness. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "It may be bad to take medication to reduce a fever since the fever is attempting to kill viruses.", "It is a bad idea to take pills to reduce fever or cool a person down because a fever or warming of the body is done to remove the virus or bacteria causing the illness and fever to begin with." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Fever is a side-effect of the immune response rather than a direct killer of viruses so taking medication if needed is not bad.", "A fever does not warm a body up enough to rid the body of the bacteria and/or virus in the first place, therefore cooling a fever would not cause someone to lose the ability to rid themselves of the current illness. " ]
2018-04328	How do the same set of speakers produce the different kinda of sound waves?	Speakers cannot generate square waves at all, they can't do anything that requires holding pressure at some raised/lowered level They cannot generate ideal saw waves with vertical edges but they can come close, particularly lighter speakers which can move faster. Nothing can have an infinitely sharp edge so there is always some rise or fall time that rounds the wave off a bit even when making electrical signals, but we can usually make a close enough approximation to count.	[ "The moving system of the loudspeaker (including the cone, cone suspension, spider and the voice coil) has a certain mass and compliance. This is most commonly likened to a simple mass suspended by a spring that has a certain resonant frequency at which the system will vibrate most freely.\n", "Section::::Design and application.\n\nAcoustic enhancement systems use microphones, amplifiers, and loudspeakers interconnected with some form of processing. The number, type, and placement of microphones and loudspeakers varies according to both the application, as well as the physics limitations that are imposed by the inherent operating principles associated with each manufacturer's equipment. In most instances, however, these systems employ at least one array of loudspeakers that are distributed throughout the venue.\n", "The analysis of raw fundamental frequency curves for the study of intonation needs to take into account the fact that speakers are simultaneously producing an intonation pattern and a sequence of syllables made up of segmental phones. The actual raw fundamental frequency curves which can be analysed acoustically are the result of an interaction between these two components and this makes it difficult to compare intonation patterns when they are produced with different segmental material. Compare for example the intonation patterns on the utterances \"It's for papa\" and \"It's for mama\".\n\nSection::::Algorithm.\n", "Section::::Listening environment.:Placement.\n", "Section::::Terminology.\n\nThe term \"loudspeaker\" may refer to individual transducers (also known as \"drivers\") or to complete speaker systems consisting of an enclosure including one or more drivers.\n", "Section::::Driver design: dynamic loudspeakers.:Driver types.:Coaxial drivers.\n\nA coaxial driver is a loudspeaker driver with two or several combined concentric drivers. Coaxial drivers have been produced by many companies, such as Altec, Tannoy, Pioneer, KEF, SEAS, B&C Speakers, BMS, Cabasse and Genelec.\n\nSection::::System design.\n\nSection::::System design.:Crossover.\n", "To make sound, a loudspeaker is driven by modulated electric current (produced by an amplifier) that passes through a \"speaker coil\" which then (through inductance) creates a magnetic field around the coil, creating a magnetic field. The electric current variations that pass through the speaker are thus converted to a varying magnetic field, whose interaction with the driver's magnetic field moves the speaker diaphragm, which thus forces the driver to produce air motion that is similar to the original signal from the amplifier.\n\nSection::::Specifications.:Electromechanical measurements.\n", "The voice coil in moving coil drivers is suspended in a magnetic field provided by the loudspeaker magnet structure. As electric current flows through the voice coil (from an electronic amplifier), the magnetic field created by the coil reacts against the magnet's fixed field and moves the voice coil (and so the cone). Alternating current will move the cone back and forth.\n\nSection::::Explanation.:Resonance.\n", "Section::::Typology.:Semi-speakers.\n", "Modern line arrays use separate drivers for high-, mid- and low-frequency passbands. For the line source to work, the drivers in each passband need to be in a line. Therefore, each enclosure must be designed to rig together closely to form columns composed of high-, mid- and low-frequency speaker drivers. Increasing the number of drivers in each enclosure increases the frequency range and maximum sound pressure level, while adding additional boxes to the array will also lower the frequency in which the array achieves a directional dispersion pattern.\n", "Section::::Driver design: dynamic loudspeakers.:Driver types.:Tweeter.\n", "Section::::Colouration analysis.\n", "Section::::Typology.:Terminal speakers.\n", "Section::::Driver design: dynamic loudspeakers.\n", "Section::::Driver design: dynamic loudspeakers.:Basket.\n", "Electrical characteristics of dynamic loudspeakers\n\nThe chief electrical characteristic of a dynamic loudspeaker's driver is its electrical impedance as a function of frequency. It can be visualized by plotting it as a graph, called the impedance curve.\n\nSection::::Explanation.\n\nThe most common driver type is an electro-mechanical transducer using a voice coil rigidly connected to a diaphragm (generally a cone). Other types have similar connections, though differing in detail, between their acoustical environment and their electrical properties.\n", "The mixer produces the audio-range difference between the frequencies of the two oscillators at each moment, which is the tone that is then wave shaped and amplified and sent to a loudspeaker.\n", "Section::::Driver design: dynamic loudspeakers.:Diaphragm.\n", "Any object radiating sound, including a loudspeaker system, can be thought of as being composed of combinations of such simple point sources. The radiation pattern of a combination of point sources is not the same as for a single source, but depends on the distance and orientation between the sources, the position relative to them from which the listener hears the combination, and the frequency of the sound involved. Using geometry and calculus, some simple combinations of sources are easily solved; others are not.\n", "Section::::Other speaker designs.:With a diaphragm.:Bending wave loudspeakers.\n", "Section::::Models.:The OTTO Series.\n\nThe Series “OTTO” amplifiers have an integrated X.O.T electronic crossover system allowing the realization of High-end multi-amplification systems, with no need of additional external electronic crossovers. As a matter of fact, under the X.O.T. concept, the finals are serially combined and the setting of the frequency cut is effected for every single section, directly on the related amplifiers. Every OTTO amplifier comes with two terminals protecting the connections and links.\n", "Most speakers command a range of registers, which they use in different situations. The choice of register is affected by the setting and topic of speech, as well as the relationship that exists between the speakers.\n\nThe appropriate form of language may also change during the course of a communicative event as the relationship between speakers changes, or different social facts become relevant. Speakers may shift styles, as their perception of an event in progress changes. Consider the following telephone call to the Embassy of Cuba in Washington, DC.\n\nCaller: ¿Es la embajada de Cuba? (\"Is this the Cuban embassy?\")br\n", "The most common type of driver, commonly called a dynamic loudspeaker, uses a lightweight diaphragm, or \"cone\", connected to a rigid \"basket\", or \"frame\", via a flexible suspension, commonly called a \"spider\", that constrains a voice coil to move axially through a cylindrical magnetic gap. A protective cap glued in the cone's center prevents dust, especially iron filings, from entering the gap. When an electrical signal is applied to the voice coil, a magnetic field is created by the electric current in the voice coil, making it a variable electromagnet. The coil and the driver's magnetic system interact, generating a mechanical force that causes the coil (and thus, the attached cone) to move back and forth, accelerating and reproducing sound under the control of the applied electrical signal coming from the amplifier. The following is a description of the individual components of this type of loudspeaker.\n", "Various manufacturers use different driver mounting arrangements to create a specific type of sound field in the space for which they are designed. The resulting radiation patterns may be intended to more closely simulate the way sound is produced by real instruments, or simply create a controlled energy distribution from the input signal (some using this approach are called monitors, as they are useful in checking the signal just recorded in a studio). An example of the first is a room corner system with many small drivers on the surface of a 1/8 sphere. A system design of this type was patented and produced commercially by Professor Amar Bose—the 2201. Later Bose models have deliberately emphasized production of both direct and reflected sound by the loudspeaker itself, regardless of its environment. The designs are controversial in high fidelity circles, but have proven commercially successful. Several other manufacturers' designs follow similar principles.\n", "Since some instruments are meant to be amplified, up to five loudspeakers are needed, with at least 100 watts each, placed behind the orchestra in a rainbow shape. Four of them are situated from left to right at an equal distance, except for speakers two and three. The piano loudspeaker is placed in the center.\n" ]	[ "Speakers produce different kinds of sound waves. " ]	[ "Speakers actually don't generate waves at all. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Speakers produce different kinds of sound waves. ", "Speakers produce different kinds of sound waves. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Speakers actually don't generate waves at all. ", "Speakers actually don't generate waves at all. " ]
2018-03638	why is muscle sometimes referred to as "lean"? Can muscle be "fatty"?	Humans do not have fat intermixed with muscle the way we've engineered some domesticated species to. Our fat is almost entirely stored subcutaneously, or viscerally. Subcutaneous means it's below the skin (and above the muscle in this case), viscerally means it's around our organs. In our abdomen we have a structure called the omentum which is like sheets of connective tissue and fat storage that extends between our loops of bowel and other abdominal organs. We have a greater and lesser omentum. When you get obese, you not only have fat stored under the skin, but giving you the belly is this expanded layer of visceral fat in the omentum that pushes your abdomen out. "Lean muscle", as I understand it, is referring to eating enough calories that you build muscle but you don't develop a lot of extra fat. Diet is an important part of muscle gain, but it can also lead to weight gain if done to excess. Often bodybuilders use "bulking" and "cutting" periods where they simply eat a very large amount of calories to ensure they are building as much muscle as possible, and then they will eat at a caloric deficit to lose fat without also losing muscle. So it's not really the muscle itself that is lean or fatty, but rather whether you're gaining fat with muscle, or simply eating enough to gain muscle but remain at a consistent level of fat (aka. "lean muscle").	[ "BULLET::::- macro-: \"Pronunciation\": /mækroʊ/. \"Origin\": Ancient Greek μακρός (\"makrós\"). \"Meaning\": (correctly) long; (usually) large.\n", "The English form \"\", attested from 1939, is a back formation derived from interpreting the \"s\" of \"biceps\" as the English plural marker \"-s\". While common even in professional contexts, it is often considered incorrect.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The word tone derives from the Latin \"tonus\" (meaning \"tension\"). In anatomy and physiology, as well as medicine, the term \"muscle tone\" refers to the continuous and passive partial contraction of the muscles, or the muscles' resistance to passive stretching during resting state as determined by a deep tendon reflex. Muscle tonus is dependent on neurological input into the muscle. In medicine, observations of changes in muscle tonus can be used to determine normal or abnormal states which can be indicative of pathology. The common strength training term \"tone\" is derived from this use.\n", "Anatomical terms of muscle\n\nMuscles are described using unique anatomical terminology according to their actions and structure.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nThere are three types of muscle tissue in the human body: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac.\n\nSection::::Types.:Skeletal muscle.\n\nSkeletal striated muscle, or \"voluntary muscle\", primarily joins to bone with tendons. Skeletal muscle enables movement of the bones of the human skeleton and maintains posture.\n\nSection::::Types.:Smooth muscle.\n", "Section::::Skeletal muscles.:Arrangement of muscle fibers.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Muscles\" (album) (2007), by hip-hop musician Mele Mel\n\nBULLET::::- \"Muscles\" (song), by Diana Ross\n\nBULLET::::- M.U.S.C.L.E., small pink action figures produced in the United States in the 1980s\n\nBULLET::::- \"M.U.S.C.L.E.\" (video game), NES wrestling game based on the manga and anime \"Kinnikuman\"\n\nBULLET::::- Mr. Muscles, a superhero in two 1956 comic book issues\n\nBULLET::::- Mister Muscle, a member of the DC Comics Hero Hotline team\n\nBULLET::::- Masked Muscle, an opponent in the Super NES video game \"Super Punch-Out!!\"\n\nSection::::People.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Muscles\", nickname of Venkatapathy Raju (born 1969), Indian former cricketer\n", "Muscle tissue is a soft tissue, and is one of the four fundamental types of tissue present in animals. There are three types of muscle tissue recognized in vertebrates:\n", "The muscles of the human body can be categorized into a number of groups which include muscles relating to the head and neck, muscles of the torso or trunk, muscles of the upper limbs, and muscles of the lower limbs.\n\nThe action refers to the action of each muscle from the standard anatomical position. In other positions, other actions may be performed.\n\nThese muscles are described using anatomical terminology.\n\nSection::::Lower limb.\n\nSection::::Lower limb.:Leg.\n\nSection::::Lower limb.:Leg.:Lateral compartment.\n\nfibularis muscles:\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Accessory muscle\n\nBULLET::::- List of bones of the human skeleton\n\nBULLET::::- List of nerves of the human body\n", "Muscles are predominantly powered by the oxidation of fats and carbohydrates, but anaerobic chemical reactions are also used, particularly by fast twitch fibers. These chemical reactions produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules that are used to power the movement of the myosin heads.\n\nThe term muscle is derived from the Latin \"musculus\" meaning \"little mouse\" perhaps because of the shape of certain muscles or because contracting muscles look like mice moving under the skin.\n\nSection::::Structure.\n\nThe anatomy of muscles includes gross anatomy, which comprises all the muscles of an organism, and microanatomy, which comprises the structures of a single muscle.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Types.\n", "At rest, skeletal muscle consumes 54.4 kJ/kg (13.0 kcal/kg) per day. This is larger than adipose tissue (fat) at 18.8 kJ/kg (4.5 kcal/kg), and bone at 9.6 kJ/kg (2.3 kcal/kg).\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Energy consumption.:Efficiency.\n", "Smooth muscle tissue is found in parts of the body where it conveys action without conscious intent. The majority of this type of muscle tissue is found in the digestive and urinary systems where it acts by propelling forward food, chyme, and feces in the former and urine in the latter. Other places smooth muscle can be found are within the uterus, where it helps facilitate birth, and the eye, where the pupillary sphincter controls pupil size.\n\nSection::::Types.:Cardiac muscle.\n", "Section::::Pathological tonus.:Cramps.\n", "Toning exercises\n\nToning exercises are physical exercises that are used with the aim of developing a physique with a large emphasis on musculature. In this context, the term toned implies leanness in the body (low levels of body fat), noticeable muscle definition and shape, but not significant muscle size (\"bulk\")... \n", "Another example is the dumbbell curl at the elbow. The \"elbow flexor\" group is the agonist, shortening during the lifting phase (elbow flexion). During the lowering phase the \"elbow flexor\" muscles lengthen, remaining the agonists because they are controlling the load and the movement (elbow extension). For both the lifting and lowering phase, the \"elbow extensor\" muscles are the antagonists (see below). They lengthen during the dumbbell lifting phase and shorten during the dumbbell lowering phase. Here it is important to understand that it is common practice to give a name to a muscle group (e.g. elbow flexors) based on the joint action they produce during a shortening (concentric) contraction. However, this naming convention does not mean they are only agonists during shortening. This term typically describes the function of skeletal muscles.\n", "Muscle (disambiguation)\n\nA muscle is a contractile tissue in an animal's body used especially for movement. \n\nThe word can also be applied to a body of guards or thugs who use violence in order to support certain organizations or individuals.\n\nMuscle or Muscles may also refer to:\n\nSection::::Arts and entertainment.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Muscle\" (TV series), comedy set inside a fictional gym in New York City\n\nBULLET::::- \"Muscles\", an episode of the animated TV series \"Aqua TV Show Show\"\n\nBULLET::::- Muscles (musician), Australian electronica musician Chris Copulos\n\nBULLET::::- Les Musclés, a 1990s French band\n", "BULLET::::- Type IIb, which is anaerobic, glycolytic, \"white\" muscle that is even less dense in mitochondria and myoglobin. In small animals like rodents this is the major fast muscle type, explaining the pale color of their flesh.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Smooth muscle.\n", "Section::::Structure.:Cardiac muscle.\n", "Cardiac muscle is specific to the heart. It is also involuntary in its movement, and is additionally self-excitatory, contracting without outside stimuli.\n\nSection::::Actions of skeletal muscle.\n\nAs well as anatomical terms of motion, which describe the motion made by a muscle, unique terminology is used to describe the action of a set of muscles.\n\nSection::::Actions of skeletal muscle.:Agonists and antagonists.\n\nAgonist muscles and antagonist muscles refer to muscles that cause or inhibit a movement.\n", "The Agri-Food and Veterinary Authority of Singapore labels artificially marbled beef as \"beef tallow-injected further processed beef\". Hokubee Australia markets its fat-injected beef product under the brand name Meltique, though its halal products use canola oil instead of fat, due to concerns about cross-contamination with pork tallow.\n", "The muscular system is one component of the musculoskeletal system, which includes not only the muscles but also the bones, joints, tendons, and other structures that permit movement.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Development.\n", "Section::::Form.:Insertion and origin.:Insertion.\n\nThe \"insertion\" of a muscle is the structure that it attaches to and tends to be moved by the contraction of the muscle. This may be a bone, a tendon or the subcutaneous dermal connective tissue. Insertions are usually connections of muscle via tendon to bone. The insertion is a bone that tends to be distal, have less mass, and greater motion than the origin during a contraction.\n\nSection::::Form.:Muscle fibres.\n\nMuscles may also be described by the direction that the muscle fibres run in.\n", "The 1960 campaign for the Democratic nomination to the presidency was marked by competition between fellow Senators Hubert Humphrey and John F. Kennedy. Their first meeting was in the Wisconsin primary, where Kennedy's well-organized and well-funded campaign defeated Humphrey's energetic but poorly funded effort. Humphrey objected to the media, \"The Kennedy forces are waging a psychological blitz that I cannot match. I'm not the candidate of the fat cats...\".\n", "The biceps brachii muscle is the one that gave all muscles their name: it comes from the Latin \"musculus\", \"little mouse\", because the appearance of the flexed biceps resembles the back of a mouse. The same phenomenon occurred in Greek, in which μῦς, \"mȳs\", means both \"mouse\" and \"muscle\".\n", "BULLET::::- Hams, like buttocks generally as a plural, after the meat cut from the analogous part of a hog ; \"pressed ham\" refers to mooning against a window; brawn, a singular derived from the Frankish for ham or roast, is also used for both a muscular body part (but either on arms or legs) or boar meat, especially roast\n\nBULLET::::- Hurdies: Scots, origin unknown, also applied to the whole rump\n\nBULLET::::- Haunches\n", "Section::::Function.:Signal transduction pathways.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Muscle does not contain fat" ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Muscle can have fat intermixed." ]
2018-05277	Why do Korean restaurants serve dishes in metal bowls?	Bibimbap is traditionally served in a hot cast iron bowl so that the rice on the bottom gets fried and crispy. The crispy rice is essential to bibimbap!	[ "In the end of modern age, most of brassware in all households got ravished by Japan. With the liberation in 1945, brassware became widely used again, but soon after Korean War, when briquettes took place, people preferred stainless bowls to brassware because brassware gets easily discolored by briquettes gas.\n", "Japanese ceramic tableware is an industry that is many centuries old. Unlike in Western cultures, where tableware is often produced and bought in matching sets, Japanese tableware is set on the table so that each dish complements the type of food served in it. Since Japanese meals normally include several small amounts of each food per person, this means that each person has a place setting with several different small dishes and bowls for holding individual food and condiments. The emphasis in a Japanese table setting is on enhancing the appearance of the food, which is partially achieved by showing contrasts between the items. Each bowl and dish may have a different shape, colour or pattern.\n", "Silver plating had practically disappeared from Cambodia for a few centuries. Artisans Angkor decided in the mid-2000s to extend its skills to this handicraft. To make a silver-plated box, artisans shape upper and lower parts from pieces of thick copper. The upper part is cut following a matrix and is then pounded until it gets the required design. Same process applies for the lower part and the two pieces must fit perfectly together to create a box, which is then carved and decorated. Finally, the item is dipped into a silver bath which gives its shininess and silver aspect.\n", "Some writers have suggested that the modern singing bowl developed from bowls originally used for food; but others consider that to be unlikely, pointing out that there would be no reason for food bowls to be manufactured with thick rims and with great attention paid to their acoustic properties.\n", "A stone-finished bowl was a popular utensil used in the olden days in Thailand, some houses used it for containing water, as the water would become cool and refreshing. The other using to put rice that would be given as alms to the monks, but presently since the process of making this utensil is very labour intensive and complicated, a stone-finished bowl has become a high price item and is actually now used as a decorative item for some houses. \n\nSection::::See more.\n\nBULLET::::- Ban Bat–the community of craftspeople in the Phra Nakhon side with a similar history.\n", "Over time, Iittala has expanded from glass to other materials, such as ceramics and metal while keeping with their key philosophy of progressive elegant and timeless design, such as Kaj Franck’s \"Teema\" ceramic tableware from 1952 and Timo Sarpaneva's cast iron pot \"Sarpaneva\" from 1960.\n", "In Korea, unlike in China, Japan and Vietnam, the rice or soup bowl is not lifted from the table when eating from it. This is due to the fact that each diner is given a metal spoon along with the chopsticks known collectively as sujeo. The use of the spoon for eating rice and soups is expected. There are rules which reflect the decorum of sharing communal side dishes; rules include not picking through the dishes for certain items while leaving others, and the spoon used should be clean, because usually diners put their spoons in the same serving bowl on the table. Diners should also cover their mouths when using a toothpick after the meal.\n", "Many sophisticated and elaborate handicrafts have been excavated, including gilt crowns, patterned pottery, pots or ornaments. During the Goryeo period the use of bronze was advanced. Brass, that is copper with one third zinc, has been a particularly popular material. The dynasty, however, is most prominently renowned for its use of celadon ware.\n", "Singing bowls are also sometimes said to incorporate meteoritic iron. Some modern 'crystal' bowls are made of re-formed crushed synthetic crystal.\n\nThe usual manufacturing technique for standing bells was to cast the molten metal followed by hand-hammering into the required shape. Modern bells/bowls may be made in that way, but may also be shaped by machine-lathing.\n\nThe finished article is often decorated with an inscription such as a message of goodwill, or with decorative motifs such as rings, stars, dots or leaves. Bowls from Nepal sometimes include an inscription in the Devanagari script.\n", "Section::::Kalai - The art of coating vessels with tin in India..:Present Scenario.\n\nKalai was earlier done with silver instead of tin but now it would be expensive for the Kalaigars to use silver. As the stainless steel and aluminum ware came into being, the usage of copper and brass utensils reduced which led the Kalaigars to suffer losses. Now-a-days only some hotels and a very few people use vessels with Kalai done on it. As a result, there are a very few Kalaigars left. The art of Kalai is vanishing.\n\nSection::::References.\n\nSection::::References.:Bibliography.\n\nBULLET::::- .\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "Modern bowls can be made of ceramic, metal, wood, plastic, and other materials. Bowls have been made for thousands of years. Very early bowls have been found in China, Ancient Greece, Crete and in certain Native American cultures.\n", "Ancient elites in most cultures preferred flatware in precious metals (\"plate\") at the table; China and Japan were two major exceptions, using lacquerware and later fine pottery, especially porcelain. In China bowls have always been preferred to plates. In Europe pewter was often used by the less well off, and eventually the poor, and silver or gold by the rich. Religious considerations influenced the choice of materials. Muhammad spoke against using gold at table, as the contemporary elites of Persia and the Byzantine Empire did, and this greatly encouraged the growth of Islamic pottery. On the other hand, Hindus avoided eating off pottery. \n", "Thai northern people still preserve their traditional culture by using small food bowls and putting them on a “Kan tok” (Thai northern small table). They are decorated with wood, pearl or yellowish gold. Sticky rice, glutinous rice is the main food eaten with shared dishes. It is contained in “Kratip Song Soong”, high-height container for sticky rice. Beside “Kan tok”, there is “Kon Tho Din”, jar made from the soil and “Kan ngeaun” silver cup. After finishing the main course, the desserts are served and also “Buri Chai Yo”, the cigarette, which is end of the meal.\n", "It was Anil Agarwal, son of Rajeram Agarwal who vision and collaborated with Saphymo Steel of France to introduce \"Copper Sandwich Bottom Cookware\", which is a multi-layered bottom and also a good conductor of heat. For this Mr. Agarwal had built a manufacturing unit \"Kraftwares (I) Ltd\" at Palghar, Mumbai and took a step ahead by setting up a factory in Bhandup, Mumbai, which was manufacturing stainless steel products for the local market. These products are now popular in the national market as \"Vinod Bowl\" or \"Vinod Entry Dish\"\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Timeline.\n\n2015 - Mandira Bedi becomes brand ambassador\n", "In North and South Korea, chopsticks of medium-length with a small, flat rectangular shape are paired with a spoon made of the same, usually metal, material. The set is called \"sujeo\". A spoon and chopstick rest, which is the piece to rest \"sujeo\" without touching the table, is used in traditional eating. Many Korean metal chopsticks are ornately decorated at the grip.\n", "Section::::Overview.:Bowls.\n", "In Kalinga, ceramic vessels can be used for two situations: daily life use and ceremonial use. \n\nDaily life uses include the making of rice from the pots and the transfer of water from nearby water bodies to their homes.\n\n• Determining actual function of Kalinga pots\n", "In the Malay archipelago, the \"menginang\" or betel nut chewing has become a revered activity in local tradition; being a ceremoniously conducted gesture to honour guests. A complete and elaborate set of \"sirih pinang\" equipment is called \"Tepak Sirih\", \"pekinangan\" or \"cerana\". The set is usually made of wooden lacquerware, brass or silverwares; and it consists of the \"combol\" (containers), \"bekas sirih\" (leaf container), \"kacip\" (press-knife to cut areca nut), \"gobek\" (small pestle and mortar), and \"ketur\" (spit container).\n", "An \"elaborate\" formal meal would include the following place setting:\n\nBULLET::::- Centre plate, about 6 inches in diameter\n\nBULLET::::- Rice bowl, placed to the right of the centre plate\n\nBULLET::::- Small cup of tea, placed above the plate or rice bowl\n\nBULLET::::- Chopsticks to the right of the centre plate, on a chopstick rest\n\nBULLET::::- A long-handled spoon on a spoon rest, placed to the left of the chopsticks\n\nBULLET::::- Small condiment dishes, placed above the centre plate\n\nBULLET::::- Soup bowl, placed to the left above the centre plate\n\nBULLET::::- A soup spoon, inside the soup bowl\n\nSection::::Japanese tableware.\n", "In reversal, nowadays, through various chemical experiments, Bangjja brassware is becoming famous and known for its O-157 sterilization function, anti pathogen, and detection of pesticides. Also its heat retention rate turned out to be higher than porcelains and stainless bowls. Bangjja is currently used for making instruments, tableware, and other various goods such as household supplies.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.\n\nWhen Bangjja brassware is made, a mass of alloy of copper and tin is heated with fire and gets hammered several times. The proportion of tin in Bangjja brassware is very high compared to general bronze bowls.\n", "In Kalinga, ceramic vessels can be used for two situations: daily life use and ceremonial use. \n\nDaily life uses include the making of rice from the pots and the transfer of water from nearby water bodies to their homes.\n\n• Determining actual function of Kalinga pots\n", "BULLET::::- Place setting\n\nA basic complete place setting for one person in Japan would include the following:\n\nBULLET::::- Hot noodle bowl\n\nBULLET::::- Rice bowl\n\nBULLET::::- Soup bowl\n\nBULLET::::- Two to three shallow 3- to 5-inch diameter dishes\n\nBULLET::::- Two to three 3- to 5-inch diameter, 1- to 3-inch-deep bowls\n\nBULLET::::- Two square or rectangular pieces, traditionally served for serving fish\n\nBULLET::::- Three 2- to 3-inch diameter condiment plates\n\nBULLET::::- Cold noodle tray with bamboo strainer\n\nBULLET::::- Dipping sauce cup\n\nBULLET::::- Chopsticks and chopstick rest\n", "Section::::Present scenario.\n\nKalai was earlier done with silver instead of tin but now it would be expensive for the Kalaigars to use silver. As the stainless steel and aluminum ware came into being, the usage of copper and brass utensils reduced which led the Kalaigars to suffer losses. Now-a-days only some hotels and a very few people use vessels with Kalai done on it. As a result, there are a very few Kalaigars left. The art of Kalai is vanishing.\n", "This technology is not entirely new, as glass-ceramic ranges were first introduced in the 1970s using Corningware tops instead of the more durable material used today. These first generation smoothtops were problematic and could only be used with flat-bottomed cookware as the heating was primarily conductive rather than radiative.\n", "In a family setting, a meal typically includes a \"fan\" dish, which constitutes the meal's base (much like bread forms the base of various sandwiches), and several accompanying mains, called \"cai\" dish (\"choi\" or \"seoung\" in Cantonese). More specifically, \"fan\" usually refers to cooked rice, but can also be other staple grain-based foods. If the meal is a light meal, it will typically include the base and one main dish. The base is often served directly to the guest in a bowl, whereas main dishes are chosen by the guest from shared serving dishes on the table.\n\nBULLET::::- Place setting\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-22448	I don’t see bugs crawling around my house, but where do they come from if I leave a plate of food out on the counter for too long?	Ants send out the occasional scout. When they find something interesting, they report back to their home base, and others come following their trail. You might not see the occasional ant, but they are there. If you don't have ants at all, they don't magically appear when you leave food out.	[ "Foods commonly infested include:\n\nBULLET::::- Whole or cracked grains (rice)\n\nBULLET::::- Flour, meal, or similar ground grain products\n\nBULLET::::- Spices\n\nBULLET::::- Cereals\n\nBULLET::::- Pasta\n\nBULLET::::- Candy\n\nBULLET::::- Powdered milk\n\nBULLET::::- Nuts (whole or pieces)\n\nOther items include, but are not limited to:\n\nRodent baits (that contain grain as a feeding attractant), dry pet food, bird seed, grass seed, some powdered soap detergents, dried flowers, potpourri, items stuffed with dried beans or other plant material, and tobacco products.\n", "They tend to inhabit areas around or in human habitation and buildings. When found in homes, they are generally found in the kitchen and more specifically in the pantry where their choice food source is stored. They are also commonly found in areas where dried grain products are stored, for example, warehouses and areas of grain elevators that remain undisturbed.\n\nSection::::Behaviour.\n", "Section::::Detection of an infestation.:Fruit fly detection.\n", "Section::::Detection of an infestation.\n", "Section::::Insect.:Spread.\n\nInfestation is rarely caused by a lack of hygiene. Transfer to new places is usually in the personal items of the human they feed upon. Dwellings can become infested with bed bugs in a variety of ways, such as:\n\nBULLET::::- Bugs and eggs inadvertently brought in from other infested dwellings on a visiting person's clothing or luggage;\n\nBULLET::::- Infested items (such as furniture especially beds or couches, clothing, or backpacks) brought in a home or business;\n\nBULLET::::- Proximity of infested dwellings or items, if easy routes are available for travel, e.g. through ducts or false ceilings;\n", "\"Chelifer cancroides\" is the species most commonly found in homes, where they are often observed in rooms with dusty books. There the tiny animals () can find their food like booklice and house dust mites. They enter homes by \"riding along\" attached to insects (known as phoresy). The insects employed are necessarily larger than the pseudoscorpion, or they are brought in with firewood.\n\nSection::::Evolution.\n", "Larvae are white worms with black heads, which, when ready to pupate, crawl up the walls of the home in most cases, and are suspended from the ceiling attached by a single silken thread. Most complaints about these moths come during the warmer parts of the year- usually July through August- but the moths can appear during any month. As with all insects important to stored product entomology, it cannot be automatically assumed that products were previously infested, yet, it is more common for these moths to contaminate products before purchase than for the moth to fly into a home through open windows or doors. An important aspect of the Indian meal moth is that the larva is the only stage of the insect's life cycle to feed on stored products, the adults do not.\n", "These beetles will infest almost anything- they are found most often, however, in flour, bread, spices, breakfast foods, and meal. In the case of an infestation, contaminated products have telltale tunnels which have the appearance of tiny holes. These beetles do not sting, bite, or harm pets or damage a house, yet have the potential, in large infestations, to become a nuisance by flying on doors and windows in heavy populations.\n\nSection::::Detection of an infestation.:Indian meal moth detection.\n", "This is an important branch of forensic entomology because consumers who find contaminated products may choose to take legal action against the producers. Suitably qualified entomologists are likely to be able to determine the identity of contaminant species, even when no insects are found and the only evidence of infestation is the resulting damage. They should also be able to determine whether the foodstuff was contaminated before or after purchase.\n", "BULLET::::- Maize weevil\n\nBULLET::::- Rice weevil\n\nBULLET::::- Carpet beetles\n\nBULLET::::- Fur beetles\n\nBULLET::::- Varied carpet beetles\n\nBULLET::::- Spider beetles\n\nBULLET::::- Mealworm beetles\n\nBULLET::::- Centipedes\n\nBULLET::::- House centipedes\n\nBULLET::::- Cockroaches\n\nBULLET::::- Brown-banded cockroaches\n\nBULLET::::- German cockroaches\n\nBULLET::::- American cockroaches\n\nBULLET::::- Oriental cockroaches\n\nBULLET::::- Dust mites\n\nBULLET::::- Earwigs\n\nBULLET::::- Crickets\n\nBULLET::::- House crickets\n\nBULLET::::- Flies\n\nBULLET::::- Bottle flies\n\nBULLET::::- Blue bottle flies\n\nBULLET::::- Green bottle flies\n\nBULLET::::- House flies\n\nBULLET::::- Fruit flies\n\nBULLET::::- Mosquitoes\n\nBULLET::::- Moths\n\nBULLET::::- Almond moths\n\nBULLET::::- Indianmeal moths\n\nBULLET::::- Clothes moths\n\nBULLET::::- Gypsy moths\n\nBULLET::::- Common clothes moths\n\nBULLET::::- Brown house moths\n\nBULLET::::- Paper Lice\n\nBULLET::::- Red spiders\n", "If these insects are found infesting stored products, it is not practical to automatically assume the store or producer is at fault. Although some infestations are not the consumer's fault, producers are held by the FDA action defect levels to ensure their product does not contain more than the allotted amount of insects, insect fragments, or larvae. If a stored product is found to be infested by insects, and it is suspected that someone other than the consumer is at fault, a forensic entomologist can be contacted to make a determination. Again, it should not be assumed that these are the only five insects found in a common household pantry, but due to the large number of infestations by these five major groups, it can be safely deduced that it is perhaps one of these five. Stored product entomology is an important forensic field that is important to not only the government and the FDA but the general public, as it is involved in the consumption of food in everyday life.\n", "The vast majority of reported cases of foodborne illness occur as individual or sporadic cases. The origin of most sporadic cases is undetermined. In the United States, where people eat outside the home frequently, 58% of cases originate from commercial food facilities (2004 FoodNet data). An outbreak is defined as occurring when two or more people experience similar illness after consuming food from a common source.\n", "To identify an insect, and consequently make a decision about the type of control to be implemented, the type of food must first be noted, especially in the absence of a specimen. Although identifying the food is a general start to begin to identify the insect, it must be remembered that it is not always the most accurate method, but is mostly used as a guideline, as some insects are more likely than others to be found in certain types of grain, flour, etc. The type of food is not always conclusive to the type of insect found in it, as insects are not extremely picky, and many families and species are found on a wide range of different foodstuffs. Using the infested item as a guideline, noting the type of damage done to the product is the next step. Some insects, like the drugstore beetle, leave telltale tiny holes in the damaged product, while Indianmeal moths are notorious for the spider web-like threads left behind in the food they infest. These observations can generally lead to a mostly accurate conclusion about the type of insects causing the damage, but obviously the most accurate conclusion relies on any specimen found either directly in the stored product or in the vicinity. The larvae, pupae, and adults can be found directly in the product while usually only the pupae and adults are found in the vicinity of the product. It is not practical to assume any person has knowledge of general entomology, so the following analysis focuses on the five major pests that most commonly infest stored products, beginning with the type of foods infested, signs indicative of a particular insect infestation, and a description of the larvae, pupae, and adults, including behavior, as well as appearance.\n", "Section::::FDA regulations.\n\nDefect action levels have been a part of the food industry for nearly a century. The first established defect action level was created in 1911 for mold in tomato pulp. However, limits for insect fragments and larvae were not added until the 1920s on various fruits and vegetables. In 1938, the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act was established to provide a more defined reference based on strict limitations and methods.\n", "BULLET::::- Stored product pests: The most common stored product pests or pantry pests are the cigarette beetle and the drugstore beetle. These pests are known to infest “seeds, nuts, grains, spices, dried fruits, and vegetables,\" items which many museums include.\n", "Home-stored product entomology\n\nHome stored product entomology is the study of insects which infest foodstuffs stored in the home. It deals with the prevention, detection and eradication of the pests. The five major categories of insects considered in this article are flour beetles, the drugstore beetle, the sawtoothed grain beetle, the Indian meal moth and fruit flies.\n", "Although not seen when groceries are purchased, some products have the possibility of being infested prior to being placed in the pantry. A periodic check of susceptible foodstuffs is necessary, especially in summer months when most insects are more active. In the event an infestation is discovered, steps must be taken to eradicate the insects. Controlling an infestation is a lengthy process and insects may still be seen, albeit in dwindling numbers, for several weeks. All infested items, as well as uninfested items, must be removed from shelves, thoroughly cleaned and vacuumed. After vacuuming, the waste containing the infested material must be removed and discarded. Items should be checked for beetles, larvae, and pupae; all food items must be inspected, as well, and special attention must be paid to items rarely used. The infested items may either be discarded, heated, or frozen to kill the insects. If the food is chosen to be discarded, the item must be completely removed from surrounding premises to prevent reinfestation. Freezing products for three to four days or heating them to about 130 to 140 °F for 30 to 40 minutes will rid the product of the pests. Decorative ornaments and objects made with plant material and seed in the vicinity of stored products will increase the risk of reinfestation; insects can feed on those items until they locate stored products. These items should also be thrown out or disinfected by freezing or heating.\n", "In the home, foodstuffs found to be infested are usually discarded, and storing such products in sealed containers should prevent the problem from reoccurring. The eggs of these insects are likely to go unnoticed, with the larvae being the destructive life stage, and the adult the most noticeable stage. Since pesticides are not safe to use near food, alternative treatments such as freezing for four days at or baking for half an hour at should kill any insects present.\n\nSection::::In homes and cities.:Methods for specific pests.:Clothes moths.\n", "Careful observation is necessary when detecting the cause of an insect infestation. Each of the five different insects discussed has a unique pattern of destruction. These observations are imperative, as there are not always larvae, pupae, or adults readily available for examination and identification. In the absence of physical specimens, conclusions can be drawn about the probable insect infesting the product just by noting the damage done to the particular food. By noting the type of food and the damage done, a nearly accurate conclusion can be drawn about the type of insect causing the damage, allowing a conjecture about the type of control needed. Having an insect specimen and accurately identifying it can lead to eradication, and ultimately, prevention.\n", "Section::::Assessment.:Sampling.:Bulk and Dust Sampling.\n", "In homes and urban environments, the pests are the rodents, birds, insects and other organisms that share the habitat with humans, and that feed on and spoil possessions. Control of these pests is attempted through exclusion, repulsion, physical removal or chemical means. Alternatively, various methods of biological control can be used including sterilisation programmes.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Detection of an infestation.:Sawtoothed grain beetle detection.\n\nThe sawtoothed grain beetle feeds on a plethora of feeds, but is not capable of attacking whole or undamaged grains; therefore, the larvae are commonly found in processed grains (flour and meal), dry dog food, dried fruits, candy bars, tobacco, drugs, dried meats, and a variety of other stored food products.\n\nSection::::Detection of an infestation.:Drugstore beetle detection.\n", "List of common household pests\n\nThis is a list of common household pests – undesired animals that have a history of living, invading, causing damage, eating human foods, acting as disease vectors or causing other harms in human habitation.\n\nSection::::Mammals.\n\nBULLET::::- Mice\n\nBULLET::::- Field mice\n\nBULLET::::- House mice\n\nBULLET::::- Rats\n\nBULLET::::- Black rats\n\nBULLET::::- Brown rats\n\nBULLET::::- Wood rats\n\nBULLET::::- Cotton rats\n\nSection::::Invertebrates.\n\nBULLET::::- Ants\n\nBULLET::::- Argentine ants\n\nBULLET::::- Carpenter ants\n\nBULLET::::- Fire ants\n\nBULLET::::- Odorous house ants\n\nBULLET::::- Pharaoh ants\n\nBULLET::::- Thief ants\n\nBULLET::::- Bed bugs\n\nBULLET::::- Beetles\n\nBULLET::::- Woodworms\n\nBULLET::::- Death watch beetles\n\nBULLET::::- Furniture beetles\n\nBULLET::::- Weevils\n", "Cold temperatures outside will cause invasions beginning in the late summer months and early fall. Box elder bugs, cluster flies, ladybugs, and silverfish are noticed some of the most common insects to seek the warm indoors.\n\nSection::::Modern techniques.\n", "To prevent the infestation of foodstuffs by pests of stored products, or “pantry pests”, a thorough inspection must be conducted of the food item intended for purchase at the supermarket or the place of purchase. The expiration date of grains and flour must also be noted, as products that sit undisturbed on the shelf for an extended period of time are more likely to become infested. This does not, however, exclude even the freshest of products from being contaminated. Packaging should be inspected for tiny holes that indicate there might be an infestation. If there is evidence of an insect infestation, the product should not be purchased. The store should be notified immediately, as further infestation must be prevented. Most stores have a plan of action for insect infestations. Bringing an infested product into a pantry or a home leads to a greater degree of infestation.\n" ]	[ "Because bugs are not normally visible in one's home they should not arrive unexpectedly. " ]	[ "If bugs have been spotted previously, then it is undeniable that the bugs exist somewhere in the household. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Because bugs are not normally visible in one's home they should not arrive unexpectedly. ", "I don't see any bugs so they are not there." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "If bugs have been spotted previously, then it is undeniable that the bugs exist somewhere in the household. ", "There may be a scout bug that you missed that notified the rest of the bugs about the food." ]
2018-03759	What is that pain you feel in your arms, shoulders, neck, back and wrists after you sneeze?	That is absolutely not a normal thing that you are experiencing and you should drop whatever you're doing and go and visit a doctor and explain to him that you're either very ill or that you're just not capable of sneezing like a normal person and you've been doing it wrong for the entirety of your life. Good luck and bless you. 😉	[ "BULLET::::- Modifications in movements and position. Triggering factors that can cause RLP are sudden movements, (e.g. sitting up and down, standing up, sneezing, coughing), physical exertion, and long periods in the same resting position. A change in daily activities can help find relief and prevent worsening of the condition. Avoid sudden movements that can cause spasms of the ligament. When about to sneeze or cough, brace yourself by bending and flexing the hips to minimize the pull on the ligaments.\n", "Section::::Risks.:Medical procedures.\n\nUncontrollable fits of sneezing are common in patients under propofol sedation who undergo periocular or retrobulbar injection. A sneeze by a sedated patient often occurs upon insertion of a needle into or around their eye. The violent and uncontrollable movement of the head during a reflexive sneeze has potential to cause damage within the patient's eye if the needle is not removed before the sneeze occurs.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "In most cases of sinus barotrauma, localized pain to the frontal area is the predominant symptom. This is due to pain originating from the frontal sinus, it being above the brow bones. Less common is pain referred to the temporal, occipital, or retrobulbar region. Epistaxis or serosanguineous secretion from the nose may occur. Neurological symptoms may affect the adjacent fifth cranial nerve and especially the infraorbital nerve.\n\nSection::::Pathology.\n", "If the outlet is blocked during ascent, the situation is reversed and \"reverse squeeze\" appears. Pressure inside the sinus increases, affecting the walls of the sinus and producing pain or epistaxis.\n\nSection::::Location.\n\nThe majority of episodes of sinus barotrauma occur in the frontal sinuses with pain localized over the frontal area. Possible explanations for this might be the relatively long and delicate nasofrontal duct that connects the narrow frontal recess with the frontal sinuses.\n", "Section::::Risks.\n\nSneezing generally does not present any particular risks to the individual, and is usually more an annoyance than a risk of injury. The fits of sneezing brought about by the photic sneeze reflex can, however, have dangerous implications during certain scenarios and activities, such as operating a vehicle, or while undergoing operations (dental, optical) and having bright lights directed towards the patient's face.\n\nSection::::Risks.:Disease transmission.\n", "Therapeutic injections of corticosteroid and local anaesthetic may be used for persistent impingement syndrome. The total number of injections is generally limited to three due to possible side effects from the corticosteroid. A 2017 review found corticoestroid injections only give small and transient pain relief.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Surgery.\n", "As a result, some sources list terms such as \"atypical trigeminal neuralgia\", \"trigeminal neuropathic pain\" and \"atypical facial neuralgia\" as synonyms of AFP.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nSome sources list some non-specific signs that may be associated with AFP/AO. These include increased temperature and tenderness of the mucosa in the affected area, which is otherwise normal in every regard.\n\nPatient often reports symptoms of paresthesia, pain, and throbbing. Physical examination may be normal, but hypoesthesia, hyperesthesia, and allodynia may be found.\n\nThe features of atypical facial pain can be considered according to the Socrates pain assessment method (see table).\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "BULLET::::- Mitral valve prolapse syndrome - Those affected are usually thin females presented with chest pain which is sharp in quality, localized at the apex, and relieved when lying down. Other symptoms include: shortness of breath, fatigue, and palpitations. On auscultation, midsystolic click followed by late systolic murmur can be heard, louder when person is in standing position.\n\nBULLET::::- Aortic aneurysm\n\nSection::::Differential diagnosis.:Respiratory.\n", "BULLET::::- Patients with grade III have severe pain lasting for more than 24 h and X-ray shows severe mucosal thickening or opacification of the affected sinus; epistaxis or subsequent sinusitis may be observed.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "Primary shoulder problems may cause pain over the deltoid muscle intensified by abduction against resistance - the impingement sign. This signifies pain arising from the rotator cuff, but cannot distinguish between inflammation, strain, or tear. Individuals may report that they are unable to reach upwards to brush their hair or to lift a food can from an overhead shelf.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Signs.\n", "Section::::Symptoms.:Sneezing after eating.\n", "Steve has interviewed Adam Savage of \"MythBusters\", animator and director Savage Steve Holland, and actor and comedian Don Novello, best known for his \"Saturday Night Live\" character Father Guido Sarducci. He is friends with the band Cloud Cult and Brian Rosenworcel of Guster, as well as Natalie Dee and Drew of Toothpaste for Dinner, and the writers of Retrocrush and Cockeyed.com. In November 2003, Steve was interviewed by Derek and Romaine of SIRIUS OutQ radio.\n", "BULLET::::- In Slovakia, after a person sneezes, it is proper to say \"Na zdravie!\" which means \"For health!\"; a proper response should be \"Ďakujem\" which means \"Thanks\". This is also the case in Finland where \"terveydeksi\" means \"for health\". Likewise in Russian, \"будь здоров\" (bud' zdorov), translates as \"be healthy\".\n", "Section::::Live performances.\n", "However, the numerical limits apply to all petitions regardless of whether method (1) or method (2) is used, and are managed by the Visa Reporting and Control Division of the Department of State.\n\nFor Form I-130 and I-360, in some cases, another option called Direct Consular Filing (that bypasses the NVC) is available; however, this applies only to categories with no numerical limits.\n\nSection::::Steps.\n\nSection::::Steps.:The petition is received by the USCIS.\n", "The following clinical tests, if positive, may indicate bursitis: \n\nBULLET::::- The patient actively abducts the arm and a painful arc occurs between 80° and 120°. This is due to the compression of the supraspinatus tendon or subacromial bursa between the anterior acromial arch and humeral head. When lowering from full abduction there is often a painful \"catch\" at midrange. If the patient can achieve adequate muscle relaxation, passive motion tends to be less painful.\n", "BULLET::::- 23 July 2013: Viber servers were hacked, the support website replaced with a message and a supposed screenshot of data that was obtained during the intrusion.\n\nBULLET::::- 15 August 2013: Advertising service Outbrain suffered a spearphishing attack and SEA placed redirects into the websites of The Washington Post, Time, and CNN.\n\nBULLET::::- 27 August 2013: NYTimes.com had its DNS redirected to a page that displayed the message \"Hacked by SEA\" and Twitter's domain registrar was changed.\n", "Sneeze\n\nA sneeze, or sternutation, is a semi-autonomous, convulsive expulsion of air from the lungs through the nose and mouth, usually caused by foreign particles irritating the nasal mucosa. A sneeze expels air forcibly from the mouth and nose in an explosive, spasmodic involuntary action resulting chiefly from irritation of the nasal mucous membrane. This action allows for mucus to escape through the nasal cavity. Sneezing is possibly linked to sudden exposure to bright light, sudden change (fall) in temperature, breeze of cold air, a particularly full stomach, or viral infection, and can lead to the spread of disease.\n", "Examples of preventive techniques are: the deep exhalation of the air in the lungs that would otherwise be used in the act of sneezing, holding the breath in while counting to ten or gently pinching the bridge of the nose for several seconds.\n", "During surgeries in and around the eye, such as corneal transplant surgery, the patient often requires injection of a local anesthetic into the eye. In patients who show the photic sneeze reflex, an injection into the eye, such as that undergone in a retrobulbar or peribulbar block, can often elicit a sneeze from the patient. During these procedures, the patient may be sedated prior to the periocular injection. The patient begins to sneeze just as the needle is inserted into the eye, often resulting in the anesthesiologist having to remove the needle before injecting the local anesthetic in order to avoid damaging the patient's eye.\n", "Impingement may be brought on by sports activities, such as overhead throwing sports and swimming, or overhead work such as painting, carpentry, or plumbing. Activities that involve repetitive overhead activity, or directly in front, may cause shoulder pain. Direct upward pressure on the shoulder, such as leaning on an elbow, may increase pain.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "On physical exam, the physician may twist or elevate the patient's arm to test for reproducible pain (the Neer sign and Hawkins-Kennedy test). These tests help localize the pathology to the rotator cuff; however, they are not specific for impingement. Neer sign may also be seen with subacromial bursitis.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Response to local anesthetic.\n", "Sneeze (album)\n\nSneeze or \"41 Songs In 47 Minutes\" (HAC50) as it is also known, is the first album by Australian band Sneeze. On the cover, tracks 1, 22-41 are marked as \"bonus tracks\" - the rest were initially released as a double 7 inch vinyl (Moo 08). Total running time of the album is 47 minutes, the track Demand is the shortest song at 18 seconds, Back Down the longest at 1:58.\n\nSection::::Personnel.\n\nBULLET::::- Tom Morgan\n\nBULLET::::- Nic Dalton\n\nBULLET::::- Ben Aylward\n\nBULLET::::- Evan Dando\n\nBULLET::::- Simon Day\n\nBULLET::::- Paul Duncan\n\nBULLET::::- Allison Galloway\n\nBULLET::::- Simon Holmes\n", "The attack came shortly after CIA contractor Raymond Allen Davis, who had been arrested on charges of killing two people in January, was released, and protests against his release were expected to intensify after the drone strike.\n\nSection::::Reaction.:Protests.\n", "Section::::Etiology.:Splenic abscess.\n\nFever is the most common symptom of splenic abscess, followed by abdominal pain and a tender mass on palpation of the left upper quadrant of the abdomen. The common signs and symptoms described of a splenic abscess include the triad of fever, left upper quadrant tenderness, and leukocytosis is present only in one-third of the cases.\n\nSection::::Etiology.:Splenic rupture.\n" ]	[ "Pain during sneeze is normal" ]	[ "Pain during sneeze is not normal and should be checked out by a doctor. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Pain during sneeze is normal" ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Pain during sneeze is not normal and should be checked out by a doctor. " ]
2018-06583	Why do doctors order blood tests before low risk surgeries?	Blood tests tell a lot about your health and what could or is wrong with you, by having a blood test the doctor knows what could be wrong and it can help to know what drugs to give you if you need any while you are under. it can also help reveal any underlying conditions that would make the surgery dangerous. even a low-risk surgery has a risk so the more information a doctor has the better they can treat you if something goes wrong	[ "The driving notion behind POCT is to bring the test conveniently and immediately to the patient. This increases the likelihood that the patient, physician, and care team will receive the results quicker, which allows for better immediate clinical management decisions to be made. POCT includes: blood glucose testing, blood gas and electrolytes analysis, rapid coagulation testing, rapid cardiac markers diagnostics, drugs of abuse screening, urine strips testing, pregnancy testing, fecal occult blood analysis, food pathogens screening, hemoglobin diagnostics, infectious disease testing and cholesterol screening.\n", "Most surgeons ask patients about recent general medical examination results in order to proceed with surgery [1] even though there are arguments for and against most screening interventions. Advantages include detection and subsequent prevention or early treatment of conditions such as high blood pressure, alcohol abuse, smoking, unhealthy diet, obesity and cancers. Moreover, they could improve the patient-physician relationship and decrease patient anxiety. More and more private insurance companies and even Medicare include annual physicals in their coverage.\n", "The number-needed-to-test to detect postoperative infarctions that would otherwise be missed is roughly 1/(9%-2%) = 14 patients. This is a much smaller number than for many other tests we do routinely for conditions that are far less deadly. Consistent with this logic, the current Universal Definition of MI guidelines recommends: “Routine monitoring of cardiac biomarkers in high-risk patients after major surgery is therefore recommended.” \n", "BULLET::::- Cardiac imaging and cardiac stress tests are usually unnecessary for people who do not have a serious heart condition and who are having surgery unrelated to the heart. People in the United States using government healthcare services are especially likely to have this procedure without indication.\n\nBULLET::::- Chest x-rays are usually unnecessary for people under age 70 who are not having chest surgery and who do not have worrisome symptoms.\n\nBULLET::::- Breathing tests are usually unnecessary for people who do not smoke, do not have respiratory disease, and who do not have symptoms.\n", "There has been some success in preventing blood clots by an early assessment risk upon admission to the hospital. This strategy for preventing blood clots is the Centers for Disease and prevention's program that recognizes procedural prevention. Hospitals participated in this effort to reduce the incidence of thrombosis. In some instances, the rates of DVT were decreased. Some of the hospitals developed a mandatory assessment quantifying the risk for developing blood clots and a plan of care developed from the assessment. The person's risk for developing blood clots is entered into their record, ‘following’ them through their treatment regime. If the hospital stay exceeded three days, the person was reassessed for risk. Clinicians were then able to apply protocols for prevention based upon best clinical practices.\n", "Regarding blood tests, some commentators, such as Brown University's Jacob Appel, have criticized the role of medical personnel in this process. According to Appel, \"If physicians acquiesce today in the removal of a resistant patient's blood, soon they may be called upon to pump the contents of an unwilling patient's stomach or even to perform involuntary surgery to retrieve an evidential bullet\".\n", "Hematocrit levels also serve as an indicator of health conditions. Thus, tests on hematocrit levels are often carried out in the process of diagnosis of such conditions, and may be conducted prior to surgery. Additionally, the health conditions associated with certain hematocrit levels are the same as ones associated with certain hemoglobin levels.\n", "A systematic review of studies until September 2006 concluded that the examination does result in better delivery of some other screening interventions (such as Pap smears, cholesterol screening, and faecal occult blood tests) and less patient worry. Evidence supports several of these individual screening interventions. The effects of annual check-ups on overall costs, patient disability and mortality, disease detection, and intermediate end points such a blood pressure or cholesterol, are inconclusive. A recent study found that the examination is associated with increased participation in cancer screening.\n", "Screening is a test to see whether a person has a disease, and screenings are often done before surgery. Screenings should happen when they are indicated and not otherwise as a matter of routine. Screenings which are done without indication carry the risks of having unnecessary health care.\n\nCommonly overused screenings include the following:\n\nBULLET::::- Electrocardiograms (ECGs) are sometimes given before any kind of surgery as a matter of routine, but are unnecessary if a person does not have new and worrisome symptoms and if the surgery is minor. Eye surgery, for example, would not usually require an ECG.\n", "Autologous blood is not routinely tested for infectious diseases markers such as HIV antibodies. In the United States, autologous blood is tested only if it is collected in one place and shipped to another.\n\nThere is also a risk that, in an emergency or if more blood is required than has been set aside in advance, the patient could still be exposed to donor blood instead of autologous blood. Autologous donation is also not suitable for patients who are medically unable to or advised not to give blood, such as cardiac patients or small children and infants.\n\nSection::::Bone autograft.\n", "BULLET::::3. More tenacious was the conviction that having to wait 7 highly worrying days for the result of an HIV test would have a preventive effect, something for which no scientific basis was ever established. In practice it turned out to be a matter of logistics. Testing a large number of blood samples simultaneously was cheaper: the cost price per test was lower. Once the laboratory had initiated the testing procedure, the results from all blood samples were known within an hour. Additionally, the laboratories would suffer a loss in income were the testing localities to require only the Western blots.\n", "Donors are examined for signs and symptoms of diseases that can be transmitted in a blood transfusion, such as HIV, malaria, and viral hepatitis. Screening may include questions about risk factors for various diseases, such as travel to countries at risk for malaria or variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (vCJD). These questions vary from country to country. For example, while blood centers in Québec, Poland, and many other places defer donors who lived in the United Kingdom for risk of vCJD, donors in the United Kingdom are only restricted for vCJD risk if they have had a blood transfusion in the United Kingdom.\n", "Some medical systems have a practice of routinely performing chest x-rays before surgery. The premise behind this practice is that the physician might discover some unknown medical condition which would complicate the surgery, and that upon discovering this with the chest x-ray, the physician would adapt the surgery practice accordingly. In fact, medical specialty professional organizations recommend against routine pre-operative chest x-rays for patients who have an unremarkable medical history and presented with a physical exam which did not indicate a chest x-ray. Routine x-ray examination is more likely to result in problems like misdiagnosis, overtreatment, or other negative outcomes than it is to result in a benefit to the patient. Likewise, other tests including complete blood count, prothrombin time, partial thromboplastin time, basic metabolic panel, and urinalysis should not be done unless the results of these tests can help evaluate surgical risk.\n", "A variety of other tests for transfusion transmitted infections are often used based on local requirements. Additional testing is expensive, and in some cases the tests are not implemented because of the cost. These additional tests include other infectious diseases such as West Nile Virus, and babesiosis. Sometimes multiple tests are used for a single disease to cover the limitations of each test. For example, the HIV antibody test will not detect a recently infected donor, so some blood banks use a p24 antigen or HIV nucleic acid test in addition to the basic antibody test to detect infected donors during that period. Cytomegalovirus is a special case in donor testing in that many donors will test positive for it. The virus is not a hazard to a healthy recipient, but it can harm infants and other recipients with weak immune systems.\n", "For patients who need blood transfusion, a blood count may be used to get data which would help plan an amount of treatment. In such cases, the person should have only one blood count for the day, and the transfusion of red blood cells or platelets should be planned based on that. Multiple blood draws and counts throughout the day are an excessive use of phlebotomy and can lead to unnecessary additional transfusions, and the extra unnecessary treatment would be outside of medical guidelines.\n\nSection::::Procedure.\n", "These clinics serve the purpose of controlling the pandemics such as HIV, herpes, gonorrhea, syphilis, chlamydia, genital warts etc. The Doctor in the clinic refers for the blood test to check the disease. Before the blood samples are taken the candidate/person is given counselling by the counsellers in the clinics where the general details of name, educational nullification, occupation, address, contact no., reason of doubt of infection etc. are noted down which are kept confidential and are used as statics for further research and development purpose. The blood samples are taken empty stomach before half day and then sent for report preparation.\n", "Before preparing a procedure, it may be appropriate to carry out a risk assessment, estimating how likely it is for an emergency event to occur and if it does, how serious or damaging the consequences would be. The emergency procedure should provide an appropriate and proportionate response to this situation. A risk assessment is usually in the style of a table, which rates a risk on its likelihood and severity.\n\nSection::::Testing and training.\n", "In some cases, tests being performed are expected to have no benefit for the individual being tested. Instead, the results may be useful for the establishment of statistics in order to improve health care for other individuals. Patients may give informed consent to undergo medical tests that will benefit other people.\n\nSection::::Patient expectations.\n", "For extremely low birth weight infants, laboratory blood testing using bedside devices offers a unique opportunity to reduce blood transfusions. This practice has been referred to as point-of-care testing or POC. Use of POC tests to measure the most commonly ordered blood tests could significantly decrease phlebotomy loss and lead to a reduction in the need for blood transfusions among critically ill premature neonates as these tests frequently require much less volume of blood to be collected from the patient. A study was done by Madan and colleagues to test this theory by conducting a retrospective chart review on all inborn infants 1000g admitted to the NICU that survived for 2 weeks of age during two separate 1 year time periods. Conventional bench top laboratory analysis during the first year was done using Radiometer Blood Gas and Electrolyte Analyzer. Bedside blood gas analysis during the second year was performed using a point-of-care analyzer (iSTAT). An estimated blood loss in the two groups was determined based on the number of specific blood tests on individual infants. The study found that there was an estimated 30% reduction in the total volume of blood removed for the blood tests. This study concluded that there is modern technology that can be used to limit the amount of blood removed from these infants thereby reducing the need for blood product transfusions (or the number of transfusions) and r-EPO.\n", "5. Don't do annual screening blood tests for patients unless they are directly indicated by the risk patient's risk profile.\n\n6. Don't routinely measure Vitamin D in adults who are low risk.\n\n7. Don't do screening mammography for low-risk women aged 40–49.\n\n8. Don't do annual physical exams on asymptomatic adults who have no significant risk factors.\n\n9. Don't order DEXA (Dual-Energy X-ray Absorptiometry) screening for osteoporosis on patients who are low-risk.\n\n10. Don't advise patients with diabetes who do not require insulin to routinely self-monitor blood sugars between office visits.\n", "ACOG guidelines currently recommend that all pregnant women, regardless of age, be offered invasive testing to obtain a definitive diagnosis of certain birth defects. Therefore, most physicians offer diagnostic testing to all their patients, with or without prior screening and let the patient decide.\n\nThe following are some reasons why a patient might consider her risk of birth defects already to be high enough to warrant skipping screening and going straight for invasive testing.\n\nBULLET::::- Women over the age of 35\n\nBULLET::::- Women who have previously had premature babies or babies with a birth defect, especially heart or genetic problems\n", "Section::::Extraction.\n\nA venipuncture is useful as it is a minimally invasive way to obtain cells and extracellular fluid (plasma) from the body for analysis. Blood flows throughout the body, acting as a medium which provides oxygen and nutrients to tissues and carries waste products back to the excretory systems for disposal. Consequently, the state of the bloodstream affects, or is affected by, many medical conditions. For these reasons, blood tests are the most commonly performed medical tests.\n\nIf only a few drops of blood are needed, a fingerstick is performed instead of a venipuncture.\n", "Some medical testing procedures have associated health risks, and even require general anesthesia, such as the mediastinoscopy. Other tests, such as the blood test or pap smear have little to no direct risks. Medical tests may also have indirect risks, such as the stress of testing, and riskier tests may be required as follow-up for a (potentially) false positive test result. Consult the health care provider (including physicians, physician assistants, and nurse practitioners) prescribing any test for further information.\n\nSection::::Indications.\n", "Patient blood management in the perioperative setting can be achieved by means of a variety of techniques and strategies. First, ensuring that the patient enters the operating room with a sufficient hematocrit level is essential. Preoperative anemia has been documented to range from 5% in female geriatric hip fracture patients to over 75% in colon cancer patients. Patients who are anemic prior to surgery obviously receive more transfusions. Erythropoietin and iron therapy can be considered in cases of anemia. Accordingly, patients should be screened for anemia at least 30 days prior to an elective surgical procedure. Although either oral or parenteral iron could be given, increasingly clinicians are giving parenteral iron to ensure that the haemoglobin is increased the maximal amount before the elective surgery is undertaken.\n", "Alongside any radiographs wchih may be justified, Blood tests may be needed in order to obtain a definitive diagnosis if there is a suspicion of potential blood dyscrasias or any endocrinopathy involvement.\n\nFinally, a particularly vital means of diagnosis is a biopsy. These tend to be regularly done in the cases of singular, chronic lesions and are carried out in an urgent manner as lesions of this category have a significant malignant potential. The indications to carry out a biopsy include:\n\nBULLET::::- Lesions that have neoplastic or premalignant features or are enlarging\n\nBULLET::::- Persistent lesions that are of uncertain aetiology\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04099	Why do you words start sounding funny when you repeat them?	It's called semantic satiation - a distinct pattern of neurons in the brain keep firing each time you hear it and the brain reactively inhibits the strength of the firing each successive time. Without the distinct patter at full strength, your brain won't fully interpret it. Eli5: Your neurons are like muscles, the more you use specific ones to hear a specific word, the more "tired" they get to repeated use.	[ "A special case of where multiple causation comes into play creating new verbal forms is in what Skinner describes as fragmentary responses. Such combinations are typically vocal, although this may be due to different conditions of self-editing rather than any special property. Such mutations may be \"nonsense\" and may not further the verbal interchange in which it occurs. Freudian slips may be one special case of fragmentary responses which tend to be given reinforcement and may discourage self-editing. This phenomenon appears to be more common in children, and in adults learning a second language. Fatigue, illness and insobriety may tend to produce fragmentary responding.\n", "Perhaps the finest modern example of its humorous application is in \"Defenestration\", by R. P. Lister. The poem relates the thoughts of a philosopher undergoing defenestration who, as he falls, considers why there should be a word for so obscure an activity when so many other equally obscure activities have no single name. In an evidently ironic commentary on the word that the poem takes as its title, Lister has the philosopher summarize his thoughts with: \n", "Clang associations are ideas that are related only by similar or rhyming sounds rather than actual meaning. Example: \"He ate the skate, inflated yesterdays gate toward the cheese grater.\"\n\nSection::::C.:Claparede's paradox.\n\nClaparede's paradox refers to retention of non-verbal and implicit memory in sufferers of Korsakoff's syndrome.\n\nSection::::C.:Clouding of consciousness.\n", "Meringer and Meyer highlighted the role of familiar associations and similarities of words and sounds in producing the lapsus. Freud objected that such factors did not cause but only “\"favour\" slips of the tongue...in the immense majority of cases my speech is not disturbed by the circumstance that the words I am using recall others with a similar sound...or that familiar associations branch off from them”.\n\nTimpanaro later reignited the debate, by maintaining that any given slip can always be explained mechanically without a need for deeper motivation.\n", "Ablaut reduplication or ablaut-motivated compounding is a type of word formation of \"expressives\" (such as onomatopoeia or ideophones). Examples of these in English include:\n\nBULLET::::- tick-tock\n\nBULLET::::- criss-cross\n\nBULLET::::- zig-zag\n\nBULLET::::- snip-snap\n\nHere the words are formed by a reduplication of a base and an alternation of the internal vowel.\n\nSome examples in Japanese:\n\nBULLET::::- kasa-koso (rustle)\n\nBULLET::::- gata-goto (rattle)\n\nSome examples in Chinese:\n\nBULLET::::- 叽里咕噜 (\"jīligūlū\", babbling)\n\nBULLET::::- 噼里啪啦 (\"pīlipālā\", splashing)\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Alternation (linguistics)\n\nBULLET::::- Consonant mutation\n\nBULLET::::- Metaphony\n\nBULLET::::- Morphology (linguistics)\n\nBULLET::::- Nonconcatenative morphology\n\nSection::::Bibliography.\n", "Leon Jakobovits James coined the phrase \"semantic satiation\" in his 1962 doctoral dissertation at McGill University. It was demonstrated as a stable phenomenon that is possibly similar to a cognitive form of reactive inhibition. Prior to that, the expression \"verbal satiation\" had been used along with terms that express the idea of mental fatigue. The dissertation listed many of the names others had used for the phenomenon:\n", "Section::::Critical reception.\n\nRobert Christgau gave the album a B- rating, commenting on \"side-openers that go on so long you don't really notice your attention flagging as their momentum gives way to, well, poetry readings--roughly accompanied, as usual\". The \"NME\"'s Jim Shelley saw it as The Fall \"plodding on, going nowhere, making do\", although he described \"Smile\" as \"one of the great Fall moments...where the notorious Fall-as-an-idea is driven into reality\". Dave McCullough, writing in \"Sounds\", gave it two and a half stars, describing it as \"overall laborious and very dull indeed\".\n", "It may be present as:\n\nBULLET::::- Clanging, a speech pattern that follows rhyming and other sound associations rather than meaning\n\nBULLET::::- Graphorrhea, a written version of word salad that is more rarely seen than logorrhea in people with schizophrenia.\n\nBULLET::::- Logorrhea, a mental condition characterized by excessive talking (incoherent and compulsive)\n\nBULLET::::- Receptive aphasia\n\nBULLET::::- Schizophasia, a mental condition characterized by incoherent babbling (compulsive or intentional, but nonsensical)\n\nSection::::In computing.\n", "Around the same time, Fillmore's Santa Cruz Lectures on Deixis, delivered in 1971 and published in 1975, contributed to establishing the field of linguistic pragmatics, which studies the relationship between linguistic form and the context of utterance.\n", "Section::::Effects of brain injuries.:Aphasia.\n\nPerhaps the first use of semantic priming in neurological patients was with stroke patients with aphasia. In one study, patients with Wernicke's aphasia who were unable to make semantic judgments showed evidence of semantic priming, while patient with Broca's aphasia who were able to make semantic judgments showed less consistent priming than Wernicke's aphasics or normal controls (Milberg and Blumstein 1981). This dissociation was extended to other linguistic categories such phonology and syntactic processing by Blumstein, Milberg and their colleagues.\n\nSection::::Effects of brain injuries.:Dementia.\n", "Word salad may describe a symptom of neurological or psychiatric conditions in which a person attempts to communicate an idea, but words and phrases that may appear to be random and unrelated come out in an incoherent sequence instead. Often, the person is unaware that he or she did not make sense. It appears in people with dementia and schizophrenia, as well as after anoxic brain injury. Clang associations are especially characteristic of mania, as seen in bipolar disorder, as a somewhat more severe variation of flight of ideas. In extreme mania, the patient's speech may become incoherent, with associations markedly loosened, thus presenting as a veritable word salad.\n", "BULLET::::- On the TV series \"Hee Haw\", comedian/writer Archie Campbell was well known for using spoonerisms in his skits, most famously the \"Pee Little Thrigs\" and \"Rindercella\" skits, as well as previously doing so in his own comedy recordings well before the country/western-themed TV variety series, such as his \"Beeping Sleauty\" sketch.\n\nBULLET::::- In \"Maisie and the Pinny Gig\" by Ursula Dubosarsky, a little girl named Maisie has a recurrent dream about a giant guinea pig, which she calls a \"pinny gig.\"\n", "The linguistic scripts (a.k.a. frames) referenced in the title include, for any given word, a \"large chunk of semantic information surrounding the word and evoked by it [...] a cognitive structure internalized by the native speaker\". These scripts extend much further than the lexical definition of a word; they contain the speaker's complete knowledge of the concept as it exists in his world. Thus native speakers will have similar but not identical scripts for words they have in common.\n\nTo produce the humor of a verbal joke, Raskin posits, the following two conditions must be met: \n", "In the book \"\", Dmitri Borgmann tries to find the longest isogrammic word. The longest one he found was \"Dermatoglyphics\" at 15 letters. He coins several longer hypothetical words, such as \"thumbscrew-japingly\" (18 letters, defined as \"as if mocking a thumbscrew\") and, with the \"uttermost limit in the way of verbal creativeness\", \"pubvexingfjord-schmaltzy\" (23 letters, defined as \"as if in the manner of the extreme sentimentalism generated in some individuals by the sight of a majestic fjord, which sentimentalism is annoying to the clientele of an English inn\").\n", "James presented several experiments that demonstrated the operation of the semantic satiation effect in various cognitive tasks such as rating words and figures that are presented repeatedly in a short time, verbally repeating words then grouping them into concepts, adding numbers after repeating them out loud, and bilingual translations of words repeated in one of the two languages. In each case, the subjects would repeat a word or number for several seconds, then perform the cognitive task using that word. It was demonstrated that repeating a word prior to its use in a task made the task somewhat more difficult.\n", "BULLET::::- Syllable completion: e.g., \"Here is a picture of a rabbit. I'll say the first part of the word. Can you finish the word \"ra_____\"?\"\n\nBULLET::::- Syllable identity: e.g., \"Which part of \"complete\" and \"compare\" sound the same?\"\n\nBULLET::::- Syllable deletion: e.g., \"Say \"finish\". Now say it again without the \"fin\"\"\n\nBULLET::::- Onset-rime awareness tasks:\n\nBULLET::::- Spoken word recognition: e.g., \"Do these words rhyme: \"shell bell\"?\"\n\nBULLET::::- Spoken rhyme detection or rhyme oddity task: e.g., \"Which word does not rhyme: \"fish, dish, hook\"?\"\n\nBULLET::::- Spoken rhyme generation: e.g., \"Tell me words that rhyme with \"bell\"?\"\n\nBULLET::::- Onset-rime blending\n", "Robert Beard, a professor emeritus of linguistics at Bucknell University, told an interviewer that \"The first thing people always write in [to his website] about is funny words\". Beard's first book was \"The 100 Funniest Words in English\", and among his selected words are \"absquatulate\", \"bowyangs\", \"collywobbles\", \"fartlek\", \"filibuster\", \"gongoozle\", \"hemidemisemiquaver\", and \"snollygoster\".\n\nSection::::Rudeness and entropy.\n", "Language is often implicated in humor. For example, the structural ambiguity of sentences is a key source for jokes. Take Groucho Marx's line from \"Animal Crackers\": \"One morning I shot an elephant in my pyjamas; how he got into my pyjamas I'll never know.\" The joke is funny because the main sentence could theoretically mean either that (1) the speaker, while wearing pajamas, shot an elephant or (2) the speaker shot an elephant that was inside his pyjamas.\n", "BULLET::::- Phoneme deletion, also referred to as phoneme elision: e.g., \"Say \"coat\". Now say it again but don't say /k/\"\n\nBULLET::::- Phoneme segmentation with words or non-words: e.g., \"How many sounds can you hear in the word \"it\"?\n\nBULLET::::- Phoneme reversal: e.g., \"Say \"na\" (as in \"nap\"). Now say na backwards\"\n\nBULLET::::- Phoneme manipulation: e.g., \"Say \"dash\". Now say it again, but instead of /æ/ say /I/\"\n\nBULLET::::- Spoonerism: e.g., \"felt made\" becomes \"melt fade\"\n\nSection::::Development.\n", "BULLET::::8. Arbitrariness within human language suggests that there is no direct connection between the type of signal (word) and what is being referenced. For example, an animal as large as a cow can be referred to by a very short word .\n\nBULLET::::9. Discreteness: Each basic unit of speech can be categorized and is distinct from other categories. In human language, there are only a small set of sound ranges that are used and the differences between these bits of sound are absolute. In contrast, the waggle dance of honey bees is continuous.\n", "In some Spanish dialects, final intervocalic () is dropped, such as in \"pescado\" (fish), which would typically be pronounced but can be manifested as dialectically. Speakers sensitive to this variation may insert a intervocalically into a word without such a consonant, such as in the case of \"bacalao\" (cod), correctly pronounced but occasionally hypercorrected to .\n\nThe same holds true for speakers with seseo, who pronounce the letters \"z\" and soft \"c\" as , who find themselves in parts of Spain that pronounce them as (distinción), sometimes hypercorrect all instances of \"s\" as (ceceo).\n", "Allmusic's David Jeffries said of the album, \"...if you happen to enjoy the way Burnham turns from erudite to ignorant on a dime, then \"Words Words Words\" is the gift that keeps on giving. Things move fast in this act, giving the home listeners a distinct advantage over the audience captured here, who often seem to be laughing five seconds after the fact as they unravel the wordplay. ... Hilarious, plus you get the thrill of feeling smug and horrible at the very same time.\"\n", "To provide a possible evolutionary explanation of these phenomena, the authors of the study said that unusual occurrences may be experienced as indicating the presence of potential threats, and that humor may be a way of signalling to others that one has realized that a perceived threat is actually harmless. Westbury said \"Strange as it may seem, that same mechanism may be activated when you see an unlikely looking word or a highly taboo one – you experience relief as you recognize that it's completely harmless – just a joke.\"\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Involuntary semantic memory retrieval (ISM), or \"semantic-popping\", occurs in the same fashion as IAM retrieval. However, the elicited memory is devoid of personal grounding and often considered trivial, such as a random word, image, or phrase. ISM retrieval can occur as a result of spreading activation, where words, thoughts, and concepts activate related semantic memories continually. When enough related memories are primed that an interrelated concept, word, thought, or image \"pops\" into consciousness and you are unaware of the extent of its relatedness within your memory. Spreading activation is thought to build over a period of many hours, days, or even weeks before a random semantic memory \"pops\".\n", "The use of Latent Semantic Analysis has been prevalent in the study of human memory, especially in areas of free recall and memory search. There is a positive correlation between the semantic similarity of two words (as measured by LSA) and the probability that the words would be recalled one after another in free recall tasks using study lists of random common nouns. They also noted that in these situations, the inter-response time between the similar words was much quicker than between dissimilar words. These findings are referred to as the Semantic Proximity Effect.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-16340	Why was prehistoric everything so massive in scale compared to living beings now?	It wasn't. Most dinosaurs were not huge. Animals alive today are larger than any other animal we know to ever have existed. But our searching through the fossil record biases us to finding larger animals, since smaller bones are more easily destroyed, and more easily missed if they are preserved. We also tend to represent the larger animals more commonly, because they are exciting to us. And being big is only sometimes advantageous. Today, for instance, being big is a big disadvantage, since it tends to put you at odds with humankind, and as a result we have wiped out many large animals. Likewise, other events in history have made being big a problem, such as the meteor which ended the age of the dinosaurs. If the food chain collapses, being big and hungry becomes a major problem.	[ "From antiquity, fossils of large animals were often quoted as having lived together with the giants from the Book of Genesis: e.g. the Tannin or \"great sea monsters\" of Gen. 1:21. They are often described in later books of the Bible, especially by God himself in the Book of Job: e.g. Re'em in verse 39:9, Behemoth in chapter 40 and Leviathan in chapter 41. With the advent of geological mapping in the early 19th century, it became increasingly obvious that much of the fossils associated with the \"secondary\" (sedimentary) rock, notably large animals like ichthyosaurs, mosasaurs, pliosaurs and the various giant mammals found when excavating the Catacombs of Paris, were neither those of giant humans nor of any extant animals. The geologists of the day increasingly came to use the term \"antediluvian\" only for the younger strata containing fossils of animals resembling those alive today.\n", "As with South America, some elements of the Eurasian megafauna were similar to those of North America. Among the most recognizable Eurasian species are the woolly mammoth, steppe mammoth, straight-tusked elephant, aurochs, steppe bison, cave lion, cave bear, cave hyena, \"Homotherium\", Irish elk, giant polar bears, woolly rhinoceros, Merck's rhinoceros, narrow-nosed rhinoceros, and \"Elasmotherium\". In contrast, today the largest European land mammal is the European bison or wisent.\n\nSection::::Regions affected.:Africa.\n\nModern humans evolved here.\n\nSection::::Regions affected.:Australia.\n", "Early in the Cenozoic, following the K-Pg event, the planet was dominated by relatively small fauna, including small mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians. From a geological perspective, it did not take long for mammals and birds to greatly diversify in the absence of the dinosaurs that had dominated during the Mesozoic. Some flightless birds grew larger than humans. These species are sometimes referred to as \"terror birds,\" and were formidable predators. Mammals came to occupy almost every available niche (both marine and terrestrial), and some also grew very large, attaining sizes not seen in most of today's terrestrial mammals.\n", "BULLET::::- Elephants are the largest living land animals. They and their relatives arose in Africa, but until recently had a nearly worldwide distribution. The African bush elephant (\"Loxodonta africana\") has a shoulder height of up to and weighs up to . Among recently extinct proboscideans, mammoths (\"Mammuthus\") were close relatives of elephants, while mastodons (\"Mammut\") were much more distantly related. The steppe mammoth (\"M. trogontherii\") is estimated to have commonly weighed around 10 tonnes, making it possibly the largest proboscid, which would make it the second largest land mammal after indricotherines.\n\nBULLET::::- Order Sirenia\n", "The evolution of grass brought a remarkable change to the Earth's landscape, and the new open spaces created pushed mammals to get bigger and bigger. Grass started to expand in the Miocene, and the Miocene is where many modern- day mammals first appeared. Giant ungulates like \"Paraceratherium\" and \"Deinotherium\" evolved to rule the grasslands. The evolution of grass also brought primates down from the trees, and started human evolution. The first big cats evolved during this time as well. The Tethys Sea was closed off by the collision of Africa and Europe.\n", "Both marine and continental faunas were essentially modern but with many more large land mammals such as Mammoths, Mastodons, \"Diprotodon\", \"Smilodon\", tiger, lion, Aurochs, short-faced bears, giant sloths, \"Gigantopithecus\" and others. Isolated places such as Australia, Madagascar, New Zealand and islands in the Pacific saw the evolution of large birds and even reptiles such as the Elephant bird, moa, Haast's eagle, \"Quinkana\", \"Megalania\" and \"Meiolania\".\n", "Early in the Cenozoic, following the K-Pg extinction event, most of the fauna was relatively small, and included small mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians. From a geological perspective, it did not take long for mammals and birds to greatly diversify in the absence of the large reptiles that had dominated during the Mesozoic. A group of avians known as the \"terror birds\" grew larger than the average human and were formidable predators. Mammals came to occupy almost every available niche (both marine and terrestrial), and some also grew very large, attaining sizes not seen in most of today's mammals.\n", "BULLET::::- c.4,560–4,550 Ma – Proto-Earth forms at the outer (cooler) edge of the habitable zone of the Solar System. At this stage the solar constant of the Sun was only about 73% of its current value, but liquid water may have existed on the surface of the Proto-Earth, probably due to the greenhouse warming of high levels of methane and carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere. Early bombardment phase begins: because the solar neighbourhood is rife with large planetoids and debris, Earth experiences a number of giant impacts that help to increase its overall size.\n\nSection::::Precambrian Supereon.\n", "Largest prehistoric animals\n\nThe largest prehistoric organisms include both vertebrate and invertebrate species. Many of them are described below, along with their typical range of size (for the general dates of extinction, see the link to each). Many species mentioned might not actually be the largest representative of their clade due to the incompleteness of the fossil record and many of the sizes given are merely estimates since no complete specimen have been found. Their body mass, especially, is mostly conjecture because soft tissue was rarely fossilized. Generally the size of extinct species was subject to energetic and biomechanical constraints.\n", "BULLET::::- The largest living primate, at up to , is the gorilla (\"Gorilla beringei\" and \"Gorilla gorilla\", with three of four subspecies being critically endangered). The extinct Malagasy sloth lemur \"Archaeoindris\" reached a similar size, while the extinct \"Gigantopithecus blacki\" of Southeast Asia is believed to have been at least two times larger. Some populations of archaic \"Homo\" were significantly larger on average than recent \"Homo sapiens\"; for example, \"Homo heidelbergensis\" in southern Africa may have commonly reached in height, while Neanderthals were about 30% more massive.\n\nBULLET::::- Order Rodentia\n", "Because of the small initial size of all mammals following the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs, nonmammalian vertebrates had a roughly ten-million-year-long window of opportunity (during the Paleocene) for evolution of gigantism without much competition. During this interval, apex predator niches were often occupied by reptiles, such as terrestrial crocodilians (e.g. \"Pristichampsus\"), large snakes (e.g. \"Titanoboa\") or varanid lizards, or by flightless birds (e.g. \"Paleopsilopterus\" in South America). This is also the period when megafaunal flightless herbivorous gastornithid birds evolved in the Northern Hemisphere, while flightless paleognaths evolved to large size on Gondwanan land masses and Europe. Gastornithids and at least one lineage of flightless paleognath birds originated in Europe, both lineages dominating niches for large herbivores while mammals remained below 45 kg (in contrast with other landmasses like North America and Asia, which saw the earlier evolution of larger mammals) and were the largest European tetrapods in the Paleocene.\n", "The sauropods were the largest and heaviest dinosaurs. For much of the dinosaur era, the smallest sauropods were larger than anything else in their habitat, and the largest were an order of magnitude more massive than anything else that has since walked the Earth. Giant prehistoric mammals such as \"Paraceratherium\" and \"Palaeoloxodon\" (the largest land mammals ever) were dwarfed by the giant sauropods, and only modern whales surpass them in size. There are several proposed advantages for the large size of sauropods, including protection from predation, reduction of energy use, and longevity, but it may be that the most important advantage was dietary. Large animals are more efficient at digestion than small animals, because food spends more time in their digestive systems. This also permits them to subsist on food with lower nutritive value than smaller animals. Sauropod remains are mostly found in rock formations interpreted as dry or seasonally dry, and the ability to eat large quantities of low-nutrient browse would have been advantageous in such environments.\n", "BULLET::::- Theropods: dinosaurs that first evolved in the Triassic period but did not evolve into large sizes until the Jurassic. Most Triassic theropods, such as the \"Coelophysis\", were only around 1–2 meters long and hunted small prey in the shadow of the giant Rauisuchians.\n", "Australia was characterized by marsupials, monotremes, crocodilians, testudines, monitors and numerous large flightless birds. Pleistocene Australia also supported the large short-faced kangaroo (\"Procoptodon goliah\"), \"Diprotodon\" (a giant wombat), the marsupial lion (\"Thylacoleo carnifex\"), the flightless birds \"Genyornis\" and \"Dromornis\", the 5-meter snake \"Wonambi\" and the giant lizard, the megalania.\n\nSection::::Regions affected.:Insular.\n", "The depletion of plant life contributed to declining concentrations of oxygen in the atmosphere. High oxygen levels had made the enormous arthropods of the time possible. Due to the decreasing oxygen, these sizes could no longer be accommodated, and thus between this and the loss of habitat, the giant arthropods were wiped out in this event, most notably the giant dragonflies (Meganeura) and millipedes (Arthropleura)..\n\nSection::::Biotic recovery and evolutionary consequences.:Vertebrates.\n\nThis sudden collapse affected several large groups. Labyrinthodont amphibians were particularly devastated, while the first reptiles fared better, being physiologically better adapted to the drier conditions. \n", "In the spirit of Adrienne Mayor's ground-breaking studies of 2000 and 2005, the documentary explores how fossils may have influenced the mythologies of different cultures, including the Native Americans and the ancient Greeks. Mayor speculated that fossils could have led to mythological depictions of the thunderbird, the giant bird of Native American mythology, and the Cyclopes, the one-eyed giants of Greek and Roman mythology. The concept of the Cyclopes may have been derived from Greek encounters with elephant skulls. The Greeks, unfamiliar with living elephants, could have misinterpreted the skull's nose cavity as a single eye socket.\n", "BULLET::::- The largest prehistoric horse was \"Equus giganteus\" of North America. It was estimated to grow to more than and at the shoulders.\n\nBULLET::::- The giant tapir \"Tapirus augustus\" was the largest tapir ever, at about 1,100 lbs (500 kgs), 2.1 metres (6.9 ft) long and 0.9 metres (3.0 ft) tall at the shoulders to 3.5 metres (11 ft) long\n\nSection::::Vertebrates.:Mammals (Mammalia).:Carnivores (Carnivora).\n", "BULLET::::- The largest-known old world monkey, the prehistoric baboon \"Dinopithecus\" grew even larger than modern Mandrills, weighing as much as a grown man.\n\nBULLET::::- The largest-known new world monkey was \"Protopithecus\", weighing up to .\n\nBULLET::::- Some prehistoric prosimians grew to huge sizes as well. \"Archaeoindris\" was a lemur that lived in Madagascar and weighed , as large as a silverback gorilla. \"Megaladapis\" is another large extinct lemur at in length.\n\nSection::::Vertebrates.:Mammals (Mammalia).:Elephants, mammoths, and mastodons (Proboscidea).\n", "In addition to bears and birds were other predators of the following small animals:\n\nCarnivora\n\nHumans were interested in the large mammals, which included:\n\nAt some point, the larger mammals arrived: hyena, woolly rhinoceros, cave bear and mammoth.\n\nSection::::Human prehistory.\n", "BULLET::::- The dwarfing of animals is not explained by overkill. Numerous authors, however, have pointed out that dwarfing of animals is perfectly well explained by humans selectively harvesting the largest animals, and have provided proof that even within the 20th century numerous animal populations have reduced in average size due to human hunting.\n", "The sauropods were the largest and heaviest dinosaurs. For much of the dinosaur era, the smallest sauropods were larger than anything else in their habitat, and the largest were an order of magnitude more massive than anything else that has since walked the Earth. Giant prehistoric mammals such as \"Paraceratherium\" (the largest land mammal ever) were dwarfed by the giant sauropods, and only modern whales approach or surpass them in size. There are several proposed advantages for the large size of sauropods, including protection from predation, reduction of energy use, and longevity, but it may be that the most important advantage was dietary. Large animals are more efficient at digestion than small animals, because food spends more time in their digestive systems. This also permits them to subsist on food with lower nutritive value than smaller animals. Sauropod remains are mostly found in rock formations interpreted as dry or seasonally dry, and the ability to eat large quantities of low-nutrient browse would have been advantageous in such environments.\n", "Fossils were uncovered in the northern plains states. Life-sized models of \"Megacerops\" families (a male, female, and juvenile) are displayed at the James E. Martin Paleontological Research Laboratory, South Dakota School of Mines & Technology, and a different set at the Canadian Museum of Nature.\n", "Section::::Evolution of large body size.:In terrestrial mammals.\n", "Section::::Evolution of large body size.:In marine mammals.\n", "Humans evolved from a lineage of upright-walking apes whose earliest fossils date from over . Although early members of this lineage had chimp-sized brains, about 25% as big as modern humans', there are signs of a steady increase in brain size after about . There is a long-running debate about whether \"modern\" humans are descendants of a single small population in Africa, which then migrated all over the world less than 200,000 years ago and replaced previous hominine species, or arose worldwide at the same time as a result of interbreeding.\n\nSection::::History of life.:Mass extinctions.\n" ]	[ "Prehistoric everything was massive in scale compared to living beings now.", "Structures and living beings were much larger in prehistoric times than they are in modern times." ]	[ "Most dinosaurs were not huge, it just seems that way because smaller bones are more easily destroyed, and more easily missed if they are preserved, making it harder to find evidence of smaller prehistoric animals.", "Living beings and objects were not larger in prehistoric times, in fact animals today are larger than prehistoric animals. The reason as to why it appears that prehistoric animals were bigger were due to larger bones of animals being less likely to be destroyed." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Prehistoric everything was massive in scale compared to living beings now.", "Structures and living beings were much larger in prehistoric times than they are in modern times." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Most dinosaurs were not huge, it just seems that way because smaller bones are more easily destroyed, and more easily missed if they are preserved, making it harder to find evidence of smaller prehistoric animals.", "Living beings and objects were not larger in prehistoric times, in fact animals today are larger than prehistoric animals. The reason as to why it appears that prehistoric animals were bigger were due to larger bones of animals being less likely to be destroyed." ]
2018-01035	How can we choose whether warm or cold air exits our mouths when breathing out?	As a person that is involved both in thermodynamics and fluid dynamics I'll try to explain. As @palabam had written the air that exiting our lungs is the same temperature always. What matters then is speed. Here comes Reynolds Number (abbr. Re). Re desribes the flow behaviour, weather it is laminar or turbulent. The higher the speed, the higher the Re and turbulence appears. It happens when we want to move more air in the same space, the same thing happens when we let water through pipe that is to small - it starts to make noises. Turbulent flow has higher heat transfer coefficient than laminar. Basically, the more air we push through, the more there is to heat, and colder it seems. [Because turbulent boundary layer is smaller than laminar the temperature gradient is steeper which makes the heat from your hands go faster to air] Then it's not the air temperature that is different, but the rate at which You heat it, makes it feel colder. TL;DR: It's not the temperature that is different, it's the gradient of temperature that is important, which is affected by speed of passing air. Self note: I'll be a terrible parent. I don't have children yet. It's my 3rd post on reddit.	[ "The human nasal passages serve as a heat exchanger, with cool air being inhaled and warm air being exhaled. Its effectiveness can be demonstrated by putting the hand in front of the face and exhaling, first through the nose and then through the mouth. Air exhaled through the nose is substantially cooler. This effect can be enhanced with clothing, by, for example, wearing a scarf over the face while breathing in cold weather.\n", "The system worked as follows. Heat is constantly lost from the body. Food products reach the heart and are processed into new blood, releasing fire during metabolism, which raises the blood temperature too high. That raises the heart temperature, causing lung volume to increase, in turn raising the airflow at the mouth. The cool air brought in through the mouth reduces the heart temperature, so the lung volume accordingly decreases, restoring the temperature to normal.\n", "BULLET::::- Stack ventilation - Cross ventilation is an effective cooling strategy, however, wind is an unreliable resource. Stack ventilation is an alternative design strategy that relies on the buoyancy of warm air to rise and exit through openings located at ceiling height. Cooler outside air replaces the rising warm air through carefully designed inlets placed near the floor.\n\nOne specific application of natural ventilation is night flushing.\n\nSection::::Modulation and heat dissipation techniques.:Night flushing.\n", "We use our nose and throat as a regenerative heat exchanger when we breathe. The cooler air coming in is warmed, so that it reaches the lungs as warm air. On the way back out, this warmed air deposits much of its heat back onto the sides of the nasal passages, so that these passages are then ready to warm the next batch of air coming in. Some animals, including humans, have curled sheets of bone inside the nose called nasal turbinates to increase the surface area for heat exchange.\n\nSection::::Types of regenerators.:Cryogenics.\n", "Section::::Working principle.\n", "Section::::Environmental impacts.:Energy consumption.\n", "In the lungs a temperature of 37 °C and 100% relative humidity (RH) is the ideal condition for the ciliary activity. If the conditions are too warm or cold, the cilia beat slower and at some point not at all. During normal nasal inspiration, air of 22 °C and 40% RH is conditioned into air of 32 °C and 99% RH at the level of the trachea.\n", "The consequences of a chosen action must be compared with the consequences of possible alternative actions. The fewer effects the possible choices have in common, the more confident one can be in inferring a correspondent disposition. Or, put another way, the more distinctive the consequences of a choice, the more confidently one can infer intention and disposition.\n", "An even more indirect way of making such a request would be to say, in Peter's presence in the room with the open window, \"I'm cold.\" The speaker of this request must rely upon Peter's understanding of several items of information that is not explicit: that the window is open and is the cause of them being cold, that being cold is an uncomfortable sensation and they wish it to be taken care of, and that Peter cares to rectify this situation by closing the window. This, of course, depends much on the relationship between the requester and Peter—he might understand the request differently if they were his boss at work than if they were his girlfriend or boyfriend at home. The more presumed information pertaining to the request, the more indirect the speech act may be considered to be.\n", "An isobaric process is shown on a \"P\"–\"V\" diagram as a straight horizontal line, connecting the initial and final thermostatic states. If the process moves towards the right, then it is an expansion. If the process moves towards the left, then it is a compression.\n\nSection::::Sign convention for work.\n\nThe motivation for the specific sign conventions of thermodynamics comes from early development of heat engines. When designing a heat engine, the goal is to have the system produce and deliver work output. The source of energy in a heat engine, is a heat input.\n", "Breathing involves expelling stale air from the blowhole, forming an upward, steamy spout, followed by inhaling fresh air into the lungs; a spout only occurs when the warm air from the lungs meets the cold external air, so it may only form in colder climates.\n", "Driving Force is the difference in the level of heat and humidity on one side of the material compared to the other side. Also known as the Differential Pressure. By 2nd law of thermodynamics moisture will move towards dry. Therefore, warm, moist air will flow towards cold, dry air until there is an equilibrium.\n", "Section::::Types.:Run-around.\n", "Blood flow to skin and fat are affected by skin and core temperature, and resting muscle perfusion is controlled by the temperature of the muscle itself. During exercise increased flow to the working muscles is often balanced by reduced flow to other tissues, such as kidneys spleen and liver. Blood flow to the muscles is also lower in cold water, but exercise keeps the muscle warm and flow elevated even when the skin is chilled. Blood flow to fat normally increases during exercise, but this is inhibited by immersion in cold water. Adaptation to cold reduces the extreme vasoconstriction which usually occurs with cold water immersion. Variations in perfusion distribution do not necessarily affect respiratory inert gas exchange, though some gas may be locally trapped by changes in perfusion. Rest in a cold environment will reduce inert gas exchange from skin, fat and muscle, whereas exercise will increase gas exchange. Exercise during decompression can reduce decompression time and risk, providing bubbles are not present, but can increase risk if bubbles are present. Inert gas exchange is least favourable for the diver who is warm and exercises at depth during the ingassing phase, and rests and is cold during decompression.\n", "BULLET::::- In a warm occlusion, the cold air mass overtaking the warm front is warmer than the cool air ahead of the warm front, and rides over the colder air mass while lifting the warm air.\n", "They do not necessarily have to be synoptic, or large scale, cold fronts. Very often in the spring to early summer the temperature difference between the cold lake waters and the warmer air over land can be as much as 35-40 °F. Under weak prevailing winds, a density current can often develop in the form of a lake breeze that moves from that water to the adjacent shoreline and several miles inland. This \"lake-breeze cold front\" can drop temperature in places like Chicago, Milwaukee and Green Bay significantly as they cross the area. There has been many a spring day at Wrigley Field that surprises people who may have travelled from an inland location toward the shore to take in an afternoon game, only to feel the effects of the \"pneumonia front\" as that cold blast of air comes through.\n", "Mouth breathing\n\nMouth breathing is breathing through the mouth rather than the nose.\n", "After a cold start, an engine needs an air-fuel mixture richer than what it needs at [[operating temperature]], and the [[catalytic converter]] does not function efficiently until it has reached its own operating temperature. The air injected upstream of the converter supports combustion in the exhaust headpipe, which speeds catalyst warmup and reduces the amount of unburned hydrocarbon emitted from the tailpipe.\n\nSection::::Regulatory agencies.:Exhaust gas recirculation.\n", "Variations in perfusion distribution do not necessarily affect respiratory inert gas exchange, though some gas may be locally trapped by changes in perfusion. Rest in a cold environment will reduce inert gas exchange from skin, fat and muscle, whereas exercise will increase gas exchange. Exercise during decompression can reduce decompression time and risk, providing bubbles are not present, but can increase risk if bubbles are present.\n\nInert gas exchange is least favourable for the diver who is warm and exercises at depth during the ingassing phase, and rests and is cold during decompression.\n", "The airway of Dis is there, and through the yawning gates the pathless route is revealed. Once you cross the threshold, you are committed to the unswerving course that takes you to the very Regia of Orcus. But you shouldn’t go emptyhanded through the shadows past this point, but rather carry cakes of honeyed barley in both hands, and transport two coins in your mouth.\n", "Section::::Types.:Heat pipes.\n", "Neilson did not specify in detail what form the chamber for heating the air should take. He merely said:\n", "In a car equipped with air conditioning, outside air, or cabin air if the recirculation flap has been set to close the external air passages, is first forced, often after being filtered by a cabin air filter, through the air conditioner's evaporator coil. This can be thought of as a heater core filled with very cold liquid that is undergoing a phase change to gas (the evaporation), a process which cools rather than heats the incoming air. In order to obtain the desired temperature incoming air may first be cooled by the air conditioning and then heated again by the heater core. In a vehicle fitted with manual controls for the heater and air conditioning compressor, using both systems together will dehumidify the air in the cabin, as the evaporator coil removes moisture from the air due to condensation. This can result in increased air comfort levels inside the vehicle. Automatic temperature control systems can take the best course of action in regulating the compressor operation, amount of reheating and blower speed depending upon the external air temperature, the internal one and the cabin air temperature value or a rapid defrost effect requested by the user.\n", "Section::::Types.:Fixed plate heat exchangers.\n", "The starting point in carrying out an estimate both for cooling and heating depends on the exterior climate and interior specified conditions. However, before taking up the heat load calculation, it is necessary to find fresh air requirements for each area in detail, as pressurization is an important consideration.\n\nSection::::HVAC industry and standards.:International.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02144	How have cave paintings from 50,000 years ago lasted so long?	A big part of it is that they were made inside caves, so the paintings are relatively undisturbed by sunlight, rain, wind, temperature variation, precipitation, etc. Plus they are on rock walls not paper so the medium itself wouldn't erode for millions of years.	[ "Scientific examinations conducted in 2011 estimated that the hand stencils and animal painting on the walls were between 35,000 and 40,000 years old. The age of the paintings was estimated through analysis of small radioactive traces of uraniam isotopes present in the crust that had accumulated on top of the paintings. The hand paintings are at least as old as cave paintings in Europe, such as those at the Cave of El Castillo (Spain) and Gorham's Cave (Gibraltar).\n", "Over 300 caves have been discovered in Spain and France that house parietal art from prehistoric times. Spectacular decorated caves have also been found in Africa (e.g. Namibia), Argentina, India, China, Australia and other locations. Cave art was discovered in the 19th century, long before absolute dating was possible, and the antiquity of the art was much debated. Some scholars at the time developed a typology that was overthrown when AMS radiocarbon dating became available.\n\nSection::::Interpretations.\n", "The oldest known cave painting is a red hand stencil in Maltravieso cave, Cáceres, Spain. It has been dated using the uranium-thorium method to older than 64,000 years\n\nand was made by a Neanderthal.\n\nThe oldest date given to an animal cave painting is now a bull dated circa as over 40 000 years, at Lubang Jeriji Saléh cave, East Kalimantan, Borneo, Indonesia. Before this discovery, the oldest known cave painting was a depiction of a pig with a minimum age of 35,400 years, at Timpuseng cave in Sulawesi, Indonesia.\n", "The early art of this region has been divided into five periods:\n\nBULLET::::- Bubalus Period, roughly 12-8 kya\n\nBULLET::::- Round Head Period, roughly 10-8 kya\n\nBULLET::::- Pastoral Period, roughly 7.5-4 kya\n\nBULLET::::- Horse Period, roughly 3-2 kya\n\nBULLET::::- Camel Period, 2,000 years ago to the present\n", "Much of this art is recent (as evident from the subject matter depicted, including depictions of wagons and of white settlers wearing hats), but the oldest samples have been tentatively dated to as early as 26,000 years ago.\n\nMatobo National Park, Zimbabwe, has many rock paintings. The oldest examples to 7,000 years ago, possibly as early as 13,000 years ago, while the bulk were likely produced between c. 1,700 and 1,500 years ago.\n\nPetroglyphs in North Africa such as those at Tassili n'Ajjer, Algeria, are dated to about 12,000 to 10,000 years old.\n", "BULLET::::- El Castillo cave, one of the Monte Castillo caves (Spain) – contains decorations in red ochre paint which has been blown onto the walls in the forms of hand stencils as long as 37,000 years ago, and painted dots. One faint red dot has been dated to 40,800 years ago, making it the oldest dated cave decoration in the world. It is 5,000-10,000 years older than caves so-far found in France.\n", "Distinctive monochrome and polychrome cave paintings and murals exist in the mid-peninsula regions of southern Baja California and northern Baja California Sur, consisting of Pre-Columbian paintings of humans, land animals, sea creatures, and abstract designs. These paintings are mostly confined to the sierras of this region, but can also be found in outlying mesas and rock shelters. According to recent radiocarbon studies of the area, of materials recovered from archaeological deposits in the rock shelters and on materials in the paintings themselves, suggest that the Great Murals may have a time range extending as far back as 7,500 years ago.\n", "The oldest known cave paintings are over 40,000 years old (art of the Upper Paleolithic), found in both the Franco-Cantabrian region in western Europe, and in the caves in the district of Maros (Sulawesi, Indonesia). The oldest type of cave paintings are hand stencils and simple geometric shapes; the oldest undisputed examples of figurative cave paintings are somewhat younger, close to 35,000 years old.\n", "Section::::Pre-history.\n\nThe oldest known paintings are approximately 40,000 years old. José Luis Sanchidrián at the University of Cordoba, Spain, believes the paintings are more likely to have been painted by Neanderthals than early modern humans. Images at the Chauvet cave in France are thought to be about 32,000 years old. They are engraved and painted using red ochre and black pigment and show horses, rhinoceros, lions, buffalo, mammoth or humans often hunting. There are examples of cave paintings all over the world—in France, India, Spain, Portugal, China, Australia etc.\n", "Executed mainly in red and white with the occasional use of green and yellow, the paintings depict the lives and times of the people who lived in the caves, including scenes of childbirth, communal dancing and drinking, religious rites and burials, as well as indigenous animals.\n\nSection::::Paleolithic cave art by region.:Southern Africa.\n\nCave paintings found at the Apollo 11 Cave in Namibia are estimated to date from approximately 25,500–27,500 years ago.\n", "About 1,500 negative handprints have also been found in 30 painted caves in the Sangkulirang area of Kalimantan; preliminary dating analysis as of 2005 put their age in the range of 10,000 years old. \n\nA 2014 study based on uranium–thorium dating dated a Maros hand stencil to a minimum age of 39,900 years. \n\nA painting of a babirusa was dated to at least 35.4 ka, placing it among the oldest known figurative depictions worldwide.\n\nThe Padah-Lin Caves of Burma contain 11,000-year-old paintings and many rock tools.\n", "In Australia, cave paintings have been found on the Arnhem Land plateau showing megafauna which are thought to have been extinct for over 40,000 years, making this site another candidate for oldest known painting; however, the proposed age is dependent on the estimate of the extinction of the species seemingly depicted. Another Australian site, Nawarla Gabarnmang, has charcoal drawings that have been radiocarbon-dated to 28,000 years, making it the oldest site in Australia and among the oldest in the world for which reliable date evidence has been obtained.\n", "Noted sites containing early art include Tassili n'Ajjer in southern Algeria, Tadrart Acacus in Libya (A Unesco World Heritage site), and the Tibesti Mountains in northern Chad. Rock carvings at the Wonderwerk Cave in South Africa have been dated to this age. Contentious dates as far back as 29,000 years have been obtained at a site in Tanzania. A site at the Apollo 11 Cave complex in Namibia has been dated to 27,000 years.\n", "A 2018 study claimed an age of 64,000 years for the oldest examples of (non-figurative) cave art in Iberia, which would imply production by Neanderthals rather than modern humans. In November 2018, scientists reported the discovery of the oldest known figurative art painting, over 40,000 (perhaps as old as 52,000) years old, of an unknown animal, in the cave of Lubang Jeriji Saléh on the Indonesian island of Borneo.\n\nSection::::Dating.\n", "Chaloupka, George 1993, Journey in time : the worlds longest continuing art tradition : the 50,000 year story of the Australian Aboriginal rock art of Arnhem Land, Reed, Chatswood, N.S.W \n\nChaloupka, George 1987, Report on acquital [sic] of 1986 grants, Rock Art Protection Programme, Darwin , 1987\n\nChaloupka, George & Ash, R 1973, Report on flooding of the Magela Creek in March 1973, Water Resources Branch, Dept. of the Northern Territory, Darwin\n", "BULLET::::- Bhimbetka rock shelters (India) – the shelters, decorated with art from 30,000 years ago, contain the oldest evidence of artists exhibiting their work on the Indian sub-continent.\n\nBULLET::::- Bradshaw rock paintings (Australia) – Aboriginal artists painted well over a million paintings in this site in the Kimberley, many of human figures ornamented with accessories such as bags, tassels and headdresses. These artworks are well over 20,000 years old.\n\nBULLET::::- Cantabria cave (Spain)\n", "Other examples may date as late as the Early Bronze Age, but the well-known Magdalenian style seen at Lascaux in France (c.15,000 BCE) and Altamira in Spain died out about 10,000BCE, coinciding with the advent of the Neolithic period. Some caves probably continued to be painted over a period of several thousands of years.\n", "In November 2018, scientists reported the discovery of the oldest known figurative art painting, over 40,000 (perhaps as old as 52,000) years old, of an unknown animal, in the cave of Lubang Jeriji Saléh on the Indonesian island of Borneo.\n\nSection::::Paleolithic cave art by region.:India.\n", "Cave painting art is found in all human occupied continents, it is a world heritage, as proclaimed by UNESCO. Its antiquity goes back to the dawn of human prehistory. In France and Spain, the most ancient cave paintings date back to 30,000 years Before Present (BP).\n\nSection::::Northeastern México - Cave Painting.\n", "The earliest undisputed African rock art dates back about 10,000 years. The first naturalistic paintings of humans found in Africa date back about 8,000 years apparently originating in the Nile River valley, spread as far west as Mali about 10,000 years ago.\n", "Cave art in Europe continued to the Mesolithic (at the beginnings of the Holocene) about 12,000 years ago. \n\nEuropean Upper Paleolithic art is also known informally as \"Ice Age art\", in reference to the last glacial period.\n\nIn November 2018, scientists reported the discovery of the oldest known figurative art painting, over 40,000 (perhaps as old as 52,000) years old, of an unknown animal, in a cave on the Indonesian island of Borneo.\n\nSection::::Europe.\n", "Significant early cave paintings, executed in ochre, have been found in Kakadu, Australia. Ochre is not an organic material, so carbon dating of these pictures is often impossible. Sometimes the approximate date, or at least, an epoch, can be surmised from the painting content, contextual artifacts, or organic material intentionally or inadvertently mixed with the inorganic ochre paint, including torch soot.\n", "There is a significant body of rock painting in the region around Matobo National Park of Zimbabwe dating from as early as 6000 BCE to 500 CE.\n", "In 2009, cavers discovered drawings in Coliboaia Cave in Romania, stylistically comparable to those at Chauvet. An initial dating puts the age of an image in the same range as Chauvet: about 32,000 years old.\n", "More generally, the somewhat later rock art of the Iberian Mediterranean Basin covers over 700 caves and rock shelters with mostly painted art in a rather different style, with far more human figures.\n\nSection::::Preservation.\n" ]	[ "Cave paintings should not have survived for 50,000 years." ]	[ "Cave paintings are undisturbed by weather and rock erodes very slowly." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Cave paintings should not have survived for 50,000 years." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Cave paintings are undisturbed by weather and rock erodes very slowly." ]
2018-02327	Why were Barclays so keen to avoid a government bailout during the 2008 Financial crisis?	The bailout involved the government taking over a large share of the bank in return for bailout money. Barclay's probably figured they could recover without a bailout from the government and thus avoid having to give up any of the company.	[ "Barclays launched a further round of capital raising, approved by special resolution on 24 November 2008, as part of its overall plan to achieve higher capital targets set by the FSA to ensure it would remain independent. Barclays raised £7 billion from investors from Abu Dhabi and Qatar. Existing Barclays shareholders complained they were not offered full pre-emption rights in this round of capital raising, even threatening to revolt at the extraordinary meeting. Sheikh Mansour and Qatar Holding agreed to open up £500 million of their new holdings of reserve capital instruments for clawback. Existing investors now took this up.\n", "On 13 October 2008, Prime Minister Gordon Brown announced a government plan for the Treasury to invest £37 billion (, ) of new capital into major UK banksincluding Royal Bank of Scotland Group, Lloyds TSB and HBOSto avert a collapse of the financial sector. Barclays avoided taking a capital investment from the UK Government by raising capital privately and HSBC moved capital to its UK business from its other businesses overseas.\n", "The extent to which different banks participated varied according to their needs. HSBC Group issued a statement announcing it was injecting £750 m of capital into the UK bank and therefore has \"no plans to utilise the UK government's recapitalisation initiative ... [as] the Group remains one of the most strongly capitalised and liquid banks in the world\". Standard Chartered also declared its support for the scheme but its intention not to participate in the capital injection element. Barclays raised its own new capital from private investors.\n", "BULLET::::- A 50% peak-to-trough fall in UK house prices;\n\nBULLET::::- A 60% peak-to-trough fall in UK commercial property prices.\n\nThe conclusion from this exercise was that Lloyds would need additional capital if such a scenario ever occurred. Because the wholesale funding markets were effectively closed at the time, in March 2009 Lloyds made a deal with the UK government consisting of two elements:\n", "In January 2009, the press reported that further capital may be required and that while the government might be willing to fund this, it may be unable to do so because the previous capital investment from the Qatari state was subject to a proviso that no third party might put in further money without the Qataris receiving compensation at the value the shares had commanded in October 2008. In March 2009, it was reported that in 2008, Barclays received billions of dollars from its insurance arrangements with AIG, including US$8.5 billion from funds provided by the United States to bail out AIG.\n", "On 9 November 2007, Barclays shares dropped 9% and were even temporarily suspended for a short period of time, due to rumours of a £4.8 billion (US$10 billion) exposure to bad debts in the US. However, a Barclays spokesman denied the rumours.\n\nBarclays sought to raise capital privately, avoiding direct equity investment from the UK government, which was offered to boost its capital ratio. Barclays believed that \"maintaining its independence from government was in the best interests of its shareholders\".\n", "In February 2012 Barclays was forced to pay £500 million in tax which it had tried to avoid. Barclays was accused by HMRC of designing two schemes that were intended to avoid substantial amounts of tax. Tax rules forced the bank to tell the UK authorities about its plans. David Gauke, Exchequer Secretary to the Treasury, said that \"We do not take today's action lightly, but the potential tax loss from this scheme and the history of previous abuse in this area mean that this is a circumstance where the decision to change the law with full retrospective effect is justified.\"\n", "In October 2008, the Labour Government of the UK introduced a bank rescue package as a response to the Financial crisis of 2007-2010. The Northern Rock bank had already been nationalised following its collapse in 2007, the government subsequently part-nationalised Bradford and Bingley, Lloyds Banking Group and the Royal Bank of Scotland. The government had been concerned about low levels of bank lending during the recession that followed the banking crisis and had also been critical of high levels of pay and bonuses in the financial sector. In the 2009 Pre-Budget Report, the Labour Chancellor of the Exchequer, Alistair Darling announced a temporary tax on bankers' bonuses, which required banks to pay 50% of all bonuses above £25,000 as a tax. This tax was equivalent to a 33.3% income tax. This tax was temporary and lasted only for one year, but some, including Ed Miliband, the leader of the Labour Party called upon the coalition government to extend this tax as a response to predictions that UK banks would pay out high levels of bonuses in 2011.\n", "Lloyds impairments peaked in the first half of 2009; by mid-2009 the Asset Protection Scheme increasingly looked like a poor deal for Lloyds. Following negotiations, the government confirmed on 3 November 2009 that Lloyds would not enter the schemealthough RBS still would. Instead, Lloyds launched a rights issue to raise capital from existing shareholders; as an existing 43.4% shareholder the government chose to take part in this and thus maintained its shareholding at 43.4%. Following this, the National Audit Office calculated the government's average buying price for its entire stake in Lloyds to be about 74 pence.\n", "In April 2008 HSBC launched a campaign selling mortgages. This was seen as a risky move by media and HSBC staff due to their previous non-plus attitude building on their 3% market share of the mortgage market. While other banks and building societies felt the effects of the 'credit crunch', HSBC, bolstered by a favourable savings to lending ratio, unveiled a mortgage rate matching deal that would offer non-HSBC mortgage customers the ability to match their current mortgage rate.\n", "Because Lloyd's was a tax shelter as well as an insurance market, the second issue affecting it was an increase in its external membership: by the end of the 1970s, the number of passive investors dwarfed the number of underwriters working in the market. Third, during the decade a number of scandals had come to light, including the collapse of F. H. \"Tim\" Sasse's non-marine syndicate 762, which had highlighted both the lack of regulation and the lack of legal powers of the Committee of Lloyd's (as it was then) to manage the Society.\n", "On 9 August 2007, BNP Paribas became the first major financial group to acknowledge the impact of the sub-prime crisis by closing two funds exposed to it. This day is now generally seen as the start of the credit crisis and the bank's quick reaction saved it from the fate of other large European banks such as UBS.\n", "The secondary banks, like the larger institutions, had been lending heavily based on the previously rising housing prices of the late 1960s and early 1970s, borrowing excessively in relation to the collateral assets. A sudden downturn in house prices and increases in interest rates well before the November 1973 oil crisis left the smaller institutions holding many loans secured by property with lower value than the loans. The Bank of England, led by Jasper Hollom, conducted negotiations resulting in bail-outs of around 30 of the smaller banks and intervened to assist some 30 others. While all of the banks were left able to pay depositors, the Bank of England lost an estimated £100 million. The downturn was exacerbated by the global 1973–74 stock market crash, which hit the UK while it was already in the midst of the housing price crash.\n", "Barclays' share price fell 54% in June 2009 after the International Petroleum Investment Company (IPIC), which had invested up to £4.75 billion in November 2008, sold 1.3 billion Barclays shares.\n", "On 30 August 2007, Barclays was forced to borrow £1.6 billion (US$3.2 billion) from the Bank of England sterling standby facility. This is made available as a last-resort when banks are unable to settle their debts to other banks at the end of daily trading. Despite rumours about liquidity at Barclays, the loan was necessary due to a technical problem with their computerised settlement network. A Barclays spokesman was quoted as saying \"There are no liquidity issues in the U.K markets. Barclays itself is flush with liquidity.\"\n", "The Barclay family were connected with slavery, both as proponents and opponents. David and Alexander Barclay were engaged in the slave trade in 1756. David Barclay of Youngsbury (1729-1809), on the other hand, was a noted abolitionist, and Verene Shepherd, the Jamaican historian of diaspora studies, singles out the case of how he chose to free his slaves in that colony.\n\nIn 1776 the firm was styled \"Barclay, Bevan and Bening\" and so remained until 1785, when another partner, John Tritton, who had married a Barclay, was admitted, and the business then became \"Barclay, Bevan, Bening and Tritton\".\n", "BULLET::::- The post-Graham loans, those loans written from December 2005 onwards, were envisaged to have a better default rate than earlier loans. But by August 2009 already 21% of all loans written since December 2005 had defaulted - similar to the experience of preGraham tranches.\n\nIn the year 2008/9 the total amount paid out by the Government to banks under the guarantees was £84.6m.\n\nSection::::Progress on EFG.\n\nIn his Pre Budget Report of 9 December 2009 the Chancellor advised that:\n", "BULLET::::- Asset Protection Scheme. Lloyds agreed in principle to enter the government's Asset Protection Scheme to insure it against potential future losses on previous loansprimarily on the old HBOS portfolio. The fee for this would have been paid for by the issue to the government of new 'B' (non-voting) shares, which could have increased the government holding to a maximum of c.62%or higher if the government had bought all the ordinary shares issued to redeem the preference shares.\n\nSection::::History.:June 2009 to present.\n", "During the 1970s, a number of issues arose which were to have significant influence on the course of the Society. The first was the tax structure in the UK: for a time, capital gains were taxed at up to 40 per cent (nil on gilts); earned income was taxed in the top bracket at 83 per cent, and investment income in the top bracket at 98 per cent. Lloyd's income counted as earned income, even for Names who did not work at Lloyd's, and this heavily influenced the direction of underwriting: in short, it was desirable for syndicates to make a (small) underwriting loss but a (larger) investment gain. The investment gain was typically achieved by \"bond washing\" or \"gilt stripping\": selling the gilt or other bond cum dividend and buying it back ex-dividend, thus forfeiting the interest income in exchange for a tax-free capital gain. Syndicate funds were also moved offshore (which later created problems through fraud and self-dealing).\n", "HSBC have also been accused of avoiding £2 billion worth of tax by \"Private Eye\" magazine by using a complicated system of channeling profits through the Netherlands. This has led to them being targeted by UK Uncut.\n\nOn 19 February 2011, Barclays was targeted. The date was arranged to coincide with their bonus announcements. It was also alleged that Barclays was only paying 1% corporation tax in the UK.\n", "In December 2008 the British anti-poverty charity War on Want released a report documenting the extent to which the UK high street banks invest in, provide banking services for and lend to arms companies. The report stated that Lloyds TSB is the only high street bank whose corporate social responsibility policy does not mention the arms industry, yet is that industry's second largest shareholder among high street banks.\n\nSection::::Controversies.:Tax evasion.\n", "BULLET::::- In the period April 2008 to January 2009, £178 million was advanced under the scheme, which represented 49% of the £360m limits allocated to all the participating banks.\n\nThe default rate on SFLG loans has been consistently high: \n\nBULLET::::- The 2004 Graham Report quotes an average default rate of 30 to 35%, equating to bad debt losses after capital repayments and any recoveries of around 20%.\n\nBULLET::::- The peak default rate was seen for loans written in 1989/ 1990, when the default rate exceeded 50%.\n", "Section::::History.:1960s: Hurricane Betsy and the Cromer report.\n\nIn 1965 Lloyd's had around 6,000 members on 300 syndicates when Hurricane Betsy struck the Gulf of Mexico, costing the market over £50 million. The catastrophe halted the capital that hitherto had been pouring into Lloyd's, and twice as many members left between 1965 and 1968 as had left over the prior eight years. It was soon realised that the membership of the Society, which had been largely made up of market participants, was too small in relation to the market's capitalisation and the risks that it was taking on.\n", "In July 2008, Barclays attempted to raise £4.5 billion through a non-traditional rights issue to shore up its weakened Tier 1 capital ratio, which involved a rights offer to existing shareholders and the sale of a stake to Sumitomo Mitsui Banking Corporation. Only 19% of shareholders took up their rights leaving investors China Development Bank and Qatar Investment Authority with increased holdings in the bank.\n", "On 12 June 2009, Barclays sold its Global Investors unit, which included its exchange traded fund business, iShares, to BlackRock for US$13.5 billion. Standard Life sold Standard Life Bank plc to Barclays plc in October 2009. The sale was completed on 1 January 2010. On 11 November 2009, Barclays and First Data, a global technology provider of information commerce, had entered into an agreement according to which Barclays would migrate a range of card portfolios to First Data's issuing and consumer finance platform. On 13 February 2010, Barclays announced it would pay more than £2 billion in bonuses. In March 2011 it was reported that Barclays had overtaken Santander UK to claim top spot as the UK's most complained against bank, with the country's official banking regulator, the Financial Services Authority having recorded 276,315 new customer complaints against Barclays Bank during the second half of 2010. Barclays nevertheless ranks only third in the UK among the mainstream clearing banks in terms of the number of its branches. Inline with costs cut, Barclays cut 1,400 jobs during the first half of 2011 and cut another 1,600 jobs for the rest of 2011.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01647	why do people not jump significantly higher when running and jumping off of two feet vs running and jumping off of one foot?	Because the time and coordination required to plant both feet mid sprint robs momentum?	[ "A jumper may be either stationary or moving when initiating a jump. In a jump from stationary (i.e., a \"standing jump\"), all of the work required to accelerate the body through launch is done in a single movement. In a \"moving jump\" or \"running jump\", the jumper introduces additional vertical velocity at launch while conserving as much horizontal momentum as possible. Unlike stationary jumps, in which the jumper's kinetic energy at launch is solely due to the jump movement, moving jumps have a higher energy that results from the inclusion of the horizontal velocity preceding the jump. Consequently, jumpers are able to jump greater distances when starting from a run.\n", "These forces are attenuated through increased stride length via increased hip flexion and extension through decreased ground contact time and more force being used in propulsion. With increased propulsion in the horizontal plane, less impact occurs from decreased force in the vertical plane. Increased hip flexion allows for increased use of the hip extensors through midstance and toe-off, allowing for more force production.\n", "One way to classify jumping is by the manner of foot transfer. In this classification system, five basic jump forms are distinguished:\n\nBULLET::::- Jump — jumping from and landing on two feet\n\nBULLET::::- Hop — jumping from one foot and landing on the same foot\n\nBULLET::::- Leap — jumping from one foot and landing on the other foot\n\nBULLET::::- Assemble — jumping from one foot and landing on two feet\n\nBULLET::::- Sissonne — jumping from two feet and landing on one foot\n\nLeaping gaits, which are distinct from running gaits (see Locomotion), include cantering, galloping, and pronging.\n", "Another difference concerns the movement of the centre of mass of the body. In walking the body \"vaults\" over the leg on the ground, raising the centre of mass to its highest point as the leg passes the vertical, and dropping it to the lowest as the legs are spread apart. Essentially kinetic energy of forward motion is constantly being traded for a rise in potential energy. This is reversed in running where the centre of mass is at its lowest as the leg is vertical. This is because the impact of landing from the ballistic phase is absorbed by bending the leg and consequently storing energy in muscles and tendons. In running there is a conversion between kinetic, potential, and elastic energy.\n", "This is analogous to a human throwing an arrow by hand versus using a bow; the use of elastic storage (the bow) allows the muscles to operate closer to isometric on the force-velocity curve. This enables the muscles to do work over a longer time and thus produce more energy than they otherwise could, while the elastic element releases that work faster than the muscles can. The use of elastic energy storage has been found in jumping mammals as well as in frogs, with commensurate increases in power ranging from two to seven times that of equivalent muscle mass.\n\nSection::::Classification.\n", "Most great straddle jumpers have a run at angles of about 30 to 40 degrees. The length of the run is determined by the speed of the person's approach. A slower run requires about 8 strides. However, a faster high jumper might need about 13 strides. A greater run speed allows a greater part of the body's forward momentum to be converted upward.\n", "Some animals, such as the kangaroo, employ jumping (commonly called \"hopping\" in this instance) as their primary form of locomotion, while others, such as frogs, use it only as a means to escape predators. Jumping is also a key feature of various activities and sports, including the long jump, high jump and show jumping.\n\nSection::::Physics.\n", "Technique of jumping is also very important when executing plyometric exercises. In essence, the athlete goes into a slight squat (crouch) upon landing in which the hip, knee, and ankle joints flex. The takeoff or jump upward is executed in a sequence initiated by hip-joint extension followed by knee-joint extension which begins during the hip-joint extension. As the knee-joint extension is taking place, ankle-joint extension begins and is the only action that occurs as the takeoff (breaking contact with the ground) takes place. All three actions contribute force to the upward jump, but the knee-joint extension is the major contributor.\n", "The objective of the approach is to gradually accelerate to a maximum controlled speed at takeoff. The most important factor for the distance travelled by an object is its velocity at takeoff – both the speed and angle. Elite jumpers usually leave the ground at an angle of twenty degrees or less; therefore, it is more beneficial for a jumper to focus on the speed component of the jump. The greater the speed at takeoff, the longer the trajectory of the center of mass will be. The importance of a takeoff speed is a factor in the success of sprinters in this event.\n", "Split leaps and split jumps require significant flexibility and strength. Flexibility and strength are both needed to attain a split position without the aid of external leg support. Also, in order to remain airborne while in the split position, strength is needed to propel the body upward with sufficient kinetic energy to compensate for the loss of vertical momentum that results from raising the legs into a split position while airborne.\n", "Muscles (or other actuators in non-living systems) do physical work, adding kinetic energy to the jumper's body over the course of a jump's propulsive phase. This results in a kinetic energy at launch that is proportional to the square of the jumper's speed. The more work the muscles do, the greater the launch velocity and thus the greater the acceleration and the shorter the time interval of the jump's propulsive phase.\n", "Section::::Ground reaction force and foot contact time.:Foot morphology.\n", "Long legs increase the time and distance over which a jumping animal can push against the substrate, thus allowing more power and faster, farther jumps. Large leg muscles can generate greater force, resulting in improved jumping performance. In addition to elongated leg elements, many jumping animals have modified foot and ankle bones that are elongated and possess additional joints, effectively adding more segments to the limb and even more length.\n", "There are three major flight techniques for the long jump: the hang, the sail, and the hitch-kick. Each technique is to combat the forward rotation experienced from take-off but is basically down to preference from the athlete. It is important to note that once the body is airborne, there is nothing that the athlete can do to change the direction they are traveling and consequently where they are going to land in the pit. However, it can be argued that certain techniques influence an athlete's landing, which can affect the distance measured. For example, if an athlete lands feet first but falls back because they are not correctly balanced, a lower distance will be measured.\n", "This phase is one of the most technical parts of the long jump. Jumpers must be conscious to place the foot flat on the ground, because jumping off either the heels or the toes negatively affects the jump. Taking off from the board heel-first has a braking effect, which decreases velocity and strains the joints. Jumping off the toes decreases stability, putting the leg at risk of buckling or collapsing from underneath the jumper. While concentrating on foot placement, the athlete must also work to maintain proper body position, keeping the torso upright and moving the hips forward and up to achieve the maximum distance from board contact to foot release.\n", "Telhan et al. observed no change in the joint moments at the hip, knee, or ankle when comparing incline to level running. Also noted was the fact that both general kinetic patterns and peak magnitudes at all three joints were consistent with those in the current literature. The only significant change between the two conditions was an increase in the hip power at early stance phase.\n", "In a report on an article in \"Nature\", co-author Daniel E. Lieberman stated that \"People who wear conventional running shoes tend to run with a significantly different strike than those who run in minimalist shoes or barefoot. More specifically, the ball of the foot should strike the ground before the heel when running (or walking) barefoot or in minimalist shoes. By landing on the middle or front of the foot, barefoot runners have almost no impact collision.\" Lieberman et al.'s study was an experiment that involved five groups of runners from Kenya and the United States. The two American groups were adult athletes who had run with shoes since childhood, and those who habitually ran barefoot or with minimal footwear such as Vibram FiveFingers (mentioned by name in the study). The three Kenyan groups were adults who had never run in shoes until late adolescence, as well as two teenage groups: those that habitually wore shoes and those that always ran barefoot. The runners were instructed to run over a force plate that was embedded in a 25-meter track, and were recorded during the run using a three-dimensional infrared kinematic system. These measurements were used to assess the pattern with which the foot strikes the ground and how forcibly it does so.\n", "Even though plantigrade locomotion usually distributes more weight toward the end of the limb than digitigrade locomotion, which increases energy expenditure in most systems, studies have shown that the human heel-first gait conserves more energy over long distances than other gaits, which is consistent with the belief that humans are evolutionarily specialized for long-distance movement.\n", "Section::::Height-enhancing devices and techniques.\n\nThe height of a jump may be increased by using a trampoline or by converting horizontal velocity into vertical velocity with the aid of a device such as a half pipe.\n\nVarious exercises can be used to increase an athlete's vertical jumping height. One category of such exercises—plyometrics—employs repetition of discrete jumping-related movements to increase speed, agility, and power.\n\nIt has been shown in research that children who are more physically active display more proficient jumping (along with other basic motor skill) patterns.\n", "Mechanical power (work per unit time) and the distance over which that power is applied (e.g., leg length) are the key determinants of jump distance and height. As a result, many jumping animals have long legs and muscles that are optimized for maximal power according to the force-velocity relationship of muscles. The maximum power output of muscles is limited, however. To circumvent this limitation, many jumping species slowly pre-stretch elastic elements, such as tendons or apodemes, to store work as strain energy. Such elastic elements can release energy at a much higher rate (higher power) than equivalent muscle mass, thus increasing launch energy to levels beyond what muscle alone is capable of.\n", "Section::::Maximization.\n", "BULLET::::- Foot contact time, or stance time, is the time that the foot is in contact with the ground. There is evidence that shows that foot contact time is significantly decreased in humans as speed is increased.\n", "This can be documented when one analyzes a large group of athletes for vertical jump performance and their execution for a vertical jump. Athletes with more fast-twitch fibers (Type II) change direction quicker during their movement such as left to right direction and they tend to use less knee bend. These results can be confirmed by muscle biopsy and even by special force-plate analysis. This does not mean that athletes with lower fast-twitch fiber cannot jump higher, but they tend to do it a little slower and with a deeper knee bend.\n", "ISOD classified A1 players may be found in this class. This ISOD class is for people who have both legs amputated above the knee. There is a lot of variation though in which IWBF class these players may be put into. Those with hip articulations are generally classified as 3 point players, while those with slightly longer leg stumps in this class are 3.5 point players. Lower limb amputations effect a person's energy cost for being mobile. To keep their oxygen consumption rate similar to people without lower limb amputations, they need to walk slower. A1 basketball players use around 120% more oxygen to walk or run the same distance as some one without a lower limb amputation.\n", "Vertical jump measurements are used primarily in athletic circles to measure performance. The most common sports in which one's vertical jump is measured are high jump, netball, basketball, and volleyball, but many sports measure their players' vertical jumping ability during physical examinations. In addition, single and multiple vertical jumps are occasionally used to assess muscular strength and anaerobic power in athletes.\n\nSection::::Measurement.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-03685	Where did the concept of a white flag for universal surrender/truce come from?	To quote wikipedia > The first mention of the usage of white flags to surrender is made during the Eastern Han dynasty (AD 25–220). In the Roman Empire, the historian Cornelius Tacitus mentions a white flag of surrender in AD 109. Before that time, Roman armies would surrender by holding their shields above their heads. The white flag was widely used in the Middle Ages in Western Europe to indicate an intent to surrender. The color white was used generally to indicate a person was exempt from combat; heralds bore white wands, prisoners or hostages captured in battle would attach a piece of white paper to their hat or helmet, and garrisons that had surrendered and been promised safe passage would carry white batons. The why is likely that white fabric is not uncommon to have for other usages like bed sheet, tablecloth etc. Linen, Wool is in the natural from white-ish so it it is a common color. It is also easy to see and is unusual to be used as the flag /banner of a group. So the likely explanation is that it is practical because it is simple and available most times to most groups.	[ "White flag\n\nWhite flags have had different meanings throughout history and depending on the locale.\n\nSection::::Flag of truce or surrender.\n", "The first mention of the usage of white flags to surrender is made during the Eastern Han dynasty (AD 25–220). In the Roman Empire, the historian Cornelius Tacitus mentions a white flag of surrender in AD 109. Before that time, Roman armies would surrender by holding their shields above their heads. The white flag was widely used in the Middle Ages in Western Europe to indicate an intent to surrender. The color white was used generally to indicate a person was exempt from combat; heralds bore white wands, prisoners or hostages captured in battle would attach a piece of white paper to their hat or helmet, and garrisons that had surrendered and been promised safe passage would carry white batons.\n", "The white flag is an internationally recognized protective sign of truce or ceasefire, and request for negotiation. It is also used to symbolize surrender, since it is often the weaker party which requests negotiation. It is also flown on ships serving as cartels. A white flag signifies to all that an approaching negotiator is unarmed, with an intent to surrender or a desire to communicate. Persons carrying or waving a white flag are not to be fired upon, nor are they allowed to open fire. The use of the flag to request parley is included in the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907.\n", "Its use may have expanded across continents, e.g. Portuguese chronicler Gaspar Correia (writing in the 1550s), claims that in 1502, an Indian prince, the Zamorin of Calicut, dispatched negotiators bearing a \"white cloth tied to a stick\", \"as a sign of peace\", to his enemy Vasco da Gama. In 1625, Hugo Grotius in \"De jure belli ac pacis\" (On the Law of War and Peace), one of the foundational texts in international law, recognized the white flag as a \"sign, to which use has given a signification\"; it was \"a tacit sign of demanding a parley, and shall be as obligatory, as if expressed by words\".\n", "In the Middle Ages, ships in combat flew a long red streamer, called the Baucans, to signify a fight to the death. In one petition, a group of English sailors asserted that the Crown had no right to a share of the prize money earned from a Norman ship captured in 1293 because it had raised the Baucans. (Raising this streamer may have been a relatively novel practice at this time, since the writers feel the need to explain it.) By the 17th century, the Baucans had evolved into a red flag, or \"flag of defiance.\" It was raised in cities and castles under siege to indicate that they would not surrender. \"The red flag is a signal of defiance and battle,\" according to \"Chambers Cyclopedia\" (1727–41).\n", "A white flag has long been used to represent either surrender or a request for a truce. It is believed to have originated in the 15th century, during the Hundred Years' War between France and England, when multicolored flags, as well as firearms, came into common use by European armies. The white flag was officially recognized as a request to cease hostilities by the Geneva Convention of 1949.\n\nSection::::Associations and symbolism.:Vexillology and heraldry.\n\nIn English heraldry, white or silver signified brightness, purity, virtue, and innocence.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Color realism\n\nBULLET::::- List of colors\n\nBULLET::::- Variations of white\n", "The Christian Flag, designed in the early 20th century to represent all of Christianity and Christendom, has a white field, with a red Latin cross inside a blue canton. In conventional vexillology, a white flag is linked to surrender, a reference to the Biblical description of Jesus's non-violence and surrender to God's will.\n\nSection::::Racing.\n", "Section::::White-bordered national flag.\n\nThe white flag is recognized in most of the world as a flag of surrender, truce or ceasefire. The first mention of a white flag used in this context is made during the Eastern Han dynasty (AD 25–220). A white flag was also used by the anti-war movement during the US Civil War in 1861.\n", "The improper use of the flag is forbidden by the rules of war and constitutes a war crime of perfidy. There have been numerous reported cases of such behavior in conflicts, such as combatants using white flags as a ruse to approach and attack enemy combatants, or killings of combatants attempting to surrender by carrying white flags.\n\nSection::::Flag of truce or surrender.:Origin.\n", "The Christian Flag, which represents all of Christendom, has a white field, with a red Latin cross inside a blue canton. In conventional vexillology, a white flag is linked to surrender, a reference to the Biblical description Jesus' non-violence and surrender to God's will.\n\nSection::::In Hinduism.\n\nAccording to the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna said the following to the warrior Arjuna, who became his disciple:\n", "Use of simple flags as military ensigns becomes common during the medieval period, developing in parallel with heraldry as a complement to the heraldic device shown on shields. The maritime flag also develops in the medieval period. The medieval Japanese Sashimono carried by foot-soldiers are a parallel development.\n\nSome medieval free cities or communes did not have coats of arms, and used war flags that were not derived from a coat of arms. Thus, the city of Lucerne used a blue-white flag as a field sign from the mid 13th century, without deriving it from a heraldic shield design.\n", "The white color was also used as a symbol of military command, by the commanding officer of a French army. It would be featured on a white scarf attached to the regimental flag as to recognise French units from foreign ones and avoid friendly fire incidents. The French troops fighting in the American Revolutionary War fought under the white flag.\n", "In 1863, the Confederate States of America adopted a new flag that played on the popularity of the Confederate Battle Flag, using a pure white field with the Battle Flag displayed in a canton in a position equivalent to the stars on the Flag of the United States. The design lasted until March 1865, when concerns about its being mistaken for a flag of truce when the flag was not completely flying necessitated the addition of a broad red band on the fly edge.\n\nSection::::Christianity.\n", "The word \"standard\" itself is from an Old Frankish term for a field sign (not necessarily a flag).\n", "Section::::Red flag and revolution.\n\nIn the Middle Ages, ships in combat hoisted a long red streamer, called the Baucans, to signify a fight to the death. In the 17th century, a red flag signalled defiance. A besieged castle or city would raise a red flag to tell the attackers that they would not surrender.\n", "Nailing the colours\n\nNailing the colours (also nailing the colours to the mast or nailing the flag) is a practice dating back to the Age of Sail that expresses a defiant refusal to surrender, and willingness to fight to the last man.\n", "In distinction to striking one's colours, hoisting a white flag, in itself, is not an indication of surrender. Rather, hoisting a white flag indicates a request for a truce in order to communicate with the enemy. Under the Geneva Conventions, persons carrying or waving a white flag are still not to be fired upon, nor are they allowed to open fire.\n\nSection::::Understood meaning.\n", "War flag\n\nA war flag, also known as a military flag, battle flag, or standard, is a variant of a national flag for use by a country's military forces when on land. The nautical equivalent is a naval ensign. Under the strictest sense of the term, few countries today currently have proper war flags, most preferring to use instead their state flag or standard national flag for this purpose.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nField signs were used in early warfare at least since the Bronze Age. \n", "The red cross was introduced to England by the late 13th century, but not as a flag, and not at the time associated with Saint George. It was worn by English soldiers as an identification from the early years of the reign of Edward I (1270s), and perhaps originated a few years earlier, in the Second Barons' War (specifically in the Battle of Evesham of 1265, during which, according to chronicler William Rishanger, Simon de Montford observed that the king had taken from him the idea of having his soldiers marked with a cross).\n", "White is a common color in national flags, though its symbolism varies widely. The white in the flag of the United States and flag of the United Kingdom comes from traditional red St George's Cross on a white background of the historic flag of England. The white in the flag of France represents either the monarchy or \"white, the ancient French color\" according to the Marquis de Lafayette.\n", "During the Mexican siege of the Alamo in March 1836, General Antonio Lopez de Santa Ana displayed a plain red flag (approx. 10 feet square) from the highest church tower in Bejar. The meaning of this flag was not socialism: its meaning – directed to the Alamo defenders – meant \"no surrender; no clemency.\" \n", "According to local folklore, when the Colonial troops raised the flag over the fort on August 3, 1777, it was the first time that the Flag of the United States was flown in battle. It is more likely that the flag flown at Fort Schuyler was one that consisted only of thirteen stripes, an early version of the Flag of New York, or the Grand Union Flag.\n", "In the 1890s, expatriate American Cora Slocomb di Brazza Savorgnan, the Countess Di Brazza, invented a universal peace flag with three upright bands: yellow, purple, and white, which became the peace flag of the International Peace Bureau. Originally, there was a complicated symbol on the middle band: \"a shield ... surmounted by a man's and a woman's clasped hands, sustained by a pair of dove wings with a white star aloft; on the shield can appear any device chosen by the association adopting the flag, or simply the number of enrollment among the users of the flag, or the motto \"Pro Concordia Labor\" (For Peace I Work), or this motto may be placed upon a ribbon on the flag beneath the shield, or on a streamer (white) from the flag staff (blue, the color of promise) surmounted by a star with the motto of the association or individual using the flag upon the other white streamer\".\n", "A white flag or handkerchief is often taken or intended as a signal of a desire to surrender, but in international law, it simply represents a desire for a parley that may or may not result in a formal surrender. Normally, a surrender will involve the handing over of weapons; the commanding officer of a surrendering force symbolically offers his sword to the victorious commander. Individual combatants can indicate a surrender by discarding weapons and raising their hands empty and open above their heads; a surrendering tank commander should point the tank's turret away from opposing combatants. Flags and ensigns are hauled down or furled, and ships' colors are struck.\n", "On October 7, the Germans sent forward a blindfolded American POW carrying a white flag, with a message in English:\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04755	Why do you get irritable on an empty stomach?	When you’re hungry, you’re body is lacking the energy and nutrients to oxygenate and nourish your body properly. When oxygen and nutrient levels are low, your central nervous system is one of the first areas to be affected, which in turn makes you act more irrational than you usually would. It’s your body’s way of telling you it needs immediate attention.	[ "Irritability can be a growing response to the objective stimuli of hunger or thirst in animals or humans which then reaches some level of awareness of that need. Irritability may be demonstrated in behavioral responses to both physiological and behavioral stimuli including environmental, situational, sociological, and emotional stimuli.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "Topology A: Benson and colleagues (2009)\n\nTopology B: Sales and Schultz (2017)\n\nSection::::Paleobiology.\n\nSection::::Paleobiology.:Diet and feeding.\n", "Gastroparesis is another common misdiagnosis. Like rumination syndrome, patients with gastroparesis often bring up food following the ingestion of a meal. Unlike rumination, gastroparesis causes vomiting (in contrast to regurgitation) of food, which is not being digested further, from the stomach. This vomiting occurs several hours after a meal is ingested, preceded by nausea and retching, and has the bitter or sour taste typical of vomit.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Classification.\n", "Section::::Cause.\n\nWhile the causes of IBS are still unknown, it is believed that the entire gut–brain axis is affected.\n", "This is the most common cause of chronic \"dyspepsia\". More than 70% of people have no obvious organic cause for their symptoms after evaluation. Symptoms may arise from a complex interaction of increased visceral afferent sensitivity, gastric delayed emptying (gastroparesis) or impaired accommodation to food. Anxiety is also associated with functional dyspepsia. In some people, it appears before the onset of gut symptoms; in other cases, anxiety develops after onset of the disorder, which suggests that a gut-driven brain disorder may be a possible cause. Although benign, these symptoms may be chronic and difficult to treat.\n", "Another emotion with a bodily effect that can be measured by EGG is that of stress. When the body is stressed and engages in the fight-or-flight response, blood flow is directed to the muscles in the arms and legs and away from the digestive system. This loss of blood flow slows the digestive system, and this slowing can be seen on the EGG. However, this response can vary from person to person and situation to situation.\n", "Irritability is commonly developed from anxiety disorders. The fight or flight responses triggered in the brain can make irritability easily developed and result in severe grouchiness and aggravation towards other people. Stress hormones take over and lead to attitudes of negative reactions. Feelings of fatigue and difficulty of concentrating plays a part of this type of mood.\n\nSymptoms of irritability may include:\n\nBULLET::::- sweating\n\nBULLET::::- hot flashes\n\nBULLET::::- increased heart rate\n\nBULLET::::- anger\n\nBULLET::::- confusion\n\nBULLET::::- excessive breathing\n\nBULLET::::- excessive guilt\n\nBULLET::::- headaches\n\nBULLET::::- suicidal thoughts\n\nSection::::Types.\n", "In response to a request for an interview by the editorial team of \"Book Magazine\" in 1985, the psychiatrist Masao Nakazawa attempted to explain the set of symptoms by using the term \"hyperresponsiveness\". In hyperresponsive reactions to stress, the sympathetic nerves take precedence, ordinarily leading to a constipative tendency. However, it is considered possible, in special circumstances—for example, when shown a glass of cold milk—for the gut to experiencing a loosening by way of a type of conditioned response mechanism. Nakazawa suggested that a similar mechanism could be involved in the Mariko Aoki phenomenon, but he refrained from providing a clear answer to the question, saying that \"it needs to be looked into more first\".\n", "Section::::Cause.:Stress.\n\nPublications suggesting the role of brain-gut \"axis\" appeared in the 1990s and childhood physical and psychological abuse is often associated with the development of IBS. It is believed that psychological stress may trigger IBS in predisposed individuals.\n", "The vagovagal reflex is active during the receptive relaxation of the stomach in response to swallowing of food (prior to it reaching the stomach). When food enters the stomach a \"vagovagal\" reflex goes from the stomach to the brain, and then back again to the stomach causing active relaxation of the smooth muscle in the stomach wall. If vagal innervation is interrupted then intra-gastric pressure increases. This is a potential cause of vomiting due to the inability of the proximal stomach smooth muscle to undergo receptive relaxation.\n", "Gastroparesis (delayed gastric emptying) may occur and is due to metabolic causes (e.g. poorly controlled diabetes mellitus), decreased gastric motility (e.g. due to head injury) or pyloric obstruction (e.g. pyloric stenosis). Delayed gastric emptying usually only affects the emptying of the stomach of high-cellulose foods such as vegetables. Gastric emptying of clear fluids such as water or black coffee is only affected in highly progressed delayed gastric emptying.\n", "Given the high levels of anxiety experienced by people with IBS and the overlap with conditions such as fibromyalgia and chronic fatigue syndrome, a potential explanation for IBS involves a disruption of the stress system. The stress response in the body involves the HPA axis and the sympathetic nervous system, both of which have been shown to operate abnormally in people with IBS. Psychiatric illness or anxiety precedes IBS symptoms in two-thirds of people with IBS, and psychological traits predispose previously healthy people to developing IBS after gastroenteritis.\n\nSection::::Cause.:Bacteria.\n", "Social isolation can be inherently stressful, depressing and anxiety-provoking. In an attempt to ameliorate these distressful feelings an individual may engage in emotional eating in which food serves as a source of comfort. The loneliness of social isolation and the inherent stressors thus associated have been implicated as triggering factors in binge eating as well.\n\nWaller, Kennerley and Ohanian (2007) argued that both bingeing–vomiting and restriction are emotion suppression strategies, but they are just utilized at different times. For example, restriction is used to pre-empt any emotion activation, while bingeing–vomiting is used after an emotion has been activated.\n", "All of these examples are part of a larger theory of a brain–gut connection. This theory states that the vagus nerve provides a direct link between the brain and the gut so that emotions can affect stomach rhythms and vice versa. This idea originated in the mid-1800s when Alexis St. Martin, a man with a gunshot-induced fistula in his abdomen, experienced lower secretions of digestive juices and a slower stomach emptying when he was upset. In this case, the emotions St. Martin was feeling affected his physiological reaction, but the reverse can also be true. In a study with Crohn's disease patients where patients and unaffected controls watched happy, frightening, disgusting, and saddening films, patients with active Crohn's disease had more responsive EGG (a greater physiological response) and reported feeling more aroused when feeling the negative emotions of disgust or sadness. This leads researchers to believe that increased physiological activation can influence increased experience of emotions. Another study published in 1943 that studied the fistulated man Tom discovered that if \"Tom was fearful or depressed his gastic activity decreased but when he was angry or hostile his gastric activity increased\". This finding is contrasted by an EGG study by Ercolani et al. who had subjects perform either difficult or easy mental arithmetic or puzzles. They found that new tasks slowed down the myoelectrical activity of the stomach, suggesting that stress tends to impede gastric activity and that this can be picked up on an EGG. While there is still much research to be done on the brain-gut connection, research thus far has indeed shown that your stomach does indeed churn differently when you are emotionally aroused, and this could be the basis of the gut feeling that many people describe experiencing.\n", "Section::::Physiology.:Parasympathetic activation.\n\nIn response to the arrival of food in the stomach and small intestine, the activity of the parasympathetic nervous system increases and the activity of the sympathetic nervous system decreases. This shift in the balance of autonomic tone towards the parasympathetic system results in a subjective state of low energy and a desire to be at rest, the opposite of the fight-or-flight state induced by high sympathetic tone. The larger the meal, the greater the shift in autonomic tone towards the parasympathetic system, regardless of the composition of the meal.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Insulin, large neutral amino acids, and tryptophan.\n", "Section::::Cause.:Post-infectious.\n", "Causes of Irritability are classified as either physical or psychological. Physical causes can be things such as having a lack of sleep, low blood sugar, or any negative health results. Physiological causes include depression, anxiety, or bipolar disorders. Other potential causes may be from the use of drugs, alcohol, or any side medications.\n\nReasons behind the development of irritability:\n\nBULLET::::- poor lifestyle\n\nBULLET::::- bipolar disorders\n\nBULLET::::- mental disorders\n\nBULLET::::- common anxiety\n\nBULLET::::- sleep deprivation\n\nBULLET::::- moderate depression\n\nBULLET::::- stress\n\nBULLET::::- hormone imbalance\n\nBULLET::::- \"mixed mania\"\n\nSection::::Treatments.\n", "The most widely documented mechanism is that the ingestion of food causes gastric distention, which is followed by abdominal compression and the simultaneous relaxation of the lower esophageal sphincter (LES). This creates a common cavity between the stomach and the oropharynx that allows the partially digested material to return to the mouth. There are several offered explanations for the sudden relaxation of the LES. Among these explanations is that it is a learned voluntary relaxation, which is common in those with or having had bulimia. While this relaxation may be voluntary, the overall process of rumination is still generally involuntary. Relaxation due to intra-abdominal pressure is another proposed explanation, which would make abdominal compression the primary mechanism. The third is an adaptation of the belch reflex, which is the most commonly described mechanism. The swallowing of air immediately prior to regurgitation causes the activation of the belching reflex that triggers the relaxation of the LES. Patients often describe a feeling similar to the onset of a belch preceding rumination.\n", "Symptoms are not necessarily distinguishable from other kinds of distress. A dog might stand uncomfortably and seem to be in extreme discomfort for no apparent reason. Other possible symptoms include firm distension of the abdomen, weakness, depression, difficulty breathing, hypersalivation, and retching without producing any vomitus (\"non-productive vomiting\"). A high rate of dogs with GDV have cardiac arrhythmias (40 percent in one study). Chronic GDV may occur in dogs, symptoms of which include loss of appetite, vomiting and weight loss.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Clinically, the gastrocolic reflex has been implicated in pathogenesis of irritable bowel syndrome: the very act of eating or drinking can provoke an overreaction of the gastrocolic response in some patients with irritable bowel syndrome due to their heightened visceral sensitivity, and this can lead to abdominal pain, diarrhea, or constipation. Also, the serotonin (5HT) antagonist ondansetron decreases the tonic response to stretch.\n", "In the season 1 episode \"Angel Boy\" (episode 4) of the Adult Swim show \"Tim and Eric's Bedtime Stories\", the character Scotty sings a note that causes attendees at a birthday party to have intense gastrointestinal distress and defecate uncontrollably.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Acoustic resonance\n\nBULLET::::- Feraliminal Lycanthropizer\n\nBULLET::::- The Mosquito, a commercial device that deters loitering by emitting sound with a very high frequency\n\nBULLET::::- The Republic XF-84H, an experimental aircraft that produced enough noise to cause headaches, nausea and seizures among its ground crew\n", "These findings were somewhat similar to those in Danish waters. In Kattegat the amount of empty stomachs has been observed in the months of January to April and is described as “very high, close to 100% in some month”.⁠⁠⁠\n\nThose findings may be due to the lower water temperature of around 12 to 13 °C and the therefore lowered metabolism and feeding activity respectively.⁠\n", "Section::::Gut.\n\nA gut feeling, or gut reaction, is a visceral emotional reaction to something. It may be negative, such as a feeling of uneasiness, or positive, such as a feeling of trust. Gut feelings are generally regarded as not modulated by conscious thought, but sometimes as a feature of intuition rather than rationality. The idea that emotions are experienced in the gut has a long historical legacy, and many nineteenth-century doctors considered the origins of mental illness to derive from the intestines.\n", "While some only experience symptoms following some meals, most experience episodes following any ingestion, from a single bite to a large meal. However, some long-term patients will find a select couple of food or drink items that do not trigger a response.\n\nUnlike typical vomiting, the regurgitation is typically described as effortless and unforced. There is seldom nausea preceding the expulsion, and the undigested food lacks the bitter taste and odour of stomach acid and bile.\n", "Long reflexes to the digestive system involve a sensory neuron sending information to the brain, which integrates the signal and then sends messages to the digestive system. While in some situations, the sensory information comes from the GI tract itself; in others, information is received from sources other than the GI tract. When the latter situation occurs, these reflexes are called feedforward reflexes. This type of reflex includes reactions to food or danger triggering effects in the GI tract. Emotional responses can also trigger GI response such as the butterflies in the stomach feeling when nervous. The feedforward and emotional reflexes of the GI tract are considered cephalic reflexes.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-19326	How does the checks-and-balances system keep any one branch of the US government from becoming too powerful?	There are quite a few ways. I'll list a partial set of examples. The president can sign a bill into law or veto it, giving control over the legislative branch. The legislative branch can also override a veto with a super-majority vote. The president nominates supreme Court justices, and the Senate confirms them. The supreme Court can interpret the Constitution and strike down laws as unconstitutional if challenged in a court case.	[ "Checks and balances is the principle that each of the Branches has the power to limit or check the other two and this creates a balance between the three separate powers of the state, this principle induces that the ambitions of one branch prevent that one of the other branches becomes supreme, and thus be eternally confronting each other and in that process leaving the people free from government abuses.\n", "The Separation of Powers devised by the founding fathers was designed to do one primary thing: to prevent the majority from ruling with an iron fist. Based on their experience, the framers shied away from giving any branch of the new government too much power. The separation of powers provides a system of shared power known as \"checks and balances\". For example, the president appoints judges and departmental secretaries, but these appointments must be approved by the Senate. The president can veto bills, or deny them. If he does that, the bill is sent back to Congress.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "The Constitution also partially prevents the government from expanding its own power by creating a system of checks and balances through the separation of powers. Articles One, Two, and Three of the Constitution create three separate branches of government, equal in level power, but different in responsibility, that all control the government. In assuming each branch would want to expand its powers, it was necessary that each have the ability to fend off power grabs from other branches. The three branches—legislative, executive, and judicial— compete with each other through certain powers that allow them to “check” the others and “balance” the government. Examples of this include the legislative branch's power to override Presidential Vetoes and the judicial branch's power to declare laws created by the legislative branch unconstitutional. James Madison writes in Federalist No. 51 “But the great security against a gradual concentration of the several powers in the same department, consists in giving to those who administer each department, the necessary constitutional means, and personal motives, to resist encroachments of the others.” Without the capacity of each branch to check the others, power would concentrate with a small minority and could potentially allow the minority to infringe upon the rights of the people. This would be antithetical to the purpose of the Constitution, hence a system of checks and balances was set in place.\n", "Checks and Balances are designed to maintain the system of separation of powers keeping each branch in its place. This is based on the idea that it is not enough to separate the powers and guarantee their independence but to give the various branches the constitutional means to defend their own legitimate powers from the encroachments of the other branches. They guarantee that the powers of the state have the same weight (co-equal), that is, to be balanced, so that they can limit each other, avoiding the abuse of state power. The origin of checks and balances, like separation of powers itself, is specifically credited to Montesquieu in the Enlightenment (in The Spirit of the Laws, 1748), under this influence was implemented in 1787 in the Constitution of the United States.\n", "The system of checks and balances makes it so that no one branch of government has more power than another and cannot overthrow another. It creates a balance of power that is necessary for a government to function, if it is to function well. This, in most situations, makes it so that each branch is held to a certain standard of conduct. If a branch of the government thinks that what another branch is doing is unconstitutional, they can “call them out” so to say. Each branch is able to look at the other branches wrong doing and change it to meet the needs of the people whom they serve. Humans as a whole have a history of abusing positions of power but the system of checks and balances makes it so much more difficult to do so. Also the fact that there is more than one person running each branch gives room for debate and discussion before decisions are made within a single branch. Even so, some laws have been made and then retracted because of the fact that they were an abuse of the power given to that particular branch. The people that created these laws had been serving a selfish agenda when forming these laws instead of looking out for the welfare of those people that they were supposed to be protecting by making certain laws. While this is a horrible scenario, it does happen. That does not mean that it cannot be fixed though. Indeed it can be, by another branch of government stepping up to right the wrongs that had been done. \n", "One of the theoretical pillars of the U.S. Constitution is the idea of \"checks and balances\" among the powers and responsibilities of the three branches of American government: the executive, the legislative, and the judiciary. For example, while the legislative branch (Congress) has the power to create law, the executive branch under the president can veto any legislation—an act which, in turn, can be overridden by Congress. The president nominates judges to the nation's highest judiciary authority, the Supreme Court, but those nominees must be approved by Congress. The Supreme Court, in turn, can invalidate unconstitutional laws passed by the Congress. These and other examples are examined in more detail in the text below.\n", "Despite the uncertainty of Hamilton's original message, the executive branch has played a major role in the United States since its genesis. The Executives have become known as the \"most dangerous\" branch of government because they are the main decision makers regarding all national policies and ideas. The legislative and judiciary branches assist in those decisions, but the president - along with Congress - make the final judgments. To the public, the power seems to remain within the Executives, which goes against what Hamilton originally addressed in Federalist 67, but it also shows the division of branches and their capability.\n", "The presidential system adopted by the Constitution of the United States obeys the balance of powers sought, and not found, by the constitutional monarchy. The people appoint their representatives to meet periodically in a legislative body, and, since they do not have a king, the people themselves elect a preeminent citizen to perform, also periodically, the executive functions of the State. The direct election of the head of state or of the executive power is an inevitable consequence of the political freedom of the people, understood as the capacity to appoint and depose their leaders. Only this separate election of the person who has to fulfill the functions that the Constitution attributes to the president of the government, so different by its nature, and by its function, from the election of representatives of the electors, allows the executive power to be controlled by the legislative and submitted to the demands of political responsibility.\n", "Congress often writes legislation to restrain executive officials to the performance of their duties, as laid out by the laws Congress passes. In \"Immigration and Naturalization Service v. Chadha\" (1983), the Supreme Court decided (a) The prescription for legislative action in Art. I, § 1—requiring all legislative powers to be vested in a Congress consisting of a Senate and a House of Representatives—and § 7—requiring every bill passed by the House and Senate, before becoming law, to be presented to the president, and, if he disapproves, to be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate and House—represents the Framers' decision that the legislative power of the Federal Government be exercised in accord with a single, finely wrought and exhaustively considered procedure. This procedure is an integral part of the constitutional design for the separation of powers. Further rulings clarified the case; even both Houses acting together cannot override Executive vetos without a majority. Legislation may always prescribe regulations governing executive officers.\n", "Per Engelhardt: “Classically, … the three branches of government … were to check and balance one another so that power would never become centralized …. The founding fathers [never envisioned] that a \"fourth branch of government\", the national security state, would arise, dedicated to the centralization of power in an atmosphere of total secrecy. In the post-9/11 years, it has significantly absorbed the other three branches.”\n\nSection::::In popular culture.\n", "BULLET::::- Speed and decisiveness — A president with strong powers can usually enact changes quickly. However, the separation of powers can also slow the system down.\n\nBULLET::::- Stability — a president, by virtue of a fixed term, may provide more stability than a prime minister, who can be dismissed at any time.\n\nSection::::Advantages.:Direct elections.\n", "The following example of the separation of powers and their mutual checks and balances for the experience of the United States Constitution is presented as illustrative of the general principles applied in similar forms of government as well.\n\nSection::::Comparison between tripartite and bipartite national systems.\n\nConstitutions with a high degree of separation of powers are found worldwide. The UK system is distinguished by a particular entwining of powers. A number of Latin American countries have electoral branches of government.\n", "Section::::In film.\n", "Separation of powers, therefore, refers to the division of responsibilities into distinct branches to limit any one branch from exercising the core functions of another. The intent of separation of powers is to prevent the concentration of unchecked power by providing for \"checks\" and \"balances\" to avoid autocracy, over-reaching by one branch over another, and the attending efficiency of governing by one actor without need for negotiation and compromise with any other.\n", "Separation of powers was first established in the United States Constitution, the founding fathers included features of many new concepts, including hard-learned historical lessons about the checks and balances of power. Similar concepts were also prominent in the state governments of the United States. As colonies of Great Britain, the founding fathers considered that the American states had suffered an abuse of the broad power of parliamentarism and monarchy. As a remedy, the US Constitution limits the powers of the federal government through various means, in particular, the three branches of the federal government are divided by exercising different functions, and the executive and legislative powers are separated in origin by separate elections and the judiciary is kept independent, each branch controls the actions of others and balances its powers in some way.\n", "BULLET::::- In a presidential system, the president usually has special privileges in the enactment of legislation, namely the possession of a power of veto over legislation of bills, in some cases subject to the power of the legislature by weighted majority to override the veto. The legislature and the president are thus expected to serve as checks and balances on each other's powers.\n", "Many political scientists believe that separation of powers is a decisive factor in what they see as a limited degree of American exceptionalism. In particular, John W. Kingdon made this argument, claiming that separation of powers contributed to the development of a unique political structure in the United States. He attributes the unusually large number of interest groups active in the United States, in part, to the separation of powers; it gives groups more places to try to influence, and creates more potential group activity. He also cites its complexity as one of the reasons for lower citizen participation.\n", "Section::::Limiting the power of the three branches—the system of \"checks and balances\".:Boundaries of power: Congress versus the executive.:Foreign affairs and war powers.\n", "Simply put, there must be a separation of powers, where each branch is able to wield its own power to perform its functions independent of undue influence but yet be restrained from an abuse of its power through checking mechanisms. A system of checks and balances serves to ensure that each power will not be subject to abuse by the controlling body. While the checking mechanisms exercised by each body should be sufficient to prevent abuse of power, they should also not overstep their boundaries and encroach upon the powers that the other branches wield lawfully. In \"The Federalist No. 51\" (6 February 1788), James Madison wrote that \"[a]mbition must be made to counteract ambition\", while in \"The Federalist No. 48\" (1 February 1788) he explained the need for a system of checks and balances in preserving the separation of powers doctrine:\n", "Section::::Limiting the power of the three branches—the system of \"checks and balances\".:Legislative and executive immunity.\n\nLegislative Immunity\n\nMembers of the Senate and of the House of Representatives have absolute immunity for all statements made on the floor of Congress (Art. I Sec. 6).\n\nExecutive Immunity\n", "Section::::Limiting the power of the three branches—the system of \"checks and balances\".:Boundaries of power: Congress versus the executive.:Appointment and removal of executive personnel.\n", "Separation of powers is a political doctrine originating in the writings of Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu in \"The Spirit of the Laws\", in which he argued for a constitutional government with three separate branches, each of which would have defined abilities to check the powers of the others. This philosophy heavily influenced the writing of the United States Constitution, according to which the Legislative, Executive, and Judicial branches of the United States government are kept distinct in order to prevent abuse of power. This United States form of separation of powers is associated with a system of checks and balances.\n", "Meanwhile, Federalists such as James Madison were emphasizing an additional advantage of a unitary executive. In Federalist No. 51, he wrote that an undivided executive would strengthen the ability of the executive to resist encroachments by the legislature: \"As the weight of the legislative authority requires that it should be thus divided [into branches], the weakness of the executive may require, on the other hand, that it should be fortified.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Political gridlock – the separation of powers of a presidential system establishes the presidency and the legislature as two parallel structures. Critics argue that this can create an undesirable and long-term political gridlock whenever the president and the legislative majority are from different parties, which is common because the electorate usually expects more rapid results from new policies than are possible (Linz, Mainwaring and Shugart). In addition, this reduces accountability by allowing the president and the legislature to shift blame to each other.\n", "Many legislators hold the view that separation of powers means that powers are shared among different branches; no one branch may act unilaterally on issues (other than perhaps minor questions), but must obtain some form of agreement across branches. That is, it is argued that \"checks and balances\" apply to the Judicial branch as well as to the other branches—for example, in the regulation of attorneys and judges, and the establishment by Congress of rules for the conduct of federal courts, and by state legislatures for state courts. Although in practice these matters are delegated to the Supreme Court, the Congress holds these powers and delegates them to the Supreme Court only for convenience in light of the Supreme Court's expertise, but can withdraw that delegation at any time.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01222	Why does drain cleaner work?	Drain cleaner is mainly lye, AKA caustic soda, AKA sodium hydroxide. Lye destroys organic compounds. Most of the things clogging a drain (hair, food bits, poop, snots) are destroyed by lye. Lye can also make short work (relatively) of a body, which is why it has been used in crimes to dissolve people. Don't spill drain cleaner on you, it will eat you.	[ "BULLET::::- Chemical drain cleaners, plungers, handheld drain augers, air burst drain cleaners, and home remedy drain cleaners are typically applied to the problem of a clogged single drain, such as a sink, toilet, tub, or shower drain. An effective drain cleaner can remove soft obstructions (such as hair and grease) accumulating near the fixture's drain inlet.\n", "BULLET::::- If more than one plumbing fixture is clogged then electric drain cleaners, battery powered drain cleaners, sewer jetters or such mechanical devices are usually required to clear obstructions along the entire length of the drain piping system, that is, from fixture drain inlets through the main building drains and lateral piping outside the building to the collector sewer mains.\n\nEach type of drain cleaner has advantages, disadvantages, and safety considerations as described below.\n\nSection::::Chemical drain cleaners.\n", "Sewer jetting is the process of shooting high powered streams of water through the drain, down into the sewer in order to blast away any debris blocking the passage of water. This is more effective than using a snake, blades, or even drain rods because, first the water is shot at such a high intensity that the force isn't even comparable to manual labour, secondly the water is much more capable of bending around curved or angular pipes to reach all the tight spots.\n", "Electric drain cleaners, also called plumber's snakes, use the mechanical force of an electric motor to twist a flexible cable or spring in a clockwise direction and drive it into a pipe. Electric drain cleaners are commonly available with cable lengths of up to and can go as far as \n", "Enzymatic drain cleaners contain bacteria cultures and concentrated enzymes that react with organic residue that builds up on sewer pipes, dissolving the residue to help prevent slow-running drains. Most enzymatic drain cleaners are intended for general maintenance to maintain proper flow and are not intended to clear fully clogged drain pipes.\n\nAdvantages of enzymatic drain cleaners include relative safety for use in a wide range of plumbing fixtures, low environmental impact, low cost and ease of use.\n", "Drain cleaner\n\nA drain cleaner is a chemical-based consumer product that unblocks sewer pipes or clogged wastewater drains. The term may also refer to a mechanical device such as a plumber's snake, drain auger, toilet plunger, or similar device. Occasionally, the term is applied to a plumber or other individual who performs the drain cleaning and hygiene.\n", "Section::::Chemical drain cleaners.:Acidic drain openers.\n\nAcidic drain cleaners usually contain sulfuric acid at high concentrations. It can dissolve cellulose, proteins like hair, and fats via acid hydrolysis.\n", "Galvanized iron is actually steel covered in a protective layer of zinc, but it was soon discovered that this zinc layer naturally corroded due to exposure to the atmosphere and rainwater, as well as cement, runoff, etc. Once corrosion occurred down to the base metal, plaques and rust would form, leading to sediment build-up that would gradually clog these drains. Thus, the first motivation for drain cleaners came to be.\n", "Disadvantages of hydro-mechanical drain cleaners included limited reach into drain plumbing, and the necessity of a water source to act as the motive agent.\n\nSafety considerations for hydro-mechanical drain cleaners include the risk of injury from high-pressure water coming into contact with skin or delicate areas of the body (i.e., eyes, and face).\n\nSection::::Electric drain cleaners.\n", "Many handheld augers have cables that are thin enough to pass through common sink traps, though some manufacturers do not recommend using handheld drain augers in toilets because of their potential to scratch ceramic surfaces. Instead, a special closet auger (from \"water closet\") should be used.\n\nSimilar to handheld augers, drain rods can be used for clearing blockages in long, straight pipes.\n", "Advantages of hydro-mechanical drain cleaners are their eco-friendliness (most use only tap water), their ability to dislodge and remove clogs like sand or cat litter that 'back-fill when using a conventional snake, and their friendliness to plumbing joints. Unlike air-burst cleaners, hydro-mechanical drain cleaners do not pressurize plumbing joints. On some models of hydro-mechanical drain cleaner both hot and cold water can be used, providing added cleaning power for fat, protein, or other easily melting drain clogs.\n", "Because solid lye is hygroscopic, it is crucial that the solid granules of the cleaner are placed directly in proximity to the clog. Otherwise, the lye itself will absorb water and actually create a mass itself, exacerbating the clog issue.\n", "Chemical drain cleaners can be in solid or liquid form that are readily available through hardware stores, though some (primarily acidic ones) are intended for use by licensed plumbers.\n\nAlkaline drain cleaners are available in either solid or liquid state while the acidic ones are usually in liquid form.\n\nSection::::Chemical drain cleaners.:History.\n", "Air burst drain cleaners use accelerated carbon dioxide, air or other gas to rupture the clog membrane. Accelerated gas creates a force on standing water that can dislodge clogs that accumulate close to drain openings.\n\nAdvantages of air burst drain cleaners include the potential to immediately clear clogs and slow-running drains, in contrast to chemical cleaners that can take more time to work. Air burst cleaners can dislodge obstructions that are further away from drain openings than can a plunger, and in contrast to a drain augers do not risk scratching the ceramic surfaces of sinks, bathtubs and toilets.\n", "The history of drain cleaners parallels the development of common drain systems themselves. As a result, there is not an extensive history of cleaners in the US, as municipal plumbing systems were not readily available in middle-class American homes until the early 20th century. Prior to this time, Americans often discarded the dirty water collected in basins after use. Limited piping systems gradually developed with lead materials, but after WWI when the poisonous properties of lead became more well-known, piping was reconstructed with galvanized iron.\n", "Section::::Fresh water applications.:Window cleaning.\n\nAn increasingly popular method of cleaning windows is the so-called \"water-fed pole\" system. Instead of washing the windows with detergent in the conventional way, they are scrubbed with highly purified water, typically containing less than 10 ppm dissolved solids, using a brush on the end of a long pole which is wielded from ground level. Reverse osmosis is commonly used to purify the water.\n\nSection::::Landfill leachate purification.\n", "It is mentioned in the film \"Withnail & I\" by the character Uncle Monty. \"I often wonder where Norman is now. Probably wintering with his mother in Guildford. A cat and rain. Vim under the sink and both bars on. But old now. Old. There can be no true beauty without decay.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Buried around the foundation wall on the external side of the foundation\n\nBULLET::::- Installed underneath the basement floor on the inside perimeter of the basement\n", "Disadvantages of air burst drain cleaners include a limited cleaning range in pipes that do not contain standing water and, in general, ineffectiveness for unclogging blocked main sewer drains.\n\nSafety considerations for air burst drain cleaners include a requirement to wear eye protection and, when using an air burst cleaner that uses compressed gas cartridges, careful handling of unused cartridges.\n\nSection::::Home remedy drain cleaners.\n\nHome remedy drain cleaners include boiling water poured into drain openings to clear soap and hair clogs; or, baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) poured into a drain, followed by vinegar.\n", "Safety considerations for electric drain cleaners include the requirement to wear work gloves and eye protection, to carefully control the cable during operation to avoid overstressing it, to use appropriate caution when working around rotating machinery, and to use properly grounded electrical outlets.\n\nSection::::Sewer jetters.\n", "In portable cyclonic models, the cleaned air from the center of the vortex is expelled from the machine after passing through a number of successively finer filters at the top of the container. The first filter is intended to trap particles which could damage the subsequent filters that remove fine dust particles. The filters must regularly be cleaned or replaced to ensure that the machine continues to perform efficiently.\n", "Most municipal building codes mandate that drain plumbing increase in diameter as it moves closer to the municipal sewer system. I.E., most kitchen sinks evacuate water with a -inch drain pipe, which feeds into a larger 4-inch drain pipe on the main plumbing stack before heading to a septic tank or to the city sewage system. This means that, barring intrusion by tree roots or other debris into buried piping, the vast majority of household drain clogs occur in the smallest-diameter piping, usually in the pop-up or drain trap, where they can be reached easily by a hydro-mechanical device's water hose.\n", "Section::::Inventor.\n\nIn 1991, he and his colleague Melanie Chartoff conceived the Grayway Rotating Drain, a graywater recycling device for reuse of shower and sink water in the home. The following year, they finished and patented the product with the help of Ronald K. Ford.\n\nSection::::Personal life.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Evolution.\n\nSwimming pool cleaners evolved from two areas of science: development of the water filter and early cistern cleaners.\n", "Section::::Process description.:Biofilm.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01060	What are these new-age solid-state batteries? How are they different from conventional batteries?	They're batteries that use solid electrodes or electrolytes instead of liquid. They have potentially higher energy density, and are safer since they're not flammable. They also have longer lifespans and don't produce as much heat. I think the problem at the moment is that they're not ready to be mass produced and so they're expensive.	[ "Section::::Recent activities.\n", "In 2018, Solid Power announced it had received $20 million in funding for a small manufacturing line to produce all-solid-state, rechargeable lithium-metal batteries. The line will be able to produce batteries with about 10 megawatt hours of capacity per year. Volkswagen announced a $100 million investment in QuantumScape, a solid-state battery startup that spun out of Stanford. Chinese company Qing Tao started a production line of solid-state batteries.\n\nSection::::Materials.\n\nMaterials proposed for use as solid electrolytes in solid-state batteries include ceramics, glass and lithium sulfide.\n\nSection::::Use.\n\nSolid-state batteries have found use in pacemakers, RFID and wearable devices.\n\nSection::::Use.:Electric vehicles.\n", "Second generation devices tend to be used by people with more experience. They are larger overall and look less like tobacco cigarettes. They usually consist of two sections, basically a tank and a separate battery. Their batteries have higher capacity, and are not removable. Being rechargeable, they use a USB charger that attaches to the battery with a threaded connector. Certain batteries have a \"passthrough\" feature so they can be used even while they are charging.\n", "BULLET::::- Also a new heavy duty, MHD range of batteries have been developed and introduced for the entire commercial range of vehicles. Batteries were also developed for CNG/LPG powered three-wheelers and golf carts\n\nBULLET::::- A range of batteries for industrial application including new batteries for telecom, solar, traction and small VRLA for UPS system was also developed\n\nSection::::Research & development.:Major research projects.\n\nBULLET::::- Development of lead based alloy for battery grids\n\nBULLET::::- Development of a variety of maintenance free batteries for automotive and motorbike applications\n\nBULLET::::- Development of re-combination type maintenance free batteries (VRLA)\n", "BULLET::::- Street Rider 2011\n\nBULLET::::- EKO\n\nBULLET::::- Strike 2012, 2011\n\nBULLET::::- EV 60 Electric 2011\n\nBULLET::::- COSMIC - I\n\nBULLET::::- Electric City\n\nBULLET::::- Ventys 340 2012\n\nBULLET::::- Ventys 660 2012\n\nBULLET::::- Elmoto\n\nBULLET::::- Elmoto\n\nBULLET::::- E-max\n\nBULLET::::- 120S 2011\n\nBULLET::::- 120S-D 2011\n\nBULLET::::- 80L-3W 2011\n\nBULLET::::- 100L 2010, 2008\n\nBULLET::::- 110S 2010, 2009, 2008\n\nBULLET::::- 120L 2010, 2009, 2008\n\nBULLET::::- 190L 2010, 2009, 2008\n\nBULLET::::- 80L/City 2010\n\nBULLET::::- 90S 2010, 2009, 2008\n\nBULLET::::- 140L 2009, 2008\n\nBULLET::::- E-Ton\n\nBULLET::::- E-MO Plus: EV3E 2011, Jr. EV3D 2011\n\nBULLET::::- E-MO: EV3A 2011, EV3C 2011\n\nBULLET::::- E-MO XP\n\nBULLET::::- E-GO IBA2\n", "BULLET::::- E-GO IBA3\n\nBULLET::::- Evoke Motorcycles\n\nBULLET::::- Urban S\n\nBULLET::::- Exo Bikes\n\nBULLET::::- Neutrino\n\nBULLET::::- Hero Electric\n\nBULLET::::- Cruz 2011\n\nBULLET::::- E-Sprint 2011\n\nBULLET::::- Maxi 2011\n\nBULLET::::- Optima Plus 2011\n\nBULLET::::- Wave DX 2011\n\nBULLET::::- Zion 2011\n\nBULLET::::- Zippy 2011\n\nBULLET::::- Honda\n\nBULLET::::- EV-neo\n\nBULLET::::- Hyosung\n\nBULLET::::- FC-1 2009\n\nBULLET::::- ST-E3 EVA\n\nBULLET::::- Innoscooter\n\nBULLET::::- RETRO 2012, 2010\n\nBULLET::::- RETRO-L 2011, 2010\n\nBULLET::::- EM6000 2010\n\nBULLET::::- EM6000ML 2010\n\nBULLET::::- InnoBike-L\n\nBULLET::::- InnoBike-F\n\nBULLET::::- Keeway\n\nBULLET::::- Electric Flash 2010\n\nBULLET::::- Electric Matrix 2010\n\nBULLET::::- City Classic\n\nBULLET::::- City Titanium\n\nBULLET::::- City Tour\n\nBULLET::::- Kreidler\n\nBULLET::::- RMC-E Hiker Electro 2011\n", "Lithium-ion (and similar lithium polymer) batteries, widely known for their use in laptops and consumer electronics, predominate in use for the most recent group of EVs in development. The traditional lithium-ion chemistry involves a lithium cobalt oxide cathode and a graphite anode. This yields cells with an impressive 200+ Wh/kg specific energy and high specific power with 80 to 90% charge/discharge efficiency. The downside of traditional lithium-ion batteries include short cycle lives (hundreds to a few thousand charge cycles) and significant degradation with age. The cathode material is also somewhat toxic. Traditional lithium-ion batteries pose a fire safety risk if punctured or charged improperly. These early cells will not accept or supply charge when extremely cold, and so heaters can be necessary in some climates to warm them. The maturity of this technology is moderate. The Tesla Roadster (2008) uses groups of traditional lithium-ion \"laptop battery\" cells that can be replaced individually as needed.\n", "BULLET::::- Development of special type of poly-ethylene separators for varying applications\n\nBULLET::::- Valve Regulated Lead Acid (VRLA) batteries for telecommunication & railway applications\n\nBULLET::::- Motive Power Batteries for fork-lift trucks & golf carts\n\nBULLET::::- High energy density battery for electric vehicles\n\nBULLET::::- Plant batteries for power stations\n\nBULLET::::- Furthermore, long-life, maintenance-free batteries for cars have also been developed which are presently being marketed under the brand name Exide Eternity\n", "Section::::Products and technologies.\n\nAdvanced Battery Technologies before it got deregistered and went out of business was most known for its development and manufacturing of lithium iron phosphate batteries. ABAT manufactures customized golf carts and shuttles, bicycles, buses and scooters fitted with unique lithium iron phosphate batteries.\n\nAccording to Market Wire, the batteries combine \"high-energy chemistry with state-of-the-art polymer technology to overcome many of the shortcomings associated with other types of rechargeable batteries.\"\n\nSection::::Market penetration.\n", "The battery used in the H100 series is physically similar to the battery used in iPods and other DAPs. It is possible to replace the factory battery with a higher capacity one (up to 2200 mA·h has been reported) for greatly increased playback time. In some instances the polarity of the battery leads must be reversed, and the installation process will void the warranty.\n\nSection::::Upgrades.:RTC (Real-time clock).\n", "A new series of Rockman products was introduced in 1984, which included the X100, Soloist and Bass Rockman. These continued to be produced until 1994. The X100 is very similar to the original Rockman in its feature set, but uses a different clipping stage in the amplifier simulation.\n", "In 2010, the Liquid Metal Battery Corporation (LMBC) was formed to commercialize the liquid-metal battery technology invented at MIT. LMBC was renamed Ambri in 2012; the name \"Ambri\" is derived from \"cAMBRIdge\" Massachusetts, where the company is headquartered and where MIT is located. In 2012 and 2014, Ambri received $40 million in funding from Bill Gates, Khosla Ventures, Total S.A., and GVB.\n\nIn September 2015, Ambri announced a layoff, pushing back commercial sales. but announced a return to the battery business with a redesigned battery in 2016.\n", "The cyclon is a spiral-wound cell with thin lead foil electrodes. A number of manufacturers seized on the technology to implement it in cells with conventional flat plates. In the mid-1980s two UK companies, Chloride and Tungstone, simultaneously introduced 10 year life AGM batteries in capacities up to 400 Ah, stimulated by a British Telecom specification for batteries for support of new digital exchanges. In the same period, Gates acquired another UK company, Varley, specialising in aircraft and military batteries. Varley adapted the Cyclon lead foil technology to produce flat plate batteries with exceptional high rate output. These gained approval for a variety of aircraft including the BAe 125 and 146 business jets, the Harrier and its derivative the AV8B, and some F16 variants as the first alternatives to the normal nickel-cadmium (NiCd) batteries.\n", "BULLET::::- e-Bike 2nd Generation (FC-25 II) 2010, 2009\n\nBULLET::::- e-Bike Fun Cruiser: 2010, 2009, (I) 2007html, (II) 2007html\n\nBULLET::::- Aspes\n\nBULLET::::- Elios 2011\n\nBULLET::::- Sibilla 2011\n\nBULLET::::- EcoSport (MAN)\n\nBULLET::::- EcoSport (LADY)\n\nBULLET::::- BMW\n\nBULLET::::- C EVOLUTION\n\nBULLET::::- Boxx\n\nBULLET::::- Brammo/sup\n\nBULLET::::- Empulse, 10.0 2011, 6.0 2012, 6.0 2011, 8.0 2012, 8.0 2011, R 2012\n\nBULLET::::- Enertia 2012, 2011, 2010\n\nBULLET::::- Enertia Plus 2012, 2011\n\nBULLET::::- Engage: MX 2012, SMR 2012\n\nBULLET::::- Hong Kong Police 2012\n\nBULLET::::- BSA Motors\n\nBULLET::::- Diva 2011\n\nBULLET::::- Roamer Able 2011\n\nBULLET::::- Roamer Nuo 2011\n\nBULLET::::- Roamer Nxg 2011\n\nBULLET::::- Smile 2011\n", "BULLET::::- Multivalent batteries using multiply-charged ions, such as doubly charged magnesium, calcium, or zinc, rather than a singly charged lithium ion\n\nBULLET::::- Flow batteries that introduce chains of redox-active molecules dissolved in liquid electrolytes as replacements for solid electrodes\n\nBULLET::::- Lithium-sulfur batteries based on strong chemical bonds between lithium and low-cost sulfur\n\nBULLET::::- A novel hybrid design for a flow battery with air-breathing cathode and aqueous sulfur anode that has the lowest-cost rechargeable battery chemistry yet known\n", "BULLET::::- Blitz E-scooter 2011\n\nBULLET::::- R 120 E-Bike\n\nBULLET::::- Vectrix\n\nBULLET::::- VX-1 Li Plus 2012\n\nBULLET::::- VX-2 2012\n\nBULLET::::- VX-3 2012\n\nBULLET::::- VX-1 2011, 2010, 2009\n\nBULLET::::- VX-1E 2010, 2009\n\nBULLET::::- VinFast Klara (Lead–acid battery and Lithium-ion battery )\n\nBULLET::::- Yamaha\n\nBULLET::::- EC-03 2011\n\nBULLET::::- Zero Motorcycles\n\nBULLET::::- Zero DS 2011, 2010\n\nBULLET::::- Zero MX 2011, 2010\n\nBULLET::::- Zero S 2011, 2010\n\nBULLET::::- Zero X 2011, 2010\n\nBULLET::::- Zero XU\n\nSection::::Buses.\n\nBULLET::::- BYD C9\n\nBULLET::::- BYD K9\n\nBULLET::::- Oreos 2X (PVI)\n\nBULLET::::- Oreos 4X (PVI)\n\nBULLET::::- eBuzz K7\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Aftermarket (automotive)\n\nBULLET::::- Battery electric vehicle\n", "A123 had LiFePO4 Cells in the form 18650, 26650 and Pouch Cells with 14 and 20Ah. The company EVLithium reports that A123 has additional Pouch cells: A123 38AH NMC Lithium ion Pouch Battery and A123 LiFePO4 Battery 50AH http://www.evlithium.com/A123-Battery/\n\nSection::::Investments.\n\nIn 2010 the company invested in Fisker Automotive's Karma with Ace Investments and Kleiner Perkins Caufield & Byers.\n\nThe company formed a joint venture with SAIC Motor to manufacture its batteries in China in early 2010.\n", "Section::::Types of thermal batteries.\n\nThermal batteries generally fall into 3 categories:\n\nBULLET::::- Phase change thermal batteries\n\nBULLET::::- Encapsulated thermal batteries\n\nBULLET::::- Other thermal batteries\n\nThese 3 types of batteries are each unique in their form and application, although fundamentally all are for the storage and retrieval of thermal energy. They also differ in method and density of heat storage. A description of each type of thermal battery follows.\n\nSection::::Types of thermal batteries.:Phase change thermal battery.\n", "The families were launched in mid 2011 and entered volume production in mid 2012. They won the Elektra \"Digital Semiconductor Product of the Year\" award for 2012. In 2015, it was announced that ZTE would use \"LM\" devices to provide sensor hub and infrared remote control functionality in its Star 2 smartphone.\n\nSection::::List of iCE devices.:iCE40 (40 nm).:iCE40 HX.\n", "Section::::Allegations of fraud.\n", "Smart Battery\n\nA smart battery or a smart battery pack is a rechargeable battery pack with a built-in battery management system (BMS), usually designed for use in a portable computer such as a laptop. In addition to the usual positive and negative terminals, a smart battery has two or more terminals to connect to the BMS; typically the negative terminal is also used as BMS \"ground\". BMS interface examples are: SMBus, PMBus, EIA-232, EIA-485, and Local Interconnect Network.\n", "BULLET::::- 29 June\n\nBULLET::::- American researchers demonstrate \"paint-on\" batteries, composed of active layers just 0.5 mm thick, capable of being spray-painted onto almost any surface. The technology could allow for the creation of lighter, more flexible electronic devices with a wide range of form factors. (BBC)\n\nBULLET::::- Dutch and German scientists unveil a new brain-scanning functional magnetic resonance imaging device that allows paralyzed people to type out words using only their thoughts. (BBC) (LiveScience)\n", "Section::::Categories and types of batteries.:Cell types.:Molten salt.\n\nMolten salt batteries are primary or secondary batteries that use a molten salt as electrolyte. They operate at high temperatures and must be well insulated to retain heat.\n\nSection::::Categories and types of batteries.:Cell types.:Reserve.\n", "Section::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Baker Motor Vehicle\n\nBULLET::::- Battery charger\n\nBULLET::::- Battery nomenclature\n\nBULLET::::- Flywheel storage power system\n\nBULLET::::- List of battery types\n\nBULLET::::- Lithium iron phosphate battery\n\nBULLET::::- Lithium polymer battery\n\nBULLET::::- Lithium–sulfur battery\n\nBULLET::::- Rechargeable battery\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Mystery of Matter\" (2014 PBS film)\n\nBULLET::::- Thermogalvanic cell\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Search for the Super Battery\" at Amazon.com\n\nBULLET::::- \"Search for the Super Battery\" – Video (53:32)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Search for the Super Battery\" – video search on YouTube.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Search for the Super Battery\" – video search on Dailymotion.\n\nBULLET::::- Super-Charged Capacitors – Video (03:33)\n\nBULLET::::- Batteries – HowStuffWorks\n", "Organic radical batteries were first researched and developed by NEC in 2005 with the intent of being widely used to power tiny gadgets in the near future. They began with a size of 0.3 mm and an extremely quick charge time. Since the beginning of development, smart cards and RFID tags were the main targets for ORB usage. NEC has also worked on a larger 0.7 mm battery which is thicker, but also has a high charge capacity of 5 mAh.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03951	What series of chemicals/surgeries facilitated Michael Jackson’s bizarre physical transformation, and why don’t we see more people who look like he did?	His official statement was that the skin coloring was due to vitiligo which you've probably seen in a number of dark skinned people. Most of their skin becomes white, leaving a lot of dark patches. I was a friend of his dermatologist Arnold Klein (who has passed away, but he also had a ton of friends, so it's not like I had real insider info), and he only claimed to have been involved in making his skin a uniform color, and he did some filler work (fillers are like collagen that temporarily change the shape of where you put it, and your body eventually metabolizes it). As far as his facial structure, that was something else entirely and I can't really speak to it, but there was a lot of heavy duty cosmetic surgery going on. If you look at him in the mid 1970's before his first nose job, he looked very different in the face. There are a lot of people who have had radical facial surgery like he did, but it's incredibly expensive, so you don't see too much of it, because most people couldn't afford to do it. Look up Jocelyn Wildenstein for another example of extensive facial work.	[ "BULLET::::- In the scene where Michael is seen shooting for the Pepsi commercial which caused his scalp to catch fire, it shows his body rolling down the stairs. In fact he actually walked down the stairs with his hair on fire and later realized and did a one rotation spin (not the usual spin move he did) and shaking his head wildly from the pain. However, the realistic display of Michael's burning was not seen until video leaked after Michael's 2009 death.\n", "Jackson was taken to Charter Nightingale Clinic where he was searched for drugs on entry; vials of medicine were found in a suitcase. He was put on Valium IV to wean him from painkillers. The singer's spokesperson then told reporters that Jackson was \"barely able to function adequately on an intellectual level.\" While in the clinic, Jackson took part in group and one-on-one therapy sessions. According to Taraborrelli, in January 2004, as his trial approached, Jackson became dependent on morphine and Demerol and was being treated for this dependency by herbalist Alfredo Bowman in Colorado.\n", "Media reports stated that Jackson's autopsy reported one scar beside each of his nostrils, one scar behind each of his ears, and two scars on his neck, \"probably\" from cosmetic surgery, plus cosmetic tattoos on his eyebrows, around his eyes and lips, and on his scalp (at his receding hairline).\n", "I needed somebody who could perform, and who also had a lot of endurance, because we were shooting in Atlanta at the end of July. Silicone doesn’t have cell structure, like foam does. It doesn’t breathe. So Brian was basically encased in a sixty-pound wet-suit. Every part of his body was covered. He had facial prosthetics, hands, full legs, feet. It was all glued down. It wasn’t like we could take him out between takes. He was in.\n", "At some point during the 1990s, it appeared that Jackson had become dependent on prescription drugs, mainly painkillers and strong sedatives. The drug use was later linked to second- and third-degree burns he had suffered years before. Jackson gradually became dependent on these drugs and his health deteriorated. He went into rehabilitation in 1993.\n", "Dr. Rex, who operated on Marilyn, comments that some people have problems with the idea of the Transformation but that \"improvements\" to the procedure now guarantee a positive result. Marilyn reappears, looking and thinking \"exactly\" like Valerie. \"And the nicest part of all, Val\", she gushes, \"I look just like you!\"\n\nSection::::Program notes.\n", "In 2003, Jackson was accused of child sexual abuse and was acquitted two years later. During the investigation, Jackson's profile was examined by Stan Katz, a mental health professional, who also spent several hours with the accuser. According to Taraborrelli, the assessment made by Katz was that Jackson had become a regressed ten-year-old. Some medical professionals believe Jackson also had body dysmorphic disorder, a psychological condition whereby the sufferer has no concept of how his or her physical appearance is perceived by others.\n\nSection::::Health concerns.:Drug dependency.\n", "On November 9, and November 10, 1993, Jackson was questioned about a copyright matter. According to the sworn declaration from the plaintiffs' lawyer, he had been told that Jackson \"was taking painkillers because of recent oral surgery.\"\n", "Visual effects for the film were created by Animal Logic, Cantina Creative, Digital Domain, Framestore, Industrial Light & Magic (ILM), Lola VFX, Luma Pictures, RISE, Rising Sun Pictures, Scanline VFX, and Trixter, with Lola VFX working on the de-aging of Jackson and Gregg. Lola VFX looked at several of Jackson's films as a reference for his de-aging including \"Pulp Fiction\" (1994), \"Die Hard with a Vengeance\" (1995), \"Jurassic Park\" (1993), \"Loaded Weapon 1\" (1993), and \"One Eight Seven\" (1997). However, some of these films were disqualified due to circumstances around the character Jackson was playing; \"Pulp Fiction\" because of the character's wig and facial hair, and \"Jurassic Park\" because the character was made to appear older. \"What we ended up settling on, was a little bit from \"Die Hard\", a bit from \"Loaded Weapon 1\", but our hero movie was a smaller film called \"One Eight Seven\"\", explained Lola VFX supervisor Trent Claus. Jackson was de-aged approximately 25 years from the age of 70 at the time of filming to 45 for the 1995 setting. To do this, both Jackson and Gregg had tracking dots applied to their face during filming for which the VFX team could anchor the \"hand-crafted\" facial features that were composited primarily in Autodesk Flame. Lola's team included 40 primary compositors with another 15–20 junior compositors, and created approximately 500 different VFX shots, of which 385 made it in the final cut of film.\n", "Shortly following Jackson's death, tubes of Benoquin and hydroquinone were found in Jackson's home. Both creams are commonly used to treat vitiligo; Dr. David Sawcer said some patients with vitiligo remove dark areas of skin when most of their skin has become pale. Darkening depigmented skin is also extremely difficult. Depigmentation causes a permanent and extreme sensitivity to the sun. Vitiligo patients are at risk to contract melanoma, and an annual cancer check-up is recommended. Another common way of treating vitiligo is using makeup to camouflage depigmented skin. The treatments Jackson used for his condition further lightened his skin tone, and with the application of pancake makeup to even out his skin tone, he could appear very pale. Jackson also covered his skin disorder with clothing wearing long sleeves and long pants. In the music video for \"Remember the Time\", all dancers and actors except for Jackson are lightly dressed following the example set by ancient Egyptians. Jackson usually avoided wearing patterned clothing to avoid attention to the disorder.\n", "Section::::Death.\n", "In none of Jackson's hospitalizations, including the one in late 1995, did medics find drugs in Jackson's system.\n", "In 1980, Tucker was hired to create the prosthetics that would transform John Hurt into the hideously deformed Joseph Merrick in David Lynch's film \"The Elephant Man\". According to his website, \"The head had 15 different sections, some of them overlapping never done before , made in foam and silicone rubber. It took seven hours to apply.\" An appreciation of the work involved led to the creation of the Best Make-up category at the Academy Awards run by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, which was first awarded in 1981.\n", "Biographer J. Randy Taraborrelli said that Jackson began making his nose smaller around the same time his skin became gradually lighter and was using the over-the-counter skin-bleaching cream, Porcelana, to achieve the lighter skin. Jackson's physical changes gained widespread media coverage and provoked criticism from the public. Some African-American psychologists argued Jackson was \"a lousy role model for black youth\". Dr. Dennis Chestnut said Jackson had given \"black youth a feeling that they can achieve\", but might encourage them to believe they had to be esoteric and idiosyncratic to be successful. Dr. Halford Fairchild said Jackson and other African-American celebrities would try \"to look more like white people in order to get in films and on television\". Jackson has also been confronted with the reaction of the people around him. Filmmaker John Landis, who directed two music videos for Jackson, said when Jackson showed him his bleached chest, he told him the doctor who had done it was a criminal.\n", "Section::::Health.\n", "In the unedited version of the documentary \"Living With Michael Jackson\", which was shown in court in 2005, Jackson said he had two procedures on his nose so that he could breathe better. When he was asked about his cheeks, Jackson answered: \"These cheekbones? No. My father has the same thing. We have Indian blood.\"\n\nSection::::Health concerns.\n\nSection::::Health concerns.:General.\n\nOver the years, Jackson had various medical problems that were covered by the media. In early 1984, Jackson was treated for scalp burns after his hair caught fire during a commercial shoot.\n", "Section::::Investigation.\n\nSection::::Investigation.:Autopsies.\n", "For the transformation sequences, it took up to 8 hours to prepare Sarandon's makeup. Sarandon was uncomfortable spending that long sitting in a chair doing nothing, and since he'd had experience doing his own makeup for his work on the stage, he volunteered to help. He did some of the stippling and, while the makeup men were applying prosthetics to his face and head, he worked on the finger extensions. Sarandon has often joked that the rubber fingers caused difficulties whenever he had to urinate, so costume supervisor Mort Schwartz constantly offered to help him. \"I said to Morry, 'Thank you, no, I'll just use a coat hanger!'\" Co-star Ragsdale recalled one instance when Sarandon spent an entire day in the makeup chair and when he was finally fully transformed into the monster, a producer informed him that they were not going to be able to shoot the scene that day. \"And Chris said, 'Okay,' and turned around and went and took it off, it was amazing!\" Ragsdale exclaimed. \"I would have gone through the roof but he didn't. His will had been broken by that point!\"\n", "Section::::Later Models.:The Chicago MG.\n\nJackson briefly partnered with Washburn International with headquarters in Vernon Hills, Illinois and for a short time manufactured a version of the MG model on Elston Avenue in downtown Chicago. Additional models of the MG were imported for Washburn to Jackson's specifications. At that time, Jackson began to experiment with CNC equipment to customize the geometry of individual necks to the requirements of various artists. Other MG components were precision CNC machined by a local stair manufacturer resulting in high precision, repeatable MG assemblies.\n\nSection::::Later Models.:SL4X.\n", "In an interview with Aphrodite Jones, Patrick Treacy, a cosmetic surgeon who treated Jackson between July 2006 and early 2007, as well as shortly before his death, said that he would have known if Jackson would have been also treated by another physician and that he never saw any drugs in the house. He also said that Jackson did not have insomnia and never asked him for narcotics. Treacy said Jackson was in good physical health; he said Jackson always insisted on the presence of an anesthetist when Propofol was administered.\n", "Section::::Career.:\"Seconds\".\n\n\"Seconds\" (1966) tells of an older man (John Randolph) given the body of a young man (Rock Hudson) through experimental surgery. It was poorly received on its release but has come to be one of the director's most respected and popular films subsequently. The film is an expressionistic, part-horror, part-thriller, part-science fiction film about the obsession with eternal youth and misplaced faith in the ability of medical science to achieve it.\n", "In January 2014, \"Time\" reported that Walker's character, Brian O'Conner, would be retired instead of killed, and that new scenes would be developed in order to allow the franchise to continue without him. To recreate Walker's likeness, the filmmakers hired Peter Jackson's Weta Digital visual effects house (which had previously produced the imagery of Gollum in \"The Lord of the Rings\" franchise and Caesar in the \"Planet of the Apes\" franchise). Initially, what Weta could do was severely constrained by the quality of the reference materials available for Walker's physical appearance. In April 2014, it was reported that Walker's brothers Caleb and Cody had been hired as stand-ins. Their cooperation, along with their strong resemblance to their late brother, enabled the filmmakers to accurately model his face without creating it digitally from scratch. The final film showed Walker's face superimposed over the bodies of his brothers or actor John Brotherton in 350 visual effects shots. 260 used a computer-generated face, while 90 repurposed actual footage of Walker's face borrowed from outtakes or older footage.\n", "After the surgery, David was feeling confused from the anaesthesia he was given. While in the car, he was asking his father questions like \"Is this real life?\" and \"Is this going to be forever?\" and also telling him that he had two fingers. At one point he even attempted to push himself up from his seat (while still buckled in) and began screaming before sinking back in exhaustion.\n", "The makeup consisted of 67 pieces; seven pieces went on his head and 60 tattoos and individual scars were applied after the full-body makeup. The facial prosthetics and tattoos took almost three hours to apply and the full body makeup took the artists six hours to finish. About his transformation, Pettyfer said, \"It really affected me because as soon as I shaved my head it kind of put me in this weird place, the same place [Kyle is in after his transformation] which really helped me with the role a lot. But at the same time, it kind of is a challenge because you are fighting personally with your own problems off set, but then onset you have a great resource to go to.\"\n", "With Jackson's permission, his likeness was used for the Ultimate version of the Marvel Comics character Nick Fury. He has subsequently played Fury in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) films \"Iron Man\" (2008), \"Iron Man 2\" (2010), \"Thor\" (2011), \"\" (2011), \"The Avengers\" (2012), \"\" (2014), \"\" (2015), \"\" (2018), \"Captain Marvel\" (2019), \"\" (2019), and \"\" (2019), as well as in the television series \"Marvel's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.\"\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02486	hydrangea colors. I know soil conditions affect hydrangea color, but when buying them in the store do they list various colors on a neutral PH? How will I ensure they maintain color?	Hydrangeas with white or cream flowers, such as Annabelle hydrangeas, oakleaf hydrangeas and members of the PeeGee family, can only produce white or cream flowers. You have to feed the colored ones (the hydrangea cultivars known as mopheads and lacecaps) to get the color you want. Low pH gives you blue and high pH gives you pink. You raise pH with lime and lower it with a sulfate of ammonia or aluminum.	[ "Section::::Plant pH preferences.\n\nIn general terms, different plant species are adapted to soils of different pH ranges. For many species, the suitable soil pH range is fairly well known. Online databases of plant characteristics, such \"USDA PLANTS\" and \"Plants for a Future\" can be used to look up the suitable soil pH range of a wide range of plants. Documents like \"Ellenberg's indicator values for British plants\" can also be consulted.\n", "BULLET::::- Recently, spectrophotometric methods have been developed to measure soil pH involving addition of an indicator dye to the soil extract. These compared well to glass electrode measurements but offer substantial advantages such as lack of drift, liquid junction and suspension effects\n", "BULLET::::- Use of litmus paper. A small sample of soil is mixed with distilled water, into which a strip of litmus paper is inserted. If the soil is acidic the paper turns red, if basic, blue.\n\nBULLET::::- Use of a commercially available electronic pH meter, in which a glass or solid-state electrode is inserted into moistened soil or a mixture (suspension) of soil and water; the pH is usually read on a digital display screen.\n", "Cannabis needs certain conditions to flourish.\n\nSection::::Cultivation requirements.:Growth medium.\n\nSoil is required, except for cannabis grown with hydroponics or aeroponics\n\nBULLET::::- Sufficient nutrients—commercial potting soils usually indicate this as \"N-P-K = x%-y%-z%\" the percentages of the fundamental nutritional elements, i.e., nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. Nutrients are often provided to the soil via fertilizers but such practice requires caution.\n\nBULLET::::- pH between 5.8 and 6.5. This value can be adjusted – see soil pH. Commercial fertilizers (even organic) tend to make the soil more acidic.\n\nSection::::Cultivation requirements.:Warmth.\n", "The best way to determine if a soil is acid or deficient in calcium or magnesium is with a soil test which can be provided by a university with an agricultural education department for under $30.00, if you live in the United States. Farmers typically become interested in soil testing when they notice a decrease in crop response to applied fertilizer.\n\nSection::::Quality.\n", "The soil pH usually increases when the total alkalinity increases, but the balance of the added cations also has a marked effect on the soil pH. For example, increasing the amount of sodium in an alkaline soil tends to induce dissolution of calcium carbonate, which increases the pH. Calcareous soils may vary in pH from 7.0 to 9.5, depending on the degree to which or dominate the soluble cations.\n\nSection::::Effect of soil pH on plant growth.\n\nSection::::Effect of soil pH on plant growth.:Acid soils.\n", "The crop prefers a pH range from 6.0 to 6.2, a high organic matter content and good moisture holding capacity of the soil. Lower pH or droughty soil can lead to calcium or magnesium deficiency and internal quality defects.\n\nSection::::Cultivation.:Climate requirements.\n", "In the mid-1940s Nickerson was active in methods for assessing the color of soils, an effort that found its expression in the Munsell Soil Color Chart, still in use today. In 1957 Munsell issued the Nickerson Color Fan, a color chart for horticultural purposes.\n\nWorking with D.B. Judd, the chair of the OSA committee that developed the OSA Uniform Color Scales, Nickerson as a member of the committee was also a contributor to that effort for over 25 years and wrote a detailed history of the development of the system.\n\nSection::::Other activities and honors.\n", "The flowers on a hydrangea shrub can change from blue to pink or from pink to blue from one season to the next depending on the acidity level of the soil. Adding organic materials such as coffee grounds, citrus peel or eggshells will increase acidity and turn hydrangea flowers blue, as described in an article on Gardenista.\n\nA popular pink hydrangea called Vanilla Strawberry has been named \"Top Plant\" by the \"American Nursery and Landscape Association\".\n", "Aluminium sulfate is sometimes used to reduce the pH of garden soil, as it hydrolyzes to form the aluminium hydroxide precipitate and a dilute sulfuric acid solution. An example of what changing the pH level of soil can do to plants is visible when looking at \"Hydrangea macrophylla\". The gardener can add aluminium sulfate to the soil to reduce the pH which in turn will result in the flowers of the \"Hydrangea\" turning a different color (blue). The aluminium is what makes the flowers blue; at a higher pH, the aluminium is not available to the plant.\n", " In most species the flowers are white, but in some species (notably \"H. macrophylla\"), can be blue, red, pink, light purple, or dark purple. In these species the color is affected by the presence of aluminium ions which are available or tied up depending upon the soil pH. For \"H. macrophylla\" and \"H. serrata\" cultivars, the flower color can be determined by the relative acidity of the soil: an acidic soil (pH below 7), will have available aluminum ions and typically produce flowers that are blue to purple, whereas an alkaline soil (pH above 7) will tie up aluminum ions and result in pink or red flowers. This is caused by a color change of the flower pigments in the presence of aluminium ions which can be taken up into hyperaccumulating plants. Lowering the pH of potting soils or mixes usually does not change the flower color to blue, because these soils have no aluminum ions. The ability to blue or pink a hydrangea is also influenced by the cultivar. Some plants are selected for their ability to be blued, while others are bred and selected to be red, pink or white. The flower color of most other Hydrangea species is not affected by aluminum and cannot be changed or shifted. Hydrangeas also have a nickname called 'Change Rose'.\n", "BULLET::::- Soil acidity or soil pH and cation-exchange capacity: Root cells act as hydrogen pumps and the surrounding concentration of hydrogen ions affects their ability to absorb nutrients. pH is a measure of this concentration. Each plant species achieves maximum growth in a particular pH range, yet the vast majority of edible plants can grow in soil pH between 5.0 and 7.5.\n\nSoil scientists use a soil classification system to describe soil qualities. The International Union of Soil Sciences endorses the World Reference Base as the international standard.\n\nSection::::Soil Fertility.\n", "Amendments other than agricultural lime that can be used to increase the pH of soil include wood ash, industrial calcium oxide (burnt lime), magnesium oxide, basic slag (calcium silicate), and oyster shells. These products increase the pH of soils through various acid-base reactions. Calcium silicate neutralizes active acidity in the soil by reacting with H ions to form monosilicic acid (HSiO), a neutral solute.\n\nSection::::Changing soil pH.:Decreasing the pH of alkaline soil.\n", "The table below gives suitable soil pH ranges for some widely cultivated plants as found in the \"USDA PLANTS Database\". Some species (like \"Pinus radiata\" and \"Opuntia ficus-indica\") tolerate only a narrow range in soil pH, whereas others (such as \"Vetiveria zizanioides\") tolerate a very wide pH range.\n\nSection::::Changing soil pH.\n\nSection::::Changing soil pH.:Increasing pH of acidic soil.\n", "Precise, repeatable measures of soil pH are required for scientific research and monitoring. This generally entails laboratory analysis using a standard protocol; an example of such a protocol is that in the USDA Soil Survey Field and Laboratory Methods Manual. In this document the three-page protocol for soil pH measurement includes the following sections: Application; Summary of Method; Interferences; Safety; Equipment; Reagents; and Procedure.\n\nSection::::Factors affecting soil pH.\n", "Soil temperature regimes, such as frigid, mesic, and thermic, are used to classify soils at some of the lower levels of the Soil Taxonomy. The cryic temperature regime distinguishes some higher-level groups. These regimes are based on the mean annual soil temperature (MAST), mean summer temperature, and the difference between mean summer and winter temperatures all at a soil depth of 50 cm. It is normally assumed that the MAST (in °C) equals the sum of the mean annual air temperature plus 2°C. If the difference between mean summer and winter temperatures is less than 6°C, then add \"Iso\" at the front of the name of the Soil Temperature Class.\n", "Munsell color system\n\nIn colorimetry, the Munsell color system is a color space that specifies colors based on three properties of color: hue, value (lightness), and chroma (color purity). It was created by Professor Albert H. Munsell in the first decade of the 20th century and adopted by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) as the official color system for soil research in the 1930s.\n", "Soil test information and plant analysis results are used to determine fertility practices. Nitrogen fertilizer is needed at the beginning of every planting year. There are normally adequate levels of phosphorus and potash when fields have been fertilized for top yields. In order to provide more organic matter, a cover crop of wheat or rye is planted in the winter before planting the strawberries. Strawberries prefer a pH from 5.5 to 6.5 so lime is usually not applied.\n", "The hybrid \"Runaway Bride Snow White\", bred by Ushio Sakazaki from Japan, was named Plant of the Year at the 2018 RHS Chelsea Flower Show.\n\nSection::::Cultivation and uses.:In culture.\n", "Link to Official Series Description: ftp://ftp-fc.sc.egov.usda.gov/NSSC/StateSoil_Profiles/ca_soil.pdf\n\nSection::::Soil Temperature Regimes (STR).\n", "Further success combatting soil acidity has been seen in soybean and corn populations suffering from aluminum toxicity. Soil nutrients were restored and acidity decreased when lime was added to the soil. The plant health was increased and root biomass increased in response to the treatment. This is a possible solution for other acidic soil plant populations \n\nSection::::Process effects.:Structure decline.\n", "BULLET::::- Na \"1.2 ppm\"\n\nBULLET::::- Mg 48.6 ppm\n\nBULLET::::- B \"0.5 ppm\"\n\nBULLET::::- Fe \"2.9 ppm\"\n\nBULLET::::- Mn \"0.5 ppm\"\n\nBULLET::::- Zn \"0.05 ppm\"\n\nBULLET::::- Cu \"0.02 ppm\"\n\nBULLET::::- Mo \"0.05 ppm\"\n\nThe Hoagland solution has a lot of N and K so it is very well suited for the development of large plants like tomato and bell pepper. The solution is very good for the growth of plants with lower nutrient demands as well, such as lettuce and aquatic plants, with the further dilution of the preparation to 1/4 or 1/5 of the modified solution.\n", "BULLET::::- Soil with a pH between 5.6 and 8.4\n\nBULLET::::- Locations with full exposure to the sun\n\nBULLET::::- A wide range of soils but with a minimum depth of 16 inches\n\nBULLET::::- Locations where the minimum temperature exceeds -38 °F\n\nSection::::Uses.\n\nBULLET::::- Forage\n", "There are several additional quantitative methods to determine soil texture. Some examples of these methods are the pipette method, the particulate organic matter (POM) method, and the rapid method\n\nSection::::History of classification.\n", "Soil pH is considered a master variable in soils as it affects many chemical processes. It specifically affects plant nutrient availability by controlling the chemical forms of the different nutrients and influencing the chemical reactions they undergo. The optimum pH range for most plants is between 5.5 and 7.5; however, many plants have adapted to thrive at pH values outside this range.\n\nSection::::Classification of soil pH ranges.\n\nThe United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service classifies soil pH ranges as follows:\n\nSection::::Determining pH.\n\nMethods of determining pH include:\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-08219	During sleep, how does our body know to suddenly wake when there is a disturbance in the environment such as a loud noise?	We sleep best and most deeply when we are in the place where we normally sleep. That is partly because we have learned it is safe to sleep there, but also because we've gotten used to all the normal sounds. After a while, our brains only tell us to wake up if we hear a sound that isn't normal. Like, if your furnace makes a banging noise every hour, your brain will eventually realize that the sound doesn't mean anything bad is going to happen and will ignore it. But if someone threw a rock through your window at night, your brain would say, "wake up, it sounds like something weird is going on, it might mean we are in danger!" It's like my dog. Sometimes we are in the city, and sometimes in the country and he is used to being at both places. When we are sleeping in the city, all sorts of traffic and people can be heard all night but he ignores it, because he knows it is normal there. In the country, if he heard a car door shut a mile away in the middle of the night, he would freak out. That's because he is awoken by hearing something that is unusual for the place he is at. The same is true for us. When we sleep in a new place for the first time, studies have shown that part of our brains aren't really sleeping, they react differently to noises around us. Stay there a few nights though, and you will begin to have a more restful sleep, and only the noises that are out of the ordinary there will disturb you. The reason our brains have this kind of nighttime security system is because we are most vulnerable when we are asleep. Those early humans whose brains developed in this way survived and had kids. Those that didn't evolve this way likely died in their sleep, but not peacefully.	[ "In the early morning, light activates the \"cry\" gene and its protein CRY causes the breakdown of TIM. Thus PER/TIM dimer dissociates, and the unbound PER becomes unstable. PER undergoes progressive phosphorylation and ultimately degradation. Absence of PER and TIM allows activation of \"clk\" and \"cyc\" genes. Thus, the clock is reset to start the next circadian cycle.\n\nSection::::In \"Drosophila\".:PER-TIM Model.\n", "Normally, the highest cortisol secretion happens in the second half of the night with peak cortisol production occurring in the early morning. Following this, cortisol levels decline throughout the day with lowest levels during the first half of the night. Cortisol awakening response is independent of this circadian variation in HPA axis activity; it is superimposed upon the daily rhythm of HPA axis activity; and it seems to be linked specifically to the event of awakening.\n\nCortisol awakening response provides an easy measure of the reactivity capacity of the HPA axis.\n\nSection::::Sleep factors.\n", "It's plausible also that the suprachiasmatic nucleus, the light-sensitive biological clock, plays a role in cortisol awakening response regulation.\n\nSection::::Function.\n", "The majority of sleep neurons are located in the ventrolateral preoptic area (vlPOA). These sleep neurons are silent until an individual shows a transition from waking to sleep. The sleep neurons in the preoptic area receive inhibitory inputs from some of the same regions they inhibit, including the tubermammillary nucleus, raphe nuclei, and locus coeruleus. Thus, they are inhibited by histamine, serotonin, and norepinepherine. This mutual inhibition may provide the basis for establishing periods of sleep and waking. A reciprocal inhibition also characterizes an electronic circuit known as the flip-flop. A flip-flop can assume one of two states, usually referred to as on or off. Thus, either the sleep neurons are active and inhibit the wakefulness neurons, or the wakefulness neurons are active and inhibit the sleep neurons, Because these regions are mutually inhibitory, it is impossible for neurons in both sets of regions to be active at the same time. This flip-flop, switching from one state to another quickly, can be unstable.\n", "Section::::Brain activity during sleep.:NREM sleep activity.:NREM 2.\n\nNREM Stage 2 (N2 – 45–55% of total sleep in adults): In this stage, theta activity is observed and sleepers become gradually harder to awaken; the alpha waves of the previous stage are interrupted by abrupt activity called sleep spindles (or thalamocortical spindles) and K-complexes. Sleep spindles range from 11 to 16 Hz (most commonly 12–14 Hz). During this stage, muscular activity as measured by EMG decreases, and conscious awareness of the external environment disappears.\n\nSection::::Brain activity during sleep.:NREM sleep activity.:NREM 3.\n", "BULLET::::- Naps: students taking a nap of one to two hours in the early evening hours (between 6:45–8:30 p.m.) had no cortisol awakening response, suggesting cortisol awakening response only occurs after night sleep.\n\nBULLET::::- Waking up in the light: cortisol awakening response is larger when people wake up in light rather than darkness.\n\nBULLET::::- Noise: there is no cortisol rise after nights with traffic-like low-frequency noise.\n\nBULLET::::- Alarm clock vs. spontaneous waking: there is no difference on days when people woke up spontaneously or used the alarm clock.\n", "During the 1920s an obscure disorder that caused encephalitis and attacked the part of the brain that regulates sleep influenced Europe and North America. Although the virus that caused this disorder was never identified, the psychiatrist and neurologist Constantin von Economo decided to study this disease and identified a key component in the sleep-wake regulation. He identified the pathways that regulated wakefulness and sleep onset by studying the parts of the brain that were affected by the disease and the consequences it had on the circadian rhythm. He stated that the pathways that regulated sleep onset are located between the brain stem and the basal forebrain. His discoveries were not appreciated until the last two decades of the 20th century when the pathways of sleep onset were found to reside in the exact place that Constantin von Economo stated.\n", "Neurons are fired by recognition connections (from what would be input to what would be output). Generative connections (leading from outputs to inputs) are then modified to increase probability that they would recreate the correct activity in the layer below – closer to actual data from sensory input.\n\nSection::::Training.:The \"sleep\" phase.\n\nThe process is reversed in the “sleep” phase – neurons are fired by generative connections while recognition connections are being modified to increase probability that they would recreate the correct activity in the layer above – further to actual data from sensory input.\n\nSection::::Potential risks.\n", "Section::::Startle reflex.\n\nSection::::Startle reflex.:Neurophysiology.\n\nA startle reflex can occur in the body through a combination of actions. A reflex from hearing a sudden loud noise will happen in the primary acoustic startle reflex pathway consisting of three main central synapses, or signals that travel through the brain.\n", "Section::::Physiology.:Awakening.\n\nAwakening can mean the end of sleep, or simply a moment to survey the environment and readjust body position before falling back asleep. Sleepers typically awaken soon after the end of a REM phase or sometimes in the middle of REM. Internal circadian indicators, along with successful reduction of homeostatic sleep need, typically bring about awakening and the end of the sleep cycle. Awakening involves heightened electrical activation in the brain, beginning with the thalamus and spreading throughout the cortex.\n", "\"Alerting\", being the first level is the detection of environmental sound cues. This means that certain places has certain sounds associated with them. This is best explained using the example of someone's home. Their home has certain sounds associated with it that makes it familiar and comfortable. An intrusion, a sound that is not familiar (e.g. a squeaking door or floorboard, a breaking window) alerts the dweller of the home to the potential danger.\n", "In 2001, the research groups of Ptáček and Ying-Hui Fu published a genetic analysis of subjects experiencing the advanced sleep phase, implicating a mutation in the CK1-binding region of PER2 in producing the FASPS behavioral phenotype. FASPS is the first disorder to link known core clock genes directly with human circadian sleep disorders. As the PER2 mutation is not exclusively responsible for causing FASPS, current research has continued to evaluate cases in order to identify new mutations that contribute to the disorder.\n\nSection::::Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome.:Mechanisms (Per2 and CK1).\n", "The physiological change from a state of deep sleep to wakefulness is reversible and mediated by the ARAS. Inhibitory influence from the brain is active at sleep onset, likely coming from the preoptic area (POA) of the hypothalamus. During sleep, neurons in the ARAS will have a much lower firing rate; conversely, they will have a higher activity level during the waking state. Therefore, low frequency inputs (during sleep) from the ARAS to the POA neurons result in an excitatory influence and higher activity levels (awake) will have inhibitory influence. In order that the brain may sleep, there must be a reduction in ascending afferent activity reaching the cortex by suppression of the ARAS.\n", "A dawn simulator can be used as an alarm clock. Light enters through the eyelids triggering the body to begin its wake-up cycle, including the release of cortisol, so that by the time the light is at full brightness, sleepers wake up on their own, without the need for an alarm.\n", "The physiological response of surprise falls under the category of the startle response. The main function of surprise or the startle response is to interrupt an ongoing action and reorient attention to a new, possibly significant event. There is an automatic redirection of focus to the new stimuli and, for a brief moment, this causes tenseness in the muscles, especially the neck muscles. Studies show that this response happens extremely fast, with information (in this case a loud noise) reaching the pons within 3 to 8 ms and the full startle reflex occurring in less than two tenths of a second.\n", "The 520 Hz low frequency signal is required in sleeping areas of the following buildings:\n\nBULLET::::- Hotels and motels\n\nBULLET::::- College and university dormitories\n\nBULLET::::- Retirement/assisted-living facilities without trained staff responsible for waking up patients\n\nBULLET::::- Dwelling units within apartments and condominiums\n\nAccording to NFPA 72-2010, section 18.4.5.3*, audible appliances provided for sleeping areas to awaken occupants shall produce a low frequency alarm signal that complies with the following (effective January 1, 2014):\n\nBULLET::::- (1) The alarm signal shall be a square wave or provide equivalent awakening ability.\n", "Furthermore, nocturnal reactivation seems to share the same neural oscillatory patterns as reactivation during wakefulness, processes which might be coordinated by theta activity. During wakefulness, theta oscillations have been often related to successful performance in memory tasks, and cued memory reactivations during sleep have been showing that theta activity is significantly stronger in subsequent recognition of cued stimuli as compared to uncued ones, possibly indicating a strengthening of memory traces and lexical integration by cuing during sleep. However, the beneficial effect of TMR for memory consolidation seems to occur only if the cued memories can be related to prior knowledge.\n", "When he wakes Graham is disorientated. The people around him had not expected him to wake up, and are alarmed. Word spreads that the \"Sleeper\" has awakened. A mob gathers around the building and demands to see the fabled Sleeper. The people around Graham will not answer his questions. They place Graham under house arrest. Graham learns that he is the legal owner and master of most of the world.\n", "In REM sleep, the only extreme difference from the waking state is that the brain does not have the actual waking amount of sensory firings, so cognitively, there is not as much awareness here, although the activity of the \"brain’s eye\" is still quite significant and very similar to the waking state. Studies have shown that during sleep there are still 40 Hz Oscillation firings. These firings are due to the perceived stimuli happening in dreams. \"\n\nSection::::Test cases.:Learning/memory.\n", "During the night, many external stimuli may bombard the senses, but the brain often interprets the stimulus and makes it a part of a dream to ensure continued sleep. Dream incorporation is a phenomenon whereby an actual sensation, such as environmental sounds, is incorporated into dreams, such as hearing a phone ringing in a dream while it is ringing in reality or dreaming of urination while wetting the bed. The mind can, however, awaken an individual if they are in danger or if trained to respond to certain sounds, such as a baby crying.\n", "Furthermore, nocturnal reactivation seems to share the same neural oscillatory patterns as reactivation during wakefulness, processes which might be coordinated by theta activity. During wakefulness, theta oscillations have been often related to successful performance in memory tasks, and cued memory reactivations during sleep have been showing that theta activity is significantly stronger in subsequent recognition of cued stimuli as compared to uncued ones, possibly indicating a strengthening of memory traces and lexical integration by cuing during sleep. However, the beneficial effect of TMR for memory consolidation seems to occur only if the cued memories can be related to prior knowledge.\n", "Sleep increases the sensory threshold. In other words, sleeping persons perceive fewer stimuli, but can generally still respond to loud noises and other salient sensory events.\n\nDuring slow-wave sleep, humans secrete bursts of growth hormone. All sleep, even during the day, is associated with secretion of prolactin.\n", "This has also been linked to sensory gating changes between sleep and waking. In this occurs a zona incerta mediated inhibition of thalamic nuclei such the somatosensory posterior medial thalamus. This is most strong when cholinergic input to the zona incerta is reduced as during slow-wave sleep and during anesthesia. The consequence of this has been explained upon information processing: As a result, posterior medial thalamus neurons fail to respond to ascending sensory inputs, and function primarily in \"higher-order\" mode, concerned with relaying trans-cortical information. By contrast, increased cholinergic activity during wakefulness and enhanced vigilance suppresses zona incerta -mediated inhibition, thereby ungating posterior thalamus responses to ascending inputs.\n", "The evolution of different types of sleep patterns is influenced by a number of selective pressures, including body size, relative metabolic rate, predation, type and location of food sources, and immune function. Sleep (especially deep SWS and REM) is tricky behavior because it steeply increases predation risk. This means that, for sleep to have evolved, the functions of sleep should have provided a substantial advantage over the risk it entails. In fact, studying sleep in different organisms shows how they have balanced this risk by evolving partial sleep mechanisms or by having protective habitats. Thus, studying the evolution of sleep might give a clue not only to the developmental aspects and mechanisms, but also to an adaptive justification for sleep.\n", "The ascending reticular activating system consists of a set of neural subsystems that project from various thalamic nuclei and a number of dopaminergic, noradrenergic, serotonergic, histaminergic, cholinergic, and glutamatergic brain nuclei. When awake, it receives all kinds of non-specific sensory information and relays them to the cortex. It also modulates fight or flight responses and is hence linked to the motor system. During sleep onset, it acts via two pathways: a cholinergic pathway that projects to the cortex via the thalamus and a set of monoaminergic pathways that projects to the cortex via the hypothalamus. During NREM sleep this system is inhibited by GABAergic neurons in the ventrolateral preoptic area and parafacial zone, as well as other sleep-promoting neurons in distinct brain regions.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00689	What's the point of having an expectorant and a cough suppressant in a single medicine? It seems like they cancel each other out.	The idea is to make you cough less (suppressant), but when you DO cough, each one is more productive (expectorant).	[ "In those with mild disease, short-acting agents are recommended on an as needed basis. In those with more severe disease, long-acting agents are recommended. Long-acting agents partly work by reducing hyperinflation. If long-acting bronchodilators are insufficient, then inhaled corticosteroids are typically added. Which type of long-acting agent, tiotropium (a long-acting anticholinergic) or a long-acting beta agonist (LABA) is better is unclear, and trying each and continuing with the one that works best may be advisable. Both types of agent appear to reduce the risk of acute exacerbations by 15–25%. While both may be used at the same time, any added benefit is of questionable significance.\n", "In general, clearance ability is hampered by the bonding to surfaces (stickiness), and by the viscosity of mucous secretions in the lungs. In turn, the viscosity is dependent upon the concentration of mucoprotein in the secretions.\n\nExpectorants and mucolytic agents are different types of medication, yet both are intended to promote drainage of mucus from the lungs.\n\nAn expectorant (from the Latin \"expectorare\", to expel or banish) works by signaling the body to increase the amount or hydration of secretions, resulting in more yet clearer secretions and as a byproduct lubricating the irritated respiratory tract.\n", "Medication is the most important treatment of most diseases of pulmonology, either by inhalation (bronchodilators and steroids) or in oral form (antibiotics, leukotriene antagonists). A common example being the usage of inhalers in the treatment of inflammatory lung conditions such as asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Oxygen therapy is often necessary in severe respiratory disease (emphysema and pulmonary fibrosis). When this is insufficient, the patient might require mechanical ventilation.\n", "For example, a patient newly diagnosed with persistent asthma might learn about taking an oral medicine for daily management, control of chronic symptoms and prevention of an asthma attack. However, there may come a time when the patient might be exposed to an environmental trigger or stress that causes an asthma attack. The patient starts to experience shortness of breath, chest tightness or wheezing. When this unexpected symptom occurs, the skill of taking daily medicines and the medicine that is taken may change. Rather than taking an oral medicine daily, a different medication is needed for quick rescue and relief of symptoms. The rescue medication works quickly with an inhaler. Knowing to choose the right medication and knowing how to take the medicine with an inhaler is a skill that is learned for the self-care management of asthma.\n", "While the regulatory boundaries are not always clear (see \"Regulation\"), there is general acceptance of the need for physicians to have wide discretion to prescribe customized drug products containing unique drug-dosage combinations and/or formulations thereof specifically for individual patients. Most mass-produced drugs often have only one or two readily available dosage levels (except the most dominant drugs), and fixed-dose combination products – despite their many benefits – are even less likely to have the optimal combination of drugs and respective dosages for any given patient. Hence, the opportunity to tailor the drug(s)/dosage(s) in a given drug product as specifically contemplated for individual patients (as deemed optimal by one's physician) is an application of the classic principles underlying compounding.\n", "BULLET::::- For children with asthma which is well-controlled on combination therapy of inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) and long-acting beta-agonists (LABA), the benefits and harms of stopping LABA and stepping down to ICS-only therapy are uncertain. In adults who have stable asthma while they are taking a combination of LABA and inhaled corticosteroids (ICS), stopping LABA may increase the risk of asthma exacerbations that require treatment with corticosteroids by mouth. Stopping LABA probably makes little or no important difference to asthma control or asthma-related quality of life. Whether or not stopping LABA increases the risk of serious adverse events or exacerbations requiring an emergency department visit or hospitalisation is uncertain.\n", "The efficacy of cough medication is questionable, particularly in children. A 2014 Cochrane review concluded that \"There is no good evidence for or against the effectiveness of OTC medicines in acute cough\". Some cough medicines may be no more effective than placebos for acute coughs in adults, including coughs related to upper respiratory tract infections. The American College of Chest Physicians emphasizes that cough medicines are not designed to treat whooping cough, a cough that is caused by bacteria and can last for months. No over-the-counter cough medicines have been found to be effective in cases of pneumonia. They are not recommended in those who have COPD, chronic bronchitis, or the common cold. There is not enough evidence to make recommendations for those who have a cough and cancer.\n", "There are a number of different cough and cold medications, which may be used for various coughing symptoms. The commercially available products may include various combinations of any one or more of the following types of substances: \n\nBULLET::::- Mucokinetics, or mucolytics, are a class of drugs which aid in the clearance of mucus from the airways, lungs, bronchi, and trachea. Examples are carbocisteine, ambroxol, and bromhexine.\n\nBULLET::::- Expectorants are substances claimed to make coughing easier while enhancing the production of mucus and phlegm. Two examples are acetylcysteine and guaifenesin.\n", "One expectorant, guaifenesin, is commonly available in many cough syrups and also as long release tablets. Often the term \"expectorant\" is incorrectly extended to any cough medicine, since it is a universal component.\n\nMucolytics can dissolves thick mucus and are usually used to help relieve respiratory difficulties. They do this by breaking down the chemical bonds between molecules in the mucus. This in turn can lower the viscosity by altering the mucin-containing components.\n\nAlternatively, attacking the affinity between secretions and the biological surfaces is another avenue, which is used by abhesives and surfactants.\n", "Chemotherapy for cancer applies as an example. The standard of care (sometimes also called the \"gold standard\") for the adjuvant treatment of stage III colon cancer is the FOLFOX chemotherapy protocol (used in Europe, Japan, Canada, and Australia) and respectively the FLOX chemotherapy protocol (used in the USA). These 2 chemotherapy protocols are very similar in principle. Both consist of 3 medicinal drugs: a) Leucovorin (= folinic acid = calcium folinate), b) 5-Fluorouracil (= 5-FU), and c) Oxaliplatin. Since these 3 medicinal drugs are \"concomitant\" to each other, such a constellation is called \"concomitant drugs\".\n\nSection::::Concomitant drugs in medicine.:Second example.\n", "BULLET::::- Methylxanthines (such as theophylline) were once widely used, but do not add significantly to the effects of inhaled beta-agonists. Their use in acute exacerbations is controversial.\n\nBULLET::::- The dissociative anesthetic ketamine is theoretically useful if intubation and mechanical ventilation is needed in people who are approaching respiratory arrest; however, there is no evidence from clinical trials to support this.\n", "Section::::Management.:Medications.:Delivery methods.\n\nMedications are typically provided as metered-dose inhalers (MDIs) in combination with an asthma spacer or as a dry powder inhaler. The spacer is a plastic cylinder that mixes the medication with air, making it easier to receive a full dose of the drug. A nebulizer may also be used. Nebulizers and spacers are equally effective in those with mild to moderate symptoms. However, insufficient evidence is available to determine whether a difference exists in those with severe disease. There is no strong evidence for the use of intravenous LABA for adults or children who have acute asthma.\n", "These are quick-relief or \"rescue\" medications that provide quick, temporary relief from asthma symptoms or flare-ups. These medications usually take effect within 20 minutes or less, and can last from four to six hours. These inhaled medications are best for treating sudden and severe or new asthma symptoms. Taken 15 to 20 minutes ahead of time, these medications can also prevent asthma symptoms triggered by exercise or exposure to cold air. Some short-acting β-agonists, such as salbutamol, are specific to the lungs; they are called β-adrenergic agonists and can relieve bronchospasms without unwanted cardiac side effects of nonspecific β-agonists (for example, ephedrine or epinephrine). Patients who regularly or frequently need to take a short-acting β-adrenergic agonist should consult their doctor, as such usage indicates uncontrolled asthma, and their routine medications may need adjustment.\n", "Acute exacerbations are typically treated by increasing the use of short-acting bronchodilators. This commonly includes a combination of a short-acting inhaled beta agonist and anticholinergic. These medications can be given either via a metered-dose inhaler with a spacer or via a nebulizer, with both appearing to be equally effective. Nebulization may be easier for those who are more unwell. Oxygen supplementation can be useful. Excessive oxygen; however, can result in increased levels and a decreased level of consciousness.\n", "Decongestants can have side effects such as speeding up heart rate which may have adverse effects in cases where there is underlying cardiovascular disease. Over-the-counter nasal sprays can produce a rebound effect causing greater congestion when the effect wears off, which can lead to reversed ear blockage on ascent. Some steroid nasal sprays do not have this side effect and can be very effective, but may also only be available by prescription.\n\nCombinations of the same drugs are useful in non-allergic rhinitis. These medications can be very useful in controlling the nasal congestion problem.\n\nSection::::Training.\n", "The combination was approved for medical use in the United States in 2010. No generic version is available as of 2019. In the United States the wholesale cost of a puffer is about 202 USD as of 2019. In 2016 it was the 203rd most prescribed medication in the United States with more than 2 million prescriptions. It is not approved for use in Europe.\n\nSection::::Medical use.\n\nIt is used in the long-term treatment of asthma.\n\nIt is not for the treatment of acute bronchospasm. To relieve acute symptoms, a rapid-onset short-duration inhaled bronchodilator (such as salbutamol) should be available.\n", "Decongestants are used to treat nasal congestion, for instance in allergies, infections like the common cold, influenza, and sinus infection, and nasal polyps.\n\nA 2016 Cochrane review found insufficient evidence to support the use of intranasal corticosteroids in the relief of common cold symptoms. However, the review was based on three trials and the quality of the evidence was regarded as very low.\n\nSection::::Pharmacology.\n", "BULLET::::- Corticosteroid by mouth are recommended with five days of prednisone being the same 2 days of dexamethasone. One review recommended a seven-day course of steroids.\n\nBULLET::::- Magnesium sulfate intravenous treatment increases bronchodilation when used in addition to other treatment in moderate severe acute asthma attacks. In adults it results in a reduction of hospital admissions.\n\nBULLET::::- Heliox, a mixture of helium and oxygen, may also be considered in severe unresponsive cases.\n\nBULLET::::- Intravenous salbutamol is not supported by available evidence and is thus used only in extreme cases.\n", "Spacers slow down the speed of the aerosol coming from the inhaler, meaning that less of the asthma drug impacts on the back of the mouth and somewhat more may get into the lungs. In the case of corticosteroids, less residue in the mouth reduces the risk of developing oral candidiasis, a yeast infection. Rinsing the mouth after application of inhaled steroids has a similar effect.\n\nWhereas people with asthma can keep an MDI close-by at all times, the bulkiness of spacers can limit their use outside the home.\n", "Cold medicine\n\nCold medicines are medications used by people with the common cold, cough, or related conditions. There is, however, no good evidence that cough medications reduce coughing.\n\nWhile they have been used by 10% of American children in any given week, they are not recommended in Canada or the United States in children 6 years or younger because of lack of evidence showing effect and concerns of harm. One version with codeine, guaifenesin, and pseudoephedrine was the 241st most prescribed medication in 2016 in the United States with more than 2 million prescriptions.\n\nSection::::Types.\n", "BULLET::::- Inhaled bronchodilators open up the airways in the lungs. These include salbutamol and terbutaline (both β-adrenergic agonists), and ipratropium (an anticholinergic). Medication can be administered via inhaler or nebuliser. There is no evidence to prefer a nebuliser over an inhaler.\n", "While the use of inhaled LABAs are still recommended in asthma guidelines for the resulting improved symptom control, further concerns have been raised. A large meta-analysis of pooled results from 19 trials with 33,826 participants, suggests that salmeterol may increase the small risks of asthma-related deaths, and this additional risk is not reduced with the additional use of inhaled steroids (e.g., as with the combination product fluticasone/salmeterol).\n\nThis seems to occur because although LABAs relieve asthma symptoms, they also promote bronchial inflammation and sensitivity without warning.\n\nSection::::Names.\n", "BULLET::::- A number of other commercially available cough treatments have not been shown to be effective in viral upper respiratory infections. These include for adults: antihistamines, antihistamine-decongestant combinations, benzonatate, anti asthmatic-expectorant-mucolytic combinations, expectorant-bronchodilator combinations, leukotriene inhibitors, ambroxol, and guaifenesin, sometimes with analgesics, antipyretics, anti inflammatories, and anticholinergics - and for children: antihistamines, decongestants for clearing the nose, or combinations of these and leukotriene inhibitors for allergy and asthma. However, antihistamines cannot be used as an empirical therapy in case of chronic, or non specific cough especially in very young children. Long term diphenhydramine use is associated with negative outcomes in older people.\n", "Corticosteroids are usually used in inhaled form, but may also be used as tablets to treat and prevent acute exacerbations. While inhaled corticosteroids (ICSs) have not shown benefit for people with mild COPD, they decrease acute exacerbations in those with either moderate or severe disease. By themselves, they have no effect on overall one-year mortality. Whether they affect the progression of the disease is unknown. When used in combination with a LABA, they may decrease mortality compared to either ICSs or LABA alone. Inhaled steroids are associated with increased rates of pneumonia. Long-term treatment with steroid tablets is associated with significant side effects.\n", "BULLET::::- Herbal inhibitors – Many herbal substances have been observed since antiquity for reducing flatulence, particularly gas from eating legumes. Cloves, nutmeg, cinnamon, and garlic are potent in reducing gas. The potency of garlic increases when heated, whereas the potency of cinnamon decreases. Other spices have a lesser effect in reducing gas, including turmeric, black pepper, asafoetida and ginger. Other common Indian spices, cumin, aniseed, ajowan, and cardamom do \"not\" inhibit gas production, in fact they exacerbate it significantly.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms of action.:Relieving gas.\n" ]	[ "Expectorant and cough supressant should cancel each other out.", "Using an expectorant and a cough suppressant together contradicts each other." ]	[ "They work together to make the coughs you do have more productive.", "They do not contradict each other because the suppressant makes you cough less, however when you do cough, the expectorant makes each cough more effective. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Expectorant and cough supressant should cancel each other out.", "Using an expectorant and a cough suppressant together contradicts each other." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "They work together to make the coughs you do have more productive.", "They do not contradict each other because the suppressant makes you cough less, however when you do cough, the expectorant makes each cough more effective. " ]
2018-02664	How was western Europe so unprepared for Hitler's invasion and the start of WW2?	The losses incurred in WW1 by Europe at large cannot be overstated. Their population was wrecked by conflict on their own soil which raged across the continent. Germany was far less impacted by localized violence then, say, France, and the dangers of early 20th century warfare left populations with poisoned land, low food security, and slow recuperation of population. Treaties placed on Germany were thought sufficient to keep the available government under control. The severe economic impositions made Germans limit their infrastructure to civic projects. You know, the kind of thing that increases population and develop quickly. Complacency, a generally difficult recovery, and the desire to move forward left many European nations flatfooted.	[ "BULLET::::- 1940: Great Britain under Winston Churchill becomes the last nation to hold out against the Nazis after winning the Battle of Britain.\n\nBULLET::::- 1941: U.S. begins large-scale lend-lease aid to Britain, Free France, the USSR and other Allies; Canada also provides financial aid.\n\nBULLET::::- 1941: Germany invades the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa; fails to capture Moscow or Leningrad.\n\nBULLET::::- 1942: Nazi Germany commences the Holocaust – a Final Solution, with the murder of 6 million Jews.\n\nBULLET::::- 1943: After Stalingrad and Kursk, Soviet forces begin recapturing Nazi-occupied territory in the East.\n", "At the close of the war, much of Europe lay in ruins with millions of homeless refugees. A souring of relations between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union then saw Europe split by an Iron Curtain, dividing the continent between West and East. In Western Europe, democracy had survived the challenge of Fascism and began a period of intense rivalry with Eastern Communism, which was to continue into the 1980s. France and Britain secured themselves permanent positions on the newly formed United Nations Security Council, but Western European Empires did not long survive the war, and no one Western European nation would ever again be the paramount power in world affairs.\n", "Section::::Impact by country.:Uzbekistan.\n\nSee [[World War II by country#Soviet Union\|Soviet Union]].\n\nSection::::Impact by country.:Vatican City.\n\n[[File:Members of the Royal 22e Regiment in audience with Pope Pius XII.jpg\|thumb\|Canadian soldiers in audience with [[Pope Pius XII]] following the 1944 [[Battle of Anzio\|Liberation of Rome]].]]\n", "Initially, Hitler rejected the idea of collaborating with the peoples in the East. However, Nazis such as Joseph Goebbels and Alfred Rosenberg were in favour of collaboration against Bolshevism and offering some independence to the peoples of the East. In 1940, Himmler opened up membership for people he regarded as being of \"related stock\", which resulted in a number of right wing Scandinavians signing up to fight in the Waffen-SS. When the Germans invaded the Soviet Union in 1941, further volunteers from France, Spain, Belgium, the Netherlands, Czechoslovakia, and the Croatia signed up to fight for the Nazi cause.\n", "Section::::Allies.:Soviet Union.\n", "This period was also marked by systematic genocide. In 1942–45, separately from the war-related deaths, the Nazis killed an additional number of over 11 million civilians identified through IBM-enabled censuses, including the majority of the Jews and Gypsies of Europe, millions of Polish and Soviet Slavs, and also homosexuals, Jehovah's Witnesses, misfits, disabled, and political enemies. Meanwhile, in the 1930s the Soviet system of forced labour, expulsions and allegedly engineered famine had a similar death toll. During and after the war millions of civilians were affected by forced population transfers.\n\nSection::::Cold War Era.\n", "World War II from 1939 to 1945 saw a human and economic catastrophe which hit Europe hardest. It demonstrated the horrors of war, and also of extremism, through the Holocaust and the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Once again, there was a desire to ensure it could never happen again, particularly with the war giving the world nuclear weapons. Most European countries failed to maintain their Great Power status, with the exception of the USSR, which became a superpower after World War II and maintained the status for 45 years. This left two rival ideologically opposed superpowers.\n", "Section::::1914–1945: Two World wars.:World War II.\n\nIn the Munich Agreement of 1938, Britain and France adopted a policy of appeasement as they gave Hitler what he wanted out of Czechoslovakia in the hope that it would bring peace. It did not. In 1939 Germany took over the rest of Czechoslovakia and appeasement policies gave way to hurried rearmament as Hitler next turned his attention to Poland.\n", "Section::::Poland.:Beginning of WWII, 1939.\n", "By 1942, German and Italian armies ruled Norway, the Low Countries, France, the Balkans, Central Europe, part of Russia, and most of North Africa. Japan by this year ruled much of China, Southeast Asia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and many Pacific Islands. Life in these empires was cruel – especially in Germany, where The Holocaust was perpetrated. Eleven million people – six million of them Jews – were systematically murdered by the German nazis by 1945.\n", "Of this, Pons Prades said \"With hearts battered by the violent lash of defeat, some entered France in the coldest days of winter of 1938-1939, with tangled hair, disarrayed, smelly, with beggars' beards, thin and drawn, with uniforms spattered with blood and lead, and with the look of visionaries ... They were the first - the only ones - who had dared to confront fascism in Europe, with weapons in their hands.\"\n\nSection::::Biography.:World War II.\n", "In the East, the intended gains of \"Lebensraum\" were never attained as fluctuating front-lines and Soviet scorched earth policies denied resources to the German invaders. Unlike in the West, the Nazi racial policy encouraged extreme brutality against what it considered to be the \"inferior people\" of Slavic descent; most German advances were thus followed by mass executions. Although resistance groups formed in most occupied territories, they did not significantly hamper German operations in either the East or the West until late 1943.\n", "Section::::Western Europe.\n\nBritain and France, two of the victors, were exhausted and bankrupted by the war, and Britain lost its superpower status. With Germany and Japan in ruins as well, the world was left with two dominant powers, the United States and the Soviet Union. Economic and political reality in Western Europe would soon force the dismantling of the European colonial empires, especially in Africa and Asia.\n", "BULLET::::- September 1 – Haggar debuts a new pant concept, \"Slacks\", as the appropriate pant to wear during a man's \"Slack Time.\"\n\nBULLET::::- September 4 – During the ceremony marking the unveiling of a plaque at Pointe de Grave, France celebrating Franco-American friendship, American Ambassador William Bullitt in a speech states, \"France and the United States were united in war and peace\", leading to much speculation in the press that if war did break out over Czechoslovakia, then the United States would join the war on the Allied side.\n", "Winston Churchill, in his famous \"Sinews of Peace\" address of March 5, 1946 at Westminster College in Fulton, Missouri, stressed the geopolitical impact of the \"iron curtain\":\n\nSection::::History.:World War II and the onset of the Cold War.:Eastern Bloc during the Cold War to 1989.\n", "Europe was relatively unstable following World War I. Although many prospered in the 1920s, Germany was in a deep financial and economic crisis. Also, France and Britain owed the U.S. a great deal of money. When the United States went into Depression, so did Europe. There were perhaps 30 million people around the world unemployed following the Depression. Many governments helped to alleviate the suffering of their citizens and by 1937 the economy had improved although the lingering effects of the Depression remained. Also, the Depression led to the spread of radical left-wing and right-wing ideologies, like Communism and Fascism.\n", "[[Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)\|Hungary]] was a significant German ally. It signed the [[Tripartite Pact]] on 20 November 1940, and joined in the invasion of the Soviet Union the next year. When, in 1944, the government of Regent [[Miklós Horthy]] wished to sign a ceasefire with the Allies, he was overthrown by the Nazis and replaced by a government run by the Hungarist [[Arrow Cross Party\|Arrow Cross]] movement, which ruled the country until it was overrun by the Soviets in 1945.\n\nSection::::Impact by country.:Iceland.\n", "In their hurry to re-arm, Britain and France had both begun to buy large numbers of weapons from manufacturers in the United States at the outbreak of hostilities, supplementing their own production. The non-belligerent United States contributed to the Western Allies by discounted sales of military equipment and supplies. German efforts to interdict the Allies' trans-Atlantic trade at sea ignited the Battle of the Atlantic.\n\nSection::::1939–1940: Axis victories.:Scandinavia.\n", "Section::::Weaponry.:Aircraft.\n\nIn the Western European Theatre of World War II, air power became crucial throughout the war, both in tactical and strategic operations (respectively, battlefield and long-range). Superior German aircraft, aided by ongoing introduction of design and technology innovations, allowed the German armies to overrun Western Europe with great speed in 1940, largely assisted by lack of Allied aircraft, which in any case lagged in design and technical development during the slump in research investment after the Great Depression.\n", "Events preceding World War II in Europe\n\nThe events preceding World War II in Europe are closely tied to the bellicosity of Italy, Germany and Japan, as well as the Great Depression. The peace movement led to appeasement and disarmament. \n\nSection::::Aftermath of World War I.\n\nWorld War II is generally viewed as having its roots in the aftermath of World War I, in which the German Empire under Wilhelm II, with its Central Powers, was defeated, chiefly by the United Kingdom, France, and the United States.\n", "In the late 1930s, most fellow-travelers broke with the Communist party-line of Moscow when Josef Stalin and Adolf Hitler signed the German–Soviet Non-aggression Pact (August 1939), which allowed the Occupation of Poland (1939–45) for partitioning between the U.S.S.R. and Nazi Germany. In the U.S., the American Communist Party abided Stalin's official party-line, and denounced Britain and Western anti-Nazis, rather than the German Nazis, as war mongers. In June 1941, when the Nazis launched \"Operation Barbarossa\", to annihilate the U.S.S.R., again, the American Communist Party abided Stalin's party-line, and became war hawks for American intervention to the European war in aid of Russia, and ally of the United States.\n", "Section::::Allies.:Great Britain.:Volunteers.\n", "Section::::World War II.:Western Europe.\n", "The Great Depression, the rise of fascism and communism and subsequently World War II prevented the inter war movements from gaining further support: between 1933 and 1936 most of Europe's remaining democracies became dictatorships, and even Ortega's Spain and Venizelos's Greece had both been plunged into civil war. But although the supporters of European unity, whether social-democratic, liberal or Christian-democratic, were out of power during the 1930s and unable to put their ideas into practice, many would find themselves in power in the 1940s and 1950s, and better-placed to put into effect their earlier remedies against economic and political crisis.\n", "One of the most important political consequences of the Nazi experience in Western Europe was the establishment of new political alliances which eventually became the European Union and an international military alliance of European countries known as NATO to counterbalance the Soviets' Warsaw Pact and until communist rule in Eastern Europe ended in the late 1980s.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-08984	Why are my allergies way worse the moment right after I wake up than any other time of the day?	There are a few factors that effect this, from what I've read, pollen counts are often higher earlier in the day, another reason has to do with circulating levels of various hormones $corticosteroids, histamine & various neurotransmitters IE, Epinephrine AKA Adrenaline$ All of these have effects on how the body reacts to external stimuli IE allergens. Most of these stimulating hormones and neurotransmitters slowly are released and circulate the body beginning slightly before we awaken, as their levels ramp up along with our awakeness your reaction to allergens will diminish. The same reason is responsible for why you may feel similar when getting sleepy, these stimulating chemicals are ramping down as your body prepares to rest.	[ "Allergic rhinitis may also be classified as Mild-Intermittent, Moderate-Severe intermittent, Mild-Persistent, and Moderate-Severe Persistent. Intermittent is when the symptoms occur 4 days per week or 4 consecutive weeks. Persistent is when symptoms occur 4 days/week and 4 consecutive weeks. The symptoms are considered mild with normal sleep, no impairment of daily activities, no impairment of work or school, and if symptoms are not troublesome. Severe symptoms result in sleep disturbance, impairment of daily activities, and impairment of school or work.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Local allergic rhinitis.\n", "Histamine plays a role in wakefulness in the brain. An allergic reaction over produces histamine causing wakefulness and inhibiting sleep Sleep problems are common in people with allergic rhinitis. A study from the N.I.H. found that sleep is dramatically impaired by allergic symptoms and that the degree of impairment is related to the severity of those symptoms s Treatment of allergies has also been shown to help sleep apnea.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Acupuncture.\n", "Alternative tools are available to identify seasonal allergies, such as laboratory tests, imaging tests and nasal endoscopy. In the laboratory tests, the doctor will take a nasal smear and it will be examined microscopically for factors that may indicate a cause: increased numbers of eosinophils (white blood cells), which indicates an allergic condition. If there is a high count of eosinophils, an allergic condition might be present.\n", "Shortly after awakening, a sharp 38–75% (average 50%) increase occurs in the blood level of cortisol in about 77% of healthy people of all ages. The average level of salivary cortisol upon waking is roughly 15 nmol/l; 30 minutes later it may be 23 nmol/l, though there are wide variations. The cortisol awakening response reaches a maximum approximately 30 minutes after awakening though it may still be heightened by 34% an hour after waking. The pattern of this response to waking is relatively stable for any individual. Twin studies show its pattern is largely genetically determined since there is a heritability of 0.40 for the mean cortisol increase after awakening and 0.48 for the area under the cortisol rise curve.\n", "BULLET::::- Food allergies For some patients, food allergies may be part of the cause. This link is not well established, requiring further research.\n", "Section::::Seasonal allergy.:Seasonal allergy diagnosis.\n", "Recent research has suggested that humans might develop allergies as a defense to fight off parasites. According to Yale University Immunologist Dr Ruslan Medzhitov, protease allergens cleave the same sensor proteins that evolved to detect proteases produced by the parasitic worms. Additionally, a new report on seasonal allergies called “Extreme allergies and Global Warming”, have found that many allergy triggers are worsening due to climate change. 16 states in the United States were named as “Allergen Hotspots” for large increases in allergenic tree pollen if global warming pollution keeps increasing. Therefore, researchers on this report claimed that global warming is bad news for millions of asthmatics in the United States whose asthma attacks are triggered by seasonal allergies. Indeed, seasonal allergies are one of the main triggers for asthma, along with colds or flu, cigarette smoke and exercise. In Canada, for example, up to 75% of asthmatics also have seasonal allergies.\n", "If both parents suffered from allergies in the past, there is a 66% chance for the individual to suffer from seasonal allergies, and the risk lowers to 60% if just one parent had suffered from allergies. The immune system also has strong influence on seasonal allergies, since it reacts differently to diverse allergens like pollen. When an allergen enters the body of an individual that is predisposed to allergies, it triggers an immune reaction and the production of antibodies. These allergen antibodies migrate to mast cells lining the nose, eyes and lungs. When an allergen drifts into the nose more than once, mast cells release a slew of chemicals or histamines that irritate and inflame the moist membranes lining the nose and produce the symptoms of an allergic reaction: scratchy throat, itching, sneezing and watery eyes. Some symptoms that differentiate allergies from a cold include:\n", "Paroxysmal sneezing in morning, especially in morning while getting out of the bed. Excessive rhinorrhea - watering discharge from the nose when patient bends forward. Nasal obstruction - bilateral nasal stuffiness alternates from one site to other; this is more marked at night, when the dependent side of nose is often blocked. Postnasal drip.\n\nSection::::Presentation.:Complications.\n\nNonallergic rhinitis cases may subsequently develop polyps, turbinate hypertrophy and sinusitis.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "In contrast, allergic reactions involving an immediate allergic response to an allergen are caused by anaphylactic degranulation, which is the abrupt and explosive release of \"pre-formed mediators\", including histamine, from mast cells and basophils throughout the body.\n\nSection::::Symptoms.\n\nPossible symptoms after ingestion of histamine-rich food are:\n\nBULLET::::- Skin rash, hives, eczema, itching\n\nBULLET::::- Headache, flushing, migraine, dizziness\n\nBULLET::::- narrowed or runny nose, difficulty breathing, bronchial asthma, sore throat\n\nBULLET::::- Bloating (flatulence), diarrhea, constipation, nausea / vomiting, abdominal pain, stomach sticking, heartburn\n\nBULLET::::- High blood pressure (hypertension), tachycardia, cardiac arrhythmias, low blood pressure (hypotension)\n", "Increased vascular permeability causes fluid to escape from capillaries into the tissues, which leads to the classic symptoms of an allergic reaction: a runny nose and watery eyes. Allergens can bind to IgE-loaded mast cells in the nasal cavity's mucous membranes. This can lead to three clinical responses:\n\nBULLET::::1. sneezing due to histamine-associated sensory neural stimulation\n\nBULLET::::2. hyper-secretion from glandular tissue\n\nBULLET::::3. nasal congestion due to vascular engorgement associated with vasodilation and increased capillary permeability\n\nSection::::Roles in the body.:Sleep-wake regulation.\n", "BULLET::::- Contact lens (conjunctivitis is also caused by repeated mechanical irritation of the conjunctiva by contact lens wearers)\n\nMost cases of seasonal conjunctivitis are due to pollen and occur in the hay fever season, grass pollens in early summer and various other pollens and moulds may cause symptoms later in the summer.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "Allergic rhinitis, also known as hay fever, is a type of inflammation in the nose which occurs when the immune system overreacts to allergens in the air. Signs and symptoms include a runny or stuffy nose, sneezing, red, itchy, and watery eyes, and swelling around the eyes. The fluid from the nose is usually clear. Symptom onset is often within minutes following exposure and they can affect sleep, the ability to work, and the ability to concentrate at school. Those whose symptoms are due to pollen typically develop symptoms during specific times of the year. Many people with allergic rhinitis also have asthma, allergic conjunctivitis, or atopic dermatitis.\n", "BULLET::::- Trees: such as pine (\"Pinus\"), birch (\"Betula\"), alder (\"Alnus\"), cedar (\"Cedrus\"), hazel (\"Corylus\"), hornbeam (\"Carpinus\"), horse chestnut (\"Aesculus\"), willow (\"Salix\"), poplar (\"Populus\"), plane (\"Platanus\"), linden/lime (\"Tilia\"), and olive (\"Olea\"). In northern latitudes, birch is considered to be the most common allergenic tree pollen, with an estimated 15–20% of people with hay fever sensitive to birch pollen grains. A major antigen in these is a protein called Bet V I. Olive pollen is most predominant in Mediterranean regions. Hay fever in Japan is caused primarily by sugi (\"Cryptomeria japonica\") and hinoki (\"Chamaecyparis obtusa\") tree pollen.\n", "BULLET::::- Weeds: ragweed (\"Ambrosia\"), plantain (\"Plantago\"), nettles/parietaria (Urticaceae), mugwort (\"Artemisia\"), Fat hen (\"Chenopodium\") and sorrel/dock (\"Rumex\")\n\nThe time of year at which hay fever symptoms manifest themselves varies greatly depending on the types of pollen to which an allergic reaction is produced. The pollen count, in general, is highest from mid-spring to early summer. As most pollens are produced at fixed periods in the year, a long-term hay fever sufferer may also be able to anticipate when the symptoms are most likely to begin and end, although this may be complicated by an allergy to dust particles.\n\nSection::::Spores.\n", "These case reports suggest that the observed cases of the morning pseudoneutropenia did not proceed to become agranulocytosis which is a significant and dangerous side effect of some of antipsychotics. Hence it was suggested that although the morning neutrophil count may appear low, if the antipsychotic medication were considered efficacious then white cell counts may be repeated in the afternoon prior to making a decision based only on the morning counts.\n", "Allergic rhinitis triggered by the pollens of specific seasonal plants is commonly known as \"hay fever\", because it is most prevalent during haying season. However, it is possible to have allergic rhinitis throughout the year. The pollen that causes hay fever varies between individuals and from region to region; in general, the tiny, hardly visible pollens of wind-pollinated plants are the predominant cause. Pollens of insect-pollinated plants are too large to remain airborne and pose no risk. Examples of plants commonly responsible for hay fever include:\n", "Section::::Pathophysiology.:Late-phase response.\n\nAfter the chemical mediators of the acute response subside, late-phase responses can often occur. This is due to the migration of other leukocytes such as neutrophils, lymphocytes, eosinophils and macrophages to the initial site. The reaction is usually seen 2–24 hours after the original reaction. Cytokines from mast cells may play a role in the persistence of long-term effects. Late-phase responses seen in asthma are slightly different from those seen in other allergic responses, although they are still caused by release of mediators from eosinophils and are still dependent on activity of T2 cells.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.:Allergic contact dermatitis.\n", "The number of people in the United States affected by hay fever is between 20 and 40 million, and such allergy has proven to be the most frequent allergic response in the nation. There are certain evidential suggestions pointing out hay fever and similar allergies to be of hereditary origin. Individuals who suffer from eczema or are asthmatic tend to be more susceptible to developing long-term hay fever.\n\nIn Denmark, decades of rising temperatures cause pollen to appear earlier and in greater numbers, as well as introduction of new species such as ragweed.\n", "Conjunctivitis may also be caused by allergens such as pollen, perfumes, cosmetics, smoke, dust mites, Balsam of Peru, or eye drops. The most frequent cause of conjunctivitis is allergic conjunctivitis and it affects 15% to 40% of the population. Allergic conjunctivitis accounts for 15% of eye related primary care consultations - most including seasonal exposures in the spring and summer or perpetual conditions. \n\nSection::::Causes.:Other.\n", "A cause of nasal congestion may also be due to an allergic reaction caused by hay fever, so avoiding allergens is a common remedy if this becomes a confirmed diagnosis. Antihistamines and decongestants can provide significant symptom relief although they do not cure hay fever. Antihistamines may be given continuously during pollen season for optimum control of symptoms. Topical decongestants should only be used by patients for a maximum of 3 days in a row, because rebound congestion may occur in the form of rhinitis medicamentosa.\n", "Allergic rhinitis may be seasonal or perennial. Seasonal allergic rhinitis occurs in particular during pollen seasons. It does not usually develop until after 6 years of age. Perennial allergic rhinitis occurs throughout the year. This type of allergic rhinitis is commonly seen in younger children.\n", "Also, depending on the season, the symptoms may be more severe and people may experience coughing, wheezing, and irritability. A few people even become depressed, lose their appetite, or have problems sleeping. Moreover, since the sinuses may also become congested, some people experience headaches.\n", "Foreman is meeting with some donors when he looks over at some flowers he received a week ago that are still fresh. He excuses himself. He goes to House in triumph - it's Reye's syndrome. House says it's rare in adults and the wife kept all the medicine under lock and key. However, Foreman has realized that Natalie was an ex-florist who most likely used aspirin to extend the life of flowers for the few orders she still worked on. The patient probably had flu, which presented with a sore throat. He saw aspirin and started taking them and, because he forgot he took them, he probably took several. Foreman has already started the patient on steroids.\n", "BULLET::::- Red wine, the higher the degree of ripeness, the higher the histamine content. Dry white wines contain virtually no histamine, sparkling wine is also recommended. R. Jarisch, on the other hand, warns of French champagne with its 670 μg / l histamine (champagne is partly made from red grapes).\n\nBULLET::::- Chocolate: Chocolate does not contain histamine, but the other biogenic amines: tyramine and phenethylamine. These amines come from the cocoa. In minimizing the intake of histamine through the diet, cocoa drinks and chocolate (in various desserts) should also be avoided.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00916	How do countries simulate full-scale wars?	This is a very vague question, but we'll try to take a crack at it. For large-scale, military-only exercises, the participating units are put on a war footing and made to perform tasks they normally would during a conflict against either imaginary/simulated enemy targets or friendly troops playing the role of enemy combatants. Indirect fire has real ammo, so they fire on imaginary targets, friendlies playing hostiles necessitate blank rounds to be used. The troops are positioned as they would during a conflict (forward camps, usually) and supplied similarly, with MREs and limited resources. For those exercises that want to also simulate civilian operators acting in concert with military forces, those civilian units or organizations (for example, fire crews, police forces and political chains of command) are also put on the same alert as they would under a full-scale conflict and perform simulated tasks and operations similar to those they would in wartime. For fire crews, this may include buildings set on fire in a manner to simulate bomb strikes, police may train to counter enemy special operations forces, and political command chains may face similar dilemmas as those in wartime. Medical organizations may be put on high alert and perform simulated complicated or mass casualty operations. Normally, all organizations in a country won't hold war exercises (or war games) at the same time, but the results of these can be combined and/or extrapolated to provide a relatively accurate overview of the capabilities against certain levels of enemy action both in the field and on the home front.	[ "Manual simulations, as described above, are often run to explore a 'what if?' scenario and take place as much to provide the participants with some insight into decision-making processes and crisis management as to provide concrete conclusions. Indeed, such simulations do not even require a conclusion; once a set number of moves has been made and the time allotted has run out, the scenario will finish regardless of whether the original situation has been resolved or not.\n", "Full-scale military exercises, or even smaller-scale ones, are not always feasible or even desirable. Availability of resources, including money, is a significant factor—it costs a lot to release troops and materiel from any standing commitments, to transport them to a suitable location, and then to cover additional expenses such as petroleum, oil and lubricants (POL) usage, equipment maintenance, supplies and consumables replenishment and other items. In addition, certain warfare models do not lend themselves to verification using this realistic method. It might, for example, prove counter-productive to accurately test an attrition scenario by killing one's own troops.\n", "The 2000s (decade) saw a number of tactical simulations developed in Eastern Europe. Examples include real-time tactics titles such as those belonging to the \"Blitzkrieg\", \"Sudden Strike\" and \"\" — not to be confused with \"\" by MicroProse — series; as well as stand-alone titles like \"\", \"Joint Task Force\", and \"\".\n\nSection::::Examples in different settings.\n\nSection::::Examples in different settings.:Historical and contemporary.\n", "BULLET::::- Use an interactive unit hierarchy display to manage civil-military conflict and logistics.\n", "Units are usually scaled to be disproportionately large compared to the landscape, in order to promote effective gameplay. These games usually use a much faster time line than reality, and thus wargames often do not model night time or sleep periods, though some games apply them, they can be time-consuming.\n\nSection::::Game design.:Comparison with traditional wargames.\n", "Simulation techniques using real life scenarios are used to improve reaction during high stress crises. Scenarios include making 911 calls, communicating with first responders, key task assignments, performing CPR and using AEDs, practice caring for severe bleeding, using epinephrine auto-injectors such as EPI Pens, and using opioid reversal agents.\n\nSection::::Global Scale Model.:Team of Teams and network of networks.\n", "The scale of the game is variable, with distances ranging from 2.5 km per hex to 50 km per hex, and each turn simulating from 1/4 day to 1 week of time, but is fundamentally \"operational\", focusing on battalion, division, and corps combat. The option of scale is left to a maker of a particular scenario to choose, resulting in a wide range of user-made scenarios; ranging from, for example, a small engagement in northern Germany between several companies to an entire World War II on division scale.\n", "Good analysts design wargames so that policy makers have great flexibility and freedom to adapt their simulated organisations. Then these simulated organizations are \"stressed\" by the scenarios as a game plays out. Usually, particular groups of facts become more clearly important. These insights enable intelligence organizations to refine and repackage real information more precisely to better serve the policy-makers' real-life needs. Usually the games' simulated time runs hundreds of times faster than real life, so policy-makers experience several years of policy decisions, and their simulated effects, in less than a day.\n", "Political-military simulations remain in widespread use today: modern simulations are concerned not with a potential war between superpowers, but more with international cooperation, the rise of global terrorism and smaller brushfire conflicts such as those in Kosovo, Bosnia, Sierra Leone and the Sudan. An example is the \"MNE\" (\"M\"ulti\"n\"ational \"E\"xperiment) series of simulations that have been run from the Atatürk Wargaming, Simulation and Culture Center in Istanbul over recent years. The latest, MNE 4, took place in early 2006. MNE includes participants from Australia, Finland, Sweden, and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) (including Canada, France, Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States), and is designed to explore the use of diplomatic, economic and military power in the global arena.\n", "Wargames may give hints as to how a commander might react in battle, but other methods would be needed to explore and test this. Wargames are not a reliable tool for predicting how a commander might react in a hypothetical scenario that he has never faced in the field. There is substantial literature in psychology that shows that humans are poor at predicting how they'd react in hypothetical situations (especially when it comes to fear), although wargames do deliver somewhat more reliable predictions than pure thought experiments.\n\nSection::::Overview.\n", "At the \"tactical level\", the scenario is a single battle. The basic unit of command is an individual soldier or small group of soldiers. The time span of the scenario is in the order of minutes. At this level, the specific capabilities of the soldiers and their armaments are described in detail. An example of a tactical-level games is \"Flames of War\", in which players use miniature figurines to represent individual soldiers, and move them around on a scale model of the battlefield.\n", "Grand strategy wargames typically focus on a war or series of wars, often over a long period of time. Individual units, even armies, may not be represented; instead, attention is given to theaters of operation. All of the resources of the nations involved may be mobilized as part of a long-term struggle. The simulation typically involves political and economic as well as military conflict. At the most extreme end of this is the branch of strategy games in which the player assumes the role of the government of an entire nation-state and in which \"not\" conducting war is a possibility, such as in \"\".\n", "Section::::Use in Experiential Learning.:Military Training.:Opposing force (OPFOR).\n\nRole-players are trained to accurately emulate real-life enemies in order to provide a more realistic experience for military personnel. To avoid the diplomatic ramifications of naming a real nation as a likely enemy, training scenarios often use fictional countries similar military characteristics to the expected real-world foes.\n\n\"Main article: OPFOR\"\n\nSection::::Use in Experiential Learning.:Military Training.:Civilians on the Battlefield (COB).\n", "The human factors problem was an essential element in the development of Jeremiah at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in the 1980s. Research by Lulejian and Associates had indicated that the individual soldier's assessment of his probability of survival was the key metric in understanding why and when combat units became ineffective. While their research was based on day to day time scales, the developer of Jeremiah, K. E. Froeschner, applied the principle to the 10 second time step of the computer simulation. The result was a high degree of correlation with measured actions for which detailed data were available from a very few after action reports from WWII, the Israeli tank action on the Golan Heights as well as live exercises conducted at Hunter liggett Military Reservation in Monterey, California.\n", "In 2006 JFCOM-J9 used SEAS to war game warfare scenarios for Baghdad in 2015. In April 2007 JFCOM-J9 began working with Homeland Security and multinational forces in a homeland defense war gaming exercise.\n\nSection::::Sentient World Simulation.\n", "While reacting games and Model United Nations have many similarities (e.g. educational usage, roles, factions, voting) Model UN simulations frequently focus on a fictional, rather than a historical scenario.\n\nSection::::Relationship to other games and simulations.:Historical simulation games.\n", "Contributions\n", "One is that Weart makes no attempt to use statistics to prove that the findings are statistically significant. This would be very difficult to do if including all of human history. The many statistical studies on this subject have almost always limited themselves to the period after 1815. For this period there are prefabricated data sets available which lists for example all battle deaths for all nations. Weart instead uses a well-tried method often used by historians: comparative case studies. Especially by looking at many ambiguous cases it is possible to sift out a set of features that decide if a pair of regimes makes war or avoids it.\n", "There are a couple of main formats of megagames.\n\nOperational Megagames are typically military \"what if\" scenarios and will include an extensive and detailed rule set to reflect the capability of forces and equipment that might be found in the era the game is set in. There is little room for improvisation around the rules and players will be expected to operate closely within the game mechanics.\n", "Most miniature wargames are turn-based. Players take turns to move their model warriors across the model battlefield and declare attacks on the opponent. In most miniature wargames, the outcomes of fights between units are resolved through simple arithmetic, sometimes combined with dice rolls or playing cards.\n", "Discussions on integrating JTLS with JCATS, VBS2, and Flames models as part of the NATO Training Federation (NTF) were conducted between members of NATO in 2011.\n\nSection::::MOOTW - Simulating Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief Events.\n", "Scenario planning is also extremely popular with military planners. Most states' department of war maintains a continuously updated series of strategic plans to cope with well-known military or strategic problems. These plans are almost always based on scenarios, and often the plans and scenarios are kept up-to-date by war games, sometimes played out with real troops. This process was first carried out (arguably the method was invented by) the Prussian general staff of the mid-19th century.\n\nSection::::Development of scenario analysis in business organizations.\n", "Another way to address complexity is to use a computer to automate some or all of the routine procedures. Video games can be both sophisticated and easy to learn, which is why computer wargames are more popular than tabletop wargames.\n\nSection::::Design issues.:Scale.\n\nEvery wargame must have a sense of scale, so that it may realistically simulate how topography, distance, and time affect warfare. Military wargames typically aim to model time and space as realistically as is feasible. Recreational wargame designers, by contrast, tend to use abstract scaling techniques to make their wargames easier to learn and play.\n", "BULLET::::- NATO article \"Using the Multinational Experiment 4 (MNE4) Modeling and Simulation Federation to Support Joint Experimentation\" begins with: \"Multinational experimentation is a critical element of the United States Joint Forces Command’s (USJFCOM) Experimentation Directorate (J9) joint concept development and experimentation program. The Multinational Experiment (MNE) series explores ways to achieve a coalition’s political goals by influencing the behaviour of our adversaries by relying on the full weight of the coalition’s collective national powers (diplomatic, information, military and economics actions). MNE4, conducted in February – March 2006, was one such experimentation venue that explored new ways to apply the various elements of the coalition’s considerable influence, short of direct military conflict. MNE4 required an extensive international modeling and simulation (M&S) development effort with models provided by France, Germany and the United States.\"\n", "The Joint Warrior exercises use a common core scenario which is based upon the fragmentation of the fictional ‘Ryanian Empire’ into four nations in the late 1960s, and the intervening period of history up to the present day. A bespoke scenario is then re-written for each Joint Warrior by the JTEPS which includes simulated political and military tensions, resulting in hostilities.\n\nSection::::Operations.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-23823	What is the cause of lightning storms during explosive volcanic eruptions?	It's actually the same general concept as what happens during a regular thunderstorm. The updrafts bang particles together (water drops in a rainstorm, ash in a volcano) and as they bang together, they strip electric charge from each other (just like what happens when you rub a balloon on your hair). The differently charged particles migrate to different parts of the cloud. Eventually, the static electricity difference is enough to overcome the resistance of the air and \BANG CRASH THE LIGHTNING FLASH\.	[ "Section::::Charging mechanisms.\n\nSection::::Charging mechanisms.:Ice charging.\n", "BULLET::::- Powerful and frequent flashes have been witnessed in the volcanic plume as far back as the 79 AD eruption of Vesuvius by Pliny The Younger.\n\nBULLET::::- Likewise, vapors and ash originating from vents on the volcano's flanks may produce more localized and smaller flashes upwards of 2.9 km long.\n\nBULLET::::- Small, short duration sparks, recently documented near newly extruded magma, attest to the material being highly charged prior to even entering the atmosphere.\n\nSection::::Extraterrestrial.\n", "The earliest recorded observations of volcanic lightning are from Pliny the Younger, describing the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, \"There was a most intense darkness rendered more appalling by the fitful gleam of torches at intervals obscured by the transient blaze of lightning.\" The first studies of volcanic lightning were also conducted at Mount Vesuvius by Professor Palmieri who observed the eruptions of 1858, 1861, 1868, and 1872 from the Vesuvius Observatory. These eruptions often included lightning activity.\n", "Section::::Other factors affecting volcanic lightning.\n\nSection::::Other factors affecting volcanic lightning.:Plume height.\n\nThe height of the ash plume appears to be linked with the mechanism which generates the lightning. In taller ash plumes (7–12 km) large concentrations of water vapor may contribute to lightning activity, while smaller ash plumes (1–4 km) appear to gain more of their electric charge from fragmentation of rocks near the vent of the volcano (fractoemission). The atmospheric temperature also plays a role in the formation of lightning. Colder ambient temperatures promote freezing and ice charging inside the plume, thus leading to more electrical activity.\n\nSection::::Lightning-induced volcanic spherules.\n", "A famous image of the phenomenon was photographed by Carlos Gutierrez and occurred in Chile above the Chaiten Volcano. It circulated widely on the internet. Another notable image of this phenomenon is \"The Power of Nature\", taken by Mexican photographer Sergio Tapiro in Colima, Mexico, which won third place (Nature category) in the 2016 World Press Photo Contest. Other instances have been reported above Alaska's Mount Augustine volcano, Iceland's Eyjafjallajökull volcano and Mount Etna in Sicily, Italy. The night of February 13, 2014, Indonesia's Kelud volcano burst to life with the ground-rattling energy of some 250 megatons of TNT. Its billowing ash plume shot 16 miles high, sprinkling tiny shards of rock for hundreds of miles. .\n", "The very high temperatures generated by lightning lead to significant local increases in ozone and oxides of nitrogen. Each lightning flash in temperate and sub-tropical areas produces 7 kg of NOx on average. In the troposphere the effect of lightning can increase NOx by 90% and ozone by 30%.\n\nSection::::Volcanic.\n", "Section::::Charging mechanisms.:Frictional charging.\n\nTriboelectric (frictional) charging within the plume of a volcano during eruption is thought to be a major electrical charging mechanism. Electrical charges are generated when rock fragments, ash, and ice particles in a volcanic plume collide and produce static charges, similar to the way that ice particles collide in regular thunderstorms. The convective activity causing the plume to rise then separates the different charge regions, ultimately causing electrical breakdown.\n\nSection::::Charging mechanisms.:Fractoemission.\n\nFractoemission is the generation of charge through break-up of rock particles. It may be a significant source of charge near the erupting vent.\n\nSection::::Charging mechanisms.:Radioactive charging.\n", "Volcanic lightning\n\nVolcanic lightning is an electrical discharge caused by a volcanic eruption, rather than from an ordinary thunderstorm. Volcanic lightning arises from colliding, fragmenting particles of volcanic ash (and sometimes ice), which generate static electricity within the volcanic plume. Volcanic eruptions have been referred to as dirty thunderstorms due to moist convection and ice formation that drive the eruption plume dynamics and can trigger volcanic lightning. But unlike ordinary thunderstorms, volcanic lightning can also occur before any ice crystals have formed in the ash cloud.\n", "Section::::Short- and long-term weather and environmental effects.\n\nAt the mouth of the crater, the gases, ejecta, and volcanic plume have created a rare weather phenomenon known as volcanic lightning (or a \"dirty thunderstorm\"). When rocks and other ejecta collide with one another, they create static electricity. This, with the abundant water-ice at the summit, aids in making lightning.\n", "Short eruptions can end in less than a day, but longer events can continue for several days or months. The longer eruptions begin with production of clouds of volcanic ash, sometimes with pyroclastic surges. The amount of magma erupted can be so large that it depletes the magma chamber below, causing the top of the volcano to collapse, resulting in a caldera. Fine ash and pulverized pumice can deposit over large areas. Plinian eruptions are often accompanied by loud noises, such as those generated by the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa. The sudden discharge of electrical charges accumulated in the air around the ascending column of volcanic ashes also often causes lightning strikes as depicted by the English geologist George Julius Poulett Scrope in his painting of 1822.\n", "Experimental studies and investigation of volcanic deposits have shown that volcanic lighting creates a by-product known as \"lightning-induced volcanic spherules\" (LIVS). These tiny glass spherules form during high-temperatures processes such as cloud-to-ground lightning strikes, analogous to fulgurites. The temperature of a bolt of lightning can reach 30,000 °C. When this bolt contacts ash particles within the plume it may do one of two things: (1) completely vaporize the ash particles, or (2) cause them to melt and then quickly solidify as they cool, forming orb shapes. The presence of lightning-induced volcanic spherules may provide geological evidence for volcanic lightning when the lightning itself was not observed directly.\n", "Volcanic activity produces lightning-friendly conditions in multiple ways. The enormous quantity of pulverized material and gases explosively ejected into the atmosphere creates a dense plume of particles. The ash density and constant motion within the volcanic plume produces charge by frictional interactions (triboelectrification), resulting in very powerful and very frequent flashes as the cloud attempts to neutralize itself. Due to the extensive solid material (ash) content, unlike the water rich charge generating zones of a normal thundercloud, it is often called a dirty thunderstorm.\n", "Runaway electrons are the core element of the runaway breakdown based theory of lightning propagation. Since C.T.R. Wilson's work in 1925, research has been conducted to study the possibility of runaway electrons, cosmic ray based or otherwise, initiating the processes required to generate lightning.\n\nSection::::Extraterrestrial Occurrence.\n\nElectron runaway based lightning may be occurring on the four jovian planets in addition to earth. Simulated studies predict runaway breakdown processes are likely to occur on these gaseous planets far more easily on earth, as the threshold for runaway breakdown to begin is far smaller.\n\nSection::::High Energy Plasma.\n", "Some of standard theoretical frameworks have been borrowed from other lightning-associated discharges like sprites, blue jets, and elves, which were discovered in the years immediately preceding the first TGF observations. For instance, that field may be due to the separation of charges in a thundercloud (\"DC\" field) often associated with sprites, or due to the electromagnetic pulse (EMP) produced by a lightning discharge, often associated with elves. There is also some evidence that certain TGFs occur in the absence of lightning strikes, though in the vicinity of general lightning activity, which has evoked comparisons to blue jets.\n", "A recent discovery indicated that cosmic ray and solar flares can significantly influence the number of lightning strikes occurring on Earth. Therefore, space weather can be a major driving force of lightning-produced atmospheric . It should also be noted that atmospheric constituents such as nitrogen oxides can be stratified vertically in the atmosphere. Ott noted that the lightning-produced is typically found at altitudes greater than 5 km, while combustion and biogenic (soil) are typically found near the sources at near surface elevation (where it can cause the most significant health effects).\n\nSection::::Sources.:Biogenic sources.\n", "BULLET::::- 1970 July 12: The central mast of the Orlunda radio transmitter in central Sweden collapsed after a lightning strike destroyed its foundation insulator.\n\nBULLET::::- 1994 November 2: A lightning incident led to the explosion of fuel tanks in Dronka, Egypt, causing 469 fatalities.\n", "In sparsely populated areas such as the Russian Far East and Siberia, lightning strikes are one of the major causes of forest fires. The smoke and mist expelled by a very large forest fire can cause electric charges, starting additional fires many kilometers downwind.\n\nSection::::Effect on nature.:Shattering of rocks.\n\nWhen water in fractured rock is rapidly heated by a lightning strike, the resulting steam explosion can cause rock disintegration and shift boulders. It may be a significant factor in erosion of tropical and subtropical mountains that have never been glaciated. Evidence of lightning strikes includes erratic magnetic fields.\n", "BULLET::::- June 11, 2009, Sarychev Peak (?), Kuril Islands, 400 tons of tephra, VEI 4\n\nBULLET::::- June 12–15, 1991 (eruptive climax), Mount Pinatubo, Philippines, 11,000 ±0.5 tons of tephra, VEI 6\n\nBULLET::::- Global cooling: 0.5 °C,\n\nBULLET::::- March 28, 1982, El Chichón, Mexico, 2,300 tons of tephra, VEI 5\n\nBULLET::::- October 10, 1974, Volcán de Fuego, Guatemala, 400 tons of tephra, VEI 4\n\nBULLET::::- February 18, 1963, Mount Agung, Lesser Sunda Islands, 100 tons of lava, more than 1,000 tons of tephra, VEI 5\n\nBULLET::::- Northern Hemisphere cooling: 0.3 °C,\n", "On July 22, 2002, five gigantic jets between in length were observed over the South China Sea from Taiwan, reported in \"Nature\". The jets lasted under a second, with shapes likened by the researchers to giant trees and carrots.\n\nOn November 10, 2012, the Chinese Science Bulletin reported a gigantic jet event observed over a thunderstorm in mainland China on August 12, 2010. \"GJ event that was clearly recorded in eastern China (storm center located at 35.6°N,119.8°E, near the Huanghai Sea)\".\n", "Section::::Sprites.\n", "Perhaps the best known example of a natural spark is lightning. In this case the electric potential between a cloud and ground, or between two clouds, is typically hundreds of millions of volts. The resulting current that cycles through the stroke channel causes an enormous transfer of energy. On a much smaller scale, sparks can form in air during electrostatic discharges from charged objects that are charged to as little as 380 V (Paschen's law).\n", "Severe storms, dust clouds, and volcanic eruptions can generate lightning. Apart from the damage typically associated with storms, such as winds, hail, and flooding, the lightning itself can damage buildings, ignite fires and kill by direct contact. Especially deadly lightning incidents include a 2007 strike in Ushari Dara, a remote mountain village in northwestern Pakistan, that killed 30 people, the crash of LANSA Flight 508 which killed 91 people, and a fuel explosion in Dronka, Egypt caused by lightning in 1994 which killed 469. Most lightning deaths occur in the poor countries of America and Asia, where lightning is common and adobe mud brick housing provides little protection.\n", "The actual composition of the atmosphere of the early Earth is an area of great debate. Varying amounts of certain gaseous constituents can greatly impact the overall effect of a particular process, which includes non-biological processes such as the buildup of charge in thunderstorms. It has been argued that volcano-induced lightning in the early stages of Earth's existence, because the volcanic plume was composed of additional \"reducing gases\", was more effective at stimulating the oxidation of organic material to accelerate the production of life. In the case of volcanic lightning, the lightning discharge almost exclusively occurs directly within the volcanic plume. Since this process occurs fairly close to ground level, it has been suggested that volcanic lightning contributed to the generation of life to a greater extent than lightning produced within clouds that would lower positive or negative charge from a cloud to the ground. Hill (1992) quantified this enhanced contribution by examining estimated hydrogen cyanide (HCN) concentrations from volcanic lightning and \"general lightning\". Results showed that HCN concentrations for volcanic lightning were an order of magnitude larger than \"general lightning\". Hydrogen cyanide is yet another compound that has been linked to the generation of life on Earth. However, given that the intensity and amount of volcanic activity during the early stages of Earth's development is not fully understood, hypotheses regarding past volcanic activity (e.g., Hill, 1992) are usually based on present-day observed volcanic activity.\n", "The electric current of the return stroke averages 30 kiloamperes for a typical negative CG flash, often referred to as \"negative CG\" lightning. In some cases, a ground to cloud (GC) lightning flash may originate from a positively charged region on the ground below a storm. These discharges normally originate from the tops of very tall structures, such as communications antennas. The rate at which the return stroke current travels has been found to be around 100,000 km/s.\n", "Lightning is usually produced by cumulonimbus clouds, which have bases that are typically 1–2 km (0.6–1.25 miles) above the ground and tops up to in height.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02890	How is 85% of the ocean unexplored?	oceans cover 71% of the earths surface. and that's not accounting for depth. ships travel at 30 miles an hour at most. oceans are 139.7 million square miles. which means if you stack size of the ocean one mile wide by 139.7 million miles long. it would take 531 years to traverse it all by ship. and that's just the surface, and not any depth.	[ "The open ocean is relatively unproductive because of a lack of nutrients, yet because it is so vast, it has more overall primary production than any other marine habitat. Only about 10 percent of marine species live in the open ocean. But among them are the largest and fastest of all marine animals, as well as the animals that dive the deepest and migrate the longest. In the depths lurk animal that, to our eyes, appear hugely alien.\n\nSection::::Open ocean.:Surface waters.\n", "Aptly phrased the \"urban sea\", this sector of the ocean is the focus of a wide range of human activities that include fishing, mineral exploration, shipping, dredging, renewable energy generation, scientific research as well as telecommunications. As a result, special measures are required to protect cables. This includes (i) strengthening with steel wire armour, which increases cable diameter up to ~50mm, (ii) burial beneath the seabed and positive engagement with other seabed users to share information and knowledge regarding their respective industries.\n\nNatural Hazards\n", "The deep trenches or fissures that plunge down thousands of meters below the ocean floor (for example, the midoceanic trenches such as the Mariana Trench in the Pacific) are almost unexplored. Previously, only the bathyscaphe \"Trieste\", the remote control submarine \"Kaikō\" and the \"Nereus\" have been able to descend to these depths. However, as of March 25, 2012 one vehicle, the \"Deepsea Challenger\" was able to penetrate to a depth of 10,898.4 meters (35,756 ft).\n\nSection::::Ecosystem.\n", "Oceanographers have divided the ocean into zones based on how far light reaches. All of the light zones can be found in the oceanic zone. The epipelagic zone is the one closest to the surface and is the best lit. It extends to 100 meters and contains both phytoplankton and zooplankton that can support larger organisms like marine mammals and some types of fish. Past 100 meters, not enough light penetrates the water to support life, and no plant life exists.\n", "More than two billion people live in countries bordering the Indian Ocean, compared to 1.7 billion for the Atlantic and 2.7 billion for the Pacific (some countries border more than one ocean).\n\nSection::::Geography.:Coasts and shelves.:Rivers.\n", "Section::::Pollution.\n", "Ela Suvanatat is a freelance journalist doing a story on the plight of fishing villages in Vietnam when the \"Equasys\" lab module crashes offshore. Although it is quickly declared off limits by the government, Ela hires a boat and makes her way out to the crash site. She is barely able to scoop up a few stray LOVs which have survived atmospheric reentry and get back to shore before the military arrives and cordons off the site.\n", "Saline water covers approximately and is customarily divided into several principal oceans and smaller seas, with the ocean covering approximately 71% of Earth's surface and 90% of the Earth's biosphere. The ocean contains 97% of Earth's water, and oceanographers have stated that less than 5% of the World Ocean has been explored. The total volume is approximately 1.35 billion cubic kilometers (320 million cu mi) with an average depth of nearly .\n", "Section::::North Aral's sea level.\n", "In 2010 the international community agreed to protect 10% of the ocean by 2020 in the Convention on Biological Diversity's Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020 and Sustainable\n\nDevelopment Goal 14. However as of June 2017 less than 3% of the ocean are under some form of protection. Pledges made during the conference would add around an additional 4.4 percent of protected marine areas, increasing the protected total to around 7.4% of the ocean. A later study (in 2018), reveals that 3,6% was protected.\n", "Section::::Physical science.:Sea level.\n", "Section::::Reception.\n", "Section::::Human activities.\n", "Section::::Geography.\n", "Section::::Human activities.:Exploration.\n", "Coastal habitats are the most visible marine habitats, but they are not the only important marine habitats. Coastlines run for 380,000 kilometres, and the total volume of the ocean is 1,370 million cu km. This means that for each metre of coast, there is 3.6 cu km of ocean space available somewhere for marine habitats.\n\nSection::::Coastal.:Intertidal.\n\nIntertidal zones, those areas close to shore, are constantly being exposed and covered by the ocean's tides. A huge array of life lives within this zone.\n", "Historically, there have been few examples of efforts to commercialize the mesopelagic zone due to low economic value, technical feasibility and environmental impacts. While the biomass may be abundant, fish species at depth are generally smaller in size and slower to reproduce. Fishing with large trawl nets poses threats to a high percentage of bycatch as well as potential impacts to the carbon cycling processes. Additionally, ships trying to reach productive mesopelagic regions requires fairly long journeys offshore. In 1977, a Soviet fishery opened but closed less than 20 years later due to low commercial profits, while a South African purse seine fishery closed in the mid-1980s due to processing difficulties from the high oil content of fish.\n", "Section::::Human activities.:Oil and gas.\n", "The dynamic processes that occur within the coastal zones produce diverse and productive ecosystems which have been of great importance historically for human populations. Coastal margins equate to only 8% of the worlds surface area but provide 25% of global productivity. Stress on this environment comes with approximately 70% of the world’s population being within a day’s walk of the coast. Two-thirds of the world’s cities occur on the coast.\n", "Section::::Economic significance.\n\nEconomically, the continental shelf is the most economically valuable part of the ocean. It often is the most productive portion of the continental margin, as well as the most studied portion, due to its relatively shallow, accessible depths.\n", "Kelp forests\n", "Coral reefs are estimated to cover 284,300 km (109,800 sq mi), just under 0.1% of the oceans' surface area. The Indo-Pacific region (including the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, Southeast Asia and the Pacific) account for 91.9% of this total. Southeast Asia accounts for 32.3% of that figure, while the Pacific including Australia accounts for 40.8%. Atlantic and Caribbean coral reefs account for 7.6%.\n", "Section::::Hydrology.\n", "Section::::Humans and the sea.:Law.\n", "80 meters can be plagued with noise, with the rural noise floor set by propagated noise from distant thunderstorms and man-made noise sources. Urban and suburban noise floor is often established by local noise, and is generally 10–20 dB stronger than the typical rural noise floor. On 80 meters, nearly all areas of the world are subject to local weather induced noises from thunderstorms.\n" ]	[ "With how much time has passed and what's available to humans, the ocean should have been explored more than 15%." ]	[ "Ships only travel at 30 miles an hour, which means it would take a ship more than 531 years to travel the entire ocean, not including the depth." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "With how much time has passed and what's available to humans, the ocean should have been explored more than 15%.", "With how much time has passed and what's available to humans, the ocean should have been explored more than 15%." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Ships only travel at 30 miles an hour, which means it would take a ship more than 531 years to travel the entire ocean, not including the depth.", "Ships only travel at 30 miles an hour, which means it would take a ship more than 531 years to travel the entire ocean, not including the depth." ]
2018-03861	Why are bi-racial people in America identified like this?	The concept of race in modern America is typically based on what you look like, not percentage of blood. Barack Obama and Rashida Jones are both half-white and half-black, but Barack Obama "looks black" and Rashida Jones is considered to "look white," and the reaction of society to them is different as a result. But the choice of people in that position to identify themselves as one thing or another (or both, or to ignore labels altogether) is respected, at least rhetorically.	[ "On July 14, 2019, Trump tweeted about four Democratic congresswomen of color, Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez, Ayanna Pressley, Ilhan Omar, and Rashida Tlaib. This group, known collectively as the Squad, had verbally sparred with Speaker of the House Nancy Pelosi a week earlier:\n\nThe U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) specifically cites the phrase \"Go back to where you came from\" as the type of language that may violate anti-discrimination employment laws. \n", "Civil rights activist Rachel Dolezal, then president of the Spokane chapter of the NAACP, claimed in a February 2015 profile to have been born in a \"Montana tepee\" and have hunted for food with her family as a child \"with bows and arrows\". She primarily identified as African American and had established herself as an activist in Spokane. \n", "In her 2014 application for the position of chair of the Office of the Police Ombudsman Commission in Spokane, Dolezal identified herself as having several ethnicities, including black. She has said that she is of \"African American, Native American, German, Czech, Swedish, Jewish and Arabic\" heritage. In an article she wrote for \"The Inlander\" in March 2015, Dolezal included herself when discussing black women through use of the \"we\" and \"our\" pronouns. \n\nSection::::Racial identity.:2015 controversy.\n\nDolezal's self-identification as black became the subject of public controversy in June 2015. \n", "As of 2006, according to the U.S. Census Bureau, the community is 34% White and 34% black. While people from the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) make up a substantial amount of the population, the U.S. Census does not currently offer a MENA designation. While some Arab people will choose to mark \"other,\" some mark \"white.\" There is currently a movement as of 2018 in the Dearborn and broader Southeast Michigan area to add \"MENA\" to the Census. This would ensure that people in the neighborhoods like Warrendale are accurately represented.\n", "Kurt and Lori Haskell, an American couple, said that while waiting to board Flight 253 at Schiphol Airport, they saw a \"poor-looking African-American teenager around 16 or 17,\" who Kurt Haskell claims was Abdulmutallab, with a second man, who was \"sharp-dressed\", possibly of Indian descent, around 50 years old, and who spoke \"in an American accent similar to my own.\"\n", "Section::::Celebrities and Brownface.:Paula Deen.\n", "Someone with Sidney Poitier's deep chocolate complexion would be considered white if his hair were straight and he made a living in a profession. That might not seem so odd, Brazilians say, when you consider that the fair-complexioned actresses Rashida Jones ('Parks and Recreation' and 'The Office') and Lena Horne are identified as black in the United States.\n", "BULLET::::- Jason Collins on April 29, 2013, became the first active male professional athlete in a major North American team sport to publicly come out as gay.\n\nBULLET::::- Rep. Mark Pocan's spouse Philip Frank became the first same-sex spouse of a federal lawmaker to officially receive a House spouse ID. In 2009, Marlon Reis, the spouse of Rep. Jared Polis (D-Colo.), was issued a congressional spouse ID, but later card services told him that he had been given the designation accidentally.\n", "All past and present members of the caucus have been African-American. In 2006, while running for Congress in a Tennessee district which is 60% black, a white candidate Steve Cohen pledged to apply for membership in order to represent his constituents. However, after his election, his application was refused. Although the bylaws of the caucus do not make race a prerequisite for membership, former and current members of the caucus agreed that the group should remain \"exclusively black\". In response to the decision, Representative Cohen referred to his campaign promise as \"a social faux pas\" because \"It's their caucus and they do things their way. You don't force your way in. You need to be invited.\"\n", "On January 24, 2017, current Burnsville Police Department / former Mankato PD officer Bret Levin, friend of Scarsella since high school, testified that he and Scarsella had exchanged \"racially charged\" texts, explicitly \"negative about black people,\" on multiple occasions.\n", "BULLET::::- The 1973 film \"The Spook Who Sat By The Door\" features a bank robbery conducted by an African American underground guerrilla group. Lighter skinned members, who with hair wigs pass as white, are purposefully used. Witnesses to the crime describe them as Caucasian males, deflecting suspicion from the guerrillas.\n\nBULLET::::- In the 1979 film \"The Jerk\", Steve Martin's character explains in the introduction that \"It was never easy for me. I was born a poor black child.\" He was raised by the black family who adopted him and identified as black.\n", "BULLET::::- 1st gay African American member of the North Carolina General Assembly and 1st gay African American member of the North Carolina House of Representatives from the 60th district\n\nSection::::First African American LGBT holders of political offices in the United States.:State legislature.:Texas.\n\nBULLET::::1. Barbara Jordan\n\nBULLET::::- 1st African American woman to serve in the Texas House of Representatives (1966)\n\nSection::::First African American LGBT holders of political offices in the United States.:Mayoral.\n\nSection::::First African American LGBT holders of political offices in the United States.:Mayoral.:California.\n\nBULLET::::1. Ron Oden (D)\n", "Since the 1960s particularly and the rise of the Black Power movement, many members of the African-American community have emphasized that mixed-race individuals of African descent should identify as black in order to maximize their political power as a group in the United States. Leaders say they were historically discriminated against as black by whites, so should identify as black to assert their power in number. \n", "On July 14, 2019, Trump tweeted that four Democratic members of Congress—Omar and three other women of color who were born in the United States—should \"go back\" to the \"places from which they came.\" In response, Omar said Trump was \"stoking white nationalism\" because he was \"angry that people like us are serving in Congress and fighting against your hate-filled agenda.\" Two days later the House of Representatives voted 240–187 to condemn Trump's \"racist comments\". On July 17, it was reported that the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission lists the phrase \"Go back to where you came from\" as an example of \"harassment based on national origin\". \n", "Although Adam4Adam has members of all ethnic groups, the percentage of non-White men represented in member profiles is higher than the percentage of non-White people in the United States population, though the degree to which this is true varies by city/region. For instance, research into demographic representation in Atlanta, San Francisco, and New York City profiles evidences a trend of higher representations of men of color among younger age cohorts, with decreasing diversity in profiles as age increase. This is also true of Adam4Adam membership in the United Kingdom.\n", "Charles Terry Grismer is Sharon’s Husband who happened to be identified as non-Indigenous.\n\nSection::::Recognitions and legacy.\n", "Also in September, Bergdorf gave a verbal performance of Maya Angelou's poem \"Still I Rise\" for a short film directed by Bec Evans and Laura Kirwan-Ashman. That same month, the scriptwriter Gareth Roberts referenced Bergdorf in a tweet stating: \"I [love] how trannies choose names like Munroe, Paris and Chelsea. It's never Julie or Bev is it?\". His tweet received headline attention in Britain. Munroe hit back at Roberts on Instagram, stating \"Excuse me for not choosing 'Bev' as a name. Do I look like a Bev?\".\n", "Black Canadians have a long history of discrimination and racism. Canada has had slavery, segregation, and a Canadian Ku Klux Klan. Racial profiling happens in cities such as Toronto and Montreal. Black people made up 3% of the Canadian population in 2016, 9% of the population of Toronto (which has the largest communities of Caribbean and African immigrants. They lived disproportionately in poverty, were three times as likely to be carded in Toronto than Whites, and incarceration rates for Blacks were climbing faster than for any other demographic. A Black Lives Matter protest was staged at Toronto Police Headquarters in March 2016. The Ontario Council of Agencies Serving Immigrants wanted to propel discussion by collecting everyday experiences of Black Torontonians for an ad campaign targeting racism.\n", "Trump was accused of racism after tweeting on July 14, 2019 that certain Democratic congresswomen should \"go back and help fix\" the countries they came from rather than criticize the American government. The tweets did not explicitly name which congresswomen Trump was referring to, but they were widely understood as targeting freshmen House Democrats of color Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez, Rashida Tlaib, Ayanna Pressley, and Ilhan Omar, an informal grouping known as \"The Squad\". Some of the women have been highly critical of U.S. policy; Ocasio-Cortez, with agreement from Tlaib, described detention centers along the Mexico-U.S. Border as concentration camps, and Omar once tweeted that US support for Israel was motivated by money – a tweet she later deleted after facing extensive criticism from politicians on both sides. \n", "The book consists of photography, essays, short stories and poetry by 13 youth expressing what it is to be young, Black and Canadian. Many are immigrants to the country or first-generation Canadians. Some have had experience with the mental health or criminal justice system and some are in care. Each shares their personal stories and views on what it means to be Black and Canadian today.\n\nSection::::Context.\n", "The United States has a growing multiracial identity movement. Multiracial Americans numbered 7.0 million in 2008, or 2.3% of the population; by the 2010 census the Multiracial increased to 9,009,073, or 2.9% of the total population. They can be any combination of races (White, Black or African American, Asian, American Indian or Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander, \"some other race\") and ethnicities. The largest population of Multiracial Americans were those of White and African American descent, with a total of 1,834,212 self-identifying individuals. Barack Obama, 44th President of the United States, is biracial with his mother being of English and Irish descent and his father being of Kenyan birth; however, Obama only self-identifies as being African American.\n", "At the time of the controversy, Bergdorf was aged 29 and living in London. She grew up in Stanstead Abbotts, Hertfordshire, into a middle-class family. Mixed race, she was born the child of a white English mother and an Afro-Jamaican father. She described growing up as a \"very effeminate boy\" and attending an all-boys school before studying English at the University of Brighton. At this point she started wearing makeup and heels; she later described herself as having been genderqueer in that period of her life. While in Brighton, she later noted, \"I went completely nuts, it was like an internal bomb had gone off and I did everything at once: crazy hair, crazy clothes, reckless behaviour and sex. I was living my teens in my early twenties.\"\n", "Section::::Personal life.\n\nDoe B was born Glenn Thomas in Montgomery, Alabama, on June 13, 1991. He is the son of Shirley Thomas and Kenneth Aaron. He wore an eye patch as a result of a shooting in 2009. He had 3 daughters.\n\nSection::::Death.\n", "In May 2018, after a black Yale student, napping in her common room, was reported to police without justification by a white Yale student, a \"Washington Post\" reporter compiled a list of recent, separate incidents in which black people in North America appear to have been racially profiled while performing innocent activities, and proposed coining corresponding terms such as \"napping while black\", \"couponing while black\", \"waiting for a school bus while black\", and \"waiting at Starbucks while black\".\n", "The phrase DWB was amplified through social media by which African Americans can record police encounters and disseminate them to a large audience. The phrase was used in the media after the deaths of African Americans Sandra Bland (2015) and Philando Castile (2016), both of whom were stopped by police while driving.\n\nSection::::Studies.\n\nSection::::Studies.:Nationwide.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-02615	Why do your earphones make noise when you walk through thief detectors at the doors of libraries?	Those detectors use magnetic sensors to detect specialized tags placed on or in big-ticket items. If you've ever seen one of those stickers with a big metallic spiral on the back, that's one design for them. Meanwhile, speakers work by using small electrical currents to turn an electromagnet on and off incredibly quickly, each on/off cycle corresponding to a single wave of sound produced by the speaker. Magnetic and electrical fields are really the same thing (hence the word electromagnetism), and as a result sufficiently strong magnetic fields can cause a current to move through a wire passing through them. The presence of the magnetic field essentially transforms a tiny percent of the energy involved in moving the wire into electrical energy. This electricity is very weak, but earbuds also work with tiny electrical charges. Try moving through those detectors at different speeds to see how it affects the sound. I have no idea what it will do, but I suspect faster speeds will make the sound higher pitched.	[ "Dear Uncle Ezra,\n\nWhat is that sound coming from the Johnson Museum? It's a pingy type sound that I guess could be some kind of wind chime but it seems like it's coming from the building itself.\n\n— Just wondering\n\nDear Chiming In,\n", "The principle of noise reduction through pathway modifications applies to the alteration of direct and indirect pathways for noise. Noise that travels across reflective surfaces, such as smooth floors, can be hazardous. Pathway alterations include sound dampening enclosures for loud equipment and isolation chambers from which workers can remotely control equipment while removed from noise. These methods prevent sound from traveling along a path to the worker or other listeners.\n\nSection::::Approaches to noise control.:Receiver.\n", "Devices utilising the deterioration of hearing with age have been deployed to discourage younger people loitering, e.g. The Mosquito.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Acoustic Hailing Device\n\nBULLET::::- The Mosquito\n\nBULLET::::- Long Range Acoustic Device (LRAD)\n\nBULLET::::- Sonic weapon\n\nBULLET::::- Directional sound\n\nBULLET::::- Bird scarer#auditory scarers\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- A Study Into the Effectiveness of Acoustic Harassment Devices-AHDs in Deterring Seals from Salmon Farms Around Shetland by Rachel Beacham Aberdeen University: Dissertation. M. Sc Marine and Fisheries Science\n", "Console noise comes from magnetic components on or within the console. These include ferrite in cores in inductors and transformers, steel frames around LCDs, legs on IC chips and steel cases in disposable batteries. Some popular MIL spec connectors also have steel springs.\n", "While ambient electrical noise is a serious issue when dealing with millivolt and microvolt signals such as those typically originating from microphones and other input transducers, it is highly unlikely that such induced noise would significantly audibly affect high level output signals in low impedance systems such as the speaker wires connecting an amplifier to a speaker, unless of course, the cables are unusually long, the location is unusually noisy or the listener has an exceptionally good ear.\n", "BULLET::::- Some electronic civil defense sirens in the United States manufactured by Federal Signal Corporation such as the Electronic Outdoor Warning Siren (EOWS), Modulator, and the Directional Speaker Array (DSA) sound off the chimes on a daily basis. It is also used in Japan and the Philippines by some loudspeakers installed in public areas as a time signal.\n\nBULLET::::- On the Japanese game show \"Panel Quiz Attack 25\", which airs on TV Asahi, the chimes signal the end of the game when there are any boxes left on the board.\n", "BULLET::::5. Twisted pair wiring – Twisting wires in a circuit will reduce electromagnetic noise. Twisting the wires decreases the loop size in which a magnetic field can run through to produce a current between the wires. Small loops may exist between wires twisted together, but the magnetic field going through these loops induces a current flowing in opposite directions in alternate loops on each wire and so there is no net noise current.\n", "Two additional State Department employees, John W. Ford and Joseph Bezjian, were sent to Moscow in March 1951 to investigate this and other suspected bugs in the British and Canadian embassy buildings. They conducted a technical surveillance counter-measures \"sweep\" of the Ambassador's office, using a signal generator and a receiver in a setup that generates audio feedback (\"howl\") if the sound from the room is transmitted on a given frequency. During this sweep, Bezjian found the device in the Great Seal carving.\n", "The frequency of the noise depends on the nature of electromagnetic forces (quadratic or linear function of electrical field or magnetic field) and on the frequency content of the electromagnetic field (in particular if a DC component is present or not).\n\nSection::::Electromagnetic noise and vibrations in electric machines.\n", "Noise gating works well when the static is steady and either narrowly confined in frequency (e.g. hum from AC power) or well below the main signal level (15 dB minimum is desirable). In cases where the signal merges with the background static (for example, the brushed drum sounds in the Sun King track on the Beatles album Abbey Road) or is weak compared to the noise (as in very faint tape recordings), the noise gating can add artifacts that are more distracting than the original static.\n", "BULLET::::- Elevators and other rooms with metallic conducting frames and walls simulate a Faraday cage effect, leading to a loss of signal and \"dead zones\" for users of cellular phones, radios, and other electronic devices that require external electromagnetic signals. During training, firefighters, and other first responders are cautioned that their two-way radios will probably not work inside elevators and to make allowances for that. Small, physical Faraday cages are used by electronics engineers during equipment testing to simulate such an environment to make sure that the device gracefully handles these conditions.\n", "The NYPD used a Long Range Acoustic Device during the Baltimore solidarity rally in Union Square on April 29, 2015. An NYPD pickup truck equipped with an LRAD parked near protesters and broadcast a looped warning message about staying off the streets and not blocking the sidewalks.\n\nThe New Jersey State Police used an armored-vehicle-mounted LRAD to communicate with crowds denied entry to a June 7, 2015 concert after they began throwing bottles and tried to rush the gates outside MetLife Stadium.\n", "Section::::Reduction of electromagnetic noise and vibrations.:Reduction of \"coil noise\".\n\nCoil noise mitigation actions include:\n\nBULLET::::- add some glue (e.g. a layer of glue is often added on the top of television coils ; over the years, this glue degrades and the sound level increases)\n\nBULLET::::- change the shape of the coil (e.g. change coil shape to a figure eight rather than a traditional coil shape)\n\nBULLET::::- isolate the coil from the rest of the device to minimize structure-borne noise\n\nBULLET::::- increase damping\n\nSection::::Experimental illustrations.\n", "Usage of a digipot is far more complex than that of a simple mechanical potentiometer, and there are many limitations to observe; nevertheless they are widely used, often for factory adjustment and calibration of equipment, especially where the limitations of mechanical potentiometers are problematic. A digipot is generally immune to the effects of moderate long-term mechanical vibration or environmental contamination, to the same extent as other semiconductor devices, and can be secured electronically against unauthorised tampering by protecting the access to its programming inputs by various means.\n", "\"Katalog\" (English: Catalogue) is a music piece composed specially for the Black Diamond by Danish composer Fuzzy as a new artistic decoration. It consists of an electroacoustic composition, around three minutes long, for every week of the year. Every day at 1 pm the composition is broadcast in the atrium via a permanent installation based on a computerized 12-channel loudspeaker system, in which every loudspeaker can be programmed individually. Four loudspeakers are installed in the ceiling of each of the three balcony levels.\n", "BULLET::::3. Ultrasonic sensors, similar to radar. they work on the doppler shift principle. An ultrasonic sensor will send high frequency sound waves in area and will check for their reflected patterns. If the reflected pattern is changing continuously then it assumes that there is occupancy and the lighting load connected is turned on. If the reflected pattern is the same for a preset time then the sensor assumes there is no occupancy and the load is switched off.\n", "Anyone in the vicinity of these sound recorders may unknowingly have their conversations and activities recorded. Most states in the US have wire-tapping laws that require consent of one or all parties for certain types of conversations to be recorded; ones where there is a reasonable expectation of privacy. Legal opinions differ on which types of communication fall under this protection.\n\nSection::::US policies and regulations.\n\nSection::::US policies and regulations.:Research and conservation policies.\n", "However, the cases using GPS and other tracking devices are different with this case, since GPS tracking can be conducted without human interaction, while the beeper is considered as a method to increase police's sensory perception through maintaining visual contact of the suspect. Police presence is required when using beepers yet is not needed when using GPS to conduct surveillance. Therefore, law enforcement agents are required to secure a warrant before obtaining vehicle's location information with the GPS tracking devices.\n\nSection::::Cases.:Court cases.:United States v. Jones.\n", "NC level 35 is generally considered acceptable for most library functions, with NC level 40 acceptable in the busier areas (for comparison, NC 20-25 is considered acceptable for concert halls). NC values consider the background noise level traditionally heard from building systems including heating, air conditioning, ventilation, fan units and noise through windows. With increasing numbers of electrical equipment to be found in libraries, increasingly on unmediated public access, consideration of noise must be incorporated into the practice of library atmospherics.\n\nSection::::Technological atmospheric variables.:Computers and lighting.\n", "Section::::Signature.:Airborne Noise.\n\nThe primary source of air borne noise from an electric motor is the cooling fan to provide air to the electric motor. Reduction of air borne noise can be achieved by reducing the cooling air speed. An alternative is to use water or oil cooled electric motors. Air borne noise levels for different type of equipment on board Navy Vessels are laid down in the American military standard MIL-STD-1474D, the British Defence Standard 02-813 or the Indian Naval Engineering Standard NES 847.\n\nSection::::Signature.:Structure Borne Noise.\n", "The research was conducted by the Transport Research Laboratory, and the findings were published in 2011. The study found little correlation between pedestrian vehicle involvement density and noise level for the majority of vehicles. In addition, the analysis found no evidence of a pattern in pedestrian vehicle involvement densities when only considering those accidents occurring on or slower roads, or where the pedestrian was disabled. A previous study did not find an increased pedestrian vehicle involvement density for electric and hybrid vehicles with respect to their conventional counterparts, which raised the question as to whether added sound is necessarily required. The study also noted that some modern conventional cars are as quiet as their electric counterparts, even at low speeds.\n", "If the time taken by the electrons to travel from emitter to collector in a transistor becomes comparable to the period of the signal being amplified, that is, at frequencies above VHF and beyond, the transit-time effect takes place and noise input impedance of the transistor decreases. From the frequency at which this effect becomes significant, it increases with frequency and quickly dominates other sources of noise.\n\nSection::::Coupled noise.\n", "A variety of measures aim to reduce hazardous noise at its source. Programs such as Buy Quiet and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Prevention through design promote research and design of quiet equipment and renovation and replacement of older hazardous equipment with modern technologies. Physical materials, such as foam, absorb sound and walls to provide a sound barrier that modifies existing systems that decrease hazardous noise at the source.\n\nSection::::Approaches to noise control.:Path.\n", "In the case of more conventional office environments, the techniques in architectural acoustics discussed above may apply. Other solutions may involve researching the quietest models of office equipment, particularly printers and photocopy machines. Impact printers and other equipment were often fitted with \"acoustic hoods\", enclosures to reduce emitted noise. One source of annoying, if not loud, sound level emissions are lighting fixtures (notably older fluorescent globes). These fixtures can be retrofitted or analyzed to see whether over-illumination is present, a common office environment issue. If over-illumination is occurring, de-lamping or reduced light bank usage may apply. Photographers can quieten noisy still cameras on a film set using sound blimps.\n", "Another solution is the use of ferromagnetic cell phone detectors. This technology detects the presence of the ferrous metal components (antenna, vibrator, speaker) that are in cell phones. The reliance is then not on the location of signals, but in the recognition of the physical phone itself which cannot be masked by internalizing or hiding on the person.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-08090	Cannot comprehend how all these countries around the world have such high National debt.	I'll take the US as an example. The US debt is a staggering multi-trillion dollar beast, right? It must be completely crippling just to make the interest payments? Well, not necessarily. About 75% of the debt is held by individual US citizens. Remember that Savings Bond grandma gave you when you were five? That's US debt. She lent the Government $50 on the promise that X number of years later, the government would pay back that $50 plus some minimal amount of interest. Many retirees have their investments heavily in bonds, which are considered very stable investments (not subject to the wild ups and downs of stocks), but have relatively little return. The little rate of return allows that amount of money to do a better job of keeping up with inflation than sticking it under a mattress. But since it doesn't fully keep up with inflation, the amount of money paid back by the government can actually be less than it borrowed, once adjusted for inflation. So, that 75% that's held by US citizens really isn't all that bad, unless somehow there's a run on investors all trying to cash in their bonds at once, but even then there are rules in place to stop that from happening.	[ "As of October 2018, foreigners owned $6.2 trillion of U.S. debt, or approximately 39 percent of the debt held by the public of $16.1 trillion and 28 percent of the total debt of $21.8 trillion. At the close of 2018, the largest foreign holders were China ($1.13 trillion), Japan ($1.02 trillion), Brazil ($313 billion), and Ireland ($287 billion).\n", "BULLET::::- According to the U.S. Department of Treasury Preliminary 2014 Annual Report on U.S. Holdings of Foreign Securities, the United States valued its foreign treasury securities portfolio at $2.7 trillion. The largest debtors are Canada, the United Kingdom, Cayman Islands, and Australia, whom account for $1.2 trillion of sovereign debt owed to residents of the U.S.\n\nBULLET::::- The entire public debt in 1998 was attributable to the cost of research, development, and deployment of U.S. nuclear weapons and nuclear weapons-related programs during the Cold War.\n", "The public debt relative information provided by national sources (CIA) is not always objective and true, given the fact that there is no independent research in these matters. Note that net debt figures are included where gross debt figures are unavailable in the CIA set.\n\nSection::::Public debt as % of GDP.\n\nThe figures here are represented as a percentage of annual gross domestic product.\n\nSection::::Public debt per Capita.\n\nThe figures here are represented per Capita.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of countries by future gross government debt\n\nBULLET::::- List of countries by tax revenue to GDP ratio\n", "List of countries by public debt\n\nThese are lists of countries by public debt, based on data from the CIA's World Factbook and the IMF. Net debt figure is the cumulative total of all government borrowings less repayments that are denominated in a country's home currency.\n\nSection::::Concept.\n\nGross government debt is the most relevant data for discussions of government default and debt ceilings. It is different from external debt, which includes the foreign currency liabilities of non-government entities. \n", "The United States is the largest importer of goods and second-largest exporter, though exports per capita are relatively low. In 2010, the total U.S. trade deficit was $635 billion. Canada, China, Mexico, Japan, and Germany are its top trading partners. In 2010, oil was the largest import commodity, while transportation equipment was the country's largest export. Japan is the largest foreign holder of U.S. public debt. The largest holder of the U.S. debt are American entities, including federal government accounts and the Federal Reserve, who hold the majority of the debt.\n", "Section::::By country.\n\nPublic debt is the total of all borrowing of a government, minus repayments denominated in a country's home currency. CIA's World Factbook lists only the percentages of GDP; the total debt and per capita amounts have been calculated in the table below using the GDP (PPP) and population figures of the same report.\n", "8 \| Denmark \| $33907 per year per person\n\n9 \| Germany \| $33719 per year per person\n\n10 \| Iceland \| $33695 per year per person\n\n11 \| United States \| $33260 per year per person\n\n12 \| Austria \| $33029 per year per person\n\n13 \| Belgium \| $31933 per year per person\n\n14 \| Ireland \| $31317 per year per person\n\nxx \| Taiwan \| $31063 per year per person\n\n15 \| Finland \| $29764 per year per person\n\n16 \| Canada \| $29161 per year per person\n\nxx \| Saudi Arabia\| $28906 per year per person\n", "141 \| Micronesia \| $1398 per year per person\n\n142 \| Djibouti \| $1218 per year per person\n\n143 \| Chad \| $1196 per year per person\n\n144 \| Benin \| $1188 per year per person\n\n145 \| Solomon Islands \| $1175 per year per person\n\n146 \| Ethiopia \| $1083 per year per person\n\n147 \| Sierra Leone \| $1030 per year per person\n\n148 \| Uganda \| $1026 per year per person\n\n149 \| Burkina Faso \| $988 per year per person\n\n150 \| South Sudan \| $888 per year per person\n", "111 \| Nigeria \| $3308 per year per person\n\n112 \| Samoa \| $3278 per year per person\n\n113 \| Tonga \| $3275 per year per person\n\n114 \| Syria \| $2897 per year per person\n\n115 \| Nicaragua \| $2741 per year per person\n\n116 \| Sudan \| $2636 per year per person\n\n117 \| East Timor \| $2614 per year per person\n\n118 \| Kiribati \| $2589 per year per person\n\n119 \| Cape Verde \| $2439 per year per person\n\n120 \| Bangladesh \| $2415 per year per person\n", "59 \| Thailand \| $9239 per year per person\n\n60 \| Algeria \| $9235 per year per person\n\n61 \| Serbia \| $9005 per year per person\n\n62 \| Mexico \| $8906 per year per person\n\n63 \| Albania \| $7914 per year per person\n\n64 \| Macedonia \| $7592 per year per person\n\n65 \| Costa Rica \| $7562 per year per person\n\n66 \| China \| $7519 per year per person\n\n67 \| Egypt \| $7403 per year per person\n\n68 \| Mongolia \| $7334 per year per person\n\n69 \| Kosovo \| $7212 per year per person\n", "48 \| Uruguay \| $11835 per year per person\n\n49 \| Turkey \| $11583 per year per person\n\n50 \| Iran \| $10901 per year per person\n\n51 \| Gabon \| $10876 per year per person\n\n52 \| Chile \| $10772 per year per person\n\n53 \| Bulgaria \| $10744 per year per person\n\n54 \| Montenegro \| $10616 per year per person\n\n55 \| Iraq \| $10463 per year per person\n\n56 \| Panama \| $10009 per year per person\n\n57 \| Venezuela \| $9408 per year per person\n\n58 \| Turkmenistan \| $9335 per year per person\n", "Note that while a country may have a relatively large external debt (either in absolute or per capita terms) it could actually be a \"net international creditor\" if its external debt is less than the total of the external debt of other countries held by it. For example, although the UK has more external debt than France, it has more external assets giving it a stronger NIIP.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Balance of trade\n\nBULLET::::- Domestic Liability Dollarization\n\nBULLET::::- List of sovereign states by external assets\n\nBULLET::::- National debt of the United States\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "A debt-to-GDP ratio is one of the most accepted ways of assessing the significance of a nation's debt. For example, one of the criteria of admission to the European Union's euro currency is that an applicant country's debt should not exceed 60% of that country's GDP.\n\nSection::::Debt of sub-national governments.\n\nMunicipal, provincial, or state governments may also borrow. Municipal bonds, \"munis\" in the United States, are debt securities issued by local governments (municipalities).\n\nIn 2016, U.S. state and local governments owed $3 trillion and have another $5 trillion in unfunded liabilities.\n\nSection::::Denominated in reserve currencies.\n", "80 \| Peru \| $6610 per year per person\n\n81 \| Colombia \| $6288 per year per person\n\n82 \| Saint Lucia \| $6213 per year per person\n\n83 \| Botswana \| $6168 per year per person\n\n84 \| Armenia \| $5970 per year per person\n\n85 \| Ecuador \| $5898 per year per person\n\n86 \| Ukraine \| $5893 per year per person\n\n87 \| Georgia \| $5643 per year per person\n\n88 \| Philippines \| $5069 per year per person\n\n89 \| Fiji \| $4978 per year per person\n\n90 \| Jamaica \| $4832 per year per person\n", "91 \| South Africa \| $4698 per year per person\n\n92 \| Bhutan \| $4669 per year per person\n\n93 \| El Salvador \| $4643 per year per person\n\n94 \| Morocco \| $4553 per year per person\n\n95 \| Paraguay \| $4482 per year per person\n\n96 \| Guyana \| $4170 per year per person\n\n97 \| Namibia \| $4051 per year per person\n\n98 \| India \| $3979 per year per person\n\n99 \| Uzbekistan \| $3955 per year per person\n\n100 \| Swaziland \| $3903 per year per person\n", "Debt service ratio\n\nIn economics and government finance, a country’s debt service ratio is the ratio of its debt service payments (principal + interest) to its export earnings. A country's international finances are healthier when this ratio is low. For most countries the ratio is between 0 and 20%.\n\nIn contrast to the debt service coverage ratio, which is calculated as income divided by debt, this ratio is inverse and calculated as debt service divided by country's income from international trade, i.e., exports.\n", "Two thirds of US public debt is owned by US citizens, banks, corporations, and the Federal Reserve Bank; approximately one third of US public debt is held by foreign countries – particularly China and Japan. Conversely, less than 5% of Italian and Japanese public debt is held by foreign countries.\n\nParticularly in macroeconomics, various debt-to-GDP ratios can be calculated. The most commonly used ratio is the government debt divided by the gross domestic product (GDP), which reflects the government's finances, while another common ratio is the total debt to GDP, which reflects the finances of the nation as a whole.\n", "For countries like the United States, a large net external debt is created when the value of foreign assets (debt and equity) held by domestic residents is less than the value of domestic assets held by foreigners. In simple terms, as foreigners buy property in the US, this adds to the external debt. When this occurs in greater amounts than Americans buying property overseas, nations like the United States are said to be \"debtor nations\", but this is not conventional debt like a loan obtained from a bank.\n", "121 \| Kyrgyzstan \| $2397 per year per person\n\n122 \| Yemen \| $2346 per year per person\n\n123 \| Ghana \| $2329 per year per person\n\n124 \| Mauritania \| $2319 per year per person\n\n125 \| Tajikistan \| $2298 per year per person\n\n126 \| Cambodia \| $2278 per year per person\n\n127 \| Honduras \| $2196 per year per person\n\n128 \| São Tomé and Príncipe \| $2186 per year per person\n\n129 \| Vanuatu \| $1910 per year per person\n\n130 \| Ivory Coast \| $1841 per year per person\n", "Besley and Persson (2012) present a list of \"stylized facts\" that describe the evolution and patterns of fiscal capacity. These facts are patterns identified from an analysis of cross-sectional and time series data on 73 countries since 1800:\n\nBULLET::::1. Rich countries have made successive investments in their fiscal capacities over time.\n\nBULLET::::2. Rich countries collect a much larger share of their income in taxes than do poor countries.\n\nBULLET::::3. Rich countries rely to a much larger extent on income taxes as opposed to trade taxes than do poor countries\n", "Debt-to-GDP ratio\n\nIn economics, the debt-to-GDP ratio is the ratio between a country's government debt (measured in units of currency) and its gross domestic product (GDP) (measured in units of currency per year). A low debt-to-GDP ratio indicates an economy that produces and sells goods and services sufficient to pay back debts without incurring further debt. Geopolitical and economic considerations – including interest rates, war, recessions, and other variables – influence the borrowing practices of a nation and the choice to incur further debt.\n\nSection::::Global Statistics.\n", "Section::::Assessment of government performance on external debt.:Benigno \"Noynoy\" Aquino III (Jun 2010 – Jun 2016).\n", "37 \| Hungary \| $17106 per year per person\n\n38 \| Greece \| $16963 per year per person\n\n39 \| Latvia \| $15627 per year per person\n\n40 \| Romania \| $15188 per year per person\n\n41 \| Croatia \| $14781 per year per person\n\n42 \| Seychelles \| $14742 per year per person\n\n43 \| Azerbaijan \| $14288 per year per person\n\n44 \| Malaysia \| $14048 per year per person\n\n45 \| Russia \| $13896 per year per person\n\n46 \| Belarus \| $12460 per year per person\n\n47 \| Mauritius \| $12376 per year per person\n", "Governments often borrow money in a currency in which the demand for debt securities is strong. An advantage of issuing bonds in a currency such as the US dollar, the pound sterling, or the euro is that many investors wish to invest in such bonds. Countries such as the United States, Germany, Italy and France have only issued in their domestic currency (or in the Euro in the case of Euro members).\n", "There is a difference between external debt denominated in domestic currency, and external debt denominated in foreign currency. A nation can service external debt denominated in domestic currency by tax revenues, but to service foreign currency debt it has to convert tax revenues in the foreign exchange market to foreign currency, which puts downward pressure on the value of its currency.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Credit bubble\n\nBULLET::::- Debt levels and flows\n\nBULLET::::- Leverage (finance)\n\nBULLET::::- List of countries by public debt\n\nBULLET::::- List of countries by external debt\n\nBULLET::::- List of countries by tax revenue as percentage of GDP\n" ]	[ "National debt is held by nations." ]	[ "National debt is mostly held by the nations citizens." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "National debt is held by nations.", "National debt is held by nations. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "National debt is mostly held by the nations citizens.", "National debt is mostly held by the nations citizens." ]
2018-14574	How does CUDA or OpenCL work in GPU based password cracking implementation for cyber forensic applications and what is the difference between them? How is this benchmarked?	> How does CUDA or OpenCL work in GPU based password cracking implementation for cyber forensic applications Not all that different than a CPU. A GPU is essentially the same as CPU, just with many thousands of cores (compared to the ~4-8 you might see on a CPU). This means you can run many many operations at the same time, as long as they don't depend on each other (if they do depend on each other, you have to wait for the previous one to finish, so most of the cores will just sit idle). Something like guessing passwords are independent, so you can have each core doing different guesses. This can let you get to obscene amounts (in the billions per seconds) of tries. With that many tries, you can brute force some stuff. These often aren't necessarily super informative, because you generally need some kind of direct access to whatever you're trying to crack (there is a reason most sites have a limit on attempts. Even if you could theoretically crack the passwords, if you're only allowed 10 guesses/hr instead of billions/sec, it's essentially a moot point). However if you were able to say, download a giant password database locally to your computer, you can play around with it and potentially brute force it. > what is the difference between them? They're more or less the same thing- software/libraries for running GPU operations. Both are derivatives of C/C++. It's not all that different than the normal kernel running your CPU- just specialized to be efficient for thousands of cores (ie, transfering data to those cores can be a lot trickier than just communicating with 1 core, or making sure there's no conflicts etc). CUDA is proprietary- it's owned/developed by Nvidia. In general CUDA tends to be faster/more standard for most general GPU applications, but it has the big con that it's closed source and only works on Nvidia cards. But NVidia throws a pretty decent amount of money at developing it, and it was available early, so it's hard to get away from Open CL is open source version of essentially the same thing. It's designed to work on most hardware (and even can default to using a CPU if a GPU isn't available for some reason). So it's a lot more flexible, although generically it can be a bit less efficient. OpenCL/GL is getting better and better though. > How is this benchmarked? I don't know the specific benchmarks offhand, but in general, the way you do a benchmark is to find a few "standard" problems and just run them and time it. (Hashcat seems pretty popular) It's important to have problems of different types to identify where the differences are. There are a lot of password cracking algorithms (for example, there's just plain brute forces, vs dictionary attacks, etc), as well as different encryption algorithms (WPA,SHA etc)	[ "The emergence of hardware acceleration over the past decade GPU resources to be used to increase the efficiency and speed of a brute force attack. In 2012, Stricture Consulting Group unveiled a 25-GPU cluster that achieved a brute force attack speed of 350 billion guesses per second, allowing them to check formula_1password combinations in 5.5 hours. Using ocl-Hashcat Plus on a Virtual OpenCL cluster platform, the Linux-based GPU cluster was used to \"crack 90 percent of the 6.5 million password hashes belonging to users of LinkedIn.\"\n", "This example code in C++ loads a texture from an image into an array on the GPU:\n\nBelow is an example given in Python that computes the product of two arrays on the GPU. The unofficial Python language bindings can be obtained from \"PyCUDA\".\n\nAdditional Python bindings to simplify matrix multiplication operations can be found in the program \"pycublas\".\n\nSection::::Benchmarks.\n\nThere are some open-source benchmarks containing CUDA codes\n\nBULLET::::- Rodinia benchmarks\n\nBULLET::::- SHOC\n\nBULLET::::- Tensor module in Eigen 3.0 open-source C++ template library for linear algebra.\n\nBULLET::::- SAXPY benchmark\n\nSection::::Language bindings.\n\nBULLET::::- Common Lisp – cl-cuda\n\nBULLET::::- Clojure – ClojureCUDA\n", "The CCT Mark is often compared to the international Common Criteria (CC), which is simultaneously both correct and incorrect:\n\nBULLET::::- Both provide methods for achieving a measure of assurance of computer security products and systems\n\nBULLET::::- Neither can provide a guarantee that approval means that no exploitable flaws exist, but rather reduce the likelihood of such flaw being present\n\nBULLET::::- The Common Criteria is constructured in a layered manner, with multiple Evaluation Assurance Level (EAL) specifications being available with increasing complexity, timescale and costs as the EAL number rises\n", "Graphics processors can speed up password cracking by a factor of 50 to 100 over general purpose computers. As of 2011, available commercial products claim the ability to test up to 2,800,000,000 passwords a second on a standard desktop computer using a high-end graphics processor. Such a device can crack a 10 letter single-case password in one day. The work can be distributed over many computers for an additional speedup proportional to the number of available computers with comparable GPUs.\n", "BULLET::::- Khronos Conformance Test Suite (CTS): CTS is for all developers and all actual OpenCL levels free (since 2017) available.\n\nSection::::Implementations.:Timeline of vendor implementations.\n\nBULLET::::- December 10, 2008: AMD and Nvidia held the first public OpenCL demonstration, a 75-minute presentation at Siggraph Asia 2008. AMD showed a CPU-accelerated OpenCL demo explaining the scalability of OpenCL on one or more cores while Nvidia showed a GPU-accelerated demo.\n\nBULLET::::- March 16, 2009: at the 4th Multicore Expo, Imagination Technologies announced the PowerVR SGX543MP, the first GPU of this company to feature OpenCL support.\n", "A study at Delft University from 2011 that compared CUDA programs and their straightforward translation into OpenCL C found CUDA to outperform OpenCL by at most 30% on the Nvidia implementation. The researchers noted that their comparison could be made fairer by applying manual optimizations to the OpenCL programs, in which case there was \"no reason for OpenCL to obtain worse performance than CUDA\". The performance differences could mostly be attributed to differences in the programming model (especially the memory model) and to NVIDIA's compiler optimizations for CUDA compared to those for OpenCL.\n", "The vulnerability was specific to the monitors’ on-screen-display (OSD) controllers, which are used to control and adjust viewing options on the screen, such as brightness, contrast or horizontal/vertical positioning. However, as Cui, Kataria and Charbonneau noted in their talk abstract for the 2016 REcon security conference, with the Monitor Darkly exploit, the OSD can also be used to “read the content of the screen, change arbitrary pixel values, and execute arbitrary code supplied through numerous control channels.”\n", "Another study at D-Wave Systems Inc. found that \"The OpenCL kernel’s performance is between about 13% and 63% slower, and the end-to-end time is between about 16% and 67% slower\" than CUDA's performance.\n", "To continue with the example above, if the vendor was first informed of the vulnerability by a posting of proof-of-concept code to a mailing list, the initial temporal score would be calculated using the values shown below:\n\nThis would give a temporal score of 7.3, with a temporal vector of E:P/RL:U/RC:UC (or a full vector of AV:N/AC:L/Au:N/C:P/I:P/A:C/E:P/RL:U/RC:UC).\n\nIf the vendor then confirms the vulnerability, the score rises to 8.1, with a temporal vector of E:P/RL:U/RC:C\n", "7,783,046 - Probabilistic cryptographic key identification with deterministic result \n\n7,787,629 - Use of graphics processors as parallel math co-processors for password recovery \n\n7,809,130 - Password recovery system and method \n\n7,929,707 - Use of graphics processors as parallel math co-processors for password recovery \n\nSection::::Cracking wi-fi password with GPUs.\n", "The PSIA Common Security Model (CSEC) specification is the comprehensive PSIA specification for all protocol, data and user security. It covers security requirements and definitions for network and session security, key and certificate management, and user permission management. These security definitions apply to all PSIA nodes.\n\nSection::::Specifications.:PSIA Common Security Model v1.0.:PSIA Common Metadata & Event Model.\n", "High-Tech Bridge Security Research Team has released over 500 security advisories affecting various software, with issues identified in products from many well-known vendors, such as Sony, McAfee Novell, in addition to many web vulnerabilities affecting popular open source and commercial web applications, such as osCommerce, Zen Cart, Microsoft SharePoint, SugarCRM and others.\n\nHigh-Tech Bridge's Security Research Lab was registered as CVE and CWE compatible by MITRE. High-Tech Bridge is one of only 24 organizations, globally, and the first in Switzerland, that have been able to achieve CWE certification.\n", "In 2015, researchers at the Georgia Institute of Technology released an open-source simulator known as OpenSGX.\n\nIt was introduced in 2015 with the sixth generation Intel Core microprocessors based on the Skylake microarchitecture.\n\nOne example of SGX used in security was a demo application from wolfSSL using it for cryptography algorithms.\n\nIntel Goldmont Plus (Gemini Lake) microarchitecture will also add support for Intel SGX.\n\nSection::::Prime+Probe attack.\n", "Section::::Reception.:Independent test labs.\n\nAV-TEST, an anti-virus test lab based in Germany, tested Comodo. Products that surpass the industry standard (measured by the mean score of the participating products) are awarded a certificate. Comodo Internet Security participated in their tests since 2010, and for the first time in February 2013, Comodo Internet Security Premium version 6.0 obtained the AV-TEST certificate in the field of home products.\n", "BULLET::::- Peridot (2004) checks web sites for broken links and assist in updating them. IBM, and the student inventors including Ben Delo, have two patents ( and ) on this technology.\n\nBULLET::::- GameGrid (2003) created a distributed computing MMOG based on the open-source version of ID Software's Quake 2 first-person shooter.\n\nSection::::Laboratory locations.\n\nSection::::Laboratory locations.:North America.\n\nIn 2004, there were 44 Extreme Blue teams in North America.\n\nIn 2002, there were 101 interns in North America from 42 schools.\n\nBULLET::::- IBM Almaden Research Center located in San Jose, California, USA\n\nBULLET::::- 4 teams in 2009\n\nBULLET::::- Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA\n", "A numerical score is generated for each of these metric groups. A vector string (or simply \"vector\" in CVSSv2), represents the values of all the metrics as a block of text.\n\nSection::::Version 2.\n\nComplete documentation for CVSSv2 is available from FIRST. A summary is provided below.\n\nSection::::Version 2.:Base metrics.\n\nSection::::Version 2.:Base metrics.:Access Vector.\n\nThe access vector (AV) shows how a vulnerability may be exploited.\n\nSection::::Version 2.:Base metrics.:Attack Complexity.\n\nThe attack complexity (AC) metric describes how easy or difficult it is to exploit the discovered vulnerability.\n\nSection::::Version 2.:Base metrics.:Authentication.\n", "Project Denver is targeted at mobile computers, personal computers, servers, as well as supercomputers. Respective cores have found integration in the Tegra SoC series from Nvidia. Initially Denver cores were available for 28nm structure sizes (Tegra model T132 aka \"Tegra K1\") with later on an updated Denver 2 design that worked for 16nm structure sizes (Tegra model T186 aka \"Tegra X2\").\n", "Several metrics were changed, added, and removed. The numerical formulas were updated to incorporate the new metrics while retaining the existing scoring range of 0-10. Textual severity ratings of None (0), Low (0.1-3.9), Medium (4.0-6.9), High (7.0-8.9), and Critical (9.0-10.0) were defined, similar to the categories NVD defined for CVSS v2 that were not part of that standard\n\nSection::::Version 3.:Changes from Version 2.\n\nSection::::Version 3.:Changes from Version 2.:Base metrics.\n", "The Vulnerability Notes database is not meant to be comprehensive.\n\nSection::::Capabilities.:Vulnerability Analysis Tools.\n\nThe CERT/CC provides a number of free tools to the security research community. Some tools offered include the following.\n\nBULLET::::- CERT Tapioca—a pre-configured virtual appliance for performing man-in-the-middle attacks. This can be used to analyze network traffic of software applications and determine if the software uses encryption correctly, etc.\n\nBULLET::::- BFF (Basic Fuzzer Framework) -- a mutational file fuzzer for Linux\n\nBULLET::::- FOE (Failure Observation Engine) -- a mutational file fuzzer for Windows\n\nBULLET::::- Dranzer—Microsoft ActiveX vulnerability discovery\n\nSection::::Capabilities.:Training.\n", "The report confidence (RC) of a vulnerability measures the level of confidence in the existence of the vulnerability and also the credibility of the technical details of the vulnerability.\n\nSection::::Version 2.:Temporal metrics.:Calculations.\n\nThese three metrics are used in conjunction with the base score that has already been calculated to produce the temporal score for the vulnerability with its associated vector.\n\nThe formula used to calculate the temporal score is:\n\nTemporalScore = round_to_1_decimal(BaseScoreExploitabilityRemediationLevel*ReportConfidence)\n\nSection::::Version 2.:Temporal metrics.:Calculations.:Example.\n", "The Confidentiality, Integrity and Availability (C, I, A) metrics were updated to have scores consisting of None, Low, or High, rather than the None, Partial, Complete of CVSSv2. This allows more flexibility in determining the impact of a vulnerability on CIA metrics.\n", "ISO/IEC 21827 (SSE-CMM – ISO/IEC 21827) is an International Standard based on the Systems Security Engineering Capability Maturity Model (SSE-CMM) that can measure the maturity of ISO controls objectives.\n\nSection::::NERC.\n\nThe North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC) addresses patching in NERC CIP 007-6 Requirement 2. Summarily, it requires Bulk Power System (BPS) Operators/Owners to identify the source or sources utilized to provide\n", "The geometry factor formula_4 relates the far-field stresses to the region near the crack tip. Many standard geometry factors are supplied in the program. These scaling factors allow the calculation of the stress intensity factor from the applied loading sequence using\n\nwhere formula_6 is the applied far field stress and formula_7 is the crack length.\n", "Coverity in collaboration with Stanford University has established a new baseline for open-source quality and security. The development is being completed through a contract with the Department of Homeland Security. They are utilizing innovations in automated defect detection to identify critical types of bugs found in software. The level of quality and security is measured in rungs. Rungs do not have a definitive meaning, and can change as Coverity releases new tools. Rungs are based on the progress of fixing issues found by the Coverity Analysis results and the degree of collaboration with Coverity. They start with Rung 0 and currently go up to Rung 2.\n", "CertCo made various contributions to the fields of cryptography and public key infrastructure via scientific publications and patents. Its most heavily cited patents by subject are:\n\nBULLET::::- Attribute certificates\n\nBULLET::::- Certificate authority\n\nBULLET::::- Digital Rights Management\n\nBULLET::::- Identity warranty\n\nBULLET::::- Key escrow\n\nBULLET::::- Payment system\n\nOther patent filings include\n\nBULLET::::- Changing key fragments in a digital signature system\n\nBULLET::::- Ad-hoc management of credentials, trust relationships and trust history\n\nSection::::Standards and policy.\n\nCertCo personnel contributed to a number of standards bodies and policy projects, including:\n\nBULLET::::- IETF Online Certificate Status Protocol OCSP\n\nBULLET::::- American Bar Association Digital Signature Guidelines]\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00281	Why does the light go out when the bulb breaks?	That's exactly why. The lightbulb is filled with an inert gas such as argon, which prevents the filament from burning. Once the filament is exposed to oxygen, it burns up.	[ "In most modern incandescent bulbs, part of the wire inside the bulb acts like a fuse: if a broken filament produces an electrical short inside the bulb, the fusible section of wire will melt and cut the current off to prevent damage to the supply lines.\n\nA hot glass bulb may fracture on contact with cold objects. When the glass envelope breaks, the bulb implodes, exposing the filament to ambient air. The air then usually destroys the hot filament through oxidation.\n\nSection::::Physical characteristics.:Bulb shapes.\n", "At the end of life, many types of high-intensity discharge lamps exhibit a phenomenon known as \"cycling\". These lamps can be started at a relatively low voltage. As they heat up during operation, however, the internal gas pressure within the arc tube rises and a higher voltage is required to maintain the arc discharge. As a lamp gets older, the voltage necessary to maintain the arc eventually rises to exceed the voltage provided by the electrical ballast. As the lamp heats to this point, the arc fails and the lamp goes out. Eventually, with the arc extinguished, the lamp cools down again, the gas pressure in the arc tube is reduced, and the ballast can once again cause the arc to strike. The effect of this is that the lamp glows for a while and then goes out, repeatedly. More sophisticated ballast designs detect cycling and give up attempting to start the lamp after a few cycles. If power is removed and reapplied, the ballast will make a new series of startup attempts.\n", "LPS lamp failure does not result in cycling; rather, the lamp will simply not strike or will maintain the dull red glow of the start-up phase. In another failure mode, a tiny puncture of the arc tube leaks some of the sodium vapor into the outer vacuum bulb. The sodium condenses and creates a mirror on the outer glass, partially obscuring the arc tube. The lamp often continues operating normally, but much of the light generated is obscured by the sodium coating, providing no illumination.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Arc lamp\n\nBULLET::::- High-intensity discharge lamp (HID)\n", "Section::::Physical characteristics.\n\nSection::::Physical characteristics.:Security.\n\nThe filament in a tungsten light bulb is not easy to break when the bulb is cold, but filaments are more vulnerable when they are hot because the incandescent metal is less rigid. An impact on the outside of the bulb may cause the filament to break or experience a surge in electric current that causes part of it to melt or vaporize.\n", "Although such failure is associated with end of life, an arc tube can fail at any time even when new, because of unseen manufacturing faults such as microscopic cracks. However, this is quite rare. Manufacturers typically \"season\" new lamps to check for such defects before the lamps leave the manufacturer's premises.\n", "The \"emission mix\" on the lamp filaments/cathodes is required to enable electrons to pass into the gas via thermionic emission at the lamp operating voltages used. The mix is slowly sputtered off by bombardment with electrons and mercury ions during operation, but a larger amount is sputtered off each time the lamp is started with cold cathodes. The method of starting the lamp has a significant impact on this. Lamps operated for typically less than 3 hours each switch-on will normally run out of the emission mix before other parts of the lamp fail. The sputtered emission mix forms the dark marks at the lamp ends seen in old lamps. When all the emission mix is gone, the cathode cannot pass sufficient electrons into the gas fill to maintain the gas discharge at the designed lamp operating voltage. Ideally, the control gear should shut down the lamp when this happens. However, some control gear will provide sufficient increased voltage to continue operating the lamp in cold cathode mode, which will cause overheating of the lamp end and rapid disintegration of the electrodes (filament goes open-circuit) and filament support wires until they are completely gone or the glass cracks, destroying the low pressure gas fill and stopping the gas discharge.\n", "One of the problems of the standard electric light bulb is \"filament notching\" due to evaporation of the filament. Small variations in resistivity along the filament cause \"hot spots\" to form at points of higher resistivity; a variation of diameter of only 1% will cause a 25% reduction in service life. These hot spots evaporate faster than the rest of the filament, which increases the resistance at that point—this creates a positive feedback that ends in the familiar tiny gap in an otherwise healthy-looking filament. Irving Langmuir found that an inert gas, instead of vacuum, would retard evaporation. General service incandescent light bulbs over about 25 watts in rating are now filled with a mixture of mostly argon and some nitrogen, or sometimes krypton. Lamps operated on direct current develop random stairstep irregularities on the filament surface which may cut lifespan in half compared to AC operation; different alloys of tungsten and rhenium can be used to counteract the effect.\n", "In most CFLs the filaments are connected in series, with a small capacitor between them. The discharge, once lit, is in parallel to the capacitor and presents a lower-resistance path, effectively shorting the capacitor out.\n\nSection::::Principles of operation.:End of life.:Phosphor.\n", "BULLET::::- If R is too small, the load line will cross the \"IV\" curve between \"c\" and \"d\". In this region the current through R is too large; once the bulb has turned on, the current through R will be large enough to keep it conducting without current from the capacitor, and the voltage across the bulb will never fall to \"V\" so the bulb will never turn off.\n\nSmall neon bulbs will typically oscillate with values of \"R\" between 500kΩ and 20MΩ.\n", "When set to bulb, generally on the \"M\" or manual setting of the camera, the shutter will stay open as long as the shutter release button (or shutter release cable or remote) remains depressed.\n\nSome mid-level or bridge cameras such as the Olympus SP-560UZ have a 'limited' bulb setting, allowing time exposures up to 8 minutes and at an ISO setting of 200 ISO and lower.\n", "More sophisticated ballast designs detect cycling and give up attempting to start the lamp after a few cycles, as the repeated high-voltage ignitions needed to restart the arc reduce the lifetime of the ballast. If power is removed and reapplied, the ballast will make a new series of startup attempts.\n", "When the lamp sustains the arc, the ballast performs its second function, to limit the current to that needed to operate the lamp. The lamp, ballast and igniter are rating-matched to each other; these parts must be replaced with the same rating as the failed component or the lamp will not work.\n\nThe colour of the light emitted by the lamp changes as its electrical characteristics change with temperature and time. Lightning is a similar principle where the atmosphere is ionized by the high potential difference (voltage) between earth and storm clouds.\n", "Modern electronic ballast designs detect cycling and give up attempting to start the lamp after a few cycles. If power is removed and reapplied, the ballast will make a new series of startup attempts.\n\nSection::::End of life behaviour.:Risk of lamp explosion.\n\nAll HID arc tubes deteriorate in strength over their lifetime because of various factors, such as chemical attack, thermal stress and mechanical vibration. As the lamp ages the arc tube becomes discoloured, absorbing light and getting hotter. The tube will continue to become weaker until it eventually fails, causing the breakup of the tube.\n", "During the late 20th century, flasher bulbs were modified such that the bimetallic strip is a \"normally open\" switch instead of a \"normally closed\" one. When first turned on, the strip does not make contact, causing power to flow through the filament until it warms up within a few seconds. It then makes and breaks contact quickly, momentarily allowing a low-resistance path around the filament, causing the bulb (and to a lesser extent the steady bulbs in reaction) to flicker rapidly, much faster than most flasher or twinkle bulbs. \n", "At the end of life, metal-halide lamps exhibit a phenomenon known as \"cycling\". These lamps can be started at a relatively low voltage but as they heat up during operation, the internal gas pressure within the arc tube rises and more and more voltage is required to maintain the arc discharge. As a lamp gets older, the maintaining voltage for the arc eventually rises to exceed the voltage provided by the electrical ballast. As the lamp heats to this point, the arc fails and the lamp goes out. Eventually, with the arc extinguished, the lamp cools down again, the gas pressure in the arc tube is reduced, and the ballast once again causes the arc to strike. This causes the lamp to glow for a while and then goes out, repeatedly. In rare occurrences the lamp explodes at the end of its useful life.\n", "Two kinds of sparks may occur during switch operation. On closure, a few sparks, like those from a flint-and-steel, may appear as a tiny bit of metal is heated by friction to incandescence, melted, and thrown off. On opening, a bluish arc may occur, with a detectable \"electrical\" (ozone) odor. Subsequently, the contacts may be seen to be darkened and pitted. Damaged contacts have higher resistance, rendering them more vulnerable to further damage and causing a cycle in which the contacts soon may fail completely.\n", "The filaments can burn out (fail) at the end of the lamp's lifetime, opening the circuit and losing the capability to heat up. Both filaments lose function as they are connected in series, with just a simple switch start circuit a broken filament will render the lamp completely useless. Filaments rarely burn out or fail open circuit unless the filament becomes depleted of emitter and the control gear is able to supply a high enough voltage across the tube to operate it in cold cathode mode. Some digital electronic ballasts are capable of detecting broken filaments and can still strike an arc with one or both filaments broken providing there is still sufficient emitter. A broken filament in a lamp attached to a magnetic ballast often causes both lamps to burn out or flicker.\n", "Section::::Principles of operation.:Electrical aspects of operation.\n\nFluorescent lamps are negative differential resistance devices, so as more current flows through them, the electrical resistance of the fluorescent lamp drops, allowing for even more current to flow. Connected directly to a constant-voltage power supply, a fluorescent lamp would rapidly self-destruct because of the uncontrolled current flow. To prevent this, fluorescent lamps must use an auxiliary device, a ballast, to regulate the current flow through the lamp.\n", "As in all mercury-based gas-filled tubes, mercury is slowly adsorbed onto the glass, phosphor, and tube electrodes throughout the life of the lamp, until it can no longer function. Loss of mercury will take over from failure of the phosphor in some lamps. The failure symptoms are similar, except loss of mercury initially causes an extended run-up time to full light output, and finally causes the lamp to glow a dim pink when the mercury runs out and the argon base gas takes over as the primary discharge.\n", "Christmas lights using incandescent bulbs are somewhat notorious for being difficult to troubleshoot and repair. In the 1950s and 1960s, the series circuit connected light sets would go completely dark when a single bulb failed. So in the fairly recent past, the mini-lights have come with shunts to allow a set to continue to operate with a burned out bulb. However, if there are multiple bulb failures or a shunt is bad, the string can still fail. There are two basic ways to troubleshoot this: a one by one replacement with a known good bulb, or by using a test light to find out where the voltage gets interrupted. One example made specifically for Christmas lights is the LightKeeper Pro. For additional information, see the troubleshooting section of the Holiday lighting technology article.\n", "The contents of a high-pressure lamp are inert gas (such as argon) and mercury. There are no phosphors used, and the mercury is clearly visible if it is not in a gaseous state. During installation, even a small amount of oil from fingertips can cause the quartz envelope to fail in operation. Most commercial replacement bulbs come with a special pocket wipe, usually containing alcohol, to clean the bulb in case it is accidentally touched during installation. Because the bulb contains mercury, great care should be used if a bulb is broken, to prevent accidental contact or vapor exposure.\n", "BULLET::::- If R is too large, of the same order as the \"off\" leakage resistance of the bulb, the load line will cross the \"IV\" curve between the origin and \"b\". In this region, the current through R from the supply is so low that the leakage current through the bulb bleeds it off, so the capacitor voltage never reaches \"V\" and the bulb never fires. The leakage resistance of most neon bulbs is greater than 100MΩ, so this is not a serious limitation.\n", "Lampholder failures are usually caused by mechanical abuse or by overheating. A socket with a built-in switch is far more likely to fail in normal use as the switch parts wear out. Insulation failures are usually caused by impacts or by difficulty inserting or removing a lamp. Sockets used outdoors or in damp areas often suffer from corrosion which can cause the lamp to \"stick\" in the socket and attempts to change a lamp can result in breakage of either the lamp or the lampholder. The corrosion is not only environmentally produced but may be a result of the current flowing through the parts when there is appreciable resistance between the parts. Fixtures in such environments may require gaskets or other waterproofing methods to prevent buildup of moisture in the socket area.\n", "Headlamp systems require periodic maintenance. Sealed beam headlamps are modular; when the filament burns out, the entire sealed beam is replaced. Most vehicles in North America made since the late 1980s use headlamp lens-reflector assemblies that are considered a part of the car, and just the bulb is replaced when it fails. Manufacturers vary the means by which the bulb is accessed and replaced. Headlamp aim must be properly checked and adjusted frequently, for misaimed lamps are dangerous and ineffective.\n", "If power is interrupted, even briefly, the lamp's arc will extinguish, and the high pressure that exists in the hot arc tube will prevent restriking the arc; with a normal ignitor a cool-down period of 5–10 minutes will be required before the lamp can be restarted, but with special ignitors and specially designed lamps, the arc can be immediately re-established. On fixtures without instant restrike capability, a momentary loss of power can mean no light for several minutes. For safety reasons, many metal-halide fixtures have a backup tungsten-halogen incandescent lamp that operates during cool-down and restrike. Once the metal halide restrikes and warms up, the incandescent safety light is switched off. A warm lamp also tends to take more time to reach its full brightness than a lamp that is started completely cold.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00669	why is it that cameras cannot take a clear picture of an LCD screen?	Monitors and TVs typically have a set refresh rate - 50Hz and 60Hz are fairly common. This means that the screen is redrawn around 50 or 60 times a second. To the human eye, this looks smooth - it's fast enough to be almost unnoticeable. Cameras, though operate differently from our eyes. If the frame rate of the camera matches the refresh rate of the screen you're looking at, it'll probably look fine. Usually, this isn't the case. The camera then could capture a partly drawn screen as one of it's frames, and then capture a different part of the screen in the next frame, etc. Net result: it looks like it flickers (or you see moving black bars), since it does this very quickly. The black bars are a slightly different story from the flickering - the issue there is called aliasing. It's the same reason why if you film a wheel moving at the right speed, it can look like it's spinning backwards. If you think of video cameras as just taking a lot of pictures really fast, the way we perceive motion in a video is that you assume things move the smallest amount possible. So if a wheel has 8 spokes (evenly spaced, 360/8 = 45 degree separation) and rotates 35 degrees between frames, you'll probably think it took the shortest possible rotation - 10 degrees in the opposite direction (this breaks down if the spokes are distinguishable). The black bars you make see on some cameras are the same effect - the camera captures snapshots at different points in time that make it look like the bars move in a way vastly different from the actual scanning of the screen.	[ "The optical effect of a TN device in the voltage-on state is far less dependent on variations in the device thickness than that in the voltage-off state. Because of this, TN displays with low information content and no backlighting are usually operated between crossed polarizers such that they appear bright with no voltage (the eye is much more sensitive to variations in the dark state than the bright state). As most of 2010-era LCDs are used in television sets, monitors and smartphones, they have high-resolution matrix arrays of pixels to display arbitrary images using backlighting with a dark background. When no image is displayed, different arrangements are used. For this purpose, TN LCDs are operated between parallel polarizers, whereas IPS LCDs feature crossed polarizers. In many applications IPS LCDs have replaced TN LCDs, in particular in smartphones such as iPhones. Both the liquid crystal material and the alignment layer material contain ionic compounds. If an electric field of one particular polarity is applied for a long period of time, this ionic material is attracted to the surfaces and degrades the device performance. This is avoided either by applying an alternating current or by reversing the polarity of the electric field as the device is addressed (the response of the liquid crystal layer is identical, regardless of the polarity of the applied field).\n", "The major advantage of the shutter glass system was that it allowed the same display to be used for multiple unrelated images, one of which was visible without any glasses at all. Unfortunately, the contrast ratio of the public image is only 1/2 the available contrast ratio of the CRT when driven with only a public image.\n", "Section::::Notable manufacturers.:Sony.\n\nIn 1997, Sony released the Glasstron, an HMD which included two LCD screens and two earphones for video and audio respectively. It also had a mechanical shutter to allow the display to become see through\n", "Liquid crystal light valves work by rotating light between two polarizing filters. Due to these internal polarizers, LCD shutter-glasses darken the display image of any LCD, plasma, or projector image source, which has the result that images appear dimmer and contrast is lower than for normal non-3D viewing. This is not necessarily a usage problem; for some types of displays which are already very bright with poor grayish black levels, LCD shutter glasses may actually improve the image quality.\n\nSection::::Types – Stereoscopy vs. 3D.:Stereo displays.:Interference filter technology.\n", "LCDs do not directly produce light, and have to be back-lit using cold cathode fluorescent lamps (CCFLs) or high-power LEDs. The light is first passed through a polarizer, which cuts out half of the light. It then passes through the LCD layer, which selectively reduces the output for each sub-pixel. In front of the LCD shutters are small colored filters, one for each RGB sub-pixel. Since the colored filters cut out all but a narrow band of the white light, the amount of light that reaches the viewer is always less than 1/3 of what left the polarizer. Since the color gamut is produced by selectively reducing the output for certain colors, in practice much less light makes it through to the view, about 8 to 10% on average. In spite of using highly efficient light sources, an LCD uses more power than a CRT of the same size.\n", "For LCD monitors the pixel brightness changes are much slower than CRT or plasma phosphors. Typically LCD pixel brightness changes are faster when voltage is applied than when voltage is removed, resulting in an asymmetric pixel response time. With 3D shutter glasses this can result in a blurry smearing of the display and poor depth perception, due to the previous image frame not fading to black fast enough as the next frame is drawn.\n\nSection::::Televisions.\n", "BULLET::::- LC shutter glasses are shutting out light half of the time; moreover, they are slightly dark even when letting light through, because they are polarized. This gives an effect similar to watching TV with sunglasses on, which causes a darker picture to be perceived by the viewer. However, this effect can produce a higher perceived display contrast when paired with LCDs because of the reduction in backlight bleed. Since the glasses also darken the background, contrast is enhanced when using a brighter image.\n", "The input must be held steady in a period around the rising edge of the clock known as the aperture. Imagine taking a picture of a frog on a lily-pad. Suppose the frog then jumps into the water. If you take a picture of the frog as it jumps into the water, you will get a blurry picture of the frog jumping into the water—it's not clear which state the frog was in. But if you take a picture while the frog sits steadily on the pad (or is steadily in the water), you will get a clear picture. In the same way, the input to a flip-flop must be held steady during the aperture of the flip-flop.\n", "In spite of LCD's current dominance of the television field, there are several other technologies being developed that address its shortcomings. Whereas LCDs produce an image by selectively blocking a backlight, OLED, FED and SED all produce light directly on the front face of the display. In comparison to LCDs, all of these technologies offer better viewing angles, much higher brightness and contrast ratio (as much as 5,000,000:1), and better color saturation and accuracy, and use less power. Also, in theory they are less complex and less expensive to build.\n", "Visual Image screenless display includes any image that the eye can perceive. The most common example of Visual Image screenless display is a hologram. In these cases, light is reflected off some intermediate object (hologram, LCD panel, or cockpit window) before it reaches the retina. In the case of LCD panels the light is refracted from the back of the panel, but is nonetheless a reflected source. Google has proposed a similar system to replace the screens of tablet computers and smartphones.\n\nSection::::Retinal display.\n", "LCD technology is not usually rated by frames per second but rather the time it takes to transition from one pixel color value to another pixel color value. Normally, a 120 Hz refresh is displayed for a full 1/120 second (8.33 milliseconds) due to sample-and-hold, regardless of how quickly an LCD can complete pixel transitions. Recently, it became possible to hide pixel transitions from being seen, using strobe backlight technology, by turning off the backlight between refreshes, to reduce crosstalk. Newer LCD televisions, including high end Sony and Samsung 3D TVs, now utilize a strobed backlight or scanning backlight to reduce 3D crosstalk during shutter glasses operation.\n", "Tru Black is a technology developed by Sony which allows a better visualization of the screen, even when there is too much light. It enables LCD screens to automatically change the display contrast in order to enhance the controlling reflectance. In other words, when light hits a display with Tru Black technology, the screen turns opaque as a means to improve the visualization of the content. \n\nSection::::Features.:Panorama.\n", "BULLET::::- Poor black level: Some light passes through even when liquid crystals completely untwist, so the best black color that can be achieved is varying shades of dark gray, resulting in worse contrast ratios and detail in the image. This can be mitigated by the use of a matrix of LEDs as the illuminator to provide nearly true black performance.\n\nBULLET::::- Narrower viewing angles than competing technologies. It is nearly impossible to use an LCD without some image warping occurring.\n\nBULLET::::- LCDs rely heavily on thin-film transistors, which can be damaged, resulting in a defective pixel.\n", "BULLET::::- Some viewers are bothered by the \"rainbow effect\" present in colour-wheel models - particularly in older models (explained above). This can be observed easily by using a camera's digital viewfinder on projected content.\n\nBULLET::::- Rear projection DLP TVs are not as thin as LCD or plasma flat-panel displays (although approximately comparable in weight), although some models as of 2008 are becoming wall-mountable (while still being 10\" to 14\" thick)\n", "Formerly, LCDs were not very suitable for stereoscopic 3D due to slow pixel response time. Liquid crystal displays have traditionally been slow to change from one polarization state to another. Users of early 1990s laptops are familiar with the smearing and blurring that occurs when something moves too fast for the LCD to keep up.\n", "An unilluminated LCD must be lit from the front. To use ambient light, the liquid crystal itself is sandwiched between a polarization filter and a reflective surface. The mirror makes the display opaque so it cannot be illuminated from the back. Most often a light source is placed around the perimeter of the LCD.\n", "Simple types of LCDs such as in pocket calculators are built without an internal light source, requiring external light sources to convey the display image to the user. Most LCD screens, however, are built with an internal light source. Such screens consist of several layers. The backlight is usually the first layer from the back. Light valves then vary the amount of light reaching the eye, by blocking its passage in some way. Most use a fixed polarizing filter and a switching one, to block the undesired light.\n\nSection::::Light source types.\n\nThe light source can be made up of:\n", "In the early 2000s, Sharp developed the electronic flat-panel application of this old technology to commercialization, briefly selling two laptops with the world's only 3D LCD screens. These displays are no longer available from Sharp but still being manufactured and further developed from other companies like Tridelity and SpatialView. Similarly, Hitachi has released the first 3D mobile phone for the Japanese market under distribution by KDDI. In 2009, Fujifilm released the Fujifilm FinePix Real 3D W1 digital camera, which features a built-in autostereoscopic LCD measuring 2.8\" diagonal. Nintendo has also implemented this technology on its latest portable gaming consoles, the New Nintendo 3DS and the New Nintendo 3DS XL, after first including it on the previous console, the Nintendo 3DS.\n", "BULLET::::- UltraPixel – HTC (Image Stabilization is only available for the 2013 HTC One & 2016 HTC 10 with UltraPixel. It is not available for the HTC One (M8) or HTC Butterfly S, which also have UltraPixel)\n\nMost high-end smartphones as of late 2014 use optical image stabilization for photos and videos.\n\nSection::::Techniques.:Optical image stabilization.:Lens-based.\n", "Liquid crystal light valves work by rotating light between two polarizing filters. Due to these internal polarizers, LCD shutter-glasses darken the display image of any LCD, plasma, or projector image source, which has the result that images appear dimmer and contrast is lower than for normal non-3D viewing. This is not necessarily a usage problem; for some types of displays which are already very bright with poor grayish black levels, LCD shutter glasses may actually improve the image quality.\n\nSection::::Techniques.:Displaying 3D films.:Interference filter technology.\n", "BULLET::::- The newest and most convenient displays, in products such as the Nintendo 3DS, HTC Evo 3D, and LG Optimus 3D, do not have the parallax barrier in front of the pixels, but behind the pixels and in front of the backlight. The entire LCD matrix is therefore exposed to both eyes, but as seen from each eye's position only one of the interlaced images in it is backlit. Glare from the visibly lit pixel columns tends to make the adjacent unlit columns less noticeable.\n\nBULLET::::- Pros\n\nBULLET::::- Clear image\n\nBULLET::::- Largest viewing angle\n\nBULLET::::- Cons\n", "Section::::Disadvantages.\n\nThe only drawback of TPD would be the contrast ratio. Experimental measurements conducted with non-collimated light showed a very low contrast ratio of 20:1. Simulations indicate that contrast ratios of up to 800:1 may be possible, which is also possible with current LCD technology. Plasma & organic light-emitting diode have much higher contrast ratios, so a lot needs to be done to compete with these technologies.\n", "One approach to OGS is called \"sensor-on-lens” (also known as “touch-on-lens” or “sensor-on-glass”), with the \"lens\" in this case referring to the cover glass layer. Next, a layer of indium tin oxide (ITO) is deposited onto the back of the cover glass in a pattern to create electrodes to sense touch. A thin insulator layer is applied before a second ITO layer is deposited in a pattern creating electrodes running at right angles to the first layer. The assembly is then laminated onto a standard LCD panel.\n", "Section::::Impact of resolution: the \"k\" factor.\n", "BULLET::::- the image in the EVF and LCD screen is bright and the light is amplified. An optical viewfinder instead does not amplify the light, so that it becomes difficult to frame and manually focus when there is not sufficient light.\n\nBULLET::::- technically no dust problems, since the DSC-R1 has a fixed lens, though dust can enter the lens itself while zooming\n\nBULLET::::- silent operation, as there is no swinging mirror or physical shutter system\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-06957	How does military body armour disperse the energy and momentum in a bullet to protect soldiers?	Most military armor is called ceramic because it's a hard plate that combines various types of plastics, polymers, and other composite materials. Along with this are several layers of loose kevlar that act as energy absorbers and as spall protectors. Imagine you have a hard wood plate that's wrapped in a blanket worn on your chest. Then imagine a really hard punch to your chest. This is basically how a bullet is stopped and the energy dispersed. Kevlar and most soft armor has an issue with being too body conforming and basically causing the round to punch the wearer with backface deformation: Soft armor: URL_2 VS Hard armor (first video is regular SAPI armor being shot with high velocity explosive anti-aircraft rounds and the second is steel ar500 being shot with a high velocity steel core or partial steel core): URL_0 URL_1	[ "Section::::Protection.:Armor.\n\nWhen a bullet strikes the body armor, it hits ballistic fiber which is strong enough to not let it through. This fibre absorbs and disperses the impact that has been made by the bullet to the body armor. This process continues and every layer of this material is effected until the bullet has reached to a full stop. All layers combined together form a larger area of the impact to disperse and keep the bullet from penetrating the carrier. This helps reducing the risk of blunt force trauma also known as injuries to internal organs.\n\nSection::::Production.\n", "Another fiber used to manufacture a bullet-resistant vest is Dyneema ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene. Originated in the Netherlands, Dyneema has an extremely high strength-to-weight ratio (a 1-mm-diameter rope of Dyneema can bear up to a 240-kg load), is light enough that it can float on water, and has high energy absorption characteristics. Since the introduction of the Dyneema Force Multiplier Technology in 2013, many body armor manufacturers have switched to Dyneema for their high-end armor solutions.\n\nSection::::Protected areas.\n\nSection::::Protected areas.:Shield.\n", "Today, ballistic vests, also known as flak jackets, made of ballistic cloth (e.g. kevlar, dyneema, twaron, spectra etc.) and ceramic or metal plates are common among police forces, security staff, corrections officers and some branches of the military.\n", "BULLET::::- Liquid armor - The fabric might also be treated with shear thickening fluid, a mix of polyethylene glycol and nanoscale glass particles. This mix would function like chainmail, flexible with low speed motion such as running, but hard and solid against high speed motion such as that of a bullet impact, preventing serious injury or death. The technology has already proven effective when combined with Kevlar armor.\n\nSection::::The ACU.:Sensory equipment.\n", "When a hand gun bullet strikes body armor, it is caught in a \"web\" of extremely strong fibers. These fibers absorb and disperse the impact energy that is transmitted to the bullet proof vest from the bullet causing the bullet to deform, otherwise known as a \"mushroom\". Additional energy is absorbed by each successive layer or material in bullet proof vests until such time as the bullet has been stopped.\n", "BULLET::::- UHMWPE plates are often referred to as being ten times stronger than steel. UHMWPE can be strewn into a thread when made, and woven into a fabric that competes in strength, flexibility, and weight to modern aramid fabrics, and is now a commonly used material in vests.\n\nPolymer\n", "In 2002, researchers at the U.S. Army Research Laboratory and University of Delaware began researching the use of liquid armor, or a shear-thickening fluid in body armor. Researchers demonstrated that high-strength fabrics such as Kevlar can be made more bulletproof and stab-resistant when impregnated with the fluid. The goal of the “liquid armor” technology is to create a new material that is low cost and lightweight while still offering equivalent or superior ballistic properties compared to current Kevlar fabric.\n", "BULLET::::- The combat shirt closely resembles the Marine Corps Combat Utility Uniform, but the portion covered by the Marine's body armor (such as the Outer Tactical Vest or Modular Tactical Vest) is not as highly reinforced due to the protective qualities of the vest, and to prevent discomfort. There are pockets only on the upper sleeve.\n\nBULLET::::- The combat trousers also closely resemble the utility uniform, but there is an additional calf-pocket to help distinguish it from non-FROG trousers.\n\nBULLET::::- The gloves are designed to be highly durable.\n", "Section::::Research.:Nanomaterials in ballistics.\n\nCurrently, there are a number of methods by which nanomaterials are being implemented into body armor production. The first, developed at University of Delaware is based on nanoparticles within the suit that become rigid enough to protect the wearer as soon as a kinetic energy threshold is surpassed. These coatings have been described as shear thickening fluids. These nano-infused fabrics have been licensed by BAE systems, but as of mid-2008, no products have been released based on this technology.\n", "After World War II, steel plates were soon replaced by vests made from synthetic fibre, in the 1950s, made of either boron carbide, silicon carbide, or aluminium oxide. They were issued to the crew of low-flying aircraft, such as the UH-1 and UC-123, during the Vietnam War. The synthetic fibre Kevlar was introduced in 1971, and most ballistic vests since the 1970s are based on kevlar, optionally with the addition of trauma plates to reduce the risk of blunt trauma injury. Such plates may be made of ceramic, metal (steel or titanium) or synthetic materials.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "The generation of armor developed in the 1970s through the National Institute of Justice incorporated layers of soft armor in the form of DuPont’s Kevlar fabric, which has since become synonymous with ballistic protection and a general term used for several similar (aramid-based) materials.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Buff coat an early form of ballistic vest, suitable for use against pistol balls, but not musket balls\n\nBULLET::::- Hauberk, an earlier form of body armor, used to defend against swords, knives, etc.\n", "Bulletproof vests work by dissipating the bullet's energy in another way; the vest's material, usually Aramid (Kevlar or Twaron), works by presenting a series of material layers which catch the bullet and spread its imparted force over a larger area, hopefully bringing the round to a stop before it can penetrate into the body. While the vest can prevent a bullet from penetrating, the wearer will still be affected by the kinetic energy of the bullet, which can produce serious internal injuries.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Ballistics\n\nBULLET::::- Internal ballistics\n\nBULLET::::- External ballistics\n\nBULLET::::- Table of handgun and rifle cartridges\n", "Using dimensionless analysis, Cuniff arrived at a relation connecting the V and the system parameters for textile-based body armors. Under the assumption that the energy of impact is dissipated in breaking the yarn, it was shown that\n\nHere, \n\nSection::::Performance standards.:Military testing.\n", "BULLET::::- The balaclava has a hinged face guard that lets the wearer pull down the face guard and expose his or her face without taking off a helmet to remove the whole balaclava.\n\nBULLET::::- The long-sleeve shirt has a mock neck, moisture-wicking, and antimicrobial properties.\n\nBULLET::::- The t-shirt has most of the same properties as the long-sleeve shirt.\n", "Section::::PPE by usage.:Combat.:Torso.\n\nA ballistic vest helps absorb the impact from firearm-fired projectiles and shrapnel from explosions, and is worn on the torso. Soft vests are made from many layers of woven or laminated fibers and can be capable of protecting the wearer from small caliber handgun and shotgun projectiles, and small fragments from explosives such as hand grenades. \n", "Additionally, as the hardness of the bullet core increases, so must the amount of ceramic plating used to stop penetration. Like in soft ballistics, a minimum ceramic material hardness of the bullet core is required to damage their respective hard core materials, however in armor-piercing rounds the bullet core is eroded rather than deformed.\n", "A ballistic vest helps absorb the impact from firearm-fired projectiles and shrapnel from explosions, and is worn on the torso. Soft vests are made from many layers of woven or laminated fibers and can be capable of protecting the wearer from small caliber handgun and shotgun projectiles, and small fragments from explosives such as hand grenades.\n", "Section::::Economic impact.\n\nSection::::Economic impact.:Economics of body armor.\n", "In 2004, Marvin Heemeyer used an \"ad hoc\" composite armour on his Komatsu D355A bulldozer (\"Killdozer\") used in a rampage in response to a dispute with the city he lived in over a zoning issue. The armour, at some places a foot thick, consisted of a layer of concrete sandwiched between layers of steel, successfully rendering the vehicle impervious to small arms fire and small explosives used by law enforcement in an attempt to stop the vehicle.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- AMAP\n\nBULLET::::- Chobham armour\n\nBULLET::::- Combination K\n\nBULLET::::- Compound armour\n\nBULLET::::- Kanchan armour\n\nBULLET::::- MEXAS\n\nBULLET::::- Plastic composite (disambiguation)\n", "BULLET::::- Mag Defender – a canvas made of polyester and carbon fibers whose highly resistant weave shields its wearer from magnetic fields\n\nBULLET::::- Steel – an \"urban armor\" featuring a nylon canvas which is woven with twisted cotton and stainless steel, making it highly resistant to cuts and tears.\n", "Newer armor issued by the United States armed forces to large numbers of troops includes the United States Army's Improved Outer Tactical Vest and the United States Marine Corps Modular Tactical Vest. All of these systems are designed with the vest intended to provide protection from fragments and pistol rounds. Hard ceramic plates, such as the Small Arms Protective Insert, as used with Interceptor Body Armor, are worn to protect the vital organs from higher level threats. These threats mostly take the form of high velocity and armor-piercing rifle rounds. Similar types of protective equipment have been adopted by modern armed forces over the world.\n", "There are stories of bullets sliding or bouncing off of metal trauma plates and injuring the wearer (e.g., shots deflected off the chest upwards and hitting the head from below). As of this writing, stories of such claims are unverified and unlikely, as the trauma plate is typically positioned behind the aramid fabric/panels of the vest, and the likeliness of a bullet passing through the fabric, ricocheting, and passing through more aramid fabric is very unlikely. However, to address this fear, many metal plates are encased in special materials designed to trap the bullet and/or its fragments.\n\nSection::::Materials.:Fabric.\n", "The second type of modern police shield is the bullet-resistant tactical shield. These shields are typically manufactured from advanced synthetics such as Kevlar and are designed to be bulletproof, or at least bullet resistant. Two types of shields are available:\n\nBULLET::::1. Light weight level IIIA shields that stop hand guns and submachine guns.\n\nBULLET::::2. Heavy Level III and IV shields that stop rifle rounds.\n", "BULLET::::- Upper Legs protector, a kind of kevlar short\n\nBULLET::::- Lower Extremity Body Armor (LEBA)\n\nBULLET::::- Combat diapers (for example the \"Tier 2 Pelvic Protection System\" that was issued to U.S. Marines in Afghanistan)\n\nSection::::Overview.:Ballistic plates.\n", "A modern equivalent may combine a ballistic vest with other items of protective clothing, such as a combat helmet. Vests intended for police and military use may also include ballistic shoulder and side protection armor components, and explosive ordnance disposal technicians wear heavy armor and helmets with face visors and spine protection.\n\nSection::::Protected areas.:Limbs.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02944	Why are clapperboards heavily used in filming?	It lets you sync the audio with the video. You sync the loud "clap" of the clapperboard to the instant the two parts touch each other, rather than trying to find some other cue to sync the two data files together.	[ "Occasionally, instead of preparing an actual slate, a voice slate will be announced (often by an actor in the scene) and then the actor will clap his hands to provide the synchronisation mark.\n", "Clapperboards have been essential to filmmaking since the earliest sound films because (until the advent of digital cinematography) visual and audio tracks were recorded on separate media by separate equipment.\n\nThe clapper (two sticks hinged together) was invented by F. W. Thring (father of actor Frank Thring), who was head of Efftee Studios in Melbourne, Australia. The clapboard with both the sticks and slate together was refined by Leon M. Leon (1903–1998) a pioneer sound engineer.\n", "Smart slates or digislates are electronic SMPTE time code versions with digitally displayed information, and in some productions created in the digital domain, electronically superimposed versions have supplanted physical clapperboards.\n\nSection::::Operation.\n\nThe slate typically includes the date, the production title, the name of the director, the name of the director of photography (DP) and the scene information — which follows two popular systems:\n\nBULLET::::1. American: scene number, camera angle and take number; e.g. \"scene 24, C, take 3\";\n", "The clapperboard combines a 'chalkboard slate' with a 'clapstick'. The slate displays the name of the production, the scene and \"take\" about to be performed, and similar information; an assistant holds the clapperboard so the slate is in view of the cameras, speaks out information for the benefit of the audio recording, then opens the clapstick and claps it shut.\n", "Sometimes a \"tail slate\" or end slate is filmed at the end of a take, during which the clapperboard is held upside-down. This is done when the clapperboard was not captured at the start of the take due to the camera being set up for the shot in such a way that the board cannot be captured, for example when a specific focus or frame is set up and cannot be altered until the take is complete. Tail slates are also commonly used when the director makes the decision that clapping a slate at the beginning of the scene would be distracting to the actor, such as when filming a highly emotional performance.\n", "A clapper board is generally used to identify all takes on a production, even takes that do not require synchronization, such as MOS takes, which have no sound. When a slate is used to mark an MOS take, the slate is held half open, with a hand blocking the sticks, or closed, with a hand over the sticks.\n\nSection::::Operation.:Operator.\n", "Traditional clapperboards consisted of a wooden slate with a hinged clapstick attached to its top. Modern clapperboards generally use a pair of wooden sticks atop either a whiteboard or a translucent acrylic glass slate (the latter being easily legible via the light coming through it from the scene about to be shot). The clapsticks traditionally have diagonally interleaved lines of black and white to ensure a clear visual of the clap in most lighting conditions. In recent years sticks with calibrated color stripes have become available.\n", "Clapperboard\n\nA clapperboard is a device used in filmmaking and video production to assist in synchronizing of picture and sound, and to designate and mark the various scenes and takes as they are filmed and audio-recorded.\n\nOther names include clapper, clapboard, clacker, slate, slate board, slapperboard, sync slate, time slate, sticks, board, smart slate, dumb slate and sound marker. When a movie's sound and picture are out of synchronization, this is known as lip flap.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The release of the Aretha Franklin 1972 concert film \"Amazing Grace\" was delayed for 46 years due to young Academy Award nominated director Sydney Pollack forgetting to use clapperboards, making the film impossible to edit until modern digital methods were invented.\n\nSection::::How they work.\n", "A verbal identification of the numbers, known either as \"voice slate\" or \"announcement\", occurs after sound has reached speed. At the same time or shortly thereafter, the camera will start running, and the clapperboard is then filmed briefly at the start of the 'take' and the clapsticks are clapped sharply as soon as the camera has reached sync speed. Specific procedures vary depending on the nature of the production (documentary, television, feature, commercial, etc.), and the dominant camera assisting regional conventions. \n", "The clapper loader (or 2nd AC) is generally responsible for the maintenance and operation of the clapperboard, while the script supervisor is responsible for determining which system will be used and what numbers a given take should have. While these are usually fairly obvious once a system has been agreed upon, the script supervisor is usually considered the final arbiter in the event of an unclear situation.\n\nSection::::Operation.:Alternatives.\n", "Section::::Commercial performance.\n", "Clapper (musical instrument)\n\nA clapper is a basic form of percussion instrument. It consists of two long solid pieces that are clapped together producing sound. A straightforward instrument to produce and play, they exist in many forms in many different cultures around the world. Clappers can take a number of forms and be made of a wide variety of material. Wood is most common, but metal and ivory have also been used. The plastic thundersticks that have recently come to be popular at sporting events can be considered a form of inflated plastic clapper.\n", "The shutting of the clapstick is easily identified on the visual track, and the sharp \"clap\" noise is easily identified on the separate audio track. The two tracks can later be precisely synchronised by matching the sound and movement. Since each take is identified on both the visual and audio tracks, segments of film are easily matched with segments of audio.\n\nSection::::Construction.\n", "Clapper\n\nClapper or Clappers may refer to:\n\nBULLET::::- Part of a bell (instrument)\n\nBULLET::::- Clapper bridge, an ancient form of bridge\n\nBULLET::::- The Clapper, a sound activated electrical switch\n\nBULLET::::- Clapper Post, urban postal service of Vienna (XVIII century)\n\nBULLET::::- A character from the video game \"\"\n\nBULLET::::- Clapperboard, used in film production to aid synchronizing audio and video and to identify different shots\n\nBULLET::::- Clapper (musical instrument), consisting of two pieces of wood struck together\n\nBULLET::::- Billy Clapper (born 1982), American basketball coach\n\nBULLET::::- Jack Clapper (born 1939), US pilot and Forward air control during the Vietnam War\n", "Soundboard (computer program)\n\nA soundboard is a computer program, Web application, or device, traditionally created in Adobe Flash that catalogues and plays many short soundbites and audio clips. Soundboards are self-contained, requiring no outside media player. In recent years soundboards have been made available in the form of mobile apps available on iPhone App Store and Google Play. In response to Adobe and web browser developers deprecating support for Flash, HTML5-based soundboards are now gaining popularity in recent years.\n", "Soundman Alex Christison reminisced about getting the sound right on the show: \"The main problem with \"All Creatures\" was that we are talking about the days before multi-mic radio microphones were available, so you couldn't just scatter personal mics around each actor and mix accordingly. We were also recording in mono audio, so I didn't even have another track to play with like the dramas do these days with split track. Basically I relied on my boom swinger to get my sound. We'd done away with the old sync lead by then, thank God, which meant I wasn't joined up to the camera; the boom mic would be connected to my Nagra mixer and would be recorded separately to picture. The clapperboard really did concentrate the minds in those days because it was quite a costly process if you got it wrong. Because the cast were so good, they would see the boom in the corner of their eye and know when it was going to be over their head — then they would start speaking.\" Separate crews were used for studio recording and exteriors.\n", "Clapboard houses may be found in most parts of the British Isles, and the style may be part of all types of traditional building, from cottages to windmills, shops to workshops, as well as many others.\n\nIn New Zealand, clapboard housing dominates buildings before 1960. Clapboard, with a corrugated iron roof, was found to be a cost-effective building style. After the big earthquakes of 1855 and 1931, wooden buildings were perceived as being less vulnerable to damage. Clapboard is always referred to as 'weatherboard' in New Zealand.\n", "Section::::Whip/Slapstick.\n\nIn music, a whip or slapstick is a clapper (percussion instrument) consisting of two wooden boards joined by a hinge at one end. When the boards are brought together rapidly, the sound produces a sound reminiscent of the crack of a whip. It is often used in modern orchestras, bands, and percussion ensembles.\n", "Clapper loaders have a very important role as practically the only people on set who directly and physically oversee the state of the undeveloped negative. The loader – the only person who actually handles the negative between the manufacturer and the laboratory – thus can easily render an entire day's work useless if the film is handled improperly. Additionally, the loader usually controls all records with regard to the film stock – from when it is received until when it is sent out to the lab; if this information is miscommunicated or missing, this too can destroy an expensive shoot. Furthermore, the loader usually has much more to do in addition to these tasks. Noted director of photography Oliver Stapleton has written on his website:\n", "Double-system recording requires that sound and picture be manually synchronized at the start of every \"take\" or camera run. This task was performed by the clapper slate. A clap sound on the recording is matched to the closed clapper image on the printed film, and thus the two recordings can be realigned into sync.\n", "Some modern clapboards are made up of shorter pieces of wood \"finger jointed\" together with an adhesive.\n\nSection::::Wood species.\n\nIn North America clapboards were historically made of split oak, pine and spruce. Modern clapboards are available in red cedar and pine.\n", "On steadicam and remote head or crane operation, the viewfinder and beam splitter is often removed because it's not needed. Then the full image is projected onto the video tap, making the image twice as bright, and hence better quality (lower noise). In these cases, even the camera operator uses a video monitor to operate the camera.\n", "Preset boards are not as prevalent since the advent of digital memory consoles, which can store scenes digitally, and are generally much less cumbersome but more expensive than preset boards. However, for small setups such as that of a DJ, they remain the board of choice for their simple to use interface and relative flexibility. Preset boards generally control only conventional lights; though some advanced hybrid consoles can be patched to operate intelligent lights in a round-about way by setting the control channels of the light to channels the preset board can control. However, this is not recommended since it is a cumbersome process.\n", "BULLET::::2. European: slate number, take number (with the letter of the camera shooting the slate if using multiple-camera setup); e.g. \"slate 256, take 3C\". Often, the European system will also include the scene number; however, a separate \"continuity sheet\" that maps the \"slate\" number to the scene number, camera angle and take number may be used if the scene number is not included on the slate. This is generally not as great a concern with short films, however.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01661	What's the difference between towns, boroughs, townships, etc.?	It all varies a lot by Country and State but the general rule is size. Size goes Village, Town, City, Metroplex and it is based on rough populations. Villages shift into Towns after a few hundred residents, Towns into Cities with around 1,000 residents, and Cities become Metroplexes when a City grows large enough to encompass several other towns or even cities. Metroplexes can grow to Tens of thousands of residents. Township is the same as a Town. It is just a more archaic term for it and some places prefer to use it. A borough varies greatly. In the State of Alaska it is the equivalent of a County in most of States, much like how Louisiana uses Parishes. In other places like the NYC Metroplex it is the name given to those towns and cities that were absorbed by the City as it grew but still wanted to keep some self identity. In other places it function similar to a Town but describes a very large one that is on the verge of being a City. Still other places use it to describe Suburbs.	[ "Boroughs and towns are subject to the Borough Code, and, unlike other forms of incorporated municipalities in Pennsylvania, are not classified according to population.\n\nIn addition, two boroughs, Quakertown and Weatherly, have adopted Optional Plans, which allow them to change their form of local government but do not significantly change those boroughs' relationships with the state.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of municipalities in Pennsylvania\n\nBULLET::::- List of cities in Pennsylvania\n\nBULLET::::- List of counties in Pennsylvania\n\nBULLET::::- List of Pennsylvania Municipalities and Counties with Home Rule Charters, Optional Charters, or Optional Plans\n\nBULLET::::- List of townships in Pennsylvania\n", "Of the 71 Home Rule Municipalities in Pennsylvania, 15 call themselves a \"borough\" in their home-rule charters (and one calls itself a \"town\"). For certain purposes, the state classifies these 15 and four others as boroughs (and the one as a first-class township). However, they do not operate under the Borough Code in Pennsylvania law; thus they are not included in this list (see \"List of Pennsylvania Municipalities and Counties with Home Rule Charters, Optional Charters, or Optional Plans\").\n", "List of municipalities in Pennsylvania\n\nThis is a comprehensive list of the 2,560 municipalities in Pennsylvania organized by population. Under Pennsylvania law, there are four types of incorporated municipalities in the Commonwealth. From those largest in population to smallest, and excluding the single town, Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania, which is administered as a borough save for one odd legal legacy, these are:\n\nBULLET::::- Cities (see cities list)\n\nBULLET::::- Boroughs (see boroughs list)\n\nBULLET::::- Townships (see )\n", "There is one exception to the types of municipalities in Pennsylvania: Bloomsburg was incorporated as a town in 1870 and is, officially, the only town in the state. In 1975, McCandless Township adopted a home-rule charter under the name of \"Town of McCandless\", but is, legally, still a first-class township.\n\nThe total of 56 cities, 958 boroughs, 93 first-class townships, 1,454 second-class townships, and one town (Bloomsburg) is 2,562 municipalities.\n\nSection::::Governance.:Politics.\n", "Local municipalities can be governed by statutes, which are enacted by the Pennsylvania General Assembly, and are specific to the type and class of municipality; by a home rule municipality, under a home rule charter, adopted by the municipality; or by an optional form of government, adopted by the municipality. The township is the basic population center or town element in Pennsylvania, ranging in size from small hamlets to small towns. These are given Class I or Class II powers, attributes, and responsibilities, and comprise the majority of communities in Pennsylvania. They are often characterized by lower population densities over a widespread region, within which small clusters of housing and mixed main road businesses occur. \n", "Township (Pennsylvania)\n\nA Pennsylvania township or township under Pennsylvania laws is one class (with two forms) of the three types of municipalities codified (and commonly found as towns, villages, or hamlets), in Pennsylvania—smaller municipal class legal entities providing local self-government functions in the majority of land areas in the more rural regions. Townships act as the lowest level municipal corporations of governance of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, a U.S. state of the United States of America. \n", "Each county is divided into municipal corporations, which can be one of four types: cities, boroughs, townships, and incorporated towns. The Commonwealth does not contain any unincorporated land that is not served by a local government. However, the US Postal Service has given names to places within townships that are not incorporated separately. For instance King of Prussia is a census-designated place, having no local government of its own. It is rather contained within Upper Merion Township, governed by Upper Merion's supervisors, and considered to be a part of the township.\n", "Towns in Pennsylvania, meaning municipal corporate entities with clearly delineated zoning, business districts, main streets and the ambiance a stranger passing through might describe as a town, do not have a legal foundation, but are colloquial word choices for municipalities from small cities down to older townships with well-defined centers.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of townships in Pennsylvania\n\nBULLET::::- List of cities in Pennsylvania\n\nBULLET::::- List of towns and boroughs in Pennsylvania\n\nBULLET::::- List of places in Pennsylvania\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nFor a survey article on the powers and organization of Pennsylvania government, see .\n", "List of towns and boroughs in Pennsylvania\n\nThis is a list of towns and boroughs in Pennsylvania. Listed first is the one incorporated town in Pennsylvania, Bloomsburg. Despite being officially recognized as a town, it is subject to the Pennsylvania Borough Code. A list of all 939 incorporated boroughs in the state follows.\n", "Neither village nor civil township is a type of civil division in the State of Colorado, although the cities of Cherry Hills Village and Greenwood Village and the towns of Log Lane Village, Mountain Village, and Snowmass Village have the word \"village\" at the end of their names. Several resort communities use the word \"village\" to describe their central business district.\n\nIn Colorado, a municipality may extend into multiple counties.\n\nSection::::Table.\n\nThe sortable table below lists each of the 271 active incorporated municipalities of the State of Colorado with the following information:\n\nBULLET::::1. The place name of the municipality\n", "Along with more densely populated boroughs and cities in the state, Pennsylvania townships are generally subordinate to or dependent upon the county level of government to one degree or another. Because of the way the political system progresses community growth and home rule politics under the commonwealth's constitution, it is common to have a township and borough of the same or similar name, generally abutting, and often with the 'town-like' borough partially or wholly surrounded by the remaining (and more rural original) township it has split off from.\n\nFor a general in depth overview of townships, see civil townships.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Keeping in mind that the geography and geology of Pennsylvania present many landscapes that are dominated by hills, streams, deep valleys, and mountain ridges, the list of municipalities of Pennsylvania range from higher numbers of entities with small populations in sparsely populated large regions, to those large in population, with less relative territory having denser populations. Pennsylvania's municipal classes are: townships, boroughs and cities. Most such subdivisions are entirely contained within a county. Some, like Bethlehem, cross county lines. It is not unusual for a borough to be adjacent to, and sometimes nearly surrounded by a township of the same name.\n", "BULLET::::- Connecticut Council of Small Towns — website\n\nBULLET::::- Township Officials of Illinois — website\n\nBULLET::::- Indiana Township Association — website\n\nBULLET::::- Michigan Townships Association — website\n\nBULLET::::- Minnesota Association of Townships — website\n\nBULLET::::- Association of Towns of New York — website\n\nBULLET::::- North Dakota Township Officers Association — website\n\nBULLET::::- Ohio Township Association — web pages\n\nBULLET::::- Pennsylvania Association of Township Supervisors — website\n\nBULLET::::- South Dakota Association of Towns and Townships\n\nBULLET::::- Wisconsin Towns Association — website\n", "Towns in the six New England states and townships in New Jersey and Pennsylvania are included in this category by the Census Bureau, despite the fact that they are legally municipal corporations, since their structure has no necessary relation to concentration of population, which is typical of municipalities elsewhere in the United States. In particular, towns in New England have considerably more power than most townships elsewhere and often function as legally equivalent to cities, typically exercising the full range of powers that are divided between counties, townships, and cities in other states.\n", "Section::::States with civil townships.\n\nAs of 2012, there were 16,360 organized town or township governments in the following 19 states:\n\nBULLET::::- Connecticut\n\nBULLET::::- Illinois\n\nBULLET::::- Indiana\n\nBULLET::::- Kansas\n\nBULLET::::- Maine\n\nBULLET::::- Massachusetts\n\nBULLET::::- Michigan\n\nBULLET::::- Minnesota\n\nBULLET::::- Missouri\n\nBULLET::::- Nebraska\n\nBULLET::::- New Hampshire\n\nBULLET::::- New Jersey\n\nBULLET::::- New York\n\nBULLET::::- North Dakota\n\nBULLET::::- Ohio\n\nBULLET::::- Pennsylvania\n\nBULLET::::- Rhode Island\n\nBULLET::::- South Dakota\n\nBULLET::::- Vermont\n\nBULLET::::- Wisconsin\n\nSection::::States without civil townships.\n\nThere were 31 states without organized town or township governments as of 2012:\n\nBULLET::::- Alabama\n\nBULLET::::- Alaska\n\nBULLET::::- Arizona\n\nBULLET::::- Arkansas\n\nBULLET::::- California\n\nBULLET::::- Colorado\n\nBULLET::::- Delaware\n\nBULLET::::- Florida\n", "For a historical example in New Hampshire, see Plantation number four.\n\nSection::::Other types of municipalities in New England.:Boroughs and villages.\n\nPerhaps because the towns themselves are such strong entities, most areas of New England never developed municipal forms based on the compact populated place concept. This contrasts with states with civil townships, which typically have extensive networks of villages or boroughs that carve out or overlay the townships.\n", "This categorization includes governmental units officially designated as \"towns\" in the New England states, New York, and Wisconsin, some plantations in Maine and locations in New Hampshire. In Minnesota, the terms town and township are used interchangeably with regard to township governments. Although towns in the six New England states and New York, and townships in New Jersey and Pennsylvania, are legally termed municipal corporations, perform municipal-type functions, and frequently serve densely populated urban areas, they have no necessary relation to concentration of population, and are thus counted for census purposes as town or township governments. Even in states beyond New England, townships often serve urbanized areas and provide municipal services typically provided by incorporated municipalities.\n", "BULLET::::- The New England states have a similar concept of local government, but combine the municipal and area government forms into a town; this is the locus of the town meeting. These states are Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island and Vermont. New York also has incorporated townships, called towns, although they have fewer powers than New England towns.\n\nBULLET::::- Some states formerly used township governments, or have some vestige of named townships. These include Arkansas, California, Iowa, Nevada, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, and Washington.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Organization website for the National Association of Towns and Townships.\n", "Under Pennsylvania law, there are five types of incorporated municipalities: cities, home rule municipalities, boroughs, townships, and towns. The following municipalities, boroughs and townships are located in Penns Valley:\n\nSection::::Municipalities.:Boroughs.\n\nBULLET::::- Centre Hall\n\nBULLET::::- Millheim\n\nSection::::Municipalities.:Townships.\n\nBULLET::::- Gregg Township\n\nBULLET::::- Haines Township\n\nBULLET::::- Miles Township\n\nBULLET::::- Penn Township\n\nBULLET::::- Potter Township\n\nSection::::Municipalities.:Census-designated places.\n\nCensus-designated places are geographical areas designated by the U.S. Census Bureau for the purposes of compiling demographic data. They are not actual jurisdictions under Pennsylvania law. Other unincorporated communities, such as villages, may be listed here as well.\n\nBULLET::::- Aaronsburg\n\nBULLET::::- Coburn\n\nBULLET::::- Madisonburg\n\nBULLET::::- Rebersburg\n", "In Pennsylvania, only one municipality is incorporated as a \"town\": Bloomsburg. Most of the rest of the state is incorporated as townships (there are also boroughs and cities), which function in much the same way as the towns of New York or New England, although they may have different forms of government.\n\nSection::::By country.:United States.:Texas.\n\nIn Texas, although some municipalities refer to themselves as \"towns\" or \"villages\" (to market themselves as an attractive place to live), these names have no specific designation in Texas law; legally all incorporated places are considered cities.\n\nSection::::By country.:United States.:Utah.\n", "Bloomsburg is the Commonwealth's only incorporated town; McCandless Township in Allegheny County calls itself a town, but it officially remains a township with a home rule charter.\n", "Finally, villages and census-designated places are a part of the local community. Although they are not recognized local governments, they often refer to specific areas of township or other municipality and are often more familiar to people than the incorporated municipality. That can cause confusion to people who live outside the area, who are unfamiliar with the local municipal structure.\n\nSection::::County.\n", "Townships in Pennsylvania were the first form of land grants established by William Penn, and are generally large in area with a sparse population centered on one or a few clusters of homes and a handful of businesses. They have existed in one form or another since the Province of Pennsylvania was established. They were usually large tracts of land given to a person, a family, or a group of people by Penn or his heirs.\n", "Municipalities in New Jersey may be classified into one of five \"types\", of which townships are one. Townships may retain the township \"form\" of government, or adopt one of the modern forms of government, which are not restricted to a particular type of municipality. In New Jersey, a municipality's name (such as X Township) is not necessarily an indication of its form of government.\n", "Civil townships in these states are generally not incorporated, and nearby cities may annex land in adjoining townships with relative ease. In Michigan, general law townships are corporate entities (e.g. they can be the subject of lawsuits), and some can become reformulated as charter townships, a status intended to protect against annexation from nearby municipalities and which grants the township some home rule powers similar to cities. In Wisconsin, civil townships are known as \"towns\" rather than townships, but they function essentially the same as in neighboring states. In Minnesota, state statute refers to such entities as towns yet requires them to have a name in the form \"\"Name\" Township\". In both documents and conversation, \"town\" and \"township\" are used interchangeably. Minnesota townships can be either Non-Urban or Urban (giving the township government greater power), but this is not reflected in the township's name. In Ohio, a city or village is overlaid onto a township unless it withdraws by establishing a paper township. Where the paper township does not extend to the city limits, property owners pay taxes for both the township and municipality, though these overlaps are sometimes overlooked by mistake. Ten other states also allow townships and municipalities to overlap.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-18758	How does your body figure out how to use a painkiller?	It does not . It will be circulated trough your body in the blood and will have a effect everywhere. Topical pain relief or injection of local anesthetic will primary have a effect on where they are applied.	[ "BULLET::::- It may allow other indications for the drug to be identified. Discovery that sildenafil inhibits phosphodiesterase-5 (PDE-5) proteins, for example, enabled this drug to be repurposed for pulmonary arterial hypertension treatment, since PDE-5 is expressed in pulmonary hypertensive lungs.\n\nSection::::How mechanism of action is determined.\n\nSection::::How mechanism of action is determined.:Microscopy-based methods.\n", "Section::::Pharmacogenomics.\n", "Section::::Mechanism of activation.\n", "Currently, the availability of drugs proven to treat neuropathic pain is limited and varies widely from patient to patient. Many developed drugs have either been discovered by accident or by observation. Some past treatments include opiates like poppy extract, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs like salicylic acid, and local anesthetics like cocaine. Other recent treatments consist of antidepressants and anticonvulsants, although no substantial research on the actual mechanism of these treatments has been performed. However, patients respond to these treatments differently, possibly because of gender differences or genetic backgrounds. Therefore, researchers have come to realize that no one drug or one class of drugs will reduce all pain. Research is now focusing on the underlying mechanisms involved in pain perception and how it can go wrong in order to develop an appropriate drug for patients afflicted with neuropathic pain.\n", "The WHO guidelines recommend prompt oral administration of drugs (\"by the mouth\") when pain occurs, starting, if the patient is not in severe pain, with non-opioid drugs such as paracetamol (acetaminophen) or aspirin, with or without \"adjuvants\" such as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) including COX-2 inhibitors. Then, if complete pain relief is not achieved or disease progression necessitates more aggressive treatment, a weak opioid such as codeine, dihydrocodeine or tramadol is added to the existing non-opioid regime. If this is or becomes insufficient, a weak opioid is replaced by a strong opioid, such as morphine, diamorphine, fentanyl, buprenorphine, oxymorphone, oxycodone, or hydromorphone, while continuing the non-opioid therapy, escalating opioid dose until the patient is pain free or at the maximum possible relief without intolerable side effects. If the initial presentation is severe pain, this stepping process should be skipped and a strong opioid should be started immediately in combination with a non-opioid analgesic.\n", "Tolerance to opioids is attenuated by a number of substances, including:\n\nBULLET::::- calcium channel blockers\n\nBULLET::::- intrathecal magnesium and zinc\n\nBULLET::::- NMDA antagonists, such as dextromethorphan, ketamine, and memantine.\n\nBULLET::::- cholecystokinin antagonists, such as proglumide\n\nBULLET::::- Newer agents such as the phosphodiesterase inhibitor ibudilast have also been researched for this application.\n", "Section::::Mechanism of action.\n", "Section::::Development.:Painkiller addiction.\n", "BULLET::::- What, if anything, makes the pain lessen?\n\nBULLET::::- What, if anything, makes the pain increase?\n\nBULLET::::- When did the pain start?\n\nAfter asking questions such as these, the health care provider will have a description of the pain. Pain management will then be used to address that pain.\n\nSection::::Adverse effects.\n\nThere are many types of pain management, and each of them have their own benefits, drawbacks, and limits.\n", "The most common form of patient-controlled analgesia is self-administration of oral over-the-counter or prescription painkillers. For example, if a headache does not resolve with a small dose of an oral analgesic, more may be taken. As pain is a combination of tissue damage and emotional state, being in control means reducing the emotional component of pain.\n\nSection::::Routes of administration.:Intravenous.\n", "Section::::Deep brain stimulation.\n\nOngoing electrical stimulation of structures deep within the brain – the periaqueductal gray and periventricular gray for nociceptive pain, and the internal capsule, ventral posterolateral nucleus and ventral posteromedial nucleus for neuropathic pain – has produced impressive results with some patients but results vary and appropriate patient selection is important. One study of seventeen patients with intractable cancer pain found that thirteen were virtually painless and only four required opioid analgesics on release from hospital after the intervention. Most ultimately did resort to opioids, usually in the last few weeks of life.\n\nSection::::Hypophysectomy.\n", "Opioid-induced hyperalgesia may develop as a result of long-term opioid use in the treatment of chronic pain. Various studies of humans and animals have demonstrated that primary or secondary hyperalgesia can develop in response to both chronic and acute exposure to opioids. This side effect can be severe enough to warrant discontinuation of opioid treatment.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nHyperalgesia is induced by platelet-activating factor (PAF) which comes about in an inflammatory or an allergic response. This seems to occur via immune cells interacting with the peripheral nervous system and releasing pain-producing chemicals (cytokines and chemokines).\n", "Section::::Clinical significance and ongoing research.:Pain management.\n", "Section::::Molecular neuropharmacology.\n\nMolecular neuropharmacology involves the study of neurons and their neurochemical interactions, and receptors on neurons, with the goal of developing new drugs that will treat neurological disorders such as pain, neurodegenerative diseases, and psychological disorders (also known in this case as neuropsychopharmacology). There are a few technical words that must be defined when relating neurotransmission to receptor action:\n\nBULLET::::1. Agonist – a molecule that binds to a receptor protein and activates that receptor\n\nBULLET::::2. Competitive antagonist – a molecule that binds to the same site on the receptor protein as the agonist, preventing activation of the receptor\n", "The guideline directs that medications should be given at regular intervals (\"by the clock\") so that continuous pain relief occurs, and (\"by the individual\") dosing by actual relief of pain rather than fixed dosing guidelines. It recognizes that breakthrough pain may occur and directs immediate rescue doses be provided.\n", "BULLET::::- Dendritic cells: suppresses their migration to lymph nodes as well as their release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and expression of MHC class II proteins.\n\nBULLET::::- Neurons: act through their target G protein–coupled receptors to inhibit pain receptors (i.e. TRPV1, TRPV3, TRPV4, TRPA1, TNFR, NMDAR, and/or mGluR) on neurons in the peripheral nervous system, dorsal root ganglia, and/or spinal cord thereby suppressing pain perception.\n", "Section::::Drug induced.\n\nNeural adaptation can occur for other than natural means. Antidepressant drugs, such as those that cause down regulation of β-adrenergic receptors, can cause rapid neural adaptations in the brain. By creating a quick adaptation in the regulation of these receptors, it is possible for drugs to reduce the effects of stress on those taking the medication.\n\nSection::::Post-injury.\n", "One area of the brain involved in reduction of pain sensation is the periaqueductal gray matter that surrounds the third ventricle and the cerebral aqueduct of the ventricular system. Stimulation of this area produces analgesia (but not total numbing) by activating descending pathways that directly and indirectly inhibit nociceptors in the laminae of the spinal cord. Descending pathways also activate opioid receptor-containing parts of the spinal cord.\n", "Not all pain yields completely to classic analgesics, and drugs that are not traditionally considered analgesics, but which reduce pain in some cases, such as steroids or bisphosphonates, may be employed concurrently with analgesics at any stage. Tricyclic antidepressants, class I antiarrhythmics, or anticonvulsants are the drugs of choice for neuropathic pain. Up to 90 percent of cancer patients, immediately preceding death, use such adjuvants. Many adjuvants carry a significant risk of serious complications.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nThe ladder was developed by a team that included Jan Stjernswärd and Mark Swerdlow.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Opioid comparison, an example of an equianalgesic chart\n", "BULLET::::- Opioids – This class of drugs are used to suppress pain by acting on various opioid receptors, primarily Mu, in within the nervous system. They will cause some dose dependent cardiopulmonary suppression. They have addictive properties and have led to the Opioid epidemic. When used for procedural sedation these are started at low dose then titrated to reach the desired effect.\n", "Under normal conditions, pain conduction begins with some noxious signal followed by an action potential carried by nociceptive (pain sensing) afferent neurons, which elicit excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSP) in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. That message is then relayed to the cerebral cortex, where we translate those EPSPs into \"pain.\" Since the discovery of astrocytic influence, our understanding of the conduction of pain has been dramatically complicated. Pain processing is no longer seen as a repetitive relay of signals from body to brain, but as a complex system that can be up- and down-regulated by a number of different factors. One factor at the forefront of recent research is in the pain-potentiating synapse located in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord and the role of astrocytes in encapsulating these synapses. Garrison and co-workers were the first to suggest association when they found a correlation between astrocyte hypertrophy in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord and hypersensitivity to pain after peripheral nerve injury, typically considered an indicator of glial activation after injury. Astrocytes detect neuronal activity and can release chemical transmitters, which in turn control synaptic activity. In the past, hyperalgesia was thought to be modulated by the release of substance P and excitatory amino acids (EAA), such as glutamate, from the presynaptic afferent nerve terminals in the spinal cord dorsal horn. Subsequent activation of AMPA (α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid), NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartate) and kainate subtypes of ionotropic glutamate receptors follows. It is the activation of these receptors that potentiates the pain signal up the spinal cord. This idea, although true, is an oversimplification of pain transduction. A litany of other neurotransmitter and neuromodulators, such as calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), adenosine triphosphate (ATP), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), somatostatin, vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), galanin, and vasopressin are all synthesized and released in response to noxious stimuli. In addition to each of these regulatory factors, several other interactions between pain-transmitting neurons and other neurons in the dorsal horn have added impact on pain pathways.\n", "BULLET::::- Nonpharmacologic\n", "The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends a \"pain ladder\" for managing analgesia. It was first described for use in cancer pain, but it can be used by medical professionals as a general principle when dealing with analgesia for any type of pain. In the treatment of chronic pain, whether due to malignant or benign processes, the three-step WHO Analgesic Ladder provides guidelines for selecting the kind and stepping up the amount of analgesia. The exact medications recommended will vary with the country and the individual treatment center, but the following gives an example of the WHO approach to treating chronic pain with medications. If, at any point, treatment fails to provide adequate pain relief, then the doctor and patient move onto the next step.\n", "Nociceptive pathways are pathways in the brain that send and receive pain signals and are responsible for how we perceive pain. They develop before a baby is born and continue to develop during the critical period of development. It was once thought that because infants’ nociceptive pathways in the brain were still developing, they could not feel pain. However, infants \"can\" feel pain and infant surgeries providing early pain experiences can alter the brain’s tolerance for pain later so by increasing number of A fibers and C fibers—two types of pain receptors—located in the area where injury occurred and by reducing pain tolerance in the areas where incision has occurred. This reduction in pain tolerance is seen in male rats even when they are adolescents. In those rats, the area of their brain where an incision was made as an infant remains hypersensitive to pain thereafter. This effect was not seen as prominently in female rats.\n", "Section::::Phosphinic peptides.:Drug design of RXPA 380.\n" ]	[ "Your body figures out how to use a painkiller.", "The body consciously applies a painkiller to the area in pain." ]	[ "Your body does not figure out how to use a painkiller, rather, it is circulated through your body and has an effect everywhere.", "The painkiller circulates through the blood and has an effect everywhere." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Your body figures out how to use a painkiller.", "The body consciously applies a painkiller to the area in pain." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Your body does not figure out how to use a painkiller, rather, it is circulated through your body and has an effect everywhere.", "The painkiller circulates through the blood and has an effect everywhere." ]
2018-04677	Why do electric companies usually charge their customers more to use renewable energy, rather than fossil fuels?	It's more expensive to install these new things than to just keep reusing the existing infrastructure that uses fossil fuels. Additionally since electric companies are regulated by the state (usually), there'd be political back lash if people that kept using fossil fuels were believing they were subsidizing green energy, so this may be a contributing factor.	[ "Compliance markets are created by a policy that exists in 29 U.S. states, plus the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico, called Renewable Portfolio Standard. In these states, the electric companies are required to supply a certain percent of their electricity from renewable generators by a specified year. For example, in California the law is 33% renewable by 2020, whereas New York has a 24% requirement by 2013. Electric utilities in these states demonstrate compliance with their requirements by purchasing RECs; in the California example, the electric companies would need to hold RECs equivalent to 33% of their electricity sales.\n", "In states with a Renewable Portfolio Standard, a RECs purchase enables the utility company to meet its minimum renewable electricity percentage without having to install that renewable generating capacity itself, regardless of the source of generating renewable energy. By analogy, in the EPA cap and trade program, a \"clean\" utility in one state can sell its NOx credits to a \"dirty\" utility in another state that would otherwise have to install additional smokestack scrubbers.\n", "In a broad stroke, Renewable Energy Payments, sometimes known as a Feed-in Tariff place obligations on utility companies to buy electricity from renewable energy sources, often small, local companies, for a fixed period of time. The underlying premise being that with fixed payments the once volatile renewable energy projects now become lendable and attractive for financing, thus stimulating growth and innovation.\n", "When generating renewable energy and feeding it back into the grid (in participating countries such as the US and Germany), producing households are typically paid at least the full standard electricity rate by their utility and are also given separate renewable energy credits that they can then sell to their utility, additionally (utilities are interested in buying these renewable energy credits because it allows them to claim that they produce renewable energy). In some special cases, producing households may be paid up to four times the standard electricity rate, but this is not common.\n", "The United States has inconsistent energy generation policies across its 50 states. State energy policies and laws may vary significantly with location. Some states have imposed requirements on utilities that a certain percentage of total power generation be from renewable sources. For this purpose, renewable sources include wind, hydroelectric, and solar power whether from large or microgeneration projects. Further, in some areas transferrable \"renewable source energy\" credits are needed by power companies to meet these mandates. As a result, in some portions of the United States, power companies will pay a portion of the cost of renewable source microgeneration projects in their service areas. These rebates are in addition to any Federal or State renewable-energy income-tax credits that may be applicable. In other areas, such rebates may differ or may not be available.\n", "From 2006-14, US households received more than $18 billion in federal income tax credits for weatherizing their homes, installing solar panels, buying hybrid and electric vehicles, and other \"clean energy\" investments. These tax expenditures went predominantly to higher-income Americans. The bottom three income quintiles received about 10% of all credits, while the top quintile received about 60%. The most extreme is the program aimed at electric vehicles, where the top income quintile received about 90% of all credits. Market mechanisms have less skewed distributional effects.\n", "The generating source mix of a particular utility will thus have a substantial effect on their electricity pricing. Electric utilities that have a high percentage of hydroelectricity will tend to have lower prices, while those with a large amount of older coal-fired power plants will have higher electricity prices. Recently the LCOE of solar photovoltaic technology has dropped substantially. In the U.S., 70% of current coal-fired power plants run at a higher cost than new renewable energy technologies (excluding hydro) and by 2030 all of them will be uneconomic. In the rest of the world 42% of coal-fired power plants were operating at a loss in 2019.\n", "Section::::Current global studies.:Lazard (2018).\n\nIn November, 2018, Lazard found that not only are utility-scale solar and wind cheaper than fossil fuels, \"[i]n some scenarios, alternative energy costs have decreased to the point that they are now at or below the marginal cost of conventional generation.\" \n", "BULLET::::- Certain types of load control allow the power company to turn loads off remotely if insufficient power is available. In France large users such as CERN cut power usage as required by the System Operator - EDF under the encouragement of the EJP tariff.\n\nBULLET::::- Energy demand management refers to incentives to adjust use of electricity, such as higher rates during peak hours.\n\nBULLET::::- Real-time variable electricity pricing can encourage users to adjust usage to take advantage of periods when power is cheaply available and avoid periods when it is more scarce and expensive.\n", "The generation of renewable energy can often be connected at the distribution level, instead of the transmission grids, which means that DSO's can manage the flows and distribute power locally. This brings new opportunity for DSO's to expand their market by selling energy directly to the consumer. Simultaneously, this is challenging the utilities producing fossil fuels who already are trapped by high costs of aging assets. Stricter regulations for producing traditional energy resources from the government increases the difficulty of stay in business and increases the pressure on traditional energy companies to make the shift to renewable energy sources. An example of a utility changing business model to produce more renewable energy is the Norwegian-based company, Equinor, which was a state-owned oil company which now are heavily investing in renewable energy.\n", "These are not minor factors but very significantly affect all responsible power decisions:\n\nBULLET::::- Comparisons of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions show coal, for instance, to be radically higher in terms of GHGs than any alternative. \"Accordingly, in the analysis below, carbon captured coal is generally treated as a separate source rather than being averaged in with other coal.\"\n\nBULLET::::- Other environmental concerns with electricity generation include acid rain, ocean acidification and effect of coal extraction on watersheds.\n", "Throughout the country, more than half of all U.S. electricity customers now have an option to purchase some type of green power product from a retail electricity provider. Roughly one-quarter of the nation's utilities offer green power programs to customers, and voluntary retail sales of renewable energy in the United States totaled more than 12 billion kilowatt-hours in 2006, a 40% increase over the previous year.\n", "For Oregon’s three largest utilities (Portland General Electric (PGE), PacifiCorp and the Eugene Water and Electric Board), the standard starts at 5% in 2011, increases to 15% in 2015, 20% in 2020, and 25% in 2025. Other electric utilities in the state, depending on size, have standards of 5% or 10% in 2025. In 2016, the target was raised to 50%, as two companies must supply 50% of Oregon's power as renewable by 2040.\n\nSection::::Renewable energy certificates (RECs).:Policy by jurisdiction.:State.:Texas.\n", "Renewable Energy Payments\n\nRenewable Energy Payments are a competitive alternative to Renewable Energy Credits (REC's).\n\nAlthough the intent with both methods is the same, to stimulate growth in the alternative and renewable energy space, REP's have proven to offer benefits to local jobs, businesses and economies while making the growth fundable and lendable by financial institutions. \n", "Under the original policy, rooftop solar customers could net credits annually at the retail rate which is $.17 per kilowatt hour in New Hampshire. Customers could \"bank them\" and use them later. Utilities propose to eliminate this provision, instead crediting customers for the excess energy they generate, along with a transmission credit.\n", "Energy efficiency and renewable energy are twin pillars of a sustainable energy future. However, there is little linking of these pillars despite their potential synergies. The more efficiently energy services are delivered, the faster renewable energy can become an effective and significant contributor of primary energy. The more energy is obtained from renewable sources, the less fossil fuel energy is required to provide that same energy demand. This linkage of renewable energy with energy efficiency relies in part on the electrical energy efficiency benefits of copper.\n", "Section::::Policy and promotion.:Initiatives.:Renewable portfolio standards.\n\nA Renewable Portfolio Standard refers to legislation that creates a market in tradeable renewable or green electricity certificates. Electricity distributors or wholesaler purchasers of electricity are required to source a specified percentage of their electricity (portfolio) from renewable generation sources. Liable entities that fall short of their quota can purchase certificates from accredited suppliers who have generated renewable electricity and obtained and registered certificates to sell on that market.\n\nSection::::Renewable energy organizations.\n", "In some countries such as the Netherlands, electricity companies guarantee to buy an equal amount of 'green power' as is being used by their green power customers. The Dutch government exempts green power from pollution taxes, which means green power is hardly any more expensive than other power.\n\nSection::::Purchasing green electricity.:Green energy and labeling by region.\n\nSection::::Purchasing green electricity.:Green energy and labeling by region.:European Union.\n", "According to the State of Michigan, as of March 4, 2013 \"progress toward the first compliance year in 2012 and the 10 percent renewable energy standard in 2015 is going smoothly. Michigan’s electric providers are on track to meet the 10 percent renewable energy requirement. The renewable energy standard is resulting in the development of new renewable capacity and can be credited with the development of over 1,000 MW of new renewable energy projects becoming commercially operational since the Act became law. The weighted average price of renewable energy contracts is $82.54 per MWh which is less than forecasted in REPs.\"\n", "NV Energy, which is the largest public utility in Nevada, announced in April 2017 that it would exceed Nevada’s renewable energy mandate. The current law requires utilities to get 25 percent of their power from renewable sources by 2025. As of 2017, the state gets around 23 percent of its electricity from renewables such as wind, solar and geothermal. However, some legislators are introducing bills to require utilities to generate more of their power from renewables.\n", "In the United States, spot prices for SRECs generally decreased from 2010 to 2014. In New Jersey, the spot price for a 2010 SREC was $665.04 in July 2010 and about $160 in May 2014 for SRECs generated in different years. In Delaware, the spot price for a 2010 SREC was $255 in July 2010 and about $50 in May 2014 for SRECs generated in different years. Rates for 2015 to 2017 RECS purchased have averaged between $0.15—$0.045 per kWh produced.\n", "Mandatory renewable energy targets are part of government legislated schemes which require electricity retailers to source specific proportions of total electricity sales from renewable energy sources according to a fixed time frame. The purpose of these schemes is to promote renewable energy and reduce dependency on fossil fuels. If this results in an additional cost of electricity, the additional cost is distributed across most customers by increases in other tariffs. The cost of this measure is therefore not funded by government budgets, except for costs of establishing and monitoring the scheme and any audit and enforcement actions. As the cost of renewable energy has become cheaper than other sources, meeting and exceeding a renewable energy target will also reduce the cost of electricity to consumers.\n", "A means to address a part of the external costs of fossil fuel generation is carbon pricing — the method most favored by economics for reducing global-warming emissions. Carbon pricing charges those who emit carbon dioxide (CO) for their emissions. That charge, called a 'carbon price', is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO into the atmosphere. Carbon pricing usually takes the form of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit (also called \"allowances\").\n", "The Energy Policy Act of 2005 requires all public electric utilities to facilitate net metering. This allows homes and businesses performing distributed generation to pay only the net cost of electricity from the grid: electricity used minus electricity produced locally and sent back into the grid. For intermittent renewable energy sources this effectively uses the grid as a battery to smooth over lulls and fill in production gaps.\n\nSome jurisdictions go one step further and have instituted feed-in tariff, which allows any power customer to actually make money by producing more renewable energy than is consumed locally.\n", "In January 2018, the Massachusetts Department of Public Utilities (DPU) approved demand charges for Eversource utility's net metering customers. DPU also got rid of optional time-of-use rates for residential customers. Among renewable and clean energy advocates, demand charges are \"very controversial.\" DPU's decision has set the stage for intense debate over rate design. Eversource had argued it faced \"displaced distribution revenues\" of more than $8 million per year that should be collected from net-metered customers. The DPU agreed, saying \"the companies have demonstrated a cost shift from net metering to non-net metering customers by identifying costs directly imposed by net metering facilities on the distribution system.\"\n" ]	[ "Renewable should be cheaper." ]	[ "Fossil fuels are cheaper because it uses existing infrastructure. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Renewable should be cheaper." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Fossil fuels are cheaper because it uses existing infrastructure. " ]
2018-19030	Exactly what is a "high endurance" SD card?	High endurance means that it supports more write cycles, usually 4000. That translates into longer warrantee coverage. Actually SD memory "wears out" pretty quickly, due to electrical factors, not mechanical ones. Most high endurance parts use Tri-level cells (TLC). Each cell stores three bits of information. Better parts using MLC (two-level cells) can last 10K cycles, but of course you get 2/3 as much storage.	[ "The Mark 8 Mod 1 SDV has an endurance of about eight to 12 hours, giving it a range of with a diving team or without. The main limiting factor on endurance is not batteries or air for the SEALs, but water temperature: humans can only spend so much time in cold water, even with wetsuits, before their blood pressure drops and they become dehydrated from losing blood volume and body fluids, respectively.\n\nSection::::Design.:Mark 9 SDV.\n", "During transfer it may be in the range of 66–330 mW (20–100 mA at a supply voltage of 3.3 V). Specifications from TwinMos technologies list a maximum of 149 mW (45 mA) during transfer. Toshiba lists 264–330 mW (80–100 mA). Standby current is much lower, less than 0.2 mA for one 2006 microSD card. If there is data transfer for significant periods, battery life may be reduced noticeably (smartphones typically have batteries of capacity around 6 Wh (Samsung Galaxy S2, 1650 mAh @ 3.7 V)).\n", "After determining that the SD card supports it, the host device can also command the SD card to switch to a higher transfer speed. Until determining the card's capabilities, the host device should not use a clock speed faster than 400 kHz. SD cards other than SDIO (see below) have a \"Default Speed\" clock rate of 25 MHz. The host device is not required to use the maximum clock speed that the card supports. It may operate at less than the maximum clock speed to conserve power. Between commands, the host device can stop the clock entirely.\n\nSection::::Technical details.:Interface.:Achieving higher card speeds.\n", "Modern UHS-II cards can consume up to 2.88 W, if the host device supports bus speed mode SDR104 or UHS-II. Minimum power consumption in the case of a UHS-II host is 720 mW.\n\nSection::::Storage capacity and compatibilities.\n\nAll SD cards let the host device determine how much information the card can hold, and the specification of each SD family gives the host device a guarantee of the maximum capacity a compliant card reports.\n", "Section::::Speed.:Real-world performance.\n\nIn applications that require sustained write throughput, such as video recording, the device might not perform satisfactorily if the SD card's class rating falls below a particular speed. For example, a high-definition camcorder may require a card of not less than Class 6, suffering dropouts or corrupted video if a slower card is used. Digital cameras with slow cards may take a noticeable time after taking a photograph before being ready for the next, while the camera writes the first picture.\n", "In February 2017, the SD Association introduced UHS-III, doubling the fastest SD memory card transfer rate up to 624 MB/s. UHS-III faster speeds help move large amounts of data generated by data-intense Gbit/s wireless communication, 360-degree cameras, drones, 3D, 4K and 8K videos recorded on SDXC and SDHC memory cards.\n", "The newer families of SD card improve card speed by increasing the bus rate (the frequency of the clock signal that strobes information into and out of the card). Whatever the bus rate, the card can signal to the host that it is \"busy\" until a read or a write operation is complete. Compliance with a higher speed rating is a guarantee that the card limits its use of the \"busy\" indication.\n\nSection::::Speed.:Bus.\n\nSection::::Speed.:Bus.:Ultra High Speed (UHS).\n\nThe Ultra High Speed (UHS) bus is available on some SDHC and SDXC cards. The following ultra-high speeds are specified:\n", "The Secure Digital eXtended Capacity (SDXC) format, announced in January 2009 and defined in version 3.01 of the SD specification, supports cards up to 2 TiB (2199023255552 bytes), compared to a limit of 32 GiB for SDHC cards in the SD 2.0 specification. SDXC adopts Microsoft's exFAT file system as a mandatory feature.\n\nVersion 3.01 also introduced the Ultra High Speed (UHS) bus for both SDHC and SDXC cards, with interface speeds from 50 MB/s to 104 MB/s for four-bit UHS-I bus.\n", "The SD Association defines standard speed classes for SDHC/SDXC cards indicating minimum performance (minimum serial data writing speed). Both read and write speeds must exceed the specified value. The specification defines these classes in terms of performance curves that translate into the following minimum read-write performance levels on an empty card and suitability for different applications:\n\nThe SD Association defines three types of Speed Class ratings: the original Speed Class, UHS Speed Class, and Video Speed Class.\n\nSection::::Speed.:Class.:Speed Class.\n", "Many personal computers of all types, including tablets and mobile phones, use SD cards, either through built-in slots or through an active electronic adapter. Adapters exist for the PC card, ExpressBus, USB, FireWire, and the parallel printer port. Active adapters also let SD cards be used in devices designed for other formats, such as CompactFlash. The FlashPath adapter lets SD cards be used in a floppy disk drive.\n\nSection::::Markets.:Counterfeits.\n\nCommonly found on the market are mislabeled or counterfeit Secure Digital cards that report a fake capacity or run slower than labeled.\n", "With early SD cards, a few card manufacturers specified the speed as a \"times\" (\"×\") rating, which compared the average speed of reading data to that of the original CD-ROM drive. This was superseded by the Speed Class Rating, which guarantees a minimum rate at which data can be written to the card.\n", "BULLET::::- Directly derived from the Smart Media card. Thus, has no wear leveling controller. May have a shorter life span than comparable cards with FTL wear levelers \"if\" the file system used does not take into account wear leveling.\n\nBULLET::::- Generally more expensive than other memory card types. , 2 GiB xD cards' retail prices are approximately three times those of same-capacity SD cards.\n\nBULLET::::- Many newer Olympus and Fujifilm digital cameras accept the more popular SD or CF cards, in addition to or instead of the xD format.\n", "In January 2009, the SDA announced the SDXC family, which supports cards up to 2 TB and speeds up to 300 MB/s. It features mandatory support for the exFAT filesystem. SDXC was announced at Consumer Electronics Show (CES) 2009 (January 7–10). At the same show, SanDisk and Sony also announced a comparable Memory Stick XC variant with the same 2 TB maximum as SDXC, and Panasonic announced plans to produce 64 GB SDXC cards. On March 6, Pretec introduced the first SDXC card, a 32 GB card with a read/write speed of 400 Mbit/s. But only early in 2010 did compatible host devices come onto the market, including Sony's Handycam HDR-CX55V camcorder, Canon's EOS 550D (also known as Rebel T2i) Digital SLR camera, a USB card reader from Panasonic, and an integrated SDXC card reader from JMicron. The earliest laptops to integrate SDXC card readers relied on a USB 2.0 bus, which does not have the bandwidth to support SDXC at full speed.\n", "The Secure Digital Ultra Capacity (SDUC) format, described in the SD 7.0 specification, and announced in June 2018, supports cards up to 128 TiB (140737488355328 bytes) and offers speeds up to 985 MB/s, regardless of form factor, either micro or full size, or interface type including UHS-I, UHS-II, UHS-III or SD Express. The SD Express interface can also be used with SDHC and SDXC cards.\n\nSection::::Capacity.:SDUC.:exFAT filesystem.\n", "SDHC Cards will not function. Only SD cards of 4GB or less will work.\n\nSection::::Background.:X50 family.\n", "Folding endurance\n\nIn paper testing, folding endurance is defined as the logarithm (to the base of ten) of the number of double folds that are required to make a test piece break under standardized conditions:\n\nwhere \"F\" is the folding endurance and \"d\" the number of double folds.\n", "BULLET::::- Integrated Wi-Fi – Several companies produce SD cards with built-in Wi-Fi transceivers supporting static security (WEP 40; 104; and 128, WPA-PSK, and WPA2-PSK). The card lets any digital camera with an SD slot transmit captured images over a wireless network, or store the images on the card's memory until it is in range of a wireless network. Examples include: Eye-Fi / SanDisk, Transcend Wi-Fi, Toshiba FlashAir, Trek Flucard, PQI Air Card and LZeal ez Share. Some models geotag their pictures.\n", "BULLET::::- Most SD cards are thick, compared to for MMCs. The SD specification defines a card called Thin SD with a thickness of 1.4 mm, but they occur only rarely, as the SDA went on to define even smaller form factors.\n\nBULLET::::- The card's electrical contacts are recessed beneath the surface of the card, protecting them from contact with a user's fingers.\n\nBULLET::::- The SD specification envisioned capacities and transfer rates exceeding those of MMC, and both of these functionalities have grown over time. For a comparison table, see below.\n", "Section::::Features.\n\nSection::::Features.:Card security.\n\nCards can protect their contents from erasure or modification, prevent access by non-authorized users, and protect copyrighted content using digital rights management.\n\nSection::::Features.:Card security.:Commands to disable writes.\n\nThe host device can command the SD card to become read-only (to reject subsequent commands to write information to it). There are both reversible and irreversible host commands that achieve this.\n\nSection::::Features.:Card security.:Write-protect notch.\n", "BULLET::::- No battery grip will be available from Nikon nor from 3rd parties as an accessory, due to missing connectors. There are 3rd party workarounds depending on connecting a thin and fragile cable, where daily usage could damage the cable and its connector sockets easily.\n\nBULLET::::- No dual memory card slot, which protected professionals against card failure losses\n\nBULLET::::- WiFi only works with Nikon's proprietary \"SnapBridge\" app from now on. This also applies to the D500.\n\nBULLET::::- No metering supported for older manual focus Nikkor AI (non-CPU) lenses\n", "The SD Association provides a formatting utility for Windows and Mac OS X that checks and formats SD, SDHC, SDXC, and SDUC cards.\n\nSection::::Speed.\n\nSD card speed is customarily rated by its sequential read or write speed. The sequential performance aspect is the most relevant for storing and retrieving large files (relative to block sizes internal to the flash memory), such as images and multimedia. Small data (such as file names, sizes and timestamps) falls under the much lower speed limit of random access, which can be the limiting factor in some use cases.\n", "In April 2012, Panasonic introduced MicroP2 card format for professional video applications. The cards are essentially full-size SDHC or SDXC UHS-II cards, rated at UHS Speed Class U1. An adapter allows MicroP2 cards to work in current P2 card equipment. Panasonic MicroP2 cards shipped in March 2013 and were the first UHS-II compliant products on market; initial offer includes a 32GB SDHC card and a 64GB SDXC card. Later that year, Lexar released the first 256 GB SDXC card, based on 20 nm NAND flash technology.\n", "BULLET::::- Integrated USB connector – The SanDisk SD Plus product can be plugged directly into a USB port without needing a USB card reader. Other companies introduced comparable products, such as the Duo SD product of OCZ Technology and the 3 Way (microSDHC, SDHC, and USB) product of A-DATA, which was available in 2008 only.\n\nBULLET::::- Different colors – SanDisk has used various colors of plastic or adhesive label, including a \"gaming\" line in translucent plastic colors that indicated the card's capacity.\n", "BULLET::::- Small maximum capacity relative to other memory card formats. First-generation xD cards have a maximum capacity of only 512 MiB. Type M expands the theoretical maximum capacity to 8 GiB, but , there are no cards available with capacity greater than 2 GiB.\n\nBULLET::::- Although physically smaller than Secure Digital and Memory Stick cards, xD cards are \"larger\" than these competitors' reduced-size variants (microSD and Memory Stick Micro).\n\nBULLET::::- Less widely supported by camera, card reader, and accessory manufacturers than other formats. , SD cards (and variants) are supported by all consumer-level digital cameras from major manufacturers.\n\nSection::::Other information.\n", "The \"×\" rating, that was used by some card manufacturers and made obsolete by speed classes, is a multiple of the standard CD-ROM drive speed of 150 KiB/s (approximately 1.23 Mbit/s). Basic cards transfer data at up to six times (6×) the CD-ROM speed; that is, 900 KiB/s or 7.37 Mbit/s. The 2.0 specification defines speeds up to 200×, but is not as specific as Speed Classes are on how to measure speed. Manufacturers may report best-case speeds and may report the card's fastest read speed, which is typically faster than the write speed. Some vendors, including Transcend and Kingston, report their cards' write speed. When a card lists both a speed class and an \"×\" rating, the latter may be assumed a read speed only.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02204	in terms of video games, what exactly does AAA mean?	It's a general term used to describe high budget games made by big name studios. For instance, the Mass Effect series, GTA, Red Dead Redemption, Call of Duty, etc. Typically people have higher expectations of these games because of the amount of money being invested in the project and advertising.	[ "AAA (video game industry)\n\nAAA (pronounced and sometimes written Triple-A) is an informal classification used for video games produced and distributed by a mid-sized or major publisher, typically having higher development and marketing budgets. AAA is analogous to the film industry term \"blockbuster\".\n", "The term has also been used as a hyperbolic marketing ploy, to suggest content and game-play that surpasses that of the typical AAA game. For example, video game company CD Projekt has used \"AAA+\" labelling to promote its \"The Witcher\" game series as being of a very high quality, despite them sometimes being considered indie games.\n\nSection::::Related terms.:III.\n\n\"III\" (Triple-I) has been used to refer to independently funded (\"indie\") games that meet an analogous quality level in their field; i.e., indie games that have relatively high budget, scope, and ambition.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Blockbuster mentality\n\nBULLET::::- Nintendo Seal of Quality\n", "The console video game industry lacks the equivalent of a B movie, made-for-TV, or direct-to-video scene. However, games with very low production costs that are not critically well-received are sometimes referred to as \"bargain bin\" titles.\n\nSection::::Related terms.:AAA+.\n\nIn general use, the term \"AAA+\" (Triple-A-Plus) may refer to a subset of AAA games that are the highest selling or have the highest production values. However, there are at least two more specific meanings.\n", "In the mid 2010s, the term \"AAA+\" began to be used to describe AAA type games that generated additional revenue over time in a similar fashion to MMOs by using software as a service (SaaS) methods, such as season passes or expansion packs. The similar construction \"III\" (Triple-I) has also been used to describe indie game companies' works of very high quality.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nThe term \"AAA\" began to be used in the late 1990s, when some development companies started using the expression at gaming conventions in the US.\n", "The first describes AAA games with additional methods of revenue generation, generally through purchases in addition to the cost of the base game. The desire for profitability has caused publishers to look at alternative revenue models, where players continued to contribute revenue after the initial purchase, either by premium models, DLC, online passes, and other forms of subscription. In the mid 2010s large publishers began a focus on games engineered to have a long tail in terms of revenue from individual consumers, similar to the way MMO games generate income – these included those with expansion or season pass content such as with \"Destiny\", \"Battlefield\", and the \"Call of Duty\" series; and those which generated revenue from selling in-game items, sometimes purely cosmetic, such as \"Overwatch\" or \"League of Legends\". Titles of this type are sometimes referred to as \"AAA+\". In 2016, \"Gameindustry.biz\" described AAA+ games as products that \"combine AAA production values and aesthetics with Software as a Service (SaaS) principles to keep players engaged for months or even years\".\n", "By the seventh generation of video game consoles (late 2000s) AAA game development on the Xbox 360 or PlayStation 3 game consoles typically cost in the low tens of millions of dollars ($15m to $20m) for a new game, with some sequels having even higher total budgets – for example \"Halo 3\" is estimated to have had a development cost of $30m, and a marketing budget of $40m. According to a whitepaper published for EA games (Dice Europe) the seventh generation saw a contraction in the number of video game developing houses creating AAA level titles, reducing from an estimated 125 to around 25, but with a roughly corresponding fourfold increase in staffing required for game development.\n", "BULLET::::- AAA battery, a standard size of dry cell battery\n\nBULLET::::- Amateur Achievement Award of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific\n\nBULLET::::- Analog-analog-analog, a designation for analog recording\n\nBULLET::::- Angle-angle-angle, see Similarity (geometry)\n\nBULLET::::- Anti-aircraft artillery\n\nSection::::Sports.\n\nBULLET::::- Amateur Athletic Association of England\n\nBULLET::::- American Airlines Arena, a sports and entertainment venue in Miami, Florida, and the Miami Heat's home stadium\n\nBULLET::::- Arkansas Activities Association\n\nBULLET::::- Asian Athletics Association\n\nBULLET::::- Lucha Libre AAA Worldwide, a Mexican wrestling promotion commonly known simply as \"AAA\"\n\nBULLET::::- Montreal AAA, Canada's oldest athletic association\n", "The eighth generation of video game consoles (PlayStation 4, Xbox One, Wii U) saw further increases in costs and staffing – at Ubisoft, AAA game development involved 400 to 600 persons for open world games, split across multiple locations and countries.\n\nAAA game development has been identified as one environment where crunch time and other working pressures that negatively affect the employees are particularly evident.\n\nSection::::Related terms.\n", "AA\n\nAA or Aa may refer to:\n\nSection::::Art, entertainment, and media.\n\nBULLET::::- \"America's Army\", a 2002 computer game published by the U.S. Army\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ancient Anguish\", a computer game in existence since 1992\n\nBULLET::::- Aa!, a J-Pop musical group\n\nBULLET::::- Double-A (band), stylised as AA, South Korean boy band\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aa\" (album), a 2016 album by Baauer\n\nBULLET::::- Ace Attorney, a series of video games developed by Capcom.\n\nBULLET::::- AA Films, an Indian film distribution company\n\nBULLET::::- AA Book (disambiguation)\n\nBULLET::::- AA, the production code for the 1966 \"Doctor Who\" serial \"The Savages\"\n\nSection::::Brands and enterprises.\n", "On September 11, 2000, Infogrames North America was acquired by Infogrames, Inc. for 28 million market shares transitioned to Infogrames Entertainment, effectively merging Infogrames North America into a newly founded, wholly owned subsidiary of Infogrames, Inc.\n\nIn June 2017, Hong Kongese holding company Billionsoft announced that they had acquired the \"Accolade\" label, and announced \"\", in cooperation with developer Black Forest Games and publisher Tommo, to be the first game released under it.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Early years.\n", "BULLET::::- Angels & Airwaves, an American alternative rock band, also commonly referred to as \"AVA\"\n\nBULLET::::- Triple A (musical group), a Dutch trance group\n\nSection::::Arts, entertainment, and media.:Music.:Works.\n\nBULLET::::- \"AAA\", the sixth track on \"City\" (Strapping Young Lad album)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Access All Areas\", a series of music CDs by the Scotland rock band Runrig\n\nSection::::Arts, entertainment, and media.:Music.:Other music.\n\nBULLET::::- Triple A, another name for Adult Alternative Songs, a record chart published by \"Billboard\"\n\nSection::::Arts, entertainment, and media.:Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media.\n\nBULLET::::- Adult album alternative, a radio format\n", "Accolade (company)\n\nInfogrames North America, Inc. (formerly Accolade, Inc.) was an American video game developer and publisher based in San Jose, California. The company was founded as Accolade in November 1984 by Alan Miller and Bob Whitehead, who had previously co-founded Activision in October 1979.\n", "Section::::History.:Scoring systems.\n\nSection::::History.:Scoring systems.:Original scale.\n\nA member of the IGN staff writes a review for a game and gives it a score between 0.1 and 10.0, which is assigned by increments of 0.1 and determines how much the game is recommended. The score is given according to the \"individual aspects of a game, like presentation, graphics, sound, gameplay and lasting appeal.\" Each game is given a score in each of these categories, but the overall score for the game is an independent evaluation, not an average of the scores in each category.\n\nSection::::History.:Scoring systems.:20-point scale.\n", "BULLET::::- AAA, the production code for the 1970 \"Doctor Who\" serial \"Spearhead from Space\"\n\nBULLET::::- (\"Aces of ANSI Art\"), digital art group for creating and distributing ANSI art (1989-1991)\n\nBULLET::::- \"AAA\", a Japanese manga by Haruka Fukushima\n\nBULLET::::- \"Anbanavan Asaradhavan Adangadhavan\", a Tamil film in 2017\n\nSection::::Brands and enterprises.\n\nBULLET::::- Advanced Accelerator Applications, a radiopharmaceutical company\n\nBULLET::::- Ansett Australia, an Australian airline (ICAO airline code AAA)\n\nBULLET::::- Associated American Artists, an art gallery and art marketing business\n\nBULLET::::- Associated Argentine Artists, an Argentine film studio\n\nSection::::Government and politics.\n\nSection::::Government and politics.:Government agencies.\n", "At around the period of transition from seventh to eighth generation of consoles the cost of AAA development was considered by some to be a threat to the stability of the industry. The failure of a single game to meet production costs could lead to the failure of a studio – Radical Entertainment was closed by parent Activision despite selling an estimated 1 million units on console in a short period after release. Ubisoft game director Alex Hutchinson described the AAA franchise model as potentially harmful, stating he thought it led to either focus group tested products aimed at maximizing profit, and or a push towards ever higher graphics fidelity and impact at a cost of depth or gameplay.\n", "Section::::Sports.:Other sports.\n", "Section::::Rating systems.:Japan.:Computer Entertainment Rating Organization.\n\nThe (CERO) is an organization that rates video games and PC games in Japan with levels of rating that informs the customer of the nature of the product and for what age group it is suitable. It was established in June 2002 as a branch of Computer Entertainment Supplier's Association, and became an officially recognized non-profit organization in December 2003. It currently consists of five age categories and nine content descriptors.\n\nBULLET::::- AAll ages. Formerly \"All.\"\n\nBULLET::::- BAges 12 and over. Formerly \"12.\"\n\nBULLET::::- CAges 15 and over. Formerly \"15.\"\n\nBULLET::::- DAges 17 and over.\n", "During the seventh generation, AAA (or \"blockbuster\") games had marketing at a similar level to high-profile films, with television, billboard and newspaper advertising; a corresponding increasing reliance on sequels, reboots, and similarly franchised IP was also seen, in order to minimize risk. Costs at the end of the generation had risen as high as the hundreds of millions of dollars – the estimated cost of \"Grand Theft Auto V\" was approximately $265m. The same conditions also drove the growth of the indie game scene at the other end of the development spectrum, where lower costs enabled innovation and risk-taking.\n", "Accolade's revenues grew from $1.5 million in 1985 to $5 million in 1986. It developed for most 1980s-era home computers, including the Commodore 64, Atari 400 & 800, the Amiga, Apple II and the PC. Some of their first titles include \"Law of the West\", \"Psi-5 Trading Company\", \"The Dam Busters\", \"Mean 18 Golf\", \"Test Drive\", and \"HardBall!\". \"Test Drive\" and \"HardBall!\" went on to become two of Accolade's longest-running franchises.\n\nAs the popularity of other systems waned, Accolade focused on PC and console development, including the Nintendo Entertainment System, Sega Genesis, Super NES and PlayStation.\n", "List of AO-rated video games\n\nThe following is a list of video games that have been given the \"Adults Only\" (AO) rating by the Entertainment Software Rating Board (ESRB), a United States-based organization which rates the content of video games to determine its appropriateness for specific age groups. Although it is not legally binding under U.S. law, the ESRB rating system is a de facto standard which is self-enforced by the U.S. video game and retail industries. In Canada, ESRB ratings are enforceable by provincial law by film classification boards in some provinces.\n", "List of Xbox One games (A-L)\n\nThis is a list of Xbox One games currently planned or released either at retail or via download.\n\nThere are currently +++ games on both parts of this list.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of best-selling Xbox One video games\n\nBULLET::::- List of Xbox games compatible with Xbox One\n\nBULLET::::- List of Xbox 360 games compatible with Xbox One\n\nBULLET::::- List of Xbox One X Enhanced games\n\nBULLET::::- List of Games with Gold games#Xbox One\n\nBULLET::::- List of Xbox One applications\n\nBULLET::::- List of Xbox Play Anywhere games\n", "4A\n\n4A or IV-A may refer to :\n\nBULLET::::- 4A Engine, a video game engine developed by \"4A Games\"\n\nBULLET::::- 4A Games, a video game development company in Ukraine\n\nBULLET::::- Air Kiribati's IATA designator\n\nBULLET::::- Ararat International Airlines' IATA airline designator\n\nBULLET::::- Calabarzon or Region IV-A, a province in Philippines\n\nBULLET::::- Vermont Route 4A\n\nBULLET::::- Toyota A engine 4A Produced by Toyota Motor Corporation (1982-2002)\n\nBULLET::::- 4A, the production code for the 1974–75 \"Doctor Who\" serial \"Robot\"\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- 4A/OP, a radiative transfer model for the infrared\n\nBULLET::::- Long March 4A, a Chinese rocket\n", "Games that currently award Avatar Awards are listed below. This feature is discontinued from Xbox One since the avatars on Xbox One does not support Avatar Awards anymore as of June 1, 2016.\n\n* = The game has avatar awards which are linked to certain achievements in another game. (e.g. All the awards in \"Halo Waypoint\" needs certain achievements unlocked in \"Halo: Reach\", except for the \"Halo: Reach\" Beta shirt which is no longer obtainable.)\n", "BULLET::::- Check the Classification (CTC) – The content has been assessed and approved for advertising unclassified films and computer games. \"This film has advertising approval. Check the classification closer to the released date\" is usually written on the marking.\n\nBULLET::::- Any advertising of unclassified films and games must display the CTC message on posters, trailers, on the internet, and any other types of advertising.\n\nBULLET::::- Once the content is classified, the classification marking replaces the CTC marking on all advertising material.\n\nSection::::Literature ratings.\n", "Section::::Ratings and censorship.:Japan.\n\nThe Computer Entertainment Rating Organization (CERO) that rates video games and PC games (except dating sims, visual novels, and eroge) in Japan with levels of rating that informs the customer of the nature of the product and for what age group it is suitable. It was established in July 2002 as a branch of Computer Entertainment Supplier's Association, and became an officially recognized non-profit organization in 2003. These ratings are:\n\nBULLET::::- A – All ages\n\nBULLET::::- B – Ages 12 and over\n\nBULLET::::- C – Ages 15 and over\n\nBULLET::::- D – Ages 17 and over\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-20315	How did early Mesoamerican peoples, like the Inca, grow crops in the high Andes mountains?	By growing crops that were native to the area. They didn't eat stuff that would grow well in the fields of Nebraska. For example, the corn that ancient Central American people grew would generally not be recognized as corn by people in industrialized countries today except in a vague sense.	[ "Private property existed in the form of royal estates, especially in the Sacred Valley near the Inca capital of Cuzco. Emperors customarily confiscated large quantities of land for their own use and exploitation and the estate was inherited by descendants after the emperor's death. The famous archaeological site of Machu Picchu was a royal estate. The royal estates made use of local labor, but also were staffed by a servant class called yanakunas who were ruled directly by Inca nobles and were outside the ayllu kinship system. In some areas, such as the valley of Cochabamba in Bolivia, state farms were dedicated to the production of maize, the prestige crop of the Incas but one which could not be grown at the higher elevations of the Andes.\n", "Macrobotanical remains show us that the non-urban farmers cultivated domestic plants such as beans, maize, squash, sweet potatoes, peanuts, chili pepper, gourd, algorrobo and cotton. Storage facilities “revealed pollen spores from the fern and monocot families. These types of plants were likely used for medicinal purposes and/or as animal fodder”. The paleobotanical collection also has several wild species that could have been used for “fuel, building materials, animal fodder, medicine, and herbs”.\n", "In addition to these staple crops the people of the Inca empire cultivated a great variety of fruits, vegetables, spices and medicinal plants. Some of these other foods grown consist of tomatoes, chili peppers, avocadoes and peanuts. Many fruit trees were also utilized in crop production. Banana passionfruit can be grown from 2,000 to 3,200 meters, mountain pawpaw from 500 to 2,700 meters, Solanum quintoense or naranjilla from 500 to 2,300 meters, and Cape gooseberry from 500 to 2,800 meters.\n\nSection::::Animal Husbandry.\n", "The Incas placed great emphasis on storing agricultural products, constructing thousands of storage silos (qullqa or qollqas)\n", "However, it has been found that the terrace farming area makes up about just of land, and a study of the soil around the terraces showed that what was grown there was mostly corn and potatoes, which was not enough to support the 750+ people living at Machu Picchu. Therefore, when studies were done on the food that the Inca ate at Machu Picchu, it was found that most of what they ate was imported from the surrounding valleys and farther afield.\n\nSection::::History.:Encounters.\n", "The Incas transported agricultural goods by llama caravan. For example, maize grown at the state farm of Cochabamba was transported first to the regional center of Paria. Some was stored there and some was transported on to Cuzco.\n\nSection::::Crops.\n", "Section::::Environment.\n\nThe heartland of the Inca Empire was in the high plateaus and mountains of the Andes of Peru and Bolivia. This area is mostly above in elevation and is characterized by low or seasonal precipitation, low temperatures, and thin soils. Freezing temperatures may occur in every month of the year at these altitudes.\n", "The Inca cultivated food crops on dry Pacific coastlines, high on the slopes of the Andes, and in the lowland Amazon rainforest. In mountainous Andean environments, they made extensive use of terraced fields which not only allowed them to put to use the mineral-rich mountain soil which other peoples left fallow, but also took advantage of micro-climates conducive to a variety of crops being cultivated throughout the year. A contributing factor for the ability of the Inca to expand their population and agriculture as quick as they did, was because of a small climate shift that allowed for slightly warmer temperatures and a small increase in annual precipitation. This contributed to the Inca's ability to use terraced and irrigated fields in higher elevations, opening up vast amount of the Andes Mountains for Inca agriculture. Agricultural tools consisted mostly of simple digging sticks. \n", "Staple crops from about 1,000 meters to 3,900 meters were potatoes. Quinoa was grown from about 2,300 meters to 3,900 meters. Maize was the principal crop grown up to an elevation of 3200 meters commonly and 3,500 meters in favorable locations. Cotton was a major crop near the Pacific Ocean and grown up to elevations of about 1,500 meters. On the eastern slopes of the Andes, coca was grown up to the same elevation, and cassava (yuka) was a major crop of the Amazon lowlands. Tubers such as oca, mashua and maca were also grown.\n", "The monumental architecture was constructed with quarried stone and river cobbles. Using reed \"shicra-bags\", some of which have been preserved, laborers would have hauled the material to sites by hand. Roger Atwood of \"Archaeology\" magazine describes the process:\n\nArmies of workers would gather a long, durable grass known as \"shicra\" in the highlands above the city, tie the grass strands into loosely meshed bags, fill the bags with boulders, and then pack the trenches behind each successive retaining wall of the step pyramids with the stone-filled bags.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Waqtana\", a Quechua term for a \"clod buster\"\n\nThe \"chaki taklla\", \"rawk'ana\", and \"waqtana\" were used by Andean farmers for thousands of years.\n", "Another culturally important plant was cacao (ancient Mesoamerican chocolate). Cacao was used in rituals (as a drink) and was also used as currency in trade.\n\nThe crops above are only a few of the domesticated plants important to the ancient peoples of Mesoamerica. Please see the section below for a more comprehensive list of ancient Mesoamerican domesticated plants.\n\nSection::::Domesticated Plants.\n\nMain source: Pre-Columbian Foodways\n\nA list of Mesoamerican cultivars and staples:\n\nBULLET::::1. Agave* - also known as the Century plant\n\nBULLET::::2. Anona – this fruit is also called the \"Custard Apple\"\n", "In Mesoamerica, the Aztecs were active farmers and had an agriculturally focused economy. The land around Lake Texcoco was fertile, but not large enough to produce the amount of food needed for the population of their expanding empire. The Aztecs developed irrigation systems, formed terraced hillsides, fertilized their soil, and developed chinampas or artificial islands, also known as \"floating gardens\". The Mayas between 400 BC to 900 AD used extensive canal and raised field systems to farm swampland on the Yucatán Peninsula.\n\nSection::::Civilizations.:South America.\n", "The Inca built on these, developing a system of canals, aqueducts, and puquios to direct water through dry land and increase fertility levels and growth. These terraced farms are found wherever mountain villages have existed in the Andes. They provided the food necessary to support the populations of great Inca cities and religious centres such as Machu Picchu.\n", "BULLET::::- Asterisk indicates a common English or Spanish word derived from an indigenous word\n\nSection::::Cultivation Techniques.\n", "The extent to which Tenochtitlan depended on chinampas for its fresh food supply has been the topic of a number of scholarly studies.\n\nAmong the crops grown on chinampas were maize, beans, squash, amaranth, tomatoes, chili peppers, and flowers. Maize was planted with digging stick \"huictli\" with a wooden blade on one end.\n", "Farming was celebrated with rituals and songs. Teams of seven or eight men, accompanied by the same number of women, would work in line to prepare fields. The men used foot plows, \"chaki taklla\", to break the soil. The women followed, breaking the clods and planting seeds. This work was accompanied by singing and chanting, striking the earth in unison. By one account Spanish priests found the songs so pleasant that they were incorporated into church services.\n\nSection::::Land use.\n", "Section::::Farming tools.\n\nInca farmers did not have domesticated animals suitable for agricultural work so they relied on manual tools. These were well adapted to the mountainous terrain of the Andes and to the limited-area of terraces or andenes on which they often built and farmed. Main manual tools used include:\n", "A study has shown that the crops of squash, peanuts, and cotton were domesticated in Peru around 10,000, 8,500, and 6,000 years ago, respectively. They were grown by the Ñanchoc people in the Ñanchoc Valley. No earlier instances of the farming of these crops are known.\n", "Inca farmers learned how to best use the land to maximize agriculture production. This expressed itself in the form of stone terraces to keep the important Andean soil from eroding down the mountain side. These terraces also helped to insulate the roots of plants during cold nights and hold in the moisture of the soil, keeping plants growing and producing longer in the high altitudes. Tipón was a location in the Inca Empire that was an estate for Incan nobles, it had terrace walls that were anywhere from 6 to 15 feet tall, however the knowledge of the height of the terraces throughout the rest of the empire is uncertain. The Inca often irrigated these terraces by using water melting from nearby glaciers. The Inca transported this freshly melted water to crop fields by building irrigation canals to move the water and cisterns to store the water. Another method that the Inca used to gain more farm land was to drain wetlands in order to get to the rich fertile top soil underneath the shallow water. The Inca also understood the value of crop rotation and planted different crops in the same fields annually replenishing the soil and producing better harvests.\n", "\"Discover\" magazine, citing Shady, suggests a rich and varied trade life: \"[Caral] exported its own products and those of Aspero to distant communities in exchange for exotic imports: \"Spondylus\" shells from the coast of Ecuador, rich dyes from the Andean highlands, hallucinogenic snuff from the Amazon.\" (Given the still limited extent of Norte Chico research, such claims should be treated circumspectly.) Other reports on Shady's work indicate Caral traded with communities in the jungle farther inland and, possibly, with people from the mountains.\n\nSection::::Social organization.:Government.:Ideology.\n", "In the swampy regions along Lake Xochimilco, the Aztecs implemented a unique method of crop cultivation, \"chinampas.\" Chinampas, areas of raised land in a body of water, were created from alternating layers of mud from the bottom of the lake and plant matter/other vegetation. These “raised beds” were between 2 and 4 meters wide, and 20 to 40 meters long. They rose approximately 1 meter above the surface of the water, and were separated by narrow canals, which allowed farmers to move between them by canoe. The chinampas were extremely fertile pieces of land, and yielded, on average, seven crops annually. In order to plant on them, farmers first created “seedbeds,” or reed rafts, where they planted seeds and\n", "Mapuches of south-central Chile cultivated maize along with quinoa and potatoes in Pre-Hispanic times, however potato was the staple food of most Mapuches, \"specially in the southern and coastal [Mapuche] territories where maize did not reach maturity\". Before the expansion of the Inca Empire maize was traded and transported as far south as 40°19' S in Melinquina, Lácar Department. In that location maize remains were found inside pottery dated to 730 ±80 BP and 920 ±60 BP. Probably this maize was brought across the Andes from Chile. The presence of maize in Guaitecas Archipelago (43°55' S), which constitute southernmost outspost of Pre-Hispanic agriculture, is reported by early Spanish explorers. However the Spanish may have misidentified the plant.\n", "The products stored in qullqas varied from region to region in the Inca Empire depending upon production in the local area. At Wanuku Pampa in north central Peru, a major Inca administrative and storage area, 50 to 80 percent of the qullqas were used to store dried potatoes and other root crops. Only 5 to 7 percent of qullqas were devoted to the storage of maize, probably because the high altitudes and cool climate limited the local production of maize. Root crops were layered with straw and baled for storage. Maize was shelled and stored in large jars. \n", "Year-round the most important food for the Guaycura was probably the basal rosettes of several species of agave which they roasted in a pit with heated rocks. The fruit of the organ pipe cactus or \"pitahaya\" (Stenocereus thurberi) was the staple food tor two or three months in late summer and fall. Its abundance and ease of harvest enabled the Guaycura to congregate in larger numbers than usual for social and religious activities.\n" ]	[ "Crops cannot grow in the high Andes mountains." ]	[ "They grew crops that were native to the area." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Crops cannot grow in the high Andes mountains.", "Crops cannot grow in the high Andes mountains." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "They grew crops that were native to the area.", "They grew crops that were native to the area." ]
2018-04009	Why is inbreeding not a problem in many animal species like it is for humans?	It is a problem in many animal species. Small populations have terrible problems with a lack of genetic diversity that can lead to them dying off if they don't get new members from outside into the genepool.	[ "Natural breedings include inbreeding by necessity, and most animals only migrate when necessary. In many cases, the closest available mate is a mother, sister, grandmother, father, brother, or grandfather. In all cases, the environment presents stresses to remove from the population those individuals who cannot survive because of illness.\n", "There was an assumption that wild populations do not inbreed; this is not what is observed in some cases in the wild. However, in species such as horses, animals in wild or feral conditions often drive off the young of both sexes, thought to be a mechanism by which the species instinctively avoids some of the genetic consequences of inbreeding. In general, many mammal species, including humanity's closest primate relatives, avoid close inbreeding possibly due to the deleterious effects.\n\nSection::::Genetic disorders.:Examples.\n", "Although there are several examples of inbred populations of wild animals, the negative consequences of this inbreeding are poorly documented. In the South American sea lion, there was concern that recent population crashes would reduce genetic diversity. Historical analysis indicated that a population expansion from just two matrilineal lines was responsible for most of the individuals within the population. Even so, the diversity within the lines allowed great variation in the gene pool that may help to protect the South American sea lion from extinction.\n", "Section::::Animals.:Laboratory animals.\n\nSystematic inbreeding and maintenance of inbred strains of laboratory mice and rats is of great importance for biomedical research. The inbreeding guarantees a consistent and uniform animal model for experimental purposes and enables genetic studies in congenic and knock-out animals. The use of inbred strains is also important for genetic studies in animal models, for example to distinguish genetic from environmental effects. The mice that are inbred typically show considerably lower survival rates.\n\nSection::::Humans.\n\nSection::::Humans.:Effects.\n", "Whilst inbreeding depression has been found to occur in almost all sufficiently studied species, some taxa, most notably some angiosperms, appear to suffer lower fitness costs than others in inbred populations. Three mechanisms appear to be responsible for this: purging, differences in ploidy, and selection for heterozygosity. It must be cautioned that some studies failing to show an absence of inbreeding depression in certain species can arise from small sample sizes or where the supposedly outbred control group is already suffering inbreeding depression, which frequently occurs in populations that have undergone a recent bottleneck, such as those of the naked mole rat.\n", "Section::::Factors reducing inbreeding depression.:Selection for heterozygosity.\n\nInbreeding depression has also been found to occur more gradually than predicted in some wild populations, such as in the highly inbred population of Scandinavian wolves. This appears to be due to a selection pressure for more heterozygous individuals, which generally are in better condition and so are more likely to become one of the few animals to breed and produce offspring.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Backward evolution\n\nBULLET::::- Insular dwarfism\n\nBULLET::::- Island gigantism\n\nBULLET::::- Minimum viable population\n\nBULLET::::- Population genetics\n\nBULLET::::- Vadoma\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "A good majority of the literature on inbreeding avoidance has been published at least 15 years ago, which leaves for growth and development of the study through current experimental methods and technology. There is greater access to more advanced molecular techniques, such as DNA fingerprinting that makes measuring relatedness more efficient and accurate. There has also been an increasing interest for studying inbreeding avoidance in carnivores, where explaining their social behaviors is underway.\n", "Outcrossing as a way of avoiding inbreeding depression, has been especially well studied in birds. For instance, inbreeding depression occurs in the great tit when the offspring are produced as a result of a mating between close relatives. In natural populations of the great tit (\"Parus major\"), inbreeding is avoided by dispersal of individuals from their birthplace, which reduces the chance of mating with a close relative.\n\nThe purple-crowned fairywren females paired with related males may undertake extra-pair matings that can reduce the negative effects of inbreeding, despite ecological and demographic constraints. \n", "Cheetahs are another example of inbreeding. Thousands of years ago the cheetah went through a population bottleneck that reduced its population dramatically so the animals that are alive today are all related to one another. A consequence from inbreeding for this species has been high juvenile mortality, low fecundity, and poor breeding success.\n\nIn a study on an island population of song sparrows, individuals that were inbred showed significantly lower survival rates than outbred individuals during a severe winter weather related population crash. These studies show that inbreeding depression and ecological factors have an influence on survival.\n\nSection::::Measures.\n", "Breeders must avoid breeding from individuals that demonstrate either homozygosity or heterozygosity for disease causing alleles. The goal of preventing the transfer of deleterious alleles may be achieved by reproductive isolation, sterilization, or, in the extreme case, culling. Culling is not strictly necessary if genetics are the only issue in hand. Small animals such as cats and dogs may be sterilized, but in the case of large agricultural animals, such as cattle, culling is usually the only economic option.\n\nThe issue of casual breeders who inbreed irresponsibly is discussed in the following quotation on cattle:\n", "Inbreeding was observed to increase juvenile mortality in 11 small animal species.\n\nA common breeding practice for pet dogs is mating between close relatives (e.g. between half- and full siblings). This practice generally has a negative effect on measures of reproductive success, including decreased litter size and puppy survival.\n\nIncestuous matings in birds result in severe fitness costs due to inbreeding depression (e.g. reduction in hatchability of eggs and reduced progeny survival).\n\nSection::::Reproductive systems.:Inbreeding.:Inbreeding avoidance.\n", "One example of the role of genetics in extinction occurs in the case of fragmented metapopulations of southern dunlins (Calidris alpine schinzii) in SW Sweden. These endangered shorebirds experienced inbreeding and loss of genetic diversity at two molecular markers examined, and this limited survival and reproduction throughout the population by increasing inbreeding. When parent dunlins with more similar genetics mated, their offspring had lower likelihood of hatching, and if they did manage to hatch, they were more likely to die soon after hatching.\n\nDemographic factors: \n", "Inbreeding history of the population should also be considered when discussing the variation in the severity of inbreeding depression between and within species. With persistent inbreeding, there is evidence that shows that inbreeding depression becomes less severe. This is associated with the unmasking and elimination of severely deleterious recessive alleles. However, inbreeding depression is not a temporary phenomenon because this elimination of deleterious recessive alleles will never be complete. Eliminating slightly deleterious mutations through inbreeding under moderate selection is not as effective. Fixation of alleles most likely occurs through Muller's ratchet, when an asexual population's genome accumulates deleterious mutations that are irreversible.\n", "Section::::Effects.\n\nInbreeding animals will sometimes lead to genetic drift. The continuous overlaying of like genetics exposes recessive gene patterns that often lead to changes in reproduction performance, fitness, and ability to survive. A decrease in these areas is known as inbreeding depression. A hybrid between two inbred strains can be used to cancel out deleterious recessive genes resulting in an increase in the mentioned areas. This is known as heterosis.\n", "There may also be other deleterious effects besides those caused by recessive diseases. Thus, similar immune systems may be more vulnerable to infectious diseases (see Major histocompatibility complex and sexual selection).\n", "Studies have shown that kin recognition is more developed in species in which dispersal patterns facilitate frequent adult kin encounters.\n", "There are a number of factors that affect the rate of gene flow between different populations. Gene flow is expected to be lower in species that have low dispersal or mobility, that occur in fragmented habitats, where there is long distances between populations, and when there are small population sizes. Mobility plays an important role in the migration rate, as highly mobile individuals tend to have greater migratory prospects. Although animals are thought to be more mobile than plants, pollen and seeds may be carried great distances by animals or wind. When gene flow is impeded, there can be an increase in inbreeding, measured by the inbreeding coefficient (F) within a population. For example, many island populations have low rates of gene flow due to geographic isolation and small population sizes. The Black Footed Rock Wallaby has several inbred populations that live on various islands off the coast of Australia. The population is so strongly isolated that lack of gene flow has led to high rates of inbreeding.\n", "Many studies have demonstrated that homozygous individuals are often disadvantaged with respect to heterozygous individuals. For example, a study conducted on a population of South African cheetahs demonstrated that the lack of genetic variability among individuals in the population has resulted in negative consequences for individuals, such as a greater rate of juvenile mortality and spermatozoal abnormalities. When heterozygotes possess a fitness advantage relative to a homozygote, a population with a large number of homozygotes will have a relatively reduced fitness, thus leading to inbreeding depression. Through these described mechanisms, the effects of inbreeding depression are often severe enough to cause the evolution of inbreeding avoidance mechanisms.\n", "Although the long-term population persistence of several species with low genetic variation has recently prompted debate on the generality of inbreeding depression, there are various empirical evidences for genetic Allee effects. One such case was observed in the endangered Florida panther (\"Puma concolor coryi\"). The Florida panther experienced a genetic bottleneck in the early 1990s where the population was reduced to ≈25 adult individuals. This reduction in genetic diversity was correlated with defects that include lower sperm quality, abnormal testosterone levels, cowlicks, and kinked tails. In response, a genetic rescue plan was put in motion and several female pumas from Texas were introduced into the Florida population. This action quickly led to the reduction in the prevalence of the defects previously associated with inbreeding depression. Although the timescale for this inbreeding depression is larger than of those more immediate Allee effects, it has significant implications on the long-term persistence of a species.\n", "Children of parent-child or sibling-sibling unions are at an increased risk compared to cousin-cousin unions. Inbreeding may result in a greater than expected phenotypic expression of deleterious recessive alleles within a population. As a result, first-generation inbred individuals are more likely to show physical and health defects, including:\n\nThe isolation of a small population for a period of time can lead to inbreeding within that population, resulting in increased genetic relatedness between breeding individuals. Inbreeding depression can also occur in a large population if individuals tend to mate with their relatives, instead of mating randomly.\n", "The delayed sexual maturation of offspring in the presence of parents is another mechanism by which individuals avoid inbreeding. Delayed maturation scenarios can involve the removal of the original, opposite-sex parent, as is the case in female lions that exhibit estrus earlier following the replacement of their fathers with new males. Another form of delayed maturation involves parental presence that inhibits reproductive activity, such as in mature marmosets offspring that are reproductively suppressed in the presence of opposite sex parents and siblings in their social groups. \n", "Inbreeding depression occurs when the offspring produced as a result of a mating between close relatives show reduced fitness. The reduced fitness is generally considered to be a consequence of the increased expression of deleterious recessive alleles in these offspring. In natural populations of \"P. major\", inbreeding is avoided by dispersal of individuals from their birthplace, which reduces the chance of mating with a close relative.\n\nSection::::Behaviour.:Ecology.\n", "Section::::Ecological impacts.\n\nSection::::Ecological impacts.:Genetic loss.\n\nInbreeding and genetic diversity loss often occur with endangered species populations because they have small and/or declining populations. Loss of genetic diversity lowers the ability of a population to deal with change in their environment and can make individuals within the community homogeneous. If this occurs, these animals are more susceptible to disease and other occurrences that may target a specific genome. Without genetic diversity, one disease could eradicate an entire species. Inbreeding lowers reproduction and survival rates. It is suggested that these genetic factors contribute to the extinction risk in threatened/endangered species.\n", "Many times, domesticated species live in or near areas which also still hold naturally evolved, region-specific wild ancestor species and subspecies. In some cases, a domesticated species of plant or animal may become feral, living wild. Other times, a wild species will come into an area inhabited by a domesticated species. Some of these situations lead to the creation of hybridized plants or animals, a cross between the native species and a domesticated one. This type of crossbreeding, termed genetic pollution by those who are concerned about preserving the genetic base of the wild species, has become a major concern. Hybridization is also a concern to the breeders of purebred species as well, particularly if the gene pool is small and if such crossbreeding or hybridization threatens the genetic base of the domesticated purebred population.\n", "Since inbreeding is detrimental, it tends to be avoided. In the house mouse, the major urinary protein (MUP) gene cluster provides a highly polymorphic scent signal of genetic identity that appears to underlie kin recognition and inbreeding avoidance. Thus, there are fewer matings between mice sharing MUP haplotypes than would be expected if there were random mating.\n\nSection::::History.\n" ]	[ "Inbreeding is not a problem in many animal species." ]	[ "Inbreeding is a problem in many animal species." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Inbreeding is not a problem in many animal species." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Inbreeding is a problem in many animal species." ]
2018-09547	In a Ponzi Scheme, how is it not obvious that you are not receiving any money from your investments?	You do receive money from your investments... until you don't. First, you get some money from some "investors". Then, you get more money from more "investors", and use that money to pay back the investment of the first "investors". Basically, you're always paying back investments with investments from other people. So everyone is making money, and that's why they keep investing money with you. Until you have a big chunk of money from lots of people. Then you disappear.	[ "Similarly in the case of the Allen Stanford Ponzi scheme, there were repeated warnings of fraud from both inside and outside the SEC for more than a decade. But the agency did not stop the fraud until 2009, after the Madoff scandal became public in 2008.\n", "Beyond this basic premise, the film is entirely fictional, with the backgrounds of the film's characters and the events depicted in the film subsequent to their lottery win bearing no resemblance to the actual lives of Penzo and Cunningham. As a result, neither Penzo nor Cunningham were required to authorize the film, nor were they entitled to collect royalties from its proceeds.\n\nSection::::Production.\n", "Friehling was not registered with the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board, which was created under the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 to help detect fraud. Nor was the firm \"peer reviewed\", in which auditors check one another for quality control. According to the AICPA, Friehling was enrolled in their peer-review program, but was not required to participate because he supposedly didn't conduct audits. It later emerged that Madoff's banker, JPMorgan Chase, had known that Friehling wasn't registered with the PCAOB or subject to peer review as early as 2006. Additionally, officials at Fairfield Greenwich Group, operator of the largest Madoff feeder fund, had been aware as early as 2005 that Friehling was the firm's sole employee.\n", "The show has been criticized for overestimating law enforcement's interest and involvement in combating fraud, as many frauds are discovered only after a number of people have already been victimized; e.g., the largest fraud, Bernie Madoff's $65 billion Ponzi scheme, ended only after he confessed. In civil fraud claims, courts require that the fraud be pleaded with specificity and the proponent provide documentation corroborating the claim. In the Madoff case, an early administrative complaint was dismissed for lack of evidence, with the claim of a Ponzi scheme deemed speculative and unsubstantiated using essentially the same standard federal courts employ in evaluating civil fraud claims.\n", "At all times during the fraud, BLMIS had a number of clients who were not invested within the Split Strike strategy (\"Non-Split Strike clients\"). The non-Split Strike clients were told that their funds would be invested using strategies that would realize annual rates of return from at least 53 percent. From at least the early 1980s, Madoff and others allegedly took steps to make it appear as though their funds had generated these extraordinarily high returns, when, in fact, their funds had not been invested at all.\n\nSection::::Background.:\"House 05\" and Stratus systems.\n", "In 2007, SEC enforcement completed an investigation they had begun on January 6, 2006, into a Ponzi scheme allegation. This investigation resulted in neither a finding of fraud, nor a referral to the SEC Commissioners for legal action.\n\nSection::::Previous investigations.:FINRA.\n\nIn 2007, the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority (FINRA), the industry-run watchdog for brokerage firms, reported without explanation that parts of Madoff's firm had no customers. \"At this point in time we are uncertain of the basis for FINRA's conclusion in this regard,\" SEC staff wrote shortly after Madoff was arrested.\n", "A similar failure occurred in the case of Allen Stanford, who sold fake certificates of deposit to tens of thousands of people, many of them working-class retirees. In 1997, the SEC's own examiners spotted the fraud and warned about it. But the Enforcement division would not pursue Stanford, despite repeated warnings by SEC examiners over the years. After the Madoff fraud emerged, the SEC finally took action against Stanford in 2009.\n", "Former SEC Chairman Harvey Pitt estimated the actual net fraud to be between $10 and $17 billion, because it does not include the fictional returns credited to the Madoff's customer accounts.\n\nSection::::Charges and sentencing.:Criminal complaint.\n\n\"U.S. v. Madoff, 08-MAG-02735\".\n", "The due diligence and safety of investing in FOFs has come under question as a result of the Bernie Madoff scandal, where many FOFs put substantial investments into the scheme. It became clear that a motivation for this was the lack of fees by Madoff, which gave the illusion that the FOF was performing well. The due diligence of the FOFs apparently did not include asking why Madoff was not making this charge for his services. 2008 and 2009 saw FOFs take a battering from investors and the media on all fronts from the hollow promises made by over-eager marketers to the strength (or lack) of their due diligence processes to those carefully explained and eminently justifiable extra layers of fees, all reaching their zenith with the Bernie Madoff fiasco.\n", "\"The test is whether the scheme involves an investment of money in a common enterprise with profits to come solely from the efforts of others. If that test be satisfied, it is immaterial whether the enterprise is speculative or non-speculative or whether there is a sale of property with or without intrinsic value.\" \n", "Each U.S. person owning shares of a PFIC is required to file IRS Form 8621. Such form is used to report actual distributions and gain, as well as income and gains under a QEF election. Such form is also used to make the QEF and purging elections described above. Failure to file such form in a year in which no income is properly reported does not carry specific penalties, but may render the return incomplete and potentially subject to tolling of the statute of limitations.\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Tax-Charts.com, \"Flowchart of the PFIC mark-to-market rules\"\n", "Section::::Regulatory bodies.\n\nSection::::Regulatory bodies.:Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC).\n\nUSIF said the firm was \"committed to strict adherence to securities and all applicable laws,\"\n\nThe Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) considers some \"EB-5 offerings\" to be securities covered under U.S. securities laws. \"[C]ompanies and individuals that sell EB-5 investments cannot \"defraud investors, make false claims or fail to mention relevant information\". However, the SEC has limited ability to \"bring fraud claims where the funds solicited and the investors are based overseas\".\n\nSection::::Regulatory bodies.:U. S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS).\n", "In the Madoff fraud, where securities had allegedly not actually been purchased, SIPC and the SIPC Trustee challenged and disposed of the claims of approximately one-half of customers of the Madoff firm, arguing that over the course of time those investors had withdrawn more funds than had been invested, resulting in a negative \"net equity\", and, therefore, not eligible for SIPC protection.\n", "Employees were not being defrauded. Their wages and conditions didn't provide for any superannuation, so they received everything they expected to and were unaware of the super fund notionally in their names.\n\nThe trustee of the fund normally had to declare in its annual report to the Australian Taxation Office that all members of the fund had been notified of their rights to benefits. But this was never the case, employees were kept deliberately in the dark.\n", "While awaiting sentencing, Madoff met with the SEC's Inspector General, H. David Kotz, who was conducting an investigation into how regulators failed to detect the fraud despite numerous red flags. Because of concerns of improper conduct by Inspector General Kotz in conducting the Madoff investigation, Inspector General David C. Williams of the U.S. Postal Service was brought in to conduct an independent outside review of Kotz's actions. The Williams Report questioned Kotz's work on the Madoff investigation, because Kotz was a \"very good friend\" with Markopolos. Investigators were not able to determine when Kotz and Markopolos became friends. A violation of the ethics rules took place if their friendship was concurrent with Kotz's investigation of Madoff.\n", "Court papers indicate that Madoff's firm had about 4,800 investment client accounts as of November 30, 2008, and issued statements for that month reporting that client accounts held a total balance of about $65 billion, but actually \"held only a small fraction\" of that balance for clients.\n", "It's highly doubtful Paul Kelly had much actual concern about the fund and its members; for a start he'd known of the scheme from its inception. As Justice Wootten said, it may have just been a \"convenient stick with which to beat his brother\". In any event, the case was settled (Paul Kelly died during the course of the case).\n", "Madoff's firm paid Friehling between $12,000 and $14,500 a month for his services between 2004 and 2007.\n\nAlthough required, Friehling was not registered with the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board, which was created under the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 to help detect fraud. Nor was the firm \"peer reviewed,\" in which auditors check out one another for quality control. According to the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA), Friehling was enrolled in their peer-review program, but was not required to participate because he advised the group that he had not conducted audits for 15 years.\n", "At the Ponzi scheme’s most basic level, Jones collected money from individuals and estates and then returned the same money as monthly interest payments. Since there is a limited supply of new clients, the fraud could not have operated for as long as Jones perpetrated his scheme without what the forensic accountants have termed \"fresh money\".\n", "Operators also try to minimize withdrawals by offering new plans to investors where money cannot be withdrawn for a certain period of time in exchange for higher returns. The operator sees new cash flows as investors cannot transfer money. If a few investors do wish to withdraw their money in accordance with the terms allowed, their requests are usually promptly processed, which gives the illusion to all other investors that the fund is solvent and financially sound.\n", "The solution to this problem should provide ex-ante optimal contract structure which specify in which scenario realized cash flow should be audited and certified.\n\nWith no audit the entrepreneur would never be able to raise any money from investor since rational investor anticipates that the entrepreneur will lie about realized profit to avoid paying back to the investor. \n\nHowever, in CSV framework regulated mandatory periodic disclosure of entrepreneurial performance is not efficient and imposes excessive disclosure costs.\n", "Harry Sussman, an attorney representing several clients of the firm, stated that \"someone had to create the appearance that there were returns,\" and further suggested that there must have been a team buying and selling stocks, forging books, and filing reports. James Ratley, president of the Association of Certified Fraud Examiners said, \"In order for him to have done this by himself, he would have had to have been at work night and day, no vacation and no time off. He would have had to nurture the Ponzi scheme daily. What happened when he was gone? Who handled it when somebody called in while he was on vacation and said, 'I need access to money'?\"\n", "Blackmun also rejected Schmuck's argument from \"Maze\" that the mailings' potential to expose the scheme ruled them out as contributory elements of it. \"The mail fraud statute includes no guarantee that the use of the mails for the purpose of executing a fraudulent scheme will be risk-free. Those who use the mails to defraud proceed at their peril.\"\n", "His calculations of Madoff's trades revealed that there was almost no correlation between Madoff's stocks and the S&P 100, as Madoff claimed. Markopolos also couldn't find any evidence the market was responding to any Madoff trades, even though by his estimate Madoff was managing as much as $6 billion – three times more than any known hedge fund at the time. In Markopolos' mind, these factors suggested that Madoff wasn't even trading.\n", "By purportedly selling its holdings for cash at the end of each period, Madoff avoided filing disclosures of its holdings with the SEC, an unusual tactic. Madoff rejected any call for an outside audit \"for reasons of secrecy\", claiming that was the exclusive responsibility of his brother, Peter, the company's chief compliance officer\".\n" ]	[ "In a Ponzi scheme, one never receives money from one's investments.", "You are not receiving any money from your investments in a Ponzi Scheme." ]	[ "In a Ponzi scheme, one does get some money from investments but it then has to be used to pay back other investments.", "One does receive money by investing in a Ponzi Scheme, from investments by others in the Ponzi Scheme." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "In a Ponzi scheme, one never receives money from one's investments.", "You are not receiving any money from your investments in a Ponzi Scheme." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "In a Ponzi scheme, one does get some money from investments but it then has to be used to pay back other investments.", "One does receive money by investing in a Ponzi Scheme, from investments by others in the Ponzi Scheme." ]
2018-23317	On average, what do presidents/CEOs of major corporations actually do at work?	INA anything, but I was a middle manager. They deal with budget, legal issues, shareholders, economy and demand forecasts, making bets on not enough info to move company in another direction. Also, potentially vendors, HR issues, lawsuits. And lots and lots of meetings. The good ones do work hard, and need to make multi million dollar decisions on insufficient information. I do not think that work is worth millions of dollars per year. Personally, I think the CEO salary in USA is a product of having smart people, who are really good at justifying things to the business and who know exactly how much the company makes. Do that over many years and you get golden parachutes like now.	[ "BULLET::::- Derek Kan - General Manager at Lyft, member of Amtrak Board of Directors (appointed by Barack Obama)\n\nBULLET::::- Roberta S. Jacobson – United States Assistant Secretary of State for Western Hemisphere Affairs\n\nBULLET::::- Betsy Markey – former U.S. Representative for Colorado's 4th congressional district\n\nBULLET::::- Jeff Merkley – U.S. Senator from Oregon\n\nBULLET::::- David Norquist – current Under Secretary of Defense (Comptroller) in the United States Department of Defense\n\nBULLET::::- Sean O'Keefe – Chairman and CEO of aerospace giant Airbus Group, Inc., former Chancellor of Louisiana State University and the Administrator of NASA from 2001–2004\n", "The government executive occupation also covers many jobs. They range from city council member, mayor, and governor, all the way up to President of the United States. Some of these positions are elected. Other officials are appointed to their jobs. In smaller communities, many of these jobs may be volunteer positions. Sometimes these jobs run through only part of the year.\n", "A 2017 study showed that companies whose executives have met the president report a raise of their share values, by approximately 0.5% following a month or two after the disclosure of the meeting. The authors note that direct causation is difficult to prove, but it is likely that investors view such news as indication that companies will perform better, for example winning more government procurement contracts. That study identified 2,286 meetings between corporate executives and federal government officials with the top three most frequent visitors for that period being David M. Cote (Chairman and CEO of Honeywell International, 30 visits), Jeffrey R. Immelt (Executive Chairman and CEO of General Electric, 22 visits) and Roger C. Altman (Executive Chairman of EverCore Partners, 21 visits). The top three most frequent visitees by corporate executives in that period were Valerie Jarrett (Senior Advisor to the President, 107 visits), Jeff Zients (Assistant to the President for Economic Policy and Director of the National Economic Council, 103 visits), and the President himself (100 visits).\n", "BULLET::::- How Leaders Face the Future of Work by Lynda Gratton in the MIT Sloan Management Review 2018\n\nBULLET::::- The Long Journey to Understanding Intangible Assets by Lynda Gratton in the MIT Sloan Management Review 2018\n\nBULLET::::- Corporate Implications of Longer Lives by Lynda Gratton & Andrew Scott in the MIT Sloan Management Review 2017 Spring Vol 58:3 p 63-70\n\nBULLET::::- Rethinking the Manager's Role by Lynda Gratton in the MIT Sloan Management Review 2016 Fall Vol 58:1 p 24-27\n", "Section::::Topics.:Managerial roles.\n\nIn the late 1960s Henry Mintzberg, a graduate student at MIT, carefully studied the activities of five executives. On the basis of his observations, Mintzberg arrived at three categories that subsume managerial roles: interpersonal roles, decisional roles, and informational roles.\n\nSection::::Topics.:Motivation.\n", "He is the author of more than 70 published articles, cases, and notes, and eight books.\n\nSection::::Selected publications.\n\nBULLET::::- Austin, Robert D. Measuring and Managing Performance in Organizations, New York: Dorset House, 1996.\n\nBULLET::::- Austin, Robert D. and Lee Devin. Artful Making: What Managers Need to Know About How Artists Work, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Financial Times Prentice Hall, 2003.\n\nBULLET::::- Austin, Robert D., Nolan, Richard L. and Shannon O'Donnell, Adventures of an IT Leader, Harvard Business Review Press, 2009.\n", "BULLET::::- Barack Obama, President of the United States\n\nBULLET::::- Hillary Clinton, United States Secretary of State\n\nBULLET::::- Gary Locke, United States Secretary of Commerce\n\nBULLET::::- Dr. Rajiv Shah, USAID Administrator\n\nBULLET::::- Karen Mills, Administrator, U.S. Small Business Administration\n\nBULLET::::- Rashad Hussein, Special Envoy to the Organisation of the Islamic Conference\n\nBULLET::::- Farah Pandith, Special Representative to Muslim Communities\n\nBULLET::::- Pradeep Ramamurthy, Senior Director for Global Engagement, National Security Staff\n\nBULLET::::- Larry Summers, Director of the National Economic Council and Assistant to the President for Economic Policy\n\nBULLET::::- Jerry Yang, co-founder and former CEO of Yahoo! Inc.\n", "BULLET::::- William Lang- Associate Chief Medical Officer at the U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS), Director of the White House Medical Unit and Deputy Physician to the President, Director of Clinical Information Requirements for the U.S. Department of Defense\n\nBULLET::::- Jan Lesher- Chief of Staff for Operations at the Department of Homeland Security under Secretary Janet Napolitano, Chief of Staff to the Governor of Arizona\n\nBULLET::::- Dennis Lindsay- Director of Aviation Operations, Executive Director of Air and Marine Operations at U.S. Customs and Border Protection\n", "BULLET::::- Carl Karcher (EP 1982) – former President, CKE Restaurants\n\nBULLET::::- Sharon Rothstein (MBA 1984) – Global CMO, Starbucks\n\nSection::::Alumni.:Government.\n\nBULLET::::- Roel Campos (MS 1972) – Partner, Chair of SEC enforcement Defense Practice, Hughes Hubbard & Reed LLP\n\nBULLET::::- Nadya Chinoy Dabby (MBA 2006) – Assistant Deputy Secretary, Department of Education Office of Innovation and Improvement\n\nBULLET::::- Jim Matheson (MBA 1987) – CEO, NRECA; Served as a U.S. Representative in congress from Utah from 2001 to 2015.\n\nBULLET::::- Story Musgrave (MBA 1959) – Astronaut, NASA\n\nBULLET::::- Giora Romm MBA 1982 – former Director of Ministry of National Infrastructure\n", "At the top levels of a bureaucratic organisation, senior leaders often attempt to merge the practical with the symbolic, making the perks of office appear functional: they may claim larger cars, smaller computers, an entrance guarded by a (non-digital) personal assistant, a large but uncluttered desk and (especially) a \"corner office\" with an aesthetically uplifting view.\n", "BULLET::::- Kenneth S. Apfel – 13th United States Commissioner of Social Security\n\nBULLET::::- Matthew Auer – Public Policy scholar, currently serving as Dean of University of Georgia School of Public and International Affairs\n\nBULLET::::- Mitch Bainwol - CEO of the Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers, former CEO of the Recording Industry Association of America\n\nBULLET::::- Robert G. Berschinski - Deputy Assistant Secretary of State during Obama Administration\n\nBULLET::::- Richard Boly – American diplomat and Director of the Office of eDiplomacy at US Department of State\n\nBULLET::::- Cassius F. Butts - American banking executive\n", "One simple and popular communications method is called the weekly reporting method: every employee composes an e-mail report, once a week, including information on their activities in the preceding week, their plans for the following week, and any other information deemed relevant to the larger group, bearing in mind length considerations. Reports are sent to managers, who summarize and report to their own managers, eventually leading to an overall summary led by the CEO, which is then sent to the board of directors. The CEO then sends the board's summary back down the ladder, where each manager can append an additional summary or note before referring it to their employees.\n", "BULLET::::- 1980–1981 Joan Abrahamson; President, The Jefferson Institute; President, Jonas Salk Foundation\n\nBULLET::::- 1980–1981 Thomas J. Campbell; former U.S. Congressman, California\n\nBULLET::::- 1980–1981 M. Margaret McKeown; Judge, U.S. Court of Appeals for the 9th Circuit\n\nBULLET::::- 1981–1982 Paul V. Applegarth; CEO, Value Enhancement International; former Founding Managing Director, The Emerging Africa Infrastructure Fund; former Founding CEO, The Millennium Challenge Corporation (U.S. govt. corporation)\n\nBULLET::::- 1981–1982 Joe L. Barton; U.S. Congressman, Texas\n\nBULLET::::- 1981–1982 Myron E. Ullman; former CEO, Louis Vuitton Moet Hennessy; former Chairman/CEO, DFS Group, LTD; former Chairman/CEO, R.H. Macy & Company; Chairman & CEO, J.C. Penney\n", "Drucker put forward that effectiveness in leadership is learned, \"To be effective is the job of the executive… whether he works in a business or in a hospital, in a government agency or in a labor union, in a university or in the army, the executive is, first of all, expected to get the right things done.\"\n", "BULLET::::- “The Story of America’s Amazing Comeback,” \"Newsweek\", April 8, 2010\n\nSection::::Select awards.\n\nBULLET::::- 2017 Folio “Eddie,” B-to-B Column/Blog - Overall, \"Why Artificial Intelligence Needs Some Emotional Intelligence\"\n\nBULLET::::- 2017 ASBPE Gold Regional, Online, Podcast, \"Jonathan Tepperman Explains How to Fix the World’s Thorniest Problems\"\n\nBULLET::::- 2016 Folio “Eddie,” B-to-B Column/Blog - \"Banking/Business/Finance, What Companies Gain from Providing Free Lunch to Employees\"\n\nSection::::Early life and family.\n", "BULLET::::- Laura D’Andrea Tyson: S.K. and Angela Chan Professor of Global Management at the Haas School of Business, University of California Berkeley; Member of President Obama’s Economic Recovery Advisory Board.\n\nBULLET::::- Thomas R. Pickering: Vice Chairman, Hills and Company; Former Under-Secretary of State for Political Affairs.\n\nBULLET::::- David Dollar: US Treasury’s Economic and Financial Emissary to China; Former Country Director for China and Mongolia, World Bank.\n", "BULLET::::- Rosemary O'Leary, Robert Durant, Daniel Fiorino, and Paul Weiland, \"Managing For the Environment\". San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 436 pp. (1999).\n\nBULLET::::- Winner of the “Best Book in Public and Non-Profit Management” Award, given by the Academy of Management, 2000.\n\nBULLET::::- Winner of the “Best Book in Environmental and Natural Resources Administration” Award, given by the American Society for Public Administration, 1999.\n\nBULLET::::- Rosemary O’Leary and Catherine Gerard, Collaboration Across Boundaries: Insights and Tips from Federal Senior Executives. IBM Center for the Business of Government, 50 pp. (2012).\n", "BULLET::::- Miles, Stephen A.; & Larcker, David (2011). \"Do Active CEOs Make the Best Board Members?\". \"Stanford Graduate School of Business\".\n\nBULLET::::- Miles, Stephen A.; & Bennett, Nathan (July 10, 2011). \"Are You Ready to Replace Your CEO?\". \"Bank Director\".\n\nBULLET::::- Bennett, Nathan; & Miles, Stephen A. (2010). \"Your Career Game: How Game Theory Can Help You Achieve Your Professional Goals.\" Palo Alto: Stanford Business Books. .\n\nBULLET::::- Bennett, Nathan; & Miles, Stephen A. (March 24, 2010). \"Business Decisions Are Like Golf Decisions\". \"Forbes\".\n", "BULLET::::- Rogelberg, S. G., Leach, D.J., Warr, P.B., & Burnfield, J.L. (2006). “Not another meeting!” Are meeting time demands related to employee well-being? \"Journal of Applied Psychology, 1\", 86-96.\n\nSection::::Outreach initiatives.\n", "BULLET::::- Martin Ford, author of \"Rise of the Robots: Technology and the Threat of a Jobless Future\", winner of 2015 Financial Times and McKinsey Business Book of the Year Award.\n\nBULLET::::- Chuck Harrington (MBA 1987) – CEO and Chairman, Parsons\n\nBULLET::::- Zuisho Hayashi (MBA 1962) – President, Humax\n\nBULLET::::- Jeffrey O. Henley (MBA 1967) – Executive Vice President and CFO Oracle\n\nBULLET::::- Ravi Jacob (MBA 1984) – VP and Treasurer, Intel\n\nBULLET::::- Akinobu Kanasugi (MBA 1967) – former President, NEC Corp.\n\nBULLET::::- Guy Kawasaki (MBA 1979) – author, former Chief Evangelist of Apple\n", "Henri Fayol's influence is also visibly apparent in Luther Gulick's five elements of management discussed as in his book, which are as follows:\n\nBULLET::::- Planning - examining the future and drawing up plans of actions\n\nBULLET::::- Organizing - building up the structure (labor and material) of the undertaking\n\nBULLET::::- Command - maintaining activity among the personnel\n\nBULLET::::- Co-ordination - unifying and harmonizing activities and efforts\n\nBULLET::::- Control - seeing that everything occurs in conformity with policies and practices\n\nSection::::Place in management and public administration history.\n", "“Most people who work here would be able to tell you why the things that they do every day matter, and why they help the company succeed. You feel like you’re part of a team. And when the team wins, you win.”\n", "Important, non-routine projects are identified as the \"current initiative\" for some action each and every day. Backlogs may be a current initiative until completed, but the goal is to take breaks and complete a full day's tasks each day with efficient focus.\n", "Section::::Career.:Executive Compensation & Retirement.\n", "In addition, executives oversee budgets. They use budgets to analyze how well the organization is running. They make suggestions about where to cut expenses. Executives may also suggest where improvements could be made. Executives also negotiate contracts with outside agencies. They need good persuasion skills to keep costs down. Some executives write yearly reports to let their communities know what has been accomplished.\n\nSection::::Government executives.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04678	how did they discover tobacco? Like, did they just go around smoking plants until they found one they liked?	Oral traditions of smoking tobacco date back ~7,000 years (in Mesoamerica and South America), which is much earlier than any written history, so it's very unlikely this question can ever be answered accurately.	[ "Tobacco was widely diffused among all of the indigenous people of the islands of the Caribbean. Italian explorer Christopher Columbus is generally credited with the introduction of tobacco to Europe. During his 1492 journey, three of his crewmen Rodrigo de Jerez, Hector Fuentes and Luis de Torres, are said to have encountered tobacco for the first time on the island of Hispaniola, (present day Haiti and the Dominican Republic), when natives presented them with dry leaves that spread a peculiar fragrance. His sailors reported that the Taínos on the island of Cuba smoked a primitive form of cigar, with twisted, dried tobacco leaves rolled in other leaves such as palm or plantain.\n", "Of the four plants of the Americas that spread to the rest of the world in the Columbian Exchange—potato, maize, tomato, and tobacco—the last is the only one used in every country. Greek and Roman accounts exist of smoking hemp seeds, and a Spanish poem c. 1276 mentions the energetic effects of lavender smoke, but tobacco was completely unfamiliar to Europeans before the discovery of the New World. Las Casas vividly described how the first scouts sent by Columbus into the interior of Cuba found\n", "In 1560, Jean Nicot de Villemain, then French ambassador to Portugal, brought tobacco seeds and leaves as a \"wonder drug\" to the French court. In 1586 the botanist Jaques Dalechamps gave the plant the name of \"Herba nicotiana\", which was also adopted by Linné. It was considered a decorative plant at first, then a panacea, before it became a common snuff and tobacco plant. Tobacco arrived in Africa at the beginning of the 17th century. The leaf extract was a popular pest control method up to the beginning of the 20th century. In 1851, the Belgian chemist Jean Stas documented the use of tobacco extract as a murder poison. The Belgian count Hippolyte Visart de Bocarmé had poisoned his brother-in-law with tobacco leaf extract in order to acquire some urgently needed money. This was the first exact proof of alkaloids in forensic medicine.\n", "In November 1492, Jerez and Luis de Torres first observed natives smoking. They were searching for the Emperor of China, Hongzhi Emperor, in Cuba. Apparently, the natives made rolls of palm and mais leaves \"in the manner of a musket formed of paper\" with tobacco on the inside. One would light one side and \"drink\" the smoke out of the other.\n", "Nicot sent leaves and seeds to Francis II and his mother Catherine of Medici, with instructions to use tobacco as snuff. The king's recurring headaches (perhaps sinus trouble) were reportedly \"marvellously cured\" by snuff (Francis II nevertheless died at seventeen years of age on December 5, 1560, after a reign lasting fewer than two years). French cultivation of \"herbe de la Reine\" (the queen's herb) began in 1560. By 1570 botanists referred to tobacco as \"Nicotiana\", although André Thevet claimed that he, not Nicot, had introduced tobacco to France; historians believe that this is unlikely to be true, but Thevet was the first Frenchman to write about it.\n", "John Hawkins was the first to bring tobacco seeds to England. William Harrison's \"English Chronology\" mentions tobacco smoking in the country as of 1573, before Sir Walter Raleigh brought the first \"Virginia\" tobacco to Europe from the Roanoke Colony, referring to it as \"tobah\" as early as 1578. In 1595 Anthony Chute published \"Tabaco\", which repeated earlier arguments about the benefits of the plant and emphasised the health-giving properties of pipe-smoking.\n", "Swiss doctor Conrad Gesner in 1563 reported that chewing or smoking a tobacco leaf \"has a wonderful power of producing a kind of peaceful drunkenness\". In 1571, Spanish doctor Nicolas Monardes wrote a book about the history of medicinal plants of the new world. In this he claimed that tobacco could cure 36 health problems, and reported that the plant was first brought to Spain for its flowers, but \"Now we use it to a greater extent for the sake of its virtues than for its beauty\".\n", "As director of the UCBG, Goodspeed led several plant hunting expeditions to the Andes of Colombia, Peru, Chile, Argentina, and Uruguay. He obtained a substantial collection of \"Nicotiana\" during these expeditions, which were then assembled at the Botanical Garden for further study. His study lead to increased understanding of the origins and diversity of tobacco species. The collection was later used to reintroduce wild disease resistance traits into domesticated species.\n", "Then, in 1933 Johnston and Cleland reported that the plant Europeans usually associate with pituri, \"Duboisia hopwoodii\", is not used for chewing across most of central Australia – a variety of native tobacco is; and two years later Hicks and Le Messurier found in a 300-mile radius around the south-west, north-west and north of Alice Springs people \"chewed, under the name of 'pituri' the leaves of at least two varieties of \"Nicotiana\" ... they wished to indicate that [\"Duboisia hopwoodii\"] was 'pituri', but only used when real pituri, i.e. \"Nicotiana\", was unobtainable.\"\n", "Section::::Other interests.\n\nSection::::Other interests.:Discovery of the Venus flytrap.\n\nIn 1759, the North Carolina colonial governor, Arthur Dobbs, penned the first written description of the plant:\n\nThis seems to be the earliest notice of the plant and is before the letters from John Ellis (who gave it the name \"Dionæa muscipula\") to \"The St James’s Chronicle\", a London newspaper and Carl Linnaeus on the subject.\n\nSection::::Other interests.:Northwest Passage.\n", "Tobacco was first discovered by the native people of Mesoamerica and South America and later introduced to Europe and the rest of the world.\n", "After these experiments, even assuming that cocaine was actually found on mummies, it is possible that this could be a contamination occurred after the discovery The same argument can be applied to nicotine but, in addition, various plants other than tobacco are a source of nicotine and two of these, \"Withania somnifera\" and \"Apium graveolens\", were known and used by ancient Egyptians.\n", "In 1609, English colonist John Rolfe arrived at Jamestown, Virginia, and became the first settler to successfully raise tobacco (commonly referred to at that time as \"brown gold\") for commercial use. Tobacco was used as currency by the Virginia settlers for years, and Rolfe was able to make his fortune in farming it for export at Varina Farms Plantation.\n", "A Frenchman named Jean Nicot (from whose name the word nicotine derives) introduced tobacco to France in 1560 from Spain. From there, it spread to England. The first report of a smoking Englishman is of a sailor in Bristol in 1556, seen \"emitting smoke from his nostrils.\" Like tea, coffee and opium, tobacco was just one of many intoxicants originally used as a form of medicine.\n", "Smoking has been practiced in one form or another since ancient times. Tobacco and various hallucinogenic drugs were smoked all over the Americas as early as 5000 BC in shamanistic rituals and originated in the Peruvian and Ecuadorian Andes. Many ancient civilizations, such as the Babylonians, Indians and Chinese, burnt incense as a part of religious rituals, as did the Israelites and the later Catholic and Orthodox Christian churches. However the burning of incense is not direct inhalation. It is unknown how much cannabis resin this incense would have contained and if it came from psychoactive types of cannabis or possibly opium. The ancient Assyrians employed cannabis fumes as a cure for 'poison of the limbs', presumed to mean Arthritis.\n", "Robicsek posits that smoking in the Americas probably originated in incense-burning ceremonies, and was later adopted for pleasure or as a social tool. The Maya employed it in classical times (at least from the 10th century) and the Aztecs included it in their mythology. The Aztec goddess Cihuacoahuatl had a body consisting of tobacco, and the priests that performed human sacrifices wore tobacco gourds as symbols of divinity. Even today certain Tzeltal Maya sacrifice 13 calabashes of tobacco at New Year. The smoking of tobacco and various other hallucinogenic drugs was used to achieve trances and to come into contact with the spirit world. Reports from the first European explorers and conquistadors to reach the Americas tell of rituals where native priests smoked themselves into such high degrees of intoxication that it is unlikely that the rituals were limited to just tobacco. No concrete evidence of exactly what they smoked exists, but the most probable theory is that the tobacco was much stronger, consumed in extreme amounts, or was mixed with other, unknown psychoactive drugs.\n", "Historians have noted that Hawkins as well as his crew were some of the first travelers from Europe to observe tobacco use in the Americas during their voyages in 1562. Sparke's chronicle of his second voyage recounts the inhabitants of Fort Caroline in what is now northeast Florida smoking tobacco leaves on approximately 20 July 1565: “The Floridians ... haue a kinde of herbe dryed [ Tobacco.] which with a cane, and an earthen cup in the end, with fire, and the dried herbs put together do smoke thoro the cane the smoke thereof ... .” He and his men brought back both the leaves and the practice of smoking to England in 1565, though the practice did not gain in popularity until years after.\n", "The Greek historian Herodotos wrote that the Scythians vaporized cannabis seeds as part of their cultural rituals.\n\n'They make a booth by fixing in the ground three sticks inclined towards one another, and stretching around them woolen felts which they arrange so as to fit as close as possible: inside the booth a dish is placed upon the ground into which they put a number of red-hot stones and then add some hemp seed. At once it begins to smoke, giving off a vapour unsurpassed by any vapor-bath one could find in Greece. The Scythians delighted shout for joy.'\n", "The water-pipe called \"Argila\" (or hookah) was created in Persia. The pipes of the rich were made of finely crafted glass and precious metals while common people used coconuts with bamboo tubing, and these were used to smoke cannabis before the arrival of tobacco.\n", "Waterpipes were introduced into Persia and the Middle East in the 16th century from China. At first these pipes were used to smoke tobacco but very quickly cannabis flowers and hashish were mixed in. As tobacco use exploded across the Middle East and Northern Africa the hashish trade blossomed within a few decades. During the 16th and 17th centuries hashish smoking quickly gained in popularity across Eurasia, from Turkey to Nepal, peaking during more modern times in the late 19th and early 20th century. Throughout the 18th century the technique of gathering and drying cannabis plants to make hashish became increasingly widespread as mass production became necessary to satisfy the rapidly increasing Eurasian hashish trade.\n", "North of Zambia in Ethiopia, remains of two ceramic water pipe bowls were recovered from Lalibela Cave and dated to 640-500 BP. Both contained trace amounts of THC according to modified thin-layer chromatography. These reports are controversial because these dates predate the exploration of the New World by Spain and the supposed first introduction of tobacco, pipes, and smoking from the New World into Eurasia. (Cannabis: Evolution and Ethnobotany Clarke 2013)\n\nSection::::Popularization of smoking.\n\nSection::::Popularization of smoking.:Europe.\n", "Pehr Osbeck (1723–1805) sailed from Göteborg to China in 1750 on ship \"Prins Carl\". His primary task was to collect a tea plant for Linnaeus. He spent four months in Guangzhou where he collected many plants, but not the tea plant. He returned to Sweden in June 1752 with his collection and several other objects which he gave to Linnaeus.\n\nSection::::The Apostles.:Pehr Löfling, Spain and Venezuela (1751–56).\n", "Early modern European medical science was still to a great extent based on humorism, the idea that everything had a specific humoral nature that varied between hot and cold, dry and moist. Tobacco was often seen as something that was beneficial in its heating and drying properties and was assigned an endless list of beneficial properties. The concept of ingesting substances in the form of smoke was also entirely new and was met with both astonishment and great skepticism by Europeans.\n", "In 1612, John Rolfe arrived in Jamestown to find the colonists there struggling and starving. He had brought with him a new species of tobacco known as nicotiana tabacum. This species was preferable to the native nicotiana rustica as it was much smoother. It is unknown where John Rolfe got the seeds for this new species of tobacco, as the sale of the seeds to a non-Spaniard was punishable by death. However, this new nicotiana tabacum proved to be very popular in England and the first shipment was sent in 1614. By 1639, 750 tons of tobacco had been shipped to England.\n", "Following the arrival of Europeans, tobacco became one of the primary products fueling colonization, and also became a driving factor in the incorporation of African slave labor. The Spanish introduced tobacco to Europeans in about 1528, and by 1533, Diego Columbus mentioned a tobacco merchant of Lisbon in his will, showing how quickly the traffic had sprung up. Jean Nicot, French ambassador in Lisbon, sent samples to Paris in 1559. The French, Spanish, and Portuguese initially referred to the plant as the \"sacred herb\" because of its valuable medicinal properties.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-02372	What makes the travelling salesman problem so difficult to solve?	Two reasons: input space growth, and a lack of greedy choice heuristics that can help. So the traveling salesman has an solution space size that grows in factorials based on its input space. If we were going to go through all possible paths with N cities, we’d have N! Combinations to go though. This grows much faster than you think. Although this may be reasonable done with a super small number of cities, the numbers grow to unfathomable sizes as soon as we break double digits. Cities-solutions 1-1 2-2 3-6 4-24 5-120 6-720 ... Secondly, greedy choices. A greedy choice algorithm is basically something like “pick a city, then go the closest to that” over and over again. In a TSP problem, this doesn’t work because the shortest closed path will not necessarily go through and connect two cities that are super close to one another. Now don’t get me wrong, it’s not a terrible heuristic; you can try genetic algorithms or dynamic programming approaches and get good paths, but they will most likely be suboptimal. This means that the one and only optimal path would still beat these. So it’s hard because there’s a lot of sequences to go through and check, and the best ways we have of picking the “better” paths don’t actually give us the “best” paths.	[ "BULLET::::- The travelling purchaser problem deals with a purchaser who is charged with purchasing a set of products. He can purchase these products in several cities, but at different prices and not all cities offer the same products. The objective is to find a route between a subset of the cities, which minimizes total cost (travel cost + purchasing cost) and which enables the purchase of all required products.\n\nSection::::Integer linear programming formulations.\n", "BULLET::::- Another related problem is the Bottleneck traveling salesman problem (bottleneck TSP): Find a Hamiltonian cycle in a weighted graph with the minimal weight of the weightiest edge. For example, avoiding narrow streets with big buses. The problem is of considerable practical importance, apart from evident transportation and logistics areas. A classic example is in printed circuit manufacturing: scheduling of a route of the drill machine to drill holes in a PCB. In robotic machining or drilling applications, the \"cities\" are parts to machine or holes (of different sizes) to drill, and the \"cost of travel\" includes time for retooling the robot (single machine job sequencing problem).\n", "Christofides made a big advance in this approach of giving an approach for which we know the worst-case scenario. Christofides algorithm given in 1976, at worst is 1.5 times longer than the optimal solution. As the algorithm was so simple and quick, many hoped it would give way to a near optimal solution method. This remains the method with the best worst-case scenario. However, for a fairly general special case of the problem it was beaten by a tiny margin in 2011.\n", "BULLET::::- The sequential ordering problem deals with the problem of visiting a set of cities where precedence relations between the cities exist.\n\nBULLET::::- A common interview question at Google is how to route data among data processing nodes; routes vary by time to transfer the data, but nodes also differ by their computing power and storage, compounding the problem of where to send data.\n", "BULLET::::3. Each fragment endpoint can be connected to other possibilities: of 2\"k\" total fragment endpoints available, the two endpoints of the fragment under consideration are disallowed. Such a constrained 2\"k\"-city TSP can then be solved with brute force methods to find the least-cost recombination of the original fragments.\n", "Take formula_3 to be the distance from city \"i\" to city \"j\". Then TSP can be written as the following integer linear programming problem:\n\nThe last constraint of the DFJ formulation ensures that there are no sub-tours among the non-starting vertices, so the solution returned is a single tour and not the union of smaller tours. Because this leads to an exponential number of possible constraints, in practice it is solved with delayed column generation.\n\nSection::::Computing a solution.\n\nThe traditional lines of attack for the NP-hard problems are the following:\n", "In the 1990s, Applegate, Bixby, Chvátal, and Cook developed the program \"Concorde\" that has been used in many recent record solutions. Gerhard Reinelt published the TSPLIB in 1991, a collection of benchmark instances of varying difficulty, which has been used by many research groups for comparing results. In 2006, Cook and others computed an optimal tour through an 85,900-city instance given by a microchip layout problem, currently the largest solved TSPLIB instance. For many other instances with millions of cities, solutions can be found that are guaranteed to be within 2-3% of an optimal tour.\n\nSection::::Description.\n\nSection::::Description.:As a graph problem.\n", "The most direct solution would be to try all permutations (ordered combinations) and see which one is cheapest (using brute-force search). The running time for this approach lies within a polynomial factor of formula_19, the factorial of the number of cities, so this solution becomes impractical even for only 20 cities.\n\nOne of the earliest applications of dynamic programming is the Held–Karp algorithm that solves the problem in time formula_20. This bound has also been reached by Exclusion-Inclusion in an attempt preceding the dynamic programming approach.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nThe origins of the travelling salesman problem are unclear. A handbook for travelling salesmen from 1832 mentions the problem and includes example tours through Germany and Switzerland, but contains no mathematical treatment.\n", "BULLET::::- The generalized travelling salesman problem, also known as the \"travelling politician problem\", deals with \"states\" that have (one or more) \"cities\" and the salesman has to visit exactly one \"city\" from each \"state\". One application is encountered in ordering a solution to the cutting stock problem in order to minimize knife changes. Another is concerned with drilling in semiconductor manufacturing, see e.g., . Noon and Bean demonstrated that the generalized travelling salesman problem can be transformed into a standard travelling salesman problem with the same number of cities, but a modified distance matrix.\n", "BULLET::::- An equivalent formulation in terms of graph theory is: Given a complete weighted graph (where the vertices would represent the cities, the edges would represent the roads, and the weights would be the cost or distance of that road), find a Hamiltonian cycle with the least weight.\n\nBULLET::::- The requirement of returning to the starting city does not change the computational complexity of the problem, see Hamiltonian path problem.\n", "It was first considered mathematically in the 1930s by Merrill M. Flood who was looking to solve a school bus routing problem.\n\nHassler Whitney at Princeton University introduced the name \"travelling salesman problem\" soon after.\n", "In the following decades, the problem was studied by many researchers from mathematics, computer science, chemistry, physics, and other sciences. In the 1960s however a new approach was created, that instead of seeking optimal solutions, one would produce a solution whose length is provably bounded by a multiple of the optimal length, and in doing so create lower bounds for the problem; these may then be used with branch and bound approaches. One method of doing this was to create a minimum spanning tree of the graph and then double all its edges, which produces the bound that the length of an optimal tour is at most twice the weight of a minimum spanning tree.\n", "An exact solution for 15,112 German towns from TSPLIB was found in 2001 using the cutting-plane method proposed by George Dantzig, Ray Fulkerson, and Selmer M. Johnson in 1954, based on linear programming. The computations were performed on a network of 110 processors located at Rice University and Princeton University. The total computation time was equivalent to 22.6 years on a single 500 MHz Alpha processor. In May 2004, the travelling salesman problem of visiting all 24,978 towns in Sweden was solved: a tour of length approximately 72,500 kilometres was found and it was proven that no shorter tour exists. In March 2005, the travelling salesman problem of visiting all 33,810 points in a circuit board was solved using \"Concorde TSP Solver\": a tour of length 66,048,945 units was found and it was proven that no shorter tour exists. The computation took approximately 15.7 CPU-years (Cook et al. 2006). In April 2006 an instance with 85,900 points was solved using \"Concorde TSP Solver\", taking over 136 CPU-years, see .\n", "The problem was first formulated in 1930 and is one of the most intensively studied problems in optimization. It is used as a benchmark for many optimization methods. Even though the problem is computationally difficult, a large number of heuristics and exact algorithms are known, so that some instances with tens of thousands of cities can be solved completely and even problems with millions of cities can be approximated within a small fraction of 1%.\n", "The travelling salesman problem was mathematically formulated in the 1800s by the Irish mathematician W.R. Hamilton and by the British mathematician Thomas Kirkman. Hamilton’s Icosian Game was a recreational puzzle based on finding a Hamiltonian cycle. The general form of the TSP appears to have been first studied by mathematicians during the 1930s in Vienna and at Harvard, notably by Karl Menger, who defines the problem, considers the obvious brute-force algorithm, and observes the non-optimality of the nearest neighbour heuristic:\n", "Section::::Computing a solution.:Heuristic and approximation algorithms.\n\nVarious heuristics and approximation algorithms, which quickly yield good solutions have been devised. Modern methods can find solutions for extremely large problems (millions of cities) within a reasonable time which are with a high probability just 2–3% away from the optimal solution.\n\nSeveral categories of heuristics are recognized.\n\nSection::::Computing a solution.:Heuristic and approximation algorithms.:Constructive heuristics.\n", "This algorithm looks at things differently by using a result from graph theory which helps improve on the LB of the TSP which originated from doubling the cost of the minimum spanning tree. Given an Eulerian graph we can find an Eulerian tour in time. So if we had an Eulerian graph with cities from a TSP as vertices then we can easily see that we could use such a method for finding an Eulerian tour to find a TSP solution. By triangular inequality we know that the TSP tour can be no longer than the Eulerian tour and as such we have a LB for the TSP. Such a method is described below.\n", "Travelling salesman problem\n\nThe travelling salesman problem (TSP) asks the following question: \"Given a list of cities and the distances between each pair of cities, what is the shortest possible route that visits each city and returns to the origin city?\" It is an NP-hard problem in combinatorial optimization, important in operations research and theoretical computer science.\n\nThe travelling purchaser problem and the vehicle routing problem are both generalizations of TSP.\n", "Section::::Natural computation.\n\nWhen presented with a spatial configuration of food sources, the amoeboid Physarum polycephalum adapts its morphology to create an efficient path between the food sources which can also be viewed as an approximate solution to TSP. It's considered to present interesting possibilities and it has been studied in the area of natural computing.\n\nSection::::Benchmarks.\n\nFor benchmarking of TSP algorithms, TSPLIB is a library of sample instances of the TSP and related problems is maintained, see the TSPLIB external reference. Many of them are lists of actual cities and layouts of actual printed circuits.\n\nSection::::Popular culture.\n", "Section::::Computing a solution.:Heuristic and approximation algorithms.:Iterative improvement.:\"V\"-opt heuristic.\n", "Section::::Computing a solution.:Heuristic and approximation algorithms.:Iterative improvement.:\"k\"-opt heuristic, or Lin–Kernighan heuristics.\n\nThe Lin–Kernighan heuristic is a special case of the \"V\"-opt or variable-opt technique. It involves the following steps:\n\nBULLET::::1. Given a tour, delete \"k\" mutually disjoint edges.\n\nBULLET::::2. Reassemble the remaining fragments into a tour, leaving no disjoint subtours (that is, don't connect a fragment's endpoints together). This in effect simplifies the TSP under consideration into a much simpler problem.\n", "When the input numbers can be arbitrary real numbers, Euclidean TSP is a particular case of metric TSP, since distances in a plane obey the triangle inequality. When the input numbers must be integers, comparing lengths of tours involves comparing sums of square-roots.\n", "In the 1950s and 1960s, the problem became increasingly popular in scientific circles in Europe and the USA after the RAND Corporation in Santa Monica offered prizes for steps in solving the problem. Notable contributions were made by George Dantzig, Delbert Ray Fulkerson and Selmer M. Johnson from the RAND Corporation, who expressed the problem as an integer linear program and developed the cutting plane method for its solution. They wrote what is considered the seminal paper on the subject in which with these new methods they solved an instance with 49 cities to optimality by constructing a tour and proving that no other tour could be shorter. Dantzig, Fulkerson and Johnson, however, speculated that given a near optimal solution we may be able to find optimality or prove optimality by adding a small number of extra inequalities (cuts). They used this idea to solve their initial 49 city problem using a string model. They found they only needed 26 cuts to come to a solution for their 49 city problem. While this paper did not give an algorithmic approach to TSP problems, the ideas that lay within it were indispensable to later creating exact solution methods for the TSP, though it would take 15 years to find an algorithmic approach in creating these cuts. As well as cutting plane methods, Dantzig, Fulkerson and Johnson used branch and bound algorithms perhaps for the first time.\n", "Weber problem\n\nIn geometry, the Weber problem, named after Alfred Weber, is one of the most famous problems in location theory. It requires finding a point in the plane that minimizes the sum of the transportation costs from this point to \"n\" destination points, where different destination points are associated with different costs per unit distance.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-21112	How is stamina stored in the body?	I think you have a pretty basic misunderstanding of how this works. Strength and stamina are not physical things that your body "stores" somehow. Muscles do not get bigger because they are being filled full of "strength". Muscles grow after they are damaged by hard work. The body repairs and reinforces parts that are under strain. So repeatedly using your muscles to close to their limits causes your body to keep adding more muscle tissue to better support the strenuous activities you are undertaking. Similarly, if you undertake activities that require a lot of stamina your body compensates by building up your circulatory and respiratory systems to provide more energy to your muscles over longer time frames. It also builds muscles that more efficiently use energy. This is why sprinters and marathoners have very different body types. Sprinting requires large muscles that deliver a lot of power for a short duration, and marathons require a steady output of power over a very long duration.	[ "Brescia is an important stage in the story of \"Stamina\": thanks to pediatrician Marino Andolina, a collaborator of Vannoni and now vice-president of \"Stamina Foundation\", the \"Stamina\" therapy was practiced as expanded access in the \"Civilian Hospitals of Brescia\", the second main Italian hospital, on patients (including several children) affected by serious neurodegenerative diseases.\n", "Section::::Fatigue effects.:Hindrance of effective force application techniques.\n", "Section::::Davide Vannoni.\n\nDavide Vannoni (born 1967 in Turin) is a former professor of psychology at the University of Udine. In 2009, he founded Stamina Foundation, a self-declared nonprofit organization whose president he remains. He also owns a market research company.\n\nIn 2015 he was convicted on criminal charges in relation to the Stamina therapy, receiving a 5.5-years prison sentence.\n\nSection::::Therapy.\n", "Whether strength or endurance related, it is plausible that the majority of motor movements would require a skilled moving task of some form, whether it be maintaining proper form when paddling a canoe, or bench pressing a heavier weight. Endurance training assists the formation of these new neural representations within the motor cortex by up regulating neurotropic factors that could enhance the survival of the newer neural maps formed due to the skilled movement training. Strength training results are seen in the spinal cord well before any physiological muscular adaptation is established through muscle hypertrophy or atrophy. The results of endurance and strength training, and skilled reaching, therefore, combine to help each other maximize performance output.\n", "Reorganization of motor maps within the cortex are not altered in either strength or endurance training. However, within the motor cortex, endurance induces angiogenesis within as little as three weeks to increase blood flow to the involved regions. In addition, neurotropic factors within the motor cortex are upregulated in response to endurance training to promote neural survival.\n", "Both the architecture and type of muscle play a crucial role in determining foot contact time and production of GRF. In humans, it has been shown that sprinters have longer muscle fascicle lengths and smaller pennation angles than non-sprinters. This contributes by increasing the muscle's shortening velocity. Other studies have shown that particular muscle fiber types are favored in sprinters versus non-sprinters, as well as within different levels of sprinters. Faster individuals tend to have a greater percentage of Type II (fast-twitch) muscle fibers. Higher percentage of fast-twitch muscle fibers lead to increased force production capability, as well as increased speed of contractions leading to shorter contact times.\n", "In May 2013 the Italian Government unanimously approved the start of a clinical trial of the method developed by Vannoni, also allocating 3 million Euros for the years 2013–2014, and identifying two healthcare facilities in Abruzzo and Sicily where initiation of the treatment was authorized. In August, Vannoni gave to the National Institute of Health the protocol of the method \"Stamina\" in order to start the experiment.\n", "If the AMPK response to exercise is responsible in part for biochemical adaptations to training, how then can these adaptations to training be maintained if the AMPK response to exercise is being attenuated with training? It is hypothesized that these adaptive roles to training are maintained by AMPK activity and that the increases in AMPK activity in response to exercise in trained skeletal muscle have not yet been observed due to biochemical adaptations that the training itself stimulated in the muscle tissue to reduce the metabolic need for AMPK activation. In other words, due to previous adaptations to training, AMPK will not be activated, and further adaptation will not occur, until the intracellular ATP levels become depleted from an even higher intensity energy challenge than prior to those previous adaptations.\n", "BULLET::::- 100 m sprint: in a sprint, the athlete must be trained to work anaerobically throughout the race, an example of how to do this would be interval training.\n\nBULLET::::- Century Ride: cyclists must be prepared aerobically for a bike ride of 100 miles or more.\n\nBULLET::::- Middle distance running: athletes require both speed and endurance to gain benefit out of this training. The hard-working muscles are at their peak for a longer period of time as they are being used at that level for the longer period of time.\n", "Researchers once attributed fatigue to a build-up of lactic acid in muscles. However, this is no longer believed. Rather, lactate may stop muscle fatigue by keeping muscles fully responding to nerve signals. The available oxygen and energy supply, and disturbances of muscle ion homeostasis are the main factor determining exercise performance, at least during brief very intense exercise.\n", "In January 2014 Brescia Civilian Hospitals' medical staff officially declared that Stamina therapy was no longer practiced in the hospital, with the exception of those cases where treatment was ordered by the courts.\n\nSection::::Patents.\n", "The cellular respiration process that converts food energy into ATP (a form of energy) is largely dependent on oxygen availability. During exercise, the supply and demand of oxygen available to muscle cells is affected by duration and intensity and by the individual's cardiorespiratory fitness level. Three exercise energy systems can be selectively recruited, depending on the amount of oxygen available, as part of the cellular respiration process to generate the ATP for the muscles. They are ATP, the anaerobic system and the aerobic system.\n\nSection::::Adenosine triphosphate.\n", "Although having a high percentage of Type II fibers gives a person more potential of quicker movement, there is little doubt that the nervous system and the brain is more important on affecting the performance.\n\nBULLET::::- Muscle Motor unit recruitment\n", "Section::::Factors influencing nutritional requirements.:Anaerobic exercise.\n\nDuring anaerobic exercise, the process of glycolysis breaks down the sugars from carbohydrates for energy without the use of oxygen. This type of exercise occurs in physical activity such as power sprints, strength resistances and quick explosive movement where the muscles are being used for power and speed, with short-time energy use. After this type of exercise, there is a need to refill glycogen storage sites in the body (the long simple sugar chains in the body that store energy), although they are not likely fully depleted.\n", "Section::::Physiology.:Strength training and adaptations.\n\nWhen participating in any sport, new motor skills and movement combinations are frequently being used and repeated. All sports require some degree of strength, endurance training, and skilled reaching in order to be successful in the required tasks. Muscle memory related to strength training involves elements of both motor learning, described below, and long-lasting changes in the muscle tissue.\n", "Understanding the relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness and other categories of conditioning requires a review of changes that occur with increased aerobic, or anaerobic capacity. As aerobic/anaerobic capacity increases, general metabolism rises, muscle metabolism is enhanced, haemoglobin rises, buffers in the bloodstream increase, venous return is improved, stroke volume is improved, and the blood bed becomes more able to adapt readily to varying demands. Each of these results of cardiovascular fitness/cardiorespiratory conditioning will have a direct positive effect on muscular endurance, and an indirect effect on strength and flexibility.\n", "The \"Stamina\" case, now both as a media phenomenon and scientifically, was analyzed and criticized by, among others, the Accademia dei Lincei, by Nature and by the European Medicines Agency. In May 2013, thirteen scientists published a critical analysis of the method in the EMBO Journal, highlighting their concerns about the inconsistency of scientific evidence, the methodological shortcomings and the lack of publications.\n", "Uncertainty exists in regards to how lactate threshold effects endurance performance. The contribution of one's blood lactate levels accumulating is attributed to potential skeletal muscle hypoxemia but also to the production of more glucose that can be used as energy. The inability to establish a singular set of physiological contributions to blood lactate accumulation's effect on the exercising individual creates a correlative role for lactate threshold in marathon performance as opposed to a causal role.\n\nSection::::Alternative factors contributing to marathon performance.\n\nSection::::Alternative factors contributing to marathon performance.:Fuel.\n", "If strength exercises are not used effectively, there will be a disparity between the functional levels of the skeletal muscle system and the capabilities of the neuromuscular system. Specialized strength work produces a strong training effect on the intramuscular system.\n", "In August 2014 a court in Turin demanded that Stamina should stop operating and their equipment should be confiscated. This was supported by Professor Elena Cattaneo, a stem cell expert and an Italian senator. The Senate used its powers to request evidence that to-date had been denied to otheres. The eventual enquiry resulted in several recommendations, including that courts should always have scientific representatives in similar cases.\n", "The muscles responsible for accelerating the runner forward are required to contract with increasing speed to accommodate the increasing velocity of the body. During the acceleration phase of sprinting, the contractile component of muscles is the main component responsible for the power output. Once a steady state velocity has been reached and the sprinter is upright, a sizable fraction of the power comes from the mechanical energy stored in the ‘series elastic elements’ during stretching of the contractile muscles that is released immediately after the positive work phase. As the velocity of the runner increases, inertia and air resistance effects become the limiting factors on the sprinter’s top speed.\n", "Because the AMPK response to exercise decreases with increased training duration, many questions arise that would challenge the AMPK role with respect to biochemical adaptations to exercise and endurance training. This is due in part to the marked increases in the mitochondrial biogenesis, upregulation of GLUT-4, UCP-3, Hexokinase II along with other metabolic and mitochondrial enzymes despite decreases in AMPK activity with training. Questions also arise because skeletal muscle cells which express these decreases in AMPK activity in response to endurance training also seem to be maintaining an oxidative dependent approach to metabolism, which is likewise thought to be regulated to some extent by AMPK activity.\n", "The Phosphogenic (ATP-PC) anaerobic energy pathway restores ATP after its breakdown via Creatine Phosphate stored in skeletal muscle. This pathway is anaerobic because it does not require oxygen to synthesize or utilize ATP. ATP restoration only lasts for approximately the first 30 seconds of exercise. This rapid rate of ATP production is essential at the onset of exercise. The amount of creatine phosphate and ATP stored in the muscle is small, readily available, and is utilized quickly due these two factors. An example of exercise that would primarily use this energy pathway could be weight lifting or performing sprints.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Tomb and other stories\", Kindle 2015\n\nBULLET::::- \"Counterfeit\", 2016\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Reich Legacy\", 2017br\n\nBULLET::::- \"Saturn Run\", 2017\n\nSection::::Bibliography (selective).:Most cited peer-reviewed articles.\n\nBULLET::::- S Salmons \"An implantable muscle stimulator\" 1967 \"Journal of Physiology\" 1967, Volume 188, pp 13–14P.\n\nBULLET::::- S Salmons, J Henriksson \"The adaptive response of skeletal muscle to increased use\" \"Muscle and Nerve\" 1981, Volume 4, Issue 2, pp 94–105 (cited 661 times in Google Scholar as of September 2014)\n", "Characters have 4 primary characteristics (Strength, Agility, Dexterity, and Intelligence) and 4 secondary characteristics (Training, Endurance, Experience, and Reason) that are randomly generated by die rolls. Stamina is how much damage the character can take. The Companion Book added Perception, Appearance, Speech, and Attitude characteristics to flesh out the character's personality.\n" ]	[ "The body contains stamina.", "Stamina is a physical thing that can be stored in a body. " ]	[ "Stamina is not a measurable unit that the body stores.", "Stamina comes from the body building up its circulatory and respiratory systems in order to deliver energy to muscles. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The body contains stamina.", "Stamina is a physical thing that can be stored in a body. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Stamina is not a measurable unit that the body stores.", "Stamina comes from the body building up its circulatory and respiratory systems in order to deliver energy to muscles. " ]
2018-14817	Why, if Japan is one of the most technologically developed civilizations on earth, are their special effects techniques in cinema still behind that of Hollywood films? i.e Godzilla films	Making a film is for-profit. Film-makers will be pressured by executives to spend the minimum amount of money necessary to meet a given financial target. This target translates for you - the viewer - as you enjoying the movie, thus spending money on it. The Japanese public are not put off by lower-tier VFX to the same degree as, eg, americans are. This is obviously the case, because if it were not, then japanese films with typical japanese VFX would tank for looking fake. Since they are willing to accept that quality of work, that is the quality of work that is produced. However, it would be wrong to assume from this that the quality of work produced exhibits the limits of japanese artistic merit in the domain of computer-generated imagery. If you are interested in seeing a somewhat modern example of japanese digital artists making a movie, I would suggest watching Final Fantasy XV: Kingsglaive. Critical consensus is that the plot is pretty badly conveyed; but the movie is the equal of any major CG studio's works in terms of its visual aesthetics. Square Enix, you see, is trying to position itself as the market leader for visual fidelity in computer graphics. Based on some recent tech demos, it seems that Kingsglaive was a way to subsidize the creation of myriad digital assets that could then be used to work with next-gen graphics cards - a tech demo recently released showed (in real time) a character from the movie looking exactly as he did in the movie. In this context, Kingsglaive becomes an advertisement of the future capabilities of Square Enix's new graphics engine; and an advertisement can only be effective if it either accurately shows or oversells the capacities of the product promised. Thus, SE spent the money to achieve peerless quality, and demonstrated (unintentionally, as this was orthogonal to their goals) that japanese special effects can match the western standard, when the investment in that standard matches the western standard of investment. The flaw with japanese VFX, after all, isn't in compositing. It's that the digital assets are unrealistic to begin with.	[ "Other series like \"Time Trax\", \"Roar\", and \"\" were filmed in Australia, but used mostly US crew and actors.\n\nSection::::Science fiction television history and culture.:Japanese television science fiction.\n\nJapan has a long history of producing science fiction series for television. Some of the most famous are anime such as Osamu Tezuka's \"Astro Boy\", the Super Robots such as Mitsuteru Yokoyama's \"Tetsujin 28-go\" (\"Gigantor\") and Go Nagai's \"Mazinger Z\", and the Real Robots such as Yoshiyuki Tomino's \"Gundam\" series and Shōji Kawamori's \"Macross\" series.\n", "Other primary aspects of Japanese science fiction television are the superhero \"tokusatsu\" (a term literally meaning special effects) series, pioneered by programs such as \"Moonlight Mask\" and \"Planet Prince\". The suitmation technique has been used in long running franchises include Eiji Tsuburaya's Ultra Series, Shotaro Ishinomori's Kamen Rider Series, and the Super Sentai Series.\n\nIn addition, several dramas utilize science fiction elements as framing devices, but are not labeled as \"tokusatsu\" as they do not utilize actors in full body suits and other special effects.\n\nSection::::Science fiction television history and culture.:Continental European science fiction series.\n", "Japan has a long history of producing science fiction series for TV. Only a few of these series are aired outside Japan and even when aired, they tend to be edited, rarely retaining their original storyline. Non-anime science fiction are still largely unknown to foreign audiences. An exception is \"Power Rangers\" and their subsequent series that used battle sequences from the \"Super Sentai\" counterpart and combined them with American actors who acted out entirely original story lines.\n\nSection::::Programs.:Anime.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Frankenstein Conquers the World\" (1965) – Director Of Special Effects\n\nBULLET::::- \"Crazy Adventure\" (1965) – Special Effects Director\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dr. Goldfoot and the Bikini Machine\" (1965) – Director Of Special Effects: Footage Taken From The Toho Production \"Godzilla Vs. The Thing\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Invasion of Astro-Monster\" (1965) – Special Effects Director\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ironfinger\" (1965) – Special Effects\n\nBULLET::::- \"War of the Gargantuas\" (1966) – Director Of Special Effects\n\nBULLET::::- \"Zero Faita Dai Kuusen\" (1966) – Special Effects Director\n\nBULLET::::- \"Godzilla vs. the Sea Monster\" (1966) – Visual Effects Supervisor\n\nBULLET::::- \"King Kong Escapes\" (1967) – Director Of Special Effects\n", "The first New Zealand nomination was in 1958 for Snows of Aorangi with New Zealand's first wins coming in 1994 for The Piano.\n\n1994\n\nSection::::Special effects.\n\nRichard Taylor, who is the head of Weta Workshop, has won a notable number of awards for his work on the \"Lord of the Rings\" film trilogy and King Kong. Currently, he holds one of the largest Academy Award Collections.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Atragon\" (1963) – Director Of Special Effects\n\nBULLET::::- \"Shikonmado – Dai Tatsumaki\" (1964) – Special Effects Director\n\nBULLET::::- \"Kyomo Ware Ozorani Ari\" (1964) – Special Effects Supervisor\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mothra vs. Godzilla\" (1964) – Director Of Special Effects\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dogora, the Space Monster\" (1964) – Director Of Special Effects\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ghidorah, the Three-Headed Monster\" (1964) – Special Effects Director\n\nBULLET::::- \"None but the Brave\" (1965) – Special Effects Director: Toho Special Effects Group\n\nBULLET::::- \"War-Gods of the Deep\" (1965) – Director Of Special Effects: Footage Taken From The Toho Production \"Atragon\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"\" (1965) – Director Of Special Effects\n", "The cinema of Japan has a history that spans more than 100 years. Japan has one of the oldest and largest film industries in the world; as of 2010, it was the fourth largest by number of feature films produced. Movies have been produced in Japan since 1897, when the first foreign cameramen arrived.\n", "Sori told Oricon he has a deep affection for the story that tells the \"truth of living,\" and said, \"It is my dearest wish to turn this wonderful story into a film, and it is not an exaggeration to say that I am living for this reason.\" He added that he \"wants to create a wonderful film that uses techniques that challenge Hollywood,\" and noted that nowadays Japanese filmmaking techniques have progressed greatly.\n\nOn 19 February 2018, the film released on Netflix as a Netflix Original Film.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Last War\" (1961) – Special Effects Director\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gorath\" (1962) – Special Effects Director\n\nBULLET::::- \"Kurenai No Sora\" (1962) – Special Effects Director\n\nBULLET::::- \"King Kong vs. Godzilla\" (1962) – Director Of Special Effects\n\nBULLET::::- \"\" (1962) – Special Effects Director\n\nBULLET::::- \"Varan the Unbelievable\" (re-edited American version) (1962) – Director Of Special Effects\n\nBULLET::::- \"Attack Squadron!\" (1963) – Special Effects Director\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chintao Yosai Bakugeki Meirei\" (1963) – Special Effects Director\n\nBULLET::::- \"Matango\" (1963) – Director Of Special Effects\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Lost World of Sinbad\" (1963) – Special Effects Director\n", "On to New Guinea again, where local women are shown attempting to make their skin less dark by bathing in mud. On the large Italian island of Sardinia, funeral services are enhanced by a paid display of female grief, while back on tropical islands, Tahitian women launch into sensual dance routines. Then, another look at France, as starlets participate in an annual routine at the Cannes Film Festival by stripping down to the briefest of bikinis as they pose and parade for photographers, while their American counterparts in Hollywood are shown marking time in wait for their big break by taking any available employment, such as running an elevator or pumping gas. A photographer takes endless photographs of innumerable women so that he can merge their characteristics into one perfect specimen, while Japanese women seek perfection in surgical enhancements for their breasts and wide-open eyes so that they may resemble women from the \"West\". In America, rubber \"falsies\" which make breasts appear larger, are a very big industry. Back in Southeast Asia, Malaysian villagers realistically simulate labor pains at the same moments as the mothers of their children go through the birth process.\n", "Cinema of Japan\n\nThe has a history that spans more than 100 years. Japan has one of the oldest and largest film industries in the world; as of 2010, it was the fourth largest by number of feature films produced. In 2011 Japan produced 411 feature films that earned 54.9% of a box office total of US$2.338 billion. Films have been produced in Japan since 1897, when the first foreign cameramen arrived.\n", "In 1954, \"Godzilla\", directed by Ishirō Honda, began the kaiju subgenre of science fiction film, which feature large creatures of any form, usually attacking a major city or engaging other monsters in battle.\n", "The special-effects artist Eiji Tsuburaya and the director Ishirō Honda became the driving forces behind 1954's \"Godzilla\". Tsuburaya, inspired by the American film \"King Kong\", formulated many of the techniques that would become staples of the genre, such as so-called suitmation—the use of a human actor in a costume to play a giant monster—combined with the use of miniatures and scaled-down city sets. \"Godzilla\" forever changed the landscape of Japanese science fiction, fantasy, and cinema by creating a uniquely Japanese vision in a genre typically dominated by American cinema.\n", "Science and technology in Pacific Island countries\n\nSection::::Socio-economic context.\n\nSection::::Socio-economic context.:Economic trends.\n\nPacific Island economies are mostly dependent on natural resources, with a tiny manufacturing sector and no heavy industry. In Fiji and Papua New Guinea, for instance, there is a need to adopt automated machinery and design in forestry and to improve training, in order to add value to exports.\n", "BULLET::::- \"251\", Singapore 2007 – Special Effects Consultant\n\nBULLET::::- Asian Boys Vol.3, Singapore 2007 – Magic Consultant\n\nBULLET::::- The Next Wave, Singapore 2007 - Magic & Special Effects Consultant\n\nBULLET::::- Let Me Entertain You!, Singapore2006 – Magic & Special Effects Consultant\n\nBULLET::::- Little Shop of Horrors, Singapore 2006 – Magic Consultant\n\nBULLET::::- 'Oi! Sleeping Beauty, Singapore 2005 – Magic Consultant\n\nBULLET::::- Aladdin, Singapore 2005 – Magic Consultant\n\nBULLET::::- Ten Brothers, Singapore 2005 – Magic Consultant\n\nSection::::Early career.\n", "The action scenes in the film were inspired by Hong Kong action cinema. Kurata compared the Hong Kong style to the Japanese style by saying that “Hong Kong films are about over-action, or overdoing it; whereas Japanese action is often too subtle. It doesn’t satisfy the audience in the same way. I prefer Hong Kong style myself, but keep in mind that wire work was not used in Hong Kong until ‘Chinese Ghost Story’ (1987). My production company introduced wire action to Japanese films, about nine years ago, in a film called ‘Yellow Dragon’.”\n\nSection::::Cast.\n", "The most successful monster movies were kaiju films released by Japanese film studio Toho. The 1954 film \"Godzilla\", with the title monster attacking Tokyo, gained immense popularity, spawned multiple sequels, led to other kaiju films like \"Rodan\", and created one of the most recognizable monsters in cinema history. Japanese science fiction films, particularly the tokusatsu and kaiju genres, were known for their extensive use of special effects, and gained worldwide popularity in the 1950s. Kaiju and tokusatsu films, notably \"Warning from Space\" (1956), sparked Stanley Kubrick's interest in science fiction films and influenced \"\" (1968). According to his biographer John Baxter, despite their \"clumsy model sequences, the films were often well-photographed in colour ... and their dismal dialogue was delivered in well-designed and well-lit sets.\"\n", "BULLET::::- No. 91: Historical Machine Tools collected by Nippon Institute of Technology. 232 units of machine tools are displayed in the museum. These units indicate historical transition of machine tools in Japan, from import, make with replica, then by technical license agreement, in period of mid Meiji to Shōwa 50s (1975–1984). – Saitama Prefecture\n\nBULLET::::- No. 92: Airless Spray Painting Equipment. Under United States patent license, first made in Japan equipment with some improvements put on market in 1959. – Aichi Prefecture\n", "Section::::Production.:Special effects.\n", "British special effects technicians and production designers are known for creating visual effects at a far lower cost than their counterparts in the US, as seen in \"Time Bandits\" (1981) and \"Brazil\" (1985). This reputation has continued through the 1990s and into the 21st century with films such as the James Bond series, \"Gladiator\" (2000) and the Harry Potter franchise.\n", "This trend was not limited to the United States; perhaps the most successful monster movies were the kaiju films released by Japanese film studio Toho. The 1954 film \"Godzilla\", with the title monster attacking Tokyo, gained immense popularity, spawned multiple sequels, led to other kaiju films like \"Rodan\", and created one of the most recognizable monsters in cinema history. Japanese science fiction films, particularly the tokusatsu and kaiju genres, were known for their extensive use of special effects, and gained worldwide popularity in the 1950s. Kaiju and tokusatsu films, notably \"Warning from Space\" (1956), sparked Stanley Kubrick's interest in science fiction films and influenced \"\" (1968). According to his biographer John Baxter, despite their \"clumsy model sequences, the films were often well-photographed in colour ... and their dismal dialogue was delivered in well-designed and well-lit sets.\"\n", "1 Year Diploma Program Motion Picture Production\n\nFirst Term:\n\n1) Directing 101\n\n2) Scriptwriting 101\n\n3) Cinematography 101\n\n4) Production Design\n\n5) Production Management\n\n6) Editing 101\n\nSecond Term:\n\n1) Directing 201\n\n2) Scriptwriting 201\n\n3) Cinematography 201\n\n4) EDITING 201\n\nThird Term:\n\n1) Thesis - Individual a 15–20 minutes short film\n\n- 35mm or HD Camera\n\n2) Visual Effects\n\n3) Sound\n\nWORKSHOPS are under UFO WORKSHOPS for people who don't have time for a One year comprehensive Film making Program.\n\nSection::::Faculty.\n\nCelso Ad Castillo\n\nResident Director\n\nDirecting/Scriptwriting\n\nReginald Vinluan\n\nVisual Effects\n\nManny Morfe\n\nProfessor\n\nProduction Design\n\nBoy Vinarao\n\nProfessor\n", "BULLET::::- \"Submarine I-57 Will Not Surrender\" (1959) – Special Effects Director\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Birth of Japan\" (1959) – Director Of Special Effects\n\nBULLET::::- \"Battle in Outer Space\" (1959) – Special Effects\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Secret of the Telegian\" (1960) – Special Effects\n\nBULLET::::- \"Storm Over the Pacific\" (1960) – Special Effects Director\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Human Vapor\" (1960) – Director Of Special Effects\n\nBULLET::::- \"Osaka Jo Monogatari\" (1961) – Director Of Special Effects\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mothra\" (1961) – Director Of Special Effects\n\nBULLET::::- \"Blood On The Sea\" (1961) – Special Effects Director\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gen To Fudomyo-O\" (1961) – Director Of Special Effects\n", "Ray Harryhausen continued to work on a number of films such as \"The Valley of Gwangi\" (1969) while Toho continued production of Godzilla and other kaiju films like \"Mothra\" (1961).\n", "Section::::Production.\n\nPer the waning popularity of the \"Godzilla\" series, special effects director Sadamasa Arikawa noted that Toho were going to potentially end the \"Godzilla\" series as \"Producer Tanaka figured that all the ideas had just run out.\"\n" ]	[ "Japanese special effects techniques in movies are behind American techniques." ]	[ "Japanese special effects can match the western standard when the investment in that standard matches the western standard of investment." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Japanese special effects techniques in movies are behind American techniques." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Japanese special effects can match the western standard when the investment in that standard matches the western standard of investment." ]
2018-04964	How are neural signals routed through the body?	> Is there a direct connection between a part of my brain and my pinky? Yes. There is a line of nerve cells from your brain, down your spinal column, along nerve fibers in your arm, and into the muscles that pull on the ligaments that operate your pinky.	[ "Section::::Function.\n\nA nerve conveys information in the form of electrochemical impulses (as nerve impulses known as action potentials) carried by the individual neurons that make up the nerve. These impulses are extremely fast, with some myelinated neurons conducting at speeds up to 120 m/s. The impulses travel from one neuron to another by crossing a synapse, the message is converted from electrical to chemical and then back to electrical.\n\nNerves can be categorized into two groups based on function:\n", "Section::::Bodies.\n\nThe bodies are made up of various building blocks that are assembled according to a genetic script. Building blocks include: a rotator, hinge, muscle, structure, and receptor.\n\nSection::::Brains.\n\nThe brains are basic neural networks that show up as a network of firing neurons. The genetic script serves as the blueprints for the exact assembly and functioning of the neural network.\n\nSection::::World.\n", "A constant voltage, known as the membrane potential, is normally maintained by certain concentrations of specific ions across neuronal membranes. Disruptions or variations in this voltage create an imbalance, or polarization, across the membrane. Depolarization of the membrane past its threshold potential generates an action potential, which is the main source of signal transmission, known as neurotransmission of the nervous system. An action potential results in a cascade of ion flux down and across an axonal membrane, creating an effective voltage spike train or \"electrical signal\" which can transmit further electrical changes in other cells. \n", "The basic route of nerve signals within the efferent somatic nervous system involves a sequence that begins in the upper cell bodies of motor neurons (upper motor neurons) within the precentral gyrus (which approximates the primary motor cortex). Stimuli from the precentral gyrus are transmitted from upper motor neurons and down the corticospinal tract, via axons to control skeletal (voluntary) muscles. These stimuli are conveyed from upper motor neurons through the ventral horn of the spinal cord, and across synapses to be received by the sensory receptors of alpha motor neurons (large lower motor neurons) of the brainstem and spinal cord.\n", "Section::::Relation to information transmission.\n\nSection::::Relation to information transmission.:Synaptic filtering.\n", "The neurons of the neuroendocrine system are large; they are mini \"factories\" for producing secretory products; their nerve terminals are large and organised in coherent terminal fields; their output can often be measured easily in the blood; and what these neurons do and what stimuli they respond to are readily open to hypothesis and experiment. Hence, neuroendocrine neurons are good \"model systems\" for studying general questions, like \"how does a neuron regulate the synthesis, packaging, and secretion of its product?\" and \"how is information encoded in electrical activity?\"[It appears that this is a primary source observation.]\n\nSection::::Neuroendocrine system.:Pituitary gland.\n", "From these reactions to certain hormones and other molecules, a model of the neuronal organization of the SFO is suggested in which angiotensin-sensitive neurons lying superficially are excited by substances borne by blood or cerebrospinal fluid, and synapse with deeper carbachol-sensitive neurons. The axons of these deep neurons pass out of the SFO in the columns and body of the fornix. Afferent fibers from the body and columns of the fornix polysynaptically excite both superficial and deep neurons. A recurrent inhibitory circuit is suggested on the output path.\n\nSection::::Genetics.\n", "At the most basic level, the function of the nervous system is to send signals from one cell to others, or from one part of the body to others. There are multiple ways that a cell can send signals to other cells. One is by releasing chemicals called hormones into the internal circulation, so that they can diffuse to distant sites. In contrast to this \"broadcast\" mode of signaling, the nervous system provides \"point-to-point\" signals—neurons project their axons to specific target areas and make synaptic connections with specific target cells. Thus, neural signaling is capable of a much higher level of specificity than hormonal signaling. It is also much faster: the fastest nerve signals travel at speeds that exceed 100 meters per second.\n", "Section::::Cellular therapies.:Stem cells.:Neural progenitor cells.\n", "In fact, the generation of action potentials in vivo is sequential in nature, and these sequential spikes constitute the digital codes in the neurons. Although previous studies indicate an axonal origin of a single spike evoked by short-term pulses, physiological signals in vivo trigger the initiation of sequential spikes at the cell bodies of the neurons.\n", "Section::::Invasive electrical neuromodulation methods.:Deep brain stimulation.\n", "Section::::Fundamentals.\n\nThe fundamentals behind neuroengineering involve the relationship of neurons, neural networks, and nervous system functions to quantifiable models to aid the development of devices that could interpret and control signals and produce purposeful responses.\n\nSection::::Fundamentals.:Neuroscience.\n\nMessages that the body uses to influence thoughts, senses, movements, and survival are directed by nerve impulses transmitted across brain tissue and to the rest of the body. \n", "The vertebrate nervous system is divided into the central and peripheral nervous systems. The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain, retina, and spinal cord, while the peripheral nervous system (PNS) is made up of all the nerves outside of the CNS that connect it to the rest of the body. The PNS is further subdivided into the somatic and autonomic nervous systems. The somatic nervous system is made up of \"afferent\" neurons, which bring sensory information from the sense organs to the CNS, and \"efferent\" neurons, which carry motor instructions out to the muscles. The autonomic nervous system also has two subdivisions, the sympathetic and the parasympathetic, which are important for regulating the body's basic internal organ functions such as heartbeat, breathing, digestion, and salivation. Autonomic nerves, like somatic nerves, contain afferent and efferent fibers.\n", "Section::::Mechanism for generation and propagation.:Modulatory neurons.\n\nAs the executive neurons are firing, the spread of the wave is controlled by both excitatory and inhibitory inputs. These inputs come from the modulatory neurons, which help to regulate and control the amplitude and frequency of the wave. The following types of cells play a huge part in this control process.\n\nSection::::Mechanism for generation and propagation.:Modulatory neurons.:Aminergic neurons.\n", "Section::::Function.:Sensory.\n\nThe sensory nervous system is involved with the reception and processing of sensory information. This information is received through the cranial nerves, through tracts in the spinal cord, and directly at centres of the brain exposed to the blood. The brain also receives and interprets information from the special senses of vision, smell, hearing, and taste. Mixed motor and sensory signals are also integrated.\n", "There are 43 segments of nerves in the human body. With each segment, there is a pair of sensory and motor nerves. In the body, 31 segments of nerves are in the spinal cord and 12 are in the brain stem. \n\nBesides these, thousands of association nerves are also present in the body.\n\nThus the somatic nervous system consists of two parts:\n\nBULLET::::- Spinal nerves: They are peripheral nerves that carry sensory information into and motor commands out of the spinal cord.\n", "Roger Guillemin, a medical student of Faculté de Médecine of Lyon, and Andrew W. Schally of Tulane University isolated these factors from the hypothalamus of sheep and pigs, and then identified their structures. Guillemin and Schally were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine in 1977 for their contributions to understanding \"the peptide hormone production of the brain\".\n\nIn 1952, Andor Szentivanyi, of the University of South Florida, and Geza Filipp wrote the world's first research paper showing how neural control of immunity takes place through the hypothalamus.\n\nSection::::History.:Modern scope.\n", "The CNS can be divided into the brain and spinal cord. The CNS processes many different kinds of incoming sensory information. It is also the source of thoughts, emotions, and memories. Most signals that stimulate muscles to contract and glands to secrete originate in the CNS. The spinal cord and spinal nerves contribute to homeostasis by providing quick reflexive responses to many stimuli. The spinal cord is the pathway for sensory input to the brain and motor output from the brain. The brain is responsible for integrating most sensory information and coordinating body function, both consciously and unconsciously.\n", "The simplest type of neural circuit is a reflex arc, which begins with a sensory input and ends with a motor output, passing through a sequence of neurons connected in series. This can be shown in the \"withdrawal reflex\" causing a hand to jerk back after a hot stove is touched. The circuit begins with sensory receptors in the skin that are activated by harmful levels of heat: a special type of molecular structure embedded in the membrane causes heat to change the electrical field across the membrane. If the change in electrical potential is large enough to pass the given threshold, it evokes an action potential, which is transmitted along the axon of the receptor cell, into the spinal cord. There the axon makes excitatory synaptic contacts with other cells, some of which project (send axonal output) to the same region of the spinal cord, others projecting into the brain. One target is a set of spinal interneurons that project to motor neurons controlling the arm muscles. The interneurons excite the motor neurons, and if the excitation is strong enough, some of the motor neurons generate action potentials, which travel down their axons to the point where they make excitatory synaptic contacts with muscle cells. The excitatory signals induce contraction of the muscle cells, which causes the joint angles in the arm to change, pulling the arm away.\n", "There are a variety of methods being used to record these voltage signals. These can be intracellular or extracellular. Extracellular methods involve single-unit recordings, extracellular field potentials, and amperometry; more recently, multielectrode arrays have been used to record and mimic signals.\n\nSection::::Scope.\n\nSection::::Scope.:Neuromechanics.\n", "may synapse with many more making it possible for one neuron to stimulate up to thousands of cells. This is exemplified in the way that thousands of muscle fibers can be stimulated from the initial input from a single motor neuron.\n\nIn a converging circuit, inputs from many sources are converged into one output, affecting just one neuron or a neuron pool. This type of circuit is exemplified in the respiratory center of the brainstem, which responds to a number of inputs from different sources by giving out an appropriate breathing pattern.\n", "There are three types of neurons in the pathway: first-, second-, and third-order neurons. The first-order neuron is the afferent neuron. It enters the spinal cord through the dorsal root ganglia and branches in the spinal cord. Some neurons terminate in the spinal cord, where they contribute to a reflex response. Other neurons continue ipsilaterally, same side, to the medulla oblongata. If the neurons are coming from the lower limbs, they are carried by the fasciculus gracilis into the medulla. If the neurons are coming from the upper limbs; they are carried by the fasciculus cuneatus. In the medulla, at the dorsal column, nuclei of the first-order neuron synapse with the second-order neuron, which then decussates (crosses over to the other side of the central nervous system) into the medial lemniscus. The second-order neuron then carries the information to the ventral posterolateral nucleus of the thalamus and then the somatosensory cortex in the parietal lobe. Immediately, the posterior parietal lobe synthesizes the information into a recognizable pattern. The coded information is then sent to the prefrontal cortex to devise a motor response to the stimulation. The motor information is sent through efferent neurons.\n", "Section::::Connections between neurons.\n\nThe connections between neurons in the brain are much more complex than those of the artificial neurons used in the connectionist neural computing models of artificial neural networks. The basic kinds of connections between neurons are synapses, chemical and electrical synapses.\n\nThe establishment of synapses enables the connection of neurons into millions of overlapping, and interlinking neural circuits. Presynaptic proteins called neurexins are central to this process.\n", "Section::::Structure and Function.\n\nNon-synaptic transmission is characteristic of autonomic neuroeffector junctions. The essential features are that: the terminal portions of autonomic nerve fibers are varicose and mobile; transmitters are released from varicosities at varying distances from the effector cells; and while there is no structural post-junctional specialization on effector cells, receptors for neurotransmitters accumulate on cell membranes at close junctions. Besides smooth muscle, autonomic neural control of immune, epithelial, and endothelial cells also involves nonsynaptic transmission.\n", "BULLET::::- Cerebellum\n\nThe cerebellum sends a significant number of fibers to the zona incerta.\n\nBULLET::::- Brainstem\n\nZona incerta receives input from many parts of the brainstem nuclei including the periaqueductal gray, raphe nuclei, thalamic reticular nucleus, and the deep layers of the superior colliculus. It is regulated by inputs from brainstem cholinergic nuclei such as the Laterodorsal tegmental nucleus and pedunculopontine nucleus upon its neuron’s muscarinic receptors.\n\nBULLET::::- Spinal cord\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-08322	Are you more genetically similar to your parents or your siblings?	It depends. You share 50% with each parent. Statistically you share around 50% of your genetic material with your sibling, but theoretically it could be as low as 0% or as high as 100% or anywhere in between. * 0% (basically impossible) - Imagine that your sibling got 50% from mom and 50% from dad. Now imagine that you got the other 50% from each parent. That means you share 0% of your genetic material. * 100% (more common) - If you you got the same material from your parents as your sibling you would share 100%. This happens with identical twins. It's actually quite a bit more complicated than this, but I think these examples give the general idea.	[ "Structural variation is the variation in structure of an organism's chromosome. Structural variations, such as copy-number variation and deletions, inversions, insertions and duplications, account for much more human genetic variation than single nucleotide diversity. This was concluded in 2007 from analysis of the diploid full sequences of the genomes of two humans: Craig Venter and James D. Watson. This added to the two haploid sequences which were amalgamations of sequences from many individuals, published by the Human Genome Project and Celera Genomics respectively.\n", "Moreover, adoption studies indicate that, by adulthood, adoptive siblings are no more similar in IQ than strangers (IQ correlation near zero), while full siblings show an IQ correlation of 0.6. Twin studies reinforce this pattern: monozygotic (identical) twins raised separately are highly similar in IQ (0.74), more so than dizygotic (fraternal) twins raised together (0.6) and much more than adoptive siblings (~0.0). Recent adoption studies also found that supportive parents can have a positive effect on the development of their children.\n\nSection::::Personality traits.\n", "In identical twins, this process is different. When siblings are the same age and have the same appearance, some people respond to them identically, despite their different personalities. Twins encounter the same social and physical influences from their environments, whether they have been reared separately or together. Often, this causes them to develop similar niches, though it does not guarantee that they will.\n\nSection::::Contemporary applications.\n", "Section::::Ontogenetic allometry.\n\nMost organisms undergo allometric changes in shape as they grow and mature, while others engage in metamorphosis. Even \"reptiles\" (non-avian sauropsids, e.g., crocodilians, turtles, snakes, lizards), in which the offspring are often viewed as miniature adults, show a variety of ontogenetic changes in morphology and physiology.\n\nSection::::Anthropological application.\n\nComparing ourselves to others is something humans do all the time. \"In doing so we are acknowledging not so much our sameness to others\n", "Kevin B. MacDonald also wrote that Frank Salter has written a very important – and a brilliant – book that deserves the close attention not only of evolutionists and social scientists, but of policy-makers as well.\n\nCriticism came from Kenan Malik, an Indian-British public intellectual specializing in ethnic affairs. Malik rejected the reality of ethnic kinship because it is based on gene frequencies. He also criticized the theory of ethnic nepotism, and argued that the field studies of favoritism shown to beggars of the benefactor's ethnic group are best explained by cultural factors.\n", "In this example, which presents an indefinitely extended ordered family, resemblance is seen in shared features: each item shares three features with his neighbors e.g. \"Item_2\" is like \"Item_1\" in respects B, C, D, and like \"Item_3\" in respects C, D, E. Obviously what we call 'resemblance' involves different aspects in each particular case. It is also seen to be of a different 'degree' and here it fades with 'distance': \"Item_1\" and \"Item_5\" have nothing in common.\n\nAnother simple model is described as:\n\n\"Item_1\": A B C br\n\n\"Item_2\": B C D br\n\n\"Item_3\": A C D br\n", "Section::::Books.:Criticism and response.\n\nIn his 2016 article 'Same but different' in \"The New Yorker\", Mukherjee attributed the most important genetic functions to epigenetic factors (such as histone modification and DNA methylation). Giving an analogy of his mother and her twin sister, he explains:\n", "Although parents treat their children differently, such differential treatment explains only a small amount of nonshared environmental influence. One suggestion is that children react differently to the same environment because of different genes. More likely influences may be the impact of peers and other experiences outside the family.\n\nSection::::Genetics and environment.:Individual genes.\n", "Given the conclusion that all researched behavioural traits and psychiatric disorders are heritable, biological siblings will always tend to be more similar to one another than will adopted siblings. However, for some traits, especially when measured during adolescence, adopted siblings do show some significant similarity (e.g., correlations of .20) to one another. Traits that have been demonstrated to have significant shared environmental influences include internalizing and externalizing psychopathology, substance use and dependence, and intelligence.\n\nSection::::General findings.:Nature of genetic influence.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nIn 1869, Francis Galton published the first empirical work in human behavioural genetics, \"Hereditary Genius\". Here, Galton intended to demonstrate that \"a man's natural abilities are derived by inheritance, under exactly the same limitations as are the form and physical features of the whole organic world.\" Like most seminal work, he overstated his conclusions. His was a family study on the inheritance of giftedness and talent. Galton was aware that resemblance among familial relatives can be a function of both shared inheritance and shared environments. Contemporary human behavioural quantitative genetics studies special populations such as twins and adoptees.\n", "No Two Alike\n\nNo Two Alike: Human Nature and Human Individuality is a book by psychology researcher Judith Rich Harris. It was published in February 2006. Harris attempts to explain why people are so different in personality, even identical twins who grow up in the same home.\n\n\"No Two Alike\" expands on some of the ideas from her previous book \"The Nurture Assumption\", especially the effect of birth order on personality and criticism of developmental psychology. She also attempts to answer some of the criticisms leveled at \"The Nurture Assumption\".\n\nHarris proposes that three distinct mental systems shape personality:\n", "The personal characteristics that encourage environmental responses, such as appearance, personality, and intellect, are not the same between siblings and fraternal twins because of gene variations. Once siblings can actively interact with their environment and select environments they like, differences between their niches become clear. This process is evident in families where one child is outgoing and lively while the other is timid and cautious.\n\nAccording to Frank Sulloway, a social researcher, most characteristic differences between siblings result from personality variation and non-shared environments, both of which are influenced by:\n\nBULLET::::- parental investment\n", "An individual's own child, who carries one half of the individual's genes, is defined as one offspring equivalent. A sibling's child, who will carry one-quarter of the individual's genes, is 1/2 offspring equivalent. Similarly, a cousin's child, who has 1/16 of the individual's genes, is 1/8 offspring equivalent.\n", "An article in \"Newsweek\" mentions research that shows that \"Some water fleas sport a spiny helmet that deters predators; others, with identical DNA sequences, have bare heads. What differs between the two is not their genes but their mothers' experiences. If mom had a run-in with predators, her offspring have helmets, an effect one wag called \"bite the mother, fight the daughter.\" If mom lived her life unthreatened, her offspring have no helmets. Same DNA, different traits. Somehow, the experience of the mother, not only her DNA sequences, has been transmitted to her offspring.\"\n", "Family members have aspects of environments in common (for example, characteristics of the home). This shared family environment accounts for 0.25–0.35 of the variation in IQ in childhood. By late adolescence, it is quite low (zero in some studies). The effect for several other psychological traits is similar. These studies have not looked at the effects of extreme environments, such as in abusive families.\n\nSection::::Genetics and environment.:Non-shared family environment and environment outside the family.\n", "One way to determine the contribution of genes and environment to a trait is to study twins. In one kind of study, identical twins reared apart are compared to randomly selected pairs of people. The twins share identical genes, but different family environments. In another kind of twin study, identical twins reared together (who share family environment and genes) are compared to fraternal twins reared together (who also share family environment but only share half their genes). Another condition that permits the disassociation of genes and environment is adoption. In one kind of adoption study, biological siblings reared together (who share the same family environment and half their genes) are compared to adoptive siblings (who share their family environment but none of their genes).\n", "One way to consider it is using trait X in twin 1 to predict trait Y in twin 2 for monozygotic and dizygotic twins (i.e. using twin 1's IQ to predict twin 2's brain volume); if this cross-correlation is larger for the more genetically-similar monozygotic twins than for the dizygotic twins, the similarity indicates that the traits are not genetically independent and there is some common genetics influencing both IQ and brain volume. (Statistical power can be boosted by using siblings as well.)\n", "Rowe was well known for his work on the genes and the environment: how they interact, what the limits of environment and genes might be, and what mechanisms implement these effects. He also focussed on articulating the different realms of the social environment: shared in families, unique to individuals, neighbourhood or nation level social and cultural effects. His book \"The Limits of Family Influence: Genes, Experience and Behaviour\" brought together much of this work.\n", "BULLET::::- Russell Gray Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany\n\nBULLET::::- Herb Gintis, Emeritus Professor of Economics, University of Massachusetts & Santa Fe Institute\n\nBULLET::::- Kevin Laland, School of Biology, University of St. Andrews\n\nBULLET::::- Ruth Mace, Department of Anthropology, University College London\n\nBULLET::::- Alex Mesoudi Human Biological and Cultural Evolution Group, University of Exeter, UK\n\nBULLET::::- Michael Tomasello, Department of Developmental and Comparative Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology\n\nBULLET::::- Peter Turchin Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Connecticut\n", "There are some family effects on the IQ of children, accounting for up to a quarter of the variance. However, adoption studies show that by adulthood adoptive siblings aren't more similar in IQ than strangers, while adult full siblings show an IQ correlation of 0.24. However, some studies of twins reared apart (e.g. Bouchard, 1990) find a significant shared environmental influence, of at least 10% going into late adulthood. Judith Rich Harris suggests that this might be due to biasing assumptions in the methodology of the classical twin and adoption studies.\n", "evolved dispositions of our species, their development through the life-course of an individual, and our specific cultural-historical environments... Holland’s book goes a long way toward clarifying and therefore advancing these theoretical debates\n\nSection::::Reception and reviews.:Biology.\n\nAn in-depth review of the book by primatologist Augusto Vitale, in the journal \"Folia Primatologica\", found that:\n\nStuart Semple, evolutionary anthropologist, reviewing the book in the journal \"Acta Ethologica\" stated that:\n", "Same Kind of Different\n\nSame Kind of Different is the debut extended play (EP) by Australian indie pop artist Dean Lewis. It was released on 12 May 2017.\n", "Section::::Analysis of human genetic variation.:Similarity of group members.\n\nMultiple studies since 1972 have backed up the claim that, \"The average proportion of genetic differences between individuals from different human populations only slightly exceeds that between unrelated individuals from a single population.\"\n", "Identical twins raised in same households and who are taught by the same teachers still differ from each other. The differences not explained by shared genes or family household, the \"non-shared environment\", accounts for most of the environmental influence.\n\nSection::::Part One: In theory.:Equality of Opportunity Requires Diversity of Opportunity.\n\nPerfect equality of opportunity would still result in differences between individuals, but these differences would be more due to genetics. There is a need to introduce more choice so different natures can be nurtured to full potential.\n\nSection::::Part Two: In Practice.\n", "Section::::Evidence from comparative physiology and biochemistry.:Genetics.:Proteins.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-02179	If an off-duty ambulance (or any response unit) witnesses an accident are they at liberty to respond?	Cop here: Not legally, but policy may dictate what they're supposed to do. If I see a bad accident in front of me I could face "dereliction of duty" by not responding. However if I'm carrying a prisoner, I'm not allowed to stop and assist by policy. If I see a fender bender on the opposite side of traffic and can't safely stop, or I'm on my way to something else, I'd be fine just radioing it in. However there are 50 states and 50 different sets of laws.	[ "Some jurisdictions have special laws defining and establishing the rights and duties of first responders.\n\nSection::::Specific jurisdictions.:United States.\n\nThe term first responder is defined in U.S. Homeland Security Presidential Directive, HSPD-8 and reads:\n", "If a responder begins rendering aid, he must not leave the scene until it is necessary to call for needed medical assistance, a rescuer of equal or higher ability takes over, or continuing to give aid is unsafe. This can be as simple as a lack of adequate protection against potential diseases, such as vinyl, latex, or nitrile gloves to protect against blood-borne pathogens. A responder is never legally compelled to take risks to aid another person. The responder is not legally liable for any harm to the person assisted, as long as the responder acted rationally, in good faith and in accordance with their level of training.\n", "Road-vehicle crashes that do not involve fire show how confusion could arise. The Fire Service Act 1975 grants authority to the New Zealand Fire Service for fires, as well as all other emergencies where it feels it can render assistance. The Police, however, have a common-law duty to protect life and property, as well as statutory enforcement authority of transport legislation. Likewise, the local ambulance service may feel it has primary responsibility, because it is responsible for the well-being of anyone injured by the incident. With each agency thinking that it is in charge, effective co-ordination may become difficult.\n", "An incident may fall within the call out criteria of the SOG such as a firearms incident. The SOG has significantly higher call-out criteria than a CIRT, such as requiring Senior Commissioned officer approval, and with \"Van\"s already patrolling, this enables CIRT to rapidly respond to the incident whilst awaiting SOG arrival with CIRT providing a cordon and containment. On arrival of the SOG, CIRT can provide assistance to the SOG such as perimeter containment.\n", "While all Certified First Responders in Canada are covered under Good Samaritan laws in jurisdictions where they are enacted, in some cases they have a Duty To Act for example, Ontario. Certified First Responders who are providing medical coverage to events (such as Red Cross, St. John Ambulance's Patient Care Divisions and private event medical companies), as well as those who are employed by Volunteer Fire Departments, Campus Response Teams, and others who are required to perform Emergency Medical Response as part of their duties all have a Duty to Act. While Certified First Responders in general are not required to render aid to injured/ill persons, those who work in the aforementioned areas can be accused of and prosecuted for negligence if they fail to respond when notified of a medical emergency, if their care does not meet the standard to which they were trained, or their care exceeds their scope of practice and causes harm to the patient. As with all medically trained and certified persons, Certified First Responders are immune to successful prosecution if assistance was given in good faith up to, and not beyond, the limits of certification and training.\n", "To illustrate a variation in the concept of duty to rescue, in the Canadian province of Ontario, the Occupational Health and Safety Act provides all workers with the right to refuse to perform unsafe work. There are, however, specific exceptions to this right. When the \"life, health or safety of another person is at risk,\" then specific groups, including \"police officers, firefighters, or employees of a hospital, clinic or other type of medical worker (including EMS)\" are specifically excluded from the right to refuse unsafe work.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Bystander effect\n\nBULLET::::- Duty to rescue\n\nBULLET::::- Medical amnesty policy\n", "The Civil Law (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act of 2011 first introduced legislation specifically addressing the liability of citizen good Samaritans or volunteers in the Republic of Ireland, without introducing a duty to intervene. This act provides for exemption from liability for a person, or voluntary organization, for anything done while providing \"assistance, advice or care\" to a person who is injured, in serious risk or danger of becoming injured or suffering from an illness (or apparently so). There are exclusions for cases of \"bad faith\" or \"gross negligence\" on behalf of the carer, and incidents relating to the negligent use of motor vehicles. This Act only addresses situations where there is no duty of care owed by the good Samaritan or the volunteer.\n", "In some jurisdictions, good Samaritan laws only protect those who have completed basic first aid training and are certified by health organizations, such as the American Heart Association, or American Red Cross, provided that they have acted within the scope of their training. In these jurisdictions, a person who is neither trained in first aid nor certified, and who performs first aid incorrectly, can be held legally liable for errors made. In other jurisdictions any rescuer is protected from liability so long as the responder acted rationally. In Florida, paramedics, EMTs, and Emergency Medical Responders (First Responders) are required by law to act under the Duty to Act law, which requires them to stop and give aid that falls within their practice.\n", "BULLET::::- serious harm to the environment (including the life and health of plants and animals).\n\nSection::::Northern Ireland.:Carrying out of functions.\n\nA fire and rescue officer who is authorised in writing by the Chief Fire and Rescue Officer for the purposes of Articles 19 and 20 of the Fire and Rescue Services (Northern Ireland) Order 2006 is an \"authorised officer\". They may at any reasonable time enter premises for the purpose of obtaining information needed for the carrying out of the Board's functions under Article 5, Article 6 or Article 7.\n\nHowever, an authorised officer may not:\n", "BULLET::::- Non-emergency driver/attendant – Have varying levels of training across the world, but these staff are usually only required to perform patient transport duties (which can include stretcher or wheelchair cases), rather than acute care. Dependent on provider, they may be trained in first aid or extended skills such as use of an AED, oxygen therapy and other lifesaving or palliative skills. They may provide emergency cover when other units are not available, or when accompanied by a fully qualified technician or paramedic.\n", "Good Samaritan laws may vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, as do their interactions with various other legal principles, such as consent, parental rights and the right to refuse treatment. Most such laws do not apply to medical professionals' or career emergency responders' on-the-job conduct, but some extend protection to professional rescuers when they are acting in a volunteer capacity.)\n", "BULLET::::- It was 'fair, just and reasonable' to allow a duty of care to exist between an ambulance service and its patients with regards to promptness of pickup (and presumably, return to the hospital) where no good reason for delay is offered.\n", "Generally, vehicles count as an ambulance if they can transport patients. However, it varies by jurisdiction as to whether a non-emergency patient transport vehicle (also called an ambulette) is counted as an ambulance. These vehicles are not usually (although there are exceptions) equipped with life-support equipment, and are usually crewed by staff with fewer qualifications than the crew of emergency ambulances. Conversely, EMS agencies may also have emergency response vehicles that cannot transport patients. These are known by names such as nontransporting EMS vehicles, fly-cars or response vehicles.\n", "In Canada, good Samaritan acts fall under provincial jurisdiction. Each province has its own act, such as Ontario and British Columbia's respective Good Samaritan Acts, Alberta's Emergency Medical Aid Act, and Nova Scotia's Volunteer Services Act Only in Quebec, a civil law jurisdiction, does a person have a general duty to respond, as detailed in the Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms.\n\nAn example of a typical Canadian law is provided here, from Ontario's Good Samaritan Act, 2001, section 2:\n\nProtection from liability\n", "Section::::United Kingdom.\n\nIn the United Kingdom, most statutory NHS ambulance services deploy paid first responders who drive dedicated \"Rapid Response Vehicles\" (RRVs). These are typically estate cars, MPVs or 4x4s, are liveried with high-visibility ambulance markings, and fitted with blue flashing lights and sirens. These vehicles are generally single-crewed, by a Paramedic. This differs from most ambulances in the UK, which usually have two crew members.\n\nSection::::United Kingdom.:Community First Responder Schemes.\n", "Examples of first responders include \"co-responders\" (police or fire service), members of staff of a shopping mall or other public place, members of a first aid organisation, lifeguards, community first responders, and others who have been trained to act in this capacity. Employees of the statutory ambulance services may also act as first responders whilst off-duty.\n\nSection::::Operations.\n", "Emergency ambulances are highly likely to be involved in hazardous situations, including incidents such as a road traffic collision, as these emergencies create people who are likely to be in need of treatment. They are required to gain access to patients as quickly as possible, and in many countries, are given dispensation from obeying certain traffic laws. For instance, they may be able to treat a red traffic light or stop sign as a yield sign ('give way'), or be permitted to break the speed limit. Generally, the priority of the response to the call will be assigned by the dispatcher, but the priority of the return will be decided by the ambulance crew based on the severity of the patient's illness or injury. Patients in significant danger to life and limb (as determined by triage) require urgent treatment by advanced medical personnel, and because of this need, emergency ambulances are often fitted with passive and active visual and/or audible warnings to alert road users.\n", "An \"authorised employee\" was an employee of a relevant authority who was authorised in writing to perform the following functions and actions as specified in various sections of FSA 2005.\n\nAn authorised employee of an authority who was on duty was permitted to do anything which he \"reasonably believes\" to protect life and/or property. This includes the power to break into premises or vehicles, move vehicles without the owner's consent, interfere with the free movement of traffic and to prevent people entering any premises or place.\n", "BULLET::::- a worsening of any such injury, illness or harm, or\n\nBULLET::::- are likely to cause the death of a person.\n\nSection::::England & Wales.:Investigations & carrying out of functions.\n\nA fire and rescue authority may authorise in writing an employee for the purposes of section 45 of the Fire and Rescue Services Act 2004 (separate from authorisation under section 44 above, which is granted to all firefighters).\n\nAn authorised officer may at any reasonable time enter premises:\n", "This can mean that anyone who finds someone in need of medical help must take all reasonable steps to seek medical care and render best-effort first aid. Commonly, the situation arises on an event of a traffic accident: other drivers and passers-by must take an action to help the injured without regard to possible personal reasons not to help (e.g. having no time, being in a hurry) or ascertain that help has been requested from officials. In practice however, almost all cases of compulsory rescue simply require the rescuer to alert the relevant entity (police, fire brigade, ambulance) with a phone call.\n", "Ambulance Victoria is required under the \"Ambulance Services Act 1986 (Vic)\" to respond rapidly to requests for help in a medical emergency; provide specialised medical skills to maintain life and to reduce injuries in emergency situations and while transporting patients; provide specialised transport facilities to move people requiring emergency medical treatment; provide services for which specialised medical or transport skills are necessary and foster public education in first aid.\n", "With the exception of Paramedics, any HCP wishing to work on an ambulance though must become a Patient Transport Attendant / Emergency Transport Attendant, but parts of the training may be omitted if the candidate can attain accreditation of prior learning. This is dependent on the HCP's professional training already undertaken. This is to ensure that the HCP is prepared for working in an ambulance/emergency environment (which they may never have done).\n", "Section::::Canada.:Examples.\n\nThe Canadian Ski Patrol, St. John Ambulance Patient Care Divisions, Fire Departments, Campus Emergency Response Teams, few private medical services, and the Canadian Coast Guard all provide First Responder level emergency medical care, in some cases as a support to existing services, and in others as the primary emergency response organization.\n\nSection::::Canada.:Limitations on Certified First Responders.\n", "While the general rule has remained that the emergency services are not liable in negligence for an inadequate response, this case has made the exception that, where that inadequate response made the situation worse, a duty of care could exist under certain specific circumstances. However, it now seems that the statutory power granted to the ambulance service to answer an emergency call has crystallised into a specific duty to respond to a particular 999 call which was owed to C as a particular individual.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- London Ambulance Service\n\nBULLET::::- Emergency medical services in the UK\n", "Section::::Explanation.:Exception for immediate action (OSHA).\n\nEmergency rescue activities can be performed prior to assembling an entire team, without violating this section of the regulations, under 29 CFR 1910.134(g), Note 2. Responders may still be limited by local safety procedures, by command, and by the exercise of reasonable prudence under the circumstances.\n\nSection::::Rapid intervention crew.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01956	I was looking at the Yellow Asian Pears today at the grocery store and noticed how they look a lot like Apples. Which brings me to this question... What makes an apple an apple and a pear a pear...?	Its a genetic difference. Theyre both part of the same family, but they have slight differences in how the DNA sequences are made up, and how many there are. They are essentially the same thing. But rearrange a few strands of genetic material and you change the texture, the shape and color, etc.	[ "A number of more exaggerated comparisons are sometimes made, in cases in which the speaker believes the two objects being compared are radically different. For example, \"oranges with orangutans\", \"apples with dishwashers\", and so on. In English, different fruits, such as pears, plums, or lemons are sometimes substituted for oranges in this context.\n\nSometimes the two words sound similar, for example, Romanian \"merele cu perele\" (apples and pears) and the Hungarian \"szezont a fazonnal\" (the season with the fashion).\n\nSection::::Published comparisons.\n\nSection::::Published comparisons.:Scientific.\n", "consider that \"ming\" (名 \"name\") may refer to three kinds of \"shi\" (實 \"actuality\"): type universals (horse), individual (John), and unrestricted (thing). They adopt a realist position on the name-reality connection - universals arise because \"the world itself fixes the patterns of similarity and difference by which things should be divided into kinds\". The philosophical tradition is well known for conundra resembling the sophists, e.g. when Gongsun Longzi (4th century BCE) questions if in copula statements (\"X is Y\"), are \"X\" and \"Y\" identical or is \"X\" a subclass of \"Y\". This is the famous paradox \"a white horse is not a horse\".\n", "The fruit is composed of the receptacle or upper end of the flower-stalk (the so-called calyx tube) greatly dilated. Enclosed within its cellular flesh is the true fruit: five 'cartilaginous' carpels, known colloquially as the \"core\". From the upper rim of the receptacle are given off the five sepals, the five petals, and the very numerous stamens.\n\nPears and apples cannot always be distinguished by the form of the fruit; some pears look very much like some apples, e.g. the nashi pear. One major difference is that the flesh of pear fruit contains stone cells.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The idiom is not unique to English. In Quebec French, it may take the form \"comparer des pommes avec des oranges\" (to compare apples and oranges), while in European French the idiom says \"comparer des pommes et des poires\" (to compare apples and pears) or \"comparer des choux et des carottes\" (to compare cabbages and carrots). In Latin American Spanish, it is usually \"comparar papas y boniatos\" (comparing potatoes and sweet potatoes) or commonly for all varieties of Spanish \"comparar peras con manzanas\" (comparing pears and apples). In some other languages the term for 'orange' derives from 'apple', suggesting not only that a direct comparison between the two is possible, but that it is implicitly present in their names. Fruit other than apples and oranges can also be compared; for example, apples and pears are compared in Danish, Dutch, German, Spanish, Swedish, Croatian, Czech, Romanian, Hungarian, Italian, Slovene, Luxembourgish, Serbian, and Turkish. In fact, in the Spanish-speaking world, a common idiom is \"sumar peras con manzanas\", that is, \"to add pears and apples\"; the same thing applies in Italian (\"sommare le mele con le pere\") and Romanian (\"a aduna merele cu perele\"). In Portuguese, the expression is \"comparar laranjas com bananas\" (compare orange to banana). In Czech, the idiom \"míchat jablka s hruškami\" literally means 'to mix apples and pears'.\n", "For trees, it would be:\n\nSection::::Structure.:Grammar.:Morphology.\n\nIn linguistics, the study of the internal structure of complex words and the processes by which words are formed is called morphology. In most languages, it is possible to construct complex words that are built of several morphemes. For instance, the English word \"unexpected\" can be analyzed as being composed of the three morphemes \"un-\", \"expect\" and \"-ed\".\n", "Russet apples also go under the name \"rusticoat\", \"russeting\" and \"leathercoat\". The last name was known in Shakespeare's time; for instance, in \"Henry IV, part 2\", Davy says to Bardolph, \"there's a dish of leathercoats for you\".\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nBULLET::::- 'Acklam Russet'\n\nBULLET::::- 'Adam's Pearmain'\n\nBULLET::::- 'Ashmead's Kernel'\n\nBULLET::::- 'Blenheim Orange'\n\nBULLET::::- 'Braddick's Nonpareil'\n\nBULLET::::- 'Claygate Pearmain'\n\nBULLET::::- 'Egremont Russet'\n\nBULLET::::- 'English Russet'\n\nBULLET::::- 'Golden Russet'\n\nBULLET::::- 'Hereford Russet'\n\nBULLET::::- 'Knobby Russet'\n\nBULLET::::- 'Merton Russet'\n\nBULLET::::- 'Nonpareil'\n\nBULLET::::- 'Reinette du Canada'\n\nBULLET::::- 'Ribston Pippin'\n\nBULLET::::- 'Ross Nonpareil'\n\nBULLET::::- 'Roxbury Russet' (also known as Boston Russet)\n\nBULLET::::- 'Rudford Russet'\n", "Section::::Hybridity in linguistics.:Linguistic Hybridity: a dual dynamics.\n", "The same goes for a subdivision of a genus. If a botanist creates a new subdivision of a genus, for example by dividing a large genus into two or more subgenera, sections, or series, then a new subdivision of the genus at each of the new ranks will share the type of the genus and have as its epithet the name of the genus.\n\nAs will be clear from the definition, an autonym can be one of two kinds:\n", "As traditionally defined, the Amygdaloideae includes such commercially important crops as plum, cherry, apricot, peach, and almond. The fruit of these plants are known as stone fruit (drupes), as each fruit contains a hard shell (the endocarp) called a \"stone\" or \"pit\", which contains the single seed.\n\nThe expanded definition of the Amygdaloideae adds to these commercially important crops such as apples and pears that have pome fruit, and also important ornamental plants such as \"Spiraea\" and \"Aruncus\" that have hard dry fruits.\n\nSection::::Taxonomic history.\n", "The culinary or cooking pear is green but dry and hard, and only edible after several hours of cooking. Two Dutch cultivars are \"\" (a sweet variety) and \"\" (slightly sour).\n", "Pear tomato\n\nPear tomato or Corn Seed is the common name for any one in a group of indeterminate heirloom tomatoes. There are yellow, orange, and red varieties of this tomato; the yellow variety being most common. They are generally sweet, and are in the shape of a pear, but smaller. They are heirlooms and have 3 common other names, such as the \"Red/Orange/Yellow Pear Tomato Plants.\"\n\nSection::::History.\n", "No two people have precisely the same concept of \"tree,\" since no two people have precisely the same experiences or psychology. We can communicate \"tree,\" however, for the same reason we can communicate at all: because we have agreed to use it in a consistent way. If we agreed to use the word and sound for \"horse\" instead, it would be called \"horse\" to the same effect. Since all that is important is agreement and consistency, the connection is arbitrary.\n", "Pear\n\nThe pear () tree and shrub are a species of genus Pyrus , in the family Rosaceae, bearing the pomaceous fruit of the same name. Several species of pear are valued for their edible fruit and juices while others are cultivated as trees.\n\nSection::::Etymology.\n\nThe word \"pear\" is probably from Germanic \"pera\" as a loanword of Vulgar Latin \"pira\", the plural of \"pirum\", akin to Greek \"apios\" (from Mycenaean \"ápisos\"), of Semitic origin (\"pirâ\"), meaning \"fruit\". The adjective \"pyriform\" or \"piriform\" means pear-shaped.\n\nSection::::Description.\n", "Other sources suggest that the name \"pearmain\" was in fact originally used for a type of pear, and was first applied to apples only during the 16th century. It has been suggested the word was derived from Old French \"pearmain\" and possibly ultimately from Latin \"parmensia\" \"of Parma\", though the latter is probably folk etymology. \n", "The name \"apricot\" is probably derived from a tree mentioned as \"praecocia\" by Pliny. Pliny says \"We give the name of apples (\"mala\") ... to peaches (\"persica\") and pomegranates (\"granata\") ...\" Later in the same section he states \"The Asiatic peach ripens at the end of autumn, though an early variety (\"praecocia\") ripens in summer – these were discovered within the last thirty years ...\".\n", "There have been many efforts to identify the original 'Pearmain' apple, of supposedly mediaeval origin. Hogg suggested the 'Winter Pearmain' to be the original, and synonymous with the 'Old Pearmain', though S. A. Beach, in his work \"Apples of New York\", noted that \"several different varieties\" had been propagated in America and England under the name 'Winter Pearmain' and that in many descriptions \"it is impossible to determine which Winter Pearmain the writer had in mind\". \n", "Two sets are said to have the same \"cardinality\" or \"cardinal number\" if there exists a bijection (a one-to-one correspondence) between them. Intuitively, for two sets \"S\" and \"T\" to have the same cardinality means that it is possible to \"pair off\" elements of \"S\" with elements of \"T\" in such a fashion that every element of \"S\" is paired off with exactly one element of \"T\" and vice versa. Hence, the set {banana, apple, pear} has the same cardinality as {yellow, red, green}.\n", "There has been some debate over the origin of the name \"pearmain\". The pomologist Robert Hogg suggested that it originated in mediaeval times from \"pyrus magnus\", \"great pear\", and referred to a type of apple having a large pear-like shape. Hogg believed that the variety 'Winter Pearmain' was both \"the original of all the Pearmains\" and the oldest recorded variety of apple in England, with evidence it was cultivated in Norfolk in c.1200. \n", "BULLET::::- \"Garner's Modern American Usage\" cites examples given by Morton, including \"elongated yellow fruit\" and others: billiard balls (\"the numbered spheroids\"); Bluebeard (\"the azure-whiskered wifeslayer\"); Easter-egg hunt (\"hen-fruit safari\"); milk (\"lacteal fluid\"); oysters (\"succulent bivalves\"); peanut (\"the succulent goober\"); songbird (\"avian songster\"); truck (\"rubber-tired mastodon of the highway\").\n", "Surprise (apple)\n\n'Surprise' is a pink-fleshed apple that is the ancestor of many of the present-day pink/red-fleshed apples bred by American growers.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The genus is thought to have originated in present-day Western China in the foothills of the Tian Shan, a mountain range of Central Asia, and to have spread to the north and south along mountain chains, evolving into a diverse group of over 20 widely recognized primary species. The enormous number of varieties of the cultivated European pear (\"Pyrus communis\" subsp. \"communis\"), are without doubt derived from one or two wild subspecies (\"P. communis\" subsp. \"pyraster\" and \"P. communis\" subsp. \"caucasica\"), widely distributed throughout Europe, and sometimes forming part of the natural vegetation of the forests. Court accounts of Henry III of England record pears shipped from La Rochelle-Normande and presented to the King by the Sheriffs of the City of London. The French names of pears grown in English medieval gardens suggest that their reputation, at the least, was French; a favored variety in the accounts was named for Saint Rule or Regul', Bishop of Senlis.\n", "BULLET::::2. \"Madison will eat the fruit only if it is an apple.\" (equivalent to \"If Madison will eat the fruit, then it is an apple\" or \"Madison will eat the fruit \"→\" the fruit is an apple\")\n", "Pyrus × sinkiangensis\n\nPyrus × sinkangensis, the Xinjiang pear, has been suspected to be of complex hybrid origin involving \"P. communis\" and Chinese white pears based on their morphological characteristics.\n", "By contrast, Hogg believed the apple identified in some catalogues of the time as 'Old Pearmain' to in fact be a variety called 'Royal Pearmain'. Hogg later claimed to have identified the \"true Old Pearmain\" growing in the Dymock area. The current 'Old Pearmain' in the National Fruit Collection was received in 1924 from a Mr. Kelsey in Surrey, but is probably neither Hogg's variety nor the ancient 'Pearmain'.\n", "Pearmain\n\nA pearmain, also formerly spelt \"permain\", is a type of apple. The name may once have been applied to a particular variety of apple that kept well, although in more modern times its inclusion in varietal names was, like the term 'Pippin', \"largely decoration\" rather than indicating any shared qualities. \n\nThe original 'Pearmain' variety has not been conclusively identified and may now be extinct.\n\nSection::::Etymology and history.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04279	What is it about products like Vick's VapoRub & those similar that help clear our sinuses?	They don't. The ingredients /u/GhostCheese mentioned (camphor, eucalyptus oil, menthol) stimulate thermoreceptors (cells that sense temperature) in the sinuses providing a cooling sensation that tricks you into thinking you can breathe easier and that your congestion is reduced, when in fact nothing has changed. [Source: Menthol: effects on nasal sensation of airflow and the drive to breathe.]( URL_0 ) (sorry, it's behind a paywall, couldn't find a publicly free version of this study) The study found that exercise actually had an effect on congestion by measuring airflow of the participants before and after. Menthol actually made the congestion worse, but the cooling sensation in the sinuses gave the participants the subjective impression that they could breathe easier. Edit: typo Edit #2: As /u/GhostCheese pointed out, that study only covered menthol, [here's one that covers all three ingredients, and reaches the same conclusion.]( URL_1 )	[ "Section::::Safe use.\n\nVapoRub can be inhaled with hot steam. Since VapoRub ointment is an oil-based medication, it should not be used under or inside the nose or inside the mouth, and it should not be swallowed. Any oil-based product can get into the lungs if used improperly.\n\nIn pre-clinical animal studies, the application of Vicks VapoRub directly onto the tracheae of ferrets caused an increase in mucus production compared to a water-based lubricant.\n", "A study conducted in 1994 suggests menthol and camphor are effective cough suppressants for guinea pigs. It has been suggested that thymol oil can reduce or cure onychomycosis (nail fungus), although the same source mentions that \"no human studies have been conducted to test whether thymol is a lasting and effective treatment\".\n\nSection::::Ingredients.\n\nThe ingredients, as listed on older product labels, are: camphor, menthol, spirits of turpentine, oil of eucalyptus, cedar leaf, nutmeg, and thymol, all \"in a specially balanced Vick formula\".\n\nSection::::Ingredients.:US.\n\nActive Ingredients:\n\n\"Label reads: Active Ingredients (Purpose)\n\nRegular:\n\nLemon: \n\nInactive Ingredients\n\nRegular & Lemon: \n", "A Penn State study showed Vicks VapoRub to be more effective than placebo petroleum rub for helping cough and congestion with regards to helping children and adults sleep. However, the study also showed that, unlike with the petroleum rub placebo, Vicks VapoRub was associated with burning sensations to the skin (28%), nose (14%) and eyes (16%), with 5% of study participants reporting redness and rash when using the product. The study's first author is a paid consultant for Procter & Gamble, maker of VapoRub.\n", "Vicks VapoRub\n\nVicks VapoRub ointment is a mentholated topical ointment, part of the Vicks brand of over-the-counter medications owned by the American pharmaceutical company Procter & Gamble. VapoRub is intended for use on the chest, back and throat for cough suppression or on muscles and joints for minor aches and pains. It has also been used to treat mosquito bites. Users of VapoRub often apply it immediately before sleep.\n", "First sold in 1905, VapoRub was originally manufactured by the family-owned company Richardson-Vicks, Inc., based in Greensboro, North Carolina. Richardson-Vicks was sold to Procter & Gamble in 1985 and is now known as Vicks. VapoRub is also manufactured and packaged in India and Mexico. In German-speaking countries (apart from Switzerland), it is sold under the name \"Wick VapoRub\". VapoRub continues to be Vicks's flagship product internationally, and the Vicks brand name is often used synonymously with the VapoRub product.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Natural nasal sprays that include chemical complexes derived from plant sources such as ginger, capsaicin and tea-tree oil are also available. There is however no trial-verified evidence that they have a measurable effect on symptoms.\n\nSection::::Topical decongestant.\n", "Inhalation, as in aromatherapy, can be used as a treatment.\n\nSection::::Modern herbal medicine.:Safety.\n", "Section::::Treatment.\n\nRespiratory stimulants such as nikethamide were traditionally used to counteract respiratory depression from CNS depressant overdose, but offered limited effectiveness. A new respiratory stimulant drug called BIMU8 is being investigated which seems to be significantly more effective and may be useful for counteracting the respiratory depression produced by opiates and similar drugs without offsetting their therapeutic effects.\n", "Yopo snuff is usually blown into the user's nostrils by another person through bamboo tubes or sometimes snuffed by the user using bird bone tubes. Blowing is more effective as this method allows more powder to enter the nose and is said to be less irritating. In some areas the unprocessed ground beans are snuffed or smoked producing a much weaker effect with stronger physical symptoms. Some tribes use yopo along with \"Banisteriopsis caapi\" to increase and prolong the visionary effects, creating an experience similar to that of ayahuasca.\n\nSection::::Entheogenic uses.:Effects.\n", "Section::::Drugs for nasal administration.\n", "Gurah has been studied by an ENT specialist from Gadjah Mada University, who said that \"a patient with sinusitis will feel relief as the mucus can easily flow through the dilated blood vessels after application of the extract\", noting that the practitioner requires the patient to consume water before and after the treatment, due to the large amount of fluid loss through mucus produced. The study showed that the treatment reduced symptoms such as congestion, sneezing and runny noses of chronic sinusitis. However, full medical testing has not been conducted.\n", "The Choctaw use a decoction of leaves and blossoms taken for lung pain and colds.\n\nSection::::Uses by Native Americans.:Creek.\n", "In brewing, decoction mashing is the traditional method where a portion of the mash is removed to a separate vessel, boiled for a time and then returned to the main mash, raising the mash to the next temperature step.\n\nIn herbalism, decoctions are usually made to extract fluids from hard plant materials such as roots and bark. To achieve this, the plant material is usually boiled for 1–2 hours in 1-5 liters of water. It is then strained. Ayurveda also utilizes this method to create \"Kashayam\" type of herbal medicines.\n", "In 1890, pharmacist Lunsford Richardson of Selma, North Carolina, took over the retail drug business of his brother-in-law Dr. John Vick, of Greensboro, North Carolina. After Dr. John Vick saw an ad for \"Vick's Seeds\", Lunsford Richardson began marketing \"Vick’s Family Remedies\". The basic ingredients of the range included castor oil, liniment, and 'dead shot' vermifuge. The most popular remedy was \"Croup and Pneumonia Salve\", which was first compounded in 1891, in Greensboro. It was introduced in 1905 with the name Vick's Magic Croup Salve and rebranded as VapoRub in 1912 at the instigation of H. Smith Richardson, Lunsford's oldest son; Smith had gained valuable sales and marketing experience while working for a period in New York and Massachusetts after attending college. Smith Richardson assumed the presidency of the company in 1919 upon his father's death.\n", "Estrogen (Premarin) nasal drops or saturated potassium iodide have been used to induce edema of the eustachian tube opening. Nasal medications containing diluted hydrochloric acid, chlorobutanol, and benzyl alcohol have been reported to be effective in some patients, with few side effects. Food and Drug Administration approval is still pending, however. Nasal sprays have also been a very effective temporary treatment for this disease, as well.\n", "The treatment of RM involves withdrawal of the offending nasal spray or oral medication. Both a \"cold turkey\" and a \"weaning\" approach can be used. Cold turkey is the most effective treatment method, as it directly removes the cause of the condition, yet the time period between the discontinuation of the drug and the relief of symptoms may be too long and uncomfortable for some individuals (particularly when trying to go to sleep when they are unable to breathe through their nose).\n", "Nasal insufflation is the most common method of nasal administration. Other methods are nasal inhalation (common in recreational use) and nasal instillation. Drugs administered in this way can have a local effect or a systemic effect. The time of onset for systemic drugs delivered via nasal administration is generally only marginally slower than if given intravenously. The bioavailability of drugs administered nasally is generally significantly higher than drugs taken orally.\n\nSection::::Medical uses.:Nasal drug administration.:Examples of drugs given.\n\nBULLET::::- Steroids (local effect) and anti-asthma medication\n\nBULLET::::- Hormone replacement\n\nBULLET::::- Decongestants (local effect)\n\nBULLET::::- Nicotine replacement\n\nBULLET::::- Migraine medication\n\nBULLET::::- Vaccines\n", "Naloxone is used intravenously in opiate addiction in emergency cases, in rapid opiate detoxification, and as a diagnostic tool. The nasal drug administration of naloxone was found to be as effective as the intravenous route. In opioid overdoses, where hypotension and sometimes damaged veins make intravenous administration difficult, nasal naloxone offers a wide margin of safety and reduced risk of infection from vessel puncture while enabling even untrained bystanders to assist a victim.\n", "Nicholas Culpeper's \"Complete Herbal\" (1653) states that \"It is good for wind and colic in the stomach...The juice, laid on warm, helps the King's evil or kernels in the throat...The decoction or distilled water helps a stinking breath, proceeding from corruption of the teeth, and snuffed up the nose, purges the head. It helps the scurf or dandruff of the head used with vinegar.\"\n\nSection::::Subspecies.\n\nThere are seven subspecies:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mentha longifolia\" subsp. \"longifolia\". Europe, northwest Africa\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mentha longifolia\" subsp. \"capensis\" Southern Africa\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mentha longifolia\" subsp. \"grisella\" Southeastern Europe\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mentha longifolia\" subsp. \"noeana\" Turkey east to Iran\n", "Nasal congestion\n\nNasal congestion is the blockage of the nasal passages usually due to membranes lining the nose becoming swollen from inflamed blood vessels.\n\nNasal decongestants target the discomfort directly. These come as nasal sprays, inhalers, and as oral pills.\n", "Section::::Research.\n\nSince the initial introduction of sinus dilation, a number of clinical studies have explored its safety, effectiveness, durability, and patient benefits. Data from these studies show that, for appropriate patients, sinus dilation:\n\nBULLET::::- is extraordinarily safe—0.1% complication rate across 8 studies representing approximately 900 patients\n\nBULLET::::- delivers consistent, significant, lasting symptom improvement\n\nBULLET::::- is effective for treatment of patients with chronic or recurrent sinusitis, patients with frontal, maxillary and sphenoid disease, and patients with or without allergies, asthma, septal deviations, and previous surgery\n\nBULLET::::- can be performed comfortably and effectively under local anesthesia in an office setting\n", "The most commonly used treatment method is the removal of the olfactory epithelium or the bulb by means of surgery to alleviate the patient from the symptoms.\n\nOther traditional methods include the use of topical anesthetics (Zilstorff-Pederson, 1995) and use of sedatives.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Nasal spray.\n", "After use with corticosteroid, it is theoretically possible for patients to develop a yeast infection in the mouth (thrush) or hoarseness of voice (dysphonia), although these conditions are clinically very rare. To avoid these adverse effects, some clinicians suggest that the person who used the nebulizer should rinse his or her mouth. This is not true for bronchodilators; however, patients may still wish to rinse their mouths due to the unpleasant taste of some bronchodilating drugs.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Uses by Native Americans.\n\nSection::::Uses by Native Americans.:Alabama tribe.\n\nThe Alabama tribe use a compound decoction of it as a treatment for nervousness and sleepiness, and a decoction as a face wash for nerves and insomnia.\n\nSection::::Uses by Native Americans.:Cherokee.\n", "Section::::Other substances – deliberate.:Medical use.:Therapeutic.\n\nGases and other drugs used in anaesthesia include oxygen, nitrous oxide, helium, xenon, volatile anaesthetic agents. Medication for asthma, croup, cystic fibrosis and some other conditions.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.\n" ]	[ "Vick's VapoRub clears the sinuses.", "The product Vicki's Vaporub and related products can help clear sinuses." ]	[ "The ingredients in VapRub stimulate thermoreceptors in the sinuses providing a cooling sensation that tricks you into thinking you can breathe easier and that your congestion is reduced, ", "Vicki's Vaporub and other related products do not help clear sinuses." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Vick's VapoRub clears the sinuses.", "The product Vicki's Vaporub and related products can help clear sinuses." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The ingredients in VapRub stimulate thermoreceptors in the sinuses providing a cooling sensation that tricks you into thinking you can breathe easier and that your congestion is reduced, ", "Vicki's Vaporub and other related products do not help clear sinuses." ]
2018-00651	When a fruit is bruised, why does its flavor change?	Inside of an apple is the molecule catechol. In the presence of oxygen a chemical reaction occurs at an enzyme (a protein that speeds up chemical reactions) to produce a different molecule, benzoquinone. That molecule turns the flesh of the apple brown and makes it mushy.	[ "\"Mespilus germanica\" fruits are hard and acidic, but become edible after being softened, 'bletted', by frost, or naturally in storage given sufficient time. Once softening begins, the skin rapidly takes on a wrinkled texture and turns dark brown, and the inside reduces to the consistency and flavour reminiscent of apple sauce. This process can confuse those new to medlars, as a softened fruit looks as if it has spoiled.\n", "Once the process is complete, the medlar flesh will have broken down enough that it can be spooned out of the skin. The taste of the sticky, mushy substance has been compared to sweet dates and dry applesauce, with a hint of cinnamon. In \"Notes on a Cellar-Book\", the great English oenophile George Saintsbury called bletted medlars the \"ideal fruit to accompany wine.\"\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- , the final stage of fruit ripening in many, but not all fruits\n\nBULLET::::- , whose \"tamr\" (ripe, sun-dried) stage is similar to bletting\n", "When the fruit is soft-ripe/fresh-ripe and still has the fresh, fully mature greenish/greenish-yellowish skin color, the texture is like that of a soft-ripe pear and papaya. If the skin is allowed to turn fully brown, yet the flesh has not fermented or gone \"bad\", then the texture can be custard-like. Often, when the skin turns brown at room temperature, the fruit is no longer good for human consumption. Also, the skin turns brown if it has been under normal refrigeration for too long - a day or two maybe.\n\nSection::::Cultivation.:Nutritional value.\n", "In another study done by Vanderhaegen et al., different aging conditions were tested on a bottled beer after 6 months. They found a decrease in volatile esters was responsible for a reduced fruity flavor. They also found an increase in many other compounds including carbonyl compounds, ethyl esters, Maillard compounds, dioxolanes, and furanic ethers. They carbonyl compounds, as stated previously in the Wietstock experiments, will create Strecker aldehydes, which tend to cause a green apple flavor. Esters are known to cause fruity flavors such as pears, roses, and bananas. Maillard compounds will cause a toasty, malty flavor.\n", "Ripening\n\nRipening is a process in fruits that causes them to become more palatable. In general, fruit becomes sweeter, less green (typically \"redder\"), and softer as it ripens. Even though the acidity of fruit increases as it ripens, the higher acidity level does not make the fruit seem tarter. This is attributed to the Brix-Acid Ratio.\n\nSection::::Ripening agents.\n\nRipening agents speed up the ripening process.\n", "Section::::Composition.\n", "BULLET::::- Proteins can exert an inhibitory effect on PPO activity by Chelating the essential copper at the active site of PPO through competitive inhibition, inhibiting its activity\n\nBULLET::::- During wine synthesis, the use of Ion-exchange filtration is used to remove the brown color sediments in the solution.\n\nBULLET::::- Arctic Apples have been genetically modified to avoid expressing polyphenol oxidase and thus do not brown\n\nSection::::Non-enzymatic browning.\n", "Post-veraison, fruit acidity decreases due to degradation of malic acid. The degradation of malic acid during ripening makes tartaric acid the predominant acid; grape berries also possess a small amount of citric acid. Tartaric acid accumulates early in phase I of berry growth, while malic acid accumulates at the end of phase I berry growth.\n", "BULLET::::- Esters : Ethyl acetate is the most common ester in wine, being the product of the most common volatile organic acid — acetic acid, and the ethyl alcohol generated during the fermentation.\n\nBULLET::::- Norisoprenoids, such as C13-norisoprenoids found in grape (\"Vitis vinifera\") or wine, can be produced by fungal peroxidases or glycosidases.\n\nSection::::Other molecules found in wine.\n\nSection::::Other molecules found in wine.:Conservatives.\n\nBULLET::::- Ascorbic acid is used during wine making\n\nBULLET::::- Sulfur dioxide (SO), a preservative often added to wine\n\nSection::::Other molecules found in wine.:Fining agents.\n\nGum arabic has been used in the past as fining agent.\n", "The English verb \"to blet\" was coined by John Lindley, in his \"Introduction to Botany\" (1835). He derived it from the French \"poire blette\" meaning 'overripe pear'. \"After the period of ripeness\", he wrote, \"most fleshy fruits undergo a new kind of alteration; their flesh either rots or blets.\"\n", "It takes longer than a year for fruits to reach maturity. The fruit first shows signs of ripening by its bottommost scales becoming yellowed. As it ripens, the starch that was stored in the green fruit is converted to sugar, giving it its sweet flavor. This mechanism is comparable to how banana fruits ripen. The strong odor the fruit produces becomes noticeable when it is half-ripe. As time passes and the fruit continues to ripen, the odor becomes stronger. After it becomes fully ripe, however, the scent deteriorates quickly.\n", "Climacteric fruits undergo a number of changes during fruit ripening. The major changes include fruit softening, sweetening, decreased bitterness, and colour change. These changes begin in an inner part of the fruit, the locule, which is the gel-like tissue surrounding the seeds. Ripening-related changes initiate in this region once seeds are viable enough for the process to continue, at which point ripening-related changes occur in the next successive tissue of the fruit called the pericarp. As this ripening process occurs, working its way from the inside towards outer most tissue of the fruit, the observable changes of softening tissue, and changes in color and carotenoid content occur. Specifically, this process activates ethylene production and the expression of ethylene-response genes affiliated with the phenotypic changes seen during ripening. \n", "Rain will quickly wash pigment away from the yellow-orange pileus. Bruising is sometimes reported only from the stem base for this species, but it commonly bruises throughout the fruiting body. Occasionally, especially in areas with dense root mats, specimens will be found in which the entire pileus is wine-colored from bruising during expansion through the root mat. A researcher has found one specimen with the cap intensely bruised before expansion.\n", "In general, jam is produced by taking mashed or chopped fruit or vegetable pulp and boiling it with sugar and water. The proportion of sugar and fruit varies according to the type of fruit and its ripeness, but a rough starting point is equal weights of each. When the mixture reaches a temperature of 104 °C (219 °F), the acid and the pectin in the fruit react with the sugar, and the jam will set on cooling. However, most cooks work by trial and error, bringing the mixture to a \"fast rolling boil\", watching to see if the seething mass changes texture, and dropping small samples on a plate to see if they run or set.\n", "BULLET::::- In winemaking, fruit sugars are converted into alcohol by a fermentation process. If the must formed by pressing the fruit has a low sugar content, additional sugar may be added to raise the alcohol content of the wine in a process called chaptalization. In the production of sweet wines, fermentation may be halted before it has run its full course, leaving behind some residual sugar that gives the wine its sweet taste.\n\nSection::::Consumption.\n", "After initial fermentation, many perries go through malolactic fermentation. On average, compared to apples, pears have higher levels of titrable acidity, most of it being citric acid. In environments with high levels of malic acid, such as grape must in winemaking, malolactic fermentation bacteria convert malic acid to lactic acid, reducing the perception of acidity and increasing complexity of flavour. However, if high levels of citric acid are present, as in pear pomace, malolactic fermentation bacteria catabolyse citric acid to acetic acid and oxaloacetic acid, instead of lactic acid. This results in a floral, citrus-like aroma in the final product, lacking the diacethyl odour typical for most products that have undergone a malolactic fermentation.\n", "Enzymatic breakdown and hydrolysis of storage polysaccharides occurs during ripening. The main storage polysaccharides include starch. These are broken down into shorter, water-soluble molecules such as fructose, glucose and sucrose. During fruit ripening, gluconeogenesis also increases.\n\nAcids are broken down in ripening fruits and this contributes to the sweeter rather than sharp tastes associated with unripe fruits. In some fruits such as guava, there is a steady decrease in vitamin C as the fruit ripens. This is mainly as a result of the general decrease in acid content that occurs when a fruit ripens.\n", "Section::::Uses.\n\n\"Calvatia craniiformis\" is an edible species. Young puffballs with a firm, white gleba have a mild odor and pleasant taste. Early 20th-century mycologist Charles McIlvaine noted over a century ago that \"the slightest change to yellow makes it bitter.\" Versatile in cooking, the puffball absorbs flavors well.\n", "Ascorbic acid, also known as vitamin C, is found in young wine grapes prior to veraison, but is rapidly lost throughout the ripening process. In winemaking, it is used with sulfur dioxide as an antioxidant, often added during the bottling process for white wines. In the European Union, use of ascorbic acid as an additive is limited to 150 mg/l.\n\nButyric acid is a bacteria-induced wine fault that can cause a wine to smell of spoiled Camembert or rancid butter.\n", "The colour of ripe fruit can range from dark yellow to yellow-orange. The rind is about thick, very fragrant, and slightly bitter, while the flesh and juice is rich in sourness, with a unique fragrance.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Culinary.\n", "BULLET::::1. In the traditional Swabian method the rose hips are cut open and stored until they are soft (that takes for about 5 days in a temperature of 12 °C). Then they are filtered through a sieve without being cooked. This pulp is then heated with sugar to a temperature between 65 °C and 75 °C (but it can also be mixed cool with honey) and than flavoured with wine, orange juice or apple juice.\n", "In addition to the change in sugar, acids and pH levels other components of the grapes are building up during the ripening process. The mineral components of potassium, calcium, magnesium and sodium increase in concentration as they are disseminated among the skin of the grapes and its fleshy pulp. The color of the grape berries begin to change due to the building up of phenolic compounds such as anthocyanin in the skins. Flavonoids and volatile compounds known as \"flavor precursors\" which contribute to the eventual flavor and aroma of the wine also begin to build up in the skins and pulp. Additionally the concentration of tannins in the grape increases in several areas of the grape including the skin, seeds and stem. Early in the ripening process these tannins are very bitter and \"green\". Exposure to the warmth and sunlight during the ripening period ushers in chemical changes to the tannins that when processed into wine makes the tannins feel softer in the mouth.\n", "Some foods, such as bananas, are picked when unripe, are cooled to prevent ripening while they are shipped to market, and then are induced to ripen quickly by exposing them to propylene or ethylene, chemicals produced by plants to induce their own ripening; as flavor and texture changes during ripening, this process may affect those qualities of the treated fruit.\n\nSection::::Chemical composition.\n", "The fruit, a seed capsule, if left on the plant, ripens and opens at the end; as it dries, the phenolic compounds crystallize, giving the fruits a diamond-dusted appearance, which the French call \"givre\" (hoarfrost). It then releases the distinctive vanilla smell. The fruit contains tiny, black seeds. In dishes prepared with whole natural vanilla, these seeds are recognizable as black specks. Both the pod and the seeds are used in cooking.\n", "To prepare the fruit, seeds are removed. To remove the seeds, apples are cored and cherries, plums and apricots are pitted. Grape skins are separated from the pulp. The pulp is cooked until liquid, then strained to remove the seeds. The strained pulp and skins are then combined and cooked further.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-14336	Why do eyes get red when you're high?	Marijuana is a vasodilator, which means it makes blood vessels expand. When the blood vessels in your eyes expand they become more visible and make your eyes look red. Not positive this is right but posting a wrong answer is often the best way to get a correct one.	[ "A reduction in visual acuity in a 'red eye' is indicative of serious ocular disease, such as keratitis, iridocyclitis, and glaucoma, and never occurs in simple conjunctivitis without accompanying corneal involvement.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Ciliary flush.\n\nCiliary flush is usually present in eyes with corneal inflammation, iridocyclitis or acute glaucoma, though not simple conjunctivitis.\n\nA ciliary flush is a ring of red or violet spreading out from around the cornea of the eye.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Corneal abnormalities.\n", "The tapetum lucidum, in animals that have it, can produce eyeshine, for example as seen in cat eyes at night. Red-eye effect, a reflection of red blood vessels, appears in the eyes of humans and other animals that have no tapetum lucidum, hence no eyeshine, and rarely in animals that have a tapetum lucidum. The red-eye effect is a photographic effect, not seen in nature.\n\nSome ophthalmologists specialise in this segment.\n\nSection::::Extraocular anatomy.\n", "BULLET::::- dry eye syndrome - caused by either decreased tear production or increased tear film evaporation which may lead to irritation and redness\n\nBULLET::::- airborne contaminants or irritants\n\nBULLET::::- tiredness\n\nBULLET::::- drug use including cannabis\n\nBULLET::::- episcleritis - most often a mild, inflammatory disorder of the 'white' of the eye unassociated with eye complications in contrast to scleritis, and responding to topical medications such as anti-inflammatory drops.\n\n\"Usually urgent\" \n", "The physiological symptoms of sham rage include rise in blood sugar, pulse, respiratory rates, and blood pressure. These symptoms can occur spontaneously and may also be evoked by sensory stimulations. In some cases animals have suffered several convulsive attacks followed by withdrawal of sodium barbital. It has been concluded that the cerebral cortex may play a facilitating part in this type of convulsive process. These physiological effects happen alongside the rage-like symptoms of hissing, clawing, biting, etc.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "BULLET::::- In many flash photographs, even those without perceptible red-eye effect, the tapetum lucidum of many animals' pupils creates an \"eyeshine\" effect. Although eyeshine is an unrelated phenomenon, animals with blue eyes may display the red-eye effect in addition to it.\n\nBULLET::::- A related effect, red reflex, is seen in fundoscopy; here, the reflected red light is directly visible through the ophthalmoscope.\n", "A 2017 study found that cannabidiol decreased the rate of seizures in those with Dravet syndrome but increased the rate of sleepiness and trouble with the liver.\n\nSection::::Research by medical condition.:Glaucoma.\n\nIn 2009, the American Glaucoma Society noted that while cannabis can help lower intraocular pressure, it recommended against its use because of \"its side effects and short duration of action, coupled with a lack of evidence that its use alters the course of glaucoma\". As of 2008 relatively little research had been done concerning therapeutic effects of cannabinoids on the eyes.\n\nSection::::Research by medical condition.:Tourette syndrome.\n", "\"Whiteying\" is perceived by the stoner subculture as the result of using too much cannabis within too short a period of time. In fact the factors that usually facilitate fainting are tiredness, lack of fluids, and food, a hot and humid environment, as well as natural hypotension. They are just as important as the amount of cannabis involved. Moreover, of note is that a frequent occurrence of these symptoms is likewise preceded by the consumption of cannabis or hashish mixed with tobacco and that the initial symptoms of nicotine poisoning are similar in scope. Therefore, one can, \"Throw\" or \"Chuck\" a \"Whitey,\" having used only what may be regarded as a perfectly moderate dosage. \"Whiteying\" sometimes involves vomiting and shakiness. These episodes generally only last around 15–20 minutes, and often are followed by a 'come down' the next morning.\n", "Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome is not very well known, and some healthcare providers may view it as a \"rare, kind of funny disease.\" Some emergency room physicians have referred to the symptoms as \"scromiting,\" a portmanteau of \"screaming\" and \"vomiting.\" In lieu of a correct diagnosis, the average patient in the US may owe $100,000 USD or more in medical bills through emergency department visits. An emergency department physician in 2018 commented that the condition wasn't on their \"radar\" in the 5 years prior, though the condition was being diagnosed more often now. Many people are struck by the notion that cannabis could induce symptoms of nausea and vomiting, given the common perception that cannabis can be used to prevent nausea and vomiting.\n", "\"Red Eye\" is featured on \"Louie\" in the episode titled \"Come On, God,\" when Gutfeld hosts a debate between Louis C.K. and Ellen Farber. Ellen is the spokeswoman for an organization called Christians Against Masturbation, while Louie is the only person they could find to defend masturbation.\n", "Although there are eight Jackals in total, including Mills, oddly enough no mention of the missing eighth member is made when Mills asks both Waldmann and Lenny for information on the other members of the Jackals.\n\nSection::::Characters.:Jackals.:Captain Grahalt Mills.\n", "Section::::Release and reception.\n", "Red-eye effect\n\nThe red-eye effect in photography is the common appearance of red pupils in color photographs of the eyes of humans and several other animals. It occurs when using a photographic flash very close to the camera lens (as with most compact cameras) in ambient low light.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "CB is also expressed in the retina. In the retina, they are expressed in the photoreceptors, inner plexiform, outer plexiform, bipolar cells, ganglion cells, and retinal pigment epithelium cells. IN the visual system, cannabinoids agonist induce a dose dependent modulation of calcium, chloride and potassium channels. This alters vertical transmission between photoreceptor, bipolar and ganglion cells. Altering vertical transmission in turn results in the way vision is perceived\n\nSection::::Function.\n\nSection::::Function.:Health and disease.\n", "When combined with the consumption of alcohol, it causes \"Coprinus syndrome\". Symptoms include facial reddening, nausea, vomiting, malaise, agitation, palpitations and tingling in limbs, and arise five to ten minutes after consumption of alcohol. The signs are similar to those induced by disulfiram (Antabuse) and subsequent alcohol consumption. If no more alcohol is consumed, the symptoms will generally subside over two or three hours. Symptom severity is proportional to the amount of alcohol consumed.\n", "The first test that is typically administered is the Horizontal Gaze Nystagmus or HGN test, which is administered by the police officer checking the test subject's eyes. During this test, the officer looks for involuntary jerking of the suspect's eyes as they gaze toward the side. The officer checks for three clues in each eye, which gives six clues for this test. The clues are: lack of smooth pursuit of the eyes, distinct and sustained nystagmus at the eyes' maximum deviation and nystagmus starting before the eyes reach 45 degrees.\n", "Irritant or toxic conjunctivitis is primarily marked by redness. If due to a chemical splash, it is often present in only the lower conjunctival sac. With some chemicals, above all with caustic alkalis such as sodium hydroxide, necrosis of the conjunctiva marked by a deceptively white eye due to vascular closure may occur, followed by sloughing off of the dead epithelium. A slit lamp examination is likely to show evidence of anterior uveitis.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Other.\n", "In flash photography the light of the flash occurs too fast for the pupil to close, so much of the very bright light from the flash passes into the eye through the pupil, reflects off the fundus at the back of the eyeball and out through the pupil. The camera records this reflected light. The main cause of the red color is the ample amount of blood in the choroid which nourishes the back of the eye and is located behind the retina. The blood in the retinal circulation is far less than in the choroid, and plays virtually no role. The eye contains several photostable pigments that all absorb in the short wavelength region, and hence contribute somewhat to the red eye effect. The lens cuts off deep blue and violet light, below 430 nm (depending on age), and macular pigment absorbs between 400 and 500 nm, but this pigment is located exclusively in the tiny fovea. Melanin, located in the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) and the choroid, shows a gradually increasing absorption towards the short wavelengths. But blood is the main determinant of the red color, because it is completely transparent at long wavelengths and abruptly starts absorbing at 600 nm. The amount of red light emerging from the pupil depends on the amount of melanin in the layers behind the retina. This amount varies strongly between individuals. Light-skinned people with blue eyes have relatively low melanin in the fundus and thus show a much stronger red-eye effect than dark-skinned people with brown eyes. The same holds for animals. The color of the iris itself is of virtually no importance for the red-eye effect. This is obvious because the red-eye effect is most apparent when photographing dark-adapted subjects, hence with fully dilated pupils. Photographs taken with infrared light through night vision devices always show very bright pupils because, in the dark, the pupils are fully dilated and the infrared light is not absorbed by any ocular pigment.\n", "Section::::Production.\n", "Red Eyes\n\nSection::::Summary.\n", "Section::::Career.:2013–present: \"Midnight Red\".\n", "The music video received a nomination for Best Rock Video at the 2015 MTV Video Music Awards.\n\nSection::::Live performances.\n", "Whilst promoting the 2016 superhero film \"Deadpool\", Ryan Reynolds did his take on the PSA in character. First he says \"Hi. Deadpool here, with a very important announcement.\" He holds up a chimichinga saying \"This is your brain. Actually, it's a chimichinga. But, I'm making a point, because...\" And points to a giant chimichinga on the table saying \"This... is your brain on IMAX. Bigger is better, right?\" Followed by clips from the film.\n\nWhen children's television series \"SpongeBob SquarePants\" aired on MTV in 2008, a promo was made to play before the show began that parodied this ad.\n", "Studies in the 1970s reported that the use of cannabis may lower intraocular pressure. In an effort to determine whether marijuana, or drugs derived from it, might be effective as a glaucoma treatment, the US National Eye Institute supported research studies from 1978 to 1984. These studies demonstrated some derivatives of marijuana lowered intraocular pressure when administered orally, intravenously, or by smoking, but not when topically applied to the eye.\n", "Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome\n\nCannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome can occur with cannabis use and is characterized by recurrent nausea, vomiting, and crampy abdominal pain. These symptoms have been reported to be improved temporarily by taking a hot shower or bath, or more fully by stopping the use of cannabis. It is important that cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome be distinguished from other causes of nausea and vomiting, such as cyclic vomiting syndrome.\n", "DIHS is a delayed onset drug eruption, often occurring a few weeks to 3 months after initiation of a drug. Worsening of systemic symptoms occurs 3–4 days after cessation of the offending drug. There are genetic risk alleles that are predictive of the development of DIHS for particular drugs and ethnic populations. The most important of which is abacavir (an anti-viral used in the treatment of HIV) hypersensitivity associated with the presence of the HLA-B*5701 allele in European and African population in the United States and Australians.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-05649	can someone explain how sports betting works?	A spread is a scoring advantage given to one competitor to make betting more equal. If you were racing Usain Bolt in the 100m dash, everyone would want to bet on Bolt and no one would want to bet on you. If we subtract 3 or 4 seconds from your score, some people may want to bet on you less 3 or 4 seconds against Bolt. More equal betting means the book makers aren't taking the other side of a bad bet. Moneyline is the other way to make betting more equal when the participants aren't evenly matched. In this case, the payouts rather than the scores. If Bolt betting on Bolt pays 100.01 for every bet of 100 while bets on you pay 500,000 for every 100 bet if you win some people may be willing to make a small wager on you on the off chance Bolt trips or something. Moneyline is one way of writing this. In it, positive numbers mean if you bet $100 on this outcome you will win this much, negative numbers mean you need to bet this much to win an additional $100. American sports betting (other than horse racing) tends to use moneyline notation, while most of the rest of the English speaking world uses [decimal odds]( URL_0 ) which are a different way of communicating the same information.	[ "Section::::Odds.\n", "For example, before game 5 of the 2012 NBA Finals, the Miami Heat were expected to beat the Oklahoma City Thunder. The line read: Miami −3, Oklahoma City +3. To determine who wins against the spread, the line is either added or subtracted from a team's final score.\n\nIn the above example, if the bettor chose Miami, he would subtract 3 points from Miami's final score and compare that to Oklahoma City's final score. If taking Oklahoma City, he will add 3 points to Oklahoma City's final score.\n", "Section::::Types.:Regression analysis.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Proposition bets\" are wagers made on a very specific outcome of a match not related to the final score, usually of a statistical nature. Examples include predicting the number of goals a star player scores in an association football match, betting whether a player will run for a certain number of yards in an American football game, or wagering that a baseball player on one team will accumulate more hits than another player on the opposing team.\n", "For him to win his bet, Miami would have to win the game by 4 points or more.\n\nAnd if a bettor took Oklahoma City, they would have to win outright or lose by less than 3 points.\n\nIf the final adjusted score is a tie, the bet is considered a push. This is the most common type of bet in American sports betting.\n", "Section::::Types of bets.\n\nSection::::Types of bets.:United States of America.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Moneyline bets\" do not have a spread or handicap, and require the chosen team to win the game outright. The favoured team pays lower odds than does the underdog, thus, it acts mainly as an enticement to take the underdog for a better payout. Sometimes a bettor may couple this type of bet on the favored team to increase the payout of a parlay.\n", "Section::::Sports and horse betting.:Betting exchanges.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Head-to-Head\". In these bets, bettor predicts competitors results against each other and not on the overall result of the event. One example are Formula One races, where you bet on two or three drivers and their placement among the others. Sometimes you can also bet a “tie”, in which one or both drivers either have the same time, drop out, or get disqualified.\n", "BULLET::::- In pai gow poker, a 5% commission charged on all winning bets is referred to as vigorish. Unlike baccarat, the commission is paid after each winning bet, either by the player handing in the amount from his stack of chips, or by having the vig deducted from the winnings.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Spread betting\" are wagers that are made against the spread. The spread, or line, is a number assigned by the bookmakers which handicaps one team and favors another when two teams play each other and one is perceived as being more likely to win. The favorite \"takes\" points from the final score and the underdog \"gives\" points. This number can also be in increments of half-a-point (.5) even though very few sports have .5 point scoring (i.e., The Ryder Cup), in order to avoid the possibility of a tie.\n", "Section::::Sports and horse betting.:Special offers.\n", "Section::::Intuitive analysis.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Total (Over/Under) bets\" are wagers made based on the total score between both teams. Example, if an MLB game has a total of 10.5, an over bettor will want the combined total to be greater, and the opposite for a bettor taking the under. If the combined total is the same as the proposed total, the bet is a push.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Parlays\". A parlay involves multiple bets that rewards successful bettors with a greater payout \"only\" if all bets in the parlay win. A parlay is at least two bets, but can be as many as the bookmaker will allow.\n", "Section::::Sports spread betting.\n", "Section::::Concept.\n", "Section::::Types.:Fixed-odds betting.:Parimutuel betting.\n\nOne of the most widespread forms of gambling involves betting on horse or greyhound racing. Wagering may take place through parimutuel pools, or bookmakers may take bets personally. Parimutuel wagers pay off at prices determined by support in the wagering pools, while bookmakers pay off either at the odds offered at the time of accepting the bet; or at the median odds offered by track bookmakers at the time the race started.\n\nSection::::Types.:Fixed-odds betting.:Sports betting.\n", "Section::::Theory.:Bonus sports.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Half bets\". A half (halftime) bet applies only to the score of the first or second half. This bet can be placed on the spread (line) or over/under. This can also be applied to a specific quarter in American football or basketball, a fewer number of innings in baseball, or a specific period in hockey.\n", "If the bettor takes two NBA games at +6.5 it will adjust the individual bets at that rate. So a bet on a 3-point underdog at +3 will become a bet at +9.5 points, and for favorites, it will change a 3-point favorite at −3 to +3.5 points.\n\nAlthough the rules to win his bet are the same as a parlay, he is paid less than a regular parlay due to the increased odds of winning.\n", "Moneyline odds are often referred to as \"American odds\". A \"moneyline\" wager refers to odds on the straight-up outcome of a game with no consideration to a point spread. In most cases, the favorite will have negative moneyline odds (less payoff for a safer bet) and the underdog will have positive moneyline odds (more payoff for a risky bet). However, if the teams are evenly matched, \"both\" teams can have a negative line at the same time (e.g. -110 -110 or -105 -115), due to house take.\n\nSection::::Gambling usage.:Wholesale odds.\n", "Section::::Scoring.\n\nSection::::Scoring.:Non-Mizerka Contracts.\n", "The following is an example of a traditional Las Vegas Parlay Card at William Hill Sports Book, which shows the typical payouts for an up to 11 team parlay bet (amount won is assuming $100 is bet):\n\nSection::::Profitability of parlays in sports betting.\n", "Two people want to bet on opposing sides of an event and agree to \"fair odds\", also known as \"evens\". They are going to make the wager between each other without using the services of a bookmaker. Each person agrees to risk $100 for the chance to win $100. The person who loses receives nothing and the winner receives both stakes. Rather than pay vigorish to someone who will guarantee that the winner will be paid, they both assume the opportunity cost in the event the backer of the losing side refuses to pay the winner at the event's conclusion.\n", "Section::::Straddle and sleeper bets.:Sleepers.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02977	Why are we so quick to forget Japan's war crimes in WWII?	Yea it’s kind of weird. They make documentaries about all the human testing that the Japanese did. Maybe it because they gave all their research information to the allies and plus we nuked them so it kind of evens out.	[ "The Crimes committed against these survivors remain one of the greatest unacknowledged and unremedied injustices of the Second World War. There are no museums, no graves for the unknown \"comfort woman\", no education of future generations, and there have been no judgement days for the victims of Japan's military sexual slavery and the rampant sexual violence and brutality that characterized its aggressive war.\n", " As Prime Minister of Japan, I thus extend anew my most sincere apologies and remorse to all the women who underwent immeasurable and painful experiences and suffered incurable physical and psychological wounds as comfort women.\n\n We must not evade the weight of the past, nor should we evade our responsibilities for the future.\n\n I believe that our country, painfully aware of its moral responsibilities, with feelings of apology and remorse, should face up squarely to its past history and accurately convey it to future generations.\n", "BULLET::::- August 23, 1993: Prime Minister Morihiro Hosokawa said in a speech at the 127th National Diet Session: \"After 48 years from then, our nation has become one of nations that enjoy prosperity and peace. We must not forget that it is founded on the ultimate sacrifices in the last war, and a product of the achievements of the people of the previous generations. We would like to take this opportunity to clearly express our remorse for the past and a new determination to the world. Firstly at this occasion, we would like to express our deep remorse and apology for the fact that invasion and colonial rule by our nation in the past brought to bear great sufferings and sorrow upon many people\" .\n", "BULLET::::- August 15, 2005: Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi said: \"In the past, Japan, through its colonial rule and aggression, caused tremendous damage and suffering to the people of many countries, particularly to those of Asian nations. Sincerely facing these facts of history, I once again express my feelings of deep remorse and heartfelt apology, and also express the feelings of mourning for all victims, both at home and abroad, in the war. I am determined not to allow the lessons of that horrible war to erode, and to contribute to the peace and prosperity of the world without ever again waging a war.\"\n", "BULLET::::- January 16, 1992: Prime Minister Kiichi Miyazawa, in a speech at dinner with President Roh Tae Woo, said: \"We the Japanese people, first and foremost, have to bear in our mind the fact that your people experienced unbearable suffering and sorrow during a certain period in the past because of our nation's act, and never forget the feeling of remorse. I, as a prime minister, would like to once again express a heartfelt remorse and apology to the people of your nation\".\n", "BULLET::::- 1957: Prime Minister Kishi Nobusuke said to the people of Burma: \"We view with deep regret the vexation we caused to the people of Burma in the war just passed. In a desire to atone, if only partially, for the pain suffered, Japan is prepared to meet fully and with goodwill its obligations for war reparations. The Japan of today is not the Japan of the past, but, as its Constitution indicates, is a peace-loving nation.\"\n", "BULLET::::- October 23, 1985: Prime Minister Yasuhiro Nakasone, in a speech to the United Nations, said: \"On June 6, 1945, when the UN Charter was signed in San Francisco, Japan was still fighting a senseless war with 40 nations. Since the end of the war, Japan has profoundly regretted the unleashing of rampant ultra nationalism and militarism and the war that brought great devastation to the people of many countries around the world and to our country as well\" (Speech to the United Nations).\n", "Section::::History.:1980s.\n\nBULLET::::- August 24, 1982: Prime Minister Zenkō Suzuki said: \"I am painfully aware of Japan's responsibility for inflicting serious damages [on Asian nations] during the past war.\" \"We need to recognize that there are criticisms that condemn [Japan's occupation] as invasion\" (Press Conference on the textbook controversy).\n", "BULLET::::- September 6, 1984: Emperor Hirohito said to President Chun Doo Hwan: \"It is indeed regrettable that there was an unfortunate past between us for a period in this century and I believe that it should not be repeated again.\" (Meeting with President Chun Doo Hwan.)\n\nBULLET::::- September 7, 1984: Prime Minister Yasuhiro Nakasone said: \"There was a period in this century when Japan brought to bear great sufferings upon your country and its people. I would like to state here that the government and people of Japan feel a deep regret for this error.\"\n", "BULLET::::- August 15, 1995: Prime Minister Tomiichi Murayama said in a statement: \"During a certain period in the not-too-distant past, Japan, through its colonial rule and aggression, caused tremendous damage and suffering to the people of many countries, particularly those of Asia. In the hope that no such mistake will be made in the future, I regard, in a spirit of humanity, these irrefutable facts of history, and express here once again my feelings of deep remorse and state my heartfelt apology\" (Statement by Prime Minister Tomiichi Murayama 'On the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the war's end').\n", "BULLET::::- September 8, 2001: Minister for Foreign Affairs Makiko Tanaka said in a speech: \"We have never forgotten that Japan caused tremendous damage and suffering to the people of many countries during the last war. Many lost their precious lives and many were wounded. The war has left an incurable scar on many people, including former prisoners of war. Facing these facts of history in a spirit of humility, I reaffirm today our feelings of deep remorse and heartfelt apology expressed in the Prime Minister Murayama's statement of 1995\" (Speech by Minister for Foreign Affairs Makiko Tanaka at the Ceremony in Commemoration of 50th anniversary of the Signing of the San Francisco Peace Treaty).\n", "BULLET::::- January 17, 1992: Prime Minister Kiichi Miyazawa, at a policy speech on a visit to South Korea, said:. \"What we should not forget about relationship between our nation and your nation is a fact that there was a certain period in the thousands of years of our company when we were the victimizer and you were the victim. I would like to once again express a heartfelt remorse and apology for the unbearable suffering and sorrow that you experienced during this period because of our nation's act.\" Recently the issue of the so-called 'wartime comfort women' is being brought up. I think that incidents like this are seriously heartbreaking, and I am truly sorry\".\n", "BULLET::::- June 9, 1995: House of Representatives, National Diet of Japan passed a resolution stating: \"On the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the end of World War II, this House offers its sincere condolences to those who fell in action and victims of wars and similar actions all over the world. Solemnly reflecting upon many instances of colonial rule and acts of aggression in the modern history of the world, and recognizing that Japan carried out those acts in the past, inflicting pain and suffering upon the peoples of other countries, especially in Asia, the Members of this House express a sense of deep remorse\" (Resolution to renew the determination for peace on the basis of lessons learned from history).\n", "Some argue that such a fund is part of an ongoing refusal by the Japanese government to face up to its responsibilities, while others say that the Japanese government has long since finalised its responsibility to individual victims and is merely correcting the failures of the victims' own governments. California Congressman Mike Honda, speaking before U.S. House of Representatives on behalf of the women, said that \"without a sincere and unequivocal apology from the government of Japan, the majority of surviving Comfort Women refused to accept these funds. In fact, as you will hear today, many Comfort Women returned the Prime Minister's letter of apology accompanying the monetary compensation, saying they felt the apology was artificial and disingenuous.\"\n", "BULLET::::- April 22, 2005: Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi said: \"Japan squarely faces these facts of history in a spirit of humility. And with feelings of deep remorse and heartfelt apology always engraved in mind, Japan has resolutely maintained, consistently since the end of World War II, never turning into a military power but an economic power, its principle of resolving all matters by peaceful means, without recourse to use of force. Japan once again states its resolve to contribute to the peace and prosperity of the world in the future as well, prizing the relationship of trust it enjoys with the nations of the world.\" (Address by the Prime Minister of Japan at the Asia-African Summit 2005).\n", "BULLET::::- August 30, 2000: Minister for Foreign Affairs Yōhei Kōno said in an address during his visit to the People's Republic of China: \"I believe that Japan's perception of history was clearly set out in the Statement by Prime Minister Tomiichi Murayama issued, following a Cabinet Decision, on the fiftieth anniversary of the end of World War II. As a member of the Cabinet, I participated in the drafting of that Statement. The spirit contained therein has been carried forth by successive administrations and is now the common view of the large number of Japanese people\" (Address by Minister for Foreign Affairs Yōhei Kōno During His Visit to the People's Republic of China).\n", "BULLET::::- Prosecute the living Japanese war criminals that have escaped international war crime trials after the end of the war, such as the International Military Tribunal for the Far East\n\nBULLET::::- Remove relics of all war criminals now enshrined in the Yasukuni Shrine and prohibit honoring and worshiping of war criminals in that Shrine or any other religious establishments of national significance\n\nBULLET::::- Establish a national day of remembrance for victims of the Asia-Pacific War\n\nBULLET::::- Return all looted national treasures, including cultural and historical relics\n", "Some in the Japanese government have expressed exasperation at what level of apology is enough. During an impending visit in 1990 to Japan by South Korean president Roh Tae Woo Japanese cabinet secretary Ozawa Ichiro reportedly said, \"it is because we have reflected on the past that we cooperate with [South] Korea economically. Is it really necessary to grovel on our hands and knees and prostrate ourselves any more than we already have?\"\n", "BULLET::::- October 8, 1996: Emperor Akihito said in a speech at a dinner with the South Korean president, Kim Dae Jung: \"There was a period when our nation brought to bear great sufferings upon the people of the Korean Peninsula.\" \"The deep sorrow that I feel over this will never be forgotten\".\n", "BULLET::::- April 3, 2001: Chief Cabinet Secretary Yasuo Fukuda said: \"Japan humbly accepts that for a period in the not too distant past, it caused tremendous damage and suffering to the people of many countries, particularly to those of Asian nations, through its colonial rule and aggression, and expresses its deep remorse and heartfelt apology for this. Such recognition has been succeeded by subsequent Cabinets and there is no change regarding this point in the present Cabinet\" (Comments by the Chief Cabinet Secretary, Yasuo Fukuda on the history textbooks to be used in junior high schools from 2002).\n", "BULLET::::- January 1, 1992: Prime Minister Kiichi Miyazawa, in a press conference, said: \"Concerning the comfort women, I apologize from the bottom of my heart and feel remorse for those people who suffered indescribable hardships\".\n", "BULLET::::- Amend all statutory limitations under Japanese laws to make them non-applicable to war crimes and crimes against humanity committed by Japanese Imperial Forces during the Asia-Pacific War such that victims could seek due redress in the courts of Japan\n", "BULLET::::- August 4, 1993: Chief Cabinet Secretary Yōhei Kōno said: \"Undeniably, this was an act, with the involvement of the military authorities of the day, that severely injured the honor and dignity of many women. The Government of Japan would like to take this opportunity once again to extend its sincere apologies and remorse to all those, irrespective of place of origin, who suffered immeasurable pain and incurable physical and psychological wounds as comfort women\" (Statement by the Chief Cabinet Secretary Yohei Kono on the result of the study on the issue of \"comfort women\"),\n", "Section::::Post-war events and reactions.:Official apologies.\n", "A similar statement was offered before on July 6, 1992 by Kono's predecessor Koichi Kato saying that the \"Government had been involved in the establishment of comfort stations, the control of those who recruited comfort women, the construction and reinforcement of comfort facilities, the management and surveillance of comfort stations, [...]\" and that the government wanted to \"express its sincere apology and remorse to all those who have suffered indescribable hardship as so-called 'wartime comfort women.'\"\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04452	Why are dark-skinned people less likely to get sunburnt?	Their skin has evolved to be less susceptible to UV rays. Thats actually exactly what skin pigmentation is for and nothing else. So its sort of the other way around, the people less likely to get sunburnt are dark-skinned	[ "Light-skinned people living in high sunlight environments are more susceptible to the harmful UV rays of sunlight because of the lack of melanin produced in the skin. The most common risk that comes with high exposure to sunlight is the increased risk of sunburns. This increased risk has come along with the cultural practice of sunbathing, which is popular among some human populations. This cultural practice to gain tanned skin if not regulated properly can lead to sunburn, especially among very lightly-skinned humans. The overexposure to sunlight also can lead to basal cell carcinoma, which is a common form of skin cancer.\n", "Humans with light skin pigmentation have skin with low amounts of eumelanin, and possess fewer melanosomes than humans with dark skin pigmentation. Light skin provides better absorption qualities of ultraviolet radiation. This helps the body to synthesize higher amounts of vitamin D for bodily processes such as calcium development. Light-skinned people who live near the equator with high sunlight are at an increased risk of folate depletion. As consequence of folate depletion, they are at a higher risk of DNA damage, birth defects, and numerous types of cancers, especially skin cancer.\n", "Although pseudoporphyria has no predilection toward any one race, it has been shown that fair-skinned children who are highly prone to sunburn are more likely to develop naproxen-induced pseudoporphyria than those children with skin types III or higher. Wallace et al. demonstrated that even in the absence of a history of blistering, children with light skin and blue or green eyes are at an increased risk of developing shallow scars on the face while taking naproxen.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "There are certain genetic conditions, for example xeroderma pigmentosum, that increase a person's susceptibility to sunburn and subsequent skin cancers. These conditions involve defects in DNA repair mechanisms which in turn decreases the ability to repair DNA that has been damaged by UV radiation.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Medications.\n\nThe risk of a sunburn can be increased by pharmaceutical products that sensitize users to UV radiation. Certain antibiotics, oral contraceptives, and tranquillizers have this effect.\n\nSection::::Causes.:UV intensity.\n\nThe UV Index indicates the risk of getting a sunburn at a given time and location. Contributing factors include:\n", "To ensure adequate vitamin D levels are reached, an average daily amount, roughly 10% of the sunburn threshold is required on a sensible amount of skin, not just the backs of hands. A burn time for a fair-skinned person could be limited to just 8 minutes in the middle of the day, during summer without sunscreens. A dark skinned or covered individual might need hours to achieve that same desired amount. The strength of the UVB changes throughout the day so time will be change accordingly.\n\nSection::::High risk groups.:Obesity.\n", "The dermis is thinner in whites than in other races; the exposed skin is vulnerable to sunburn because of the lower amount of melanin in the skin than in other races. These traits cause problems in warm climates, but the nearly transparent skin allows more sunlight to reach the inner layers of the epidermis, thereby increasing Vitamin D production far above the level found in other racial groups. A study of skin cultured from the hip region of Europeans and Africans living in Nigeria showed that European skins allow penetration of between 3 and 4 times as much UV radiation incident upon the skin.\n", "BULLET::::- Type III: White skin, may burn but tans easily\n\nBULLET::::- Type IV: Light brown/olive skin, hardly burns, tans easily\n\nBULLET::::- Type V: Brown skin, usually does not burn, tans easily\n\nBULLET::::- Type VI: Black skin, very unlikely to burn, becomes darker with UV radiation exposure\n\nAge also affects how skin reacts to sun. Children younger than six and adults older than sixty are more sensitive to sunlight.\n", "Studies have found that even serious sunburns could not affect sweat gland function and thermoregulation. There are no data or studies that support that sunburn can cause damage so serious that can affect reproductive success.\n", "Section::::Africa.\n\nIn many parts of Africa, women with lighter skin are thought to be more beautiful and likely to find more success than women of darker skin tones. Often this barrier leads to women turning to skin lightening treatments, many of which are harmful to the body.\n\nHistorically, the cause of skin lightening goes back to colonialism, where individuals with lighter skin received greater privilege than those of darker tones. This built a racial hierarchy and color ranking within colonized African nations, leaving psychological effects on many of the darker skinned individuals.\n", "Whilst not all of these genes directly affect melanin production, most of them code for proteins that may play a significant role in melanogenesis and control melanin concentration. Some of these genes are found to be more prevalent in certain population than others.\n\nSection::::Health implications.\n\nSkin pigmentation is an evolutionary adaptation to the various UV radiation levels around the world. There are health implications of light-skinned people living in environments of high UV radiation. Various cultural practices increase problems related to health conditions of light skin, for example sunbathing among the light-skinned.\n", "Skin type determines the ease of sunburn. In general, people with lighter skin tone and limited capacity to develop a tan after UV radiation exposure have a greater risk of sunburn. The Fitzpatrick's Skin phototypes classification describes the normal variations of skin responses to UV radiation. Persons with type I skin have the greatest capacity to sunburn and type VI have the least capacity to burn. However, all skin types can develop sunburn.\n\nFitzpatrick's skin phototypes:\n\nBULLET::::- Type I: Pale white skin, burns easily, does not tan\n\nBULLET::::- Type II: White skin, burns easily, tans with difficulty\n", "With the increase of vitamin D synthesis, there is a decreased incidence of conditions that are related to common vitamin D deficiency conditions of people with dark skin pigmentation living in environments of low UV radiation: rickets, osteoporosis, numerous cancer types (including colon and breast cancer), and immune system malfunctioning. Vitamin D promotes the production of cathelicidin, which helps to defend humans' bodies against fungal, bacterial, and viral infections, including flu. When exposed to UVB, the entire exposed area of body’s skin of a relatively light skinned person is able to produce between 10 - 20000 IU of vitamin D.\n", "Dark skin with large concentrations of melanin protects against ultraviolet light and skin cancers; light-skinned people have about a tenfold greater risk of dying from skin cancer, compared with dark-skinned persons, under equal sunlight exposure. Furthermore, UV-A rays from sunlight are believed to interact with folic acid in ways that may damage health. In a number of traditional societies the sun was avoided as much as possible, especially around noon when the ultraviolet radiation in sunlight is at its most intense. Midday was a time when people stayed in the shade and had the main meal followed by a nap, a practice similar to the modern siesta.\n", "Endogenous defense mechanisms provide protection of the skin from damages induced by UV.\n\nSection::::Defense Mechanisms.:Epidermal thickness.\n\nUV exposure which would lead to an increase in epidermal thickness could help protect from further UV damage.\n\nSection::::Defense Mechanisms.:Pigment.\n\nIt has been reported in many cases that fairer individuals who have lesser melanin pigment show more dermal DNA photodamage, infiltrating neutrophils, keratinocyte activation, IL-10 expression and increased MMPs after UV exposure. Therefore, the distribution of melanin provides protection from sunburn, photoaging, and carcinogenesis by absorbing and scattering UV rays, covering the skin lower layers and protecting them from the radiation. \n", "Dark-skinned people who live in high latitudes with mild sunlight are at an increased risk – especially in the winter – of vitamin D deficiency. As a consequence of vitamin D deficiency, they are at a higher risk of developing rickets, and numerous types of cancers, and possibly cardiovascular disease and low immune system activity. However, some recent studies have questioned if the thresholds indicating Vitamin D deficiency in light-skinned individuals are relevant for dark-skinned individuals, as they found that, on average, dark-skinned individuals have higher bone density and lower risk of fractures than lighter-skinned individuals with the same levels of Vitamin D. This is attributed as, possibly, due to lower presence of Vitamin D binding agents (and thus higher bioavailability) in dark-skinned individuals.\n", "Another group of hypotheses contended that dark skin pigmentation developed as antibacterial protection against tropical infectious diseases and parasites. Although it is true that eumelanin has antibacterial properties, its importance is secondary as a physical absorbed to protect against UVR induced damage. This hypothesis is not consistent with the evidence that most of the hominid evolution took place in savanna environment and not in tropical rainforests. Humans living in hot and sunny environments have darker skin than humans who live in wet and cloudy environments. The antimicrobial hypothesis also does not explain why some populations (like the Inuit or Tibetans) who live far from the tropics and are exposed to high UVR have darker skin pigmentation than their surrounding populations.\n", "This principle is also vividly demonstrated among human populations. Populations that evolved in sunnier environments closer to the equator tend to be darker-pigmented than populations originating farther from the equator. There are exceptions, however; among the most well known are the Tibetans and Inuit, who have darker skin than might be expected from their native latitudes. In the first case, this is apparently an adaptation to the extremely high UV irradiation on the Tibetan Plateau, whereas in the second case, the necessity to absorb UV radiation is alleviated by the Inuit's diet naturally rich in vitamin D.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Section::::Exposure to sun.\n\nMelanin in the skin protects the body by absorbing solar radiation. In general, the more melanin there is in the skin the more solar radiation can be absorbed. Excessive solar radiation causes direct and indirect DNA damage to the skin and the body naturally combats and seeks to repair the damage and protect the skin by creating and releasing further melanin into the skin's cells. With the production of the melanin, the skin color darkens, but can also cause sunburn. The tanning process can also be created by artificial UV radiation.\n", "Babies and children are particularly susceptible to UV damage which increases their risk of both melanoma and non-melanoma skin cancers later in life. Children should not sunburn at any age and protective measures can ensure their future risk of skin cancer is reduced. \n\nBULLET::::- Infants 0-6 months: Children under 6mo generally have skin too sensitive for sunscreen and protective measures should focus on avoiding excessive UV exposure by using window mesh covers, wide brim hats, loose clothing that covers skin, and reducing UV exposure between the hours of 10am and 4pm.\n", "Melanin in the skin aids UV tolerance through suntanning, but fair-skinned persons lack the levels of melanin needed to prevent UV-induced DNA-damage. Studies have shown that red hair alleles in MC1R increase freckling and decrease tanning ability. It has been found that Europeans who are heterozygous for red hair exhibit increased sensitivity to UV radiation.\n", "Having multiple severe sunburns increases the likelihood that future sunburns develop into melanoma due to cumulative damage. The sun and tanning beds are the main sources of UV radiation that increase the risk for melanoma and living close to the equator increases exposure to UV radiation.\n\nSection::::Cause.:Genetics.\n", "Darkly pigmented, eumelanin-rich skin protects against DNA damage caused by the sunlight. This is associated with lower skin cancer rates among dark-skinned populations. The presence of pheomelanin in light skin increases the oxidative stress in melanocytes, and this combined with the limited ability of pheomelanin to absorb UVR contributes to higher skin cancer rates among light-skinned individuals. The damaging effect of UVR on DNA structure and the entailing elevated skin cancer risk is widely recognized. However, these cancer types usually affect people at the end or after their reproductive career and could have not been the evolutionary reason behind the development of dark skin pigmentation. Of all the major skin cancer types, only malignant melanoma have a major effect in a person's reproductive age. The mortality rates of melanoma has been very low (less than 5 per 100,000) before the mid-20th century. It has been argued that the low melanoma mortality rates during reproductive age cannot be the principal reason behind the development of dark skin pigmentation.\n", "Skin cancer is the number 1 killer of PWA in most equatorial African countries. Since albinism results from a lack of pigmentation (melanin) in the hair, skin and eyes, they have no natural protection from the sun's rays. For example; in Tanzania, less than 10% will live to age 30 and only 2% will live past the age of 40 due to skin cancer. Simple preventive measures such as the use of sun cream, sun glasses and long-sleeve shirts, pants & wide-brimmed hats will significantly reduce the risk of skin cancer. The emphasis must be placed on proper clothing since sunscreen is rarely available in most African countries and, when found, is too costly for most PWA to afford.\n", "Suntans, which naturally develop in some individuals as a protective mechanism against the sun, are viewed by most in the Western world as desirable. This has led to an overall increase in exposure to UV radiation from both the natural sun and tanning lamps. Suntans can provide a modest sun protection factor (SPF) of 3, meaning that tanned skin would tolerate up to three times the UV exposure as pale skin.\n\nSunburns associated with indoor tanning can be severe.\n", "Dark skin offers great protection against UVR because of its eumelanin content, the UVR-absorbing capabilities of large melanosomes, and because eumelanin can be mobilized faster and brought to the surface of the skin from the depths of the epidermis. For the same body region, light- and dark-skinned individuals have similar numbers of melanocytes (there is considerable variation between different body regions), but pigment-containing organelles, called melanosomes, are larger and more numerous in dark-skinned individuals. Keratocytes from dark skin cocultured with melanocytes give rise to a melanosome distribution pattern characteristic of dark skin. Melanosomes are not in aggregated state in darkly pigmented skin compared to lightly pigmented skin. Due to the heavily melanised melanosomes in darkly pigmented skin, it can absorb more energy from UVR and thus offers better protection against sunburns and by absorption and dispersion UV rays. Darkly pigmented skin protects against direct and indirect DNA damage. Photodegration occurs when melanin absorbs photons. Recent research suggest that the photoprotective effect of dark skin is increased by the fact that melanin can capture free radicals, such as hydrogen peroxide, which are created by the interaction of UVR and layers of the skin. Heavily pigmented melanocytes have greater capacity to divide after UVR irradiation, which suggests that they receive less damage to their DNA. Despite this, UVB damages the immune system even in darker skinned individuals due to its effect on Langerhans cells. The stratum corneum of people with dark or heavily tanned skin is more condensed and contains more cornified cell layers than in lightly pigmented humans. These qualities of dark skin enhance the barrier protection function of the skin.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04798	Why do humans tend to "pace around" when they need to pee?	Since I'm human I may be qualified to answer this. I do it because 1. it tends to put my mind away from wanting to pee 2. I believe mentally, by having the legs constantly moving or crossing(focusing on the upper thigh close to pelvic area), it could be a means of blocking urine from coming down, though that does not help. Note I said mentally it can be a means not that it works physically.	[ "\"It is instinct... We premeditate at times, but most of those things are instinct. When a fast bowler runs in to me, my breathing is controlled. So you keep a still head, slow down your breathing. Sometimes I actually hold my breath, so I can be as still and well-balanced as possible. If you get too excited, you overreact more, and with the adrenalin, you lose focus quickly.\"\n\nSection::::Personal life.\n", "BULLET::::- In the 2005 comedy \"Waiting...\", Calvin's paruresis is depicted as a major problem in his social life. The 2009 sequel, \"Still Waiting...\", shows how once the problem is overcome, Calvin's life changes completely.\n\nBULLET::::- In a 2006 comic strip \"Dilbert\", the namesake of the strip is required to give a urine sample at work and he says that he is unable due to \"shy bladder\". His pointy-haired boss asks if his paruresis is a side effect of the \"nose candy\".\n", "The basal ganglia acts on a subconscious level, requiring no conscious effort to function. When someone makes a decision to engage in an activity such as petting a dog, for example, these structures help to regulate the movement to make it as smooth as possible, and to respond to sensory feedback. Likewise, the globus pallidus is involved in the constant subtle regulation of movement that allows people to walk and engage in a wide variety of other activities with a minimal level of disruption.\n\nSection::::Function.:Pallidonigral pacemaker.\n", "Section::::Diet and foraging.\n\nSection::::Diet and foraging.:Diet.\n", "Urininary urgency may be as a result of anxiety or in some cases extended sexual arousal. When a human male is attracted to a mate, there is an autonomic nervous system response, and the body is therefore not entirely under conscious control, with many hormones including norepinephrine being released in the parasympathetic system in a cascade of ways designed by genetics to make the male more likely to breed. Specifically, the release of norepinephrine will lead to sweaty palms, inability to find words, rough and lowered voice, increased need to blink and urinary urgency. \n", "Running jokes tended to involve Peepers coping with misbehaving inanimate objects and with acutely embarrassing moments. In a typical moment, Peepers sees a hopscotch grid chalked on a sidewalk and, thinking himself alone, plays the game with abandon, only to discover that his girlfriend Nancy has been silently watching the entire time.\n", "Raised-leg urination is the most significant form of scent marking in wolves, and is most frequent around the breeding season. Wolves urine-mark more frequently when they detect the scent of other wolves, or other canid species. Leg-lifting is more common in male wolves than female wolves, although dominant females also use the raised-leg posture. Other types of urine-marking in wolves are FLU (flexed-leg urination), STU (standing urination), and SQU (squatting urination). Breeding pairs of wolves will sometimes urinate on the same spot: this is known as \"double-marking\". Double-marking is practiced by both coyotes and wolves., and also by foxes.\n", "Within the Felidae, male felids can urinate backwards by curving the tip of the glans penis backward. Urine marking by felids is also known as \"spray-urinating\" or \"spray-marking\".\n\nTo identify their territories, male tigers mark trees by spraying urine and anal gland secretions, as well as marking trails with scat. Males show a grimacing face, called the Flehmen response, when identifying a female's reproductive condition by sniffing their urine markings.\n", "Walking differs from a running gait in a number of ways. The most obvious is that during walking one leg always stays on the ground while the other is swinging. In running there is typically a ballistic phase where the runner is airborne with both feet in the air (for bipedals).\n", "Cuers are not expected (or even encouraged or suggested) to add patter. Rather, they speak more softly, and as quickly as possible to allow the dancers to enjoy as much of the song as possible. Cuers do not sing, either, except in rare occasions. Being more calm than most folk and country dances, round dance cuers are not expected to entertain; the act of dancing is the primary entertainment.\n", "Research has shown that performers in a flow state have a heightened quality of performance as opposed to when they are not in a flow state. In a study performed with professional classical pianists who played piano pieces several times to induce a flow state, a significant relationship was found between the flow state of the pianist and the pianist's heart rate, blood pressure, and major facial muscles. As the pianist entered the flow state, heart rate and blood pressure decreased and the major facial muscles relaxed. This study further emphasized that flow is a state of effortless attention. In spite of the effortless attention and overall relaxation of the body, the performance of the pianist during the flow state improved.\n", "Time to Pee!\n\nTime to Pee! is a children's picture book by Mo Willems. Released in 2003 by Hyperion Books, it is a book about toilet training. It also contains a progress chart and a page of motivational stickers. The book's instructions are presented by a group of mice toting signs and banners. Willems joked in an interview, \"My basic theory is that kids will never listen to adults, but they will listen to an infestation of mice.\"\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "Section::::Early life.:Education.\n\nBlock received a BA from Stanford University in 1970, followed by his MS and PhD in 1972 and 1975, respectively, from the University of Oregon; all of these degrees were in psychology. From 1975-1978, he returned to Stanford for postdoctoral work with Donald Kennedy, who later became president of Stanford, and Colin Pittendrigh, who is known as the “father of biological timing.\" During this time Block studied how voluntary movements inhibit sensory feedback in the crayfish working in the Kennedy lab while studying issues of circadian biology with Colin Pittendrigh.\n\nSection::::Career.\n\nSection::::Career.:University of Virginia.\n", "Section::::Impact.\n\nSome people have brief, isolated episodes of urinary difficulty in situations where other people are in close proximity. Paruresis, however, goes beyond simple shyness, embarrassment, fear of exposure, or fear of being judged for not being able to urinate. Other people may find that they are unable to urinate while in moving vehicles, or are fixated on the sounds of their urination in quiet restrooms or residential settings. In severe cases, a person with paruresis can urinate only when alone at home or through the process of catheterization.\n", "Red foxes use their urine to mark their territories. A male fox raises one hind leg and his urine is sprayed forward in front of him, whereas a female fox squats down so that the urine is sprayed in the ground between the hind legs. Urine is also used to mark empty cache sites, as reminders not to waste time investigating them. Red foxes use to urinate, depending on where they are leaving a scent mark.\n", "Paruresis is also known by many colloquial terms, including bashful bladder, bashful kidneys, stage fright, pee-shyness, and shy bladder syndrome.\n\nSection::::In popular culture.\n\nThe condition has been occasionally portrayed in popular culture, sometimes for comedic effect or parody. Examples of this include:\n\nBULLET::::- In the 1978 Cheech & Chong film \"Up in Smoke\", Cheech's character, Pedro, tells a police officer in a public restroom that he has \"stage fright\". He is then able to urinate after the police officer turns on a water faucet.\n", "BULLET::::- Compare to non-athletes, basketball players also perform much better on MOT task, suggesting that basketball players have high cognitive functions at allocating resources to multiple targets while inhibiting identical looking distractors.\n", "Section::::Fartlek variations.:Mona fartlek.\n\nSteve Moneghetti (Mona) devised this session with his coach Chris Wardlaw over the phone back in 1983 when he was just 20. He wanted a solid fartlek session, one that would help improve his speed as well as endurance and stimulate an ability to change pace mid-run, something that helped later on his career when competing against African athletes, who tended to speed up mid-race. A session would consist of: 2×90sec, 4×60sec, 4×30sec, 4×15sec with a slower tempo for recovery of the same time between each repetition. The session takes 20 minutes in total.\n\nSection::::Benefits.\n\nSection::::Benefits.:Easily adjustable.\n", "Section::::Preferred transition speed.\n\nThe preferred transition speed (PTS) is the speed at which an organism typically changes from one gait to another. Humans spontaneously switch from a walk to a run as speed increases. In humans, the preferred transition speed from walking to running typically occurs around 2.0 m/s (4.5 mph), although slight differences have been shown based on testing methodology.\n\nSection::::Why transition from walking to running at the PTS?\n", "If he, who is bound by rhythm and meter, finds out a device to allow himself a bit of a rest in the old age, the easier will be for us not only to slow down the rhythm, but to change it completely.\n\nYou, Crassus, certainly know how many and how various are the way of speaking.\n\nNonetheless, your present quietness and solemn eloquence is not at all less pleasant than your powerful energy and tension of your past.\n", "Flow has been linked to persistence and achievement in activities while also helping to lower anxiety during various activities and raise self-esteem.\n", "Back on the classical stage, he was not afraid to be, as he put it, \"a bit of a ham\"; when performing Scott Joplin's \"Ragtime Dance and Stomp\" as a concert hall encore, for example, he provided extra percussion by stamping his feet rhythmically on stage in time to the music.\n", "BULLET::::- In a 1999 episode of \"The Tom Green Show\", Glenn Humplik, Green's co-host, is unable to urinate because Green insists on filming him while he does so. The camera follows Glenn as he tries to get away until he manages to sneak into an office at a gas station and urinate inside.\n\nBULLET::::- In the 1999 film \"Fight Club\", Tyler Durden says to the narrator \"do not watch, I cannot go when you watch\" in a scene where he is a waiter, attempting to urinate into the food he will be serving.\n", "Human locomotion is considered to take two primary forms: walking and running. In contrast, many quadrupeds have three distinct forms of locomotion: walk, trot, and gallop. Walking is a form of locomotion defined by a double support phase when both feet are on the ground at the same time. Running is a form of locomotion that does not have this double support phase (switched into double float phase). In human running, the feet are never in contact with the ground simultaneously and there is a phase where neither foot is in contact and both feet are temporarily airborne. The transition between walking and running gaits is accomplished within two to three steps.\n", "\"The second, and perhaps more fundamental, idea Roger inculcated was the concept that all movement in the body is motivated in or from the torso. (...) Indeed most of his enchainement were designed specifically to make one aware of this. To me it was a revelation to finally locate the source of movement deep in the body, and not merely in the use of the legs and arms - however well coordinated or articulated they might be.\"\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-12787	When 2 or more sound wave met, it produces sounds from the initial waves despite its form is altered to something else. How is that even possible?	The two waves are only altered where they meet. Once the waves move passed each other, they go back to being just a single wave. Remember what sound waves are, vibrating molecules, most often for us, air molecules. At the point where two waves meet, each wave is trying to get the air molecules at that one point to move a certain way. The result of the two forces acting on those molecules is that they move a way that is different from each of the waves. But once the waves pass each other there is now only one wave acting on the molecules. So basically waves can pass through each other and come out the other side unaltered.	[ "Sound change has no memory: Sound change does not discriminate between the sources of a sound. If a previous sound change causes X,Y Y (features X and Y merge as Y), a new one cannot affect only an original X.\n", "The first kind is simple and is called the vibrating or oscillating piston. Examples of this type of sound generator include the soundboard of a piano, the surfaces of drums and cymbals, the diaphragm of loudspeakers, etc. The forward movement of something through the atmosphere causes an immediate increase in air pressure (compression) or condensation in the air adjacent to the piston. A complete cycle, or one complete soundwave, consists of an increase of pressure in the air, a subsequent decrease of pressure so that the pressure is back to normal, and a following decrease in air pressure called rarefaction. One complete cycle is produced when a drum is hit once with force. \n", "Section::::Background.\n\nThe phonemic restoration effect was first documented in a 1970 paper by Richard M. Warren entitled \"Perceptual Restoration of Missing Speech Sounds\". The purpose of the experiment was to give a reason to why in background of extraneous sounds, masked individual phonemes were still comprehensible.\n", "The basis of subtractive synthesis can be understood by considering the human voice; when a human speaks, sings or makes other vocal noises, the vocal folds act as an oscillator and the mouth and throat as a filter. Consider the difference between singing \"oooh\" and \"aaah\" , at the same pitch. The sound generated by the vocal folds is much the same in either case — a sound that is rich in harmonics. The difference between the two comes from the filtering applied with the mouth and throat. By changing the shape of the mouth, the frequency response of the filter is changed, removing (subtracting) some of the harmonics. The \"aaah\" sound has most of the original harmonics still present; the \"oooh\" sound has most of them removed (or, to be more precise, reduced in amplitude). By gradually changing from \"oooh\" to \"aaah\" and back again, a spectral glide is created, emulating the \"sweeping filter\" effect that is the basis of the \"wah-wah\" guitar effect.\n", "Section::::Types.\n\nIn a typological scheme first systematized by Henry M. Hoenigswald in 1965, a historical sound law can only affect a phonological system in one of three ways:\n\nBULLET::::- Conditioned merger (which Hoenigswald calls \"primary split\"), in which some instances of phoneme A become an existing phoneme B; the number of phonemes does not change, only their distribution.\n\nBULLET::::- Phonemic split (which Hoenigswald calls \"secondary split\"), in which some instances of A become a new phoneme B; this is phonemic differentiation in which the number of phonemes increases.\n", "This phenomenon is best known in acoustics or music, though it can be found in any linear system: \"According to the law of superposition, two tones sounding simultaneously are superimposed in a very simple way: one adds their amplitudes\". If a graph is drawn to show the function corresponding to the total sound of two strings, it can be seen that maxima and minima are no longer constant as when a pure note is played, but change over time: when the two waves are nearly 180 degrees out of phase the maxima of one wave cancel the minima of the other, whereas when they are nearly in phase their maxima sum up, raising the perceived volume.\n", "The sound that the larynx produces is a harmonic series. In other words, it consists of a fundamental tone (called the fundamental frequency, the main acoustic cue for the percept pitch) accompanied by harmonic overtones, which are multiples of the fundamental frequency. According to the source–filter theory, the resulting sound excites the resonance chamber that is the vocal tract to produce the individual speech sounds.\n", "Since sound waves are produced by a vibrating body, the vibrating object moves in one direction and compresses the air directly in front of it. As the vibrating object moves in the opposite direction, the pressure on the air is lessened so that an expansion, or rarefaction, of air molecules occurs. One compression and one rarefaction make up one longitudinal wave. The vibrating air molecules move back and forth parallel to the direction of motion of the wave, receiving energy from adjacent molecules nearer the source and passing the energy to adjacent molecules farther from the source.\n", "The analysis of raw fundamental frequency curves for the study of intonation needs to take into account the fact that speakers are simultaneously producing an intonation pattern and a sequence of syllables made up of segmental phones. The actual raw fundamental frequency curves which can be analysed acoustically are the result of an interaction between these two components and this makes it difficult to compare intonation patterns when they are produced with different segmental material. Compare for example the intonation patterns on the utterances \"It's for papa\" and \"It's for mama\".\n\nSection::::Algorithm.\n", "The following table illustrates the sound changes according to Verner. In the bottom row, for each pair, the sound on the right represents the sound changed according to Verner's Law.\n\nSection::::Significance.\n\nKarl Verner published his discovery in the article \"\" (an exception to the first sound shift) in Kuhn's \"Journal of Comparative Linguistic Research\" in 1876, but he had already presented his theory on 1 May 1875 in a comprehensive personal letter to his friend and mentor, Vilhelm Thomsen.\n", "Some linguists (such as Roman Jakobson and Morris Halle) proposed that phonemes may be further decomposable into features, such features being the true minimal constituents of language. Features overlap each other in time, as do suprasegmental phonemes in oral language and many phonemes in sign languages. Features could be characterized in different ways: Jakobson and colleagues defined them in acoustic terms, Chomsky and Halle used a predominantly articulatory basis, though retaining some acoustic features, while Ladefoged's system is a purely articulatory system apart from the use of the acoustic term 'sibilant'.\n", "A full cycle of a sound wave will be described in each example which consists of initial normal conditions (no fluctuations in atmospheric pressure), an increase of air pressure, a subsequent decrease in air pressure which brings it back to normal, a decrease in air pressure (less pressure than initial conditions), and lastly, an increase which brings atmospheric pressure back to normal again. Therefore, the final conditions are the same as the initial, at-rest conditions. \n", "Although there are many complexities relating to the transmission of sounds, at the point of reception (i.e. the ears), sound is readily dividable into two simple elements: pressure and time. These fundamental elements form the basis of all sound waves. They can be used to describe, in absolute terms, every sound we hear.\n\nIn order to understand the sound more fully, a complex wave such as the one shown in a blue background on the right of this text, is usually separated into its component parts, which are a combination of various sound wave frequencies (and noise).\n", "By the time convolution property of the fourier transform, multiplication in the time domain is a convolution in the frequency domain. Convolution between a baseband signal and a unity gain pure carrier frequency shifts the baseband spectrum in frequency and halves its magnitude, though no energy is lost. One half-scale copy of the replica resides on each half of the frequency axis. This is consistent with Parseval's theorem.\n", "Occasionally, two sounds (invariably adjacent) may influence one another in reciprocal assimilation. When such a change results in a single segment with some of the features of both components, it is known as coalescence or fusion.\n\nAssimilation occurs in two different types: complete assimilation, in which the sound affected by assimilation becomes exactly the same as the sound causing assimilation, and partial assimilation, in which the sound becomes the same in one or more features, but remains different in other features.\n", "If a phoneme moves in acoustic space, but its neighbors do not move in a chain shift, a \"phonemic merger\" may occur. In that case, a single phoneme results where an earlier stage of the language had two phonemes (that is also called \"phonetic neutralization\"). A well known example of a phonemic merger in American English is the cot–caught merger by which the vowel phonemes and (illustrated by the words \"cot\" and \"caught\" respectively) have merged into a single phoneme in some accents.\n\nSection::::Phonemic differentiation.:Phonemic splits.\n", "In his initial experiments, Warren provided the sentence shown and first replaced the first 's' phoneme in legislatures with extraneous noise, in the form of a cough. In a small group of 20 subjects, 19 did not notice a missing phoneme and one person misidentified the missing phoneme. This indicated that in the absence of a phoneme, the brain filled in the missing phoneme, through top-down processing. This was a phenomenon that was somewhat known at the time, but no one was able to pinpoint why it was occurring or had labeled it. He again did the same experiment with the sentence:\n", "As in these examples, sound segments typically assimilate to a following sound, but they may also assimilate to a preceding one. While assimilation most commonly occurs between immediately adjacent sounds, it may occur between sounds separated by others.\n\nAssimilation can be synchronic—that is, an active process in a language at a given point in time—or diachronic—that is, a historical sound change.\n", "Sound waves have two general characteristics: A disturbance is in some identifiable medium in which energy is transmitted from place to place, but the medium does not travel between two places.\n", "When the derived waveforms are representing activity from more apical regions along the basilar membrane, wave V latencies are prolonged because of the nature of the traveling wave. In order to compensate for these latency shifts, the wave V component for each derived waveform is stacked (aligned), added together, and then the resulting amplitude is measured.\n", "When a word with the segment 's' is removed and replaced by silence and a comparable noise segment were presented dichotically. Simply put, one ear was hearing the full sentence without phoneme excision and the other ear was hearing a sentence with a 's' sound removed. This version of the phonemic restoration effect was particularly strong because the brain was doing much less guess work with the sentence, because the information was given to the observer. Observers reported hearing exactly the same sentence in both ears, regardless of one of their ears missing a phoneme.\n\nSection::::Factors.:Language.\n", "Temporal Theory posits that the cause is from looking at the phase locking to tell what the pitch is. This theory has a hard time explaining diplacusis. There are some examples of pitch which don’t have an \"edge\" on the basilar membrane, which this would account for—i.e. white noise, clicks, etc. (need a reference)\n", "The particular contrasts which are phonemic in a language can change over time. At one time, and , two sounds that have the same place and manner of articulation and differ in voicing only, were allophones of the same phoneme in English, but later came to belong to separate phonemes. This is one of the main factors of historical change of languages as described in historical linguistics.\n", "With this technology, phrases can be put together whereas the voice owner may never have spoken. For instance, statements can be made with a public figure's voice that and used against them. Imagine the voice of the United States President declaring war on a country without.\"When a natural source such as a human voice or a musical instrument produces a sound, the resulting acoustic wave is generated by a time-varying excitation pattern of a possibly time-varying channel, and the sound characteristics depend both on the excitation signal and on the production system.\"\n\nSection::::Technology.\n", "The findings and insights of speech perception and articulation research complicate the traditional and somewhat intuitive idea of interchangeable allophones being perceived as the same phoneme. First, interchanged allophones of the same phoneme can result in unrecognizable words. Second, actual speech, even at a word level, is highly co-articulated, so it is problematic to expect to be able to splice words into simple segments without affecting speech perception.\n" ]	[ "Sound waves meeting alters the two waves." ]	[ "Sound waves are only altered where the waves meet, and will come out the other side unaltered. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Sound waves meeting alters the two waves.", "Sound waves meeting alters the two waves." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Sound waves are only altered where the waves meet, and will come out the other side unaltered. ", "Sound waves are only altered where the waves meet, and will come out the other side unaltered. " ]
2018-05793	How does the body generate heat?	When we eat food, we ultimately turn it into a chemical called ATP which is carried to all of our cells and provides power for all the processes of life. When the ATP is used up, its a chemical reaction that creates heat, like burning fuel in a fire. That heat diffuses out through the body, and we can regulate how much heat is lost through the skin to a certain extent by changing how much blood flows near the surface, which is why you go red when hot and blue when cold - there is more or less blood just under your skin. If we get too cold, we need to generate some more heat, so we need to burn a bit more ATP. We can't really turn the rates of most of our cells up without bad consequences, but what we can do is flex muscle fibre. Since wildly flailing tends to attract unwelcome attention from predators, we want to flex muscles a really small amount, very often, which is why we shiver.	[ "Section::::Energy usage in the human body.\n\nThe human body uses the energy released by respiration for a wide range of purposes: about 20% of the energy is used for brain metabolism, and much of the rest is used for the basal metabolic requirements of other organs and tissues. In cold environments, metabolism may increase simply to produce heat to maintain body temperature. Among the diverse uses for energy, one is the production of mechanical energy by skeletal muscle to maintain posture and produce motion.\n", "Another commonly considered model is the heat pump or refrigerator. Again there are four bodies: the working body, the hot reservoir, the cold reservoir, and the work reservoir. A single cycle starts with the working body colder than the cold reservoir, and then energy is taken in as heat by the working body from the cold reservoir. Then the work reservoir does work on the working body, adding more to its internal energy, making it hotter than the hot reservoir. The hot working body passes heat to the hot reservoir, but still remains hotter than the cold reservoir. Then, by allowing it to expand without doing work on another body and without passing heat to another body, the working body is made colder than the cold reservoir. It can now accept heat transfer from the cold reservoir to start another cycle.\n", "Although Carathéodory himself did not state such a definition, following his work it is customary in theoretical studies to define heat, , to the body from its surroundings, in the combined process of change to state from the state , as the change in internal energy, , minus the amount of work, , done by the body on its surrounds by the adiabatic process, so that .\n", "The CNS can be divided into the brain and spinal cord. The CNS processes many different kinds of incoming sensory information. It is also the source of thoughts, emotions, and memories. Most signals that stimulate muscles to contract and glands to secrete originate in the CNS. The spinal cord and spinal nerves contribute to homeostasis by providing quick reflexive responses to many stimuli. The spinal cord is the pathway for sensory input to the brain and motor output from the brain. The brain is responsible for integrating most sensory information and coordinating body function, both consciously and unconsciously.\n", "The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can be neither created nor destroyed. But energy can be converted from one form of energy to another. So, when a calorie of food energy is consumed, one of three particular effects occur within the body: a portion of that calorie may be stored as body fat, triglycerides, or glycogen, transferred to cells and converted to chemical energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP – a coenzyme) or related compounds, or dissipated as heat.\n\nSection::::Energy.\n\nSection::::Energy.:Intake.\n", "Body heat is generated by metabolism. This refers to the chemical reactions cells use to break down glucose into water and carbon dioxide and, in so doing, generate ATP (adenosine triphosphate), a high-energy compound used to power other cellular processes. Muscle contraction is a type of metabolic process that generates heat energy, and heat is also generated through friction when blood flows through the circulatory system.\n", "Section::::Control system.\n\nThe core temperature of a human is regulated and stabilized primarily by the hypothalamus, a region of the brain linking the endocrine system to the nervous system, and more specifically by the anterior hypothalamic nucleus and the adjacent preoptic area regions of the hypothalamus. As core temperature varies from the set point, endocrine production initiates control mechanisms to increase or decrease energy production/dissipation as needed to return the temperature toward the set point (see figure).\n\nSection::::In hot conditions.\n", "The principles of heat transfer in engineering systems can be applied to the human body in order to determine how the body transfers heat. Heat is produced in the body by the continuous metabolism of nutrients which provides energy for the systems of the body. The human body must maintain a consistent internal temperature in order to maintain healthy bodily functions. Therefore, excess heat must be dissipated from the body to keep it from overheating. When a person engages in elevated levels of physical activity, the body requires additional fuel which increases the metabolic rate and the rate of heat production. The body must then use additional methods to remove the additional heat produced in order to keep the internal temperature at a healthy level.\n", "The rest of the chemical energy in O and the carbohydrate or fat is converted into heat: the ATP is used as a sort of \"energy currency\", and some of the chemical energy it contains is used for other metabolism when ATP reacts with OH groups and eventually splits into ADP and phosphate (at each stage of a metabolic pathway, some chemical energy is converted into heat). Only a tiny fraction of the original chemical energy is used for work:\n", "BULLET::::- Eccrine sweat glands under the skin secrete sweat (a fluid containing mostly water with some dissolved ions), which travels up the sweat duct, through the sweat pore and onto the surface of the skin. This causes heat loss via evaporative cooling; however, a lot of essential water is lost.\n", "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n\nHeat is primarily generated in muscle tissue, including the heart, and in the liver, while it is lost through the skin (90%) and lungs (10%). Heat production may be increased two- to four-fold through muscle contractions (i.e. exercise and shivering). The rate of heat loss is determined, as with any object, by convection, conduction, and radiation. The rates of these can be affected by body mass index, body surface area to volume ratios, clothing and other environmental conditions.\n", "Each system contributes to homeostasis, of itself, other systems, and the entire body. Some combined systems are referred to by joint names. For example, the nervous system and the endocrine system operate together as the neuroendocrine system. The nervous system receives information from the body, and transmits this to the brain via nerve impulses and neurotransmitters. At the same time, the endocrine system releases hormones, such as to help regulate blood pressure and volume. Together, these systems regulate the internal environment of the body, maintaining blood flow, posture, energy supply, temperature, and acid balance (pH).\n\nSection::::Development.\n", "When an energy transfer to or from a body is only as heat, the state of the body changes. Depending on the surroundings and the walls separating them from the body, various changes are possible in the body. They include chemical reactions, increase of pressure, increase of temperature, and phase change. For each kind of change under specified conditions, the heat capacity is the ratio of the quantity of heat transferred to the magnitude of the change. For example, if the change is an increase in temperature at constant volume, with no phase change and no chemical change, then the temperature of the body rises and its pressure increases. The quantity of heat transferred, , divided by the observed temperature change, , is the body's heat capacity at constant volume:\n", "Acetylcholine stimulates muscle to raise metabolic rate.\n\nThe low demands of thermogenesis mean that free fatty acids draw, for the most part, on lipolysis as the method of energy production.\n\nA comprehensive list of human and mouse genes regulating cold-induced thermogenesis (CIT) in living animals (\"in vivo\") or tissue samples (\"ex vivo\") has been assembled and is available in CITGeneDB.\n\nSection::::Regulation.\n", "Section::::Controls of variables.\n\nSection::::Controls of variables.:Core temperature.\n\nMammals regulate their core temperature using input from thermoreceptors in the hypothalamus, brain, spinal cord, internal organs, and great veins. Apart from the internal regulation of temperature, a process called allostasis can come into play that adjusts behaviour to adapt to the challenge of very hot or cold extremes (and to other challenges). These adjustments may include seeking shade and reducing activity, or seeking warmer conditions and increasing activity, or huddling.\n", "Section::::Heat transfer.\n\nSection::::Heat transfer.:Heat transfer between two bodies.\n\nReferring to conduction, Partington writes: \"If a hot body is brought in conducting contact with a cold body, the temperature of the hot body falls and that of the cold body rises, and it is said that a \"quantity of heat\" has passed from the hot body to the cold body.\"\n\nReferring to radiation, Maxwell writes: \"In Radiation, the hotter body loses heat, and the colder body receives heat by means of a process occurring in some intervening medium which does not itself thereby become hot.\"\n", "Section::::Function.:Energy conversion.:Heat production.\n", "In mammals, temperature receptors innervate various tissues including the skin (as cutaneous receptors), cornea and urinary bladder. Neurons from the pre-optic and hypothalamic regions of the brain that respond to small changes in temperature have also been described, providing information on core temperature. The hypothalamus is involved in thermoregulation, the thermoreceptors allowing feed-forward responses to a predicted change in core body temperature in response to changing environmental conditions.\n\nSection::::Structure.\n\nThermoreceptors have been classically described as having 'free' non-specialized endings; the mechanism of activation in response to temperature changes is not completely understood.\n\nSection::::Function.\n", "As a common noun, English \"heat\" or \"warmth\" (just as French \"chaleur\", German \"Wärme\", Latin \"calor\", Greek θάλπος, etc.) refers to (the human perception of) either thermal energy or temperature. Speculation on thermal energy or \"heat\" as a separate form of matter has a long history, see caloric theory, phlogiston and fire (classical element).\n\nThe modern understanding of thermal energy originates with Thompson's 1798 mechanical theory of heat (\"An Experimental Enquiry Concerning the Source of the Heat which is Excited by Friction\"), postulating a mechanical equivalent of heat.\n", "The resting human body generates about two-thirds of its heat through metabolism in internal organs in the thorax and abdomen, as well as in the brain. The brain generates about 16% of the total heat produced by the body.\n", "Carrying the oxygen and nutrients to various tissues and organs of our body, delivering carbon dioxide to the lungs and accepting oxygen, bringing the metabolic by products to the kidneys, regulating the body's defence mechanism, that is, the immune system and facilitating an effective heat and mass transfer across the body are some of the major functions which blood performs in the human body.\n", "Endotherms control body temperature by internal homeostatic mechanisms. In mammals, two separate homeostatic mechanisms are involved in thermoregulation—one mechanism increases body temperature, while the other decreases it. The presence of two separate mechanisms provides a very high degree of control. This is important because the core temperature of mammals can be controlled to be as close as possible to the optimum temperature for enzyme activity.\n", "We can explain the expansion of air under heat: caloric is absorbed into the air, which increases its volume. If we say a little more about what happens to caloric during this absorption phenomenon, we can explain the radiation of heat, the state changes of matter under various temperatures, and deduce nearly all of the gas laws.\n\nSadi Carnot developed his principle of the Carnot cycle, which still forms the basis of heat engine theory, solely from the caloric viewpoint.\n", "The human body has two methods of thermogenesis, which produces heat to raise the core body temperature. The first is shivering, which occurs in an unclothed person when the ambient air temperature is under 25 °C (77 °F). It is limited by the amount of glycogen available in the body. The second is non-shivering, which occurs in brown adipose tissue.\n", "Heat also effects the viscosity of a fluid inside a capillary. An increase in heat decreases the viscosity of the lumenal fluid. A good example of this action can be observed in the human body during exercise. When a human is exercising, there is an increase in the metabolic rate inside the muscles, creating an increase in heat production. The increase in heat is detected by thermoreceptors, a type of sensory receptor located at various points in body. These receptors send a signal to the brain that tells the body to dilate the blood vessels, including capillaries. This creates a visible change in the number of vessels on the skin. This allows for heat transfer via convection to occur.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-06829	Why can't the pixels on a screen used to make the color black be turned off until they are needed?	They are, but in an LCD screen, they're not perfect light blockers. When energized, the pixels change their polarization. Combined with an oppositely polarized layer, a very large percentage of the backlighting is blocked, but not 100%, which results in the gray-black "glow" you see. Many newer TVs use arrays of LEDs for the backlight, and can control sections of the backlight independently. When the TV detects a black region should be displayed, it can momentarily turn off the LEDs in that section, to produce a "true black". OLED screens, where each pixel emits light rather than blocks it, have an easier job producing "true black".	[ "The bare display panel will only accept a digital video signal at the resolution determined by the panel pixel matrix designed at manufacture. Some screen panels will ignore the LSB bits of the color information to present a consistent interface (8 bit - 6 bit/color x3).\n\nWith analogue signals like VGA, the display controller also needs to perform a high speed analog to digital conversion. With digital input signals like DVI or HDMI some simple reordering of the bits is needed before feeding it to the rescaler if the input resolution doesn't match the display panel resolution.\n\nSection::::Safety.\n", "Each cell on a plasma display must be precharged before it is lit, otherwise the cell would not respond quickly enough. This precharging means the cells cannot achieve a true black, whereas an LED backlit LCD panel can actually turn off parts of the backlight, in \"spots\" or \"patches\" (this technique, however, does not prevent the large accumulated passive light of adjacent lamps, and the reflection media, from returning values from within the panel). Some manufacturers have reduced the precharge and the associated background glow, to the point where black levels on modern plasmas are starting to become close to some high-end CRTs Sony and Mitsubishi produced before ten years before the comparable plasma displays. It is important to note that plasma displays were developed for ten more years than CRTs; it is almost certain that if CRTs had been developed for as long as plasma displays were, the contrast on CRTs would have been far better than contrast on the plasma displays. With an LCD, black pixels are generated by a light polarization method; many panels are unable to completely block the underlying backlight. More recent LCD panels using LED illumination can automatically reduce the backlighting on darker scenes, though this method cannot be used in high-contrast scenes, leaving some light showing from black parts of an image with bright parts, such as (at the extreme) a solid black screen with one fine intense bright line. This is called a \"halo\" effect which has been minimized on newer LED-backlit LCDs with local dimming. Edgelit models cannot compete with this as the light is reflected via a light guide to distribute the light behind the panel.\n", "LCD monitors tend to contain similar protection circuitry, but for different reasons. Since the LCD must digitally sample the display signal (thereby emulating an electron beam), any signal that is out of range cannot be physically displayed on the monitor.\n\nSection::::Color palette.\n", "Ideally, you want to vary your computer activities to avoid static colours and hide elements on the screen which are displayed perpetually (such as an OS's Taskbar). The usage of a screensaver can help during times the computer is left unattended.\n\nOne proactive approach to removing image persistence is to cover the entire display area with pure white for an extended period of time. An easy way to do this is to navigate to \"about:blank\" in any web browser and press F11 to cover the entire screen.\n", "Another limit is that a shadow of an image may be visible after refreshing parts of the screen. Such shadows are termed \"ghost images\", and the effect is termed \"ghosting\". This effect is reminiscent of screen burn-in but, unlike screen burn-in, is solved after the screen is refreshed several times. Turning every pixel white, then black, then white, helps normalize the contrast of the pixels. This is why several devices with this technology \"flash\" the entire screen white and black when loading a new image.\n", "A dark dot defect is usually caused by a transistor in the transparent electrode layer that is stuck \"on\" for TN panels or \"off\" for MVA/PVA and IPS panels. In that state, the transistor places the liquid crystal material in such a way that no light ever passes through to the RGB layer of the display.\n\nSection::::Variations.:Bright dot defects.\n", "Screensavers derive their name from their original purpose, which was an active method of attempting to stave off screen burn. By ensuring that no pixel or group of pixels was left displaying a static image for extended periods of time, phosphor luminosity was preserved. Modern screensavers can turn off the screen when not in use.\n", "Some LCD panels have defective transistors, causing permanently lit or unlit pixels which are commonly referred to as stuck pixels or dead pixels respectively. Unlike integrated circuits (ICs), LCD panels with a few defective transistors are usually still usable. Manufacturers' policies for the acceptable number of defective pixels vary greatly. At one point, Samsung held a zero-tolerance policy for LCD monitors sold in Korea. As of 2005, though, Samsung adheres to the less restrictive ISO 13406-2 standard. Other companies have been known to tolerate as many as 11 dead pixels in their policies.\n", "The biggest technical problem for OLEDs is the limited lifetime of the organic materials. One 2008 technical report on an OLED TV panel found that after 1,000 hours, the blue luminance degraded by 12%, the red by 7% and the green by 8%. In particular, blue OLEDs historically have had a lifetime of around 14,000 hours to half original brightness (five years at eight hours per day) when used for flat-panel displays. This is lower than the typical lifetime of LCD, LED or PDP technology; each currently is rated for about 25,000–40,000 hours to half brightness, depending on manufacturer and model. One major challenge for OLED displays is the formation of dark spots due to the ingress of oxygen and moisture, which degrades the organic material over time whether or not the display is powered.\n", "An example of an application of defective colouring is the scheduling problem where vertices represent jobs (say users on a computer system), and edges represent conflicts (needing to access one or more of the same files). Allowing a defect means tolerating some threshold of conflict: each user may find the maximum slowdown incurred for retrieval of data with two conflicting other users on the system acceptable, and with more than two unacceptable.\n", "xvYCC was motivated by the fact that modern display and capture technologies often have underlying RGB primaries with significantly higher saturation than the traditional CRT displays, allowing them to handle a wider color gamut. But these devices have been unable to do this without upsetting basic calibration, as all existing video storage and transmission systems are based on CRT primaries, and are hence limited to the CRT gamut.\n", "Thus the term \"screen saver\" is now something of a misnomer – the best way to save the screen and also save electricity consumed by screen would simply be to have the computer turn off the monitor.\n\nSection::::Entertainment.\n", "The black level of a single-chip DLP depends on how unused light is being disposed. If the unused light is scattered to reflect and dissipate on the rough interior walls of the DMD / lens chamber, this scattered light will be visible as a dim gray on the projection screen, when the image is fully dark. Deeper blacks and higher contrast ratios are possible by directing unused HID light away from the DMD / lens chamber into a separate area for dissipation, and shielding the light path from unwanted internal secondary reflections.\n", "The Pixel 2 XL also suffers from a \"black smear\" problem, which occurs when a group of black pixels transition to colored ones, and tend to linger for a while, before changing to their expected state.\n", "Because LEDs can be switched on and off more quickly than CCFLs and can offer a higher light output, it is theoretically possible to offer very high contrast ratios. They can produce deep blacks (LEDs off) and high brightness (LEDs on). However, measurements made from pure-black and pure-white outputs are complicated by the fact that edge-LED lighting does not allow these outputs to be reproduced simultaneously on screen.\n\nFull-array backlights that use mini-LED panels, consisting of several thousand WLEDs, are being researched for TVs and mobile devices.\n\nSection::::Technology.:Quantum dot enhancement film.\n", "Section::::Volatile.\n\nVolatile displays require that pixels be periodically refreshed to retain their state, even for a static image. As such, a volatile screen needs electrical power, either from mains electricity (being plugged into a wall socket) or a battery to maintain an image on the display or change the image. This refresh typically occurs many times a second. If this is not done, for example, if there is a power outage, the pixels will gradually lose their coherent state, and the image will \"fade\" from the screen.\n\nSection::::Volatile.:Examples.\n\nThe following flat-display technologies have been commercialized in 1990s to 2010s:\n", "Stuck pixels are often incorrectly referred to as \"dead pixels\", which have a similar appearance. In a dead pixel, all three sub-pixels are permanently off, producing a pixel which is permanently black. Dead pixels can result from similar manufacturing anomalies as stuck pixels, but may also occur from a non-functioning transistor resulting in complete lack of power to the pixel. Dead pixels are much less likely to correct themselves over time or be repaired through any of several popular methods.\n", "Section::::Challenges.\n\nOne problem that currently hampers the widespread adoption of this highly energy efficient technology is that the average lifetimes of red and green PHOLEDs are often tens of thousands of hours longer than those of blue PHOLEDs. This may cause displays to become visually distorted much sooner than would be acceptable for a commercially viable device.\n", "Bistable LCDs do not require continuous refreshing. Rewriting is only required for picture information changes. In 1984 HA van Sprang and AJSM de Vaan invented an STN type display that could be operated in a bistable mode, enabling extreme high resolution images up to 4000 lines or more using only low voltages. Since a pixel however may be either in an on-state or in an off state at the moment new information needs to be written to that particular pixel, the addressing method of these bistable displays is rather complex, reason why these displays did not made it to the market. That changed when in the 2010 \"zero-power\" (bistable) LCDs became available. Potentially, passive-matrix addressing can be used with devices if their write/erase characteristics are suitable, which was the case for ebooks showing still pictures only. After a page is written to the display, the display may be cut from the power while that information remains readable. This has the advantage that such ebooks may be operated long time on just a small battery only. High-resolution color displays, such as modern LCD computer monitors and televisions, use an active-matrix structure. A matrix of thin-film transistors (TFTs) is added to the electrodes in contact with the LC layer. Each pixel has its own dedicated transistor, allowing each column line to access one pixel. When a row line is selected, all of the column lines are connected to a row of pixels and voltages corresponding to the picture information are driven onto all of the column lines. The row line is then deactivated and the next row line is selected. All of the row lines are selected in sequence during a refresh operation. Active-matrix addressed displays look brighter and sharper than passive-matrix addressed displays of the same size, and generally have quicker response times, producing much better images.\n", "The amount of power deposited on the color screen was so great that thermal loading was a serious problem. The energy the shadow mask absorbs from the electron gun in normal operation causes it to heat up and expand, which leads to blurred or discolored images (see doming). Signals that alternated between light and dark caused cycling that further increased the difficulty of keeping the mask from warping.\n", "LCDs, different from cathode ray tube (CRT) displays, have to use digital signaling to show each pixel. While notebook PCs started replacing CRT displays to LCDs, pixel data were transmitted as parallel data, interface systems found the problem that more than 20 cables were required to transmit data with 18 bits color depth for each 6-bit RGB color as well as lack of space for cables and difficulty of adjusting skews.\n", "However, all of these projects had problems with colors bleeding from one phosphor to another. In spite of their best efforts, the wide electron beams simply could not focus tightly enough to hit the individual dots, at least over the entirety of the screen. Moreover, most of these devices were unwieldy; the arrangement of the electron guns around the outside of the screen resulted in a very large display with considerable \"dead space\".\n\nSection::::Development.:Rear-gun efforts.\n", "The screens are typically covered with phosphor using sedimentation coating, where particles suspended in a solution are let to settle on the surface.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Cathode ray tubes.:Reduced-palette color CRTs.\n\nFor displaying of a limited palette of colors, there are a few options.\n", "A conventional LCD consists of a grid of individual LCD \"cells\" with red, green or blue (RGB) colored filters in front of them. A back light source, typically a fluorescent lamp or LED in modern systems, shines white light through the cells. By changing the opacity of the cells, differing quantities of RGB light are produced at any one triplet of cells, producing a single color as seen by the eye. The main problem with producing such a display is the need to individually address the enormous number of cells; in a modern high definition television with a 1080p display, this requires 1080 rows of 1920 triplet cells per row, or 6,220,800 individual LCD cells.\n", "For multi-projector systems, in particular, display devices must have a low black level (i.e., project little or no light when no signal is sent to them) to allow for reasonable edge-blending between the different projector footprints. Otherwise, overlapping video images will have an additive effect, causing a complex pattern of grey to appear even when no image is being projected. This becomes particularly important for users in the planetarium field, who have a vested interest in projecting a dark night sky. The desire for projectors to “go to black” has resulted in continued use of CRT technology, even as newer and less expensive technologies have emerged.\n" ]	[ "Pixels on a screen aren't turned off to present black colors.", "Pixels on a screen used to make black are not turned off until needed. " ]	[ "Screens do turn off LEDs in a region to produce black colors.", "Pixels on a screen used to make black are turned off until needed, but on LCD screens not all of the light is blocked. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Pixels on a screen aren't turned off to present black colors.", "Pixels on a screen used to make black are not turned off until needed. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Screens do turn off LEDs in a region to produce black colors.", "Pixels on a screen used to make black are turned off until needed, but on LCD screens not all of the light is blocked. " ]
2018-02340	Can anyone learn how to sing?	everyone can sing. not everyone can sing well. if you are tone deaf, you're basically throwing darts blindfolded	[ "BULLET::::6. \"Child of Mine\" (Gerry Goffin, Carole King) 3:18\n\nSection::::UK version.\n", "But Can They Sing?\n\nBut Can They Sing? is a reality television series that premiered on October 30, 2005 on VH1 as part of its celebreality programming. Hosted by Ahmet Zappa, the series was partially based on NBC's announced but abandoned project \"I'm a Celebrity but I Wanna Be a Pop Star\" (originally entitled \"Celebrity Pop Superstar\"). Like its network predecessor, it was produced by Granada America. In January 2006 VH1 announced that the show would not return for a second season.\n\nSection::::Premise.\n", "Nine celebrities set out to prove their singing prowess in an \"American Idol\"-style competition, while viewers voted online on their favorite performers. The celebrities were aided in their quest by movement/dance instructor Tony Michaels and vocal coaches Jackie Simley-Stevens and Rachel Riggs. The winner's favorite charity received $50,000.\n\nSection::::Contestants.\n\nBULLET::::- Joe Pantoliano\n\nBULLET::::- \"I Get a Kick Out of You\" (Frank Sinatra) (week one)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Volare\"* (week two)\n\nBULLET::::- Michael Copon\n\nBULLET::::- \"I Don't Wanna Be\" (Gavin DeGraw, 2004) (week one)\n\nBULLET::::- \"American Woman\" (The Guess Who) (week two)\n", "In 1988, Tommy Olivencia heard Rivera sing alongside his father and recommended that he sing solo. When Rivera was 14, his father made a demo and presented it to the CBS music department. They signed Rivera.\n", "Section::::Music style and lyrical themes.\n", "Section::::Composition.\n", "BULLET::::- Jack Klugman as George Kogan\n\nBULLET::::- Gregory Phillips as Matt\n\nBULLET::::- Aline MacMahon as Ida\n\nBULLET::::- Pauline Jameson as Miss Plimpton\n\nBULLET::::- Jeremy Burnham as Hospital surgeon\n\nBULLET::::- Lorna Luft as Girl on boat\n\nBULLET::::- Joseph Luft as Boy on boat\n\nBULLET::::- Leon Cortez as Busker\n\nSection::::Music.\n\nAll songs performed by Judy Garland:\n\nBULLET::::- \"I Am the Monarch of the Sea\" (Judy Garland and Boys) from \"H.M.S. Pinafore\" by Gilbert and Sullivan\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hello Bluebird\", words and music by Cliff Friend\n\nBULLET::::- \"'It Never Was You\", Kurt Weill and Maxwell Anderson\n\nBULLET::::- \"By Myself\", Arthur Schwartz and Howard Dietz\n", "In 1990, singer Melba Moore released a modern rendition of the song, which she recorded along with others including R&B artists Stephanie Mills, Freddie Jackson, Anita Baker, Dionne Warwick, Bobby Brown, Stevie Wonder, Jeffrey Osborne, and Howard Hewett; and gospel artists BeBe & CeCe Winans, Take 6, and The Clark Sisters, after which, \"Lift Ev'ry Voice and Sing\" was entered into the \"Congressional Record\" by Del. Walter Fauntroy (D-DC).\n", "BULLET::::2. Developing consistent vocal production with a consistent tone quality\n\nBULLET::::3. Developing flexibility and agility\n\nBULLET::::4. Achieving a balanced vibrato\n\nSection::::Vocal pedagogy.:Vocal technique.:Developing the singing voice.\n", "BULLET::::- \"I Could Go On Singing\", Harold Arlen and E. Y. Harburg\n\nSection::::Film reviews.\n", "BULLET::::- A cappella\n\nBULLET::::- Aria\n\nBULLET::::- Bel canto\n\nBULLET::::- Chanson\n\nBULLET::::- Chiaroscuro (music)\n\nBULLET::::- Child singer\n\nBULLET::::- Choral music\n\nBULLET::::- Fach\n\nBULLET::::- Group singing\n\nBULLET::::- Opera\n\nBULLET::::- Overtone singing\n\nBULLET::::- Recitative\n\nBULLET::::- Singer-songwriter\n\nBULLET::::- Sprechgesang\n\nBULLET::::- Throat singing\n\nBULLET::::- Voice pedagogy\n\nBULLET::::- Voice projection\n\nBULLET::::- Voice type\n\nBULLET::::- Yodeling\n\nBULLET::::- Winsingad\n\nSection::::See also.:Other music.\n\nBULLET::::- Beat boxing\n\nBULLET::::- Belt (music)\n\nBULLET::::- Death growl\n\nBULLET::::- Humming\n\nBULLET::::- Isicathamiya\n\nBULLET::::- Lead vocalist\n\nBULLET::::- Mbube\n\nBULLET::::- Rapping\n\nBULLET::::- Screaming (music)\n\nBULLET::::- Vocoder\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "Some consider that singing is not a natural process but is a skill that requires highly developed muscle reflexes, but others consider that some ways of singing can be considered as natural. Singing does not require much muscle strength but it does require a high degree of muscle coordination. Individuals can develop their voices further through the careful and systematic practice of both songs and vocal exercises. Voice teachers instruct their students to exercise their voices in an intelligent manner. Singers should be thinking constantly about the kind of sound they are making and the kind of sensations they are feeling while they are singing.\n", "In a 2017 interview for \"Broadway World\", Langan recalls when he was a sophomore at New England Conservatory in 1974 and met opera singer Maria Callas, who told him: \"I will give you one piece of advice. People will tell you constantly how to sing. Make it louder, softer, faster, slower.\" She then placed her hand over his heart and said: \"Always remain true to this when you sing no matter what they tell you!\"\n\nSection::::Career.\n", "Ebsen performed his vocals in his natural voice. In his Tin Man portion of the film, Haley eschewed his own natural, somewhat deeper and stronger voice, and both spoke and sang in a softened tone that he said was the tone he typically used when reading stories to his children.\n\nRoger Daltrey sang a rock and roll tempo in the 1995 television special when he performed as the Tin Man while Jewel who performed as Dorothy sang the verse \"Wherefore art thou Romeo?\" in order for it to have a girl's voice in the background.\n", "Section::::History.:\"Vocal Play\".\n", "BULLET::::1. In India, the Tamil show \"Y this Kolaveri\" is loosely based on \"Killer Karaoke\"/\"Sing If You Can\", as it deals with participants having to sing while avoiding challenging situations. Unlike its American counterpart, the obstacles in this show are far less severe and are restricted to conditions like \"standing on a two-tonne block of ice\" and \"walking blindfolded through a cactus maze\".\n", "In an interview by Campus.ie, Gartland is quoted \"I played violin, fiddle, and trad and Irish stuff from the age of about five years old...my parents got me into lessons and the guitar at about 12 years old and it went from there.\" She posted her first YouTube video at age 13 about which she stated \"I had been playing guitar for just over a year and wailing alongside the chords. I hadn't a clue how to sing; the breathing or any of the technical stuff (still haven't the foggiest) – so just wanted some feedback on that really!\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Please Simon\" - Brenda, Vladimir, Alterboyz, Soul Star, Ensemble\n\nBULLET::::- \"All Woman\" - Brenda, Liam, Ensemble\n\nBULLET::::- \"I Can't Sing!\" - Chenice, Max, Barlow\n\nBULLET::::- \"Better than That\" - Hunchback\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Hugging Song\" - Liam\n\nBULLET::::- \"Missing You Already\" - Chenice, Max\n\nBULLET::::- \"X Factor Fever\" - Chenice, Max, Liam, Brenda, Ensemble\n\nBULLET::::- Act II\n\nBULLET::::- \"Here Come the Judges\" - Brunhilde, Liam, Gerrard Smalls, Simon, Jordy, Louis, Ensemble\n\nBULLET::::- \"Uncomplicated Love\" - Simon, Gerrard Smalls, Max, Ensemble\n\nBULLET::::- \"Uncomplicated Love (reprise)\" - Barlow\n\nBULLET::::- \"Falling in Love with Myself\" - Jordy, Chenice, Ensemble\n", "Learning to sing is an activity that benefits from the involvement of an instructor. A singer does not hear the same sounds inside his or her head that others hear outside. Therefore, having a guide who can tell a student what kinds of sounds he or she is producing guides a singer to understand which of the internal sounds correspond to the desired sounds required by the style of singing the student aims to re-create.\n\nSection::::Vocal pedagogy.:Extending vocal range.\n", "Section::::Voices.:Chest voice and head voice.:History and development.\n", "In the late 1970s and early 80s, \"How Can I Keep From Singing\" was recorded by Catholic Folk musician Ed Gutfreund (on an album called \"From An Indirect Love\"); the music was published in a widely used Catholic Hymnal called \"Glory and Praise\"; it was popular among Catholic liturgical music ministers, especially those who used guitar. In this, and in a 1993 recording by Marty Haugen, Jeanne Cotter, and David Haas, the quatrain beginning: \"No storm can shake my inmost calm ...\" is used as a repeated refrain.\n", "BULLET::::- A Japanese version was recorded in 1972, 3 people would later become members of The Candies the following year.\n\nBULLET::::- The British rock band Oasis was sued after their recording \"Shakermaker\" borrowed its melody and some lyrics directly; they were forced to change their composition.\n\nBULLET::::- Oasis tribute band No Way Sis released a cover of \"I'd Like to Teach the World to Sing\", entering the British charts at number 27 in 1996.\n\nBULLET::::- In 1997, the rock band Smash Mouth put a reference of the song in early lines of their first major single Walkin' on the Sun.\n", "The first known publication of the words was on August 7, 1868, in \"The New York Observer\", Titled \"Always Rejoicing\", and, attributed to \"Pauline T.\", the text reads:\n", "Section::::Types of Developmentally Appropriate Musical Practice (DAMP).:Emergent literacy skills and musical concepts and methods.\n", "Doris Plenn learned the original hymn from her grandmother, who reportedly believed that it dated from the early days of the Quaker movement. Plenn contributed the following verse around 1950, which was taken up by Pete Seeger and other folk revivalists:\n\nSection::::History.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-02632	When you scrape a sewing needle or a screwdriver against a magnet, why do they temporarily gain magnetic properties?	Magnets that are magnets all the time are called permanent magnets. They have their magnetic properties because their atoms are all aligned a certain way that concentrates the magnetic field each atom creates. When you scrape a ferrous metal across a magnet it temporarily aligns the metal's atoms cause it to also become magnetized. Over time the atoms fall out of alignment and return to their normal randomly pointed state.	[ "For permanent magnets this is usually only a small change, but if you have an electromagnet that consists of a wire wound round an iron core, and you bring a permanent magnet near to that core, then the magnetization of that core can change drastically (for example, if there is no current in the wire, the electromagnet would not be magnetic, but when the permanent magnet is brought near, the core of the electromagnet becomes magnetic).\n", "Application of an external magnetic field causes the domains that are magnetized in the same general direction to grow at the expense of adjacent ones that point in other directions, reinforcing the external field. This effect is exploited in devices that needs to channel magnetic fields, such as electrical transformers, magnetic recording heads, and electric motors. Impurities, lattice defects, or grain and particle boundaries can \"pin\" the domains in the new positions, so that the effect persists even after the external field is removed -- thus turning the iron object into a (permanent) magnet.\n", "When an external magnetic field is applied to a ferromagnetic material, the magnetization (\"M\") increases with the strength of the magnetic field (\"H\") until it approaches saturation. Over some range of fields the magnetization has hysteresis because there is more than one stable magnetic state for each field. Therefore, a remanent magnetization will be present even after removing the external magnetic field.\n", "Initially, the magnetic field inside an NMR spectrometer or MRI scanner will be far from homogeneous compared with an \"ideal\" field of the device. This is a result of production tolerances and of the magnetic field of the environment. Iron constructions in walls and floor of the examination room become magnetized and disturb the field of the scanner. The probe and the sample or the patient become slightly magnetized when brought into the strong magnetic field and create additional inhomogeneous fields. The process of correcting for these inhomogeneities is called shimming the magnet, shimming the probe or shimming the sample, depending on the assumed source of the remaining inhomogeneity.\n", "BULLET::::- Stroking: An existing magnet is moved from one end of the item to the other repeatedly in the same direction (\"single touch\" method) or two magnets are moved outwards from the center of a third (\"double touch\" method).\n\nBULLET::::- Electric Current: The magnetic field produced by passing an electric current through a coil can get domains to line up. Once all of the domains are lined up, increasing the current will not increase the magnetization.\n\nSection::::Demagnetizing ferromagnets.\n\nMagnetized ferromagnetic materials can be demagnetized (or degaussed) in the following ways:\n", "BULLET::::- Heating a magnet past its Curie temperature; the molecular motion destroys the alignment of the magnetic domains. This always removes all magnetization.\n\nBULLET::::- Placing the magnet in an alternating magnetic field with intensity above the material's coercivity and then either slowly drawing the magnet out or slowly decreasing the magnetic field to zero. This is the principle used in commercial demagnetizers to demagnetize tools, erase credit cards, hard disks, and degaussing coils used to demagnetize CRTs.\n", "It has long been known that a TRM can be removed if it is heated above the Curie temperature formula_1 of the minerals carrying it. A TRM can also be partially demagnetized by heating up to some lower temperature formula_2 and cooling back to room temperature. A common procedure in paleomagnetism is \"stepwise demagnetization\", in which the sample is heated to a series of temperatures formula_3, cooling to room temperature and measuring the remaining remanence in between each heating step. The series of remanences can be plotted in a variety of ways, depending on the application.\n\nSection::::In paleomagnetism.:Partial TRM.\n", "Section::::Applications.:Magnetic Media.\n\nMagneto Optical (MO) Drives were introduced in 1985. MO discs were written using a laser and an electromagnet. The laser would heat the platter above its Curie temperature at which point the electromagnet would orient that bit as a 1 or 0. To read, the laser is operated at a lower intensity, and emits polarized light. Reflected light is analyzed showing a noticeable difference between a 0 or 1.\n\nSection::::Discovery.\n\nThe magneto-optic Kerr effect was discovered in 1877 by John Kerr.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Faraday effect\n\nBULLET::::- Fresnel equations\n\nBULLET::::- John Kerr\n\nBULLET::::- Thin-film optics\n\nBULLET::::- Voigt Effect\n", "A material is paramagnetic only above its Curie temperature. Paramagnetic materials are non-magnetic when a magnetic field is absent and magnetic when a magnetic field is applied. When a magnetic field is absent, the material has disordered magnetic moments; that is, the atoms are asymmetrical and not aligned. When a magnetic field is present, the magnetic moments are temporarily realigned parallel to the applied field; the atoms are symmetrical and aligned. The magnetic moments being aligned in the same direction are what causes an induced magnetic field.\n", "Section::::Laboratory magnetometers.:Pulsed-field extraction magnetometry.\n\nPulsed-field extraction magnetometry is another method making use of pickup coils to measure magnetization. Unlike VSMs where the sample is physically vibrated, in pulsed-field extraction magnetometry, the sample is secured and the external magnetic field is changed rapidly, for example in a capacitor-driven magnet. One of multiple techniques must then be used to cancel out the external field from the field produced by the sample. These include counterwound coils that cancel the external uniform field and background measurements with the sample removed from the coil.\n\nSection::::Laboratory magnetometers.:Torque magnetometry.\n", "The coercivity of a material depends on the time scale over which a magnetization curve is measured. The magnetization of a material measured at an applied reversed field which is nominally smaller than the coercivity may, over a long time scale, slowly relax to zero. Relaxation occurs when reversal of magnetization by domain wall motion is thermally activated and is dominated by magnetic viscosity. The increasing value of coercivity at high frequencies is a serious obstacle to the increase of data rates in high-bandwidth magnetic recording, compounded by the fact that increased storage density typically requires a higher coercivity in the media.\n", "An electromagnet is made from a coil of wire that acts as a magnet when an electric current passes through it but stops being a magnet when the current stops. Often, the coil is wrapped around a core of \"soft\" ferromagnetic material such as mild steel, which greatly enhances the magnetic field produced by the coil.\n\nSection::::Discovery and development.\n", "BULLET::::- Some demagnetization or reverse magnetization will occur if any part of the magnet is subjected to a reverse field above the magnetic material's coercivity.\n\nBULLET::::- Demagnetization progressively occurs if the magnet is subjected to cyclic fields sufficient to move the magnet away from the linear part on the second quadrant of the B-H curve of the magnetic material (the demagnetization curve).\n\nBULLET::::- Hammering or jarring: mechanical disturbance tends to randomize the magnetic domains and reduce magnetization of an object, but may cause unacceptable damage.\n\nSection::::Types of permanent magnets.\n\nSection::::Types of permanent magnets.:Magnetic metallic elements.\n", "These time varying magnetic fields can be caused by relative motion between two objects. In many cases, one magnetic field is a permanent field, such as a permanent magnet or a superconducting magnet, and the other magnetic field is induced from the changes of the field that occur as the magnet moves relative to a conductor in the other object.\n\nElectrodynamic suspension can also occur when an electromagnet driven by an AC electrical source produces the changing magnetic field, in some cases, a linear induction motor generates the field.\n", "BULLET::::- Placing the item in an external magnetic field will result in the item retaining some of the magnetism on removal. Vibration has been shown to increase the effect. Ferrous materials aligned with the Earth's magnetic field that are subject to vibration (e.g., frame of a conveyor) have been shown to acquire significant residual magnetism. Likewise, striking a steel nail held by fingers in a N-S direction with a hammer will temporarily magnetize the nail.\n", "Section::::Applications.\n\nThere are a great variety in applications of the theory of hysteresis in magnetic materials. Many of these make use of their ability to retain a memory, for example magnetic tape, hard disks, and credit cards. In these applications, \"hard\" magnets (high coercivity) like iron are desirable so the memory is not easily erased. \n\n\"Soft\" magnets (low coercivity) are used as cores in transformers and electromagnets. The response of the magnetic moment to a magnetic field boosts the response of the coil wrapped around it. Low coercivity reduces that energy loss associated with hysteresis.\n", "BULLET::::- Pull-through AC demagnetizing coils: seen in the figure to the right are AC powered devices that generate a high magnetic field where the part is slowly pulled through by hand or on a conveyor. The act of pulling the part through and away from the coil's magnetic field slows drops the magnetic field in the part. Note that many AC demagnetizing coils have power cycles of several seconds so the part must be passed through the coil and be several feet (meters) away before the demagnetizing cycle finishes or the part will have residual magnetization.\n", "Research into the study of small perturbations within a large domains began in the late 1910s when Heinrich Barkhausen investigated how the domains, or dipoles, within a ferromagnetic material changed under the influence of an external electric field. When demagnetised, a magnet’s dipoles are pointing in random directions hence the net magnetic force from all the dipoles will be zero. By applying an external electric field by coiling an iron bar with wire and passing a current through a force perpendicular to the coil is produced (Fleming’s right hand rule for a coil), this causes the dipoles within the magnet to align to the external field.\n", "Magnetostriction\n\nMagnetostriction (cf. electrostriction) is a property of ferromagnetic materials that causes them to change their shape or dimensions during the process of magnetization. The variation of materials' magnetization due to the applied magnetic field changes the magnetostrictive strain until reaching its saturation value, λ. The effect was first identified in 1842 by James Joule when observing a sample of iron.\n\nThis effect causes energy loss due to frictional heating in susceptible ferromagnetic cores. \n", "When exposed to an external magnetic field, these microbeads become magnetized. The induced magnetic moment formula_1 is proportional to a weak external magnetic field formula_2:\n\nformula_3\n", "If the magnetization vector has a non-zero component in the xy plane, then the precessing magnetisation will induce a corresponding oscillating voltage in a detection coil surrounding the sample. This time-domain signal is typically digitised and then Fourier transformed in order to obtain a frequency spectrum of the NMR signal i.e. the NMR spectrum.\n\nThe duration of the NMR signal is ultimately limited by T relaxation, but mutual interference of the different NMR frequencies present also causes the signal to be damped more quickly. \n", "Ferromagnetic materials (like iron) are composed of microscopic regions called magnetic domains, that act like tiny permanent magnets that can change their direction of magnetization. Before an external magnetic field is applied to the material, the domains' magnetic fields are oriented in random directions, effectively cancelling each other out, so the net external magnetic field is negligibly small. When an external magnetizing field \"H\" is applied to the material, it penetrates the material and aligns the domains, causing their tiny magnetic fields to turn and align parallel to the external field, adding together to create a large magnetic field \"B\" which extends out from the material. This is called magnetization. The stronger the external magnetic field \"H\", the more the domains align, yielding a higher magnetic flux density \"B\". Eventually, at a certain external magnetic field, the domain walls have moved as far as they can, and the domains are as aligned as the crystal structure allows them to be, so there is negligible change in the domain structure on increasing the external magnetic field above this. The magnetization remains nearly constant, and is said to have saturated. The domain structure at saturation depends on the temperature.\n", "BULLET::::3. magnetization reversal by circularly polarized light; i.e., incident electromagnetic radiation that is circularly polarized\n\nSection::::Demagnetization.\n\nDemagnetization is the reduction or elimination of magnetization. One way to do this is to heat the object above its Curie temperature, where thermal fluctuations have enough energy to overcome exchange interactions, the source of ferromagnetic order, and destroy that order. Another way is to pull it out of an electric coil with alternating current running through it, giving rise to fields that oppose the magnetization.\n", "When the current in the coil is turned off, in the magnetically soft materials that are nearly always used as cores, most of the domains lose alignment and return to a random state and the field disappears. However, some of the alignment persists, because the domains have difficulty turning their direction of magnetization, leaving the core a weak permanent magnet. This phenomenon is called hysteresis and the remaining magnetic field is called remanent magnetism. The residual magnetization of the core can be removed by degaussing. In alternating current electromagnets, such as are used in motors, the core's magnetization is constantly reversed, and the remanence contributes to the motor's losses.\n", "BULLET::::- Remanence, B; \"induction which remains\": After magnetization to saturation, a value of induction B in the material in a closed magnetic circuit without external field H; the point where hysteresis loop crosses B axis;\n\nBULLET::::- Coercivity, H: After magnetization to saturation, a value of field strength H at which induction B in the material becomes 0; the point where hysteresis loop crosses H axis;\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-18830	Why do color changing LED lights on signs look like they’re moving?	They are not single leds with different colours, but different led's, so when they change colour different leds light up, slightly next to the previous ones, making it "shift" when you look at it.	[ "Some special effects, such as certain kinds of electronic glowsticks commonly seen at outdoor events, have the appearance of a solid color when motionless but produce a multicolored or dotted blur when waved about in motion. These are typically LED-based glow sticks. The variation of the duty cycle upon the LED(s), results in usage of less power while by the properties of flicker fusion having the direct effect of varying the brightness. When moved, if the frequency of duty cycle of the driven LED(s) is below the flicker fusion threshold timing differences between the on/off state of the LED(s) becomes evident, and the color(s) appear as evenly spaced points in the peripheral vision.\n", "This optical illusion is caused by the fact that the human optic nerve responds to changes in light at about 10 cycles per second, so changes about double of this are registered as motion instead of being separate distinct images.\n\nSection::::Examples of use.\n\nOne example of the beta movement effect would be a set of LEDs, as shown at the adjacent picture. The LEDs, electronically, are individually controlled, but our eyes and brains perceive them as a snake running clockwise around the four edges of the square picture. This is also seen commonly on LED displays.\n\nSection::::Experiment.\n", "Further background and explanations on the different TLA phenomena are given in a recorded webinar “\"Is it all just flicker?\"”. Models for the visibility of flicker and stroboscopic effect from the temporal behavior of luminous output of LEDs are in the doctoral thesis of Perz.\n\nSection::::Root causes.\n\nThe root cause of TLAs is the variation of the light intensity of lighting equipment. Important factors that can contribute and that determine the magnitude and type of light modulation of lighting equipment are:\n", "Many systems pulse LEDs on and off, by applying power periodically or intermittently. So long as the flicker rate is greater than the human flicker fusion threshold, and the LED is stationary relative to the eye, the LED will appear to be continuously lit. Varying the on/off ratio of the pulses is known as pulse-width modulation. In some cases PWM-based drivers are more efficient than constant current or constant voltage drivers.\n", "LEDs do not intrinsically produce temporal modulations; they just reproduce the input current waveform very well, and any ripple in the current waveform is reproduced by a light ripple because LEDs have a fast response; therefore, compared to conventional lighting technologies (incandescent, fluorescent), for LED lighting more variety in the TLA properties is seen. Many types and topologies of LED driver circuits are applied; simpler electronics and limited or no buffer capacitors often result in larger residual current ripple and thus larger temporal light modulation.\n", "BULLET::::- Light source technology: LEDs do not intrinsically produce temporal modulation; they just reproduce the input current waveform very well, and any ripple in the current waveform is reproduced by a light ripple because LEDs have a fast response; therefore compared to conventional lighting technologies (incandescent, fluorescent), for LED lighting more variety in the TLA properties is seen.\n\nBULLET::::- Power source technology (driver, electrical ballast): Many types and topologies of LED drivers and electrical ballasts are applied; simpler electronics and limited or no buffer capacitors often result in larger residual current ripple and thus larger temporal light modulation.\n", "Intelligent street lighting\n\nIntelligent street lighting refers to public street lighting that adapts to movement by pedestrians, cyclists and cars. Intelligent street lighting, also referred to as adaptive street lighting, dims when no activity is detected, but brightens when movement is detected. This type of lighting is different from traditional, stationary illumination, or dimmable street lighting that dims at pre-determined times.\n\nSection::::Tarn.\n\nSection::::Tarn.:Europe.\n", "TLMs can be designed-in fluctuations from the electronic driver because of application of certain driver or light-regulation technologies. For example, AC-fed drivers or application of pulse-width modulation for light-level regulation cause a fairly high magnitude of modulation. However, LED drivers can also be designed to reduce the residual fluctuations in the current to the LEDs to limit the risk of TLI in specific applications.\n\nSometimes also intentional light variations are applied, for instance for visible light communication.\n\nSection::::Potential victims of TLI.\n\nEquipment having an optical interface (Figure 1), that potentially may be interfered by TLM disturbances include:\n", "There are two broad theories for the wagon-wheel effect under truly continuous illumination. The first is that human visual perception takes a series of still frames of the visual scene and that movement is perceived much like a movie. The second is Schouten's theory: that moving images are processed by visual detectors sensitive to the true motion and also by detectors sensitive to opposite motion from temporal aliasing. There is evidence for both theories, but the weight of evidence favours the latter.\n\nSection::::Under continuous illumination.:Truly continuous illumination.:Discrete frames theory.\n", "ASM provides an optional feature for increasing accuracy while placing LED components on a high end product where in the optical center of the LED is critical rather than the calculated mechanical center based on the component's lead structure. The special camera system measures both physical and optical center and makes the necessary adjustments before placement.\n", "The most recent development in intelligent lighting is digital lighting, with fixtures such as High End Systems' DL3. These fixtures consist of a bright LCD or DLP projector mounted on a moving yoke, much like that of an ordinary moving head. These fixtures also contain an integrated media server, which allows for millions of colour choices, endless libraries of gobo-like images, and projection of images and video.\n\nSection::::Features.\n", "BULLET::::- nVidia has licensed a strobe backlight technology called LightBoost to display manufacturers. This is normally used to reduce crosstalk during 3D Vision, which utilize shutter glasses; however, it also eliminates motion blur due to its ability to keep pixel transitions in the dark between LCD refreshes. A 'hack' method or utility tool is needed to take advantage of LightBoost backlights for blur reduction benefits.\n", "First, Principal component analysis was done on full body 2d walkers and point light walkers. The analysis found that dominant local optic flow features are very similar in both full body 2d stimuli and point light walkers (Figure 1). Since subjects can recognize biological motion upon viewing a point light walker, then the similarities between these two stimuli may highlight critical features needed for biological motion recognition.\n", "BULLET::::- being purer i.e. white light being filtered to red, green, and blue is not as accurate as an LED producing that color natively\n\nBULLET::::- a larger, clearer image then is possible with an equivalently lumen-rated traditional projector.\n\nBy strobing the LEDs in sequence, the \"color wheel\" can be removed, making the new generation of DLP+LED projectors completely solid state, as well as reducing visual artifacts that put DLP at a disadvantage to LCD or LCOS, i.e. the \"rainbow effect\", in certain situations.\n", "BULLET::::- D54 based systems (European standard).\n\nIn production lighting 0-10V system was replaced by analog multiplexed systems such as D54 and AMX192, which themselves have been almost completely replaced by DMX512. For dimmable fluorescent lamps (where it operates instead at 1-10 V, where 1 V is minimum and 0 V is off) the system is being replaced by DSI, which itself is in the process of being replaced by DALI.\n\nExamples for digital lighting control systems are:\n\nBULLET::::- DALI based system.\n\nBULLET::::- DSI based system\n\nBULLET::::- DMX512 based systems (often referred to as simply DMX).\n\nBULLET::::- KNX based systems\n", "Section::::Effects on the entertainment industry.:LEDs.\n", "Two or more stimuli that are switched on and off in alternation can produce two different motion percepts. The first, demonstrated in the figure to the right is \"Beta movement\", often used in billboard displays, in which an object is perceived as moving when, in fact, a series of stationary images is being presented. This is also termed \"apparent motion\" and is the basis of movies and television. However, at faster alternation rates, and if the distance between the stimuli is just right, an illusory \"object\" the same colour as the background is seen moving between the two stimuli and alternately occluding them. This is called the phi phenomenon and is sometimes described as an example of \"pure\" motion detection uncontaminated, as in Beta movement, by form cues. This description is, however, somewhat paradoxical as it is not possible to create such motion in the absence of figural percepts. \n", "The term \"persistence of vision display\" or \"POV display\" has been used for LED display devices that compose images by displaying one spatial portion at a time in rapid succession (for example, one column of pixels every few milliseconds). A two-dimensional POV display is often accomplished by means of rapidly moving a single row of LEDs along a linear or circular path. The effect is that the image is perceived as a whole by the viewer as long as the entire path is completed during the visual persistence time of the human eye. A further effect is often to give the illusion of the image floating in mid-air. A three-dimensional POV display is often constructed using a 2D grid of LEDs which is swept or rotated through a volume. POV display devices can be used in combination with long camera exposures to produce light writing.\n", "Some digital lighting chasers are made to do the above described single light chase pattern along with other combinations of Turning ON and OFF of the light to create different sequences like forward light chase, backward light chase, bouncing, dark chase (1 channel OFF while all 3 others ON), etc...\n\nAlso, more than 4 channel chasers are used to create more effects and to animate illuminated objects.\n\nChase circuits using LEDs are commonly built by electronics hobbyists with timer (such as the 555 timer IC) and counter (such as the 4017, which allows up to 10 channels) integrated circuits.\n", "Section::::Applications.:Machine vision systems.\n\nMachine vision systems often require bright and homogeneous illumination, so features of interest are easier to process. LEDs are often used.\n\nBarcode scanners are the most common example of machine vision applications, and many of those scanners use red LEDs instead of lasers. Optical computer mice use LEDs as a light source for the miniature camera within the mouse.\n", "Intelligent fixtures usually employ compact arc lamps as light sources. They use servo motors or, more commonly, stepper motors connected to mechanical and optical internal devices to manipulate the light before it emerges from the fixture's front lens. Examples of such internal devices are:\n\nThese fixtures also use motors to enable physical movement of the light beam by either:\n\nNote that fixtures which use the former method are not technically “moving heads”, since the light source itself does not move. However, the term “moving head” is used interchangeably throughout this article.\n", "Visible light communication typically uses a common LED light source that is used for illumination and adds a small level of modulation on the DC-light level to transfer data. The receiver can be a specific device using a photodiode as detector, but it is often also a common smartphone camera. Various pulse modulation techniques and data rates can be applied depending on the function of the VLC system. TLM disturbances from sunlight or other ambient lighting can cause interference of the VLC system. VLC systems generally apply specific coding and modulation techniques to achieve robustness against common TLM disturbances.\n", "BULLET::::- Remote patching channel\n\nSection::::Control.\n\nMoving lights are controlled in many ways. Usually the fixtures are connected to a lighting control console, which outputs a control signal. This control signal sends data to the fixture usually in one of three ways: Analogue (which has largely been phased out), DMX (which stands for \"Digital Multiplex\", also the industry standard control protocol), or Ethernet Control (such as ArtNet or sACN). The fixture then takes this signal and translates it into internal signals which are sent to the many stepper motors located inside.\n", "Section::::Color in DLP projection.:Light source.:LED-based DLPs.\n", "In July 2011 a presentation at TED Global. gave a live demonstration of high-definition video being transmitted from a standard LED lamp, and proposed the term Li-Fi to refer to a subset of VLC technology.\n\nRecently, VLC-based indoor positioning systems have become an attractive topic. ABI research forecasts that it could be a key solution to unlocking the $5 billion \"indoor location market\". Publications have been coming from Nakagawa Laboratory, ByteLight filed a patent on a light positioning system using LED digital pulse recognition in March 2012. COWA at Penn State and other researchers around the world.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-17804	How does rolling from a high fall reduce stress on the body? Like done in parkour. DOES it really help?	You're redirecting the force from the fall so your body doesn't have to absorb the entire impact at once. When you fall, you're converting a lot of potential energy (from the height) to kinetic energy (acceleration from the fall). To come to a stop, the ground has to exert enough force to offset the kinetic energy of you falling. If you just hit the ground feet first, all of that energy has to be absorbed by your knees in the time between when your feet hit the ground and when the rest of you hits the ground. That's about half a second. If you roll, you're applying a horizontal force to your body to redirect the kinetic energy into a more horizontal direction. Now you've got from the moment your feet hit the ground until you stop rolling to offset the kinetic energy, which is closer to a second and a half, or three times the time. That means you can stop yourself with 1/3 the energy that you'd need compared to a straight fall. & #x200B; SO yes, it really helps.	[ "Assessment of every fall should be aimed at identifying the inciting cause so that it can be avoided in future. If the fall is clearly without loss of consciousness, a \"Timed Get up and Go\" or \"TUG\" test should be performed to assess the mobility and a thorough examination of musculoskeletal system should be performed to identify any contributory factors.\n", "Fall protection\n\nFall protection is the use of controls designed to protect personnel from falling or in the event they do fall, to stop them without causing severe injury. Typically, fall protection is implemented when working at height, but may be relevant when working near any edge, such as near a pit or hole, or performing work on a steep surface.\n", "\"My own “felicitous fall” took place when I was working on a new gym for Portland State College (now University). I was three stories up, walking along scaffolding with a bucket of clip-ties in my arms when I happened to step on a plank that went only halfway between two platforms. I woke up a few moments later, sixty feet below, lying on the concrete floor. I had landed on the bucket, which cracked three ribs, but that and the hard hat I was wearing saved my life.\"\n", "Falls are a concern for oil and gas workers, many of whom must work high on a derrick. A study of falls over the period 2005–2014 found that in 86% of fatal falls studied, fall protection was required by regulation, but it was not used, was used improperly, or the equipment failed. Many of the fatalities were because, although the workers were wearing harnesses, they neglected to attach them to an anchor point.\n\nSection::::Types of fall protection.\n\nIn most work-at-height environments, multiple fall protection measures are used concurrently.\n\nSection::::Types of fall protection.:Fall elimination.\n", "When workers are suspended in their safety harnesses for long periods, they may suffer from blood pooling in the lower body. This can lead to suspension trauma. Once a worker is back on the ground after a fall has been arrested on a fall protection system, a worker should be placed in the “W” position. The “W” position is where a worker sits upright on the ground with their back/chest straight and their legs bent so that their knees are in line with the bottom of their chin. For added stability, make sure that the worker’s feet stay flat on the ground. In this position, a KED board can still be used if there are any potential spinal injuries and a worker needs stabilization before transport.\n", "BULLET::::- 2018-11-22: German BASE jumper Dominik Loyen died when his parachute did not open during a 100-meter fall in Portugal. He hit several rocks on the way down and could not be revived at the scene. He had previously cited he would be giving up BASE jumping after losing close friends to the extreme sport, but instead he said \"You worry about it and then you decide to carry on anyway\".\n\nSection::::In popular culture.\n\nBASE jumping is often featured in action movies. \n", "Section::::College.\n", "A common cause of low-force trauma is an at-home fall. When considering preventative efforts, the National Institute of Health (NIH) examines ways to reduce the likelihood of falling, the force of the fall, and bone fragility. To prevent at-home falls they suggest keeping cords out of high-traffic areas where someone could trip, installing handrails and keeping stairways well-lit, and installing an assistive bar near the bathtub in the washroom for support. To reduce the impact of a fall the NIH recommends to try falling straight down on your buttocks or onto your hands. Finally, taking calcium vitamin D supplements can help strengthen your bones.\n", "BULLET::::- The 2002 Vin Diesel film \"XXX\" includes a scene where Diesel's character catapults himself off the Foresthill Bridge in an open-topped car, landing safely as the car crashes on the ground.\n", "In 2010 at Whakapapa skifield, Christiansen met American adaptive ski instructor Travis Thiele, who works with the National Ability Center in the United States and took his first lesson in adaptive skiing. Christiansen did not fall. Thiele described Christiansen as \"strong as an ox\" and admitted that he had never in his career met a first-time adaptive skier who did not fall on his first attempt.\n", "Falls from balance boards can break bones, sprain joints, and tear tendons, ligaments and cartilage. These risks can be diminished by preparing the space, wearing protective gear and following manufacturers' other safety recommendations.\n\nRisk can be lowered by anticipating falls and clearing the surrounding area of objects that the rider might fall onto, and making sure that the surface is soft.\n", "BULLET::::- Fall Protection in Construction, OSHA3146 / U.S. Department of Labor Occupational Safety and Health Administration, 1998, page 6 \"Fall Protection Systems Criteria and Practices\", page 12 \"Safety Net Systems\"\n\nBULLET::::- Guide to Fall Protection Regulations, Workers Compensation Board, Canada, June 2013, page 11\n\nBULLET::::- A technical guide to the selection and use of fall prevention and arrest equipment / Glasgow Caledonian University for the Health and Safety Executive 2005 - \"7.0 FALL ARREST NETTING (SAFETY NETS)\" pp 107–138\n", "Fall elimination is often the preferred way of providing fall protection. This entails finding ways of completing tasks without working at heights.\n\nSection::::Types of fall protection.:Fall prevention.\n\nBULLET::::- Fall guarding is the use of guard rails or other barricades to prevent a person from falling. These barricades are placed near an edge where a fall-hazard can occur, or to surround a weak surface (such as a skylight on a roof) which may break when stepped on.\n", "Fall prevention\n\nFall prevention is a variety of actions to help reduce the number of accidental falls suffered by older people.\n", "Studies show that balance, flexibility, and strength training not only improve mobility but also reduce the risk of falling. This may be achieved through group and home-based exercise programs. The majority of older adults do not exercise regularly and 35% of people over the age of 65 do not participate in any leisurely physical activities. \n\nSection::::Occupational and physical therapy.:Older adults.\n", "Research indicates that multifactorial intervention programs can reduce the number of falls; in a meta-analysis of studies of older people in general the reduction was around 27%, and in those selected because of a previous fall or other risk factor there was a 14% reduction. Although further research is needed, preventative measures with the greatest likelihood of a positive effect include strength and balance training, home risk assessment, withdrawing psychotropic medication, cardiac pacing for those with carotid sinus hypersensitivity, and tai chi. Resistance exercise 2 or 3 times a week with ankle weights or elastic bands has been proven in tests to rebuild loss muscle mass and reduce falls in adults of all ages. This was first tested and proven in New Zealand by the Otago Medical School in 4 controlled trials in which close to 1000 older adults, average age 84, participated. Falls among a test group that did the Otago routines 3 times a week for 12 months were 35% less than a control group that did not use the routines. Two similar 12-month tests were conducted in the US using residents of assisted and skilled nursing facilities with one group showing a 54% reduction in falls. After the age of 50, adults experience a decrease in muscle mass, a condition known as sarcopenia, by approximately 2% every year. A systematic review concluded that resistance training can slow down the rate of loss in muscle mass and strength. It has been recommended that older adults participate in resistance training 2-3 times a week to weaken the effects of sarcopenia. Assistive technology can also be applied, although it is mostly reactive in case of a fall. Exercise as a single intervention has been shown to prevent falls in community dwelling older adults. A systematic review suggests that having an exercise regimen that includes challenging balance workouts for three or more hours per week results in a lesser chance of falling. Resistance training has been shown to be beneficial beyond fall prevention, as it also helps improve functional mobility and activities of daily living such as walking endurance, gait speed, and stair climbing. Research explains that this significant increase in performance can be accomplished after the age of 90. In order for older adults to gain confidence in resistance training, which may ultimately lead to fall prevention effects, they need to obtain the recommended amount of daily activity.\n", "If someone is stranded in a harness, but is not unconscious or injured, and has something to kick against or stand on (such as a rock ledge or caving leg-loops) it is helpful for them to use their leg muscles by pushing against it every so often, to keep the blood pumping back to the torso. If the person is stranded in mid-air or is exhausted, then keeping the legs moving can be both beneficial and rather dangerous. On the one hand, exercising the leg muscles will keep the blood returning to the torso, but on the other hand, as the movements become weaker the leg muscles will continue to demand blood yet they will become much less effective at returning it to the body, and the moment the victim ceases moving their legs, the blood will immediately start to pool. \"Pedaling an imaginary bicycle\" should only be used as a last-ditch effort to prolong consciousness, because as soon as the \"pedaling\" stops, fainting will shortly follow. If it is impossible to rescue someone immediately, then it is necessary to raise their legs to a sitting position, which can be done with a loop of rigging tape behind the knees or specialized equipment from a rescue kit.\n", "Section::::Environmental modification.\n", "The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health has compiled certain known risk factors that have been found responsible for STFs in the workplace setting. While falling can occur at any time and by any means in the workplace, these factors have been known to cause same-level falls, which are less likely to occur than falls to a lower level.\n\nWorkplace factors: spills on walking surfaces, ice, precipitation (snow/sleet/rain), loose mats or rugs, boxes/containers, poor lighting, uneven walking surfaces\n\nWork organization factors: fast work pace, work tasks involving liquids or greases\n", "BULLET::::- Fall restraint is a class of personal protective equipment to prevent persons who are in a fall hazard area from falling, e.g., fall restraint lanyards. Typically, fall restraint will physically prevent a worker from approaching an edges.\n\nSection::::Types of fall protection.:Fall arrest.\n\nFall arrest is the form of fall protection that stops a person who has fallen.\n\nSection::::Types of fall protection.:Administrative controls.\n", "While the body is dropping, the athlete consciously prepares the muscles for the impact by tensing the muscles. The flooring upon which the athlete drops down on should be somewhat resilient, mainly for prevention of injury. Upon making contact with the floor, the athlete then goes into slight leg flex to absorb some of the force for safety. However, the main role played by the muscles and tendons is to withstand the force that is experienced in the landing. This force is withstood in eccentric contraction. When muscle contraction is sufficiently great, it is able to stop the downward movement very quickly.\n", "The safe fall distance is a function of the fall factor and the deployment of the \"energy absorbers\". As a rule of thumb for a factor 2 fall, a fall distance of approx 6 metres will be required. This is equivalent to 2 stories of a building. If the fall clearance is less than this the worker may strike the ground before his fall is arrested.\n\nSection::::Design of HLL systems.\n", "Prevention of suspension trauma is preferable to dealing with its consequences. Specific recommendations for individuals doing technical ropework are to avoid exhausting themselves so much that they end up without the energy to keep moving, and making sure everyone in a group is trained in single rope rescue techniques, especially the \"single rope pickoff\", a rather difficult technical maneuver that must be practiced frequently for smooth performance.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Reflow syndrome, which occurs when toxins that accumulated in pooled blood suddenly return to the body when the person lies down following suspension trauma\n", "The most common anecdotal examples are of parents lifting vehicles to rescue their children, and when people are in life-and-death situations. Hysterical strength can result in torn muscles due to higher mechanical stress.\n\nBULLET::::- In 1982, in Lawrenceville, Georgia, Tony Cavallo was repairing a 1964 Chevrolet Impala automobile from underneath. The vehicle was propped up with jacks, but it fell. Cavallo's mother, Mrs. Angela Cavallo, lifted the car high enough and long enough for two neighbours to replace the jacks and pull Tony from beneath the car.\n", "Although the Dülfersitz is an effective method of abseiling when practised correctly, it is less safe than some modern methods: if the braking hand releases the rope (due to panic, impact from a falling stone, or cramp), a fall is unavoidable if no additional means of security, such as prusik cords, is used.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00835	Is it possible to predict the chemical properties of compounds from the properties of the singular elements they are formed with?	I'm gonna make a general statement and just say no There has been some research into how the arrangement of the elements may be used to predict molecular properties, but for the most part we can't predict very well. A lot of chemical properties are due to the configuration of electrons and possible energy states of the atom. Forming molecules tends to change both of those things, and can result in very different properties That being said, it is sometimes possible to predict chemical properties of large molecules that are made up of smaller molecules, but not generally as much from the atomic level	[ "Stability and other properties can be predicted using energy calculations and computational chemistry.\n\n\"[Using] the Born–Haber cycle to estimate ... the heat of formation ... can be used to determine whether a hypothetical compound is stable.\" However, \"a negative formation enthalpy does not automatically imply the existence of a hypothetical compound.\" The method predicts that NaCl is stable but NeCl is not. It predicted XePtF based on the stability of OPtF.\n", "Some \"parent compounds\" have not been or cannot be isolated, even though stable structural analogs with substituents have been discovered or synthesized (borole...).\n\nHypothetical compounds are often predicted or expected from known compounds, such as a families of salts for which the \"parent acid\" is not a stable molecule, or in which salts form with some cations but not others.\n\nHypothetical compounds are used in some thought experiments.\n\nSome compounds long regarded as hypothetical have later been isolated. Ethylene dione was suggested in 1913 and observed spectroscopically in 2015.\n\nSection::::Prediction.\n", "Section::::Significance of MMP based analysis.\n\nMMP based analysis is an attractive method for computational analysis because they can be algorithmically generated and they make it possible to associate defined structural modifications at the level of compound pairs with chemical property changes, including biological activity.\n\nSection::::Significance of MMP based analysis.:Interpretable QSAR models.\n", "The total molecular energy can be evaluated as a function of the molecular geometry; in other words, the potential energy surface. Such a surface can be used for reaction dynamics. The stationary points of the surface lead to predictions of different isomers and the transition structures for conversion between isomers, but these can be determined without a full knowledge of the complete surface.\n", "Examples of these intermetallic compounds are KHg and CuZn. Of perhaps 24,000 of such compounds the structures of only 4,000 are known (in 2005) and we cannot predict structures for the others, because we do not sufficiently understand the nature of the chemical bond.\n\nThis study was not successful, in part because the calculation time required for intermetallic compounds was out of reach in the 1960s, but intermediate goals involving boron bonding were achieved, sufficient to be awarded a Nobel Prize.\n", "Secondary structure prediction is commonly done using approaches like dynamic programming, energy minimisation (for most stable structure) and generating suboptimal structures. A large number of structure prediction tools have been implemented as well.\n\nSection::::Development.\n", "A series of \"ab initio\" studies of SiH is an example of how \"ab initio\" computational chemistry can predict new structures that are subsequently confirmed by experiment. They go back over 20 years, and most of the main conclusions were reached by 1995. The methods used were mostly post-Hartree–Fock, particularly configuration interaction (CI) and coupled cluster (CC). Initially the question was whether disilyne, SiH had the same structure as ethyne (acetylene), CH. In early studies, by Binkley and Lischka and Kohler, it became clear that linear SiH was a transition structure between two equivalent trans-bent structures and that the ground state was predicted to be a four-membered ring bent in a 'butterfly' structure with hydrogen atoms bridged between the two silicon atoms. Interest then moved to look at whether structures equivalent to vinylidene (Si=SiH) existed. This structure is predicted to be a local minimum, i. e. an isomer of SiH, lying higher in energy than the ground state but below the energy of the trans-bent isomer. Then a new isomer with an unusual structure was predicted by Brenda Colegrove in Henry F. Schaefer, III's group. It requires post-Hartree–Fock methods to obtain a local minimum for this structure. It does not exist on the Hartree–Fock energy hypersurface. The new isomer is a planar structure with one bridging hydrogen atom and one terminal hydrogen atom, cis to the bridging atom. Its energy is above the ground state but below that of the other isomers. Similar results were later obtained for GeH.\n", "In order to handle the vast number of structural possibilities, researchers often create a 'virtual library', a computational enumeration of all possible structures of a given pharmacophore with all available reactants. Such a library can consist of thousands to millions of 'virtual' compounds. The researcher will select a subset of the 'virtual library' for actual synthesis, based upon various calculations and criteria (see ADME, computational chemistry, and QSAR).\n\nSection::::Polymers (peptides and oligonucleotides).\n", "The reactivity profile can be used to study the degree of structure at particular positions for specific hypotheses, or used in conjunction with computational algorithms to produce a complete experimentally supported structure model.\n", "The two sciences differ in the role that theory plays within the discipline. Physics can be divided into experimental and theoretical physics. Historically, theoretical physics has correctly predicted phenomena that were out of experimental reach at the time, and could be verified only after experimental techniques caught up. In chemistry, the role of theory historically has been a retrospective one, summarizing experimental data and predicting the outcome of similar experiments. However, with the increasing power of computational methods in chemistry, it has become possible to predict whether a hypothetical compound is stable or not before experimental data is available.\n\nSection::::Training.\n", "At present there are millions of hypothetical zeolite frameworks known. For any fixed number of vertices, these are a small fraction of possible 4-regular periodic graphs, because the geometric constraints imposed by the chemistry of zeolites rules out most possibilities.\n\nSection::::Enumeration methods.\n", "The potential functions used in GeNMR are derived from those used in CS23D and Proteus2. The knowledge-based potentials include information on predicted/known secondary structure, radius of gyration, hydrogen bond energies, number of hydrogen bonds, allowed backbone and side chain torsion angles, atom contact radii (bump checks), disulfide bonding information and a modified threading energy based on the Bryant and Lawrence potential. The chemical shift component of the GeNMR potential uses weighted correlation coefficients calculated between the observed and SHIFTX calculated shifts of the structure being refined.\n\nSection::::Calculation scenarios.\n", "Moreover, if the alternant hydrocarbon contains an odd number of atoms then there must be an unpaired orbital with zero bonding energy (a non-bonding orbital). For this orbital, the coefficients on the atomic sites can be written down without calculation: the coefficient on all the orbitals belonging to the smaller (unstarred) set are 0, and the sum of the coefficients of the (starred) orbitals around them must also be 0. Simple algebra allows the assignment of all coefficients and then normalize them. This procedure permits the prediction of reactivity patterns and can be exploited to calculate Dewar's reactivity numbers for all sites.\n", "Seemingly ambiguous oxidation states are obtained on a set of resonance formulas of equal weights for a molecule of heteronuclear bonds where the atom connectivity does not correspond to the number of two-electron bonds dictated by the 8 − \"N\" rule. An example is SN where four resonance formulas featuring one S=N double bond have oxidation states +2 and +4 on the two sulfur atoms, to be averaged to +3 because the two sulfur atoms are equivalent in this square-shaped molecule.\n\nSection::::Appearances.:Ambiguous oxidation states.:A physical measurement is needed to decide the oxidation state.\n", "A chronological list of the contributions to this field contains almost thirty entries dated 1862, 1907, 1929, 1935, and 1936; then, after a pause, a higher level of activity beginning with the 100th anniversary of Mendeleev’s publication of his element chart, 1969. Many publications on periodic systems of molecules include some predictions of molecular properties, but starting at the turn of the Century there have been serious attempts to use periodic systems for the prediction of progressively more precise data for various numbers of molecules. Among these attempts are those of Kong, and Hefferlin\n\nSection::::A collapsed-coordinate system for triatomic molecules.\n", "\"Homology modelling:\" Homology modelling is done by the Homodeller program, which is a part of the PROTEUS2 program. The proteins that are identified during the homology search step are used as the templates in homology modelling.\n\n\"Chemical shift re-referencing:\" Chemical shifts are re-referenced by the RefCor, which is a part of the RCI webserver backend.\n\n\"Secondary structure prediction from chemical shifts:\" Secondary structure is predicted from chemical shifts by CSI.\n\n\"Torsion angle prediction from chemical shifts:\" Torsion angles are predicted from chemical shifts by PREDITOR.\n", "BULLET::::5. The magnitude of the atomic weight determines the character of the element, just as the magnitude of the molecule determines the character of a compound body.\n\nBULLET::::6. We must expect the discovery of many yet unknown elements – for example, two elements, analogous to aluminum and silicon, whose atomic weights would be between 65 and 75.\n", "Laplace DLTS in combination with uniaxial stress results in a splitting of the defect energy level. Assuming a random distribution of defects in non-equivalent orientations, the number of split lines and their intensity ratios reflect the symmetry class of the given\n\ndefect.\n", "Section::::Application.:Chemical.\n\nOne of the first historical QSAR applications was to predict boiling points.\n\nIt is well known for instance that within a particular family of chemical compounds, especially of organic chemistry, that there are strong correlations between structure and observed properties. A simple example is the relationship between the number of carbons in alkanes and their boiling points. There is a clear trend in the increase of boiling point with an increase in the number carbons, and this serves as a means for predicting the boiling points of higher alkanes.\n", "Numerous studies have been conducted to elucidate the complex relationship between the docking of an odorous molecule and its perceived smell character, and fragrance chemists have proposed structure models for the smells of amber, sandalwood, and camphor, among others.\n\nA study by Leslie B. Vosshall and Andreas Keller, published in \"Nature Neuroscience\" in 2004, tested several key predictions of the competing vibration theory and found no experimental support for it. The data were described by Vosshall as \"consistent with the shape theory\", although she added that \"they don't prove the shape theory\".\n", "BULLET::::- Gargaud M, Barbier B, Martin H & Reisse J (eds) 2006, \"Lectures in astrobiology, vol. 1, part 1: The early Earth and other cosmic habitats for life\", Springer, Berlin,\n\nBULLET::::- Government of Canada 2015, \"Periodic table of the elements\", accessed 30 August 2015\n\nBULLET::::- Godfrin H & Lauter HJ 1995, \"Experimental properties of He adsorbed on graphite\", in WP Halperin (ed.), \"Progress in low temperature physics, volume 14\", pp. 213–320 (216–8), Elsevier Science B.V., Amsterdam,\n\nBULLET::::- Greenwood NN & Earnshaw A 2002, \"Chemistry of the elements\", 2nd ed., Butterworth-Heinemann,\n", "BULLET::::- 1864:John Newlands proposes the law of octaves, a precursor to the periodic law.\n\nBULLET::::- 1864:Lothar Meyer develops an early version of the periodic table, with 28 elements organized by valence.\n\nBULLET::::- 1864:Cato Maximilian Guldberg and Peter Waage, building on Claude Louis Berthollet's ideas, proposed the law of mass action.\n\nBULLET::::- 1865:Johann Josef Loschmidt determines exact number of molecules in a mole, later named Avogadro's number.\n\nBULLET::::- 1865:Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz, based partially on the work of Loschmidt and others, establishes structure of benzene as a six carbon ring with alternating single and double bonds.\n", "BULLET::::- XXIV. — Georgy Flyorov — 16 October 1968 — \"New elements of the periodic table, prospects and problems of chemical search of superheavy elements\"\n\nBULLET::::- XXV. — Vladimir Fock — 20 April 1969 — \"Can fit the chemical properties of atoms in a purely spatial representations?\"\n\nBULLET::::- XXVI. — Anatoly Petrov — 19 February 1970 — \"General regularities in the reactions of conjugated systems\"\n\nBULLET::::- XXVII. — Vladimir Engelhardt — 18 March 1971 — \"Ways and objective knowledge of chemistry in life\"\n\nBULLET::::- XXVIII. — Jacob Sirkin — 3 March 1972 — \"non-rigid molecules\"\n", "Predicted or estimated protein chemical shifts can be used to assist with the chemical shift assignment process. This is especially true if a similar (or identical) protein structure has been solved by X-ray crystallography. In this case, the three-dimensional structure can be used to estimate what the NMR chemical shifts should be and thereby simplify the process of assigning the experimentally observed chemical shifts. Predicted/estimated protein chemical shifts can also be used to identify incorrect or mis-assignments, to correct mis-referenced or incorrectly referenced chemical shifts, to optimize protein structures via chemical shift refinement and to identify the relative contributions of different electronic or geometric effects to nucleus-specific shifts. Protein chemical shifts can also be used to identify secondary structures, to estimate backbone torsion angles, to determine the location of aromatic rings, to assess cysteine oxidation states, to estimate solvent exposure and to measure backbone flexibility.\n", "There is evidence from computational studies on model systems that in the gas phase the mechanism is concerted.\n\nSection::::Stereochemistry.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01909	Is the birthday of an egg the day it is laid or the day it hatches?	The day it hatches. When it’s in the egg it is still forming but when it hatches is when it’s fully formed.	[ "Examples include the date of emergence of leaves and flowers, the first flight of butterflies and the first appearance of migratory birds, the date of leaf colouring and fall in deciduous trees, the dates of egg-laying of birds and amphibia, or the timing of the developmental cycles of temperate-zone honey bee colonies. In the scientific literature on ecology, the term is used more generally to indicate the time frame for any seasonal biological phenomena, including the dates of last appearance (e.g., the seasonal phenology of a species may be from April through September).\n", "BULLET::::- A female Laysan albatross named Wisdom successfully laid an egg at Midway Atoll in December 2016, at the age of 66. As of 2017, she is the oldest known wild bird in the world.\n\nBULLET::::- The oldest living horse on record was named Ol' Billy. Bill was allegedly born in the year 1760 in London, England. Bill died in 1822 at the age of 62 years. Henry Harrison, an occupant of London during the time, had also allegedly known Ol' Billy for 59 years until Bill's death.\n", "In many cultures and jurisdictions, if a person's real birthday is not known (for example, if he or she is an orphan), then their birthday may be adopted or assigned to a specific day of the year, such as January 1. The birthday of Jesus is celebrated at Christmas. Racehorses are reckoned to become one year old in the year following their birth on the first of January in the Northern Hemisphere and the first of August in the Southern Hemisphere.\n\nSection::::Traditions.\n", "While not strictly a regnal year, time in the United States of America can be derived from the Declaration of Independence (July 4, 1776). For example, the U.S. Constitution is dated as signed in \"the Year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and Eighty seven and of the Independence of the United States of America the Twelfth,\" and Presidential proclamations will often be ended \"IN WITNESS WHEREOF, I have hereunto set my hand this [ordinal] day of [month], in the year of our Lord [year], and of the Independence of the United States of America the [year].\" 2020 is the year of the Independence of the United States of America on and after July 4 of that year. Time is also sometimes reckoned in terms (and sessions, if necessary) of Congress; e.g. House of Representatives Bill 2 of the 112th Congress is dated \"112th CONGRESS, 1st Session\".\n", "\"Palaeopteryx\" (BYU 2022) has been the subject of much confusion on the internet, in the popular scientific press, and among creationist writers. It has been described as a possible bird older than \"Archaeopteryx\", but it cannot be clearly assigned to Avialae, and its horizon is younger than that of \"Archaeopteryx\", though it is still from the Jurassic.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Ogulnius hayoti\" Lopez, 81, p. 7\n\nSection::::Issue dates.\n\nBULLET::::- 1: June 1972 (no exact date)\n\nBULLET::::- 2: December 1972 (no exact date)\n\nBULLET::::- 3: June 1973 (no exact date)\n\nBULLET::::- 4: December 1973 (no exact date)\n\nBULLET::::- 5: June 1974 (no exact date)\n\nBULLET::::- 6: December 1974 (no exact date)\n\nBULLET::::- 7: June 1975 (no exact date)\n\nBULLET::::- 8: August 1975 (no exact date)\n\nBULLET::::- 9: December 1975 (no exact date)\n\nBULLET::::- 10: April 1976 (no exact date)\n\nBULLET::::- 11: August 1976 (no exact date)\n\nBULLET::::- 12: December 1976 (no exact date)\n\nBULLET::::- 13: April 1977 (no exact date)\n", "The most widely used epoch is a conventional birthdate of Jesus (which was established by Dionysius Exiguus in the sixth century). A date without the year may also be referred to as a \"date\" or \"calendar date\" (such as \"08 \" rather than \"08 2020\"). As such, it defines the day of an annual event, such as a birthday on 31 May, holiday on 1 September, or Christmas on 25 December.\n\nMany computer systems internally store points in time in Unix time format or some other system time format.\n", "\"That is right, but you should go with a friend. In the casket there is an egg. Take it, go to the wood and find a fowl to hatch it.\"\n", "Due to the nature of the holiday revolving around astronomical changes the date of the holiday can change from year to year but it will usually fall anywhere between March 19–22. Back in ancient times, the holiday was originally called Higan no Nakaba, which translates to “Middle of the Equinoctial Week.” The holiday was originally a time to visit loved ones' grave sites and pay homage to the ancestors. The Japanese would also take the time to renew their lives by cleaning their homes and making life changes such as starting or finishing school or a new hobby. \n", "This timeline of egg fossils research is a chronologically ordered list of important discoveries, controversies of interpretation, taxonomic revisions, and cultural portrayals of egg fossils. Humans have encountered egg fossils for thousands of years. In stone age Mongolia, local peoples fashioned fossil dinosaur eggshell into jewelry. In the Americas, fossil eggs may have inspired Navajo creation myths about the human theft of a primordial water monster's egg. Nevertheless, the scientific study of fossil eggs began much later. As reptiles, dinosaurs were presumed to have laid eggs from the 1820s on, when their first scientifically documented remains were being described in England. In 1859, the first scientifically documented dinosaur \"egg\" fossils were discovered in southern France by a Catholic priest and amateur naturalist named Father Jean-Jacques Poech, however he thought they were laid by giant birds.\n", "The extinction dates given below are usually approximations of the actual date of extinction. In some cases, more exact dates are given as it is sometimes possible to pinpoint the date of extinction to a specific year or even day (the San Benedicto rock wren is possibly the most extreme example—its extinction could be timed with an accuracy of maybe half an hour). Extinction dates in the literature are usually the dates of the last verified record (credible observation or specimen taken); for many Pacific birds that became extinct shortly after European contact, however, this leaves an uncertainty period of over a century, because the islands on which they lived were only rarely visited by scientists.\n", "The two categories of competition are young birds and old birds. A young bird is one hatched during the current year that bears a seamless band issued for that year. Any other bird is regarded as an old bird, regardless of its actual age. The first old bird race is usually about the middle of April, with others at two week intervals. The most important competition occupies the so-called Long Day. The longest (weekend) day of the year.\n", "BULLET::::- Alfred Sherwood Romer and Lewellyn Price described a 5.9 cm by 3.79 cm fossil egg from the Lower Permian as the oldest hard-shelled fossil egg. The composition of its shell would later be disputed, but if the fossil was correctly identified as a reptile egg it is the oldest known.\n\n1946\n\nBULLET::::- \"Summer\" Soviet scientists embarked on an expedition to Mongolia retracing part of the journey taken by the Central Asiatic Expedition. They discovered many additional dinosaur eggs, some from previously undiscovered fossil sites.\n\n1957\n\nBULLET::::- The first scientifically documented dinosaur eggs from India were discovered by M. Sahni.\n\n1964\n", "Birthdays submits to seasonality in itself (as example, a ranking based on how many babies were born in the United States on that date between 1973 and 1999).\n\nSection::::The results of the scientific researches.\n\nSection::::The results of the scientific researches.:Influence on medical conditions.\n", "BULLET::::- Russian paleontologist Konstantin Mikhailov brought attention to Zhao's classification system for egg fossil in the English language scientific literature.\n\nSection::::21st-century paleontology.\n\n2009\n", "Section::::Identification.\n", "In 1971, 18-year-old Ted Parker, in his last semester of high school in southeastern Pennsylvania, extensively birded the eastern seaboard of North America. That September, Parker enrolled in the University of Arizona in Tucson and found dozens of Southwestern U.S. and Pacific coast specialties, ending the year with a list of 626 species.\n", "BULLET::::- 1876. Oskar Hertwig and Hermann Fol independently described (in sea urchin eggs) the entry of sperm into the egg and the subsequent fusion of the egg and sperm nuclei to form a single new nucleus.\n\nBULLET::::- 1892. Hans Driesch separated the individual cells of a 2-cell sea urchin embryo and shows that each cell develops into a complete individual, thus disproving the theory of preformation and showing that each cell is \"totipotent,\" containing all the hereditary information necessary to form an individual.\n\nSection::::Modern world.:20th century.\n\nSection::::Modern world.:20th century.:1900–1949.\n", "List of years in birding and ornithology\n\nThe following entries cover events related to birding and ornithology which occurred in the listed year.\n\nSection::::1800s.\n\n1800 1801 1802 1803 1804 1805 1806 1807 1808 1809BR\n\n1810 1811 1812 1813 1814 1815 1816 1817 1818 1819BR\n\n1820 1821 1822 1823 1824 1825 1826 1827 1828 1829BR\n\n1830 1831 1832 1833 1834 1835 1836 1837 1838 1839BR\n\n1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 1846 1847 1848 1849BR\n\n1850 1851 1852 1853 1854 1855 1856 1857 1858 1859BR\n\n1860 1861 1862 1863 1864 1865 1866 1867 1868 1869BR\n", "Since the protection of wild bird eggs was regulated, early collections have come to the museums as curiosities. For example, the Australian Museum hosts a collection of about 20,000 registered clutches of eggs, and the collection in Western Australia Museum has been archived in a gallery. Scientists regard egg collections as a good natural-history data, as the details recorded in the collectors' notes have helped them to understand birds' nesting behaviors.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of egg topics\n\nBULLET::::- Animal shell\n\nBULLET::::- Butterfly eggs\n\nBULLET::::- Egg (food)\n\nBULLET::::- Egg yolk and Egg white\n\nBULLET::::- Fossil egg\n\nBULLET::::- Haugh unit\n", "BULLET::::- \"April 17th:\" The Central Asiatic Expedition, led by Andrews, departed from Peking toward Mongolia.\n\n1923\n\nBULLET::::- \"July 13th:\" Over dinner, Central Asiatic Expedition member George Olsen claimed to have found fossil eggs. The other expedition members were skeptical, but Olsen took them to the site of his find. Expedition paleontologist W. Granger recognized them as dinosaur eggs, but mistakenly believed them to be the first ever discovered.\n\n1939\n", "The first egg was laid on Wednesday 18 April, and subsequent eggs laid at three-day intervals on 21 and 24 April respectively. Forty days after being laid, the first egg hatched on Monday 28 May. However this chick was only to survive for three days. Meanwhile the other two eggs had also hatched.\n", "When using the age of maggots to determine the PMI, the time before arrival is an important factor. The succession of \"C. vicina\" involves the arrival of adults two days after death. Therefore, two days must be added to the maximum age determined for flies found on the body.\n\nSection::::Behavior.\n", "When's Your Birthday?\n\nWhen's Your Birthday? is a 1937 American romantic comedy film directed by Harry Beaumont. While original prints of this film had a cartoon sequence in Technicolor directed by Bob Clampett and Leon Schlesinger, most prints (including the Internet Archive) have the sequence in black-and-white.\n\nSection::::Premise.\n\nDustin Willoughby (Joe E. Brown) is a prizefighter and believer in astrology, who only wins when the stars are in alignment.\n\nSection::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Joe E. Brown - Dustin Willoughby\n\nBULLET::::- Marian Marsh - Jerry Grant\n\nBULLET::::- Fred Keating - Larry Burke\n\nBULLET::::- Edgar Kennedy - Mr. Henry Basscombe\n", "Section::::Finnish mythology.\n\nIn the \"Kalevala\", the Finnish national epic, there is a myth of the world being created from the fragments of an egg laid by a diving duck on the knee of Ilmatar, goddess of the air:\n\nIn many original folk poems, the duck - or sometimes an eagle - laid its eggs on the knee of Väinämöinen.\n\nSection::::Polynesian mythology.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00265	Why was the body of that refugee child moved to another location on the beach rather than straight to a morgue?	Looks like they moved him to a location that was harder to see by passerby while they did an assessment. Note how the top image has a number of rocks all around it, while the second is in plain view. I imagine there is some degree of investigation/verification that needs to be done on sight, so they moved the body away from the beach proper.	[ "Thus the transit camp at Idomeni, built in 2015 by Médecins Sans Frontières and the UNHCR to provide basic support for no more than 6000 refugees passing through each day, rapidly had to become a longer-term residential camp. The peak number of refugees who stayed in Idomeni numbered more than 15,000. On the 24th of May 2016, Greek authorities began relocating refugees from the Idomeni camp to processing facilities mostly in and around Thessaloniki.\n", "On 30 March, Paulette's parents spent a few hours at the Procuraduría Mexiquense, and then they were transferred to a hotel where they would fulfill their restriction order. That same day, experts from the unit placed blankets at the home to carry out the reconstruction of the events with the presence of the parents.\n\nSection::::Case.:Discovery of the body and autopsy.\n", "In May 2018, authorities released information indicating that the child had not been beheaded. Although the stab wound to the neck was lethal, the cause of death was another stab wound.\n\nSection::::Suspect and motive.\n", "A \"crowd of curious onlookers that had formed around the bodies quickly dispersed\". The bodies remained on the beach until the morgue personnel arrived, after an interval variously reported as one or three hours. During this time, \"beach life resumed\" with people sunbathing, picnicking, or playing. Eventually the bodies were placed in coffins and carried away.\n\nSection::::Response.\n", "Around 5 am authorities started an investigation after an emergency call that a boat had capsized and bodies were coming ashore. The bodies of Kurdi and another child were discovered by two locals at around 6:30 am. The two men moved the bodies from the water, where Kurdi was later photographed by a Turkish press photographer.\n", "There was confusion about the application of Medevac bill. A Sri Lankan refugee reported that self-harm is a regular occurrence. Signs had gone up around the camp saying that any medical evacuations will be temporary only, that Christmas Island had been reopened and that none of them would ever settle in Australia. The unsigned notification was posted by Behrouz Boochani on Twitter.\n\nSection::::Timeline.:June 2019: Despair after election.\n", "In 2013, the whole area, apart from some ancient Jewish remains, was bulldozed to pave the way for the erection of a new community, to be named \"Karmei Katif,\" which is planned to house evacuees of the Gaza Strip settlements. The new name is reminiscent of Gush Katif.\n\nSection::::Culture.\n", "In 2011, Forensic Architecture was awarded funding for four years by the European Research Council. Also that year, a team within Forensic Architecture began to conduct investigations into the policies of European national and international authorities in relation to migration across the Mediterranean. That team, called Forensic Oceanography, published its first report in 2012, investigating of the deaths of seventy-three migrants who were left drifting for two weeks within NATO’s maritime surveillance area.\n", "Human Rights observers stated that more than 50% of Lebanon's private beach club owners have barred migrant workers from swimming in their pools and in some cases have physically stopped them from entering. Lebanon also has a mile-long public beach free to all called Ramlat al Baida, where the segregated groups including the migrant workers, were the targets of discrimination. They were moved on to the northern end of the beach where people do not usually go because sewage is poured into the Mediterranean from the high-rise apartments nearby in that area.\n\nSection::::Government Response.:Government responses by labour-sending countries.\n", "In some cases, additional remains were discovered and identified after a person had already been buried by their families. Some families chose to add these remains to an existing grave. But 25 families chose to have these fragments interred during the group burial rather than disinter their loved ones or hold a second memorial service. The additional remains were cremated, mixed together, and placed in an urn which in turn was placed inside a single wooden coffin. \n", "The agency responsible for building this settlement (and others), was the Town Planning and Housing Department. Construction of a settlement started at Mnemata. Archaeological excavations were conducted, after a tomb was discovered. (The Mnemata Site has become the name of the excavation site.) Construction of the refugee settlement was ordered cancelled—at Mnemata. The settlement—still named \"Agios Georgios\"—was built north of Agriniou Street.\n", "The remains of a maximum of 28 people were unearthed at Masada, possibly 29 including a foetus. The skeletal remains of 25 individuals were found in a cave outside and below the southern wall. The remains of another two males and a female were found in the bathhouse of the Northern Palace.\n", "BULLET::::- distance to work/ school/ religious services/ washroom.\n\nThe questions presented above are often incompletely answered and accounted for when preparing for a post-disaster settlement.\n\nSection::::Design considerations.:User involvement.\n", "On 22 November 2017, Papua New Guinea Police moved in to try to get the more than 350 men remaining in the centre to leave. By 23 November 2017, all remaining men had been removed, more than 300 by force, to new accommodation.\n", "In 2014 in Peraia, Thessaloniki, in Macedonia, Greece, the police discovered that a 45-year-old woman was buried alive and died of asphyxia after being declared clinically dead by a private hospital; she was discovered just shortly after being buried by children playing near the cemetery who heard screams from inside the earth and afterwards her family was reported as considering suing the private hospital. In 2015 it was reported that a separate incident also occurred in 2014 in Peraia, Thessaloniki. In Macedonia, Greece, police investigation concluded that a 49-year-old woman was buried alive after being declared dead due to cancer; her family reported that they could hear her scream from inside the earth at the cemetery shortly after burial and the investigation revealed that she died of heart failure inside the coffin and found out that it was the medicines given to her by her doctors for her cancer that caused her to be declared clinically dead and buried alive.\n", "A \"temporary mortuary\" was set up at The Honorary Artillery Company Headquarters at City Road, London EC1. The challenges were: there had been four sites of the bombs; many thousands of \"missing persons\" reported initially; a cosmopolitan city; disrupted bodies; and computer hard and software of 2005. For the first time features of Lord Justice Clark's report \"identification of victims following Major Transport Accidents\" were used. This put the Coroner in overall charge, but with a Senior Identification Manager (and Deputy), together with a Mortuary Documentation Officer, from within the police. There was also an \"Identification Commission\" chaired by the Coroner to scrutinise all documentation etc. before an identification was absolutely confirmed. Inquests were opened and adjourned by each of the three Coroners.\n", "On 23 October 2018, Minister Zappone announced that the Government had approved her recommendation for full forensic excavation of the available site. The approach taken will involve what is known as \"Humanitarian Forensic Action\" and will include:\n\nBULLET::::- a phased approach to the forensic excavation and recovery of the human remains;\n\nBULLET::::- the use of systematic on-site ground-truthing and test excavations to effectively locate potential burials;\n\nBULLET::::- the forensic analysis of any recovered remains and, where possible, individualisation and identification, and\n\nBULLET::::- arrangements for respectful reburial and memorialisation and the appropriate conservation of the site.\n", "On 7 August 2017 Iranian asylum seeker Hamed Shamshiripour was found dead in Lorengau. He was known to have a history of mental illness and refugee advocates had been trying to get help for him.\n\nIn September 2017, the US accepted 22 refugees from Manus Island, its first intake under the resettlement deal, with others apparently taking the number up to 54.\n\nOn 2 October 2017, 32-year-old Sri Lankan Tamil, Rajeev Rajendran, was found dead on the grounds of the Lorengau hospital, a suspected suicide.\n\nSection::::Timeline.:31 October 2017: closure of centre.\n", "BULLET::::- When family members or relatives cannot be identified, the Member State responsible shall be that where the unaccompanied child has lodged the asylum application, if this is in the best interests of the child.\n\nBULLET::::- Some discretion is allowed in this decision with the applicant's consent, including for family reunification for humanitarian or cultural reasons.\n", "Detainee Behrouz Boochani wrote of what was happening and of his fear during the siege that followed the closure, as well as the articles he wrote for \"The Guardian\" at the time, amongst other things, in WhatsApp messages to translator and friend Omid Tofighian, published in full online. The messages were eventually published in the book \"No Friend But the Mountains\".\n\nNew Zealand has repeatedly offered to accept 150 refugees, but Australia has so far opposed this.\n\nAfter a long history of mental illness, 52-year-old Rohingya, Salim, died on 22 May 2018.\n\nSection::::Timeline.:February 2019: \"Medevac\" bill.\n", "Deputies then discovered the body of Meshach Damas in a second floor bedroom, face down on a mattress atop an area of dried blood. The autopsy of Meshach Damas revealed sharp force injuries to the palm of his right hand, as well as extensive sharp force injuries encircling almost the entirety of his neck.\n", "In 2001, a body bag was delivered to the Matarese Funeral home in Ashland, Massachusetts with a live occupant. Funeral director John Matarese discovered this, called paramedics, and avoided live embalming or premature burial.\n", "Section::::Aftermath.\n\nSection::::Aftermath.:Fatalities and wounded.\n\nA woman (51) who was buried by the slide was dead by the time she was found and recovered at about 7:30. A second woman (27) died in hospital a few days later. A four-year-old, Kristina Hjartåker, died in February the next year. Several more people were wounded by the lack of oxygen while buried.\n\nSection::::Aftermath.:Evacuation and temporary transportation measures.\n", "With those bodies which were not recovered from the Marchioness and which would be likely to surface only when putrification and bloating meant that they would float, the following would apply:\n", "BULLET::::- 14 September: The Egyptian Navy announced they have stopped two fishing boats bound for Europe carrying a total of 440 migrants during the Eid al-Adha holiday in the Kafr El Sheikh Governorate. The boats were later diverted back to Alexandria, were the migrants received medical care by the authorities. The seized fishing boats were later refereed for prosecution.\n\nBULLET::::- 21 September: In the 2016 Egypt migrant shipwreck a boat capsized off the Egyptian coast with around 600 refugees on board in the Mediterranean Sea headed towards Europe. 204 bodies were recovered after the tragedy.\n\nSection::::2016.:November 2016.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01076	Hunters wear Camo and Bright Orange... seems like they can't decide but there must be a good reason??	Many prey animals cannot see the color orange, it looks the same as green or brown to them. So hunters wear camo with some orange to be visible to humans (don't shoot me) but invisible to prey animals (don't run away).	[ "Hunting laws in each state or province may require hunters to wear designated garments in blaze orange to prevent misidentification of humans as game animals, and resulting shooting accidents. The required total visible area and times of use vary by jurisdiction and by the type of hunting in the area. Hunting clothes are available in blaze orange camouflage, where the bright orange color is plainly visible to human eyes, but the shape of the hunter is broken up by irregular patterns to prevent identification as a threat by game animals such as deer, who cannot see the color.\n\nSection::::Standards.:ISO 20471.\n", "Another differentiation in dress between the amateur and professional staff is found in the ribbons at the back of the hunt cap. The professional staff wear their hat ribbons down, while amateur staff and members of the field wear their ribbons up.\n", "In America (though not in the UK), some states, such as Alabama and Arkansas, require upland hunters to wear blaze orange clothing for safety. They often wear vests to carry game, though there is a recent trend toward more functional technical daypacks specifically designed for the demands of more rigorous upland hunting in remote areas.\n\nSection::::Dogs.\n\nUpland hunters work specially trained gun dogs to find game. Spaniels and pointing breeds are used most often, though retrievers are worked with considerable success when hunting pheasant in many areas.\n", "Safety orange is the same color as blaze orange, the shade of orange (Color No. 12199) required by United States law (U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 15 Commerce and Foreign Trade, Section 1150.3) to be on the tips of barrels of replica guns such as airsoft guns, and cap or toy guns. Hunter orange is also the color of hats, caps, and other safety wear required to be worn while hunting in most US states.\n\nSection::::Elsewhere.\n", "In some places, particularly breed-specific shows where tradition is not as strong, different colors of jackets and shirts are seen: riders sometimes wear tan, teal, light grey, or even dark violet coats with shirts in more vivid shades like green, orange, pink, lavender, and blue. Non-traditional attire is frowned upon and sometimes penalized in open competition.\n", "Hunters can book the services of an experienced, to facilitate the practice of safe hunting, providing advice and guiding hunters guide. The SACOMM recommends that hunters wear warm and waterproof clothing, preferably patterned camouflage and a hunting hat and makeup type \"camo\" or face mask, camouflage nets and waders or boots-pants, callers \"Grande snow Goose\" (not provided by ZEC) and decoys. It is required for each hunter to carry the license to hunt small game (provincial) and allowed for hunting migratory birds (federal).\n\n'Labelling geese'\n", "In the US, a 2010–2011 summary of state hunting regulations for the use of night-vision equipment in hunting listed 13 states in which the equipment is prohibited, 17 states with various restrictions (e.g. only for certain non-game species, and/or in a certain date range), and 20 states without restrictions. It did not summarize the regulations for thermal-imaging equipment.\n", "Deer blinds may not be legal in all areas, so hunters are obligated to check hunting laws before constructing them. Alternatives include simply sitting still at the base of a tree. It may be illegal is adding to a natural condition to improve upon it and conceal a hunter's presence, or actually constructing something with sides and a roof. In some states, hunting from a camouflaged blind may be prohibited during rifle/shotgun season. In such cases, a hunter is required to add orange patch on blind such that the orange is visible from all angles.\n", "Other members of the mounted field follow strict rules of clothing etiquette. For example, for some hunts, those under eighteen (or sixteen in some cases) will wear ratcatcher all season. Those over eighteen (or in the case of some hunts, all followers regardless of age) will wear ratcatcher during autumn hunting from late August until the Opening Meet, normally around November 1. From the Opening Meet they will switch to formal hunting attire where entitled members will wear scarlet and the rest black or navy.\n", "Deer have dichromatic (two-color) vision with blue and yellow primaries; humans normally have trichromatic vision. Thus, deer poorly distinguish the oranges and reds that stand out so well to humans. This makes it very convenient to use deer-hunter orange as a safety color on caps and clothing to avoid accidental shootings during hunting seasons.\n\nSection::::Description.:Antlers.\n", "Deer hunting seasons vary across the United States. In game zone 3 in the state of South Carolina, deer hunting season starts August 15th and runs through January 1st. Some seasons in states such as Florida and Kentucky start as early as September and can go all the way until February like in Texas. The length of the season is often based on the health and population of the deer herd, in addition to the number of hunters expected to be participating in the deer hunt. The durations of deer hunting seasons can also vary by county within a state, as in Kentucky. In the case of South Carolina, the season varies by SCDNR region. Each region has multiple counties. The DFW will also create specific time frames within the season where the number of hunters able to hunt is limited, which is known as a controlled hunt. \n", "BULLET::::- Firing the weapon after hunting hours: one half-hour after sunset to one half-hour before sunrise. This can be a challenging rule to comply to, as the time restrictions will change based on the area. For example, hunting hours usually begin at six o'clock in the morning and end at around eight o'clock at night on most maps, like South Dakota, Nevada, and Sonora. However, other maps require different hunting hours, like the Yukon or Nunavut, where morning begins at eleven o'clock and end at around six o'clock in the evening.\n", "Apart from the stalking of Red and Sika Deer on the open hillsides of Scotland and the Lake District which takes place in daylight, most deer stalking takes place in the first and last two hours of daylight and most people never come into contact with it although it occurs almost everywhere. The only English county without any wild deer is Middlesex and in all other English and Scottish counties and most Welsh counties there are deer populations controlled by deer stalking. Antlers are measured by one of several scoring systems used to compare the relative merits of the heads. In Europe including the UK the Conseil International du Chasse (CIC) system is used, in America it is either the Boone & Crockett or Safari Club International (SCI), and in Australasia it is the Douglas system.\n", "Section::::Items.:Clothing.\n\nThe player has a large cache of clothing available to them, organized by density and environment. Clothing is sorted by light-weight, medium-weight, and heavy-weight - with the exception of winter. The clothing is then sorted by environment: forest (green/camo), orange (desert/autumn), and winter. The player must have clothing equipped before starting a hunt. The player's clothing will affect their stamina and visibility.\n\nSection::::Items.:Tags.\n", "BULLET::::- 3 beige knit shirts\n\nBULLET::::- 1 pair boots\n\nBULLET::::- 1 pair of brown shoes\n\nBULLET::::- 1 pair of gumboots or boots with leggings\n\nBULLET::::- 1 green beret\n\nBULLET::::- 1 melton overcoat\n\nBULLET::::- 1 oilskin or mackintosh\n\nBULLET::::- 2 towels\n\nBULLET::::- a green armlet and a metal badge\n\nBULLET::::- a bakelite hat badge\n", "In the Netherlands (although a full member of the European Union), the possession of night-vision devices is not regulated, nor is it forbidden to use them mounted on firearms. The usage of night-vision equipment for night-time hunting (weapon mounted) is allowed only with a special permit in certain areas (the Veluwe) for hunting wild boar.\n\nIn Iceland, the use of night-vision devices for hunting is prohibited, while there are no restrictions on the devices themselves.\n", "Deerstalkers may be made of solid-coloured material, but they are most often found with houndstooth check, herringbone, or plaid patterns in the twill of a fabric which serves as camouflage. Modern hunting clothes, including deerstalkers, are often made with either a red-and-black or an orange-and-black check pattern or tweed for both this purpose and hunter safety, not least in actual deer stalking, for which purpose milliners originally constructed this type of cap.\n\nSection::::Variations.\n", "Some states also have restrictions on hunting of antlered or antlerless deer. For example, Kentucky allows the taking of antlerless deer during any deer season in most of the state, but in certain areas allows only antlered deer to be taken during parts of deer season.\n\nSection::::United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland.\n", "Section::::Camouflage.:Ghillie suit.\n\nSnipers with extreme requirements for infiltration and camouflage use a ghillie suit. The ghillie suit was originally developed by Scottish game wardens to better count game and catch poachers.\n", "The player has access to various amounts of clothing, organized by light-weight, medium-weight, and heavy-wight, and then by colour for different environments, such as forest (green/camo), orange (autumn/desert), and winter. The player can only wear one instance of clothing on a hunt and must equip clothing before entering a hunting area.\n\nSection::::Items.:Tags.\n", "Hunting deer is a regulated activity in many territories. In the US, a state government agency such as a Department of Fish and Wildlife (DFW) or Department of Natural Resources (DNR) oversees the regulations. In the UK, it is illegal to use bows for hunting.\n\nSection::::New Zealand.\n", "BULLET::::- a work wear (khaki or high visibility yellow and bottle green shirt and bottle green trousers) for those that work in the field and personal protective equipment or clothing (TecaSafe gold overshirt, TecaSafe dark green trousers and vest, Kevlar helmet with goggles, gloves, belt and fire boots) for staff who are involved in fire management activities\n\nBULLET::::- a corporate apparel worn by employees who are in regular contact with the public or members of other departments (sand, grey or white shirt, black or charcoal trousers)\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- National Parks of Western Australia\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Section::::United States.:State government regulation.\n\nMethods of pursuing game for wild meat and corresponding seasons are subject to regulation by state governments and therefore vary from state to state. A state government agency such as a Department of Fish and Wildlife (DFW) or Department of Natural Resources (DNR) oversees the regulations. \n", "The 207 standard has different requirements for fluorescent background material, specifically allowing for a shorter design that allows equipment belt access. It also includes many optional features, such as a 5-point breakaway design for easy removal, panels readily identifying the wearer as an emergency responder, and radio and badge holders.\n\nSection::::Standards.:89/686/EEC.\n\nA European Union directive which covers high-visibility clothing.\n\nSection::::Standards.:North American hunting regulations.\n", "Regardless of how they choose to travel, hunters typically wear a headlight in order to allow free use of both hands, though years ago flashlights or lanterns were more common. The first coon hunting headlights were carbide lights similar to those used by coal miners, but today headlights are made and sold specifically for hunting. A .22 rifle is the preferred caliber of gun, and boots are highly recommended due to mud and rough terrain.\n" ]	[ "Wearing bright orange and camo at the same time contradicts wearing camo in the first place." ]	[ "Many animals are incapable of seeing the color orange, therefore it does not defeat the purpose of wearing camo." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Wearing bright orange and camo at the same time contradicts wearing camo in the first place.", "Wearing bright orange and camo at the same time contradicts wearing camo in the first place." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Many animals are incapable of seeing the color orange, therefore it does not defeat the purpose of wearing camo.", "Many animals are incapable of seeing the color orange, therefore it does not defeat the purpose of wearing camo." ]
2018-10481	Why are Europe and Asia different continents?	Because it's made up. Some people see Europe and Asia as the same continent (Eurasia), some people see Europe, Asia and Africa as the same continent (Afro-Eurasia) But most people in the western world follow the European definition of all 3 being seperate	[ "Section::::Europe and Asia.:Modern definition.\n", "For Laurent's French readers, Asia ended at \"our sea\", the Mediterranean; Europeans were only dimly aware of the Ural Mountains, which divide Europe from Asia in the eyes of the modern geographer, and which represent the geological suture between two fragmentary continents, or cratons. Instead, the division between these continents in the European-centered picture was the Hellespont, which neatly separated Europe from Asia. From the European perspective, into the Age of Discovery, Asia began beyond the Hellespont with Asia Minor, where the Roman province of Asia had lain, and stretched away to what were initially unimaginably exotic and distant places— \"the Orient\".\n", "Section::::Europe and Asia.\n\nThe boundary between Europe and Asia is unusual among continental boundaries because of its largely mountain-and-river-based characteristics north and east of the Black Sea. The reason is historical, the division of Europe and Asia going back to the early Greek geographers.\n\nIn the modern sense of the term \"continent\", Eurasia is more readily identifiable as a \"continent\", and Europe has occasionally been described as a subcontinent of Eurasia.\n\nSection::::Europe and Asia.:History.\n", "Section::::Views of Asia.\n\nSection::::Views of Asia.:The geographical or traditional view.\n\nMedieval Europeans considered Asia as a continent, a distinct landmass. The European concept of the three continents in the Old World goes back to classical antiquity. Definition of continents has long been and remains primarily the realm of geographers, including cultural geographers as well as physical geographers. A wide majority of geographers, via nearly all atlases and many other publications from the National Geographic to the CIA World Factbook and Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary define Europe, Asia and Africa as continents.\n\nSection::::Views of Asia.:The geographical or traditional view.:The Hellenic origin.\n", "Asia is one of the three parts of the world, which the authors divide in Asia, Africa and Europe. Asia extends towards the Orient as far as the rising sun (\"\"devers le souleil levant\"\"), towards the south (\"midi\") it ends at the great sea, towards the occident it ends at our sea, and towards the north (\"septentrion\") it ends in the Maeotian marshes and the river named \"Thanaus\".\n\nSection::::A fourth corner: the enlarged world.\n", "Section::::Europe and North America.\n\nEurope and North America are separated by the North Atlantic.\n", "The Portuguese Atlantic island possession of the Azores is from Europe and from Africa, and is usually grouped with Europe if grouped with any continent. By contrast, the Canary and Madeira islands (including the Desertas Islands and the Savage Islands) off the Atlantic coast of Morocco are much closer to, and usually grouped with, Africa (the Canary Islands are only from the African coast at their closest point, while Madeira is from Africa and from Europe).\n", "Historically in Greco-Roman geography, \"Africa\" meant Ancient Libya, and its eastern extent was taken to be around Marmarica, at the \"Catabathmus Magnus\", placing Egypt in Asia entirely.\n", "BULLET::::- History of Eurasia is the collective history of several distinct peripheral coastal regions: the Middle East, South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Europe, linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian steppe of Central Asia and Eastern Europe.\n\nBULLET::::- History of Europe describes the passage of time from humans inhabiting the European continent to the present day.\n\nBULLET::::- History of Asia can be seen as the collective history of several distinct peripheral coastal regions, East Asia, South Asia, and the Middle East linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian steppe.\n", "Europe ends in the west at the Atlantic Ocean, although Iceland and the Azores archipelago (in the Atlantic, between Europe and North America) are usually considered European, as is the Norwegian Svalbard archipelago in the Arctic Ocean. Greenland is geographically part of North America, but politically associated with Europe as it is part of the Kingdom of Denmark, although it has extensive home rule and EU law no longer applies there.\n\nSection::::Africa and Asia.\n", "Kitsikis concludes that “due to historical events spanning thousands of years, the Eurasian continent, of which Europe is but one of its peninsulas, comprises three civilisational areas: a) the West, which today includes the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, as well as Western Europe; b) the East or “Far East”, which includes the peninsulas of India, Southeast Asia (with Indonesia) and China (with Korea and Japan); c) the Intermediate Region, which is found both in the East and the West.”\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Afro-Eurasia\n\nBULLET::::- Eurasianism\n\nBULLET::::- Geographical midpoint of Europe\n\nBULLET::::- The Great Game\n", "The geological history of Europe traces back to the formation of the Baltic Shield (Fennoscandia) and the Sarmatian craton, both around 2.25 billion years ago, followed by the Volgo–Uralia shield, the three together leading to the East European craton (≈ Baltica) which became a part of the supercontinent Columbia. Around 1.1 billion years ago, Baltica and Arctica (as part of the Laurentia block) became joined to Rodinia, later resplitting around 550 million years ago to reform as Baltica. Around 440 million years ago Euramerica was formed from Baltica and Laurentia; a further joining with Gondwana then leading to the formation of Pangea. Around 190 million years ago, Gondwana and Laurasia split apart due to the widening of the Atlantic Ocean. Finally, and very soon afterwards, Laurasia itself split up again, into Laurentia (North America) and the Eurasian continent. The land connection between the two persisted for a considerable time, via Greenland, leading to interchange of animal species. From around 50 million years ago, rising and falling sea levels have determined the actual shape of Europe, and its connections with continents such as Asia. Europe's present shape dates to the late Tertiary period about five million years ago.\n", "BULLET::::- the delineation between Africa, Europe and Asia in the Mediterranean Sea\n\nBULLET::::- the delineation between Asia and Europe in the Arctic Ocean\n\nBULLET::::- the delineation between Europe and North America in the Atlantic Ocean\n\nBULLET::::- the delineation between North and South America in the Caribbean Sea\n\nBULLET::::- the delineation of Asia from North America in the North Pacific Ocean\n\nSection::::The Americas.\n\nSection::::The Americas.:Pre-Columbian history.\n", "Since around 1850, Europe is most commonly considered to be separated from Asia by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas and the waterways of the Turkish Straits. Although the term \"continent\" implies physical geography, the land border is somewhat arbitrary and has been redefined several times since its first conception in classical antiquity. The division of Eurasia into two continents reflects East-West cultural, linguistic and ethnic differences which vary on a spectrum rather than with a sharp dividing line. The geographic border between Europe and Asia does not follow any state boundaries: Turkey, Russia, Azerbaijan, Georgia and Kazakhstan are transcontinental countries. Spain is also transcontinental in that its main portion is on the Iberian peninsula (Europe) while pockets of Spanish territory are located across the Strait of Gibraltar on North African territory (i.e. mainly Melilla, Ceuta, and the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean). \n", "Before the discovery of the New World a commonplace of classical and medieval geography had been the \"three parts\" in which, from Mediterranean and European perspectives, the world was divided: Europe, Asia and Africa. As Laurent de Premierfait, the pre-eminent French translator of Latin literature in the early fifteenth century, informed his readers:\n", "The first distinction between continents was made by ancient Greek mariners who gave the names Europe and Asia to the lands on either side of the waterways of the Aegean Sea, the Dardanelles strait, the Sea of Marmara, the Bosporus strait and the Black Sea. The names were first applied just to lands near the coast and only later extended to include the hinterlands. But the division was only carried through to the end of navigable waterways and \"... beyond that point the Hellenic geographers never succeeded in laying their finger on any inland feature in the physical landscape that could offer any convincing line for partitioning an indivisible Eurasia ...\"\n", "Until the lower Oligocene period, about 32 Mya, the future lands of Europe were an island continent, separated from Asia by a shallow sea, but possessing intermittent land-bridge connections to North America via Greenland. Many animal species from the much larger North America colonized Europe during these times. As sea levels changed and sediments accumulated, the sea between Europe and Asia gradually dried out and Europe became a western appendage of the Earth's largest land mass.\n\nSection::::Pleistocene.\n", "Ancient Greek thinkers subsequently debated whether Africa (then called \"Libya\") should be considered part of Asia or a third part of the world. Division into three parts eventually came to predominate. From the Greek viewpoint, the Aegean Sea was the center of the world; Asia lay to the east, Europe to the north and west, and Africa to the south. The boundaries between the continents were not fixed. Early on, Europe–Asia boundary was taken to run from the Black Sea along the Rioni River (known then as the \"Phasis\") in Georgia. Later it was viewed as running from the Black Sea through Kerch Strait, the Sea of Azov and along the Don River (known then as the \"Tanais\") in Russia. The boundary between Asia and Africa was generally taken to be the Nile River. Herodotus in the 5th century BC, however, objected to the unity of Egypt being split into Asia and Africa (\"Libya\") and took the boundary to lie along the western border of Egypt, regarding Egypt as part of Asia. He also questioned the division into three of what is really a single landmass, a debate that continues nearly two and a half millennia later.\n", "Section::::Iconography.\n", "Some geographers regard Europe and Asia together as a single continent, dubbed \"Eurasia\". In this model, the world is divided into six continents, with North America and South America considered separate continents.\n\nSection::::Geology.\n", "From the time of Herodotus a minority of geographers have rejected the three-continent system (Europe, Africa, Asia) on the grounds that there is no substantial physical separation between them. For example, Sir Barry Cunliffe, the emeritus professor of European archeology at Oxford, argues that Europe has been geographically and culturally merely \"the western excrescence of the continent of Asia\".\n", "The northern supercontinent of Laurasia began to break up, as Europe, Greenland and North America drifted apart. In western North America, mountain building started in the Eocene, and huge lakes formed in the high flat basins among uplifts. In Europe, the Tethys Sea finally vanished, while the uplift of the Alps isolated its final remnant, the Mediterranean, and created another shallow sea with island archipelagos to the north. Though the North Atlantic was opening, a land connection appears to have remained between North America and Europe since the faunas of the two regions are very similar. India continued its journey away from Africa and began its collision with Asia, creating the Himalayan orogeny.\n", "Geographically, Asia is the major eastern constituent of the continent of Eurasia with Europe being a northwestern peninsula of the landmass. Asia, Europe and Africa make up a single continuous landmass—Afro-Eurasia (except for the Suez Canal)—and share a common continental shelf. Almost all of Europe and the better part of Asia sit atop the Eurasian Plate, adjoined on the south by the Arabian and Indian Plate and with the easternmost part of Siberia (east of the Chersky Range) on the North American Plate.\n\nSection::::Etymology.\n", "As geographic knowledge of the Greeks increased during the Hellenistic period, this archaic convention was revised, and the boundary between Europe and Asia was now considered to be the Tanais (the modern Don River). This is the convention used by Roman era authors such as Posidonius, Strabo and Ptolemy.\n", "The criterion of a discrete landmass is completely disregarded if the continuous landmass of Eurasia is classified as two separate continents: Europe and Asia. Physiographically, Europe and South Asia are peninsulas of the Eurasian landmass. However, Europe is widely considered a continent with its comparatively large land area of , while South Asia, with less than half that area, is considered a subcontinent. The alternative view—in geology and geography—that Eurasia is a single continent results in a six-continent view of the world. Some view separation of Eurasia into Asia and Europe as a residue of Eurocentrism: \"In physical, cultural and historical diversity, China and India are comparable to the entire European landmass, not to a single European country. [...].\" However, for historical and cultural reasons, the view of Europe as a separate continent continues in several categorizations.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Europe and Asia should be defined as one continent." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Some people do see it that way but Europe decided that should be defined as separate continents and most people in the west follow this definition." ]
2018-03387	How is it that 2+3+3*8 = 38 and not 88?	Using order of operations, you'd get 29. Left to right you'd get 64. Not quite sure where you're getting either of these other solutions you've offered.	[ "Although 89 is not a Lychrel number in base 10, it is unusual that it takes 24 iterations of the reverse and add process to reach a palindrome. Among the known non-Lychrel numbers in the first 10000 integers, no other number requires that many or more iterations. The palindrome reached is also unusually large.\n\nSection::::In science.\n\nEighty-nine is:\n\nBULLET::::- The atomic number of actinium.\n\nSection::::In science.:In astronomy.\n\nBULLET::::- Messier object M89, a magnitude 11.5 elliptical galaxy in the constellation Virgo.\n", "888 is a practical number, meaning that every positive integer up to 888 itself may be represented as a sum of distinct divisors of 888.\n\nThere are exactly 888 trees with four unlabeled and three labeled nodes, exactly 888 seven-node undirected graphs without isolated vertices, and exactly 888 non-alternating knots whose crossing number is 12.\n\nSection::::Symbology and numerology.\n", "This prescription is plainly equivalent to computing a Hailstone sequence in base two.\n\nSection::::Other formulations of the conjecture.:As an abstract machine that computes in base two.:Example.\n\nThe starting number 7 is written in base two as 111. The resulting Hailstone sequence is:\n\nSection::::Other formulations of the conjecture.:As a parity sequence.\n\nFor this section, consider the Collatz function in the slightly modified form\n\nThis can be done because when \"n\" is odd, 3\"n\" + 1 is always even.\n", "Section::::Properties.:Sierpiński triangle.\n", "Note that for 2 ≤ \"b\" ≤ 9 the numerical order of the numbers formula_71 is the lexicographical order with \"n\" as the most significant number, so for the numbers of these 8 columns the numerical order is simply line-by-line. The same applies for the numbers in the 97 columns with 3 ≤ \"b\" ≤ 99, and if we start from \"n\" = 1 even for 3 ≤ \"b\" ≤ 9,999,999,999.\n\nSection::::Numeration systems based on the hyperoperation sequence.\n", "If the only stipulation were that one element at a time would be lit, the number of possible sequences is simply:\n\n90! = (90•89•88•87...3•2•1) ≈ 1.486 x 10, or 1.486 \"quintoquadrogintillion\". (The exact value is 1 485 715 964 481 761 497 309 522 733 620 825 737 885 569 961 284 688 766 942 216 863 704 985 393 094 065 876 545 992 131 370 884 059 645 617 234 469 978 112 000 000 000 000 000 000 000.)\n", "An equivalent formulation of this solution, given by Bernard Frénicle de Bessy, is that for the three squares in arithmetic progression \"x\", \"y\", and \"z\", the middle number \"y\" is the hypotenuse of a Pythagorean triangle and the other two numbers \"x\" and \"z\" are the difference and sum respectively of the triangle's two legs. The congruum itself is four times the area of the same Pythagorean triangle. The example of an arithmetic progression with the congruum 96 can be obtained in this way from a right triangle with side and hypotenuse lengths 6, 8, and 10.\n\nSection::::Relation to congruent numbers.\n", "the number 96 is a congruum, since it is the difference between adjacent squares in the sequence 4, 100, and 196 (the squares of 2, 10, and 14 respectively).\n\nThe first few congrua are:\n\nSection::::History.\n\nThe congruum problem was originally posed in 1225, as part of a mathematical tournament held by Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, and answered correctly at that time by Fibonacci, who recorded his work on this problem in his \"Book of Squares\".\n", "Examples are known of the symbols for larger numbers, but it is unknown which symbol represents which number. Most numbers were written with \"additive notation\", namely by writing symbols that added to the desired number, from higher to lower value. Thus the number '87', for example, would be written 50 + 10 + 10 + 10 + 5 + 1 + 1 = \"𐌣𐌢𐌢𐌢𐌡𐌠𐌠\". (Since the Etruscan script was usually written from right to left, the number would appear as \"𐌠𐌠𐌡𐌢𐌢𐌢𐌣\" in inscriptions. This caveat holds for all the following examples.)\n", "Strictly methodical (and successful) investigation of the symbols was first done in 1970 by Ottó Gyürk, who examined repeated sequences to find the direction of writing (he argues for RLTB (Right to Left, Top to Bottom), with pages also ordered right-to-left), and identified numbers in the text. His later remarks suggest that he also has many unpublished conjectures, based on a large amount of statistical data.\n", "An interesting early case is that of what we now call the Euclidean algorithm. In its basic form (namely, as an algorithm for computing the greatest common divisor) it appears as Proposition 2 of Book VII in \"Elements\", together with a proof of correctness. However, in the form that is often used in number theory (namely, as an algorithm for finding integer solutions to an equation formula_78,\n\nor, what is the same, for finding the quantities whose existence is assured by the Chinese remainder theorem) it first appears in the works of Āryabhaṭa (5th–6th century CE) as an algorithm called\n", "If we begin from a fairly \"thick\" infinite set formula_69, does it contain many elements in arithmetic progression: formula_38,\n\nformula_71, say? Should it be possible to write large integers as sums of elements of formula_69?\n\nThese questions are characteristic of \"arithmetic combinatorics\". This is a presently coalescing field; it subsumes \"additive number theory\" (which concerns itself with certain very specific sets formula_69 of arithmetic significance, such as the primes or the squares) and, arguably, some of the \"geometry of numbers\",\n", "The particular rightmost \"d\" digits that are ultimately shared by all sufficiently tall towers of 3s are in bold text, and can be seen developing as the tower height increases. For any fixed number of digits \"d\" (row in the table), the number of values possible for 3formula_313↑…3↑\"x\" mod 10, as \"x\" ranges over all nonnegative integers, is seen to decrease steadily as the height increases, until eventually reducing the \"possibility set\" to a single number (colored cells) when the height exceeds \"d\"+2.\n", "Kharosthi included a set of numerals that are reminiscent of Roman numerals. The system is based on an additive and a multiplicative principle, but does not have the subtractive feature used in the Roman number system.\n\nThe numerals, like the letters, are written from right to left. There is no zero and no separate signs for the digits 5–9. Numbers in Kharosthi use an additive system.\n\nFor example, the number 1996 would be written as 1000 4 4 1 100 20 20 20 20 10 4 2 (image: text: ).\n\nSection::::History.\n", "There are 93 different cyclic Gilbreath permutations on 11 elements, and therefore there are 93 different real periodic points of order 11 on the Mandelbrot set.\n\nSection::::In other fields.\n\nNinety-three is:\n\nBULLET::::- The atomic number of neptunium, an actinide.\n\nBULLET::::- The code for international direct dial phone calls to Afghanistan.\n\nBULLET::::- One of two ISBN Group Identifiers for books published in India.\n\nBULLET::::- The number of the French department Seine-Saint-Denis, and as such used by many French gangsta rappers and those emulating their speech.\n", "However, there are many values of a(1) with unknown status. For example, the Wieferich sequence of 3:\n\nThe Wieferich sequence of 14:\n\nThe Wieferich sequence of 39:\n\nIt is unknown that values for \"k\" exist such that the Wieferich sequence of \"k\" does not become periodic. Eventually, it is unknown that values for \"k\" exist such that the Wieferich sequence of \"k\" is finite.\n", "881 (number)\n\n881 (eight hundred [and] eighty-one) is the natural number following 880 and preceding 882.\n\n881 is:\n\nBULLET::::- a prime number\n\nBULLET::::- a Paid Toll Free telephone number prefix in the USA\n\nBULLET::::- the Port of Los Angeles Long Wharf, California State Historic Landmark #881\n\nBULLET::::- the year AD 881 or the year 881 BC\n\nBULLET::::- In astronomy, NGC 881 is an Sc type galaxy in the constellation Cetus.\n", "BULLET::::- an Erdős–Woods number, since it is possible to find sequences of 94 consecutive integers such that each inner member shares a factor with either the first or the last member.\n\nBULLET::::- a Smith number in decimal.\n\nBULLET::::- the only number, greater than 1, that equals the sum of the squares of the digits of their own square in base 11.\n\nSection::::In computing.\n", "Example 5: If \"k\" is square, then \"k\"×49 − 1 has algebraic factors for all positive integer \"n\". The first few positive squares are 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, ... However, all these \"k\" 36 are also trivial \"k\" (i. e. gcd(\"k\" − 1, 49 − 1) is not 1). Thus, the smallest Riesel number base 49 is 36. (The Riesel base 49 conjecture is proven)\n", "We say that two lattice points are visible from one another if there is no lattice point on the open line segment joining them.\n\nNow, if gcd(\"a\", \"b\") = \"d\" 1, then writing \"a\" = \"da\", \"b\" = \"db\" one observes that the point\n", "Yet another case of glyph confusion exists in the printed uppercase forms, this time between stigma and the other numeral, koppa (90). In ancient and medieval handwriting, koppa developed from through , , to . The uppercase forms and can represent either koppa or stigma. Frequent confusion between these two values in contemporary printing was already noted by some commentators in the eighteenth century. The ambiguity continues in modern fonts, many of which continue to have glyph similar to for either koppa or stigma.\n\nSection::::Names.\n", "Euclid IX 21–34 is very probably Pythagorean; it is very simple material (\"odd times even is even\", \"if an odd number measures [= divides] an even number, then it also measures [= divides] half of it\"), but it is all that is needed to prove that formula_5\n\nis irrational. Pythagorean mystics gave great importance to the odd and the even.\n", ", the conjecture has been checked by computer for all starting values up to 87 * 2. All initial values tested so far eventually end in the repeating cycle (4; 2; 1), which has only three terms. From this lower bound on the starting value, a lower bound can also be obtained for the number of terms a repeating cycle other than (4; 2; 1) must have. When this relationship was established in 1981, the formula gave a lower bound of 35,400 terms.\n", "Like Pascal's triangle, outer edge diagonals of Lozanić's triangle are all 1s, and most of the enclosed numbers are the sum of the two numbers above. But for numbers at odd positions \"k\" in even-numbered rows \"n\" (starting the numbering for both with 0), after adding the two numbers above, subtract the number at position (\"k\" − 1)/2 in row \"n\"/2 − 1 of Pascal's triangle.\n\nThe diagonals next to the edge diagonals contain the positive integers in order, but with each integer stated twice .\n", "a (0), ba (1), ca (2), .., 9a (35), bb (36), cb (37), .., 9b (70), bca (71), .., 99a (1260), bcb (1261), etc.\n\nUnlike a regular based numeral system, there are numbers like 9b where 9 and b each represents 35; yet the representation is unique because ac and aca are not allowed – the a would terminate the number.\n\nThe flexibility in choosing threshold values allows optimization depending on the frequency of occurrence of numbers of various sizes.\n" ]	[ "2+3+3*8 is equal to 38, not 88.", "Two plus three plus three times eight equals thirty eight when it should equal eighty eight." ]	[ "2+3+3*8 is equal to 29", "The solution of the mathematical equation of all the numbers in any order do not equal thirty eight or eighty eight, the correct answer is either twenty nine or sixty four." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "2+3+3*8 is equal to 38, not 88.", "Two plus three plus three times eight equals thirty eight when it should equal eighty eight." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "2+3+3*8 is equal to 29", "The solution of the mathematical equation of all the numbers in any order do not equal thirty eight or eighty eight, the correct answer is either twenty nine or sixty four." ]
2018-13291	why birds are the only animal coming in many vibrant colors	This is simply false. Fish and insects are animals that come in an amazing range of colors. Some lizards and octopus species too.	[ "Most other mammals are currently thought to be dichromats, with only two types of cone (though limited trichromacy is possible at low light levels where the rods and cones are both active). Most studies of carnivores, as of other mammals, reveal dichromacy, examples including the domestic dog, the ferret, and the spotted hyena. Some species of insects (such as honeybees) are also trichromats, being sensitive to ultraviolet, blue and green instead of blue, green and red.\n", "Vertebrate animals such as tropical fish and birds sometimes have more complex color vision systems than humans; thus the many subtle colors they exhibit generally serve as direct signals for other fish or birds, and not to signal mammals. In bird vision, tetrachromacy is achieved through up to four cone types, depending on species. Each single cone contains one of the four main types of vertebrate cone photopigment (LWS/ MWS, RH2, SWS2 and SWS1) and has a colored oil droplet in its inner segment. Brightly colored oil droplets inside the cones shift or narrow the spectral sensitivity of the cell. It has been suggested that it is likely that pigeons are pentachromats.\n", "Humans and some other mammals have evolved trichromacy based partly on pigments inherited from early vertebrates. In fish and birds, for example, four pigments are used for vision. These extra cone receptor visual pigments detect energy of other wavelengths, including sometimes ultraviolet. Eventually two of these pigments were lost (in placental mammals) and another was gained, resulting in trichromacy among some primates. Humans and closely related primates are usually trichromats, as are some of the females of most species of New World monkeys, and both male and female howler monkeys.\n", "The four cone types, and the specialization of pigmented oil droplets, give birds better color vision than that of humans . However, more recent research has suggested that tetrachromacy in birds only provide birds with a larger visual spectrum than that in humans (humans cannot see ultraviolet light, 300-400 nm), while the spectral resolution (the \"sensitivity\" to nuances) is similar.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Insects.\n", "Parrots have fluorescent plumage that may be used in mate signaling. A study using mate-choice experiments on budgerigars (\"Melopsittacus undulates\") found compelling support for fluorescent sexual signaling, with both males and females significantly preferring birds with the fluorescent experimental stimulus. This study suggests that the fluorescent plumage of parrots is not simply a by-product of pigmentation, but instead an adapted sexual signal. Considering the intricacies of the pathways that produce fluorescent pigments, there may be significant costs involved. Therefore, individuals exhibiting strong fluorescence may be honest indicators of high individual quality, since they can deal with the associated costs.\n", "In the vertebrates, industrial melanism is known from the turtle-headed seasnake \"Emydocephalus annulatus\", and may be present in urban feral pigeons.\n\nSection::::Camouflage.\n", "Many species can see light with frequencies outside the human \"visible spectrum\". Bees and many other insects can detect ultraviolet light, which helps them to find nectar in flowers. Plant species that depend on insect pollination may owe reproductive success to ultraviolet \"colors\" and patterns rather than how colorful they appear to humans. Birds, too, can see into the ultraviolet (300–400 nm), and some have sex-dependent markings on their plumage that are visible only in the ultraviolet range. Many animals that can see into the ultraviolet range, however, cannot see red light or any other reddish wavelengths. For example, bees' visible spectrum ends at about 590 nm, just before the orange wavelengths start. Birds, however, can see some red wavelengths, although not as far into the light spectrum as humans. It is a myth that the common goldfish is the only animal that can see both infrared and ultraviolet light; their color vision extends into the ultraviolet but not the infrared.\n", "By far the most abundant cone pigment in every bird species examined is the long-wavelength form of iodopsin, which absorbs at wavelengths near 570 nm. This is roughly the spectral region occupied by the red- and green-sensitive pigments in the primate retina, and this visual pigment dominates the colour sensitivity of birds. In penguins, this pigment appears to have shifted its absorption peak to 543 nm, presumably an adaptation to a blue aquatic environment.\n", "Many species, such as all marine mammals, the owl monkey and the Australian sea lion (pictured at right) are monochromats under normal conditions. In humans, absence of color discrimination or poor color discrimination is one among several other symptoms of severe inherited or acquired diseases, as for example inherited achromatopsia, acquired achromatopsia or inherited blue cone monochromacy.\n\nSection::::Humans.\n", "According to a new study crimson rosellas can identify birds of their own subspecies based on the smell of other birds.\n\nSection::::Behavior.:Feeding.\n\nCrimson rosellas forage in trees, bushes, and on the ground for the fruit, seeds, nectar, berries, and nuts of a wide variety of plants, including members of the Myrtaceae, Asteraceae, and Rosaceae families. Despite feeding on fruits and seeds, rosellas are not useful to the plants as seed-spreaders, because they crush and destroy the seeds in the process of eating them. \n", "Color can also differ between sexes or ages within a species. Typically, such a color difference is due to the presence of androgens. For example, in house sparrows, melanins are produced only in the presence of testosterone; castrated male house sparrows—like female house sparrows—have brown beaks. Castration also prevents the normal seasonal color change in the beaks of male black-headed gulls and indigo buntings.\n\nSection::::Functions.\n", "Other vertebrates, such as fishes, amphibians, reptiles and birds, produce a variety of non-melanin pigments. Disruption of melanin production does not affect the production of these pigments. Non-melanin pigments in other vertebrates are produced by cells called chromatophores. Within this categorization, xanthophores are cells that contain primarily yellowish pteridines, while erythrophores contain primarily orangish carotenoids. Some species also possess iridophores or leucophores, which do not contain true pigments, but light-reflective structures that give iridescence. An extremely uncommon type of chromatophore, the cyanophore, produces a very vivid blue pigment. Amelanism in fishes, amphibians, reptiles and birds has the same genetic etiology as in mammals: loss of tyrosinase function. However, due to the presence of other pigments, other amelanistic vertebrates are seldom white and red-eyed like amelanistic mammals.\n", "Like other birds investigated raptors do also have coloured oil droplets in their cones. The generally brown, grey and white plumage of this group, and the absence of colour displays in courtship suggests that colour is relatively unimportant to these birds.\n", "Section::::Conservation.:Importance.\n", "A recent study using through PCR analysis of genes OPN1SW, OPN1LW, and PDE6C determined that all mammals in the order Xenarthra (representing sloths, anteaters and armadillos) developed rod monochromany through a stem ancestor.\n", "Section::::Visual signaling.\n\nBirds also use visual stimuli such as bright colors or large ornamentation for socio-sexual communication as well as species recognition. These ornaments can be considered “honest” signs of fitness because they are often costly to produce and show that the individual is healthy enough to mate with the choosing female.\n", "In general, beak color depends on a combination of the bird's hormonal state and diet. Colors are typically brightest as the breeding season approaches, and palest after breeding.\n\nSection::::Dimorphism.\n", "BULLET::::17. Birds, etc. Appendages, and their part in 'obliteration'\n\nBULLET::::18. Birds: miscellany. \"Mimicry\" (vs 'obliteration')\n\nBULLET::::19. Birds, concluded\n\nBULLET::::20. Mammals\n\nBULLET::::21. Mammals, continued\n\nBULLET::::22. Mammals, concluded\n\nBULLET::::23. Fishes\n\nBULLET::::24. Reptiles and Amphibians\n\nBULLET::::25. Caterpillars\n\nBULLET::::26. A glance at Insects other than Lepidoptera\n\nBULLET::::27. Butterflies and Moths\n\nSection::::Outline.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nAnimal coloration has been a topic of interest and research in biology for centuries. In the classical era, Aristotle recorded that the octopus was able to change its coloration to match its background, and when it was alarmed.\n\nIn his 1665 book \"Micrographia\", Robert Hooke describes the \"fantastical\" (structural, not pigment) colors of the Peacock's feathers:\n", "Section::::Evolutionary reasons for animal coloration.:Signalling.\n\nColor is widely used for signalling in animals as diverse as birds and shrimps. Signalling encompasses at least three purposes:\n\nBULLET::::- advertising, to signal a capability or service to other animals, whether within a species or not\n\nBULLET::::- sexual selection, where members of one sex choose to mate with suitably colored members of the other sex, thus driving the development of such colors\n\nBULLET::::- warning, to signal that an animal is harmful, for example can sting, is poisonous or is bitter-tasting. Warning signals may be mimicked truthfully or untruthfully.\n\nSection::::Evolutionary reasons for animal coloration.:Signalling.:Advertising services.\n", "The original Croad Langshans were black with a brilliant green sheen and that is still the main colour kept today.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.\n", "Animal coloration\n\nAnimal coloration is the general appearance of an animal resulting from the reflection or emission of light from its surfaces. Some animals are brightly colored, while others are hard to see. In some species, such as the peafowl, the male has strong patterns, conspicuous colors and is iridescent, while the female is far less visible.\n", "Birds from a handful of families—including raptors, owls, skuas, parrots, turkeys and curassows—have a waxy structure called a cere (from the Latin \"cera\", which means \"wax\") or ceroma which covers the base of their bill. This structure typically contains the nares, except in the owls, where the nares are distal to the cere. Although it is sometimes feathered in parrots, the cere is typically bare and often brightly colored. In raptors, the cere is a sexual signal which indicates the \"quality\" of a bird; the orangeness of a Montague's harrier's cere, for example, correlates to its body mass and physical condition. The cere color of young Eurasian scops-owls has an ultraviolet (UV) component, with a UV peak that correlates to the bird's mass. A chick with a lower body mass has a UV peak at a higher wavelength than a chick with a higher body mass does. Studies have shown that parent owls preferentially feed chicks with ceres that show higher wavelength UV peaks, that is, lighter-weight chicks.\n", "Oriole feeders, which are traditionally colored orange, also supply such artificial nectar and are designed to serve New World orioles, which have an unusually shaped beak and tongue. These orioles and some other birds also will come to fruit foods, such as grape jelly, or half an orange on a peg. Hummingbirds will also feed from Oriole feeders.\n", "Although sexual selection plays a major role in the development of feathers, in particular the color of the feathers it is not the only conclusion available. New studies are suggesting that the unique feathers of birds is also a large influence on many important aspects of avian behavior, such as the height at which a different species build their nests. Since females are the prime care givers, evolution has helped select females to display duller colored down so that they may blend into the nesting environment. The position of the nest and whether it has a greater chance of being under predation has exerted constraints on female birds' plumage. A species of bird that nests on the ground, rather than the canopy of the trees, will need to have much duller colors in order not to attract attention to the nest. Since the female is the main care giver in some species of birds, evolution has helped select traits that make her feathers dull and often allow her to blend into the surroundings. The height study found that birds that nest in the canopies of trees often have many more predator attacks due to the brighter color of feathers that the female displays. Another influence of evolution that could play a part in why feathers of birds are so colorful and display so many patterns could be due to that birds developed their bright colors from the vegetation and flowers that thrive around them. Birds develop their bright colors from living around certain colors. Most bird species often blend into their environment, due to some degree of camouflage, so if the species habitat is full of colors and patterns, the species would eventually evolve to blend in to avoid being eaten. Birds' feathers show a large range of colors, even exceeding the variety of many plants, leaf and flower colors.\n" ]	[ "Birds are the only animal coming in many vibrant colors.", "Birds are the only animals with many different vibrant colors." ]	[ "Birds, fish, insects, some lizards and some octopi can exhibit a range of colors.", "Fish, insects, and lizards also come in different vibrant colors." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Birds are the only animal coming in many vibrant colors.", "Birds are the only animals with many different vibrant colors." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Birds, fish, insects, some lizards and some octopi can exhibit a range of colors.", "Fish, insects, and lizards also come in different vibrant colors." ]
2018-22117	Why do some voices, even at similar or lower volumes, pierce through a crowded room of speakers?	Certain sounds travel further. Bass tends to go through objects and treble reflects off things. But the fact that you could hear this guy clearly probably means that his voice was just in the right place to travel to you while other peoples voices would be bouncing around the room and getting all jumbled up.	[ "Many older LEDE (\"live end, dead end\") control room designs featured so-called \"Haas kickers\" – reflective panels placed at the rear to create specular reflections which were thought to provide a wider stereo listening area or raise intelligibility. However, what is beneficial for one type of sound is detrimental to others, so Haas kickers, like compression ceilings, are no longer commonly found in control rooms.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Binaural fusion\n\nBULLET::::- Franssen effect\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Floyd Toole \"Sound Reproduction\", Focal Press (July 25, 2008), Chapter 6\n", "Kobi Toledano was born on December 1, 1976, in Haifa, Israel. Since his youth he was interested in electronic devices, taking them apart and putting them back together. Kobi worked for years in a recording studio managing and producing young artists. He discovered trance music and Psychedelic music while attending rave parties in the early 90's in the forests of Northern Israel. Kobi graduated from a leading sound school in the Galilee, northern Israel, and was the producer of a few psychedelic groups.\n\nSection::::Music career.\n", "During a real-life conversation, sounds follow a complex journey before reaching the listener's ears for decoding by the brain. The human brain analyses the sounds and all their alterations to determine the source's position in the room. This enables the brain to know instantly who the speaker is, even without recognizing his voice or seeing the speaker. In a crowded room with lots of background noise, the brain can isolate specific sounds and can focus on decoding the information or voice that matters while disregarding the others, a phenomenon also called the cocktail party effect.\n", "\"Bowie's performance thus grows in intensity precisely as ever more ambience infuses his delivery until, by the final verse, he has to shout just to be heard...The more Bowie shouts to be heard, in fact, the further back in the mix Visconti's multi-latch system pushes his vocal tracks [dry audio being perceived as front and ambience pushing audio back in the mix], creating a stark metaphor for the situation of Bowie's doomed lovers shouting their love for one another over the Berlin wall\".\n\nSection::::Recording usages.:Trance gating.\n", "Lombard effect\n\nThe Lombard effect or Lombard reflex is the involuntary tendency of speakers to increase their vocal effort when speaking in loud noise to enhance the audibility of their voice. This change includes not only loudness but also other acoustic features such as pitch, rate, and duration of syllables. This compensation effect results in an increase in the auditory signal-to-noise ratio of the speaker’s spoken words.\n", "Whispering-gallery waves were first explained for the case of St Paul's Cathedral circa 1878 by Lord Rayleigh, who revised a previous misconception that whispers could be heard across the dome but not at any intermediate position. He explained the phenomenon of travelling whispers with a series of specularly reflected sound rays making up chords of the circular gallery. Clinging to the walls the sound should decay in intensity only as the inverse of the distance — rather than the inverse square as in the case of a point source of sound radiating in all directions. This accounts for the whispers being audible all round the gallery.\n", "When voicing the organ at All Saints' he made full use of the resonance of the building, he voiced the organ to the acoustic of the building rather than voicing it to his preferred choice.\n", "1 Hark, a joyful voice is thrilling, \n\n2 Christ is coming — from thy bed, \n\n3 Lo, to grant a pardon free, \n\n4 Once again he comes in light \n\n5 To the Father and the Son \n\n/poem\n\nJohn Mason Neale\n\npoem\n\n1 A THRILLING voice by Jordan rings,\n\n2 Now let each torpid soul arise,\n\n3 The Lamb descends from heaven above\n\n4 That when again He shines revealed,\n\n5 To the most high Parent glory be\n\n/poem\n\nEdward Caswall\n\npoem\n\n1 Hark! a herald voice is calling:\n\n2 Startled at the solemn warning,\n", "Choral singers experience reduced feedback due to the sound of other singers upon their own voice. This results in a tendency for people in choruses to sing at a louder level if it is not controlled by a conductor. Trained soloists can control this effect but it has been suggested that after a concert they might speak more loudly in noisy surroundings, such as after-concert parties.\n\nThe Lombard effect also occurs to those playing instruments such as the guitar.\n\nSection::::Animal vocalization.\n", "Autophony\n\nAutophony is the unusually loud hearing of a person's own voice.\n\nPossible causes are:\n\nBULLET::::- The \"occlusion effect\", caused by an object, such as an unvented hearing aid or a plug of ear wax, blocking the ear canal and reflecting sound vibration back towards the eardrum.\n\nBULLET::::- Serous otitis media\n\nBULLET::::- Open or patulous Eustachian tube, allowing vocal or breathing sounds to be conducted into the middle ear\n", "The amount of masking will vary depending on the characteristics of both the target signal and the masker, and will also be specific to an individual listener. While the person in the example above was able to detect the cat scratching at 26 dB SPL, another person may not be able to hear the cat scratching while the vacuum was on until the sound level of the cat scratching was increased to 30 dB SPL (thereby making the amount of masking for the second listener 20 dB).\n\nSection::::Simultaneous masking.\n", "Section::::Timbral techniques.:Harmonics.:Multiphonics.\n\nBy overstressing or by assimetrically contracting the laryngeal muscles, a multiphonic or chord may be produced. This technique features in the 1968 composition \"Versuch über Schweine\" by the German composer Hans Werner Henze. In voice pathology, there are various descriptions of somewhat similar effects, such as those found in patients with diplophonia, a condition that produces a \"double voice\", i.e., two or even more simultaneous pitches.\n\nSection::::Timbral techniques.:Distortion.\n\nSection::::Timbral techniques.:Distortion.:Buccal speech.\n", "The \"unmasked threshold\" is the quietest level of the signal which can be perceived without a masking signal present. The \"masked threshold\" is the quietest level of the signal perceived when combined with a specific masking noise. The amount of masking is the difference between the masked and unmasked thresholds.\n", "For once making a similar speech at one of his recitals, music critic Alan Rich called him \"the Liberace of the organ loft\", and severely took him to task in \"New York Magazine\".\n", "The auditory system can extract the sound of a desired sound source out of interfering noise. This allows the listener to concentrate on only one speaker if other speakers are also talking (the cocktail party effect). With the help of the cocktail party effect sound from interfering directions is perceived attenuated compared to the sound from the desired direction. The auditory system can increase the signal-to-noise ratio by up to 15 dB, which means that interfering sound is perceived to be attenuated to half (or less) of its actual loudness. \n\nSection::::Sound localization by the human auditory system.:Localization in enclosed rooms.\n", "I began my own efforts to address space in modest fashion, in a music-theater composition \"[The Emperor of Ice-Cream]\" intended for the ONCE Festivals but not actually premiered until 1965 in the context of the Nuova Consonanza Festival of Franco Evangelisti's, in Rome. … So, in the case of [Wallace] Stevens's line \"And spread it so as to cover her face,\" the eight singers, arrayed across the front of the stage, pass the phonemes of the associated melodic phrase back and forth by fading in and out successively.\n", "A whispering gallery is most simply constructed in the form of a circular wall, and allows whispered communication from any part of the internal side of the circumference to any other part. The sound is carried by waves, known as whispering-gallery waves, that travel around the circumference clinging to the walls, an effect that was discovered in the whispering gallery of St Paul's Cathedral in London. The extent to which the sound travels at St Paul's can also be judged by clapping in the gallery, which produces four echoes. Other historical examples are the Gol Gumbaz mausoleum in Bijapur and the Echo Wall of the Temple of Heaven in Beijing. A hemispherical enclosure will also guide whispering gallery waves. The waves carry the words so that others will be able to hear them from the opposite side of the gallery.\n", "There are many whispering galleries around the world, such as in St Paul's Cathedral in London, or the Echo Wall in Beijing's Temple of Heaven. However, the Mapparium is different in that speaking in any direction, since it is a full sphere, will result in the same effect. Furthermore, standing in the middle of the sphere and speaking produces the unnerving effect of hearing yourself in surround sound with startling clarity.\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Warner, Richard Fay (1951), \"Back to Back Bay After an Absence of Ten Years,\" \"New York Times\", June 10, 1951, p. XX17\n", "Section::::Early life.\n\nBorn in Melbourne, Wailes was educated at Caulfield Grammar School, where he was active as a student musician, performing in a wide range of ensembles as a flautist and also as a singer in various church and community choirs. He began his early music education as a treble in the Choir of St George's Anglican Church (Malvern), where he eventually rose to the position of Head Chorister, and appeared with various Royal School of Church Music-affiliated choirs.\n\nSection::::Middle years.\n", "The bass begins the accompagnato: \"Thus saith the Lord\". Again the words of the Lord, as told by the prophet Haggai () are given to a single male voice. In \"and I will shake all nations\", the \"shake\" is rendered several times in downward coloraturas of more than a measure, and in \"and the desire of all nations shall come\" the word \"desire\" is rendered once in upward coloraturas of more than two measures, accompanied by exited repetitions in the strings and continuo. The music then suddenly calms to an unaccompanied line on the words of the prophet Malachi: \"The Lord, whom you seek, shall suddenly come to his temple\" ().\n", "In rock music from the late 1960s to the 2000s, the timbre of specific sounds is important to a song. For example, in heavy metal music, the sonic impact of the heavily amplified, heavily distorted power chord played on electric guitar through very loud guitar amplifiers and rows of speaker cabinets is an essential part of the style's musical identity. You could not take the heavily amplified electric guitar part and substitute it with the same notes played on a grand piano or pipe organ.\n\nSection::::Psychoacoustic evidence.\n", "Aside from a hoarse-sounding voice, changes to pitch and volume may occur with laryngitis. Speakers may experience a lower or higher pitch than normal, depending on whether their vocal folds are swollen or stiff. They may also have breathier voices, as more air flows through the space between the vocal folds (the glottis), quieter volume and a reduced range.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "In many circumstances the segregated elements can be linked together in time, producing an auditory stream. This ability of auditory streaming can be demonstrated by the so-called cocktail party effect. Up to a point, with a number of voices speaking at the same time or with background sounds, one is able to follow a particular voice even though other voices and background sounds are present. In this example, the ear is segregating this voice from other sounds (which are integrated), and the mind \"streams\" these segregated sounds into an auditory stream. This is a skill which is highly developed by musicians, notably conductors who are able to listen to one, two, three or more instruments at the same time (segregating them), and following each as an independent line through auditory streaming.\n", "Sound absorbing structures, sound diffusing structures, and digital signal processing may be employed to compensate for boundary effects within the designated listening area.\n\nSection::::'Music power' — the real issues.\n", "During development, DeLonge often took his daughter Ava to an ice cream shop in San Diego, and on one occasion they wandered into a next door toy store and DeLonge was enchanted by the sound of a pink toy piano, which he would eventually purchase. He placed the piano in his shower and recorded \"Start the Machine\", which attempts to illustrate the state of \"being on a boat as you're leaving a city in flames,\" only to find a tropical island and a more alluring place ahead. DeLonge considered it a reference to his time with Blink-182 and central to Angels & Airwaves' theme that \"something special [can come] out of destruction.\"\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-13742	why does it take so long to recover from an illness like pneumonia? Where does the energy return from?	Takes time for your lungs to get back to functioning somewhat properly. The energy return because as your lungs functioning better and better, they are able to put oxygen back into your blood at a better rate.	[ "With treatment, most types of bacterial pneumonia will stabilize in 3–6 days. It often takes a few weeks before most symptoms resolve. X-ray finding typically clear within four weeks and mortality is low (less than 1%). In the elderly or people with other lung problems, recovery may take more than 12 weeks. In persons requiring hospitalization, mortality may be as high as 10%, and in those requiring intensive care it may reach 30–50%. Pneumonia is the most common hospital-acquired infection that causes death. Before the advent of antibiotics, mortality was typically 30% in those that were hospitalized. However, for those whose lung condition deteriorates within 72 hours, the problem is usually due to sepsis. If pneumonia deteriorates after 72 hours, it could be due to nosocomial infection or excerbation of other underlying co-morbidities. About 10% of those discharged from hospital are readmitted due to underlying co-morbidities such as heart, lung, or neurology disorders, or due to new onset of pneumonia.\n", "The initial management of pulmonary edema, irrespective of the type or cause, is supporting vital functions. Therefore, if the level of consciousness is decreased it may be required to proceed to tracheal intubation and mechanical ventilation to prevent airway compromise. Hypoxia (abnormally low oxygen levels) may require supplementary oxygen, but if this is insufficient then again mechanical ventilation may be required to prevent complications. Treatment of the underlying cause is the next priority; pulmonary edema secondary to infection, for instance, would require the administration of appropriate antibiotics.\n\nSection::::Management.:Cardiogenic pulmonary edema.\n", "Nearly half of global energy is used in buildings, and half of heating/cooling cost is caused by ventilation when it is done by the \"open window\" method according to the regulations [define method and include citation]. Secondly, energy generation and grid is made to meet the peak demand of power. To use proper ventilation; recovery is a cost-efficient, sustainable and quick way to reduce global energy consumption and give better indoor air quality (IAQ) and protect buildings, and environment.\n\nSection::::Methods of transfer.\n", "A patient with ARDS, on average, spends between 8 and 11 days on a mechanical ventilator; APRV may reduce this time significantly and conserve valuable resources.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Mechanical ventilation.:Positive end-expiratory pressure.\n", "Other physical impairments include joint contractures due to long periods of immobility while hospitalized. The elbow and ankle are the most commonly affected joints, followed by the hip and knee. Some physical weakness may result from malnutrition during critical illness. Though nutrition may be provided by tube-feeding or parenteral nutrition, the initiation of parenteral nutrition may be delayed, and interruptions in feeding often occur due to gastrointestinal intolerance or the performance of procedures that require an empty stomach. In people who experience acute respiratory distress syndrome and are treated with mechanical ventilation, lung function is often compromised for months to years. The most commonly impaired lung function is diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide, as well as reduced lung volumes and spirometry.\n", "Along with energy costly protein and RNA production, a large portion of energy metabolism is exerted to maintain proton gradients (up to 80%) due to the high surface area to volume ratio of \"M. pneumoniae\" cells. Only 12 – 29% of energy metabolism is directed at cell growth, which is unusually low for bacterial cells, and is thought to be an adaptation of its parasitic lifestyle. Unlike other bacteria, \"M. pneumoniae\" uses the codon UGA to code for tryptophan rather than using it as a stop codon.\n\nSection::::Host and reproduction.\n", "In critically ill patients admitted to an intensive care unit, if phosphate drops to below 0.65 mmol/L (2.0 mg/dL) from a previously normal level within three days of starting enteral or parenteral nutrition, caloric intake should be reduced to 480 kcals per day for at least two days whilst electrolytes are replaced. Daily doses of thiamine, vitamin B complex (strong) and a multivitamin and mineral preparation is strongly recommended. Blood biochemistry should be monitored regularly until it is stable. Although clinical trials are lacking in patients other than those admitted to an intensive care, it is commonly recommended that energy intake should remain lower than that normally required for the first 3–5 days of treatment of refeeding syndrome for all patients.\n", "Acute respiratory distress syndrome is usually treated with mechanical ventilation in the intensive care unit (ICU). Mechanical ventilation is usually delivered through a rigid tube which enters the oral cavity and is secured in the airway (endotracheal intubation), or by tracheostomy when prolonged ventilation (≥2 weeks) is necessary. The role of non-invasive ventilation is limited to the very early period of the disease or to prevent worsening respiratory distress in individuals with atypical pneumonias, lung bruising, or major surgery patients, who are at risk of developing ARDS. Treatment of the underlying cause is crucial. Appropriate antibiotic therapy is started as soon as culture results are available, or if infection is suspected (whichever is earlier). Empirical therapy may be appropriate if local microbiological surveillance is efficient. Where possible the origin of the infection is removed. When sepsis is diagnosed, appropriate local protocols are followed.\n", "\"C. pneumoniae\" is able to grow in monocytes, macrophages, endothelial and smooth muscle cells. It replicates within the host cell cytoplasm. Due to the fact that it does not have the ability to synthesize its own ATP, it is entirely dependent on energy produced by their host. Reinfection of the host with \"C. pneumoniae\" is common because the memory immunity elicited by \"C. pneumoniae\" is short-lived and partial. In addition, \"C. pneumoniae\" infection tends to be persistence due to IFN-γ, penicillin and nutrient deficiencies. These deficiencies prevent \"C.pneumoniae\" from completing their normal developmental cycle, leading to the formation of aberrant, noninfectious \"C. pneumoniae\" that persist in the human host. C. pneumonia infection may not only be persistent and chronic, but it also has irreversible tissue injury and scarring processes, which are symptoms in asthma patients. Infection with \"C. pneumoniae\" induces both humoral and cell-mediated immune responses. Among the two immune responses, cell-mediated immune response that involves CD8+ T cells in particular is crucial to eradicate \"C. pneumoniae\", whereas the humoral immune response appears to be rather ineffective in protection against C. pneumonia infection. In fact, CD8+ T cells are so important that if it is absent in the host, the C. pneumonia infection would progress rapidly. Although cell-mediated immune response is responsible for the clearance of \"C. pneumoniae\", this response can be harmful to the host because it favours the development of inflammation that can lead to asthma.\n", "Major risk factors for cognitive impairment following ICU admission due to critical illness include delirium, prior cognitive deficit, sepsis, and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). It is currently believed that many factors can play a role in causing cognitive impairment following critical illness. Some possible mechanisms for include poor blood supply to the brain due to low blood pressure from sepsis, poor oxygen supply to the brain due to respiratory distress and impairment, inflammation of the brain, and disruption of the blood-brain barrier in the areas of the brain that are involved in executive function and memory\n\nSection::::Conditions.:Psychiatric impairment.\n", "Respiratory therapy has a place in preventing pneumonia related to atelectasis, which occurs especially in patients recovering from thoracic and abdominal surgery..\n\nSection::::Complications following surgery.:Neurologic.\n\nStrokes occur at a higher rate during the postoperative period.\n\nSection::::Complications following surgery.:Livers and kidneys.\n\nIn people with cirrhosis, the perioperative mortality is predicted by the Child-Pugh score.\n\nSection::::Complications following surgery.:Postoperative fever.\n", "Anaerobic respiration is correspondingly less efficient than aerobic respiration. In the absence of oxygen, not all of the carbon-carbon bonds in glucose can be broken to release energy. A great deal of extractable energy is left in the waste products. \n\nAnaerobic respiration generally occurs in prokaryotes in environments that do not contain oxygen.\n\nSection::::Fermentation.\n\nFermentation is another process by which cells can extract energy from glucose. It is not a form of cellular respiration, but it does generate ATP, break down glucose, and produce waste products. \n", "Most patients recover with corticosteroid therapy. A standardized approach to dosing starting at 0.75 mg/kg and weaning over 24 weeks has been shown to reduce total corticosteroid exposure without affecting outcome.\n\nAbout two thirds of patients recover with corticosteroid therapy: the usual corticosteroid administered is prednisolone in Europe and prednisone in the USA; these differ by only one functional group and have the same clinical effect. The corticosteroid is initially administered in high dosage, typically 50 mg per day tapering down to zero over a six-month to one-year period. If the corticosteroid treatment is halted too quickly the disease may return.\n", "BULLET::::- Pneumonia is an infection of the lung parenchyma, which can be caused by both viruses and bacteria. Cytokines and fluids are released into the alveolar cavity and/or interstitium in response to infection, causing the effective surface area of gas exchange in the lungs to be reduced. If this happens to such a degree that the patient cannot draw enough oxygen from his or her environment to maintain cellular respiration, then the victim may need supplemental oxygen.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Coxiella burnetti\" — doxycycline\n\nBULLET::::- \"Legionella pneumophila\" — erythromycin, with rifampicin sometimes added.\n\nPeople who have difficulty breathing due to pneumonia may require extra oxygen. An extremely sick individual may require artificial ventilation and intensive care as life-saving measures while his or her immune system fights off the infectious cause with the help of antibiotics and other drugs.\n", "The pumping of blood is considered the workload of the heart and requires power expenditure. Acute cardiac unloading is any maneuver, therapy, or intervention that decreases the power expenditure of the ventricle while maintaining cardiac output. Oxygen consumption (MVO2) is a direct measure of the total energy requirements of the heart, including the energy needed to pump blood. An increase in MVO2 compared to resting conditions is indicative that the heart is working harder and is under stress. Conversely, a decrease in MVO2 indicates that the heart is under a lesser amount of stress, and less energy is required to maintain proper blood flow. A decreased power expenditure directly correlates with a diminished MVO2.\n", "Pneumonia can cause severe illness in a number of ways, and pneumonia with evidence of organ dysfunction may require intensive care unit admission for observation and specific treatment. The main impact is on the respiratory and the circulatory system. Respiratory failure not responding to normal oxygen therapy may require heated humidified high-flow therapy delivered through nasal cannulae, non-invasive ventilation, or in severe cases invasive ventilation through an endotracheal tube. With regards to circulatory problems as part of sepsis, evidence of poor blood flow or low blood pressure is initially treated with 30 ml/kg of crystalloid infused intravenously. In situations where fluids alone are ineffective, vasopressor medication may be required.\n", "At the same time, cerebral blood flow is relatively reduced for unknown reasons, though the reduction in blood flow is not as severe as it is in ischemia. Thus cells get less glucose than they normally do, which causes an \"energy crisis\".\n\nConcurrently with these processes, the activity of mitochondria may be reduced, which causes cells to rely on anaerobic metabolism to produce energy, increasing levels of the byproduct lactate.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nAnaerobes have been found in infections throughout the human body. The frequency of the host or patient's recovery depends on the employment of proper methods of collection of specimen, their transportation to the microbiology laboratory and cultivation. The recovery of organisms depends on the site of infection and is related to the adjacent mucous membranes microbial ﬂora.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Central nervous system.\n", "Practical applications of the respiratory quotient can be found in severe cases of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, in which patients spend a significant amount of energy on respiratory effort. By increasing the proportion of fats in the diet, the respiratory quotient is driven down, causing a relative decrease in the amount of CO produced. This reduces the respiratory burden to eliminate CO, thereby reducing the amount of energy spent on respirations.\n", "Energy recovery ventilation\n\nEnergy recovery ventilation (ERV) is the energy recovery process of exchanging the energy contained in normally exhausted building or space air and using it to treat (precondition) the incoming outdoor ventilation air in residential and commercial HVAC systems. During the warmer seasons, the system pre-cools and dehumidifies while humidifying and pre-heating in the cooler seasons. The benefit of using energy recovery is the ability to meet the ASHRAE ventilation & energy standards, while improving indoor air quality and reducing total HVAC equipment capacity.\n", "In a normal resting state the work of breathing constitutes about 5% of the total body oxygen consumption. It can increase considerably due to illness or constraints on gas flow imposed by breathing apparatus, ambient pressure, or breathing gas composition.\n\nSection::::Mechanism of breathing.\n\nThe normal relaxed state of the lung and chest is partially empty. Further exhalation requires muscular work.\n", "Section::::Power expenditure.\n", "Section::::Mechanical stress.\n\nAs the loss of aeration and the underlying disease progress, the end tidal volume grows to a level incompatible with life. Thus, mechanical ventilation is initiated to relieve muscles responsible for supporting breathing (respiratory muscles) of their work and to protect the affected person's airway. However, mechanical ventilation may constitute a risk factor for the developmentor the worseningof ARDS. Aside from the infectious complications arising from invasive ventilation with endotracheal intubation, positive-pressure ventilation directly alters lung mechanics during ARDS. When these techniques are used the result is higher mortality through barotrauma.\n", "Section::::Power expenditure.:MVO2.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01523	Why is it so easy to pick out where an airplane/jet is in the sky, but so difficult to locate a helicopter?	The helo's rhythmic pulse tends to echo off of things in a very distinct way, which makes it sounds like it's over there, and over there, and also over there.	[ "Police departments and other law enforcement agencies use helicopters to pursue suspects. Since helicopters can achieve a unique aerial view, they are often used in conjunction with police on the ground to report on suspects' locations and movements. They are often mounted with lighting and heat-sensing equipment for night pursuits.\n", "Special consideration is required for aircraft with large moving parts because pulse-Doppler radar operates like a phase-locked loop. Blade tips moving near the speed of sound produce the only signal that can be detected when a helicopter is moving slow near terrain and weather.\n", "Height Above Ground Level (AGL) in NOE and low flying generally vary with the aircraft speed, aircraft maneuverability and the ruggedness of the terrain. Helicopters are capable of flying with no more than a few feet of clearance below the helicopter's skids or wheels. Fast jets are more constrained and at a typical low-flying speed of 450 knots (800 km/h), 200 feet (60 m) is not unusual and 50 feet (15 m) is possible in relatively flat terrain. Power wires are a danger to all aircraft flying at low level and \"wire strikes\" are common, such as the Cavalese cable car disaster. Special maps are produced that plot the routes of these wires but these are difficult to keep up-to-date, especially for foreign/enemy countries. Pilots are trained to scan for the pylons or power-poles that support these wires, because they can be seen at a distance where the wires themselves cannot.\n", "Airplanes are normally used for high-level reconnaissance surveys in gentle terrain, and helicopters are used in mountainous terrain or where more detail is required.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nAeromagnetic surveys were first performed in World War II to detect submarines using a Magnetic Anomaly Detector attached to an aircraft. This method is still widely used by military maritime patrol aircraft.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n", "Helicopter pilots also prefer to land facing the wind and are often asked to fly a pattern on arrival or departure. Many airfields operate a special pattern for helicopters to take account of their low airspeed. This is usually a mirror image of the fixed-wing pattern, and often at a slightly lower standard height above surface level; as noted above this altitude is usually 500 feet above ground level. However, due to helicopters' unique maneuverability, helicopter pilots often choose not to enter the pattern, and make a direct approach to the helipad or apron they wish to land on.\n", "Stealth helicopters are helicopters that incorporate stealth technology to avoid detection. Helicopters are in many ways less suitable for stealth technology than airplanes are, because of the noise generated by their rotor blades, which also give off a strong radar signature. In recent years, designs for blades have emerged that can significantly reduce noise, which is a major issue for clandestine use of helicopters. A raid on the compound of Osama bin Laden in May 2011 utilized what appeared to be two Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawks, heavily modified for quieter operations and employing stealth technology to be less visible to radar.\n", "In May 2011, four U.S. military helicopters evaded the Pakistani air defense system during the Osama bin Laden mission. Officials in Pakistan attributed the failure to detect the aircraft to their use of nap-of-the-earth flying techniques.\n\nSection::::Height Above Ground Level.\n", "During the Troubles, the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) became adept at avoiding conventional, fixed roadblocks and patrols. To prevent predictable patterns, the patrols were deployed by helicopter, known as Eagle Patrols, and were then able to disrupt the IRA's ability to move personnel and arms. In the aftermath of the American invasion of Iraq helicopters have been used as aerial supply trucks and troop transports to prevent exposure to ambushes set by the Iraqi insurgency.\n\nDue to the cost and complexity of training and support requirements, insurgent forces rarely have access to helicopters.\n\nSection::::Manufacturers.\n", "Section::::Sensors for NOE.\n\nMost NOE flying is done during the day using visual reference by pilots who are experienced in low flying. Data from a radar altimeter or terrain-following radar system is also used, the latter enabling low flying in adverse weather where it would not be possible by visual reference and manual pilot control. At night, a night-vision device may be used.\n\nSection::::Helicopter NOE flying.\n", "On January 17, 2008, Alabama-based Hickok & Associates became the first designer of helicopter WAAS with Localizer Performance (LP) and Localizer Performance with Vertical guidance (LPV) approaches, and the only entity with FAA-approved criteria (which even FAA has yet to develop). This helicopter WAAS criteria offers as low as 250 foot minimums and decreased visibility requirements to enable missions previously not possible. On April 1, 2009, FAA AFS-400 approved the first three helicopter WAAS GPS approach procedures for Hickok & Associates' customer California Shock/Trauma Air Rescue (CALSTAR). Since then they have designed many approved WAAS helicopter approaches for various EMS hospitals and air providers, within the United States as well as in other countries and continents.\n", "Prior to J-CATCH, there had been little effort in the US to explore fighter-helicopter tactics. One of the earliest involved MASH Sikorsky H-19's, which the Army believed would be easy targets for enemy fighters. Many years later, in 1971 the new Combat Development Evaluation Center conducted an experiment with Army Bell AH-1 Cobras vs. US Navy F-4 Phantoms. The latter demonstrated that the Cobra was a fleeting target when employed over land, but worried about the Navy, whose search and rescue helicopters operated over water with no cover available.\n", "Unmanned aerial vehicles have been developed for imagery and signals intelligence. These drones are a force multiplier by giving the battlefield commander an \"eye in the sky\" without risking a pilot.\n\nSection::::Satellite.\n\nThough the resolution of satellite photographs, which must be taken from distances of hundreds of kilometers, is usually poorer than photographs taken by air, satellites offer the possibility of coverage for much of the earth, including hostile territory, without exposing human pilots to the risk of being shot down.\n", "Helicopter manufacturers try to reduce this differential effect (that is, aim for more equality of lift along the blade length). This has two main aspects:\n\nBULLET::::1. tapering a blade toward its tip, which reduces its surface area, in turn reducing its lift;\n\nBULLET::::2. twisting the blade (commonly called geometric twist) so that the blade root near the hub presents a higher angle-of-attack, thus higher lift.\n\nWhen the helicopter is travelling forwards with respect to the atmosphere, a further phenomenon comes into play, dissymmetry of lift.\n", "The Black Hawks used previously unseen \"stealth\" versions of the helicopter that fly more quietly and are harder to detect on radar than conventional models; due to the weight of the extra stealth equipment on the Black Hawks, cargo was \"calculated to the ounce, with the weather factored in.\"\n", "Directional antennas are popular choices for transmitter hunting. A directional antenna is more sensitive to received signals in some directions than others. When a directional antenna is rotated, a received signal will either increase or decrease in signal strength, information from which a skilled hunter can determine the likely direction to the transmitter. The most popular designs for mobile transmitter hunts are quad antennas with three to five elements. Special design considerations include adequate strength to withstand the wind at highway vehicle speeds and ease of repair after collisions with overhead tree branches. In mobile transmitter hunts, directional antennas are often turned by hand while the vehicle is in motion.\n", "For the 1980s, Frank D. Robinson demonstrates that a helicopter such as his remarkable Robinson R22 represent the pinnacle of point-to-point transport in a small helicopter, and the Bell XV-15 is demonstrated as the true pinnacle of the Helicopter.\n", "BULLET::::- August 2016: A rescue helicopter carrying a car crash victim to Klagenfurt hospital had to take evasive action when a UAV flew within metres of. Local police were unable to determine who was operating it.\n\nSection::::Aircraft near-miss incidents.:Canada.\n\nBULLET::::- March 2014:A remote-controlled helicopter was reported by the crew of a Boeing 777 flying 30 metres from their craft at Vancouver International Airport.\n", "The list of helicopters in SimCopter are:\n\nBULLET::::- Schweizer 300\n\nBULLET::::- Bell 206 JetRanger\n\nBULLET::::- McDonnell Douglas MD 500\n\nBULLET::::- McDonnell Douglas MD 520 NOTAR\n\nBULLET::::- Bell 212\n\nBULLET::::- Augusta A109\n\nBULLET::::- Dauphin 2\n\nBULLET::::- McDonnell Douglas Explorer\n\nBULLET::::- Boeing AH-64 Apache\n\nSection::::Gameplay.:UFOs.\n", "BULLET::::- Distance to the aircraft. A low-flying aircraft is at greater risk. Again, helicopters are vulnerable due to their close ground proximity.\n", "BULLET::::- SAM Colombia Flight 501 - A Boeing 727 operated by SAM Colombia hit Mt. Paramo de Frontino at 12,300 ft. while on approach to José María Córdova International Airport, killing all 132 people on board. The VHF omnidirectional range/distance measuring equipment had been sabotaged by terrorists and was not in service.\n", "[The percentage error, which increases roughly in proportion to the height, is less than 1% when H is less than 250km.]\n", "Section::::Collection.:IMINT.:Airplanes and UAV's.\n\nAirplanes and UAVs can respond quicker to requests for data collection than satellites. They have fewer issues of failure, however their failures tend to be greater in magnitude. Intelligence failure with planes and UAVs: if the craft is sent to the wrong destination then it is unlikely that the information will be collected. If the aircraft is destroyed during the mission, unless information was being transmitted at the time, then data is lost.\n\nSection::::Collection.:OSINT.\n", "The use of an AirStair-equipped helicopter removes the need to access a tower from the ground. This has many advantages, as ground access often requires off-road travel across difficult terrain (mountains, rivers, farm crops, etc.). Furthermore, aerial access limits the amount of climbing required, with its inherent potential for fatigue and injury. With no land vehicles required, significant financial gains can be realized, as well as further safety increases due to the hazards of traveling by off-road vehicles being eliminated.\n\nHydro One currently has two AirStairs deployed across the province from April to September.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Hydro One\n", "In the air, attack helicopters armed with anti-tank missiles, and one or more unarmed, or lightly armed scout helicopters operate in concert. The scout helicopter, flying at low level in a nap-of-the-earth approach, attempts to both locate the enemy armoured columns and to map out approaches and ambush positions for the attack helicopters. Late-model scout helicopters include laser designators to guide missiles fired from the attack helicopters. After finding a target, the scout helicopter can locate it and then direct the attack helicopter's missile where to fire. The attack helicopters have only to rise from cover briefly to fire their missiles before returning to a concealed location. Late-development of attack helicopters, such as the Mil Mi-28N, the Kamov Ka-52, and the AH-64D Longbow, incorporate sensors and command and control systems to relieve the requirement for scout helicopters.\n", "The largest single non-combat helicopter operation in history was the disaster management operation following the 1986 Chernobyl nuclear disaster. Hundreds of pilots were involved in airdrop and observation missions, making dozens of sorties a day for several months.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04179	Why does it hurt so much to get kicked in the balls?	Evolutionarily, our whole purpose in life is to live long enough to raise children, our genes don’t really care what happens after that. Our entire pain/reward system has been tweaked to this purpose. You ate? Good job, here is some dopamine. You skinned your knee? Bad job, that could get infected and kill you have some pain. Based on this logic, pretty much the worst thing you could do is damage your ability to reproduce, so your balls are absolutely packed with nerve endings that will send intense pain signals to your brain if they sense injury, because losing your reproductive ability is equally as bad as death.	[ "The testicles lack anatomical protection and are highly sensitive to impact. The pain caused by impact to the testicles travels through the spermatic plexus. In extreme cases, a hard strike to the testicles can cause one or both to rupture, potentially sterilizing the victim.\n\nWhile less often depicted in media, a strike to the groin can cause pain for female victims too. The skin of the vulva and the clitoris are highly sensitive, making laceration injuries especially painful. In extreme cases, nerve damage can occur to the clitoris.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Vulvodynia\n\nBULLET::::- \"Kicked in the Nuts\"\n\nBULLET::::- Krav Maga#Techniques\n", "The beatings are usually aimed at the vaults of the foot, not directly hitting the bone structure of the balls and the heels. The vaults are highly pain-sensitive due to the tight clustering of nerve tissue in that area.\n\nAs bastinado usually causes a high amount of suffering for the receiving person while physical evidence remains mostly undetectable after a certain time, it is often used for interrogation purposes in certain countries as well.\n\nSection::::Arts and entertainment.\n", "Section::::Reception.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Complications.\n\nBULLET::::- Testicular infarction: Testicular damage occurs as a consequence of decreased blood flow, and therefore decreased oxygen and nutrient supply, to the testicle. If the testicle is not viable during surgical exploration, it must be removed to prevent further necrosis, or tissue death.\n", "Penile strangulation injuries that require medical attention are rare: since their first description in 1755, there have been approximately 60–120 reported cases. Though usually acute, cases of chronic strangulation and acute cases lasting up to one month have been reported.\n\nVarious objects have been involved in cases of strangulation:\n\nBULLET::::- Wedding ring\n\nBULLET::::- Steel ring\n\nBULLET::::- Bottle\n\nBULLET::::- Chastity belt\n\nSection::::Types.:Soft-tissue injuries.:Entrapment.\n", "BULLET::::- The testicles are well known to be very sensitive to impact and injury. The pain involved travels up from each testicle into the abdominal cavity, via the spermatic plexus, which is the primary nerve of each testicle. This will cause pain in the hip and the back. The pain usually goes away in a few minutes.\n\nBULLET::::- Testicular torsion is a medical emergency.\n\nBULLET::::- Testicular rupture is a medical emergency caused by blunt force impact, sharp edge, or piercing impact to one or both testicles, which can lead to necrosis of the testis in as little as 30 minutes.\n", "BULLET::::- A shot is the way of hitting an opponent's ball that is very close to the pallino by throwing through the air and hitting directly the opponent's boule (or the pallino), with the restriction that the ball may first strike the ground within 50 cm of the target.\n\nSection::::Balls.\n\nThere is a wide variation in the size and materials of the balls used in boules-type games.\n\nOriginally, in ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome, the balls were probably made of stone.\n", "Section::::Immune privilege in the testis.:Immune privilege in humans.\n\nThe presence of immune-privilege in the human testis is controversial and insufficient evidence exists to either confirm or rule out this phenomenon.\n\nBULLET::::- Evidence for human/primate testicular immune privilege:\n\nSperm are protected from autoimmune attack, which when it occurs in humans leads to infertility. Local injury of seminiferous tubules caused by fine-needle biopsies in humans does not cause testicular inflammation (orchitis). Furthermore, human testis cells tolerate early HIV infection with little response.\n\nBULLET::::- Evidence against human/primate testicular immune-privilege:\n", "Section::::Composition.\n", "Section::::Differential diagnosis.:Epididymitis and orchitis.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "Five men were knocked down and one of them very bruised. Just before the explosion, the ball seemed to be the size of a large mill-stone.\n\nSection::::Historical accounts.:Georg Richmann.\n", "BULLET::::- Penetrating injuries to the scrotum may cause castration, or physical separation or destruction of the testes, possibly along with part or all of the penis, which results in total sterility if the testicles are not reattached quickly.\n\nBULLET::::- Some jockstraps are designed to provide support to the testicles.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Diseases and conditions.\n\nBULLET::::- Testicular cancer and other neoplasms – To improve the chances of catching possible cases of testicular cancer or other health issues early, regular testicular self-examination is recommended.\n\nBULLET::::- Varicocele, swollen vein(s) from the testes, usually affecting the left side, the testis usually being normal\n", "BULLET::::- Immunological theory, also known as \"sympathetic orchidopathia\": It is thought that following injury to the testicle, the body's immune system is activated to clean up damaged cells. In the process, it creates anti-testicular cell antibodies, or proteins that cross the injured blood-testis barrier and damage both the affected and contralateral testicles.\n\nBULLET::::- Abnormalities in microcirculation within the testicle\n\nBULLET::::- Reperfusion injury: This type of injury is seen in tissues that have been deprived of blood supply for a prolonged period.\n\nBULLET::::- Gangrene, or a type of tissue damage caused by lack of blood supply, of the testis.\n", "Section::::Physics explanation.:Effect of different types of balls.\n", "BULLET::::- Wearing a protective cup and jockstrap to protect the testicles, in any sport such as baseball, football, cricket, lacrosse, hockey, softball, paintball, rodeo, motorcross, wrestling, soccer, karate or other martial arts or any sport where a ball, foot, arm, knee or bat can come into contact with the groin.\n", "The differential diagnosis of testicular pain is broad and involves conditions from benign to life-threatening. The most common causes of pain in children presenting to the emergency room are testicular torsion (16%), torsion of a testicular appendage (46%), and epididymitis (35%). In adults, the most common cause is epididymitis.\n\nSection::::Differential diagnosis.:Testicular torsion.\n", "BULLET::::- Making the penis appear longer. Pulling the testicles down and away from the base of the penis stretches the skin over the base of the penis and pubic bone, exposing the additional inch or so of penile shaft that is normally hidden from view.\n\nBULLET::::- Improving sexual arousal. While some men may be aroused by the feeling of being \"owned\", the physical feeling of stretching the ligaments that suspend the testicles has an effect similar to the more common practice of stretching one's legs and pointing the toes.\n", "BULLET::::- The increasing physical demands of Australian rules football. As the game has become more professionalised, with players becoming full-time athletes, such factors as running speed, kicking length, jumping, and tackling have all increased, placing increasing stress on the pubic region.\n\nBULLET::::- The increasing hardness of the surfaces of football grounds. Grounds are better drained than in the past, and the game is increasingly played in roofed stadiums, in which the grounds receive no rain. Australian football evolved as a winter game played on soft, muddy grounds, and modern surfaces have made muscle and bone injuries more common.\n", "The ball is a common area in which people develop pain, known as metatarsalgia. People who frequently wear high heels often develop pain in the balls of their feet from the immense amount of pressure that is placed on them for long periods of time, due to the inclination of the shoes. To remedy this, there is a market for ball-of-foot or general foot cushions that are placed into shoes to relieve some of the pressure. Alternately, people can have a procedure done in which a dermal filler is injected into the balls of the feet to add cushioning.\n", "Pain is an action video game developed by Idol Minds and published by Sony Computer Entertainment for PlayStation 3. It was released as a downloadable title available from the PlayStation Store and was released in North America on November 29, 2007 and in Europe on March 20, 2008 and became the most popular downloadable game on the PlayStation Store. In June 2009, SCEE announced that the game was to be released on Blu-ray Disc. It was launched in Europe on June 24, 2009, in Australia on June 25, 2009 and in the UK on June 26, 2009. The Blu-ray version includes the original game as well as several other levels and features released as downloadable content for the PSN version. It is available in a collection which is available to download from the PlayStation Store called the 3D Collection. On November 26, 2013, the game's online features were disabled.\n", "BULLET::::- Double Touch: The act of a player touching the ball twice, resulting in an automatic out. Typically this occurs when the ball is bobbled or tripped over.\n\nBULLET::::- Handsies: (Some variations) The act of a player touching the ball with both hands at once, resulting in an obligation to \"hit the wall\".\n", "A blow from outside does not affect the sperm quality of already produced sperm cells. Furthermore, the testes are well protected in the scrotum, for example by the tunica vaginalis, making the testes slide away from external pressure rather than being malformed from it; however, a hard enough hit can close or crush the capillaries that supply the sperm producing tissue, resulting in permanent or temporary and partial or total inability to produce sperm in the affected testicle.\n\nSection::::Factors.:Chemicals.\n", "BULLET::::- is a Steel Ball Run participant from the United States, and a former nun. She uses the Stand Cream Starter, which takes the form of a spray bottle that can turn flesh into a foam-like substance and spray it to fuse the flesh with people's bodies.\n\nBULLET::::- is a former Neapolitan royal guard who is hired and partnered with the Stand user Magent Magent to protect Valentine. He uses the Spin, wielding a steel ball called Wrecking Ball, which can release smaller, blinding balls if the main ball is blocked or misses.\n", "Today's surgeons consider any projectile with a velocity of 330 m/s to be low or subsonic and practically all modern weapons have bullet speeds that are usually higher (for example, a 124 grain 9mm bullet fired from a 4-inch barrel has a velocity of roughly 350 m/s). By contrast, mid-nineteenth-century handguns such as the Colt revolvers used during the American Civil War had muzzle velocities of just 230–260 m/s and their powder and ball predecessors had velocities of 167 m/s or less. Many of these weapons were still in circulation in America during the 1860s. Unlike today's high-velocity bullets, nineteenth-century balls produced almost little or no cavitation (a kinetic shockwave that causes serious tissue damage) and, being slower moving, they were liable to lodge in unusual locations at odds with their trajectory.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-09775	When they say “get the air out”of a bag/container/whatever, what does that do and does it actually help keep things fresh?	Air contains oxygen. Bacteria and other microorganisms who make things bad need oxygen. That's why you don't want air.	[ "Refers to the process in which air is absorbed into the food item. It refers to the lightness of cakes and bread, as measured by the type of pores they contain, and the color and texture of some sauces which have incorporated air bubbles.\n\nIn wine tasting, a variety of methods are used to aerate wine and bring out the aromas including swirl wine in the glass, use of a decanter to increase exposure to air, or a specialized wine aerator.\n", "BULLET::::- Keep the container closed and the contents contained for the specified shelf life until time of opening\n\nBULLET::::- Provide a barrier to dirt, oxygen, moisture, etc. Control of permeation is critical to many types of products: foods, chemicals, etc.\n\nBULLET::::- Keep the product secure from undesired premature opening\n\nBULLET::::- Provide a means of reclosing or reusing the container\n\nBULLET::::- Assist in dispensing and use of product\n", "Sous vide, French for \"under vacuum\", implies that food should be sealed in a plastic bag with all the air removed. An alternative method is to place the food in an open-sided plastic bag and partially submerge the bag into the water, forcing out the air. This method involves clipping the open side of the bag to the side of the pot to keep water from leaking into the opening. The goal is to have the food completely in contact with the hot water to assure even cooking while reducing off-flavors from oxidation.\n", "Section::::Aseptic packaging.\n\nBiB is also used extensively in the packaging of processed fruit and dairy products in aseptic processes. Using aseptic packaging equipment, products can be packed in aseptic packaging. Pasteurised or UHT treated products packed into this format can be \"shelf stable\", requiring no refrigeration. Some products can have a shelf life of up to 2 years, depending on the type of bag that is used.\n", "BULLET::::- Packaging of incoming food and supplies can work towards the broad sustainable packaging guidelines offered by many organizations. This includes the recycling of packaging generated within the restaurant.\n\nBULLET::::- Packaging products used by the restaurant can include specified amounts of recycled content in the products.\n\nBULLET::::- Many packaging products can be compostable, but care is needed to match the needs of regional composting facilities. Sometimes products can be certified to meet international standards such as ASTM International D6400, ASTM D6868, and EN 13432.\n", "Vacuum packing reduces atmospheric oxygen, limiting the growth of aerobic bacteria or fungi, and preventing the evaporation of volatile components. It is also commonly used to store dry foods over a long period of time, such as cereals, nuts, cured meats, cheese, smoked fish, coffee, and potato chips (crisps). On a more short term basis, vacuum packing can also be used to store fresh foods, such as vegetables, meats, and liquids, because it inhibits bacterial growth.\n", "Oxygen scavenger\n\nOxygen scavengers or oxygen absorbers are added to enclosed packaging to help remove or decrease the level of oxygen in the package. They are used to help maintain product safety and extend shelf life.\n\nThere are many types of oxygen absorbers available to cover a wide array of applications.\n", "Baghouse\n\nA baghouse,also known as a baghouse filter, bag filter, or fabric filter is an air pollution control device and dust collector that removes particulates or gas released from commercial processes out of the air. Power plants, steel mills, pharmaceutical producers, food manufacturers, chemical producers and other industrial companies often use baghouses to control emission of air pollutants. Baghouses came into widespread use in the late 1970s after the invention of high-temperature fabrics (for use in the filter media) capable of withstanding temperatures over .\n", "Packaging and package labeling have several objectives\n\nBULLET::::- Physical protection - The food enclosed in the package may require protection from, among , shock, vibration, compression, temperature, bacteria, etc.\n\nBULLET::::- Barrier protection - A barrier from oxygen, water vapor, dust, etc., is often required. Permeation is a critical factor in design. Some packages contain desiccants or oxygen absorbers to help extend shelf life. Modified atmospheres or controlled atmospheres are also maintained in some food packages. Keeping the contents clean, fresh, and safe for the intended shelf life is a primary function.\n", "Section::::Modern.\n", "In-vessel composting\n\nIn-vessel composting generally describes a group of methods that confine the composting materials within a building, container, or vessel. In-vessel composting systems can consist of metal or plastic tanks or concrete bunkers in which air flow and temperature can be controlled, using the principles of a \"bioreactor\". Generally the air circulation is metered in via buried tubes that allow fresh air to be injected under pressure, with the exhaust being extracted through a biofilter, with temperature and moisture conditions monitored using probes in the mass to allow maintenance of optimum aerobic decomposition conditions.\n", "Section::::Essential features.\n\nSealing the food in sturdy plastic bags retains juices and aroma that otherwise would be lost in the process.\n", "Shaker baghouses range in size from small, handshaker devices to large, compartmentalized units. They can operate intermittently or continuously. Intermittent units can be used when processes operate on a batch basis; when a batch is completed, the baghouse can be cleaned. Continuous processes use compartmentalized baghouses; when one compartment is being cleaned, the airflow can be diverted to other compartments.\n\nIn shaker baghouses, there must be no positive pressure inside the bags during the shake cycle. Pressures as low as can interfere with cleaning.\n", "Bag\n\nA bag (also known regionally as a sack) is a common tool in the form of a non-rigid container. The use of bags predates recorded history, with the earliest bags being no more than lengths of animal skin, cotton, or woven plant fibers, folded up at the edges and secured in that shape with strings of the same material.\n", "Section::::Disposal.:Anaerobic digestion.\n\nAnaerobic digestion produces both useful gaseous products and a solid fibrous \"compostable\" material. Anaerobic digestion plants can provide energy from waste by burning the methane created from food and other organic wastes to generate electricity, defraying the plants' costs and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.The United States Environmental Protection Agency states that the use of anaerobic composting allows for large amounts of food waste to avoid the landfills. Instead of producing these greenhouse gasses into the environment from being in a landfill, the gasses can alternatively be harnessed in these facilities for reuse.\n", "Unlike electrostatic precipitators, where performance may vary significantly depending on process and electrical conditions, functioning baghouses typically have a particulate collection efficiency of 99% or better, even when particle size is very small.\n\nSection::::Operation.\n\nMost baghouses use long, cylindrical bags (or tubes) made of woven or felted fabric as a filter medium. For applications where there is relatively low dust loading and gas temperatures are or less, pleated, nonwoven cartridges are sometimes used as filtering media instead of bags.\n", "Modified atmosphere/modified humidity (MA/MH) packaging is a technology used to preserve the quality of fresh produce so that it can be sold to markets far away from where it is grown, extend the marketing period, and to help suppliers reduce food waste within the cold chain. Commercial examples of MA/MH include sea freight of Galia and cantaloupe melons from Central and South America to Europe (a 21-day journey) and North America (a 7-day journey); transport of white asparagus from fields in Peru to markets in Western Europe (a 20-day journey by land and sea); and trucking of cherries from orchards in Turkey to supermarkets in the UK (a 7-day journey).\n", "Atmosphere within the package can be modified passively or actively. In passive modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), the high concentration of CO and low O levels in the package is achieved over time as a result of respiration of the product and gas transmission rates of the packaging film. This method is commonly used for fresh respiring fruits and vegetables. Reducing O and increasing CO slows down respiration rate, conserves stored energy, and therefore extended shelf life. On the other hand, active MA involves the use of active systems such as O and CO scavengers or emitters, moisture absorbers, ethylene scavengers, ethanol emitters and gas flushing in the packaging film or container to modify the atmosphere within the package. \n", "The key to this unique system is that the product being filled is not exposed to the external environment at any stage during the process and as such, there is no possibility of a bacterial load being added to the product during the filling process. To ensure there is no contamination from the packaging, the bag is irradiated after the bag manufacturing process.\n\nThese packs are typically from 10 to 1200 litres and offer the advantage of cheap, disposable and transport efficient packaging.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Corrugated box design\n\nBULLET::::- Tetra Brik\n\nSection::::References.\n", "Fabric filters or baghouses are the most commonly employed in general industry. They work by forcing dust laden air through a bag shaped fabric filter leaving the particulate to collect on the outer surface of the bag and allowing the now clean air to pass through to either be exhausted into the atmosphere or in some cases recirculated into the facility. Common fabrics include polyester and fiberglass and common fabric coatings include PTFE (commonly known as Teflon). The excess dust buildup is then cleaned from the bags and removed from the collector.\n", "Packaging gas\n\nA packaging gas is used to pack sensitive materials such as food into a modified atmosphere environment. The gas used is usually inert, or of a nature that protects the integrity of the packaged goods, inhibiting unwanted chemical reactions such as food spoilage or oxidation. Some may also serve as a propellant for aerosol sprays like cans of whipped cream. For packaging food, the use of various gases is approved by regulatory organisations.\n\nTheir E numbers are included in the following lists in parentheses.\n\nSection::::Inert gases.\n", "A bag-in-box or BiB is a type of container for the storage and transportation of liquids. It consists of a strong bladder (or plastic bag), usually made of several layers of metallised film or other plastics, seated inside a corrugated fiberboard box. The bag is supplied to the company which will fill it as an empty pre-made bag. The company filling the bag with its product generally removes the tap, fills the bag (with wine, juice or other liquid) and replaces the tap and then the bag is placed in the box. The bags are available as singles for semi-automatic machines or as web bags, where the bags have perforations between each one. These are used on automated filling systems where the bag is separated on line either before the bag is automatically filled or after. Depending on the end use there are a number of options that can be used on the bag instead of the tap. The bags can be filled from chilled product temperatures up to 85 degrees Celsius.\n", "BULLET::::- Barrier protection – A barrier to oxygen, water vapor, dust, etc., is often required. Permeation is a critical factor in design. Some packages contain desiccants or oxygen absorbers to help extend shelf life. Modified atmospheres or controlled atmospheres are also maintained in some food packages. Keeping the contents clean, fresh, sterile and safe for the duration of the intended shelf life is a primary function. A barrier is also implemented in cases where segregation of two materials prior to end use is required, as in the case of special paints, glues, medical fluids, etc.\n", "BULLET::::- Bag: The most common method to capture the debris vacuumed up involves a paper or fabric bag that allows air to pass through, but attempts to trap most of the dust and debris. The bag may be disposable, or designed to be cleaned and re-used.\n\nBULLET::::- Bagless: In non-cyclonic bagless models, the role of the bag is taken by a removable container and a reusable filter, equivalent to a reusable fabric bag.\n", "The most common management practice for grains and legumes is the use of aeration systems. Air is pushed through the storage bins at low flow rates, which removes excess moisture and heat. Regulation of air flow allows the moisture content in harvested products to remain at a constant level and decreases the temperature within the bins. Temperature levels can decrease enough so insects and mites are dormant, which reduces rapid growth of the pathogen.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04828	Why is it so easy to get sick at cold weather ?	Various reasons: in winter we’re more likely to be indoors, close together, where infections spread easier In winter we also have less vitamin D. Vitamin D aids the body’s immune system. Also, whilst it may not seem like it, the air is dryer, this allows virus’ to flourish.	[ "Temperature at which the infected plant is grown is critical to spreading and developing the disease. At higher temperatures, the symptoms are more severe. According to one study, when infected host plants were held at 7 °C, they took approximately 30 days to develop symptoms, and never were able to infect other potential hosts. However, at higher temperatures of 12-18 °C symptoms developed in 7–8 days and the virus was transmissible. However, it is still important to note that severity of symptoms don't always correlate with the amount of the virus present. Another found that the levels of virus present remained relatively constant over a range of 13 °C-25 °C and that the amount of virus present was related only to the age of the hosts and length of time that they were infected.\n", "A long-standing puzzle has been why outbreaks of the flu occur seasonally rather than uniformly throughout the year. One possible explanation is that, because people are indoors more often during the winter, they are in close contact more often, and this promotes transmission from person to person. Increased travel due to the Northern Hemisphere winter holiday season may also play a role. Another factor is that cold temperatures lead to drier air, which may dehydrate mucus particles. Dry particles are lighter and can thus remain airborne for a longer period. The virus also survives longer on surfaces at colder temperatures and aerosol transmission of the virus is highest in cold environments (less than 5°C) with low relative humidity. The lower air humidity in winter seems to be the main cause of seasonal influenza transmission in temperate regions.\n", "Section::::Epidemiology.\n\nPythiosis occurs in areas with mild winters because the organism survives in standing water that does not reach freezing temperatures. In the United States, it is most commonly found in the Southern Gulf states, especially Louisiana, Florida, and Texas, but has also been reported as far away as California and Wisconsin. It is also found in southeast Asia, eastern Australia, New Zealand, and South America.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "More CAP cases occur during the winter than at other times of the year. CAP is more common in males than females, and more common in black people than Caucasians. Patients with underlying illnesses (such as Alzheimer's disease, cystic fibrosis, COPD, tobacco smoking, alcoholism or immune-system problems) have an increased risk of developing pneumonia.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Bacterial pneumonia\n\nBULLET::::- Viral pneumonia\n\nBULLET::::- Fungal pneumonia\n\nBULLET::::- Parasitic pneumonia\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Infectious Diseases Society of America/American Thoracic Society Consensus Guidelines on the Management of Community-Acquired Pneumonia in Adults PDF\n", "Section::::Virus survival in water.:Temperature.\n\nTemperature has the highest effect on virus’s survival in water since lower temperatures are the key to longer virus survival. The rate of protein, nucleic acid denaturation and chemical reactions that destroy the viral capsid are increased at higher temperatures, thus viruses will survive best at low temperatures. Hepatitis A, adenoviruses and parvoviruses have the highest survival rate in low temperatures amongst enteric viruses.\n\nSection::::Virus survival in water.:Light.\n", "Temperature and availability of moisture are key factors in determining the rate of disease development. Warm temperatures, 25-30 °C, promote rapid disease development., and can result in acute symptoms. Symptoms are also reported to appear at temperatures as low as 18 °C, but disease development is slowed; below that temperature, infections do not develop. Excessive water also promotes disease development by providing a more optimal environment for the pathogen, and has been shown to be a key factor in augmenting disease outbreak in fields with sprinkler irrigation\n\nSection::::Environment.:Agricultural.\n", "BULLET::::- Viruses are preserved in colder temperatures due to slower decomposition, so they linger longer on exposed surfaces (doorknobs, countertops, \"etc.\").\n\nBULLET::::- In nations where children do not go to school in the summer, there is a more pronounced beginning to flu season, coinciding with the start of public school. It is thought that the day care environment is perfect for the spread of illness.\n\nBULLET::::- Vitamin D production from Ultraviolet-B in the skin changes with the seasons and affects the immune system.\n", "Infection is favored by frost, hail, and wind as well as other ways that create wounds to the plant. Infection occurs at a moderate temperature between 14 and 28 °C. Optimum temperature for growth of pathogen is higher at a range of 20-25 °C. A high relative humidity favors production of conidia and further infection.\n\nSection::::Life cycle.\n", "Freezing, heating above , drying or exposing \"A. caninum\" to sunlight all give reduced survival of the free-living stage, with rates of infection rising with temperature provided 37°C is not exceeded. \"A. caninum\" is, therefore, largely restricted to warm, moist climates, though infections are seen in the United States and southern Canada where the temperature is suboptimal. Specific niches are also able to satisfy the environmental requirements of \"A. caninum\", despite not necessarily being in the tropics, such as mines.\n\nSection::::Lifecycle.\n\nSection::::Lifecycle.:Transmission via the environment.\n", "High rainfall and warm temperatures are most favorable for this pathogen and lead to rapid disease development.\n\nDuring mid to late spring, infections may be most severe due to frequent rain showers. The optimal temperature that will allow for most successful growth of the pathogen and development of disease is around 25°C. The fungal pathogen favors 12 or more hours of leaf wetness for infection. New, young foliage has been found to be more susceptible to the pathogen when compared to mature, developed foliage.\n\nSection::::Management.\n", "Section::::Epidemiology.\n\n\"Didymella bryoniae\" is common in the Southern U.S. and other subtropical or tropical locations . Most infections occur during rainy/wet seasons, in which the humid is greater than 90% and the temperature is roughly 20-24 °C . Humidity seems to be a larger factor than temperature when it comes to infection success . \"D. bryoniae\" can also be found in temperate regions, especially where winter squash and pumpkins are grown . This pathogen is also common in greenhouses where cucumbers are grown .\n", "Section::::Environment.\n\nFavorable conditions for the dispersal and consequent infection of white rust from diseased to healthy plants are most common in the autumn and spring seasons. This pathogen prefers cool, moist conditions for the spread and formation of new infections. Conversely, it rarely infects in warm, dry conditions. \"Albugo\" is very temperature sensitive, with the optimal temperature range for infection between . The likelihood of germination and infection is considerably lower if temperatures deviate too far outside this optimum range.\n", "Mortality of meningitis-related infections is much lower than mortality associated with sepsis. Because \"C. canimorsus\" induces fulminant sepsis, the faster the diagnosis, the better the chance of survival.\n\nSection::::Evasion of immune system.\n", "Growing at host body temperature () is an important requirement for pathogenesis. Some strains of \"S. schenckii\" are restricted to growing at and consequently usually cause disease only on the skin as it is cooler than the body's interior. Those that are capable of growth at body temperature are more often associated with disseminated disease.\n\nSection::::Immune response.\n\nInfection by \"S. schenckii\" is generally self-limiting in immunocompetent hosts. The immune response prevents fungal dissemination and is the reason that most \"Sporothrix\" infections are cutaneous.\n\nSection::::Immune response.:Innate.\n", "Section::::Environment.\n\nThis pathogen has a wide geographical distribution. Strains of the pathogen are present throughout various climates worldwide. Temperature can affect how symptoms appear on the host. Optimal temperature for growth of \"C. acutatum\" is 25 degrees Celsius. For instance, in weather with high humidity, orange colored spores appear on the hosts’ lesions. Specifically in strawberries, this disease appears to be more harmful in warm climates. \" \"Transference of disease occurs when conidia are spread by water, specifically rain or irrigation water. Another way of contamination is from infected equipment or wind. \n\nSection::::Management.\n\nSection::::Management.:Cultural Control.\n", "Rhinovirus-caused colds are most infectious during the first three days of symptoms; they are much less infectious afterwards.\n\nSection::::Cause.:Weather.\n", "Other epidemiologists have expanded on the idea of a tradeoff between costs and benefits of virulence. One factor is the time or distance between potential hosts. Airplane travel, crowded factory farms and urbanization have all been suggested as possible sources of virulence. Another factor is the presence of multiple infections in a single host leading to increased competition among pathogens. In this scenario, the host can survive only as long as it resists the most virulent strains. The advantage of a low virulence strategy becomes moot. Multiple infections can also result in gene swapping among pathogens, increasing the likelihood of lethal combinations.\n", "The common cold is the most frequent infectious disease in humans. The average adult gets two to three colds a year, while the average child may get six to eight. Infections occur more commonly during the winter. These infections have existed throughout human history.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "Temperature, inoculum density, moisture period, and host tissue maturity all have an effect on the disease development of the inoculated strawberry plant. Temperature takes a vital role in the infection and development of the blight disease caused by the pathogen, \"Phomopsis obscurans\". The most ideal temperature that leads to the greatest amount of disease growth, conidial germination, and germ tube elongation is between 26 and 32 °C (78.8 and 89.6 °F). Within this temperature range, inoculated plants experienced the greatest symptom development and the most severe infection at 30 °C (86 °F). These temperatures are commonly found in the midsummer environment of North Carolina, where leaf blight of strawberries caused by \"Phomopsis obscurans\" is especially prevalent.\n", "BULLET::::- Climate and living area. Rainfall (number of rainy days being more important than total precipitation), mean of sunshine daily hours, latitude, altitude are characteristic agents to take in account when assessing the possibility of spread of any airborne infection. Furthermore, some infrequent or exceptional extreme events also influence the dissemination of airborne diseases, as tropical storms, hurricanes, typhoons, or monsoons. Climate conditions determine temperature, winds and relative humidity in any territory, either all year around or at isolated moments (days or weeks). Those are the main factors affecting the spread, duration and infectiousness of droplets containing infectious particles. For instance, influenza virus, is spread easily in northern countries (north hemisphere), because of climate conditions which favour the infectiousness of the virus but on the other hand, in those countries, lots of bacterial infections cannot spread outdoor most of the year, keeping in a latent stage.\n", "The apparent seasonality may also be due to social factors, such as people spending more time indoors, near infected people, and specifically children at school. There is some controversy over the role of low body temperature as a risk factor for the common cold; the majority of the evidence suggests that it may result in greater susceptibility to infection.\n\nSection::::Cause.:Other.\n", "Research in guinea pigs has shown that the aerosol transmission of the virus is enhanced when the air is cold and dry. The dependence on aridity appears to be due to degradation of the virus particles in moist air, while the dependence on cold appears to be due to infected hosts shedding the virus for a longer period of time. The researchers did not find that the cold impaired the immune response of the guinea pigs to the virus.\n", "The exact mechanism behind the seasonal nature of influenza outbreaks is unknown. Some proposed explanations are:\n\nBULLET::::- People are indoors more often during the winter, they are in close contact more often, and this promotes transmission from person to person.\n\nBULLET::::- A seasonal decline in the amount of ultraviolet radiation may reduce the likelihood of the virus being damaged or killed by direct radiation damage or indirect effects (i. e. ozone concentration) increasing the probability of infection.\n\nBULLET::::- Cold temperatures lead to drier air, which may dehydrate mucous membranes, preventing the body from effectively defending against respiratory virus infections.\n", "The spread of disease is favored in cool, wet, and humid conditions in late fall or early spring when conidia are most abundant. Regions with irrigation are particularly vulnerable to disease, for conidia thrive whenever water is available. Studies have shown that there are positive correlations between the number of disease causing agents (conidia), and the number of hours that temperatures are between 10 and 15 degrees Celsius. These data also correlate to the duration of moisture and amount of time humidity conditions are above 90 percent. These conditions are all optimal for disease. Without humidity and wet conditions, disease does not occur.\n", "Human rhinovirus is most contagious during the fall and winter months. The virus can live up to 3 hours outside of a human host. Once a virus is contracted, a person is most contagious within the first 3 days. Preventive measures such as regular vigorous hand washing with soap and water may aid in avoiding infection. Avoiding touching the mouth, eyes and nose, the most common entry points for rhinovirus, may also aid in prevention. Droplet precautions, which take the form of a surgical mask and gloves, is the method used in major hospitals.\n\nSection::::External links.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00052	How is magnesium, an easily flammable metal used in flares, used to make products such as car parts and computer casings?	Sort of, it's certainly a tradeoff. But you can't just strike a match to a large magnesium block and set it aflame, it has to heat up to 900 F, which is very difficult to do for a substantial block of metal that conducts heat very well and is typically connected to other metal pieces that can act as heat sinks. So magnesium is actually quite safe, and it's really only a problem once a fire has already begun to rage (typically the fuel tank is ruptured as well). For vehicles this is a reasonable tradeoff because most of the time occupants can exit, but you definitely wouldn't want to have a magnesium structure in a building.	[ "In the form of thin ribbons, magnesium is used to purify solvents; for example, preparing super-dry ethanol.\n\nSection::::Uses as a metal.:Aircraft.\n\nBULLET::::- Wright Aeronautical used a magnesium crankcase in the WWII-era Wright Duplex Cyclone aviation engine. This presented a serious problem for the earliest models of the Boeing B-29 heavy bomber when an in-flight engine fire ignited the engine crankcase. The resulting combustion was as hot as 5,600 °F (3,100 °C) and could sever the wing spar from the fuselage.\n\nSection::::Uses as a metal.:Automotive.\n", "BULLET::::- Mercedes-Benz used the alloy Elektron in the bodywork of an early model Mercedes-Benz 300 SLR; these cars competed in the 1955 World Sportscar Championship including a win at the Mille Miglia, and at Le Mans where one was involved in the 1955 Le Mans disaster when spectators were showered with burning fragments of elektron.\n\nBULLET::::- Porsche used magnesium alloy frames in the 917/053 that won Le Mans in 1971, and continues to use magnesium alloys for its engine blocks due to the weight advantage.\n\nBULLET::::- Volkswagen Group has used magnesium in its engine components for many years.\n", "Historically, magnesium was one of the main aerospace construction metals and was used for German military aircraft as early as World War I and extensively for German aircraft in World War II. The Germans coined the name \"Elektron\" for magnesium alloy, a term which is still used today. In the commercial aerospace industry, magnesium was generally restricted to engine-related components, due to fire and corrosion hazards. Currently, magnesium alloy use in aerospace is increasing, driven by the importance of fuel economy. Development and testing of new magnesium alloys continues, notably Elektron 21, which (in test) has proved suitable for aerospace engine, internal, and airframe components. The European Community runs three R&D magnesium projects in the Aerospace priority of Six Framework Program.\n", "BULLET::::- As a metal, this element's principal use is as an alloying additive to aluminium with these aluminium-magnesium alloys being used mainly for beverage cans, sports equipment such as golf clubs, fishing reels, and archery bows and arrows.\n\nBULLET::::- Specialty, high-grade car wheels of magnesium alloy are called \"mag wheels\", although the term is often misapplied to aluminium wheels. Many car and aircraft manufacturers have made engine and body parts from magnesium.\n\nBULLET::::- Magnesium batteries have been commercialized as primary batteries, and are an active topic of research for rechargeable secondary batteries.\n\nSection::::Uses as a metal.:Safety precautions.\n", "BULLET::::- It is used extensively as an electrical insulator in tubular construction heating elements. There are several mesh sizes available and most commonly used ones are 40 and 80 mesh per the American Foundry Society. The extensive use is due to its high dielectric strength and average thermal conductivity. MgO is usually crushed and compacted with minimal airgaps or voids. The electrical heating industry also experimented with aluminium oxide, but it is not used anymore.\n\nBULLET::::- It is also used as an insulator in heat-resistant electrical cable.\n", "BULLET::::- Mitsubishi Motors uses magnesium for its paddle shifters.\n\nBULLET::::- BMW used magnesium alloy blocks in their N52 engine, including an aluminium alloy insert for the cylinder walls and cooling jackets surrounded by a high-temperature magnesium alloy AJ62A. The engine was used worldwide between 2005 and 2011 in various 1, 3, 5, 6, and 7 series models; as well as the Z4, X1, X3, and X5.\n\nBULLET::::- Chevrolet used the magnesium alloy AE44 in the 2006 Corvette Z06.\n", "BULLET::::- As a food additive, it is used as an anticaking agent. It is known to the US Food and Drug Administration for cacao products; canned peas; and frozen dessert. It has an E number of E530.\n\nBULLET::::- It is used as a reference white color in colorimetry, owing to its good diffusing and reflectivity properties. It may be smoked onto the surface of an opaque material to form an integrating sphere.\n", "Both AJ62A and AE44 are recent developments in high-temperature low-creep magnesium alloys. The general strategy for such alloys is to form intermetallic precipitates at the grain boundaries, for example by adding mischmetal or calcium. New alloy development and lower costs that make magnesium competitive with aluminium will increase the number of automotive applications.\n\nSection::::Uses as a metal.:Electronics.\n\nBecause of low weight and good mechanical and electrical properties, magnesium is widely used for manufacturing of mobile phones, laptop and tablet computers, cameras, and other electronic components.\n\nSection::::Uses as a metal.:Other.\n", "Magnesium is the third-most-commonly-used structural metal, following iron and aluminium. The main applications of magnesium are, in order: aluminium alloys, die-casting (alloyed with zinc), removing sulfur in the production of iron and steel, and the production of titanium in the Kroll process. Magnesium is used in super-strong, lightweight materials and alloys. For example, when infused with silicon carbide nanoparticles, it has extremely high specific strength.\n", "Section::::Fabrication.:Hot extrusion.\n\nNot much pure magnesium is extruded, for it has somewhat poor properties, especially as regards its proof stress. The alloying elements of chief concern at present are aluminium, zinc, cerium and zirconium; manganese is usually also present since, though it has little effect on the strength, it has a valuable function in improving corrosion resistance. One important binary alloy, containing up to 2.0% manganese, is used extensively for the manufacture of rolled sheet. It is comparatively soft and easier to extrude than other alloys, and is also one of the few that can be rolled directly without pre-extrusion.\n", "Magnesium, being readily available and relatively nontoxic, has a variety of uses:\n\nBULLET::::- Magnesium is flammable, burning at a temperature of approximately , and the autoignition temperature of magnesium ribbon is approximately . It produces intense, bright, white light when it burns. Magnesium's high combustion temperature makes it a useful tool for starting emergency fires. Other uses include flash photography, flares, pyrotechnics, and fireworks sparklers. Magnesium is also often used to ignite thermite or other materials that require a high ignition temperature.\n\nBULLET::::- In the form of turnings or ribbons, to prepare Grignard reagents, which are useful in organic synthesis.\n", "Superconducting magnesium diboride wire can be produced through the powder-in-tube (PIT) \"ex situ\" and \"in situ\" processes. In the \"in situ\" variant, a mixture of boron and magnesium is reduced in diameter by conventional wire drawing. The wire is then heated to the reaction temperature to form MgB. In the \"ex situ\" variant, the tube is filled with MgB powder, reduced in diameter, and sintered at 800 to 1000 °C. In both cases, later hot isostatic pressing at approximately 950 °C further improves the properties.\n", "Magnesium occurs naturally only in combination with other elements, where it invariably has a +2 oxidation state. The free element (metal) can be produced artificially, and is highly reactive (though in the atmosphere, it is soon coated in a thin layer of oxide that partly inhibits reactivity – see passivation). The free metal burns with a characteristic brilliant-white light. The metal is now obtained mainly by electrolysis of magnesium salts obtained from brine, and is used primarily as a component in aluminium-magnesium alloys, sometimes called \"magnalium\" or \"magnelium\". Magnesium is less dense than aluminium, and the alloy is prized for its combination of lightness and strength.\n", "Section::::Forms.:Alloys.:High-temperature creep and flammability.\n\nResearch showed that magnesium's tendency to creep at high temperatures is eliminated by the addition of scandium and gadolinium. Flammability is greatly reduced by a small amount of calcium in the alloy.\n\nSection::::Forms.:Compounds.\n\nMagnesium forms a variety of compounds important to industry and biology, including magnesium carbonate, magnesium chloride, magnesium citrate, magnesium hydroxide (milk of magnesia), magnesium oxide, magnesium sulfate, and magnesium sulfate heptahydrate (Epsom salts).\n\nSection::::Forms.:Isotopes.\n", "Magnox (alloy), whose name is an abbreviation for \"magnesium non-oxidizing\", is 99% magnesium and 1% aluminum, and is used in the cladding of fuel rods in magnox nuclear power reactors.\n", "Technical difficulties in the removal of chloride inclusions from the manufactured metal delayed progress in the development and engineering uses of magnesium and its alloys in the period when a great advance was being made in the application of aluminium base alloys. With the eventual solution of this problem the way became clear, and an impetus was given to the discovery and exploitation of new alloys, which, once again, has been reinforced by the requirements of the aircraft and nuclear power industries in the current period.\n", "The United States has traditionally been the major world supplier of this metal, supplying 45% of world production even as recently as 1995. Today, the US market share is at 7%, with a single domestic producer left, US Magnesium, a Renco Group company in Utah born from now-defunct Magcorp.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nThe name magnesium originates from the Greek word for a district in Thessaly called Magnesia. It is related to magnetite and manganese, which also originated from this area, and required differentiation as separate substances. See manganese for this history.\n", "As of 2013, magnesium alloys consumption was less than one million tonnes per year, compared with 50 million tonnes of aluminum alloys. Their use has been historically limited by the tendency of Mg alloys to corrode, creep at high temperatures, and combust.\n\nSection::::Forms.:Alloys.:Corrosion.\n", "BULLET::::- As an additive agent in conventional propellants and the production of nodular graphite in cast iron.\n\nBULLET::::- As a reducing agent to separate uranium and other metals from their salts.\n\nBULLET::::- As a sacrificial (galvanic) anode to protect boats, underground tanks, pipelines, buried structures, and water heaters.\n\nBULLET::::- Alloyed with zinc to produce the zinc sheet used in photoengraving plates in the printing industry, dry-cell battery walls, and roofing.\n", "Alloying of zirconium-bearing materials has been a major problem in their development. It is usual to add the zirconium from a salt—and careful control can produce good results. Dominion Magnesium Limited in Canada have developed a method adding in the conventional manner through a master alloy.\n", "Magnesium is highly flammable, especially when powdered or shaved into thin strips, though it is difficult to ignite in mass or bulk. Flame temperatures of magnesium and magnesium alloys can reach , although flame height above the burning metal is usually less than . Once ignited, such fires are difficult to extinguish, because combustion continues in nitrogen (forming magnesium nitride), carbon dioxide (forming magnesium oxide and carbon), and water (forming magnesium oxide and hydrogen). This property was used in incendiary weapons during the firebombing of cities in World War II, where the only practical civil defense was to smother a burning flare under dry sand to exclude atmosphere from the combustion.\n", "In the United States, magnesium is obtained principally with the Dow process, by electrolysis of fused magnesium chloride from brine and sea water. A saline solution containing ions is first treated with lime (calcium oxide) and the precipitated magnesium hydroxide is collected:\n\nThe hydroxide is then converted to a partial hydrate of magnesium chloride by treating the hydroxide with hydrochloric acid and heating of the product:\n\nThe salt is then electrolyzed in the molten state. At the cathode, the ion is reduced by two electrons to magnesium metal:\n", "The joint project, initiated in 2005 and still in the experimental stage, developed a prototype carbon dioxide ()-free engine in 2006 that ran successfully without the need for fossil fuels. The chemical reaction between magnesium (in a powder form) and water at room temperature produces high-energy steam and hydrogen. The hydrogen is burned at the same time to produce additional high-energy steam. These two steam sources power the engine. The energy cycle produces no carbon dioxide or other harmful emissions. The only by-products of this reaction are water and magnesium oxide. The magnesium (a common metallic element) is separated from the oxygen through a solar-powered laser process (the development of which is already well advanced) and is reused over and over again as fuel.\n", "It is a principal fireproofing ingredient in construction materials. As a construction material, magnesium oxide wallboards have several attractive characteristics: fire resistance, termite resistance, moisture resistance, mold and mildew resistance, and strength.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Niche uses.\n\nMgO is one of the components in Portland cement in dry process plants. \n\nMagnesium oxide is used extensively in the soil and groundwater remediation, wastewater treatment, drinking water treatment, air emissions treatment, and waste treatment industries for its acid buffering capacity and related effectiveness in stabilizing dissolved heavy metal species.\n", "The company was also a major producer of magnesium during World War II. To make use of its major product, powdered magnesium, PMC also developed and supplied an incendiary bomb mixture of magnesium powder, asphalt, gasoline and others components (known as \"goop\", with similar characteristics to napalm); 17,000 short tons of goop-filled bombs were used in World War II (approximately eight percent of the total tonnage of incendiaries that were dropped during that conflict). Permanente ranked 42nd among United States corporations in the value of World War II military production contracts.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Richmond Shipyard\n" ]	[ "All magnesium is easily flammable.", "It is dangerous to use magnesium in car parts because it is easily flammable. " ]	[ "Magnesium must be heated to 900F to catch fire which is difficult to do for large blocks of metal.", "Magnesium needs to reach 900 degrees Fahrenheit to be set aflame, therefore it's actually quite difficult for it to catch fire." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "All magnesium is easily flammable.", "It is dangerous to use magnesium in car parts because it is easily flammable. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Magnesium must be heated to 900F to catch fire which is difficult to do for large blocks of metal.", "Magnesium needs to reach 900 degrees Fahrenheit to be set aflame, therefore it's actually quite difficult for it to catch fire." ]
2018-01617	Is there a reason shops are so eager to start selling seasonal items so early?	From my experience it's to ensure they can actually sell through the inventory of seasonal items.	[ "Seasonal shopping consists of buying the appropriate clothing for the particular season. In winter people bundle up in warm layers and coats to keep warm, while in summer people wear less clothing to stay cooler in the heat. Seasonal shopping now revolves a lot around holiday sales and buying more for less. Stores need to get rid of all of their previous seasonal clothing to make room for the new trends of the upcoming season. The end-of-season sales usually last a few weeks with prices lowering further towards the closing of the sale. During sales items can be discounted from 10% up to as much as 50%, with the biggest reduction sales occurring at the end of the season. Holiday shopping periods are extending their sales further and further with holidays such as Black Friday becoming a month-long event stretching promotions across November . These days shopping doesn't stop once the mall closes, as people have more access to stores and their sales than ever before with the help of the internet and apps. Today many people research their purchases online to find the cheapest and best deal with one third of all shopping searches on Google happen between 10:00 pm and 4:00 am. Shoppers are now spending more time consulting different sources before making a final purchasing decision. Shoppers once used an average of five sources for information before making a purchase, but numbers have risen to as high as 12 sources in 2014.\n", "Though this seasonality is often mentioned informally, it has largely been ignored in academic circles. Analysis by Bouman and Jacobsen (2002) shows that the effect has indeed occurred in 36 out of 37 countries examined, and since the 17th century (1694) in the United Kingdom; it is strongest in Europe.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "A few days after the 2010 Fall Fashion Week in New York City came to a close, \"The New Islander\"'s Fashion Editor, Genevieve Tax, criticized the fashion industry for running on a seasonal schedule of its own, largely at the expense of real-world consumers. \"Because designers release their fall collections in the spring and their spring collections in the fall, fashion magazines such as \"Vogue\" always and only look forward to the upcoming season, promoting parkas come September while issuing reviews on shorts in January\", she writes. \"Savvy shoppers, consequently, have been conditioned to be extremely, perhaps impractically, farsighted with their buying.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Inventory must be counted using expensive labour some time in January.\n\nBULLET::::- Depending on the state, province or municipality, they are often subject to a millage tax (similar to property taxes) on any inventory retained as of 1 January of each year (or 7 January/15 January in some tax jurisdictions).\n\nBULLET::::- They are introducing new products in the new year.\n\nMany products have a mail-in rebate to be used, a tactic used by manufacturers to clear their inventory. Some stores also start their Boxing Week deals before December 26.\n", "This would act like a buffer to make sure that the company would have excess products for sale if consumer demands exceed their expectation.\n\n2. Cater to Cyclical and Seasonal Demand\n\nThese kind of inventory are use for predicable events that would cause a change in people’s demand. For example, candy companies can start to produce extra sweets that have long duration period. Build up seasonal inventory gradually to match people’s sharply increasing demand before Halloween.\n\n3. Cycle inventory\n", "Seasonal creep is not limited to the northern hemisphere winter holiday season and other popular holidays and observances, but is also becoming more common for merchandise associated with a general season of the year. Advertising for winter-, spring-, summer-, and fall-related goods generally now begins midway through the previous season. For example, many supermarkets in the United Kingdom begin selling Easter eggs even before Christmas, and in the US, stores begin selling 4th of July products before Easter, and the next major holiday is marketed as soon as or before the previous has ended. Such a phenomenon is known under the more general name of holiday creep.\n", "Most, if not all, packaged products, will have either a sell by date on them or a \"display until date\"; in practice, these are exactly the same thing. After this date, it is either illegal for the store to sell them (this is the case in Ireland) or the quality will have deteriorated to the point at which nobody will buy them. In either case, they cannot be sold.\n", "Seasonal packaging\n\nSeasonal packaging is a way of marketing a product and sparking sales in consumer segments that infrequently buy the product, by wrapping the product in a package closely related to seasons or holidays such as Valentine's Day, Easter, Mother's Day, Memorial Day, the Fourth of July, Labor Day, back-to-school, Halloween, Thanksgiving, Christmas and New Year's. It is efficient as a marketing tool.\n\nSection::::Rationale.\n", "When New Seasons opened stores in the North Williams and St. Johns neighborhoods of Portland, some residents questioned if the stores would contribute to the gentrification of these historically black and working-class neighborhoods. In an interview with \"The Oregonian\" newspaper in 2015 former head of store development, Jerry Chevasuss said that the grocery store targets neighborhoods in the process of gentrification, and that often the addition of a New Seasons will push rents and home values higher, adding to that process.\n", "This phenomenon can apply for other holidays as well, notably Valentine's Day, Easter and Mother's Day. The motivation for holiday creep is for retailers to lengthen their selling interval for seasonal merchandise in order to maximize profit and to give early-bird shoppers a head start on that holiday. However, it is not clear that this practice has been consistently beneficial for retailers.\n", "Seasonal food\n\nSeasonal produce refers to the times of year when the harvest or the flavour of a given type food is at its peak. This is usually the time when the item is harvested, with some exceptions; an example being sweet potatoes which are best eaten quite a while after harvest. It also appeals to people who prefer a low carbon diet that reduces the greenhouse gas emissions resulting from food consumption (Food miles).\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Seasonal patterns are not confined to prices; many other systems can exhibit the same kind of calendar effect. However, the term is most often used in an economic context.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nMarket prices are often subject to seasonal tendencies because the availability and demand for an item is not constant throughout the year. For example, natural gas prices often rise in the winter because that commodity is in demand as a heating fuel. In the summer, when the demand for heat is lower, prices typically fall.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nNotable calendar effects include:\n\nBULLET::::- Sell in May principle (or Halloween indicator)\n", "In France, the January sales are restricted by legislation to no more than four weeks in Paris, and no more than six weeks for the rest of the country, usually beginning on the first Wednesday in January, and are one of only two periods of the year when retailers are permitted to hold sales.\n\nIn Italy, the January sales begin on the first weekend in January, and last for at least six weeks.\n", "Every July, the television home shopping channel QVC has Christmas in July sales, mostly decor and early gift ideas for children. What was once a 24-hour block of holiday shopping every July 25 (or the closest weekend day to it) has become a month-long event: generally, the sales begin on July 1 and are showcased throughout the day, with various blocks of holiday sale programming sales throughout the month. Generally during the last week of July, QVC will dedicate entire days to holiday sales.\n", "Shopping hours for shopping malls are usually from 10:00 to 22:00 from Monday to Sunday. Automotive shops like tire outlets are usually from 09.30 to 19:00. Some supermarkets are open twenty-four hours. Most stores do not open on the first day of Chinese New Year because of low demand patronage.\n\nSection::::Sweden.\n", "Large shopping centres and out-of-town (suburban) centres are typically open longer hours everyday (e.g. 09:00 - 21:00/22:00 weekdays, 09:00 - 19:00 Saturdays, 10:00 - 19:00 Sundays).\n\nIn the two weeks running up to Christmas, it is common for many shops to have extended opening hours; some may operate twenty-four hours until midnight on Christmas Eve.\n\nMost shops (other than petrol stations or convenience stores) in smaller towns and villages don't open at all on Sundays. Almost all shops (again, petrol stations, convenience stores, etc. excepted) are closed on Christmas Day, though most are open on all other holidays.\n", "In United States retail, the phenomenon was pioneered by stores like Sam's Club, which introduced early Christmas sales to support resellers. The hardware chain Lowe's followed in 2000 with a policy of setting out Christmas trees and decorations by October 1, mainly because the Halloween and Thanksgiving holidays do not provide enough merchandise or sales to fill retail space between the end of the summer season and the Christmas season. In 2002–2003, Christmas creep accelerated markedly with retailers such as Walmart, J. C. Penney, and Target beginning their Christmas sales in October. In 2006 the National Retail Federation, an industry trade group, said that 40 percent of consumers planned to start their holiday shopping before Halloween. Since the 2010s, there has been a growing trend for retailers to start selling holiday merchandise in mid- to late-September, with retailers such as Walmart, Sam's Club, Kmart, Costco, J.C. Penney, Sears, and Lowe's now beginning their Christmas sales earlier than October 1.\n", "This market trend is satirized in the 1974 animated special \"It's the Easter Beagle, Charlie Brown\", when the characters go shopping at a department store and discover that it has its Christmas displays up in the middle of April, including a sign forewarning that there were only a mere 246 days left until Christmas. Additionally, in 1973's \"A Charlie Brown Thanksgiving\", Sally complains that she was looking for a turkey tree for Thanksgiving but had only found Christmas supplies.\n", "There is also Christmas in June. In some western countries, July has a limited number of marketing opportunities. In the United States and Canada, for example, there are no national holidays between the first week of July (Canada Day on July 1 in Canada and American Independence Day on July 4 in the United States) and Labor/Labour Day (the first Monday in September for both the US and Canada), leaving a stretch of about two months with no holidays (some Canadian provinces hold a Civic Holiday, but neither Canada nor the United States has ever recognized a national holiday during that month). The late July period provides relatively few opportunities for merchandising, since it is typically after the peak of summer product sales in June and early July, but before the \"back to school\" shopping period begins in August. Therefore, to justify sales promotions, shops (such as Leon's in Canada) will sometimes announce a \"Christmas in July\" sale.\n", "Seasonal demand:Some services do not have an all year round demand, they might be required only at a certain period of time. Seasons all over the world are very diverse. Seasonal demands create many problems to service organizations, such as:- idling the capacity, fixed cost and excess expenditure on marketing and promotions. Strategies used by firms to overcome this hurdle are like - to nurture the service consumption habit of customers so as to make the demand unseasonal, or other than that firms recognize markets elsewhere in the world during the off-season period. Hence, this presents and opportunity to target different markets with the appropriate season in different parts of the world. For example, the need for Christmas cards comes around once a year. Or the, seasonal fruits in a country.\n", "It is necessary for organisations to identify and measure seasonal variations within their market to help them plan for the future. This can prepare them for the temporary increases or decreases in labour requirements and inventory as demand for their product or service fluctuates over certain periods. This may require training, periodic maintenance, and so forth that can be organized in advance. Apart from these considerations, the organisations need to know if variation they have experienced has been more or less than the expected amount, beyond what the usual seasonal variations account for.\n\nSection::::Reasons for studying seasonal variation.\n", "Product developers may offer anywhere from two to six seasonal collections per year, depending on the impact of fashion trends in a particular product category and price point. Women's wear companies are more sensitive to the whims of fashion and may produce four to six lines a year. Men's wear companies present two to four lines a year, and children's wear firms typically present three to four seasonal collections. For each season a collection is designed by the product developers and is based on a specific theme, which is linked to the color and fabric story.\n", "Seasonal demand:Some services do not have an all-year-round demand; they might be required only at a certain period of time. Seasons all over the world are very diverse. Seasonal demands create many problems to service organizations, such as: idling the capacity, fixed cost and excess expenditure on marketing and promotions. Strategies used by firms to overcome this hurdle include nurturing the service consumption habit of customers so as to make the demand unseasonal, or recognizing markets elsewhere in the world during the off-season period. Hence, this presents an opportunity to target different markets with the appropriate season in different parts of the world. For example, the need for Christmas cards comes around once a year. Or the, seasonal fruits in a country.\n", "Another source of stock is overruns, surplus items and out-of-date food products. Real Deals, a regional dollar store in the Syracuse, New York area, is stocked almost entirely with surplus goods such as these. The legality of selling out-of-date goods varies between jurisdictions: in general, most items (with a few exceptions, particularly certain perishable food items depending on the state) can be sold in the United States regardless of their sell-by date, but in the United Kingdom it is illegal to sell goods after their \"Use By\" date.\n\nSection::::Demography.\n", "American advertisers began using Christmas in July themes in print for summertime sales as early as 1950. In the United States, it is more often used as a marketing tool than an actual holiday. Television stations may choose to re-run Christmas specials, and many stores have Christmas in July sales. Some individuals choose to celebrate Christmas in July themselves, typically as an intentionally transparent excuse to have a party. This is in part because most bargainers tend to sell Christmas goods around July to make room for next year's inventory.\n\nSection::::Celebrations.\n\nSection::::Celebrations.:Southern Hemisphere.\n" ]	[ "Shops sell seasonal items early. " ]	[ "Shops do not sell seasonal items early, but shops sell seasonal items at times that ensure shops can sell through inventory." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Shops sell seasonal items early. ", "Shops sell seasonal items early. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Shops do not sell seasonal items early, but shops sell seasonal items at times that ensure shops can sell through inventory.", "Shops do not sell seasonal items early, but shops sell seasonal items at times that ensure shops can sell through inventory." ]
2018-00931	How do those can an aircraft's anti missile system detect that it is being locked on to before the missile even launches?	Radar is a type of radiation that's sent through the air to bounce off of things like aircraft and then sensitive material in the radar sensor detects these reflections. Computers put together an image of the reflections to try to determine what it is that the radar emissions are bouncing off of and if it appears to be an aircraft, they may fire on it. (of course back in the day it was just a blip, the more radar reflections the bigger the blip, the more intense the reflections the more closely the blip appeared to the emitter) Warplanes started introducing a piece of equipment called the RWR or radar warning receiver that used the same technology that the radar tracking device used to acquire a target in order to warn the pilot that he was being "painted"; which means that radar had not just hit him, but was being directed at him intensely. Thus, pilots could tell that not only were they being seen with radar, but that the emissions were so intense that it was likely a radar tracking station trying to get an exact location and hold it until the missile could arrive and deliver gifts in the form of molten metal fragments.	[ "Most anti-ship missiles use active radar homing for terminal guidance.\n\nMany ARH missiles with targets on land or sea use millimeter wave guidance.\n\nSection::::List of missiles.\n\nExamples of missiles known to use active radar homing (all in their terminal phase) include:\n\nSection::::List of missiles.:China.\n\nBULLET::::- DF-21\n\nBULLET::::- DF-25\n\nBULLET::::- DF-26\n\nBULLET::::- HN-2000\n\nBULLET::::- PL-12 air-to-air missile and SD-10 (export version to Pakistan)\n\nBULLET::::- PL-15 air-to-air missile\n\nBULLET::::- HQ-9 air defense missile\n\nSection::::List of missiles.:European.\n\nBULLET::::- Meteor (missile) long-range air-to-air missile (With contribution from France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Sweden and United Kingdom)\n\nBULLET::::- MBDA Perseus (missile) (France, UK)\n\nSection::::List of missiles.:France.\n", "Third generation infrared MANPADS, such as the French Mistral, the Soviet 9K38 Igla, and the US Stinger B, use rosette scanning detectors to produce a quasi-image of the target. Their seeker compares input from multiple detections bands, either two widely separated IR bands or IR and UV, giving them much greater ability to discern and reject countermeasures deployed by the target aircraft.\n\nSection::::Missile types.:Infrared.:Fourth generation.\n", "During the tracking and missile-firing tests, target profiles were provided by Greek-built EADS/3Sigma Iris PVK medium-range subsonic target drones. [...] According to the RNLN, ... \"APAR immediately acquired the missile and maintained track until destruction\". [...] These ground-breaking tests represented the world's first live verification of the ICWI technique.\n", "BULLET::::- Because the missile is totally autonomous during the terminal phase, the launch platform does not need to have its radar enabled at all during this phase, and in the case of a mobile launching platform like an aircraft, can actually exit the scene or undertake other actions while the missile homes in on its target. This is often referred to as fire-and-forget capability and is a great advantage that modern air-to-air missiles have over their predecessors.\n\nSection::::Passive radiation homing.\n", "Although the missile may use radar or infra-red guidance to home on the target, the launching aircraft may detect and track the target before launch by other means. Infra-red guided missiles can be \"slaved\" to an attack radar in order to find the target and radar-guided missiles can be launched at targets detected visually or via an infra-red search and track (IRST) system, although they may require the attack radar to illuminate the target during part or all of the missile interception itself.\n\nSection::::Guidance.:Radar guidance.\n", "The combination of stealthy airframes, stealthy sensors, and stealthy communications is designed to allow fifth-generation fighters to engage other aircraft before those targets are aware of their presence. Lt. Col. Gene McFalls of the USAF has said that sensor fusion will feed into inventory databases to precisely identify aircraft at a distance.\n", "Radar guidance is normally used for medium- or long-range missiles, where the infra-red signature of the target would be too faint for an infra-red detector to track. There are three major types of radar-guided missile – active, semi-active, and passive.\n\nRadar-guided missiles can be countered by rapid maneuvering (which may result in them \"breaking lock\", or may cause them to overshoot), deploying chaff or using electronic counter-measures.\n\nSection::::Guidance.:Radar guidance.:Active radar homing.\n", "BULLET::::- YLC-8 Radar long range surveillance radar\n\nBULLET::::- YLC-15 Radar light air defense radar\n\nBULLET::::- YLC-18 Radar medium-range low-altitude 3D radar\n\nBULLET::::- YLC-20 Passive Sensor passive sensor\n\nBULLET::::- YLC-29 Passive Sensor passive detection system\n\nBULLET::::- YLC-48 Radar\n\nSection::::People's Republic of China.:Military.:Airborne.\n\nBULLET::::- AESA radars from 14th Institute on\n\nBULLET::::- KJ2000\n\nBULLET::::- KJ500\n\nBULLET::::- Y8W\n\nBULLET::::- J-20\n\nBULLET::::- J-31\n\nBULLET::::- AESA radars from 38th Institute on\n\nBULLET::::- KJ200\n\nBULLET::::- JZY01\n\nBULLET::::- Z-18J\n\nBULLET::::- Z8AEW\n\nBULLET::::- AESA radars from 607th Institute on\n\nBULLET::::- J-16\n\nBULLET::::- J-15\n\nBULLET::::- J-11D\n\nBULLET::::- J-10C\n\nBULLET::::- PESA radar from 38th Institute on\n\nBULLET::::- ZDK03\n", "BULLET::::- Hsiung Feng II\n\nBULLET::::- Hsiung Feng IIE\n\nBULLET::::- Hsiung Feng III\n\nSection::::List of missiles.:United States.\n\nBULLET::::- Boeing Harpoon anti-ship missile\n\nBULLET::::- Hughes Aircraft Company AIM-47 Falcon\n\nBULLET::::- Lockheed Martin AGM-114L Hellfire Longbow air-to-surface missile\n\nBULLET::::- Lockheed Martin MIM-104 Patriot surface-to-air missile (PAC-3 version only)\n\nBULLET::::- Martin Marietta Pershing II (topographic radar version of DSMAC)\n\nBULLET::::- Raytheon AIM-54 Phoenix long range air-to-air missile\n\nBULLET::::- Raytheon AIM-120 AMRAAM air-to-air missile and surface-to-air missile\n\nBULLET::::- Raytheon GBU-53/B\n\nBULLET::::- Raytheon RIM-174 Standard ERAM (Standard Missile 6) surface-to-air missile\n\nBULLET::::- Raytheon AGM-88 HARM (only E version)\n", "With a semi-active radar homing system, the launch platform acquires the target with its search radar. The missile is then powered up while the launch platform's illuminator radar \"lights up\" the target for it. The illuminator is a radar transmitter with a narrow, focused beam that may be separate from the search radar and that can be directed at a target using information from the search radar. When the passive radar of the missile's guidance system is able to \"see\"/detect the radio waves reflected from the target, missile lock-on is achieved and the weapon is ready to be launched.\n", "There is ongoing research to apply track-before-detect across sensor fusion in the core CPU to allow fifth-generation fighters to engage targets that no single sensor has by itself detected. Probability theory is used to determine \"what data to believe, when to believe and how much to believe\".\n\nThese sensors produce too much data for the onboard computers to fully process so sensor fusion is achieved by comparing what is observed against preloaded threat libraries that contain known enemy capabilities for a given region. Items that do not match known threats are not even displayed.\n\nSection::::Common design elements.:Limits of stealth.\n", "The acquisition target may be in standalone mode or with the missile \"appointed\" by the radar, HUD or crosshairs on the helmet (which means some off-boresight capacity). Radar acquisition of the target is particularly useful in night time or low visibility conditions.\n", "In this process two successive Tx trigger pulses are delayed by a time equivalent to an RF wave go and return distance of 16,000 yd. Then the range gate triggers are delayed by an equivalent time. The delayed Tx trigger pulses are counted in an auxiliary counter, the zone counter, until target video pulses are detected in the delayed range gates. At this point the zone counter contains the number of PRF periods corresponding to the \"n\"th time around.\n", "After launch, if the firing aircraft or surrogate continues to track the target, periodic updates—such as changes in the target's direction and speed—are sent from the launch aircraft to the missile, allowing the missile to adjust its course, via actuation of the rear fins, so that it is able to close to a self-homing distance where it will be close enough to \"catch\" the target aircraft in the \"basket\" (the missile's radar field of view in which it will be able to lock onto the target aircraft, unassisted by the launch aircraft).\n", "BULLET::::- Multirole AESA, for the Boeing Wedgetail (AEW&C)\n\nBULLET::::- AN/ASQ-236 Podded AESA Radar\n\nBULLET::::- AN/ZPY-1 STARLite Small Tactical Radar - Lightweight, for manned and unmanned aircraft\n\nBULLET::::- AN/ZPY-2 Multi-Platform Radar Technology Insertion Program (MP-RTIP)\n\nBULLET::::- AN/ZPY-3 Multi-Function Active Sensor (MFAS) for MQ-4C Triton\n\nBULLET::::- Vehicle Dismount and Exploitation Radar (VADER)\n\nBULLET::::- Raytheon\n\nBULLET::::- AN/APG-63(V)2 and AN/APG-63(V)3, for the F-15C Eagle, Republic of Singapore's F-15SG\n\nBULLET::::- AN/APG-79, for the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet and EA-18G Growler\n\nBULLET::::- AN/APG-82(V)1 for the F-15E Strike Eagle\n\nBULLET::::- AN/APQ-181 upgrade from PESA to AESA, for Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit bomber\n\nBULLET::::- RACR (Raytheon Advanced Combat Radar)\n", "When the target disappears, the sensor triggers a switch that inverts the output of the AC signal. For instance, when the disk reaches the 3 o'clock position and the target disappears, the switch is triggered. This is the same instant that the original AC waveform begins the negative voltage portion of its waveform, so the switch inverts this back to positive. When the disk reaches the 9 o'clock position the cell switches again, no longer inverting the signal, which is now entering its positive phase again. The resulting output from this cell is a series of half-sine waves, always positive. This signal is then smoothed out to produce a DC output, which is sent to the control system and commands the missile to turn up.\n", "All SAM systems from the smallest to the largest generally include identified as friend or foe (IFF) systems to help identify the target before being engaged. While IFF is not as important with MANPADs, as the target is almost always visually identified prior to launch, most modern MANPADs do include it.\n\nSection::::General information.:Target acquisition.\n\nLong-range systems generally use radar systems for target detection, and depending on the generation of system, may \"hand off\" to a separate tracking radar for attack. Short range systems are more likely to be entirely visual for detection.\n", "BULLET::::- NPO Novator and DRDO R-172 long range air-to-air missile\n\nBULLET::::- Vympel NPO R-27EA\n\nBULLET::::- Vympel NPO R-37 (AA-13 Arrow) long range air-to-air missile\n\nBULLET::::- Vympel NPO R-33 (AA-9 Amos) long range air-to-air missile\n\nBULLET::::- Vympel NPO R-77 (AA-12 Adder) medium range air-to-air missile\n\nBULLET::::- Tactical Missiles Corporation Kh-31 (AS-17 Krypton) anti-shipping missile (Kh-31A only)\n\nBULLET::::- Raduga Kh-15 (AS-16 Kickback) air-to-surface missile (Kh-15S only)\n\nBULLET::::- Raduga Kh-59 (AS-13 Kingbolt) air-to-surface missile (Kh-59MK only)\n\nBULLET::::- Tactical Missiles Corporation Kh-25 (AS-10 Karen) air-to-surface missile (Kh-25MA only)\n\nBULLET::::- Raduga KSR-5 (AS-6 Kingfish) anti-shipping missile\n\nBULLET::::- Raduga KSR-2 (AS-5 Kelt) anti-shipping missile\n", "This gives rise the concepts of \"instantaneous field of view\" (IFOV) which is the angle the detector sees, and the overall field of view, also known as the \"tacking angle\" or \"off-boresight capability\", which includes the movement of the entire seeker assembly. Since the assembly cannot move instantly, a target moving rapidly across the missile's line of flight may be lost from the IFOV, which gives rise to the concept of a \"tracking rate\", normally expressed in degrees per second.\n\nSection::::Scanning patterns and modulation.:Linear scan.\n", "BULLET::::- AN/AWG-4 for the F8U-2N\n\nBULLET::::- AN/AWG-6 used in conjunction with AN/APG-30\n\nBULLET::::- AN/AWG-7 for F8U-3\n\nBULLET::::- AN/AWG-9 for the F-14 Tomcat\n\nBULLET::::- AN/AWG-10 for F-4J\n\nBULLET::::- AN/AWG-11 for F-4K\n\nBULLET::::- AN/AWG-12 for F-4M\n\nBULLET::::- AN/AWG-13 for AC-119, used in conjunction with AN/APN-147, AN/APQ-133 and AN/APQ-136 radars\n\nBULLET::::- AN/AWG-14 for F-4 Phantom II upgrade\n\nBULLET::::- AN/AWG-15 developed by Fairchild for F-14B\n\nBULLET::::- AN/AWG-16 two way data link for AGM-62 Walleye\n\nBULLET::::- AN/AWG-19 Harpoon Aircraft Command and Launch fire control set\n\nBULLET::::- AN/AWG-20 for F-15 Eagle\n\nBULLET::::- AN/AWG-21 fire control system for AGM-78\n\nBULLET::::- AN/AWG-24 Development of AN/AWG-6 for T-2\n", "BULLET::::- 9S15M - 10 m - 330 km and 3 m - 240 km.\n\nBULLET::::- 9S19M2 - 175 km (? m2) and two passive electronically scanned array, very high resistance to interference.\n", "A pilot used the ARBS to identify ground targets on a TV display, then locks on the TV tracker. For laser-designated targets the tracker scans ahead of the aircraft and automatically locks on to the designated target, which can be illuminated by a ground-based or airborne laser. In daytime the pilot can opt at any time to switch from laser to TV tracking. The pilot then followed the steering instructions presented in the Head-up display or optical sight and when the computer detected an acceptable combination of dive angle and tracker angle rate the ordnance was released automatically.\n", "BULLET::::- November 2 – A U.S. Air Force F-16CJ Fighting Falcon participating in Operation Southern Watch fires an AGM-88 HARM anti-radar missile at an Iraqi mobile surface-to-air missile radar near the 32nd parallel after its pilot receives a radar warning signal.\n\nBULLET::::- November 4 – A U.S. Air Force F-16CJ participating in Operation Southern Watch fires an AGM-88 HARM at an Iraqi mobile surface-to-air missile radar near the 32nd parallel after its pilot receives a radar warning signal.\n", "Section::::List of PESA radars.\n\nBULLET::::- AN/FPQ-16 PARCS at Cavalier Air Force Station\n\nBULLET::::- AN/MPQ-53\n\nBULLET::::- AN/MPQ-65\n\nBULLET::::- AN/SPQ-11 \"Cobra Judy\"\n\nBULLET::::- AN/SPY-1 Aegis combat system\n\nBULLET::::- AN/TPQ-36 and AN/TPQ-37 Firefinder radars\n\nBULLET::::- AN/APY-1/2 Boeing E-3 Sentry\n\nBULLET::::- AN/APY-7 for Northrop Grumman E-8 Joint STARS\n\nBULLET::::- AN/APQ-164 B-1B (Northrop Grumman formerly Westinghouse ESG)\n\nBULLET::::- AN/APQ-181 B-2 Spirit (initial version, now AESA)\n\nBULLET::::- ARTHUR\n\nBULLET::::- ARABEL\n\nBULLET::::- EL/M-2026B VSHORAD\n\nBULLET::::- EMPAR\n\nBULLET::::- \"Flap Lid\" and \"Tomb Stone\" for the SA-10 and SA-20 systems respectively\n", "The seeker has two detectors – a cooled MWIR InSb detector for detection of the target and uncooled PbS SWIR detector for detection of IR decoys (flares). The built-in logic determines whether the detected object is a target or a decoy. The latest version (Igla-S) is reported to have additional detectors around the main seeker to provide further resistance against pulsed IRCM devices commonly used on helicopters.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01133	do bees or insects in general have ‘off days’? Or sick days? How are they really held accountable for making sure they do their job?	> How are they really held accountable for making sure they do their job? Insects are closer to being biological machines than they are to being conscious entities. They almost certainly don't have a mind in the way that you or I think of that concept. They just do what they do mostly out of instinct. So they're not held accountable for "doing their job" because they can't not do their job. They're biologically wired to do what they do, and they don't really have a choice.	[ "Over the course of their lives, worker bees' duties are dictated by age. For the first few weeks of their lifespan, they perform basic chores within the hive: cleaning empty brood cells, removing debris and other housekeeping tasks, making wax for building or repairing comb, and feeding larvae. Later, they may ventilate the hive or guard the entrance. Older workers leave the hive daily, weather permitting, to forage for nectar, pollen, water, and propolis.\n\nSection::::Bee colonies.:Castes.:Drones.\n", "Section::::Progression of tasks.\n\nSection::::Progression of tasks.:Cell cleaning (days 1–2).\n\nBrood cells must be cleaned before the next use. Cells will be inspected by the queen and if unsatisfactory they will not be used. Worker bees in the cleaning phase will perform this cleaning. If the cells are not clean, the worker bee must do it again and again.\n\nSection::::Progression of tasks.:Nurse bee (days 3–11).\n", "Most of the bees in a hive are female worker bees. At the height of summer when activity in the hive is frantic and work goes on non-stop, the life of a worker bee may be as short as 6 weeks; in late autumn, when no brood is being raised and no nectar is being harvested, a young bee may live for 16 weeks, right through the winter.\n", "Temporal polyethism is a mechanism of task allocation, and is ubiquitous among eusocial insect colonies. Tasks in a colony are allocated among workers based on their age. Newly emerged workers perform tasks within the nest, such as brood care and nest maintenance, and progress to tasks outside the nest, such as foraging, nest defense, and corpse removal as they age. In honeybees, the youngest workers exclusively clean cells, which is then followed by tasks related to brood care and nest maintenance from about 2–11 days of age. From 11– 20 days, they transition to receiving and storing food from foragers, and at about 20 days workers begin to forage. Similar temporal polyethism patterns can be seen in primitive species of wasps, such as \"Ropalidia marginata\" as well as the eusocial wasp Vespula germanica. Young workers feed larvae, and then transition to nest building tasks, followed by foraging. Many species of ants also display this pattern. This pattern is not rigid, though. Workers of certain ages have strong tendencies to perform certain tasks, but may perform other tasks if there is enough need. For instance, removing young workers from the nest will cause foragers, especially younger foragers, to revert to tasks such as caring for brood. These changes in task preference are caused by epigenetic changes over the life of the individual. Honeybee workers of different ages show substantial differences in DNA methylation, which causes differences in gene expression. Reverting foragers to nurses by removing younger workers causes changes in DNA methylation similar to younger workers. \n", "In \"P. remota\", the division of labor is based on the age of the worker. There are 7 different tasks that have been observed in the nest of \"P. remota\" and each of them occur at different times in the workers life. The first task that workers perform usually involves either using cerumen to build the bars between combs and walls or building and maintaining the storage pots and the connecting cerumen bar. This occurs a few days after emerging. The second task that workers do involves working on the old combs, helping the young bees to emerge, feeding them, and then gnawing off the remains of the cell. This happens when they are between the ages of 6 and 30 days. The third task is building the cells, which is limited to bees that are 12–24 days old. This is also the task where the fewest bees participate. The fourth task workers do is called dehydration, which simply describes the collection of nectar from the pots. This is done by workers that are older than 18 days or by the males. The fifth task is receiving nectar from foragers which is done by workers that are older than 24 days. The sixth task is foraging and it is normally done in the final stage of the workers' lives, which starts at day 30. The seventh task involves work around the royal chamber for the gynes, which include reconstruction and maintenance and are done by workers between the ages of 23 and 85 days. Task 1 is done by 94% of the workers, task 2 is done by 21% of the workers, task 3 is done by 12% of the bees, task 4 is done by 69%, task 5 is done by 60%, task 6 is done by 46% and task 7 is done by 27% of the workers.\n", "Manual inspection is the most common method to date. It is a tedious process for beekeepers and intrusive for bees. It is necessary to monitor regularly to identify any issues with feeding and food bank. Balancing the two is a challenge for beekeepers. This is more of a problem on cold and rainy days. The only way to tackle this is to make good predictions based on hyperlocal information.\n", "Section::::Bee colonies.:Annual cycle of a bee colony.\n", "Worker bees perform many actions throughout their lives, and while age divides workers between different tasks, a large overlap of jobs are still being done at one time. Worker bees do not guard the hive, though, since this job is left to soldier bees, which are larger.\n", "Section::::Life History.\n\nSection::::Life History.:Workers.\n\nIn one study that examined 37 brood combs from five colonies of \"P. remota\", it was shown that 73.40% of the individuals were workers. Workers are produced throughout the entire year and perform many of the functions needed to grow and maintain the nest. Starting from a few days after their birth until their death, they continually support the hive, from building the nest at an early age, to foraging near the end of their lives.\n\nSection::::Life History.:Queens.\n", "\"Augochloropsis\" are classified as polylectic, a term which indicates that these species are broad generalists that collect pollen from multiple families of plants. Certain life history traits of bees are actually known to predict polylecty, including social lifestyles, long windows of adult activity, and producing more than two generations of offspring a year. Some of these traits are often seen in different \"Augochloropsis\" species. For example, \"Augochloropsis anonyma\" adults are active between April and September in the northern portion of its range and year round within its range in southern Florida. Having this long window of activity makes this species more likely to forage from a large number of different plant taxa. Another species, \"Augochloropsis iris\", which is native to South America, is primitively eusocial, and engages in three rounds of brood production over the course of a year, which correspond to the traits listed above that often promote wider diet breadth.\n", "Section::::Worker-queen conflict.\n\nSection::::Worker-queen conflict.:Worker policing.\n", "Section::::Domestication.:Hobby raising and school projects.\n\nIn the U.S., teachers may sometimes introduce the insect life cycle to their students by raising domestic silkmoths in the classroom as a science project. Students have a chance to observe complete life cycles of insects from eggs to larvae to pupae to moths. \n", "Section::::Behavior.:Daily rhythms.\n\nFemales behave rhythmically during their nesting phase. They construct cells, one at a time, during the night. They forage throughout the morning, feeding on nectar first, and then collecting pollen. Then, they spend their afternoons forming balls of provisions, performing oviposition, and capping cells. If guarding occurs, it tends to happen during midday or the afternoon.\n\nSection::::Behavior.:Economy of labor.\n", "Drones do not feed themselves when they are young; they are fed by workers and then when the drone bees get older they feed themselves from the honey supply.\n\nSection::::Worker activities.:Queen Attendants (days 7-12).\n", "As is typical in stingless bees, individual workers make decisions that affect the foraging patterns of the colony. The decisions are based on the environment and information from the colony, as well as intrinsic factors. \"T. hockingsi\" colonies show distinct diurnal patterns of foraging, determined by environmental cues such as resource availability, solar radiation, temperature, and wind speed. The species showed the highest level of pollen collection in the morning. However, resin foraging was stable over time and there were no noticeable peaks of activity.\n\nSection::::Kin Selection.\n\nSection::::Kin Selection.:Worker Queen Conflict.\n", "Dead bees and failed larvae must be removed from the hive to prevent disease and allow cells to be reused. They will be carried some distance from the hive by mortuary bees.\n\nSection::::Worker activities.:Fanning bees.\n\nWorker bees fan the hive, cooling it with evaporated water brought by water carrier bees. They direct airflow into the hive or out of the hive depending on need.\n\nSection::::Worker activities.:Water carriers.\n", "Honey bee life cycle\n\nThe honey bee life cycle, here referring exclusively to the domesticated Western honey bee, depends greatly on their social structure. \n\nSection::::Colony life.\n", "There are two worker castes in \"M. bellicosus\", the major worker and the minor worker. In both cases, the workers begin their lives by taking care of the queen, and later on leave the nest to begin foraging. The point at which the worker leaves the nest to begin gathering food differs slightly between the two castes. Major workers will leave at any point between 13 and 25 days after moulting, and the minor worker exits between 9 and 32 days.\n", "\"Is astronomical orientation time compensated?\"\n\nMax Renner wanted to examine how animals use the position of the sun to orient themselves. He used the experiment of translocating bees from Long Island to Davis to see how bees changed their orientation angle due to the position of the sun even when it was not consistent with their original time zone. He found that bees oriented themselves to figure out what direction to first fly using the sun-azimuth, which takes in to account the change in sun speed as it changes position throughout the day.\n", "Members of the Civil Air Patrol who are employed by the state of Missouri, or who work for a company with fifty or more employees, are guaranteed under Missouri law a leave of absence in order to respond to emergency missions as a part of the Civil Air Patrol for up to fifteen days per calendar year, or without regard to the length of time when responding to a state or nationally declared emergency in the state of Missouri. The leave is to be granted without loss of time, pay, regular leave, impairment of efficiency rating or of any other rights or benefits to which such an employee would otherwise be entitled.\n", "Colony foundation in \"L. luctuosum\" is by pleometrosis (cooperative), in which 2 to 40 fertile queens found a single colony. Most colony foundation activities take place at night. There is a division of labor among founder queens. However, this is not always divided the same for each foundation event. The amount of time dedicated to each activity by each queen varies with each colony foundation event. Some queens are active in a variety of tasks. For example, some queens dedicate more time to brood care and others more time patrolling the nest area. The fewer ants founding together (3 or less), the more time spent per individual caring for brood, ovipositing, and exploring. Trophallaxis, patrol activity, and inactivity decreases in these cases, but brood care still remains the primary activity of founding queens.\n", "Extranidal behavior described in this section pertains to particular behavioral activities that specifically occur outside the nest that are common in both adult males and females in a given colony. Foraging and patrolling also constitute extra behavior, but they are discussed in more detail in patrolling behavior and diet and foraging activity.\n", "Insecticides that are toxic to bees have label directions that protect the bees from poisoning as they forage. To comply with the label, applicators must know where and when bees forage in the application area, and the length of residual activity of the pesticide.\n", "The pre-emergence phase is the time between the founding of the nest by one or multiple foundresses and the emergence of the first adult. During this phase, labor begins to become divided between dominant and subordinate individuals. For instance, dominant individuals will spend much of their time resting and building the cells in the colony, while subordinate individuals will spend time outside or on the edge of the nest. The pre-emergence phase is typically just over 71 days long and is divided into three portions: \n", "Abuse is defined as use or treatment of something (a person, item, substance, concept, or vocabulary) that is deemed harmful. Neglect is defined as to be remiss in the care or treatment of something. Abuse and neglect which results in death or serious physical or emotional harm to a child, an elderly or infirm person, or an animal can be proven by using insect evidence.\n\nSection::::Indicators of abuse and neglect.\n" ]	[ "Insects have off days or are held accountable for doing their jobs.", "Bees can possibly decide to take an off day or choose to do something other than work. " ]	[ "Insects don't choose to not do their jobs. It's the only thing they are wired to do so they do that. ", "Bees don't exactly have a conscious, they are just wired to behave the way they do everyday, which means they work pretty much all the time. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Insects have off days or are held accountable for doing their jobs.", "Bees can possibly decide to take an off day or choose to do something other than work. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Insects don't choose to not do their jobs. It's the only thing they are wired to do so they do that. ", "Bees don't exactly have a conscious, they are just wired to behave the way they do everyday, which means they work pretty much all the time. " ]
2018-04645	Why do so many people obsessively take selfies/videos/random pics when drunk? Is there an actual psychological reason?	Yes. It's called "relaxed inhibitions". Alcohol is a depressant - a drug that works to reduce functional or nervous activity. One of its targets is the rational thought process that governs your emotions and helps you think through stuff like "If I do X, then circumstance Y will happen, and Y is bad so I should not do X". So some people "lose control" to various levels as they get drunk, and their emotions get stronger and they become less inhibited. Some get angry (avoid avoid). Some get really sad about that ex-relationship (also avoid avoid). And some really get invested in wanting to remember the occasion or share it with their friends - so they take lots of selfies or video themselves doing something really dumb, and then because they didn't care at the time that X might lead to Y, sometimes really regret later it when it trends on social media and that person's boss sees what they REALLY think about their job.	[ "Several other studies have shown that students who were told they were consuming alcoholic beverages (which in fact were non-alcoholic) perceived themselves as being \"drunk\", exhibited fewer physiological symptoms of social stress, and drove a simulated car similarly to other subjects who had actually consumed alcohol. The result is somewhat similar to the placebo effect.\n", "Alcohol can sometimes improve change blindness. For example, intoxicated participants were quicker at detecting minor changes in large displays of images than sober participants. This could be attributed to more passive viewings of larger images, and the use of alcohol slows down more controlled search processes.\n\nActive viewing involves more saccades than fixations. When viewing an image with a more passive search, more information is processed with each fixation. The alcohol slows down the movement and processing of the brain, therefore causing more fixation points.\n\nSection::::In other senses.\n", "Alcohol exaggerates the drinker’s perception of the world around him. The drinker’s response to this exaggerated world manifests in erratic and dramatic behaviors. Under the influence of alcohol, individuals are incapable of sufficiently processing the long-term consequences of their actions; they will respond to immediate and salient cues in the moment. In this way, drunk individuals can be described as \"slaves to the present moment\". \n", "In an Australian context, a study was undertaken in 2013 that surveyed 139 Australian women, aged between 18 and 29, who were enrolled in an undergraduate degree at university. These women were asked to complete a survey regarding compensatory eating and behaviours in response to alcohol consumption to test for drunkorexia symptomatology. In the sample tested, 79% of participants demonstrated engaging in characterised drunkorexia behaviour. Further analysis of the results showed that social norms of drinking and the social norms associated with body image and thinness impacted heavily upon the motivation for these behaviours.\n", "Alcohol consumption and belief of consumption influenced emotion detection in ten second clips. Participants who thought they had consumed an alcoholic beverage rated one facial expression (approximately 3% of the facial expressions they saw) more in each clip as happy compared to the control group. Thus, impression formation may be affected by even the perception of alcohol consumption.\n\nSection::::Neuroscience.:Cross-cultural differences.\n", "BULLET::::- Redbush tea, a herbal tea made from the plant \"Aspalathus linearis\", a native of South Africa's fynbos\n\nBULLET::::- Fig roll, a biscuit filled with fig paste that dates back to ancient Egypt\n\nBULLET::::- Cresta, a frothy fruit-flavoured drink produced in the United Kingdom from the early 1970s through to around 2007; the wisdom of drinking it has subsequently been questioned\n\nBULLET::::- Borehamwood, a town in southern Hertfordshire and an outlying suburb of London\n\nBULLET::::- Hall, Stairs and Landing, a fictional band; an experimental trio from Borehamwood\n\nBULLET::::- Scott Verplank (born 1964), American professional golfer\n", "The motivations behind drunkorexia as a pattern of behaviour is one of the lesser understood aspects of the condition. It is suspected that the predominant factors in the development of drunkorexia are a distorted self perception congruent with unrealistic standards of body image, peer pressure to assimilate to the norm in terms of social drinking and societal standards of beauty, as a coping mechanism for anxiety and depression and as a means of getting intoxicated rapidly in response to stress and or peer pressure.\n", "A study undertaken in 1983 sought to investigate if individuals who regularly participated in binge drinking, or were alcohol dependent, had a more distorted self perception than those individuals who were not abusing alcohol. The study measured the relative rate of body image distortion by asking participants in both a control, non-alcoholic abusive group and a group of alcohol dependent individuals to estimate the length and width of 22 different body parts, including the shoulders, arms, chest etc. The results showed that those individuals who were alcohol abusers saw their body parts as much larger than they actually were, indicating a distorted perception of self. The results from this study indicate that there may be a link between those who are predispositioned to engage in alcohol dependant or binge drinking behavior and a distorted perception of self which would help psychiatrists and clinical practitioners establish an at risk population and further would aid in better understanding and treating drunkorexia.\n", "Alcohol consumption alters the drinker's self-image by \"enhancing feelings of self-appraisal and even narcissism\". Alcohol inhibits sophisticated levels of mental processing that are necessary to recognize personal flaws. The ‘tunnel vision’ effect of alcohol myopia, which limits the attentional capacity of the drinker, causes individuals to focus on favorable and superficial characteristics of themselves. Overall, the self-inflating effect of alcohol can increase the drinker’s self-confidence and therefore lead him or her to engage in activities or social situations that would normally make her or him nervous or uncomfortable when sober.\n\nSection::::Three classes of myopia.:Relief.\n", "Alcoholism can enhance state-dependent memory as well. In a study comparing the state-dependent memory effects of alcohol on both subjects with alcoholism and subjects without alcoholism, researchers found that the alcoholic subjects showed greater effects for state-dependent memory on tasks of recall and free association. This is not because alcohol better produces associations, but because the person with alcoholism lives a larger portion of their life under the influence of alcohol. This produces changes in cognition and so when the person with alcoholism drinks, the intoxication primes their brain towards certain associations made in similar states. Essentially, the intoxicated and sober states of the alcoholic are in fact, different from the intoxicated and sober states of the non-alcoholic person, whose body is not as used to processing such large amounts of the substance. For this reason, we see slightly larger effects of state-dependent memory while intoxicated for chronic drinkers than for those who do not drink often.\n", "A 2002 study from O'Malley and Johnston reviewed data from the national College Alcohol Study, the Core Institute, Monitoring the Future, and the National College Health Risk Behavior Survey affirming that 70% of participating college students reported consuming alcohol within the prior month and 40% had engaged in binge drinking. First-year college students have been identified as uniquely predisposed to binge drinking.\n", "Studies have shown that there is an effect of alcohol on visual memory. In a recent study visual working memory and its neutral correlates was assessed in university students who partake in binge drinking, the intermittent consumption of large amounts of alcohol. The findings revealed that there may be binge-drinking related functional alteration in recognition working memory processes. This suggests that impaired prefrontal cortex function may occur at an early age in binge drinkers.\n", "When attempting to examine the effects that alcohol consumption has on social inhibition researchers found that after being provoked sober individuals used inhibiting cues, such as the innocence of the instigator and the severity of the retaliation to control their response to the aggressive provocation. However, the researchers found that an intoxicated individual did not have these same inhibitions and, as a result, exhibited more extreme behaviors of retaliated aggression to the provocation without processing information they would normally consider about the situation. On average, drunken individuals exhibited more aggression, self-disclosure, risk taking behaviors, and laughter than sober individuals. Extreme behaviors are not as common in sober individuals because they are able to read inhibitory cues and social conduct norms that drunken individuals are not as inclined to consider. These negative social behaviors, then, are a result of lowered social inhibitions.\n", "Section::::Prospective memory.\n", "R. Andrew Chambers, MD, Assistant Professor, Institute of Psychiatric Research and Director, Laboratory for Translational Neuroscience of Dual Diagnosis Disorders notes that many celebrity blog sites report similar patterns of behavior among young actresses such as Lindsay Lohan and Paris Hilton, and that the condition could be mimicked within the entertainment industry and contemporary youth culture at large.\n\nSection::::History of binge drinking and eating disorders among college students.\n", "By leading the brain to overreact to present cues and disregard the implications of one’s actions, alcohol often provokes aggressive behavior. Alcohol consumption can result in a \"Jekyll and Hyde\" effect in individuals who are typically amiable when sober but are perhaps predisposed to aggressive behavior. Additionally, alcohol has a dramatic connection to criminal behavior, rage, physical destruction, and sexual assault.\n", "Section::::Effects on working memory.\n\nWorking memory allows one to keep things in mind while simultaneously performing complex tasks. It involves a system for both the temporary storage and the manipulation of information, subsequently forming a crucial link between perception and controlled action. Evidence suggests that working memory involves three components: the \"central executive\" which controls attention, the \"visuo-spatial sketchpad\" which holds and manipulates spatial information, and the \"phonological loop\" which performs a similar function for auditory and speech-based information.\n\nSection::::Effects on working memory.:In the short term.\n", "Section::::Single release.\n", "Section::::Effects on working memory.:In the long term.\n", "A. O. Scott of \"The New York Times\" remarked \"Mr. Swanberg’s camera weaves through bodies at rest, at work and at the bar in no particular hurry, and his script captures the idioms of men and women who are equally inclined to waste words and to say very little. But the busy tedium of their lives is given shape and direction by the skill of the cast and by the precision of the director’s eye, ear and editing instincts.\"\n", "Section::::In popular culture.\n\nThe memory inhibiting effects of alcohol are often a prominent topic in popular culture. It appears in movies, books, and television shows. Several movies show characters drinking alcohol to the point of memory loss and awakening the next morning with a host of problems due to actions they performed while intoxicated.\n", "In a 2008 \"Rolling Stone\" cover story, George Young admitted to David Fricke that the \"Blow Up Your Video\" session was when he realized his brother Malcolm, who had always been a heavy drinker, was in the grips of alcoholism: \"I saw the signs. Malcolm had a problem. I said if he didn't get his act together, I was out of there. I don't recall it having any effect.\"\n", "When I went to record the track, I wanted to be drunk while I recorded it. I was really smizz and drizz when I recorded the record so it feels authentic. When I recorded the track I wasn’t going to put it out just yet because I had just released Sleep Walkin and I had a lot of records on there I wanted to do videos for. But something one day just told me that I needed to put this out—nobody told me, just one day I thought this would take me to the next level.\n", "Alcohol expectations can operate in the absence of actual consumption of alcohol. Research in the United States over a period of decades has shown that men tend to become more sexually aroused when they think they have been drinking alcohol—even when they have not been drinking it. Women report feeling more sexually aroused when they falsely believe the beverages they have been drinking contained alcohol (although one measure of their physiological arousal shows that they became less aroused).\n\nSection::::Alcohol expectations.:Drug treatment programs.\n", "Research has shown that heavy alcohol use clearly leads to deficits in memory. Less is known about the effects of alcohol on day-to-day memory function, specifically, prospective memory, remembering to do things at some future point in time. The results of a study conducted by Heffernan et al. (2010) suggest that binge drinking in the teenage years leads to impairments in everyday prospective memory. A study by Heffernan and O'Neill (2011) further investigated the effect has alcohol on time-based prospective memory and concluded that binge drinking was associated with significantly reduced performance on time-based tasks.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02320	What sparked the beginning of modern medicine/science as we know it and why have some countries/cultures failed or refused to achieve such advancements?	It was pretty much the start of the industrial evolution in europe, which had many reasons of starting. One for example is the rural depopulation in the later stages of the middle Ages. This lead to the build-up of many different braches of work and eventually ended up in modern medicine/science.	[ "Modern scientific biomedical research (where results are testable and reproducible) began to replace early Western traditions based on herbalism, the Greek \"four humours\" and other such pre-modern notions. The modern era really began with Edward Jenner's discovery of the smallpox vaccine at the end of the 18th century (inspired by the method of inoculation earlier practiced in Asia), Robert Koch's discoveries around 1880 of the transmission of disease by bacteria, and then the discovery of antibiotics around 1900.\n", "BULLET::::- 1127 – Stephen of Antioch translated the work of Haly Abbas\n\nBULLET::::- 1100–1161 – Avenzoar Teacher of Averroes\n\nBULLET::::- 1170 – Rogerius Salernitanus composed his \"Chirurgia\" also known as \"The Surgery of Roger\"\n\nBULLET::::- 1126–1198 – Averroes\n\nBULLET::::- c. 1161d – Matthaeus Platearius\n\nSection::::1200–1499.\n\nBULLET::::- 1203 – Innocent III organized the hospital of Santo Spirito at Rome inspiring others all over Europe\n\nBULLET::::- c. 1210–1277 – William of Saliceto, also known as Guilielmus de Saliceto\n\nBULLET::::- 1210–1295 – Taddeo Alderotti – Scholastic medicine\n\nBULLET::::- 1240 Bartholomeus Anglicus\n", "BULLET::::- 1260 – Louis IX established Les Quinze-vingt; originally a retreat for the blind, it became a hospital for eye diseases, and is now one of the most important medical centers in Paris\n\nBULLET::::- c. 1260–1320 Henri de Mondeville\n\nBULLET::::- 1284 – Mansur hospital of Cairo\n\nBULLET::::- c. 1275 – c. 1328 Joannes Zacharias Actuarius a Byzantine physician wrote the last great compendium of Byzantine medicine\n\nBULLET::::- 1275–1326 – Mondino de Luzzi \"Mundinus\" carried out the first systematic human dissections since Herophilus of Chalcedon and Erasistratus of Ceos 1500 years earlier.\n", "BULLET::::- 1563 – Garcia de Orta founds tropical medicine with his treatise on Indian diseases and treatments\n\nBULLET::::- 1570–1643 – John Woodall Ship surgeons used lemon juice to treat scurvy wrote \"The Surgions Mate\"\n\nBULLET::::- 1590 – Microscope was invented, which played a huge part in medical advancement\n\nBULLET::::- 1596 – Li Shizhen publishes \"Běncǎo Gāngmù\" or \"Compendium of Materia Medica\"\n\nBULLET::::- 1603 – Girolamo Fabrici studies leg veins and notices that they have valves which allow blood to flow only toward the heart\n\nBULLET::::- 1621–1676 – Richard Wiseman\n", "BULLET::::- 500 BC – the Sushruta Samhita is published, laying the framework for Ayurvedic medicine\n\nBULLET::::- c. 490 – c. 430 – Empedocles four elements\n", "BULLET::::- 1540–1604 – William Clowes – Surgical chest for military surgeons\n\nBULLET::::- 1543 – Andreas Vesalius publishes De Fabrica Corporis Humani which corrects Greek medical errors and revolutionizes European medicine\n\nBULLET::::- 1546 – Girolamo Fracastoro proposes that epidemic diseases are caused by transferable seedlike entities\n\nBULLET::::- 1550–1612 – Peter Lowe\n\nBULLET::::- 1553 – Miguel Serveto describes the circulation of blood through the lungs. He is accused of heresy and burned at the stake\n\nBULLET::::- 1556 – Amato Lusitano describes venous valves in the Ázigos vein\n\nBULLET::::- 1559 – Realdo Colombo describes the circulation of blood through the lungs in detail\n", "BULLET::::- 116–27 BC – Marcus Terentius Varro Germ theory of disease No one paid any attention to it.\n\nBULLET::::- 1st century AD – Rufus of Ephesus; Marcellinus a physician of the first century AD; Numisianus\n\nBULLET::::- 23 AD – 79 AD – Pliny the Elder writes \"Natural History\"\n\nBULLET::::- c. 25 BC – c. 50 AD – Aulus Cornelius Celsus Medical encyclopedia\n\nBULLET::::- 50–70 AD – Pedanius Dioscorides writes \"De Materia Medica\" – a precursor of modern pharmacopoeias that was in use for almost 1600 years\n\nBULLET::::- 2nd century AD Aretaeus of Cappadocia\n\nBULLET::::- 98–138 AD – Soranus of Ephesus\n", "BULLET::::- 510–430 BC – Alcmaeon of Croton scientific anatomic dissections. He studied the optic nerves and the brain, arguing that the brain was the seat of the senses and intelligence. He distinguished veins from the arteries and had at least vague understanding of the circulation of the blood. Variously described by modern scholars as \"Father of Anatomy\"; \"Father of Physiology\"; \"Father of Embryology\"; \"Father of Psychology\"; \"Creator of Psychiatry\"; \"Founder of Gynecology\"; and as the \"Father of Medicine\" itself. There is little evidence to support the claims but he is, nonetheless, important.\n\nBULLET::::- fl. 425 BC – Diogenes of Apollonia\n", "Timeline of medicine and medical technology\n\nThis is a timeline of the history of medicine and medical technology.\n\nSection::::Antiquity.\n\nBULLET::::- 3300 BC – During the Stone Age, early doctors used very primitive forms of herbal medicine.\n\nBULLET::::- 3000 BC – Ayurveda The origins of Ayurveda have been traced back to around 4,000 BCE.\n\nBULLET::::- c. 2600 BC – Imhotep the priest-physician who was later deified as the Egyptian god of medicine.\n", "BULLET::::- 8th century – Homer tells that Polydamna supplied the Greek forces besieging Troy with healing drugs Homer also tells about battlefield surgery Idomeneus tells Nestor after Machaon had fallen: \"A surgeon who can cut out an arrow and heal the wound with his ointments is worth a regiment\".\n\nBULLET::::- 700 BC – Cnidos medical school; also one at Cos\n\nBULLET::::- 500 BC – Darius I orders the restoration of the \"House of Life\" (First record of a (much older) medical school)\n\nBULLET::::- 500 BC – Bian Que becomes the earliest physician known to use acupuncture and pulse diagnosis\n", "BULLET::::- c. 630 – Paul of Aegina Encyclopedia in 7 books very detailed \"surgery\" used by Albucasis\n\nBULLET::::- 790–869 – Leo Itrosophist also \"Mathematician\" or \"Philosopher\" wrote \"Epitome of Medicine\"\n\nBULLET::::- c. 800–873 – Al-Kindi (Alkindus) \"De Gradibus\"\n\nBULLET::::- 820 – Benedictine hospital founded, School of Salerno would grow around it\n\nBULLET::::- 857d – Mesue the elder (Yūḥannā ibn Māsawayh) Syriac Christian\n\nBULLET::::- c. 830–870 – Hunayn ibn Ishaq (Johannitius) Syriac-speaking Christian also knew Greek and Arabic. Translator and author of several medical tracts.\n\nBULLET::::- c. 838–870 – Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari, writes an encyclopedia of medicine in Arabic.\n", "BULLET::::- Paracelsus, an alchemist by trade, rejects occultism and pioneers the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine. Burns the books of Avicenna, Galen and Hippocrates.\n\nBULLET::::- Hieronymus Fabricius His \"Surgery\" is mostly that of Celsus, Paul of Aegina, and Abulcasis citing them by name.\n\nBULLET::::- Caspar Stromayr or Stromayer Sixteenth Century\n\nBULLET::::- 1500?–1561 Pierre Franco\n\nBULLET::::- Ambroise Paré (1510–1590) pioneered the treatment of gunshot wounds.\n", "With the Renaissance came an increase in experimental investigation, principally in the field of dissection and body examination, thus advancing our knowledge of human anatomy. The development of modern neurology began in the 16th century with Vesalius, who described the anatomy of the brain and other organs; he had little knowledge of the brain's function, thinking that it resided mainly in the ventricles. Understanding of medical sciences and diagnosis improved, but with little direct benefit to health care. Few effective drugs existed, beyond opium and quinine. William Harvey provided a refined and complete description of the circulatory system. The most useful tomes in medicine, used both by students and expert physicians, were \"materiae medicae\" and \"pharmacopoeiae\".\n", "BULLET::::- 420 BC – Hippocrates of Cos maintains that diseases have natural causes and puts forth the Hippocratic Oath. Origin of rational medicine.\n\nSection::::Medicine after Hippocrates.\n\nBULLET::::- c. 400 BC – 1 BC – The \"Huangdi Neijing\" (\"Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal Medicine\") is published, laying the framework for traditional Chinese medicine\n\nBULLET::::- 4th century BC – Philistion of Locri Praxagoras distinguishes veins and arteries and determines only arteries pulse\n\nBULLET::::- 375–295 BC – Diocles of Carystus\n", "The development of modern neurology began in the 16th century in Italy and France with Niccolò Massa, Jean Fernel, Jacques Dubois and Andreas Vesalius. Vesalius described in detail the anatomy of the brain and other organs; he had little knowledge of the brain's function, thinking that it resided mainly in the ventricles. Over his lifetime he corrected over 200 of Galen's mistakes. Understanding of medical sciences and diagnosis improved, but with little direct benefit to health care. Few effective drugs existed, beyond opium and quinine. Folklore cures and potentially poisonous metal-based compounds were popular treatments.\n", "BULLET::::- c. 910d – Ishaq ibn Hunayn\n\nBULLET::::- 9th century – Yahya ibn Sarafyun a Syriac physician Johannes Serapion, Serapion the Elder\n\nBULLET::::- c. 865–925 – Rhazes pediatrics, and makes the first clear distinction between smallpox and measles in his \"al-Hawi\".\n\nBULLET::::- d. 955 – Isaac Judaeus Isḥāq ibn Sulaymān al-Isrāʾīlī Egyptian born Jewish physician\n\nBULLET::::- 913–982 – Shabbethai Donnolo alleged founding father of \"School of Salerno\" wrote in Hebrew\n\nBULLET::::- d. 982–994 – 'Ali ibn al-'Abbas al-Majusi Haly Abbas\n\nBULLET::::- 1000 – Albucasis (936–1018) surgery \"Kitab al-Tasrif\", surgical instruments.\n", "BULLET::::- 1849 – Elizabeth Blackwell is the first woman to gain a medical degree in the United States.\n\nBULLET::::- 1850 – Female Medical College of Pennsylvania (later Woman's Medical College), the first medical college in the world to grant degrees to women, is founded in Philadelphia.\n\nBULLET::::- 1858 – Rudolf Carl Virchow 13 October 1821 – 5 September 1902 his theories of cellular pathology spelled the end of Humoral medicine.\n\nBULLET::::- 1867 – Lister publishes \"Antiseptic Principle of the Practice of Surgery\", based partly on Pasteur's work.\n", "Section::::Important developments.:Medicine.\n", "BULLET::::- 420 – Caelius Aurelianus a doctor from Sicca Veneria (El-Kef, Tunisia) handbook \"On Acute and Chronic Diseases\" in Latin.\n\nBULLET::::- 447 – Cassius Felix of Cirta (Constantine, Ksantina, Algeria), medical handbook drew on Greek sources, Methodist and Galenist in Latin\n\nBULLET::::- 480–547 Benedict of Nursia founder of \"monastic medicine\"\n\nBULLET::::- 484–590 – Flavius Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorus\n\nBULLET::::- fl. 511–534 – Anthimus Greek: Ἄνθιμος\n\nBULLET::::- 536 – Sergius of Reshaina (died 536) – A Christian theologian-physician who translated thirty-two of Galen's works into Syriac and wrote medical treatises of his own\n\nBULLET::::- 525–605 – Alexander of Tralles Alexander Trallianus\n", "Additionally, Paré set up a school for midwives in Paris and designed artificial limbs.\n\nSection::::Individuals.:Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564).\n", "BULLET::::- 1242 – Ibn an-Nafis suggests that the right and left ventricles of the heart are separate and discovers the pulmonary circulation and coronary circulation\n\nBULLET::::- c. 1248 – Ibn al-Baitar wrote on botany and pharmacy, studied animal anatomy and medicine veterinary medicine.\n\nBULLET::::- 1249 – Roger Bacon writes about convex lens spectacles for treating long-sightedness\n\nBULLET::::- 1257 – 1316 Pietro d'Abano also known as Petrus De Apono or Aponensis\n", "Section::::Individuals.:Hieronymus Fabricius (1537-1619).\n", "BULLET::::- 500–550 – Aetius of Amida Encyclopedia 4 books each divided into 4 sections\n\nBULLET::::- second half of 6th century building of xenodocheions/bimārestāns by the Nestorians under the Sasanians, would evolve into the complex secular \"Islamic hospital\", which combined lay practice and Galenic teaching\n\nBULLET::::- 550–630 Stephanus of Athens\n\nBULLET::::- 560–636 – Isidore of Seville\n\nBULLET::::- c. 620 Aaron of Alexandria Syriac . He wrote 30 books on medicine, the \"Pandects\". He was the first author in antiquity who mentioned the diseases of smallpox and measles translated by Māsarjawaih a Syrian Jew and Physician, into Arabic about A. D. 683\n", "The earliest narrative describing a medical trial is found in the Book of Daniel, which says that Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar ordered youths of royal blood to eat only red meat and wine for three years, while another group of youths ate only beans and water. The experiment was intended to determine if a diet of vegetables and water was healthier than a diet of wine and red meat. At the experiment endpoint, the trial accomplished its prerogative: the youths who ate only beans and water were noticeably healthier. Scientific curiosity to understand health outcomes from varying treatments has been present for centuries, but it was not until the mid-19th century when an organizational platform was created to support and regulate this curiosity. In 1945, Vannevar Bush said that biomedical scientific research was \"the pacemaker of technological progress\", an idea which contributed to the initiative to found the National Institutes of Health (NIH) in 1948, a historical benchmark that marked the beginning of a near century substantial investment in biomedical research. \n", "In 1628 the English physician William Harvey made a ground-breaking discovery when he correctly described the circulation of the blood in his \"Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus\". Before this time the most useful manual in medicine used both by students and expert physicians was Dioscorides' \"De Materia Medica\", a pharmacopoeia.\n\nBacteria and protists were first observed with a microscope by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in 1676, initiating the scientific field of microbiology.\n\nSection::::Renaissance to early modern period 16th–18th century.:Paracelsus.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03842	Why do you often hit a motivational wall before doing the last part of a task?	I recently took a knitting class, and the teacher mentioned that this is really common problem for many knitters. Once the project is almost done, they lose motivation just finish up those last few rows and bind off. Her theory was that once you can actually see the thing you were trying to create, you get most of the satisfaction of the finished project, so you just stop. Maybe this is also true for creating other, less physical things too. Once your vision is mostly realized, to the point where you can 'see' the big picture, you're satisfied with that.	[ "A key part of the continual improvement process is a study of the reasons why tasks promised in the WWP are delivered late. The following chart shows typical reasons:\n\nFigure 5: example of a reasons Pareto chart\n\nRecording the reasons in a Pareto chart like the one above makes it easy to see where attention is most likely to yield the most results. Using tools like 5 Why analysis and cause-effect diagrams will help the team understand how they can improve the clarity of information and ensure that there are sufficient operatives.\n", "BULLET::::1. Triggering the \"student syndrome\" in the resource assigned to the task - they have more than enough time to do the task, therefore they start the task late using up all the safety.\n\nBULLET::::2. Encouraging multitasking. The safety is added knowing that the resource will not be able to focus on the task and hence encouraged to multitask on multiple projects at a time, which significantly impacts all projects.\n", "BULLET::::- Low possibility of failure\n\nBULLET::::- Short deadlines\n\nBULLET::::- Paramount innovation\n\nBULLET::::- Important quality of life\n\nTraditional project management utilizes the \"waterfall method\", whose purpose is to plan project activity in a straight line. In the traditional approach, each process runs linearly, resulting with what was planned from the beginning.\n\nThe extreme approach, conversely, does not run constantly, instead adapting the project activity during the process, which leads in the final stage to a desired result.\n", "CCPM planning aggregates the large amounts of safety time added to tasks within a project into the buffers—to protect due-date performance and avoid wasting this safety time through bad multitasking, student syndrome, Parkinson's Law, and poorly synchronized integration.\n", "BULLET::::- Another way of prioritizing compulsory tasks (group A) is to put the most unpleasant one first. When it's done, the rest of the list feels easier. Groups B and C can benefit from the same idea, but instead of doing the first task (which is the most unpleasant) right away, it gives motivation to do other tasks from the list to avoid the first one.\n", "This observation appears in \"From Beirut to Jerusalem\" (1989), by Thomas Friedman, who attributes it to the political scientist .\n\nSection::::In business.\n\nSection::::In business.:The project-management trilemma.\n\nArthur C. Clarke cited a management trilemma encountered when trying to achieve production quickly and cheaply while maintaining high quality. In the software industry, this means that one can pick any two of: fastest time to market, highest software quality (fewest defects), and lowest cost (headcount). This is the basis of the popular project management aphorism \"Quick, Cheap, Good: Pick two,\" conceptualized as the project management triangle or \"quality, cost, delivery\".\n", "With traditional project management methods, 30% of lost time and resources are typically consumed by wasteful techniques such as bad multitasking (in particular task switching), student syndrome, Parkinson's law, in-box delays, and lack of prioritization.\n\nIn a project plan, the critical chain is the sequence of both precedence- and resource-dependent tasks that prevents a project from being completed in a shorter time, given finite resources. If resources are always available in unlimited quantities, then a project's critical chain is identical to its critical path method.\n", "The advantage of remembrance can be explained by looking at Lewin's field theory: a task that has already been started establishes a task-specific tension, which improves cognitive accessibility of the relevant contents. The tension is relieved upon completion of the task. If the task is interrupted, the reduction of tension is impeded. Through continuous tension, the content is made more easily accessible, and can be easily remembered.\n", "Because task duration has been planned at the 50% probability duration, there is pressure on resources to complete critical chain tasks as quickly as possible, overcoming student's syndrome and Parkinson's Law.\n\nSection::::Details.:Monitoring.\n", "Section::::Goals.:Improve project efficiency.\n\nEfficiency can be achieved in two ways: by reducing rework and by shortening project length.\n", "Once the task is complete the last planner responsible declares completion so that site management or the next trade can assure themselves that it is complete to an appropriate standard.\n", "Before work starts, team leaders make tasks ready so that when work should be done, it can be. Why put work into production if a pre-requisite is missing? This \"MakeReady\" process continues throughout the project.\n\nFigure 2: part of a MakeReady form for documenting the process of making tasks ready (this one for use in design)\n\nThere is a weekly work planning (WWP) meeting involving all the last planners – design team leaders and/or trade supervisors on site. It is in everyone’s interest to explore inter-dependencies between tasks and prevent colleagues from over-committing.\n", "Resources are assigned to each task, and the plan is resource leveled, using the aggressive durations. The longest sequence of resource-leveled tasks that lead from beginning to end of the project is then identified as the critical chain. The justification for using the 50% estimates is that half of the tasks will finish early and half will finish late, so that the variance over the course of the project should be zero.\n", "If the work breakdown structure designer attempts to capture any action-oriented details in the WBS, the designer will likely include either too many actions or too few actions. Too many actions will exceed 100% of the parent's scope and too few will fall short of 100% of the parent's scope. The best way to adhere to the 100% rule is to define WBS elements in terms of outcomes or results, not actions. This also ensures that the WBS is not overly prescriptive of methods, allowing for greater ingenuity and creative thinking on the part of the project participants. For new product development projects, the most common technique to ensure an outcome-oriented WBS is to use a product breakdown structure. Feature-driven software projects may use a similar technique which is to employ a feature breakdown structure. When a project provides professional services, a common technique is to capture all planned deliverables to create a deliverable-oriented WBS. Work breakdown structures that subdivide work by project phases (e.g. preliminary design phase, critical design phase) must ensure that phases are clearly separated by a deliverable also used in defining entry and exit criteria (e.g. an approved preliminary or critical design review).\n", "Goldratt claims that the current method of generating task time estimates is the primary reason for increased expense of projects and their inability to finish on time. The commonly accepted principle is to add safety (: pad or slop) to generate a task time length that will essentially guarantee the step gets completed. He asserts that estimates for a task are based on individuals providing values that they feel will give them an 80-90% chance of completing the step, these estimates are further padded by managers above this person creating a length of time to complete a task that is excessive - as much as 200% of the actual time required. It is this excessive padding that has the opposite effect - guaranteeing the task will run full term or late. As counter intuitive as this seems, he provides examples of why this is the case. This predisposes the people on the project to consume the time estimate by:\n", "Part of the transformative power of the Wood Badge experience is the effective use of metaphor and tradition to reach both heart and mind. In most Scout associations, \"working your ticket\" is the culmination of Wood Badge training. Participants apply themselves and their new knowledge and skills to the completion of items designed to strengthen the individual's leadership and the home unit's organizational resilience in a project or \"ticket\". The ticket consists of specific goals that must be accomplished within a specified time, often 18 months due to the large amount of work involved. Effective tickets require much planning and are approved by the Wood Badge course staff before the course phase ends. Upon completion of the ticket, a participant is said to have earned his way back to Gilwell.\n", "Conjunctive tasks are tasks where all group members must contribute to the end product in order for it to be completed. On most tasks, a group's performance is the result of a combination of everyone's effort; however, with conjunctive tasks, the group's overall performance depends on the most inferior group member (IGM). Colloquially this person is often termed the \"weakest link.\" Conjunctive tasks are not complete until the entire group has completed their portion of the job. Consequently, the speed and quality of the work is dependent on the least skilled member of the group. In this way, this group member is like the rate determining step. It would be to the benefit of the group to assign the easiest subtask to such a member. Conversely, if they are matched with the most difficult and complex subtasks, the group's overall performance will further suffer.\n", "According to studies of traditional project management methods by Standish Group and others as of 1998, only 44% of projects typically finish on time. Projects typically complete at 222% of the duration originally planned, 189% of the original budgeted cost, 70% of projects fall short of their planned scope (technical content delivered), and 30% are cancelled before completion. CCPM tries to improve performance relative to these traditional statistics.\n\nSection::::Details.\n", "BULLET::::- Develop a strategy by which team members can use to reach the project goal\n\nBULLET::::- Assign tasks to team members including those that he/she will manage\n\nBULLET::::- Determine completion timeline and monitor progress to ensure project is on track\n\nBULLET::::- Communicate progress to upper level management\n\nSection::::Leaders vs. Managers.\n", "For goals with progress certainty, accomplishing a DPM may decrease total motivation to achieve the goal. Amir and Ariely (2008) assert that while approaching a DPM during goal pursuit, motivation to achieve the DPM increases. However, after the DPM is accomplished, motivation declines leading to \"a state of complacency.\" The net result on total motivation to achieve the goal may be negative. Additionally, accomplishing a DPM for a goal with progress certainty, may serve as a distraction from the end goal. The perception of progress from achieving the DPM may lead to less focus on achieving the ultimate goal end state and more focus on competing goals. Hence, DPMs or subgoals may have overall negative effects on motivation during goal pursuit for goals with progress certainty.\n", "Framing is the context in which choices are presented. Experiment: subjects were asked whether they would opt for surgery if the \"survival\" rate is 90 percent, while others were told that the mortality rate is 10 percent. The first framing increased acceptance, even though the situation was no different.\n\nBULLET::::- Sunk-cost\n\nRather than consider the odds that an incremental investment would produce a positive return, people tend to \"throw good money after bad\" and continue investing in projects with poor prospects that have already consumed significant resources. In part this is to avoid feelings of regret.\n\nSection::::Summary.:Overconfidence.\n", "BULLET::::3. Not claiming early completion. In order to preserve the safety concept in future projects, resources do not report tasks completed early. Obviously, though, there is no way to hide a late completion.\n\nSection::::Plot summary.:Theory of Constraints Primer.\n", "Requirements specified to achieve the end result. The overall definition of what the project is supposed to accomplish, and a specific description of what the end result should be or accomplish. A major component of scope is the quality of the final product. The amount of time put into individual tasks determines the overall quality of the project. Some tasks may require a given amount of time to complete adequately, but given more time could be completed exceptionally. Over the course of a large project, quality can have a significant impact on time and cost (or vice versa).\n", "Gable and Harmon-Jones examined the effects of high and low motivational intensity on the scope of attention. Motivational intensity was manipulated using film clips. Half of the participants watched a film showing cats to induce low motivational intensity. Half of participants watched a film showing appetizing desserts to induce high motivational intensity. After watching the film, participants completed a Kimchi and Palmer task to measure their scope of attention. Results showed that participants experienced narrowing attention following the high, but not the low motivational intensity film.\n\nSection::::Motivational Intensity, Valence and Attention.:Measurement and Manipulation of Motivational Intensity.:Goals.\n", "A project plan or work breakdown structure (WBS) is created in much the same fashion as with critical path. The plan is worked backward from a completion date with each task starting as late as possible.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04615	Why can't all garbage be reduced to atomic particles and reused?	"we can split atoms which means we can work at that level" I mean I can hit things with a hammer, it doesn't mean I can build a skyscraper. There is a lot of wrong in that description but this takes the cake. It takes an enormous amount of energy to split any form of stable matter (thats why nuclear energy is radioactive, it means its unstable). We do not have any practical form of fission for non nuclear entities, or fusion for anything much larger than helium, and even those are iffy to build things with. Besides that they thermodynamic-ally combine/split towards iron, and nothing else. We can burn it and get energy from it, and a lot of places do. We can recycle plenty of things. There is no "adhesive what-ever" that preserves structural integrity. What you are asking for is a replicator and alcheme mixed into one, we do not have the technology for either. Not by a long shot.	[ "With few exceptions, none of this garbage finds its way back into the cycles of society or nature; it is not taken up for repeated use by industry, nor is it put back into the soil. As a result of poor or non-existent planning, the volume of garbage is too large for nature to reassimilate, and some of it - toxic metals and stable unnatural compounds - cannot be processed by the cells at all.\n", "Garbage collection is rarely used on embedded or real-time systems because of the perceived need for very tight control over the use of limited resources. However, garbage collectors compatible with such limited environments have been developed. The Microsoft .NET Micro Framework, .NET nanoFramework and Java Platform, Micro Edition are embedded software platforms that, like their larger cousins, include garbage collection.\n\nSection::::Availability.:Garbage Collectors for JDK.\n\nAmong the most popular Garbage Collectors for JDK could be named:\n\nBULLET::::- G1\n\nBULLET::::- Parallel\n\nBULLET::::- Concurrent mark sweep collector (CMS)\n\nBULLET::::- Serial\n\nBULLET::::- Shenandoah\n", "Syntactic garbage can be collected automatically, and garbage collectors have been extensively studied and developed. Semantic garbage cannot be automatically collected in general, and thus cause memory leaks even in garbage-collected languages. Detecting and eliminating semantic garbage is typically done using a specialized debugging tool called a heap profiler, which allows one to see what objects are live and how they are reachable, enabling one to remove the unintended reference.\n\nSection::::Eliminating garbage.\n\nThe problem of managing the deallocation of garbage is a well-known one in computer science. Several approaches are taken:\n", "Section::::Current use and future growth of the model.\n", "The modern GC implementations try to minimize blocking \"stop-the-world\" stalls by doing as much work as possible on the background (i.e. on a separate thread), for example marking unreachable garbage instances while the application process continues to run. In spite of these advancements, for example in the .NET CLR paradigm it is still very difficult to maintain large heaps (millions of objects) with resident objects that get promoted to older generations without incurring noticeable delays (sometimes a few seconds).\n", "Food scraps range from 10% to 20% of household waste, and are a problematic component of municipal waste, creating public health, sanitation and environmental problems at each step, beginning with internal storage and followed by truck-based collection. Burned in waste-to-energy facilities, the high water-content of food scraps means that their heating and burning consumes more energy than it generates; buried in landfills, food scraps decompose and generate methane gas, a greenhouse gas that contributes to climate change.\n", "Section::::Multi-disciplinary impact.\n", "Resources other than memory, such as network sockets, database handles, user interaction windows, file and device descriptors, are not typically handled by garbage collection. Methods used to manage such resources, particularly destructors, may suffice to manage memory as well, leaving no need for GC. Some GC systems allow such other resources to be associated with a region of memory that, when collected, causes the resource to be reclaimed; this is called \"finalization\". Finalization may introduce complications limiting its usability, such as intolerable latency between disuse and reclaim of especially limited resources, or a lack of control over which thread performs the work of reclaiming.\n", "Section::::Practical applications.:Management styles.:Enthusiast.\n", "Section::::Multi-disciplinary impact.:Public policy.\n", "In countries such as the United States and the United Kingdom, food scraps constitute around 19% of the waste dumped in landfills, where it ends up rotting and producing methane, a greenhouse gas.\n\nMethane, or CH, is the second most prevalent greenhouse gas that is released into the air, also produced by landfills in the U.S. Although methane spends less time in the atmosphere (12 years) than CO, it's more efficient at trapping radiation. It is 25 times greater to impact climate change than CO in a 100-year period. Humans accounts over 60% of methane emissions globally.\n\nSection::::Disposal.:Animal feed.\n", "Section::::Multi-disciplinary impact.:Research in psychology.\n", "Generally speaking, higher-level programming languages are more likely to have garbage collection as a standard feature. In some languages that do not have built in garbage collection, it can be added through a library, as with the Boehm garbage collector for C and C++.\n\nMost functional programming languages, such as ML, Haskell, and APL, have garbage collection built in. Lisp is especially notable as both the first functional programming language and the first language to introduce garbage collection.\n", "Many programming languages require garbage collection, either as part of the language specification (for example, Java, C#, D, Go and most scripting languages) or effectively for practical implementation (for example, formal languages like lambda calculus); these are said to be \"garbage collected languages\". Other languages were designed for use with manual memory management, but have garbage-collected implementations available (for example, C and C++). Some languages, like Ada, Modula-3, and C++/CLI, allow both garbage collection and manual memory management to co-exist in the same application by using separate heaps for collected and manually managed objects; others, like D, are garbage-collected but allow the user to manually delete objects and also entirely disable garbage collection when speed is required.\n", "Other dynamic languages, such as Ruby and Julia (but not Perl 5 or PHP before version 5.3, which both use reference counting), JavaScript and ECMAScript also tend to use GC. Object-oriented programming languages such as Smalltalk and Java usually provide integrated garbage collection. Notable exceptions are C++ and Delphi which have destructors.\n\nSection::::Availability.:BASIC.\n", "At first, a moving algorithm may seem inefficient compared to a non-moving one, since much more work would appear to be required on each cycle. But the moving algorithm leads to several performance advantages, both during the garbage collection cycle itself and during program execution:\n\nBULLET::::- No additional work is required to reclaim the space freed by dead objects; the entire region of memory from which reachable objects were moved can be considered free space. In contrast, a non-moving GC must visit each unreachable object and record that the memory it occupied is available.\n", "The need for explicit manual resource management (release/close) for non-GCed resources in an object oriented language becomes transitive to composition. That is: in a non-deterministic GC system, if a resource or a resource-like object requires manual resource management (release/close), and this object is used as \"part of\" another object, then the composed object will also become a resource-like object that itself requires manual resource management (release/close).\n\nSection::::Strategies.\n\nSection::::Strategies.:Tracing.\n", "While recycling diverts waste from entering directly into landfill sites, current recycling misses the dissipative components. Complete recycling is impracticable as highly dispersed wastes become so diluted that the energy needed for their recovery becomes increasingly excessive. \"For example, how will it ever be possible to recycle the numerous chlorinated organic hydrocarbons that have bioaccumulated in animal and human tissues across the globe, the copper dispersed in fungicides, the lead in widely applied paints, or the zinc oxides present in the finely dispersed rubber powder that is abraded from automobile tires?\"\n", "Section::::Practical applications.:Management styles.:Pragmatist.\n", "One result is larger amounts of solid residue from the waste-water treatment process. According to a study at the East Bay Municipal Utility District’s wastewater treatment plant funded by the EPA, food waste produces three times the biogas as compared to municipal sewage sludge. The value of the biogas produced from anaerobic digestion of food waste appears to exceed the cost of processing the food waste and disposing of the residual biosolids (based on a LAX Airport proposal to divert 8,000 tons/year of bulk food waste).\n", "It has been empirically observed that in many programs, the most recently created objects are also those most likely to become unreachable quickly (known as \"infant mortality\" or the \"generational hypothesis\"). A generational GC (also known as ephemeral GC) divides objects into generations and, on most cycles, will place only the objects of a subset of generations into the initial white (condemned) set. Furthermore, the runtime system maintains knowledge of when references cross generations by observing the creation and overwriting of references. When the garbage collector runs, it may be able to use this knowledge to prove that some objects in the initial white set are unreachable without having to traverse the entire reference tree. If the generational hypothesis holds, this results in much faster collection cycles while still reclaiming most unreachable objects.\n", "This may result in higher costs for energy needed to supply oxygen in secondary operations. However, if the waste water treatment is finely controlled, the organic carbon in the food may help to keep the bacterial decomposition running, as carbon may be deficient in that process. This increased carbon serves as an inexpensive and continuous source of carbon necessary for biologic nutrient removal.\n", "Beyond the key problem of correct resource management in the presence of returns and exceptions, and heap-based resource management (disposing objects in a different scope from where they are created), there are many further complexities associated with the dispose pattern. These problems are largely avoided by RAII. However, in common simple use these complexities do not arise: acquire a single resource, do something with it, automatically release it.\n", "Garbage collection consumes computing resources in deciding which memory to free, even though the programmer may have already known this information. The penalty for the convenience of not annotating object lifetime manually in the source code is overhead, which can lead to decreased or uneven performance. A peer-reviewed paper came to the conclusion that GC needs five times the memory to compensate for this overhead and to perform as fast as explicit memory management. Interaction with memory hierarchy effects can make this overhead intolerable in circumstances that are hard to predict or to detect in routine testing. The impact on performance was also given by Apple as a reason for not adopting garbage collection in iOS despite being the most desired feature.\n", "Garbage (computer science)\n\nIn computer science, garbage includes objects, data, or other regions of the memory of a computer system (or other system resources), which will not be used in any future computation by the system, or by a program running on it. As computer systems all have finite amounts of memory, it is frequently necessary to \"deallocate\" garbage and return it to the heap, or memory pool, so the underlying memory can be reused.\n\nSection::::Classification.\n" ]	[ "Garbage can be split to atoms and re used.", "It would be more effecient if humans reduced and reused atomic particles." ]	[ "That would require a lot of energy and wouldn't be economically worth it. ", "It takes an enormous amount of energy to split atoms, there also isn't any practical form of fission for non nuclear entities." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Garbage can be split to atoms and re used.", "It would be more effecient if humans reduced and reused atomic particles." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "That would require a lot of energy and wouldn't be economically worth it. ", "It takes an enormous amount of energy to split atoms, there also isn't any practical form of fission for non nuclear entities." ]

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