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2018-08036	Why does a guitar have harmonics only on certain parts of the fretboard/string?	First you need to understand the concept of overtones. Let's say you play the open E string. The main and strongest tone you're going to hear is the E note, because that's the main frequency the string is vibrating at. But because the string isn't vibrating at exactly the same speed across the whole string $the middle of the string will travel further in the middle of the string than it will closer to the nut or bridge$ the string will also produce a variety of overtones $different frequencies to the main note$. This is what gives instruments $and even individual strings on instruments$ their characteristic sound. If you play the open top E string on a guitar, you can play the same note at the same pitch by playing the B string fretted at the fifth fret...but even though they're the same note at the same frequency, they sound subtly different...and the reason for that because you're 'shortening' the B string, and the B string has a different mass, so it's producing different overtones. A harmonic is an overtone that is a multiple of the base frequency of the string. For example, if a string vibrates at 100hz, its first harmonic will be 200hz, the next, 300hz and so on. Now, a guitar string has 'dead spots' where the string doesn't move $the nut and the bridge saddle$, and the area it can move $the rest of the string$. When the string is particular thickness and tension it 'wants' to vibrate at a specific frequency $the note you've tuned it to$. If you lightly touch the string at the 12th fret, you're creating a new 'dead spot' on the string, the same as the dead spot at the nut and saddle. Now, because the main frequency, the note you'd get if you played the string open, doesn't have a dead spot at the 12th fret, the main note won't sound. Basically, physics won't allow the string to vibrate at the main frequency... but the harmonic does have a dead spot at the 12th fret. In essence, it's like we've moved the nut up to the 12th fret, so while we don't hear the main note, we do hear the harmonic. Basically, what we're doing is cancelling out the main frequency so we only hear the overtones, and at that spot on the string, the only overtone that can be produced is the harmonic. So, the reason we can only produce harmonics at certain parts of the string is because those are the areas where we can create a dead spot that will allow the string to produce an overtone that is a multiple of the base frequency of the string. It's why every string has a harmonic at the 12th fret, because the 12th fret is the halfway point of the string, so by creating a dead spot there, we're halving the length, which doubles the frequency..	[ "Harmonics are produced on the instrument by lightly touching a string (as opposed to fretting it) at any of several points along its length. The fundamental tone will not vibrate; specific overtones, however, will, resulting in a chimelike tone. Harmonics produced by this method based on open-string fundamentals are termed \"natural.\" If the string is fretted, the harmonics are termed \"artificial.\" Natural harmonics may only be sounded at the strings' nodes. The nodes for natural harmonics fall at the following points along the guitar's neck: \n", "Harmonics are most often played by lightly placing a finger on a string at a nodal point of one of the overtones at the moment when the string is driven. The finger immediately damps all overtones that do not have a node near the location touched. The lowest-pitch overtone dominates the resulting sound.\n\nMusic using harmonics can contain very high pitch notes difficult or impossible to reach by fretting. Guitar harmonics also produce a different sound quality than fretted notes, and are one of many techniques used to create musical variety.\n\nSection::::Guitar.:Pinch harmonics.\n", "Although harmonics are most often used on open strings (natural harmonics), occasionally a score will call for an artificial harmonic, produced by playing an overtone on an already stopped string. As a performance technique, it is accomplished by using two fingers on the fingerboard, the first to shorten the string to the desired fundamental, with the second touching the node corresponding to the appropriate harmonic. On fretted instruments, such as an electric guitar, the performer can look at the frets to determine where to stop the string and where to touch the node. On unfretted instruments, such as the violin and related instruments, playing artificial harmonics is an advanced technique, as it requires the performer to find two precise locations on the same string.\n", "The following table displays the stop points on a stringed instrument, such as the guitar (guitar harmonics), at which gentle touching of a string will force it into a harmonic mode when vibrated. String harmonics (flageolet tones) are described as having a \"flutelike, silvery quality\" that can be highly effective as a special color or tone color (timbre) when used and heard in orchestration. It is unusual to encounter natural harmonics higher than the fifth partial on any stringed instrument except the double bass, on account of its much longer strings. Harmonics are widely used in plucked string instruments, such as acoustic guitar, electric guitar and electric bass. On an electric guitar played loudly through a guitar amplifier with distortion, harmonics are more sustained and can be used in guitar solos. In the heavy metal music lead guitar style known as shred guitar, harmonics, both natural and artificial, are widely used.\n", "A guitar harmonic is a musical note played by preventing or amplifying vibration of certain overtones of a guitar string. \n\nHarmonics are primarily generated manually, using a variety of techniques such as the pinch harmonic. Another method utilizes sound wave feedback from a guitar amplifier at high volume, which allows for indefinite vibration of certain string harmonics. Magnetic string drivers, such as the EBow, also use string harmonics to create sounds that are generally not playable via traditional picking or fretting techniques.\n", "The technique is possible on any fretted stringed instrument, but is most widely employed by electric guitarists, especially in heavy metal and rock music where heavy distortion ensures that the otherwise subtle harmonic is greatly amplified. An early example can be heard in Roy Buchanan's 1962 recording of \"Potato Peeler\". Robbie Robertson, who learned the technique from Buchanan, used the technique, as did Leslie West. \n", "To produce an artificial harmonic, a stringed instrument player holds down a note on the neck with one finger of their left hand (thereby shortening the vibrational length of the string) and uses another finger to lightly touch a point on the string that is an integer divisor of its vibrational length, and plucks or bows the side of the string that is closer to the bridge. This technique is used to produce harmonic tones that are otherwise inaccessible on the instrument. To guitar players, varieties of this technique are known as a pinch harmonic, tapped harmonic, and harp harmonic. \"This gives both the electric and the acoustic guitar quite a bit of versatility and sonic flare [sic].\"\n", "In many musical instruments, it is possible to play the upper harmonics without the fundamental note being present. In a simple case (e.g., recorder) this has the effect of making the note go up in pitch by an octave, but in more complex cases many other pitch variations are obtained. In some cases it also changes the timbre of the note. This is part of the normal method of obtaining higher notes in wind instruments, where it is called \"overblowing\". The extended technique of playing multiphonics also produces harmonics. On string instruments it is possible to produce very pure sounding notes, called harmonics or \"flageolets\" by string players, which have an eerie quality, as well as being high in pitch. Harmonics may be used to check at a unison the tuning of strings that are not tuned to the unison. For example, lightly fingering the node found halfway down the highest string of a cello produces the same pitch as lightly fingering the node of the way down the second highest string. For the human voice see Overtone singing, which uses harmonics.\n", "Many pitched acoustic instruments are designed to have partials that are close to being whole-number ratios with very low inharmonicity; therefore, in music theory, and in instrument design, it is convenient, although not strictly accurate, to speak of the partials in those instruments' sounds as \"harmonics\", even though they may have some degree of inharmonicity. The piano, one of the most important instruments of western tradition, contains a certain degree of inharmonicity among the frequencies generated by each string. Other pitched instruments, especially certain percussion instruments, such as marimba, vibraphone, tubular bells, timpani, and singing bowls contain mostly inharmonic partials, yet may give the ear a good sense of pitch because of a few strong partials that resemble harmonics. Unpitched, or indefinite-pitched instruments, such as cymbals and tam-tams make sounds (produce spectra) that are rich in inharmonic partials and may give no impression of implying any particular pitch.\n", "The technique must be performed at one of the appropriate harmonic nodes for the note to sound. For example, to produce a pinch harmonic one octave higher than the fundamental of a string that is stopped at the third fret of a guitar, the string must be plucked halfway between the third fret and the bridge (the 15th fret, as the neck is logarithmic). Other overtones of the same fundamental note may be produced in the same way at other nodes along the string. The point where the string is plucked therefore varies depending on the desired note. Most harmonics have several accessible nodes evenly spaced on the string, so the nodes used in practice are normally around where the string is normally picked (around the pickups on an electric guitar), rather than those above the neck as these are the easiest to access with the picking hand from normal playing. Overtones with a frequency of a multiple of the intended overtone will share the nodes of the lower overtones, so won't be muted.\n", "A single harmonic overtone is quieter than a normal note, which contains many overtones. For this reason, guitar players often increase the guitar volume to play harmonics. Thicker strings, stronger pickups and adjustment to amplifier settings (increasing gain) are some ways of doing this. When the string vibrates primarily at a single fundamental, it has different volumes through different pickups, depending on the proximity of nodes or antinodes to the pickup. The different overtone volumes are why neck and bridge pickups sound different. If a node is directly over a pickup, little or no sound is heard.\n\nSection::::Guitar.:Tapped harmonics.\n", "A guitarist of the rock genre widely known for his use of pinch harmonics is Billy Gibbons of ZZ Top, who uses them frequently in guitar solos, an example being the second solo on the well-known \"La Grange\". \n\nAnother exponent of this technique was Irish blues rock guitarist Rory Gallagher, as in the track \"Walk On Hot Coals\" from the album \"Irish Tour '74\". \n", "When a string is plucked normally, the ear tends to hear the fundamental frequency most prominently, but the overall sound is also colored by the presence of various overtones (frequencies greater than the fundamental frequency). The fundamental frequency and its overtones are perceived by the listener as a single note; however, different combinations of overtones give rise to noticeably different overall tones (see timbre). A harmonic overtone has evenly spaced nodes along the string, where the string does not move from its resting position.\n\nSection::::Nodes.\n\nThe nodes of natural harmonics are located at the following points along the string: \n", "Oscillators that produce harmonic partials behave somewhat like one-dimensional resonators, and are often long and thin, such as a guitar string or a column of air open at both ends (as with the modern orchestral transverse flute). Wind instruments whose air column is open at only one end, such as trumpets and clarinets, also produce partials resembling harmonics. However they only produce partials matching the odd harmonics, at least in theory. The reality of acoustic instruments is such that none of them behaves as perfectly as the somewhat simplified theoretical models would predict.\n", "This technique is used by effect devices producing a magnetic field that can agitate fundamentals and harmonics of steel strings. There are harmonic mode switches as provided by newer versions of the EBow and by guitar build in sustainers like the Fernandes Sustainer and the Moog Guitar. Harmonics control by harmonic mode switching and by the playing technique is applied by the Guitar Resonator where harmonics can be alternated by changing the string driver position at the fretboard while playing.\n\nSection::::Guitar.:Use in rock and metal.\n", "The fundamental frequency is not normally heard on acoustic guitars, classical guitars and other stringed instruments with one end of the strings anchored on a soundboard bridge which has a low profile, holding the strings close to the soundboard surface. In these cases, the lateral string vibration has no discernable effect on the bridge; instead, the bridge is excited by changes in string tension, which are twice the lateral wave frequency. On these instruments, listeners hear the first harmonic as the lowest note. Electric guitars are not like this; the fundamental frequency of each string is heard because the lateral string movement excites the electric pickups underneath the vibrating string.\n", "Tap harmonic is a technique used with fretted string instruments (usually guitar). It is executed by tapping on the actual fret wire, most commonly at the 12th fret, but also can be executed by tapping any of the fret wires with proper technique. It can also be done by gently touching the string over the fret wire instead of tapping the fret wire if the string is already ringing. See also: Shred Guitar.\n\nSection::::Guitar.:String harmonics driven by a magnetic field.\n", "Natural harmonics can be played by touching a left hand finger upon specific points along an open string without pressing it down, then playing the note with the right hand. The positions of both the left and right hand are important. The left hand must be placed at a nodal point along the string. Nodal points are found at integral divisions of the string length. The simplest example would be when the left hand finger divides the string in two and is placed at the twelfth fret. The note then played is one octave higher than the open string. If the string is divided in three (left hand finger near the seventh fret) the note played is one octave and one fifth above the open string. The player must be careful not to pluck the string at another node (nearer the bridge) otherwise the harmonic will not sound. This can be easily demonstrated by resting a left hand finger on the fifth fret and trying to play the note by plucking the string at the twelfth fret with the right hand - no note will be produced. Ideally the right hand should pluck the string at an antinode.\n", "The technique is used commonly in heavy metal, particularly by guitarists such as Criss Oliva, Adam Dutkiewicz, Tommy Victor, Steve Morse, Mick Thomson, Glenn Tipton, John Sykes, Zakk Wylde, Angus Young, Randy Rhoads, Mark Morton, Synyster Gates and Dimebag Darrell. Pinch harmonics are used extensively in death metal, often included in riffs rather than reserved for solos. Combined with the rather low tunings common to the genre, and the fact that they are usually played by both rhythm guitarists (if there are two), the pinched notes leap out, creating more complex and twisted melodic contours than otherwise possible.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "This action is sufficient to silence all harmonics except those that have a node at that location. This is sometimes accomplished by holding the plectrum so very little of its tip protrudes between the thumb and forefinger by roughly , allowing the thumb to brush the string immediately after it is picked.\n", "The fret number, which shows the position of the node in terms of half tones (or frets on a fretted instrument) then is given by:\n\nWith \"s\" equal to the Twelfth root of two, notated \"s\" because it's the first letter of the word \"semitone\".\n", "In music, harmonics are used on string instruments and wind instruments as a way of producing sound on the instrument, particularly to play higher notes and, with strings, obtain notes that have a unique sound quality or \"tone colour\". On strings, harmonics that are bowed have a \"glassy\", pure tone. On stringed instruments, harmonics are played by touching (but not fully pressing down the string) at an exact point on the string while sounding the string (plucking, bowing, etc.); this allows the harmonic to sound, a pitch which is always higher than the fundamental frequency of the string.\n\nSection::::Terminology.\n", "Section::::Detailed explanation.\n\nSection::::Detailed explanation.:Overtones.\n\nWhen a string is plucked or bowed, the string vibrates at several frequencies. The vibration along the entire length of the string is known as the fundamental, while vibrations occurring between points along the string (known as nodes) are referred to as overtones. The fundamental and overtones, when sounded together, are perceived by the listener as a single tone, though the relative prominence of the frequencies varies among instruments, and contribute to its timbre.\n\nSection::::Detailed explanation.:Harmonics.\n", "This technique was popularized by Eddie van Halen. Tapped harmonics are an extension of the tapping technique. The note is fretted as usual, but instead of striking the string the excitation energy required to sound the note is achieved by tapping at a harmonic nodal point. The tapping finger bounces lightly on and off the fret. The open string technique can be extended to artificial harmonics. For instance, for an octave harmonic (12-fret nodal point) press at the third fret, and tap the fifteenth fret, as .\n", "Artists such as Eddie Van Halen, Joe Satriani and Steve Vai made the technique popular, utilizing the tremolo arm and high gain amps together with the pinch harmonic to produce horse-like wails from the instrument.\n\nBilly Corgan often uses the technique in Smashing Pumpkins songs, notably in \"Mayonaise\", where he uses pinch harmonics in the intro without distortion.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04484	Why haven’t humans acquired immunity against common cold?	Some people are probably more resistant than others. But the cold virus mutates extremely fast, so it's next to impossible to develop a successful true immunity.	[ "In the United Kingdom, the Common Cold Unit was set up by the Medical Research Council in 1946 and it was where the rhinovirus was discovered in 1956. In the 1970s, the CCU demonstrated that treatment with interferon during the incubation phase of rhinovirus infection protects somewhat against the disease, but no practical treatment could be developed. The unit was closed in 1989, two years after it completed research of zinc gluconate lozenges in the prophylaxis and treatment of rhinovirus colds, the only successful treatment in the history of the unit.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.\n", "Herd immunity, generated from previous exposure to cold viruses, plays an important role in limiting viral spread, as seen with younger populations that have greater rates of respiratory infections. Poor immune function is a risk factor for disease. Insufficient sleep and malnutrition have been associated with a greater risk of developing infection following rhinovirus exposure; this is believed to be due to their effects on immune function. Breast feeding decreases the risk of acute otitis media and lower respiratory tract infections among other diseases, and it is recommended that breast feeding be continued when an infant has a cold. In the developed world breast feeding may not be protective against the common cold in and of itself.\n", "A recombinant \"Cryptosporidium parvum\" oocyst surface protein (rCP15/60) vaccine has produced an antibody response in a large group of cows and also antibody response in calves fed rCP15/60-immune colostrum produced by these vaccinated cows. This is very promising. Human \"Cryptosporidium parvum\" infections are particularly prevalent and often fatal in neonates in developing countries and to immunocompromised people, such as AIDS patients. There is no commercially available effective vaccine against \"Cryptosporidium parvum\", although passive immunization utilizing different zoite surface (glyco)proteins has shown promise. Developmental stages of the life cycle of the parasite might act as possible targets for vaccine development. The organism is detected in 65–97% of the surface-water supply in the United States and is resistant to most disinfectants used for the treatment of drinking water. Antibodies in the serum of humans and animals infected with \"Cryptosporidium parvum\" react with several antigens, one of which is a 15 protein (CP15) located on the surface of the organism. This protein is a good candidate for use as a molecular vaccine because previous studies have shown that a monoclonal antibody to CP15 confers passive immunity to mice. Currently, there is no vaccine or completely effective drug therapy against \"Cryptosporidium parvum\" in HIV/AIDS individuals.\n", "The only useful ways to reduce the spread of cold viruses are physical measures such as hand washing and face masks; in the healthcare environment, gowns and disposable gloves are also used. Isolation or quarantine is not used as the disease is so widespread and symptoms are non-specific. Vaccination has proved difficult as there are many viruses involved and they mutate rapidly. Creation of a broadly effective vaccine is, thus, highly improbable.\n", "Vitamin C has not decreased the frequency of colds in the general population, but it has halved the frequency of colds in people under heavy short-term physical stress. There is no effect of taking vitamin C in doses up to 8 grams per day after a cold has already begun.\n\nSection::::Background.\n", "Pleconaril works against rhinoviruses, which cause the common cold, by blocking a pocket on the surface of the virus that controls the uncoating process. This pocket is similar in most strains of rhinoviruses and enteroviruses, which can cause diarrhea, meningitis, conjunctivitis, and encephalitis.\n\nSome scientists are making the case that a vaccine against rhinoviruses, the predominant cause of the common cold, is achievable.\n\nVaccines that combine dozens of varieties of rhinovirus at once are effective in stimulating antiviral antibodies in mice and monkeys, researchers have reported in Nature Communications in 2016.\n", "Immunity can possibly be acquired naturally against SBV. It is possible that the seasonality of the infection cycle would not entail a second epidemic circulation next year, due to the shortness of the viraemic period (about 4 to 6 days post exposure, longer in affected foetuses). Vaccination is a possible option for controlling the disease as a vaccine exists for the similar Akabane virus. In March 2012, scientists of the Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut first succeeded in producing an electron microscope image of the Schmallenberg virus.\n\nSection::::Molecular biology.\n", "In order to fix this problem, vaccines must be able to cover the wide variety of strains within a bacterial population. In recent research of \"Neisseria meningitidis\", the possibility of such broad coverage may be achieved through the combination of multi-component polysaccharide conjugate vaccines. However, in order to further improve upon broadening the scope of vaccinations, epidemiological surveillance must be conducted to better detect the variation of escape mutants and their spread.\n", "Additionally, there are additional health risks for individuals who are already not infected with CMV. For instance, CMV infection is strongly associated with development of Alzheimer's Disease.\n\nDevelopment of such a vaccine has been emphasized as a priority by the National Vaccine Program Office in the United States.\n\nSection::::Recombinant gB subunit vaccine.\n\nA phase 2 study of a recombinant gB subunit CMV-vaccine published in 2009 indicated an efficacy of 50% in seronegative women of childbearing age—thus the protection provided was limited and a number of subjects contracted CMV infection despite the vaccination. In one case congenital CMV was encountered.\n", "Serotype replacement, or serotype shifting, may occur if the prevalence of a specific serotype declines due to high levels of immunity, allowing other serotypes to replace it. Initial vaccines against \"Streptococcus pneumoniae\" significantly reduced nasopharyngeal carriage of vaccine serotypes (VTs), including antibiotic-resistant types, only to be entirely offset by increased carriage of non-vaccine serotypes (NVTs). This did not result in a proportionate increase in disease incidence though since NVTs were less invasive than VTs. Since then, pneumococcal vaccines that provide protection from the emerging serotypes have been introduced and have successfully countered their emergence. The possibility of future shifting remains, so further strategies to deal with this include expansion of VT coverage and the development of vaccines that use either killed whole-cells, which have more surface antigens, or proteins present in multiple serotypes.\n", "Vitamin C and the common cold\n\nThe common cold, or simply the cold, is a viral infectious disease of the upper respiratory tract. The cold is indeed common, and is a significant cause for absences from work and school. Even before the discovery of vitamin C, folklore had it that certain fruits were effective in both preventing and treating the cold. After scientific identification of vitamin C in the early part of the 20th century, research began into the possible effects of the vitamin against the common cold.\n", "Rhinovirus-caused colds are most infectious during the first three days of symptoms; they are much less infectious afterwards.\n\nSection::::Cause.:Weather.\n", "Novel subunit vaccine constructs for an S protein SARS vaccine based on the receptor binding domain (RBD) are being developed by the New York Blood Center. The re-emergence of SARS is possible, and the need remains for commercial vaccine and therapeutic development. However, the cost and length of time for product development, and the uncertain future demand, result in unfavorable economic conditions to accomplish this task. In the development of therapeutics and next-generation\n\nvaccines, more work is required to determine the structure/ function relationships of critical enzymes and structural proteins.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Carlo Urbani\n", "The potential HCV resistance against DAA drugs is a concern. Among the HCV quasispecies there are pre-existing variants with the potential to confer resistance to NS5A inhibitors without having any previous exposure to those drugs. Generally, the replication of these variants happens only in minute quantities, making them undetectable by current techniques. On the other hand, it is possible to selectively grow immune variants in the presence of NS5A inhibitors. HCV resistance is characterized by a certain escape pattern. This pattern is often associated with amino acid substitutions that confer upon the virus a robust drug resistance without impairing the viral fitness. It has been established that NS5A inhibitors possess a relatively low threshold for resistance, and variants that are associated with NS5A resistance have been shown to endure for up to six months in patients following treatment cessation. Therefore, combination therapies produce higher efficacy and shorter treatment periods.\n", "Rhinoviruses are the most common cause of the common cold; other viruses such as respiratory syncytial virus, parainfluenza virus and adenoviruses can cause them too. Rhinoviruses also exacerbate asthma attacks. Although rhinoviruses come in many varieties, they do not drift to the same degree that influenza viruses do. A mixture of 50 inactivated rhinovirus types should be able to stimulate neutralizing antibodies against all of them to some degree.\n\nSection::::Approaches by life cycle stage.:During viral synthesis.\n\nA second approach is to target the processes that synthesize virus components after a virus invades a cell.\n", "A vaccine that targets PCSK9 has been developed to treat high LDL-particle concentrations. The vaccine uses a VLP (virus-like particle) as an immunogenic carrier of an antigenic PCSK9 peptide. VLP's are viruses that have had their DNA removed so that they retain their external structure for antigen display but are unable to replicate; they can induce an immune response without causing infection. Mice and macaques vaccinated with bacteriophage VLPs displaying PCSK9-derived peptides developed high-titer IgG antibodies that bound to circulating PCSK9. Vaccination was associated with significant reductions in total cholesterol, free cholesterol, phospholipids, and triglycerides.\n\nSection::::PCSK9 Inhibitor Drugs.:Naturally occurring inhibitors.\n", "A study in 2010 by Christakis and Fowler showed that flu outbreaks can be detected almost 2 weeks before traditional surveillance measures can by using the friendship paradox in monitoring the infection in a social network. They found that using the friendship paradox to analyze the health of central friends is \"an ideal way to predict outbreaks, but detailed information doesn't exist for most groups, and to produce it would be time-consuming and costly.\"\n", "To this date, a promising cell-culture system has yet to be developed in a way that could support large scale need of future vaccine trials. The use of HCV non-structural proteins to initiate immune response in animal studies have shown promising results but the lack of robust tissue culture system and the ability of virus to mutate rapidly are still major hurdles. Interferon treatment has succeeded in only very small number of patients.\n\nIn the study discussed in this paper, Dentzer has succeeded in finding the actual viral protease domain and predicting possible ways to inhibit the protease mechanism.\n", "This immune response is less robust than the response provoked by conjugated vaccines, which has several consequences. The vaccine is ineffective in children less than 2 years old, presumably due to their less mature immune systems. Non-response is also common amongst older adults. Immunity is not lifelong, so individuals must be re-vaccinated at age 65 if their initial vaccination was given at age 60 or younger. Since no mucosal immunity is provoked, the vaccine does not affect carrier rates, promote herd immunity, or protect against upper or lower respiratory tract infections. Finally, provoking immune responses using unconjugated polysaccharides from the capsules of other bacteria, such as H. influenzae, has proven significantly more difficult.\n", "The human rhinovirus – the most common viral pathogen in humans – is the predominant cause of the common cold. The hypothesized mechanism of action by which zinc reduces the severity and/or duration of cold symptoms is the suppression of nasal inflammation and the direct inhibition of rhinoviral receptor binding and rhinoviral replication in the nasal mucosa. Zinc has been known for many years to have an effect on cold viruses in the laboratory.\n\nSection::::Chemistry.\n", "Section::::Difficulties in developing an HIV vaccine.:Animal model.\n\nThe typical animal model for vaccine research is the monkey, often the macaque. Monkeys can be infected with SIV or the chimeric SHIV for research purposes. However, the well-proven route of trying to induce neutralizing antibodies by vaccination has stalled because of the great difficulty in stimulating antibodies that neutralise heterologous primary HIV isolates. Some vaccines based on the virus envelope have protected chimpanzees or macaques from homologous virus challenge, but in clinical trials, humans who were immunised with similar constructs became infected after later exposure to HIV-1.\n", "The FI6 provides scientists with a broadly neutralizing antibody that recognizes all 16 HA subtypes, including emerging ones, such as H5N1. But, because the replication of the influenza virus is somewhat error-prone, the virus evolves as a quasispecies, and widespread use of antiviral drugs can lead to resistant strains. Such has been the case for oseltamivir and for the M2 ion channel blocker amantadine. Therefore, before considering FI6 as long-term prophylactic or therapeutic agent against seasonal influenza, we would first have to determine whether the influenza virus could quickly mutate the epitope targeted by FI6 and escape recognition by FI6 after exposure.\n", "A vaccine called MenAfriVac has been developed through a program called the Meningitis Vaccine Project and has the potential to prevent outbreaks of group A meningitis, which is common in sub-Saharan Africa.\n\nSection::::Types.:Serogroup B.\n\nVaccines against serotype B meningococcal disease have proved difficult to produce, and require a different approach from vaccines against other serotypes. Whereas effective polysaccharide vaccines have been produced against types A, C, W-135, and Y, the capsular polysaccharide on the type B bacterium is too similar to human neural adhesion molecules to be a useful target.\n", "Experiments have shown that it is possible to protect against Friend virus infection with several types of vaccines, including attenuated viruses, viral proteins, peptides, and recombinant vaccinia vectors expressing the Friend virus gene. In a study of vaccinated mice, it was possible to identify the immunological epitopes required for protection against the virus, thus determining the types of immunological responses necessary or required for protection against it. The research discovered protective epitopes that were localized to F-MuLV gag and env proteins. This was achieved using recombinant vaccinia viruses expressing the gag and env genes of FV.\n\nSection::::Implications.\n", "This is important in the supply of vaccines to distant clinics in hot climates served by poorly developed transport networks. Disruption of a cold chain due to war may produce consequences similar to the smallpox outbreaks in the Philippines during the Spanish–American War.\n" ]	[ "No humans have acquired immunity against the common cold.", "With how long the common cold has been around, humans should have acquired immunity by now." ]	[ "Some people are probably more resistant than others.", "The cold continuously mutates therefore its difficult for humans to be fully immune." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "No humans have acquired immunity against the common cold.", "With how long the common cold has been around, humans should have acquired immunity by now." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Some people are probably more resistant than others.", "The cold continuously mutates therefore its difficult for humans to be fully immune." ]
2018-02343	Why is English the World's language?	The British Empire became the largest and most powerful empire in the world with colonies all over the place, and they held that position for several centuries. Doing this means they spread their language all over the world. The US became a Superpower after WWII and due to the economic hegemony we established any country that wanted to do business with us used our language (due to being the more powerful country) to do it. So English became the lingua franca of the last several hundred years, just like Latin was during the Roman era.	[ "Although falling short of official status, English is also an important language in several former colonies and protectorates of the United Kingdom, such as Bahrain, Bangladesh, Brunei, Cyprus and the United Arab Emirates.\n\nSection::::English as a global language.\n", "Because English is so widely spoken, it has often been referred to as a \"world language\", the lingua franca of the modern era, and while it is not an official language in most countries, it is currently the language most often taught as a foreign language. It is, by international treaty, the official language for aeronautical and maritime communications. English is one of the official languages of the United Nations and many other international organizations, including the International Olympic Committee. It is also one of two co-official languages for astronauts (besides the Russian language) serving on board the International Space Station.\n", "Modern English, sometimes described as the first global lingua franca, is also regarded as the first world language. English is the world's most widely used language in newspaper publishing, book publishing, international telecommunications, scientific publishing, international trade, mass entertainment, and diplomacy. English is, by international treaty, the basis for the required controlled natural languages Seaspeak and Airspeak, used as international languages of seafaring and aviation. English used to have parity with French and German in scientific research, but now it dominates that field. It achieved parity with French as a language of diplomacy at the Treaty of Versailles negotiations in 1919. By the time of the foundation of the United Nations at the end of World War II, English had become pre-eminent and is now the main worldwide language of diplomacy and international relations. It is one of six official languages of the United Nations. Many other worldwide international organisations, including the International Olympic Committee, specify English as a working language or official language of the organisation.\n", "Extensive technological advances in the 21st century have enabled instant global communication, breaking the barriers of space and time, thereby changing the nature of globalization. With the world turned into an interconnected global system, there is a need for a mutual language. English has fulfilled this need by becoming the global lingua franca of the 21st century. Its presence in large parts of the world due to colonisation has led to it becoming the main language in which global trade, business, and cultural interactions take place. ELF is a unique lingua franca because of its global spread, its highly diverse nature, and its interactions which include native speakers.\n", "English is also the primary natively spoken language in the countries and territories of Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, the Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bermuda, the British Indian Ocean Territory, the British Virgin Islands, the Cayman Islands, Dominica, the Falkland Islands, Gibraltar, Grenada, Guam, Guernsey, Guyana, the Isle of Man, Jamaica, Jersey, Montserrat, the Pitcairn Islands, Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, Trinidad and Tobago, the Turks and Caicos Islands, and the United States Virgin Islands.\n", "English is one of the eleven official languages that are given equal status in South Africa (South African English). It is also the official language in current dependent territories of Australia (Norfolk Island, Christmas Island and Cocos Island) and of the United States of America (American Samoa, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico (in Puerto Rico, English is co-official with Spanish) and the US Virgin Islands), and Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China.\n", "The British colonisation of Australia starting in 1788 brought the English language to Oceania. By the 19th century, the standardisation of British English was more settled than it had been in the previous century, and this relatively well-established English was brought to Africa, Asia and New Zealand. It developed both as the language of English-speaking settlers from Britain and Ireland, and as the administrative language imposed on speakers of other languages in the various parts of the British Empire. The first form can be seen in New Zealand English, and the latter in Indian English. In Europe, English received a more central role particularly since 1919, when the Treaty of Versailles was composed not only in French, the common language of diplomacy at the time, but, under special request from American president Woodrow Wilson, also in English – a major milestone in the globalisation of English.\n", "Through the worldwide influence of the British Empire, and later the United States, Modern English has been spreading around the world since the 17th century. Through all types of printed and electronic media, and spurred by the emergence of the United States as a global superpower, English has become the leading language of international discourse and the \"lingua franca\" in many regions and professional contexts such as science, navigation and law.\n", "In some countries where English is not the most spoken language, it is an official language. These countries include Botswana, Cameroon (co-official with French), Eswatini (Swaziland), Fiji, Ghana, Hong Kong, India, Kenya, Kiribati, Lesotho, Liberia, Malta, the Marshall Islands, Mauritius, the Federated States of Micronesia, Namibia, Nigeria, Pakistan, Palau, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Rwanda, Saint Lucia, Samoa, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Singapore, the Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Sudan, South Africa, South Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe. There also are countries where in a part of the territory English became a co-official language, in Colombia's San Andrés y Providencia and Nicaragua's Mosquito Coast. This was a result of the influence of British colonization and American colonization in these areas.\n", "According to the Ethnologue, there are almost 1 billion speakers of English as a first or second language. English is spoken as a first or a second language in a large number of countries, with the largest number of native speakers being in the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, New Zealand and Ireland; there are also large populations in India, Pakistan, the Philippines and Southern Africa. It \"has more non-native speakers than any other language, is more widely dispersed around the world and is used for more purposes than any other language\". Its large number of speakers, plus its worldwide presence, have made English a common language (\"lingua franca\") \"of the airlines, of the sea and shipping, of computer technology, of science and indeed of (global) communication generally\".\n", "By the late 18th century, the British Empire had spread English through its colonies and geopolitical dominance. Commerce, science and technology, diplomacy, art, and formal education all contributed to English becoming the first truly global language. English also facilitated worldwide international communication. England continued to form new colonies, and these later developed their own norms for speech and writing. English was adopted in parts of North America, parts of Africa, Australasia, and many other regions. When they obtained political independence, some of the newly independent nations that had multiple indigenous languages opted to continue using English as the official language to avoid the political and other difficulties inherent in promoting any one indigenous language above the others. In the 20th century the growing economic and cultural influence of the United States and its status as a superpower following the Second World War has, along with worldwide broadcasting in English by the BBC and other broadcasters, caused the language to spread across the planet much faster. In the 21st century, English is more widely spoken and written than any language has ever been.\n", "Many regional international organisations such as the European Free Trade Association, Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) set English as their organisation's sole working language even though most members are not countries with a majority of native English speakers. While the European Union (EU) allows member states to designate any of the national languages as an official language of the Union, in practice English is the main working language of EU organisations.\n", "Besides the major varieties of English, such as British English, American English, Canadian English, Australian English, Irish English, New Zealand English and their sub-varieties, countries such as South Africa, India, the Philippines, Jamaica and Nigeria also have millions of native speakers of dialect continua ranging from English-based creole languages to Standard English. Other countries such as Ghana and Uganda also use English as their primary official languages.\n", "Modern English evolved from Early Modern English which was used from the beginning of the Tudor period until the Interregnum and Restoration in England. The works of William Shakespeare and the King James Bible are considered to be in Modern English, or more specifically, are referred to as using Early Modern English or Elizabethan English. By the late 18th century the British Empire had facilitated the spread of Modern English through its colonies and geopolitical dominance. Commerce, science and technology, diplomacy, art, and formal education all contributed to English becoming the first truly global language. Modern English also facilitated worldwide international communication. English was adopted in North America, India, parts of Africa, Australia, and many other regions. In the post-colonial period, some of the newly created nations that had multiple indigenous languages opted to continue using Modern English as the official language to avoid the political difficulties inherent in promoting any one indigenous language above the others.\n", "Early Modern English – the language used by Shakespeare – is dated from around 1500. It incorporated many Renaissance-era loans from Latin and Ancient Greek, as well as borrowings from other European languages, including French, German and Dutch. Significant pronunciation changes in this period included the ongoing Great Vowel Shift, which affected the qualities of most long vowels. Modern English proper, similar in most respects to that spoken today, was in place by the late 17th century. The English language came to be exported to other parts of the world through British colonisation, and is now the dominant language in Britain and Ireland, the United States and Canada, Australia, New Zealand and many smaller former colonies, as well as being widely spoken in India, parts of Africa, and elsewhere. Partially due to United States influence, English gradually took on the status of a global lingua franca in the second half of the 20th century. This is especially true in Europe, where English has largely taken over the former roles of French and (much earlier) Latin as a common language used to conduct business and diplomacy, share scientific and technological information, and otherwise communicate across national boundaries. The efforts of English-speaking Christian missionaries has resulted in English becoming a second language for many other groups.\n", "English is the largest language by number of speakers, and the third most-spoken native language in the world, after Standard Chinese and Spanish. It is the most widely learned second language and is either the official language or one of the official languages in almost 60 sovereign states. There are more people who have learned it as a second language than there are native speakers. It is estimated that there are over 2 billion speakers of English. English is the most commonly spoken language in the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Australia, Ireland and New Zealand, and it is widely spoken in some areas of the Caribbean, Africa and South Asia. It is a co-official language of the United Nations, the European Union and many other world and regional international organisations. It is the most widely spoken Germanic language, accounting for at least 70% of speakers of this Indo-European branch. English has a vast vocabulary, though counting how many words any language has is impossible. English speakers are called \"Anglophones\".\n", "Cornish, a Celtic language, is one of three existing Brythonic languages; its usage has been revived in Cornwall. Historically, another Brythonic Celtic language, Cumbric, was spoken in Cumbria in North West England, but it died out in the 11th century although traces of it can still be found in the Cumbrian dialect. Early Modern English began in the late 15th century with the introduction of the printing press to London and the Great Vowel Shift. Through the worldwide influence of the British Empire, English spread around the world from the 17th to mid-20th centuries. Through newspapers, books, the telegraph, the telephone, phonograph records, radio, satellite television, broadcasters (such as the BBC) and the Internet, as well as the emergence of the United States as a global superpower, Modern English has become the international language of business, science, communication, sports, aviation, and diplomacy.\n", "English is often considered to be the lingua franca of the world today due to the diversity of countries and communities that have adopted English as a national, commercial, or social form of communication. Globalization, colonialism, and the capitalist system have all helped promote English as the world's dominant language, supplemented by years of British and American hegemony on the world stage. Today, nearly 1.39 billion people speak English according to the World Economic Forum, with its prominence over other languages highlighted through the geographic diversity of where it is spoken. According to Arwen Armbrecht, Mandarin Chinese is the most spoken first language in the world, however its influence lags behind English due to its limited use outside of Mandarin-speaking nations. As a result, the linguistic capital of Mandarin Chinese cannot be fully compared to that of English, which allows English to have such an important role around the globe.\n", "During the Renaissance, patriotic feelings regarding English brought about the recognition of English as the national language of England. The language was advocated as acceptable for learned and literary use. With the Great Vowel Shift, the language in this period matured to a standard and differed significantly from the Middle English period, becoming recognizably \"modern\".\n", "English remains the dominant language of international business and global communication through the influence of global media and the former British Empire that had established the use of English in regions around the world such as North America, Africa, Australia and New Zealand. However, English is not the only language used in global organizations such as in the EU or the UN, because many countries do not recognize English as a universal language.\n", "Decades, and in some cases centuries, of British rule and emigration have left their mark on the independent nations that arose from the British Empire. The empire established the use of English in regions around the world. Today it is the primary language of up to 460 million people and is spoken by about one and a half billion as a first, second or foreign language.\n", "By the 15th century, English was back in fashion among all classes, though much changed; the Middle English form showed many signs of French influence, both in vocabulary and spelling. During the English Renaissance, many words were coined from Latin and Greek origins. Modern English has extended this custom of flexibility when it comes to incorporating words from different languages. Thanks in large part to the British Empire, the English language is the world's unofficial \"lingua franca\".\n", "The countries where English is spoken can be grouped into different categories according to how English is used in each country. The \"inner circle\" countries with many native speakers of English share an international standard of written English and jointly influence speech norms for English around the world. English does not belong to just one country, and it does not belong solely to descendants of English settlers. English is an official language of countries populated by few descendants of native speakers of English. It has also become by far the most important language of international communication when people who share no native language meet anywhere in the world.\n", "Section::::Geographical distribution.\n\n, 400 million people spoke English as their first language, and 1.1 billion spoke it as a secondary language. English is the largest language by number of speakers. English is spoken by communities on every continent and on islands in all the major oceans.\n", "The English language is the de facto official language of England, the sole official language of Gibraltar and one of the official languages of the Republic of Ireland, Northern Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Malta, the Isle of Man, Jersey, Guernsey and the European Union.\n\nThe United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland make a \"European Anglosphere\" with an area of about and a population of over 71 million.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-18213	How do we or scientists know what sounds dinosaurs made?	Taken from quora: The discovery of the fossil vocal organ of an ancient Antarctic bird suggests that dinosaurs couldn’t sing, but maybe honked. A team of scientists have discovered the oldest known vocal organ of a bird in an Antarctic fossil of a relative of ducks and geese that lived more than 66 million years ago during the age of dinosaurs. Birds are direct descendants of dinosaurs and are considered living dinosaurs by scientists. The apparent absence of the vocal organ — called a syrinx – in non-bird dinosaur fossils of the same age suggests that other dinosaurs may not have been able to make noises similar to the bird calls we hear today. That’s according to the research, published in Nature on October 12, 2016.Julia Clarke, a paleontologist at the University of Texas at Austin (UT), discovered the fossil syrinx and led the analysis. She said in a statement:This finding helps explain why no such organ has been preserved in a non-bird dinosaur or crocodile relative. This is another important step to figuring out what dinosaurs sounded like as well as giving us insight into the evolution of birds. The asymmetrical shape of the fossil syrinx indicates that the extinct species could have made honking noises via two sound sources in the right and left parts of the organ.	[ "Section::::Paleobiology.:Hearing.\n", "BULLET::::- Phil Currie hypothesized that troodontids' basisphenoid bullae may have helped them hear very low frequency sounds.\n\n1986\n\nBULLET::::- Jacques Gauthier classified troodontids as deinonychosaurs.\n\n1987\n\nBULLET::::- James H. Madsen described the new genus and species \"Borogovia gracilicrus\".\n\nBULLET::::- Currie noted traits in the teeth of \"Troodon\" that distinguished them from those of pachycephalosaurs. He split the Troodontidae off from the latter group and noted that the family Saurornithoididae, which then classified many dinosaurs now considered troodontids, was actually it junior synonym.\n", "The mammoths in the movie were based on elephants and fossils of mammoths, while the saber-toothed cat was based on tigers and ligers (a lion/tiger hybrid).\n\nThe sounds made by the saber-toothed cat in the movie are based on the vocalization of tigers and lions.\n\nSection::::Development.:Casting.\n", "BULLET::::- Paleontologist Ben Kear collaborated with radiographer George Kourlis to perform a CT scan of \"Platypterigius\". They found that its inner ear bones were so thick that they could not transmit sound vibrations and concluded animal must have been deaf. The scan also exposed the sensory structures inside its nose that allowed it to smell as well as an unusual system of \"channels and grooves\". The researchers found embryonic remains inside a \"Platypteriguis\" from Hughenden, Queensland, as well as the remains of the belemnites, fish, and turtle hatchlings it ate.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Hungry Hungry Herbivore\" – An adult Brachiosaurus (judging by his deep voice) shows up to sing a song about how herbivores love to eat green food.\n\nBULLET::::- \"I'm a T-Rex\" - Buddy sings that he finally realizes that he is T-Rex, and sings about living in the Cretaceous forest.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dinosaurs A-Z\" – Mr. Conductor sings the Dinosaur Alphabet that his mother taught him.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cryolophosaurus Crests\" – King sings about his crest.\n", "BULLET::::- A study on the anatomy of the inner ear of Oligocene mammalodontid and aetiocetid cetaceans and their ability to detect low frequencies is published by Park \"et al.\" (2017).\n\nBULLET::::- New Oligo-Miocene eomysticetid specimens are described from New Zealand by Boessenecker & Fordyce (2017), including a member of the genus \"Waharoa\" from the earliest Miocene (the most recent eomysticetid specimen reported so far).\n", "\"Parasaurolophus\" is often hypothesized to have used its crest as a resonating chamber to produce low frequency sounds to alert other members of a group or its species. This function was originally suggested by Wiman in 1931 when he described \"P. tubicen\". He noted that the crests internal structures are similar to those of a swan and theorized that an animal could use its elongated nasal passages to create noise. However, the nasal tubes of \"Hypacrosaurus\", \"Corythosaurus\", and \"Lambeosaurus\" are much more variable and complicated than the airway of \"Parasaurolophus\". A large amount of material and data supports the hypothesis that the large, tubular crest of \"Parasaurolophus\" was a resonating chamber. Weishampel in 1981 suggested that \"Parasaurolophus\" made noises ranging between the frequencies 55 and 720 Hz, although there was some difference in the range of individual species because of the crest size, shape, and nasal passage length, most obvious in \"P. cyrtocristatus\" (interpreted as a possible female). Hopson found that there is anatomical evidence that hadrosaurids had a strong hearing. There is at least one example, in the related \"Corythosaurus\", of a slender stapes (reptilian ear bone) in place, which combined with a large space for an eardrum implies a sensitive middle ear. Furthermore, the hadrosaurid lagena is elongate like a crocodilian's, indicating that the auditory portion of the inner ear was well-developed. Based on the similarity of hadrosaurid inner ears to those of crocodiles, he also proposed that adult hadrosaurids were sensitive to high frequencies, such as their offspring might produce. According to Weishampel, this is consistent with parents and offspring communicating.\n", "BULLET::::- Gregory Benford's 1979 short story \"Time Shards\" concerns a researcher who recovers thousand-year-old sound from a piece of pottery thrown on a wheel and inscribed with a fine wire as it spun. The sound is then analyzed to reveal conversations between the potter and his assistant in Middle English.\n\nBULLET::::- Rudy Rucker's 1981 short story \"Buzz\" includes a small section of audio recovered from ancient Egyptian pottery.\n", "Section::::Episodes.\n\nSection::::Episodes.:Episode one: \"Central England\".\n\nBULLET::::- Dr. Philip Wilby of the British Geological Survey in Nottingham examines soft-tissue, preserved by the \"Medusa effect\", from a recently re-excavated Victorian fossil discovery.\n\nBULLET::::- Dr. Phil Manning compares a T-Rex with William Buckland’s Megalosaurus (the first scientifically identified dinosaur and the inspiration for Charles Dickens’ opening paragraph in \"Bleak House\").\n\nBULLET::::- Dr. Derek Siveter of Oxford University Museum and Dr. Mark Sutton of Imperial College London demonstrate virtual dissection that produces computer-models of microfossils.\n", "BULLET::::- Zakharov described the new ichnogenus and species \"Macropodosaurus gravis\". He attributed it to a theropod, but these tracks are more likely to have been produced by ankylosaurs.\n\n1969\n\nBULLET::::- Haas interpreted the ankylosaur diet and consisting of soft plants that ankylosaurs chewed with a simple straight-up-and-down movement of the jaws based on their skull and tooth anatomy.\n\nSection::::20th century.:1970s.\n\n1970\n\nBULLET::::- John Ostrom described the new genus and species \"Sauropelta edwardsorum\".\n\n1971\n", "BULLET::::- A study on the anatomy of the pterygoid region and skull airways of \"Caipirasuchus paulistanus\" and \"C. montealtensis\" will be published by Dias \"et al.\" (2019), who report possible anatomical evidence of vocal capacity of \"C. montealtensis\".\n\nBULLET::::- Description of new fossil material of \"Pepesuchus\" from the Upper Cretaceous Adamantina Formation (Brazil) and a study on the phylogenetic relationships of this taxon is published by Geroto & Bertini (2019).\n\nBULLET::::- Partial dyrosaurid skeleton discovered in the 1930s in Paleocene (Danian) strata along the Atlantic coast of Senegal is described by Martin, Sarr & Hautier (2019).\n", "BULLET::::- Owen described the species now known as \"Eretmosaurus rugosus\" and \"Microcleidus homalospondylus\".\n\nBULLET::::- Seeley described the species now known as \"Microcleidus macropterus\".\n\nBULLET::::- Owen described the species now known as \"Archaeonectrus rostratus\".\n\n1867\n", "BULLET::::- Estes synonymized \"Paronychodon\" with the mammal \"Tripriodon caperatus\", based on similar teeth, though this was later shown to be an error.\n\n1969\n\nBULLET::::- Russell noted the large brain to body size ratio in troodontids and hypothesized that this relatively high level of brain power was used to process its sharpened senses.\n\nSection::::20th century.:1970s.\n\n1974\n\nBULLET::::- Rinchen Barsbold described the new species \"Saurornithoides junior\" and named the Saurornithoididae.\n\n1975\n", "BULLET::::- A high-pitched, nasal \"che\" note is often given in response to the presence of predators in the nest area, other birds passing near the cave swallow's nest, or while the swallow is in flight. It is the note given most frequently when the bird is away from its nest site.\n\nBULLET::::- The first type of chattering is the most common, it is described as a \"short, clear weet or cheweet given at medium pitch with an ascending or descending inflection.\"\n", "The \"D. herschelensis\" skeleton was discovered was scattered around the dig site. The skull, lower jaw, ribs, pelvis and shoulder blades were all recovered, but the spine was incomplete, so the exact number of vertebrae the living animal would have had is unknown. All four limbs are missing, with the exception of 9 small Phalanges (finger bones) and a small number of limb bones found close by which may belong to the animal in question.\n", "An article that appeared in the November 1997 issue of \"Discover Magazine\" reported research into the mechanics of diplodocid tails by Nathan Myhrvold, a computer scientist from Microsoft. Myhrvold carried out a computer simulation of the tail, which in diplodocids like \"Brontosaurus\" was a very long, tapering structure resembling a bullwhip. This computer modeling suggested that sauropods were capable of producing a whip-like cracking sound of over 200 decibels, comparable to the volume of a cannon.\n\nSection::::Paleoecology.\n", "Section::::Paleobiology.\n\nComparisons between the scleral rings of \"Corythosaurus\" and modern birds and reptiles suggest that it may have been cathemeral, active throughout the day at short intervals. The sense of hearing in hadrosaurids, specifically such as \"Lophorhothon\", also seems to have been greatly developed because of an elongated lagena. The presence of a thin stapes (an ear bone that is rod-like in reptiles), combined with a large eardrum implies the existence of a sensitive middle ear. It is possible that hadrosaurid ears are sensitive enough to detect as much sound as a modern crocodilian.\n\nSection::::Paleobiology.:Crest function.\n", "BULLET::::- Sankar Chatterjee described the new genus and species \"Shuvosaurus inexpectatus\". He interpreted the unusual reptile as the world's oldest and most primitive ornithomimosaur.\n\n1994\n", "Reptile is a delay pedal and was introduced as a \"baby brother\" to the Replica. Its connectors and controls consist of input and output, one on/off footswitch, three knobs — \"Echo\", \"Repeat\", \"Level\", and \"Time\". The pedal also features a \"Flutter\" section with \"Tone\", \"Speed\", and \"Width\" controls, which mimics the vintage \"warble\" sound of tape-echo. In 2010, the original Reptile was upgraded to Reptile 2 with the addition of a \"Tap Tempo\" footswitch.\n\nBULLET::::- Comp-Nova\n", "BULLET::::- Alfred Sherwood Romer helped mount the \"Kronosaurus\" discovered in Queensland by the 1930s Harvard expedition for the University's Museum of Comparative Zoology. The poorly preserved bones required a significant amount of plaster for the restoration, earning the specimen the mocking nickname \"Plasterosaurus\". The final mount was 42 feet long, probably due to Romer overestimating the number of vertebrae in its spine; a more likely length is about 35 feet.\"\n\n1950\n\nBULLET::::- Fossil hunters Robert and Frank Jennrich serendipitously discovered a partial \"Brachauchenius\" skeleton when looking for sharks teeth.\n", "BULLET::::- A description of the middle ear ossicles of \"Arboroharamiya\" is published by Meng \"et al.\" (2018).\n\nBULLET::::- Asymmetric bicrural stapes is reported in the Jurassic multituberculate \"Pseudobolodon oreas\" by Schultz, Ruf & Martin (2018).\n\nBULLET::::- New specimens of the cladotherian species \"Palaeoxonodon ooliticus\" (two partial dentaries) are described from the Middle Jurassic Kilmaluag Formation (Isle of Skye, Scotland, United Kingdom) by Panciroli, Benson & Butler (2018).\n", "BULLET::::- Rich and Vickers-Rich described the new genus and species \"Timimus hermani\".\n\n1995\n\nBULLET::::- Nessov described the new species \"Archaeornithomimus bissektensis\".\n\n1997\n\nBULLET::::- Rauhut rejected Sankar Chatterjee's claim that \"Shuvosaurus inexpectatus\" of Late Triassic Texas was the world's oldest and most primitive ornithomimosaur because the anatomy of its braincase and palate were inconsistent with that of an ornithomimosaur.\n\nBULLET::::- Osmolska published on ornithomimosaur evolutionary relationships.\n\n1998\n", "BULLET::::- \"Brachiosaurus\" is the first dinosaur seen by the park's visitors. It is inaccurately depicted as chewing its food and standing up on its hind legs to browse among the high tree branches. According to artist Andy Schoneberg, the chewing was done to make the animal seem docile, resembling a cow chewing its cud. The dinosaur's head and upper neck was the largest puppet without hydraulics built for the film. Despite scientific evidence of their having limited vocal capabilities, sound designer Gary Rydstrom decided to represent them with whale songs and donkey calls to give them a melodic sense of wonder. Penguins were also recorded to be used in the noises of the dinosaurs.\n", "BULLET::::- Fabre described the new genus \"Gallodactylus\".\n\nBULLET::::- Casamiquela described the new genus and species \"Herbstosaurus pigmaeus\".\n\n1975\n", "BULLET::::- An ichthyodectiform fossil specimen preserving a small skull and anterior part of the trunk is described from a core recovered from a well drilled in the Cape Verde Basin, ca. 400km offshore from the West African Atlantic Margin, by Casson \"et al.\" (2018).\n\nBULLET::::- A study on the evolutionary history of the family Catostomidae, based on data from molecules, morphology and fossil record, is published by Bagley, Mayden & Harris (2018).\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "It seems illogical that scientists would know what extinct dinosaurs sounded like." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The discovery of a fossil vocal organ of an extinct bird suggests dinosaurs couldn't sing but perhaps honked via two sound sources in the right and left parts of the organ." ]
2018-03225	How are professional musicians able to play whole sets and not make any mistakes?	1. Practice. Lots and lots of practice. 2. Bluffing (AKA self-confidence): a LOT of mistakes can be played around/over/through 3. Perception (also self-confidence / stage presence): are your SURE they didn't make any mistakes? How exactly would you know?	[ "Section::::Quotes.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Improvisation is an intuitive process for me now, but in the way in which it's intuitive, I'm calling upon all the resources of all the years of my playing at once: my academic understanding of the music, my historical understanding of the music, and my technical understanding of the instrument that I'm playing. All these things are going into one concentrated effort to produce something that is indicative of what I'm feeling at the time I'm performing. \" - Arthur Rhames\n", "There are a million things that I could have done that would have made it less difficult in the beginning, but the moments I'm most proud of are those first shows where we managed to get 15 people in a random bar to be committed to what's happening with the music. I know it's hard for people to imagine that would be the hardest shows we've ever played. I've played with Lou [Reed], I've played to tens of thousands of people, I've played for the Queen, but nothing is harder than those moments when you have the conviction to play in front of those 15 people and own it.\n", "A review published in \"BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine\" in 2014 focused on \"the evidence for the effectiveness of AT sessions on musicians' performance, anxiety, respiratory function and posture\" concluded that: \"Evidence from RCTs and CTs suggests that AT sessions may improve performance anxiety in musicians. Effects on music performance, respiratory function and posture yet remain inconclusive.\"\n", "The third teacher was his band instructor in high school. \"He was a military type and very strict about my doing everything it by the book,\" he recalls (by the way, the \"book\" in question was the Arban method!). \"When he would call me in for a lesson I would know that was pending so I would get about 5 minutes of cramming in to see what I could do with lip trills and making decent sounds and scales and things like that. He didn't dig that at all and finally he dismissed me, saying I wasn't serious enough, that he wanted to spend his time with musicians who really wanted to play.\"\n", "In response to an interview question, \"How talented is Dave Lombardo?\" King responded, \"Have you ever seen the movie \"The Natural\"? That's Dave. He doesn't have to try to be good. He comes into the venue 10 or 15 minutes before we hit the stage and he doesn't warm up. He just goes and does it, after me and Jeff [Hanneman, guitarist] have been warming up for like an hour.\" In an interview with \"Modern Drummer\", Lombardo has stated that when he plays drum beats on the bass drums, he always begins with his left foot.\n", "Paul Green began giving traditional individual music lessons in his home in 1996. He invited a group of his students to sit in, or \"jam\", with his own band with disappointing results. But by the third week, he found that the students who played in a group had advanced much more than the students who received only traditional solo instruction. He modified his teaching method to supplement traditional instruction with group practice, with the goal of putting on a concert. He compared it to the difference between \"...shooting hoops and playing basketball\". In 1999, the most advanced students played their first public concert at an art gallery.\n", "Paul Green began giving traditional individual music lessons in his home in 1996. He invited a group of his students to sit in, or \"jam\", with his own band with disappointing results. But by the third week, he found that the students who played in a group had advanced much more than the students who received only traditional solo instruction. He modified his teaching method to supplement traditional instruction with group practice, with the goal of playing a show. He compared it to the difference between \"...shooting hoops and playing basketball\". In 1999, the most advanced students played their first public concert at an art gallery.\n", "Following the expansion of his role from turntablist to keyboardist on \"Light Grenades\" (2006), Chris Kilmore stated that, during the band's hiatus, he \"took a lot of piano lessons and did a lot of learning keyboards. I made a lot of music, but it just sits at home, it’s not for everybody, it’s just for me as a learning process. A lot of practicing, I’d be playing music every single day, keys every single day. I was scratching a little bit, but mostly keys, because my role in this band has kind of evolved. So to pick up a new instrument and learn it in a few years was hard to do. [...] I’m really serious and focused about it, that’s what the rehearsals are for, hitting all those wrong notes. But I have questions, and there is a lot of people around me that I can ask, Ben is an incredible musician, Mike is an incredible musician and composer, and if I need something explained or helped with, I don’t have to go far to get an answer.\"\n", "In a SOS interview, Appapoulay described their process during recording sessions: \"It was just Ben and myself and Richard and Tom. We would be in the room together, Ben’d be on his acoustic guitar in that little doorway bit with his mic, setting down the guides. I had guitar in the Fender Twin, drums just clean, and then the bass I put through the LA2A, because I love the way it warms it up. Then we were using the bass amp as well, because we had the whole band in one room — the control room was in the drum room that you see now — so we were jamming like in a rehearsal. It had a band feeling, like Motown, where they just used to sit in one room and record together. That was the idea with this place, I wanted the whole band to feel like it was a gig scenario, playing as a band.\"\n", "Recalling his approach to the Largo shows with \"Chicago Tribune\" music editor Lou Carlozo, Brion said: \"I taught my hands to follow whatever was coming into my head—and wherever my consciousness would go, I had to push my hands to follow. And at some level, you just had to abandon any concern about how you’d look. Performing without a set list: That was special.\"\n", "One of the major issues with networked music performance is that latency is introduced into the audio as it is processed by a participant's local system and sent across the network. For interaction in a networked music performance to feel natural, the latency generally must be kept below 30 milliseconds, the bound of human perception. If there is too much delay in the system, it will make performance very difficult since musicians adjust their playing to coordinate the performance based on the sounds they hear created by other players. However, the characteristics of the piece being played, the musicians, and the types of instruments used ultimately define the tolerance. Synchronization cues may be used in a network music performance system that is designed for long latency situations.\n", "Alexander Markov is quoted as saying \"See I always felt about the music and the technical aspect of it, to me it's very much together, because I know some musicians, some violinists they isolate the technical aspect from playing violin and the music itself, but to me they work hand in hand so much. So for example, the more I get involved musically the more technically I am accurate.\" \n", "Bez enjoys being on stage: \"Once I get on stage, it goes crazy from there. We perform with our hearts and just go in. It's great energy on stage and we try to keep it that way till the end.\" Recording in the studio also has many rewards. \"Sometimes it may be down to business, other times and most of the time… it's just pure unadulterated fun!!\"\n", "\"To tell you the truth... I don't jam. I've always played what actually I see in my head. Therefore, when I play, I don't use any specific scales or anything in order or that's musically correct or anything... I’ve always concentrated on mixing lead-oriented riffs, but in like a rhythmic sense. That's the way I've always been because I've never really been interested in doing ultra-fast lead work. I've always mixed the two up. Just concentrating on the 16th notes and stuff on the right hand, making sure it all sinks in. It's the guitar and it's the way we dress onstage, it's all part of this troupe, this uniformed-like togetherness... It just comes out dark as fuck\".\n", "BULLET::::- \"\"Actually, since 1981 to March of this year I was active as a professor in a conservatory and - even without giving concerts - I followed learning a lot about guitar, due mainly to the excellence of students who have cooperated with me. But, I confirm, you are right, I am no technician at all - my work with players has developed in the area of interpretation. I have taught people who could play much better than I did even when I was a concert player.\"\" rec.music.classical.guitar (Aug 31 2004)\n\nSection::::List of works.\n\nSection::::List of works.:Solo guitar.\n", "Players discuss issues of interpretation in rehearsal; but often, in mid-performance, players do things spontaneously, requiring the other players to respond in real time. \"After twenty years in the [Guarneri] Quartet, I'm happily surprised on occasion to find myself totally wrong about what I think a player will do, or how he'll react in a particular passage\", says violist Michael Tree.\n\nSection::::Performance.:Ensemble, blend, and balance.\n", "Teaching work for cellists includes giving private lessons in the home or at colleges and universities; coaching cellists who are preparing for recordings or auditions; doing group coaching at music camps or for youth ensembles; and working as a high school music teacher. Due to the limited number of full-time orchestral jobs, many classical cellists are not able to find full-time work with a single orchestra. Some cellists increase their employ-ability by learning several different styles, such as folk or pop.\n", "To address these issues, musicians start by learning to play consistently ahead or behind the beat whenever they want to. As a result, they develop a clear sense of \"where the click is\" and so can also play to hit the click as well, in a relaxed way.\n", "If a session performer is exceptionally skilled, the leader may encourage her to perform a number of songs or tunes. On the other hand, if a player or singer does not perform that well, due to a lack of experience or technique, the leader will thank the individual for his or her performance and then diplomatically ask for the audience's applause, while at the same time inviting a more seasoned performer on stage to take the first performer's place. Less skilled performers may be asked to participate as a member of an ensemble, playing an accompaniment role in the background.\n", "Another thing they do is to play music in their mind's ear along with the rhythms of walking or other daily life rhythms. Other techniques include hearing music in ones mind's ear first before playing it. Musicians can deal with timing and tempo glitches by learning to hear a perfect performance in their mind's ear first.\n", "Section::::Professional Speaking and Performance Practitioner Career.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Tim comes up with the chords and the melody and we start playing it – I don’t know I can speak in terms of drums being a drummer. I want to provide a back beat for people to be the foundation of the song… it’s all about trying to make Tim’s hips swing basically when I see him when in studio playing he’ll pull off some move and you know you’re in the right zone – it’s just about turning each other on and enjoy playing to each other. That’s the bottom line\". Access All Areas.net.au\n", "Becker was a longtime student of Freddie Gruber (whose other students included Vinnie Colaiuta, Neil Peart, and Steve Smith) , Becker was on the inside track of Gruber’s world and has developed and extended Gruber’s ideas about drum technique, including “the balance and motion of the stick,” and understanding the natural principles of the physical body’s interaction with the drum set. \n", "In the fall of 2005, Bartlett began taking students for guitar and voice at Young America Music Schools, where he still teaches music today along with bandmate and colleague Matt Moncrief. The number of his students varies with the change of the academic and touring season. As a teacher, Bartlett has made many innovations in modern guitar and voice method and is currently authoring a series of method books based on his findings.\n", "At age seven, students can begin weekly lessons in the instrument of their choice in \"Rock 101\" classes. Once a student has basic competence in an instrument, they can move to the \"Performance Program\" where they have a weekly one-on-one private lesson and three hours weekly of group band rehearsal that culminates in a concert before an audience.\n" ]	[ "Professional musicians play whole sets without making any mistakes.", "Musicians can play whole sets and not make any mistakes during their time playing." ]	[ "Professional musicians make mistakes while playing, but they either bluff their way through or use self-confidence to make it appear they did not make mistakes.", "Musicians can possibly make mistakes during their time playing. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Professional musicians play whole sets without making any mistakes.", "Musicians can play whole sets and not make any mistakes during their time playing." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Professional musicians make mistakes while playing, but they either bluff their way through or use self-confidence to make it appear they did not make mistakes.", "Musicians can possibly make mistakes during their time playing. " ]
2018-16093	How does radio frequencies between walkie talkies and the FM-radio stations work?	There are two basic ways to transmit a signal using radio waves, amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency modulation (FM). Which one a walkie talkie uses depends on the walkie talkie. Some walkie talkies do use FM, so in that respect, they are just like the little FM radio stations. How does that work? Let me use visible light as an analogy. After all, radio waves are basically a form of light that we can't see. Light and radio are forms of electromagnetic radiation. All electromagnetic radiation can be described in terms of its frequency and its amplitude. In visible light, we perceive different frequencies as different colors, and different amplitudes as different brightnesses. A radio antenna is like a light bulb where we can precisely control the color and brightness of the radio waves. So, let's say we have this color/brightness-changing lightbulb, and we want to use it to send information to someone far away. We turn on the lightbulb and set it to a single color, let's say green. We have two different ways we can send information. We can alter the brightness, or we can alter the color. We can call these two methods for transmitting information Brightness Alteration and Color Alteration. OK, thesaurus time. Brightness = > Amplitude Color = > Frequency Alteration = > Modulation Brightness Alteration = > Amplitude Modulation (AM) Color Alteration = > Frequency Modulation (FM) That's basically how a simple radio works.	[ "While the bulk of personal walkie-talkie traffic is in the 27 MHz and 400-500 MHz area of the UHF spectrum, there are some units that use the \"Part 15\" 49 MHz band (shared with cordless phones, baby monitors, and similar devices) as well as the \"Part 15\" 900 MHz band; in the US at least, units in these bands do not require licenses as long as they adhere to FCC Part 15 power output rules. A company called TriSquare is, as of July 2007, marketing a series of walkie-talkies in the United States, based on frequency-hopping spread spectrum technology operating in this frequency range under the name eXRS (eXtreme Radio Service—despite the name, a proprietary design, not an official allocation of the US FCC). The spread-spectrum scheme used in eXRS radios allows up to 10 billion virtual \"channels\" and ensures private communications between two or more units.\n", "Personal walkie-talkies are generally designed to give easy access to all available channels (and, if supplied, squelch codes) within the device's specified allocation.\n", "Consumer and commercial equipment differ in a number of ways; commercial gear is generally ruggedized, with metal cases, and often has only a few specific frequencies programmed into it (often, though not always, with a computer or other outside programming device; older units can simply swap crystals), since a given business or public safety agent must often abide by a specific frequency allocation. Consumer gear, on the other hand, is generally made to be small, lightweight, and capable of accessing any channel within the specified band, not just a subset of assigned channels.\n\nSection::::Contemporary use.:Military.\n", "There are various accessories available for walkie-talkies such as rechargeable batteries, drop in rechargers, multi-unit rechargers for charging as many as six units at a time, and an audio accessory jack that can be used for headsets or speaker microphones. Newer models allow the connection to wireless headsets via Bluetooth.\n\nSection::::ITU classification.\n\nIn line to the ITU Radio Regulations, article 1.73, a walkie-talkie is classified as radio station / land mobile station.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Mobile radio telephone\n\nBULLET::::- AN/PRC-6\n\nBULLET::::- MOTO Talk\n\nBULLET::::- Push to talk\n\nBULLET::::- Serval project\n\nBULLET::::- Signal Corps Radio\n\nBULLET::::- Survival radio\n", "Personal two-way radios are also sometimes combined with other electronic devices; Garmin's Rino series combine a GPS receiver in the same package as an FRS/GMRS walkie-talkie (allowing Rino users to transmit digital location data to each other) Some personal radios also include receivers for AM and FM broadcast radio and, where applicable, NOAA Weather Radio and similar systems broadcasting on the same frequencies. Some designs also allow the sending of text messages and pictures between similarly equipped units.\n", "Since 3 February 2004, the Infocomm Development Authority of Singapore (IDA) has allocated the 446.0–446.1 MHz frequency band for low-powered walkie-talkies on a non-interference, non-protected and shared-use basis. As these walkie-talkies are low-powered devices which do not potentially cause interference to other licensed radio services, it need not be licensed for use in Singapore. However, the device must be type approved by IDA for local sale.\n\nSection::::Using other UHF and VHF frequencies.:South Africa.\n", "Applications on the market that offer this walkie-talkie style interaction for audio include Voxer, Zello, Orion Labs, Motorola Wave, and HeyTell, among others.\n\nOther smartphone-based walkie-talkie products are made by companies like goTenna, Fantom Dynamics and BearTooth, and offer a radio interface. Unlike mobile data dependent applications, these products work by pairing to an app on the user's smartphone and working over a radio interface. These products are consumer oriented implementations of technologies that have been widely available to HAM radio enthusiasts for years.\n\nSection::::Specialized uses.\n", "Each radio works over a single band of frequencies. If a tow car company had a frequency on the same band as its auto club, a single radio with scanning might be employed for both systems. Since a mobile radio typically works on a single frequency band, multiple radios may be required in cases where communications take place over systems on more than one frequency band.\n\nSection::::Walkie talkie converters in place of mobile radios.\n", "While jobsite and government radios are often rated in power output, consumer radios are frequently and controversially rated in mile or kilometer ratings. Because of the line of sight propagation of UHF signals, experienced users consider such ratings to be wildly exaggerated, and some manufacturers have begun printing range ratings on the package based on terrain as opposed to simple power output.\n", "An unusual feature, common on children's walkie-talkies but seldom available otherwise even on amateur models, is a \"code key\", that is, a button allowing the operator to transmit Morse code or similar tones to another walkie-talkie operating on the same frequency. Generally the operator depresses the PTT button and taps out a message using a Morse Code crib sheet attached as a sticker to the radio. However, as Morse Code has fallen out of wide use outside amateur radio circles, some such units either have a grossly simplified code label or no longer provide a sticker at all.\n", "BULLET::::- Multiple bands; while some operate only on specific bands such as 2 meters or 70 cm, others support several UHF and VHF amateur allocations available to the user.\n\nBULLET::::- Since amateur allocations usually are not channelized, the user can dial in any frequency desired in the authorized band.\n\nBULLET::::- Multiple modulation schemes: a few amateur HTs may allow modulation modes other than FM, including AM, SSB, and CW, and digital modes such as radioteletype or PSK31. Some may have TNCs built in to support packet radio data transmission without additional hardware.\n", "BULLET::::- Walkie-talkie – a battery powered portable handheld half-duplex two-way radio, used in land mobile radio systems.\n", "BULLET::::- Toys such as the popular late-1970s Mr. Microphone and its imitators, which would broadcast the user's voice to a nearby radio receiver. Variations on this type of transmitter were advertised for sale in radio magazines as far back as the 1920s.\n\nBULLET::::- Walkie talkies intended for children's use, baby monitors, and some older cordless phones operate on frequencies in the 49 MHz band (or rarely at the upper end of the AM broadcast band).\n", "The first device to be widely nicknamed a \"walkie-talkie\" was developed by the US military during World War II, the backpacked Motorola SCR-300. It was created by an engineering team in 1940 at the Galvin Manufacturing Company (forerunner of Motorola). The team consisted of Dan Noble, who conceived of the design using frequency modulation; Henryk Magnuski, who was the principal RF engineer; Marion Bond; Lloyd Morris; and Bill Vogel.\n", "Section::::Critical reception.\n", "The personal walkie-talkie has become popular also because of the U.S. Family Radio Service (FRS) and similar licence-free services (such as Europe's PMR446 and Australia's UHF CB) in other countries. While FRS walkie-talkies are also sometimes used as toys because mass-production makes them low cost, they have proper superheterodyne receivers and are a useful communication tool for both business and personal use. The boom in licence-free transceivers has, however, been a source of frustration to users of licensed services that are sometimes interfered with. For example, FRS and GMRS overlap in the United States, resulting in substantial pirate use of the GMRS frequencies. Use of the GMRS frequencies (USA) requires a license; however most users either disregard this requirement or are unaware. Canada reallocated frequencies for licence-free use due to heavy interference from US GMRS users. The European PMR446 channels fall in the middle of a United States UHF amateur allocation, and the US FRS channels interfere with public safety communications in the United Kingdom. Designs for personal walkie-talkies are in any case tightly regulated, generally requiring non-removable antennas (with a few exceptions such as CB radio and the United States MURS allocation) and forbidding modified radios.\n", "Many Bob-FM stations are imaged by Digital Sound & Video, Inc, located in Daytona Beach, Florida and voiced by Sean Caldwell. \n", "Low-power versions, exempt from licence requirements, are also popular children's toys such as the Fisher Price Walkie-Talkie for children illustrated in the top image on the right. Prior to the change of CB radio from licensed to \"permitted by part\" (FCC rules Part 95) status, the typical toy walkie-talkie available in North America was limited to 100 milliwatts of power on transmit and using one or two crystal-controlled channels in the 27 MHz citizens' band using amplitude modulation (AM) only. Later toy walkie-talkies operated in the 49 MHz band, some with frequency modulation (FM), shared with cordless phones and baby monitors. The lowest cost devices are very simple electronically (single-frequency, crystal-controlled, generally based on a simple discrete transistor circuit where \"grown-up\" walkie-talkies use chips), may employ superregenerative receivers, and may lack even a volume control, but they may nevertheless be elaborately decorated, often superficially resembling more \"grown-up\" radios such as FRS or public safety gear. Unlike more costly units, low-cost toy walkie-talkies may not have separate microphones and speakers; the receiver's speaker sometimes doubles as a microphone while in transmit mode.\n", "Walkie-talkies (also known as HTs or \"handheld transceivers\") are widely used among amateur radio operators. While converted commercial gear by companies such as Motorola are not uncommon, many companies such as Yaesu, Icom, and Kenwood design models specifically for amateur use. While superficially similar to commercial and personal units (including such things as CTCSS and DCS squelch functions, used primarily to activate amateur radio repeaters), amateur gear usually has a number of features that are not common to other gear, including:\n\nBULLET::::- Wide-band receivers, often including radio scanner functionality, for listening to non-amateur radio bands.\n", "Section::::Developments.\n\nSome cellular telephone networks offer a push-to-talk handset that allows walkie-talkie-like operation over the cellular network, without dialing a call each time. However, the cellphone provider must be accessible.\n\nWalkie-talkies for public safety, commercial and industrial uses may be part of trunked radio systems, which dynamically allocate radio channels for more efficient use of limited radio spectrum. Such systems always work with a base station that acts as a repeater and controller, although individual handsets and mobiles may have a mode that bypasses the base station.\n\nSection::::Contemporary use.\n", "Section::::Contemporary use.:Recreation.\n", "Walkie-talkie\n\nA walkie-talkie (more formally known as a handheld transceiver, or HT) is a hand-held, portable, two-way radio transceiver. Its development during the Second World War has been variously credited to Donald L. Hings, radio engineer Alfred J. Gross, and engineering teams at Motorola. First used for infantry, similar designs were created for field artillery and tank units, and after the war, walkie-talkies spread to public safety and eventually commercial and jobsite work.\n", "Billy was living with his twin brother Benny, who was a coal miner, wife Molly, and their children. Unfortunately, Benny has lost his job in the mines due to the \"market forces.\" One night, Benny and Billy are out on a pub crawl when they pass a shop full of TV screens broadcasting Margaret Thatcher's \"mocking condescension.\" Benny vents his anger on this shop and steals a cordless phone. Next, in theatrical fashion, Benny poses on a footbridge in protest to the closures; the same night, a taxi driver is killed by a concrete block dropped from a similar bridge by Benny (\"Who Needs Information\" – track 2). The police question Benny, who hides the phone in Billy's wheelchair.\n", "The RP37 VHF Herald looked like a third-generation Herald, but the presence of a telescopic aerial indicated that this is an FM-capable receiver; indeed it was an \"FM-only\" radio. Like most Hacker sets from the 1960s and early 1970s, this set used two PP9 batteries. They were available in the same colour choices as the RP35 AM Herald, and there was a variant with a revised scale in royal blue that incorporated the Open University logo in place of the local stations. The terms of this arrangement are presently unclear.\n", "The majority of current audience response systems use wireless hardware. Two primary technologies exist to transmit data from the keypads to the base stations: infrared (IR) and radio frequency (RF). A few companies also offer Web-based software that routes the data over the Internet (sometimes in a unified system with IR and RF equipment). Cell phone-based systems are also becoming available.\n\nSection::::Audience response systems.:Hardware.:Infrared.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00696	Why are antibiotics completely ineffective against viruses?	Bacteria are tiny animals. They eat, they breathe, they have a metabolism that turns food into energy, they do all the normal animal things. Antibiotics work by interrupting some part of that process that keeps bacteria alive. They are basically poisoned to death. Viruses are not alive. They are very simple biological machines. They don't eat, they don't breath, they don't have a metabolism. What they do is knock into healthy cells and inject protein into them. These protein strands hijack the cell, and cause it to make more viruses. So you can't poison a virus, it'd be like trying to poison a clock or or a can opener. To stop a virus it needs to either be prevented from penetrating healthy cells (by somehow enhancing the cells to resist it) or physically attacked and destroyed by your body's natural defense cells. So anti-virals focus on strengthening your own natural defense responses and helping them to target and destroy viruses.	[ "Specific antiviral drugs are used to treat some viral infections. These drugs prevent viruses from reproducing by inhibiting essential stages of the virus's replication cycle in infected cells. Antivirals are used to treat HIV, hepatitis B, hepatitis C, influenza, herpes viruses including varicella zoster virus, cytomegalovirus and Epstein-Barr virus. With each virus, some strains have become resistant to the administered drugs.\n", "Antiviral drugs typically target key components of viral reproduction; for example, oseltamivir targets influenza neuraminidase, while guanosine analogs inhibit viral DNA polymerase. Resistance to antivirals is thus acquired through mutations in the genes that encode the protein targets of the drugs.\n", "An alternative way to treat viral infections would be antiviral drugs in which the drug blocks the virus's replication cycle. The specificity of an antiviral drug is the key to its success. These drugs are toxic to both the virus and the host but in order to minimize their damage they are developed in such a way as to be more toxic to the virus than to the host. The efficiency of an antiviral drug is measured by the chemotherapeutic index, given by:\n\nSection::::Additional links.\n\nBULLET::::- molecular biology\n\nBULLET::::- phage, the virus of bacteria/prokaryotes\n\nBULLET::::- viral plaque\n", "Most Gram-negative bacteria are intrinsically resistant to vancomycin because their outer membranes are impermeable to large glycopeptide molecules (with the exception of some non-gonococcal \"Neisseria\" species).\n\nSection::::Antibiotic resistance.:Acquired resistance.\n", "Antibiotics have no effect on viral infections such as the common cold. They are also ineffective against sore throats, which are usually viral and self-resolving. Most cases of bronchitis (90–95%) are viral as well, passing after a few weeks—the use of antibiotics against bronchitis is superfluous and can put the patient at risk of suffering adverse reactions. If you take an antibiotic when you have a viral infection, the antibiotic attacks bacteria in your body, bacteria that are either beneficial or at least not causing disease. This misdirected treatment can then promote antibiotic-resistant properties in harmless bacteria that can be shared with other bacteria, or create an opportunity for potentially harmful bacteria to replace the harmless ones.\n", "The major way bacteria defend themselves from bacteriophages is by producing enzymes that destroy foreign DNA. These enzymes, called restriction endonucleases, cut up the viral DNA that bacteriophages inject into bacterial cells. Bacteria also contain a system that uses CRISPR sequences to retain fragments of the genomes of viruses that the bacteria have come into contact with in the past, which allows them to block the virus's replication through a form of RNA interference. This genetic system provides bacteria with acquired immunity to infection.\n\nSection::::Infection in other species.:Archaeal viruses.\n", "Resistance to HIV antivirals is problematic, and even multi-drug resistant strains have evolved. One source of resistance is that many current HIV drugs, including NRTIs and NNRTIs, target reverse transcriptase; however, HIV-1 reverse transcriptase is highly error prone and thus mutations conferring resistance arise rapidly. Resistant strains of the HIV virus emerge rapidly if only one antiviral drug is used. Using three or more drugs together, termed combination therapy, has helped to control this problem, but new drugs are needed because of the continuing emergence of drug-resistant HIV strains.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms and organisms.:Fungi.\n", "Morpholino oligos have been used to experimentally suppress many viral types:\n\nBULLET::::- caliciviruses\n\nBULLET::::- flaviviruses (including WNV)\n\nBULLET::::- dengue\n\nBULLET::::- HCV\n\nBULLET::::- coronaviruses\n\nSection::::Approaches by life cycle stage.:During viral synthesis.:Translation/ribozymes.\n\nYet another antiviral technique inspired by genomics is a set of drugs based on ribozymes, which are enzymes that will cut apart viral RNA or DNA at selected sites. In their natural course, ribozymes are used as part of the viral manufacturing sequence, but these synthetic ribozymes are designed to cut RNA and DNA at sites that will disable them.\n", "Phage-resistant bacteria variants have been observed in human studies. As for antibiotics, horizontal transfer of phage resistance can be acquired by plasmid acquisition.\n\nSection::::Antifungal resistance.\n\nYeasts such as \"Candida species\" can become resistant under long term treatment with azole preparations, requiring treatment with a different drug class.\n\nScedosporium prolificans infections are almost uniformly fatal because of their resistance to multiple antifungal agents.\n\nSection::::Antiviral resistance.\n\nHIV is the prime example of MDR against antivirals, as it mutates rapidly under monotherapy.\n", "Various microorganisms have survived for thousands of years by their ability to adapt to antimicrobial agents. They do so via spontaneous mutation or by DNA transfer. This process enables some bacteria to oppose the action of certain antibiotics, rendering the antibiotics ineffective. These microorganisms employ several mechanisms in attaining multi-drug resistance:\n\nBULLET::::- No longer relying on a glycoprotein cell wall\n\nBULLET::::- Enzymatic deactivation of antibiotics\n\nBULLET::::- Decreased cell wall permeability to antibiotics\n\nBULLET::::- Altered target sites of antibiotic\n\nBULLET::::- Efflux mechanisms to remove antibiotics\n\nBULLET::::- Increased mutation rate as a stress response\n", "Some experimental evidence supports all of these theories, in certain conditions; a good review of the topic is written by Haas and Defago.\n\nSeveral strains of \"P. fluorescens\", such as Pf-5 and JL3985, have developed a natural resistance to ampicillin and streptomycin. These antibiotics are regularly used in biological research as a selective pressure tool to promote plasmid expression.\n", "BULLET::::4. Reduced drug accumulation: by decreasing drug permeability or increasing active efflux (pumping out) of the drugs across the cell surface These pumps within the cellular membrane of certain bacterial species are used to pump antibiotics out of the cell before they are able to do any damage. They are often activated by a specific substrate associated with an antibiotic. as in fluoroquinolone resistance.\n", "From the early 1950s onwards, a large number of antibiotics, due to the emergence of multidrug-resistant common pathogen strains (both Gram-negative and Gram-positive), became scarcely effective and not-useful. This scenario has stimulated the research for an alternative strategy focused on agents (antivirulence or antipathogenic agents) aimed to disarm microorganisms cause of infectious disease, without killing or inhibiting the growth of microorganisms themselves and therefore with limited selective pressure to promote the antibiotic resistance phenomenon.\n", "If a virus is not fully wiped out during a regimen of antivirals, treatment creates a bottleneck in the viral population that selects for resistance, and there is a chance that a resistant strain may repopulate the host. Viral treatment mechanisms must therefore account for the selection of resistant viruses.\n", "Infection prevention is the most efficient strategy of prevention of an infection with a MDR organism within a hospital, because there are few alternatives to antibiotics in the case of an extensively resistant or panresistant infection; if an infection is localized, removal or excision can be attempted (with MDR-TB the lung for example), but in the case of a systemic infection only generic measures like boosting the immune system with immunoglobulins may be possible. The use of bacteriophages (viruses which kill bacteria) is a developing area of possible therapeutic treatments.\n", "Bacteria are capable of not only altering the enzyme targeted by antibiotics, but also by the use of enzymes to modify the antibiotic itself and thus neutralize it. Examples of target-altering pathogens are \"Staphylococcus aureus\", vancomycin-resistant enterococci and macrolide-resistant \"Streptococcus\", while examples of antibiotic-modifying microbes are \"Pseudomonas aeruginosa\" and aminoglycoside-resistant \"Acinetobacter baumannii\".\n", "To become vancomycin-resistant, vancomycin-sensitive enterococci typically obtain new DNA in the form of plasmids or transposons which encode genes that confer vancomycin resistance. This acquired vancomycin resistance is distinguished from the natural vancomycin resistance of certain enterococcal species including \"E. gallinarum\" and \"E. casseliflavus/flavescens\".\n", "Many different bacteria now exhibit multi-drug resistance, including staphylococci, enterococci, gonococci, streptococci, salmonella, as well as numerous other Gram-negative bacteria and \"Mycobacterium tuberculosis\". Antibiotic resistant bacteria are able to transfer copies of DNA that code for a mechanism of resistance to other bacteria even distantly related to them, which then are also able to pass on the resistance genes and so generations of antibiotics resistant bacteria are produced. This process is called horizontal gene transfer.\n\nSection::::Bacterial resistance to bacteriophages.\n", "Antibiotic stewardship programmes appear useful in reducing rates of antibiotic resistance. The antibiotic stewardship program will also provide pharmacists with the knowledge to educate patients that antibiotics will not work for a virus.\n", "The major way bacteria defend themselves from bacteriophages is by producing enzymes which destroy foreign DNA. These enzymes, called restriction endonucleases, cut up the viral DNA that bacteriophages inject into bacterial cells.\n\nSection::::Viruses and diseases.:Prevention and treatment of viral disease in humans and other animals.\n\nSection::::Viruses and diseases.:Prevention and treatment of viral disease in humans and other animals.:Vaccines.\n", "Many antiviral drugs are designed to treat infections by retroviruses, mostly HIV. Important antiretroviral drugs include the class of protease inhibitors. Herpes viruses, best known for causing cold sores and genital herpes, are usually treated with the nucleoside analogue acyclovir. Viral hepatitis is caused by five unrelated hepatotropic viruses (A-E) and can be treated with antiviral drugs depending on the type of infection. influenza A and B viruses have become resistant to neuraminidase inhibitors such as oseltamivir and the search for new substances is on.\n\nSection::::Chemical.:Antiparasitics.\n", "Often, the degree of cross-immunity between virus strains is assumed to be related to their sequence distance.\n", "Because the oral absorption of vancomycin and teicoplanin is very low, these agents can be administered intravenously to control systemic infections. Treatment of MRSA infection with vancomycin can be complicated, due to its inconvenient route of administration. Moreover, the efficacy of vancomycin against MRSA is inferior to that of anti-staphylococcal beta-lactam antibiotics against methicillin-susceptible \"S. aureus\" (MSSA).\n\nSeveral newly discovered strains of MRSA show antibiotic resistance even to vancomycin and teicoplanin. These new strains of the MRSA bacterium have been dubbed vancomycin intermediate-resistant \"S. aureus\" (VISA).\n", "The mechanisms for antiviral resistance development depend on the type of virus in question. RNA viruses such as hepatitis C and influenza A have high error rates during genome replication because RNA polymerases lack proofreading activity. RNA viruses also have small genome sizes that are typically less than 30 kb, which allow them to sustain a high frequency of mutations. DNA viruses, such as HPV and herpesvirus, hijack host cell replication machinery, which gives them proofreading capabilities during replication. DNA viruses are therefore less error prone, are generally less diverse, and are more slowly evolving than RNA viruses. In both cases, the likelihood of mutations is exacerbated by the speed with which viruses reproduce, which provides more opportunities for mutations to occur in successive replications. Billions of viruses are produced every day during the course of an infection, with each replication giving another chance for mutations that encode for resistance to occur.\n", "As of 2014 some bacteriocins had been studied in \"in vitro\" studies to see if they can stop viruss from replicating, namely staphylococcin 188 against Newcastle disease virus, influenza virus, and coliphage HSA virus; each of enterocin AAR-71 class IIa, enterocin AAR-74 class IIa, and erwiniocin NA4 against coliphage HSA virus; each of enterocin ST5Ha, enterocin NKR-5-3C, and subtilosine against HSV-1; each of enterocin ST4V and enterocin CRL35 class IIa against HSV-1 and HSV-2; labyrinthopeptin A1 against HIV-1 and HSV-1; and bacteriocin from \"Lactobacillus delbrueckii\" against influenza virus.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-05556	Water Loss due to Agriculture?	You're right and wrong. The water used in agriculture (growing that almond for instance) is not destroyed. Almost nothing we do destroys water permanently. The water participates in the plant's transpiration cycle, is used to build parts of the plant, and is released as water vapor into the atmosphere, where it eventually goes and rains on someone (since I live in Seattle, probably me). Or for the water incorporated into the plant's tissues, digestion, rotting, or even burning, will release it. So it all comes back. That's where you're wrong. However, you are right that water can be moved from very useful locations and states, to less useful locations and states. Water in a reservoir in southern California is very, very useful, because lots of very dry cities and agricultural counties desire it. Water raining on me in Seattle is a lot less useful, because we have more than enough. Water in the ocean is the same. So it is definitely possible to overuse water in local areas, thereby moving it from places you want it, to places you don't.	[ "Water management is needed where rainfall is insufficient or variable, which occurs to some degree in most regions of the world. Some farmers use irrigation to supplement rainfall. In other areas such as the Great Plains in the U.S. and Canada, farmers use a fallow year to conserve soil moisture to use for growing a crop in the following year. Agriculture represents 70% of freshwater use worldwide.\n", "These rapid changes have had major effects on the ecology and the livelihoods depending on it. Every stage has different effects on each livelihood activity but generally stated cattle farmers have seen their pastures decreased rapidly, fishermen have first seen open water bodies increased but later decreased again, and new livelihood activities as making mats from the paparyusses have taken a major flight.\n", "Sundquist points out that large areas of croplands are lost year after year, due mainly to soil erosion, water depletion and urbanisation. According to him \"60,000 km/year of land becomes so severely degraded that it loses its productive capacity and becomes wasteland\", and even more are affected to a lesser extent, adding to the crop supply problem.\n\nAdditionally, agricultural production is also lost due to water depletion. Northern China in particular has depleted much of its non-renewables aquifers, which now impacts negatively its crop production.\n\nUrbanisation is another, smaller, difficult to estimate cause of annual cropland reduction.\n", "Water used for agriculture is called \"agricultural water\" or \"farm water.\" Changing landscape for the use of agriculture has a great effect on the flow of fresh water. Changes in landscape by the removal of trees and soils changes the flow of fresh water in the local environment and also affects the cycle of fresh water. As a result, more fresh water is stored in the soil which benefits agriculture. However, since agriculture is the human activity that consumes the most fresh water, this can put a severe strain on local freshwater resources resulting in the destruction of local ecosystems.\n", "The transfer of water from agricultural to urban and suburban use raises concerns about agricultural sustainability, rural socioeconomic decline, food security, an increased carbon footprint from imported food, and decreased foreign trade balance. The depletion of fresh water, as applied to more specific and populated areas, increases fresh water scarcity among the population and also makes populations susceptible to economic, social, and political conflict in a number of ways; rising sea levels forces migration from coastal areas to other areas farther inland, pushing populations closer together breaching borders and other geographical patterns, and agricultural surpluses and deficits from the availability of water induce trade problems and economies of certain areas. Climate change is an important cause of involuntary migration and forced displacement According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, global greenhouse gas emissions from animal agriculture exceeds that of transportation.\n", "Agriculture accounts for 70 percent of withdrawals of freshwater resources. Agriculture is a major draw on water from aquifers, and currently draws from those underground water sources at an unsustainable rate. It is long known that aquifers in areas as diverse as northern China, the Upper Ganges and the western US are being depleted, and new research extends these problems to aquifers in Iran, Mexico and Saudi Arabia. Increasing pressure is being placed on water resources by industry and urban areas, meaning that water scarcity is increasing and agriculture is facing the challenge of producing more food for the world's growing population with reduced water resources. Agricultural water usage can also cause major environmental problems, including the destruction of natural wetlands, the spread of water-borne diseases, and land degradation through salinization and waterlogging, when irrigation is performed incorrectly.\n", "Since the late 1960s, agricultural land use has expanded by 20–25%, which has contributed to approximately 30% of the overall grain production growth during the period. The remaining yield outputs originated from intensification through yield increases per unit land area. However, the regional variation is large, as is the difference between irrigated and rainfed agriculture. In developing countries rainfed grain yields are on average 1.5 hectare, compared with 3.1 hectare for irrigated yields, and increase in production from rainfed agriculture has mainly originated from land expansion.\n", "\"Higher temperatures and drier soils are likely to increase the use of water by more than 25 percent during the next 50 years, mostly because of increased irrigation. Approximately one-third of the farmland in Nebraska is irrigated with ground water, most of which comes from the High Plains Aquifer System, and municipal water supplies also reply primarily on ground water. In Nebraska, the aquifer is only being depleted in a few western areas. But water levels are declining throughout much of Kansas, where the average temperature today is similar to what the average temperature of Nebraska is likely to be 70 to 100 years from now\".\n", "Fossil water is a non-renewable resource. Groundwater levels decrease when the rate of extraction by irrigation exceeds the rate of recharge. By 2013 it was shown that as the water consumption efficiency of center-pivot irrigation improved over the years, farmers planted more intensively, irrigated more land, and grew thirstier crops.\n", "The most important use of water in agriculture is for irrigation, which is a key component to produce enough food. Irrigation takes up to 90% of water withdrawn in some developing countries and significant proportions in more economically developed countries (in the United States, 42% of freshwater withdrawn for use is for irrigation).\n", "In developing countries, agriculture is increasingly using untreated wastewater for irrigation - often in an unsafe manner. Cities provide lucrative markets for fresh produce, so are attractive to farmers. However, because agriculture has to compete for increasingly scarce water resources with industry and municipal users, there is often no alternative for farmers but to use water polluted with urban waste directly to water their crops.\n", "BULLET::::- Water withdrawal. In view of the limitations described above, only gross water withdrawal can be computed systematically on a country basis as a measure of water use. Absolute or per-person value of yearly water withdrawal gives a measure of the importance of water in the country's economy. When expressed in percentage of water resources, it shows the degree of pressure on water resources. A rough estimate shows that if water withdrawal exceeds a quarter of global renewable water resources of a country, water can be considered a limiting factor to development and, reciprocally, the pressure on water resources can affect all sectors, from agriculture to environment and fisheries.\n", "Section::::Food and agriculture trends.:Formula.\n", "Section::::Horticulture water use.\n\nWith modern advancements, crops are being cultivated year round in countries all around the world. As water usage becomes a more pervasive global issue, irrigation practices for crops are being refined and becoming more sustainable. While there are a variety of irrigation systems, these may be grouped into two types: high flow and low flow. These systems must be managed precisely to prevent runoff, over spray, or low-head drainage.\n\nSection::::Scarcity of water in agriculture.\n", "From the 1950s on, many areas of the Great Plains have become productive crop-growing areas because of extensive irrigation on large landholdings. The United States is a major exporter of agricultural products. The southern portion of the Great Plains lies over the Ogallala Aquifer, a huge underground layer of water-bearing strata dating from the last ice age. Center pivot irrigation is used extensively in drier sections of the Great Plains, resulting in aquifer depletion at a rate that is greater than the ground's ability to recharge.\n\nSection::::History.:After 19th century.:Population decline.\n", "Approximately 2.4 billion people live in the drainage basin of the Himalayan rivers. India, China, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and Myanmar could experience floods followed by severe droughts in coming decades. In India alone, the Ganges provides water for drinking and farming for more than 500 million people. The west coast of North America, which gets much of its water from glaciers in mountain ranges such as the Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada, also would be affected.\n\nSection::::Impact of climate change on agriculture.:Ozone and UV-B.\n", "Irrigation farming is when crops are grown with the help of irrigation systems by supplying water to land through rivers, reservoirs, tanks, and wells. Over the last century, the population of India has tripled. With a growing population and increasing demand for food, the necessity of water for agricultural productivity is crucial. India faces the daunting task of increasing its food production by over 50 percent in the next two decades, and reaching towards the goal of sustainable agriculture requires a crucial role of water. Empirical evidence suggests that the increase in agricultural production in India is mostly due to irrigation; close to three fifths of India's grain harvest comes from\n", "Human impact: Groundwater is an important source of water for drinking and irrigation of crops. Over 1 billion people in Asia and 65% of the public water sources in Europe source 100% of their water from groundwater. Irrigation is a massive use of groundwater with 80% of the world's groundwater used for agricultural production.\n", "Navin Ramankutty\n\nNavin Ramankutty (1970) is an agricultural geographer. As of 2015 he is a professor of Global Food Security and Sustainability at the University of British Columbia Ramankutty studies changes in land use and agricultural practices, and the effect on global food production.\n\nSection::::Early life and education.\n", "Middle Green Valley, Solano County, CA\n\nOne of the largest and most recent examples of development-supported agriculture is in Middle Green Valley in southwestern Solano County, California. \n", "Modern industrial farming is another major cause of erosion. In some areas in the American corn belt, more than 50 percent of the original topsoil has been carried away within the last 100 years.\n\nSection::::Effects of surface runoff.:Environmental effects.\n", "The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations estimates that more than 40% of earth’s land surface is currently used for agriculture. And because so much land has been converted to agriculture, habitat loss is recognized as the driving force in biodiversity loss (FAO). This biodiversity loss often occurred in two steps, as in the American Midwest, with the introduction of mixed farming carried out on small farms and then with the widespread use of mechanized farming and monoculture beginning after World War II. The decline in farmland biodiversity can now be traced to changes in farming practices and increased agricultural intensity.\n", "Jalgaon district, India, has an average temperature which ranges from 20.2 °C in December to 29.8 °C in May, and an average precipitation of 750 mm/year. It produces bananas at a rate that would make it the world's seventh-largest banana producer if it were a country.\n", "In California, large amounts of groundwater are also being withdrawn from Central Valley groundwater aquifers. California's Central Valley is home to one-sixth of all irrigated land in the United States, and the state leads the nation in agricultural production and exports. The inability to sustain groundwater withdrawals over time may lead to adverse impacts on the region's agricultural productivity.\n", "It has been estimated that livestock, namely cattle, make up about 16 percent of human-caused carbon dioxide emissions. Also, although cropland takes up a small portion of land, irrigation for crops accounts for 80 percent of water consumption in the Southwest. A lot of this water is coming from the Colorado River, which is already almost completely used up by the time the water reaches Mexico. About half of irrigation water comes from groundwater in the Southwest, and this is also being used much faster than it is being replenished. If climate change raises the temperatures in the Southwest, then this will increase the amount of water that evaporates from the soil, plants, and bodies of water. Since the 1970s more water has been evaporated from reservoirs than is used by humans.\n" ]	[ "water is lost due to agriculture.", "Agriculture causes water loss." ]	[ "water is not lost, it just gets used and eventually evaporates back out of the plants to continue in the water cycle. ", "Water used in agriculture is not lost but converted to other forms such as rain." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "water is lost due to agriculture.", "Agriculture causes water loss." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "water is not lost, it just gets used and eventually evaporates back out of the plants to continue in the water cycle. ", "Water used in agriculture is not lost but converted to other forms such as rain." ]
2018-02072	Why do candles smell burnt when they go out, but not before when they are still burning?	I will speculate it is because the soot emanating from the candle after it is out is not the same chemical composition as the byproducts from more complete combustion. That white smoke after you blow it out is aerosolized wax, and is flammable.	[ "Also known as \"rectification\", the raw materials are directly heated in a still without a carrier solvent such as water. Fragrant compounds that are released from the raw material by the high heat often undergo anhydrous pyrolysis, which results in the formation of different fragrant compounds, and thus different fragrant notes. This method is used to obtain fragrant compounds from fossil amber and fragrant woods (such as birch tar) where an intentional \"burned\" or \"toasted\" odour is desired.\n\nSection::::Distillation.:Fractionation distillation.\n", "Votive candles are made from different types of waxes including paraffin, soy wax or beeswax. There are different grades of wax with different melting points. Paraffin is often mixed with other types of waxes, such as beeswax or vegetable wax. This is done to obtain the rigidity necessary for the type of candle being made. The speed at which the candle burns depends on the composition of the wax. A taper candle that sits in a ring-shaped candle holder may have a low melting point and produce little to no oil, whereas a votive candle set in a glass cup may have a very low melting point and turn to oil. Pillar candles, large candles often with multiple wicks, have their own formula. Soy jar candles tend to have a lower melting point than pillars and votive candles. Candle quality also varies widely depending on the candle maker. The aroma of a lighted scented candle is released through the evaporation of the fragrance from the hot wax pool and from the solid candle itself.\n", "The principal Tenebrae ceremony is the gradual extinguishing of candles upon a stand in the sanctuary called a hearse. Eventually, the Roman Rite settled on fifteen candles, one of which is extinguished after each of the nine psalms of matins and the five of lauds. The six altar candles are put out during the Benedictus, gradually reducing also the lighting in the church throughout the chanting of the canticle. Then any remaining lights in the church are extinguished and the last candle on the hearse is hidden behind the altar (if the altar is such as does not hide the light, the candle, still lit, is put inside a candle lantern), ending the service in total darkness. The \"strepitus\" (Latin for \"great noise\"), made by slamming a book shut, banging a hymnal or breviary against the pew, or stomping on the floor, symbolizes the earthquake that followed Christ's death, although it may have originated as a simple signal to depart. After the candle has been shown to the people, it is extinguished, and then put \"on the credence table,\" or simply taken to the sacristy. All rise and then leave in silence.\n", "In modern science, it is generally accepted that most ignes fatui are caused by the oxidation of phosphine (PH), diphosphane (PH), and methane (CH). These compounds, produced by organic decay, can cause photon emissions. Since phosphine and diphosphane mixtures spontaneously ignite on contact with the oxygen in air, only small quantities of it would be needed to ignite the much more abundant methane to create ephemeral fires. Furthermore, phosphine produces phosphorus pentoxide as a by-product, which forms phosphoric acid upon contact with water vapor.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Will-o'-the-wisp (Ghost lights)\n\nBULLET::::- Marfa lights\n\nBULLET::::- Brown Mountain Lights\n\nBULLET::::- Hessdalen light\n", "BULLET::::- \"Dry/destructive distillation\": The raw materials are directly heated in a still without a carrier solvent such as water. Fragrant compounds that are released from the raw material by the high heat often undergo anhydrous pyrolysis, which results in the formation of different fragrant compounds, and thus different fragrant notes. This method is used to obtain fragrant compounds from fossil amber and fragrant woods where an intentional \"burned\" or \"toasted\" odor is desired.\n", "In 2005, in a live demonstration on Greek television, Michael Kalopoulos, author and historian of religion, dipped three candles in white phosphorus. The candles spontaneously ignited after approximately 20 minutes due to the self-ignition properties of white phosphorus when in contact with air. According to Kalopoulos' website:\n\nIf phosphorus is dissolved in an appropriate organic solvent, self-ignition is delayed until the solvent has almost completely evaporated. Repeated experiments showed that the ignition can be delayed for half an hour or more, depending on the density of the solution and the solvent employed.\n", "At the beginning of the 20th century, complex rules governed the composition and number of candles to be used at Mass. Lighted candles of the correct composition (beeswax, with no more than a minimal admixture of other material, and usually bleached) were considered so essential that, if before the consecration they happened to go out (quenched, for instance, by a gust of wind) and could not be relit within fifteen minutes, the celebration of Mass had to be abandoned, and some writers maintained that even if the candles could be relit within that time, Mass should in any case be begun again from the start. Some of these rules were formulated only in the second half of the nineteenth and the beginning of the 20th century. The Roman Missal of the time continued to indicate merely that on the altar there should be \"at least two candlesticks with lit candles\" with a centrally placed cross between them (\"Rubricae generales Missalis, XX - De Praeparatione Altaris, et Ornamentorum eius\"). There is also a rule given in the same section of the Roman Missal - and still included even in the typical 1920 edition - that \"a candle to be lit at the elevation of the Sacrament\" should be placed with the cruets of wine and water to the Epistle side of the altar.\n", "In the Methodist tradition, fourteen candles, along with a central Christ candle, are lit on the Tenebrae hearse after the Opening Prayer. They are consequently extinguished after each of the Tenebrae lessons. Prior to the reading of the sixteenth lesson, the Christ candle on the Tenebrae hearse is extinguished and then the church bells are tolled. The sixteenth lesson is read in darkness, followed by the conclusion of the liturgy.\n\nSection::::Other Western Christian Churches.:Polish National Catholic practice.\n", "The fragrance lamp's process is initiated by igniting the stone burner seated at the mouth of the lamp. After TWO minutes the flame is extinguished by blowing it out. The heated burner remains active as the flame-less, low-temperature catalytic combustion process and diffuses the aromatics throughout the room. The lamp does not operate with an open flame, making it much safer to operate than scented candles. Its lower operating temperature also means that, unlike scented candles, the aromatics are diffused very efficiently into the ambient air without being burned.\n\nSection::::Hazard Warning.\n", "One of Michael Faraday's significant works was \"The Chemical History of a Candle\", where he gives an in-depth analysis of the evolutionary development, workings and science of candles.\n\nSection::::Hazards.\n\nAccording to the U.S. National Fire Protection Association, candles are a leading source of residential fires in the United States with almost 10% of civilian injuries and 6% of fatalities from fire attributed to candles.\n\nA candle flame that is longer than its laminar smoke point will emit soot. Proper wick trimming will reduce soot emissions from most candles.\n", "The title is derived from an old Chinese saying, credited by the author to genuine grave robbers: \"A human lights the candle and the ghosts blow it out.\" According to Muye, grave robbers would place a candle in the south-east corner of a tomb after entering, in an attempt to make contact with the dead. If the candle was extinguished it was a sign that the spirits within opposed the intrusion, and the robbers would be obliged to depart, leaving everything intact and undisturbed.\n\nSection::::Adaptations.\n", "As of two days after the fire, the definitive cause of the fire had not been determined. Candles that had not been properly extinguished after an Easter service were identified as a likely cause, according to a spokesperson of the New York City Fire Department (FDNY). A caretaker told fire marshals that he stowed the candles in a cardboard box under a piece of wooden furniture in a rear corner of the 161-year-old church.\n", "Altar candle\n\nAltar candles are candles set on or near altars for religious ceremonies. Various denominations have regulations or traditions regarding the number and type of candles used, and when they are lit or extinguished during the services.\n", "Often, especially in Western contexts, \"censer\" is used for pieces made for religious use, especially those on chains that are swung through the air to spread the incense smoke widely, while \"perfume burner\" is used for objects made for secular use. The original meaning of pastille was a small compressed mixture of aromatic plant material and charcoal that was lit to release the odour, and pastille-burners were designed for this, for use in the home. The pastilles were made at home until their heyday in the early 19th century, and the burners are often made in pottery or porcelain. \n", "This tradition was abandoned in the 1950s. Today the term \"Tenebrae\" is applied to a variety of services inspired by it, not necessarily connected with Holy Week; these usually involve the gradual extinguishing of candles and the \"strepitus\".\n\nSection::::Liturgy.:Methodist Churches.\n\nIn traditional Methodist usage, \"The Book of Worship for Church and Home\" (1965) provides the following Collect for Spy Wednesday: \n\nOn the evening of Spy Wednesday, many Methodist churches observe the Tenebrae service. \n\nSection::::Liturgy.:Anglican Churches.\n\nIn the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States, a member of the Anglican Communion, the Tenebrae service is celebrated on Spy Wednesday.\n", "A strong smell of burning was present in the Lords' chambers during the afternoon of 16 October, and at 4:00 pm two gentlemen tourists visiting to see the Armada tapestries that hung there were unable to view them properly because of the thick smoke. As they approached Black Rod's box in the corner of the room, they felt heat from the floor coming through their boots. Shortly after 4:00 pm Cross and Furlong finished work, put the last few sticks into the furnaces—closing the doors as they did so—and left to go to the nearby Star and Garter public house.\n", "Incense in the Orthodox Church is burned at essentially every worship service usually multiple times. This is always done by burning granulated incense on a hot coal inside a censer. The censer is essentially two metal bowls suspended by chains and which can be raised and lowered to allow more or less smoke out. Incense is burned, in accordance with Old Testament tradition, as an essential mode of worship to God and is burned in token of reverence to objects of sanctity such as relics, bishops, icons, the congregation and many other besides. During the course of every service, all objects of repute will be censed by the deacon or priest. This is done by swinging the censer forward and bringing it back sending a cloud of aromatic smoke towards the object being censed.\n", "\"I used the remnants of Votive candles. Someone comes to church and makes a prayer. There are often two inches left after the candle is burnt though. Those bits are thrown away and I collect them. You take your fresh candle and it’s only for your prayer. It’s an object invested with belief and hope. It’s the medium for intense spiritual outpouring but the remaining bits are just chucked.\"\n", "Some types could also be used as pomanders, where the perfume diffuses slowly by evaporation rather than burning.\n\nSection::::Use.\n\nFor direct-burning incense, pieces of the incense are burned by placing them directly on top of a heat source or on a hot metal plate in a censer or thurible.\n", "For home use of granulated incense, small, concave charcoal briquettes are sold. One lights the corner of the briquette on fire, then places it in the censer and extinguishes the flame. After the glowing sparks traverse the entire briquette, it is ready to have incense placed on it.\n", "In the Roman Catholic Church a liturgical candle must be made of at least 51% beeswax, the remainder may be paraffin or some other substance. In the Orthodox Church, the tapers offered should be 100% beeswax, unless poverty makes this impossible. The stumps from burned candles can be saved and melted down to make new candles.\n", "The priests retreated into the sacristy, and some of the men made their escape by following them. The priests were gathering together the valuables of the church to save them, and they closed the door to the sacristy so they could do this in peace. No one escaped through the sacristy after the door was closed. The priests then left the scene, all unharmed, with what valuables they were able to save from the blaze.\n", "The most obvious case of burning is when an image's contrast is raised too much, and the result contains obvious black or white blobs, where there used to be detail in the shadows or the highlights. In this case, the brightness can be adjusted in parallel, and in this way the artist decides whether to preserve detail in the shadows (increase brightness) or in the highlights (decrease brightness), at the expense of detail in the opposite.\n", "Glass candle-holders are sometimes cracked by thermal shock from the candle flame, particularly when the candle burns down to the end. When burning candles in glass holders or jars, users should avoid lighting candles with chipped or cracked containers, and stop use once 1/2 inch or less of wax remains.\n", "Clean-burning stoves can be catalytic (using catalytic converters) or noncatalytic. The noncatalytic designs recirculate smoke to achieve fuller combustion.\n\nOnce the stove is warmed to within operating temperatures, it produces no visible smoke, emitting mostly water and carbon dioxide. Non-catalytic stoves have higher emissions than the new catalytic stoves do when the latter are operated correctly ().\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-14407	Why is perpetual energy from gravity impossible?	Gravity pulls things down. You can exploit this for energy, but only once. Once the object has exhausted its "gravitational potential" (i.e. hit the ground) you can't extract any more without first picking it up again. We do extract energy from falling water in hydroelectric dams, but again the water can only pass the dam once.	[ "A consequence of the law of conservation of energy is that a perpetual motion machine of the first kind cannot exist, that is to say, no system without an external energy supply can deliver an unlimited amount of energy to its surroundings. For systems which do not have time translation symmetry, it may not be possible to define conservation of energy. Examples include curved spacetimes in general relativity or time crystals in condensed matter physics.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Gravity also acts at a distance, without an apparent energy source, but to get energy out of a gravitational field (for instance, by dropping a heavy object, producing kinetic energy as it falls) one has to put energy in (for instance, by lifting the object up), and some energy is always dissipated in the process. A typical application of gravity in a perpetual motion machine is Bhaskara's wheel in the 12th century, whose key idea is itself a recurring theme, often called the overbalanced wheel: moving weights are attached to a wheel in such a way that they fall to a position further from the wheel's center for one half of the wheel's rotation, and closer to the center for the other half. Since weights further from the center apply a greater torque, it was thought that the wheel would rotate for ever. However, since the side with weights further from the center has fewer weights than the other side, at that moment, the torque is balanced and perpetual movement is not achieved. The moving weights may be hammers on pivoted arms, or rolling balls, or mercury in tubes; the principle is the same.\n", "Gravitational potential energy has a number of practical uses, notably the generation of pumped-storage hydroelectricity. For example, in Dinorwig, Wales, there are two lakes, one at a higher elevation than the other. At times when surplus electricity is not required (and so is comparatively cheap), water is pumped up to the higher lake, thus converting the electrical energy (running the pump) to gravitational potential energy. At times of peak demand for electricity, the water flows back down through electrical generator turbines, converting the potential energy into kinetic energy and then back into electricity. The process is not completely efficient and some of the original energy from the surplus electricity is in fact lost to friction.\n", "Thus, machines that extract energy from finite sources will not operate indefinitely, because they are driven by the energy stored in the source, which will eventually be exhausted. A common example is devices powered by ocean currents, whose energy is ultimately derived from the Sun, which itself will eventually burn out. Machines powered by more obscure sources have been proposed, but are subject to the same inescapable laws, and will eventually wind down.\n", "On the other hand, if the bowling ball is resting in a valley between two humps - no matter how big the drops outside the humps - it will stay there indefinitely. Even though the system could achieve a lower energy state, it cannot do so without external energy being applied: (locally) it is at its lowest energy state, and only a force from outside the system can 'push' it over one of the humps so a lower state can be achieved.\n", "Since the total change in entropy must always be larger or equal to zero, we obtain the inequality\n\nWe see that the total amount of work that can be extracted in an isothermal process is limited by the free-energy decrease, and that increasing the free energy in a reversible process requires work to be done on the system. If no work is extracted from the system, then\n\nand thus for a system kept at constant temperature and volume and not capable of performing electrical or other non-\"PV\" work, the total free energy during a spontaneous change can only decrease.\n", "According to the principle of conservation of mechanical energy, the mechanical energy of an isolated system remains constant in time, as long as the system is free of friction and other non-conservative forces. In any real situation, frictional forces and other non-conservative forces are present, but in many cases their effects on the system are so small that the principle of conservation of mechanical energy can be used as a fair approximation. Though energy cannot be created or destroyed in an isolated system, it can be converted to another form of energy.\n\nSection::::Conservation of mechanical energy.:Swinging pendulum.\n", "Energy transformations in the universe over time are characterized by various kinds of potential energy that has been available since the Big Bang later being \"released\" (transformed to more active types of energy such as kinetic or radiant energy) when a triggering mechanism is available. Familiar examples of such processes include nuclear decay, in which energy is released that was originally \"stored\" in heavy isotopes (such as uranium and thorium), by nucleosynthesis, a process ultimately using the gravitational potential energy released from the gravitational collapse of supernovae, to store energy in the creation of these heavy elements before they were incorporated into the solar system and the Earth. This energy is triggered and released in nuclear fission bombs or in civil nuclear power generation. Similarly, in the case of a chemical explosion, chemical potential energy is transformed to kinetic energy and thermal energy in a very short time. Yet another example is that of a pendulum. At its highest points the kinetic energy is zero and the gravitational potential energy is at maximum. At its lowest point the kinetic energy is at maximum and is equal to the decrease of potential energy. If one (unrealistically) assumes that there is no friction or other losses, the conversion of energy between these processes would be perfect, and the pendulum would continue swinging forever.\n", "Even machines which extract energy from long-lived sources - such as ocean currents - will run down when their energy sources inevitably do. They are not perpetual motion machines because they are consuming energy from an external source and are not isolated systems.\n\nSection::::Basic principles.:Classification.\n\nOne classification of perpetual motion machines refers to the particular law of thermodynamics the machines purport to violate:\n\nBULLET::::- A perpetual motion machine of the first kind produces work without the input of energy. It thus violates the first law of thermodynamics: the law of conservation of energy.\n", "BULLET::::- Vacuum energy and zero-point energy: In order to explain effects such as virtual particles and the Casimir effect, many formulations of quantum physics include a background energy which pervades empty space, known as vacuum or zero-point energy. The ability to harness zero-point energy for useful work is considered pseudoscience by the scientific community at large. Inventors have proposed various methods for extracting useful work from zero-point energy, but none have been found to be viable, no claims for extraction of zero-point energy have ever been validated by the scientific community, and there is no evidence that zero-point energy can be used in violation of conservation of energy.\n", "Pascual Jordan first suggested that since the positive energy of a star's mass and the negative energy of its gravitational field together may have zero total energy, conservation of energy would not prevent a star being created by a quantum transition of the vacuum. George Gamow recounted putting this idea to Albert Einstein: \"Einstein stopped in his tracks and, since we were crossing a street, several cars had to stop to avoid running us down\".\n", "Gravitational energy is the potential energy associated with gravitational force, as work is required to elevate objects against Earth's gravity. The potential energy due to elevated positions is called gravitational potential energy, and is evidenced by water in an elevated reservoir or kept behind a dam. If an object falls from one point to another point inside a gravitational field, the force of gravity will do positive work on the object, and the gravitational potential energy will decrease by the same amount.\n", "Since formula_4 in a vacuum region, it might seem that according to general relativity, vacuum regions must contain no energy. But the gravitational field can do work, so we must expect the gravitational field itself to possess energy, and it does. However, determining the precise location of this gravitational field energy is technically problematical in general relativity, by its very nature of the clean separation into a universal gravitational interaction and \"all the rest\".\n", "Gravitational potential energy is also used to power clocks in which falling weights operate the mechanism. It's also used by counterweights for lifting up an elevator, crane, or sash window.\n\nRoller coasters are an entertaining way to utilize potential energy – chains are used to move a car up an incline (building up gravitational potential energy), to then have that energy converted into kinetic energy as it falls.\n", "The debate on energy in economic systems can also be traced back to Nobel prize-winning radiochemist Frederick Soddy (1877–1956). In his book \"Wealth, Virtual Wealth and Debt\" (1926), Soddy criticized the prevailing belief of the economy as a perpetual motion machine, capable of generating infinite wealth—a criticism expanded upon by later ecological economists such as Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen and Herman Daly.\n", "The conservation laws are particularly robust from a mathematical perspective. Noether's theorem, which was proven mathematically in 1915, states that any conservation law can be derived from a corresponding continuous symmetry of the action of a physical system. For example, if the true laws of physics remain invariant over time then the conservation of energy follows. On the other hand, if the conservation laws are invalid, then the foundations of physics would need to change.\n", "Perpetual motion\n\nPerpetual motion is motion of bodies that continues indefinitely. A perpetual motion machine is a hypothetical machine that can do work indefinitely without an energy source. This kind of machine is impossible, as it would violate the first or second law of thermodynamics.\n", "Leonardo da Vinci calls kinetic energy the \"mother and origin of gravity.\" He describes two pairs of physical powers (all stemming from a metaphysical origin) which have an effect on everything: abundance of force and motion, and gravity and resistance. He associates gravity with the 'cold' classical elements, water (wet) and earth (dry), calling its energy infinite.\n\nIn 1533, Petrus Apianus described the exertion of gravity:\n", "\"Epistemic impossibility\" describes things which absolutely cannot occur within our \"current\" formulation of the physical laws. This interpretation of the word \"impossible\" is what is intended in discussions of the impossibility of perpetual motion in a closed system.\n", "In the 1970s, David Hamel produced the Hamel generator, an \"antigravity\" device, supposedly after an alien abduction. The device was tested on \"MythBusters\" where it failed to demonstrate any lift-generating capability.\n", "In the mid 19th-century Henry Dircks investigated the history of perpetual motion experiments, writing a vitriolic attack on those who continued to attempt what he believed to be impossible:\n\nSection::::Basic principles.:Techniques.\n\nSome common ideas recur repeatedly in perpetual motion machine designs. Many ideas that continue to appear today were stated as early as 1670 by John Wilkins, Bishop of Chester and an official of the Royal Society. He outlined three potential sources of power for a perpetual motion machine, \" Extractions\", \"Magnetical Virtues\" and \"the Natural Affection of Gravity\".\n", "Machines which comply with both laws of thermodynamics by accessing energy from unconventional sources are sometimes referred to as perpetual motion machines, although they do not meet the standard criteria for the name. By way of example, clocks and other low-power machines, such as Cox's timepiece, have been designed to run on the differences in barometric pressure or temperature between night and day. These machines have a source of energy, albeit one which is not readily apparent, so that they only seem to violate the laws of thermodynamics.\n", "Suppose that \"x\" is smaller than its equilibrium value. The upward force of the gas is greater than the downward force of the weight, and if allowed to freely move, the gas in the cylinder would push the weight upward rapidly, and there would be frictional forces that would convert the energy to heat. If we specify that an external agent presses down on the weight so as to very slowly (reversibly) allow the weight to move upward to its equilibrium position, then there will be no heat generated and the entropy of the system will remain constant while energy is transferred as work to the external agent. The total energy of the system at any value of \"x\" is given by the internal energy of the gas plus the potential energy of the weight:\n", "Before the establishment of the second law, many people who were interested in inventing a perpetual motion machine had tried to circumvent the restrictions of first law of thermodynamics by extracting the massive internal energy of the environment as the power of the machine. Such a machine is called a \"perpetual motion machine of the second kind\". The second law declared the impossibility of such machines.\n\nSection::::Corollaries.:Carnot theorem.\n", "Following a meeting between McCarthy and Professor Sir Eric Ash in July 2007, Ash reported that \"the \"Orbo\" is a mechanical device which uses powerful magnets on the rim of a rotor and further magnets on an outer shell.\" During this meeting, McCarthy referred to the law of conservation of energy as scientific dogma. However, conservation of energy is a fundamental principle of physics, more specifically a consequence of the unchanging nature of physical laws with time by Noether's Theorem. Ash said that there was no comparison with religious dogma since there is no flexibility in choosing to accept that energy is always conserved. Rejecting conservation of energy would undermine all science and technology. Ash also formed the opinion that McCarthy was truly convinced in the validity of his invention but that this conviction was a case of \"prolonged self-deception.\"\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04165	Why is the California High-Speed Rail taking longer than the Transcontinental Railroad, to be built?	The Eastern part of the transcontinental railroad, the Union Pacific, was over flat, dry, unforested, undeveloped land, so encountered few challenges and was much longer than the other part. The Western leg, the Central Pacific, though it went through rugged mountains, was much shorter and still didn't have to deal with developed areas. The entire project was through wilderness, and the 19th century didn't care about things like the visual impact on the landscape, biodiversity preservation, or toxic pollution from exposing underground metals to the watershed. So when they came to mountains, they blasted through them. When trees were in the way, they cut them down. When rivers were in the way, they built bridges over them, and weren't too concerned about the long-term safety and stability of those bridges. The California High Speed Rail is the exact opposite end of the spectrum, though it has some similarities. The largest part of the track would go through the flat, open, sparsely-populated Central Valley, and as is predictable, is proceeding much more quickly than the other parts near the Bay Area and LA. Those two urban metropolises are among the most environmentally conscious in the country, and while not particularly dense, still have a lot of people and thorough development. Building new track through those areas is a regulatory nightmare, which is why alternative proposals like Elon's Musk's underground traffic tunnels are drawing so much attention.	[ "Section::::Current state and regional efforts.:West Coast.\n\nSection::::Current state and regional efforts.:West Coast.:California.\n", "After construction reaches Bakersfield in about 2019, the Amtrak \"San Joaquin\" will begin using the HSR tracks. These trains will be able to significantly reduce their travel time (up to about an hour) from Bakersfield to Sacramento, since on the exclusive HSR tracks they will be able to run at top speed, which they cannot on the shared freight line they now use.\n", "In 2015 construction began on the California High-Speed Rail line. The Phase I portion linking Los Angeles and San Francisco in under three hours was originally projected to be completed in 2029. However, with numerous delays and cost miscalculations, the California High-Speed Rail line is now projected to be completed in 2033. Originally projected to cost $40 billion, the latest projections have the California High-Speed Rail line costing as much as $98.1 billion.\n\nSection::::Technology.\n", "This is a partial list of ongoing higher-speed rail projects from the East Coast to the West Coast.\n\nSection::::Current efforts.:United States.:Proposed routes.\n", "As of 2012, neither the Washington State Department of Transportation nor Oregon plan to implement speeds higher than due to safety and other freight service concerns voiced by the track owner, Union Pacific Railroad. The plan to provide high-speed and higher-speed rail services on this corridor was thus halted.\n", "\"By 2018: The Initial Construction Segment (ICS) is to be completed – – Merced to Bakersfield.\"\n\nBULLET::::- Provide faster service on the Amtrak \"San Joaquin\" train in the southern and central parts of the Central Valley, connecting with BNSF tracks at the north end.\n\n\"By 2022: Initial Operating Section (IOS) is to be completed – – Merced to Burbank\"\n\nBULLET::::- Provide a one-seat HSR ride between Merced and Burbank.\n\nBULLET::::- Close the north-south rail gap to link the Los Angeles Basin with the Central Valley and Northern California.\n", "Section::::Financing.:Cap-and-Trade funds.\n", "BULLET::::- September – A 400 Series Shinkansen train sets a speed record of 345 km/h (214.4 mph) on the Jōetsu Shinkansen line between Tokyo and Niigata, Japan.\n\nSection::::Events.:October.\n\nBULLET::::- October 15–20 – Following passage of the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991, five high-speed rail corridors are designated for the first time in the United States: The Midwest, Florida, California, the Southeast, and the Pacific Northwest. However, funding for these projects would remain elusive until $8 billion was released in 2010 under the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009.\n\nSection::::Events.:December.\n", "Rail officials hope to break ground on the first 29-mile segment of track in the Central Valley in the summer of 2019. Will specify the month soon. \n\nNote that a number of different train HSR schedules will be implemented to better meet different service needs and integrate with commuter traffic in the metropolitan areas. Only some of the trains will provide the fastest travel time over the full length of the route. Other schedules will provide more focused service for different regions in the state.\n\nSection::::Legal challenges.\n\nSection::::Legal challenges.:Proposition 1A compliance.\n", "In early 2014, rail officials had hoped to break ground on the first 29-mile segment of track in the Central Valley in the summer of 2019. \n\nSection::::Future construction.\n", "The U.S. Congress enacted the Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008 (PRIIA), which among other things required the states to develop passenger rail plans. In May 2013, the California DOT released its 2013 State Rail Plan. This helped provide a new perspective that viewed the HSR project as the backbone of a statewide rail modernization plan. This has been used by the Authority in allocating funds to other state rail systems that support passenger rail goals and feed into the HSR system.\n\nSection::::Financing.\n\nFor Initial Construction Segment (ICS), in the Initial Operating System (IOS) area:\n", "BULLET::::- Desert Xpress proposes 125 to 150 M.P.H. electric trains running between Southern California and Las Vegas, Nevada.\n\nBULLET::::- In September 2010, Amtrak unveiled proposals for 355 km/h trains to run between Washington, D.C. and Boston, stopping at various cities along the way, including Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York. The end-to-end journey time would be 3 hours. The proposals would cost $117bn and would take 25 years to complete. Amtrak estimates that the capacity would be needed, as, even after current investment programmes, the Acela trains will be full by 2030. The proposal envisages completion by 2040.\n", "Beginning in 2010, a study conducted by the New York State Department of Transportation identified 10 alternatives for improving the Empire Corridor. In early 2014, a Tier 1 Draft Environmental Impact Statement was released for public review and comments. The draft eliminated 5 of the alternatives, including those with top speeds of and . The remaining 5 build alternatives under consideration have top speeds of (the base alternative), (options A and B), , and .\n\nSection::::Current state and regional efforts.:The Northeast.:Pennsylvania.\n", "Since 1971, the majority of passenger rail systems in the United States have been operated by Amtrak. The lightweight, aerodynamic carbody construction pioneered with the \"Zephyr\" has been reintroduced with Amtrak's GE Genesis diesel locomotives in their quest for greater fuel efficiency. Faster Acela Express trains have been introduced in the Boston to Washington, D.C. Northeast Corridor. Many areas around the United States have been considering construction of new high-speed lines, but rail travel is much less common in the United States than in Europe or Japan. In 2008, California voters approved bonds to initiate construction of high speed rail lines serving the Central Valley, the Bay Area, and southern California. Construction of the first segment, between Bakersfield and Merced, began in 2015. Higher than anticipated administrative and construction costs led to suspension of further construction in 2019.\n", "BULLET::::- There are some critical assumptions concerning construction costs, the ability to spend American Recovery and Reinvestment Act funding while it is still available, and the ability to securitize Cap and Trade funding for future use.\n\nSection::::Public opinion and peer review.:Professional studies.\n\nTwo peer studies have been made of station siting and design in Europe.\n", "On August 7, 2015, a Request for Qualifications (RFQ) for the San Francisco to Chowchilla Wye sections was let for completion of two environmental reports, plus preliminary design services, for these two segments. This will require approximately three years.\n", "A recurring issue in California is whether the state should continue to expand its freeway network or concentrate on improving mass transit networks in urban areas.\n\nWith the rise of real-time ridesharing, some transportation market share may be lost from traditional rail service.\n\nSection::::21st century.:Railway expansion.\n", "Section::::Financing.:Construction funding.\n", "Section::::Financing.:Future funding.\n", "By 2027 the construction will have extended north from the Chowchilla Wye to San Jose, connecting there with the Caltrain route in San Jose. Thus, \"Bay to Basin\" HSR passenger rail will be available, connecting San Francisco and Los Angeles, albeit by using multiple rides.\n", "Altamont Corridor Express service is planned to be enhanced and expanded as part of the state's general rail plan. CAHSR was originally to run over the Altamont Pass for its service route between the Central Valley and Silicon Valley, but these plans were later changed. New ACE lines are being built progressively to Ceres by 2023 and later to Merced.\n\nSection::::21st century.:Freight.\n\nBy 2013, California's freight railroad system consisted of moving .\n\nUnion Pacific Railroad completed a project in 2009 to allow double-stacked intermodal containers to be transported across Donner Summit, allowing for increased loads as well as train lengths.\n", "In 1901, Frank Norris vilified the Southern Pacific for its monopolistic practices in his acclaimed novel \"\"; John Moody’s 1919 work \"The Railroad Builders: A Chronicle of the Welding of the State\" referred to \"the American railroad problem\" wherein the men who rode the iron horse were characterized as \"monsters\" that too often suppressed government reform and economic growth through political chicanery and corrupt business practices.\n", "BULLET::::- $819 million for other connectivity projects statewide.\n\nBULLET::::- \"total\" = $2.024 billion\n\nSection::::Financing.:Cost estimates.\n", "Incremental rail improvements to existing rail lines have been taking place while the environmental impact study required under the National Environmental Policy Act is being completed. The two-tiered EIS began in 1999, and completion is expected in 2011, with passenger service expected by 2015 to 2020, depending upon funding availability.\n\nSection::::Current state and regional efforts.:Mid-Atlantic and the South.:Texas.\n", "BULLET::::- San Jose to Los Angeles \"nonstop\" at for ( \"or\" ) = 1 hr. 54 min. \"or\" 1 hr. 59 min. (note 2 hr. 10 min. is the maximum allowed). Even at a slower the times would be 2 hrs. 5 min. \"or\" 2 hrs. 11 min. (Note: since the final SF-LA route has not been adopted, the route length will be between the two numbers given.)\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-18263	How are carnivores able to get by with extremely little fiber in their diet?	Dietary fiber refers to non-digestible solids in our food that help "push" the digested mass through your digestive tract. For humans, this is mainly plant fibers that our bodies cannot break down. Carnivores also get dietary fiber from their diet. Undigested or partially digested parts of an animal such as the skin, fur, cartilage, or bones can act as dietary fibers to help push the digested matter through.	[ "Civets are unusual among feliforms, and carnivora in general, in that they are omnivores or even herbivores. Many species primarily eat fruit. Some also use flower nectar as a major source of energy.\n\nSection::::Diet.:Coffee.\n", "Section::::Processing.:Nutritional aspects of processing.:Fiber.\n\nProcessing increases water solubility of fiber by reducing the molecular weight of starch molecules like hemicellulose and pectin. This conversion of insoluble to soluble fiber increases the total dietary soluble fiber amounts in the feed mixture by making fiber more susceptible to absorption.\n\nSection::::Processing.:Nutritional aspects of processing.:Lipids.\n", "Carnivora have a simple stomach adapted to digest primarily meat, as compared to the elaborate digestive systems of herbivorous animals, which are necessary to break down tough, complex plant fibers. The caecum is either absent or short and simple, and the colon is not sacculated or much wider than the small intestine. Most species of Carnivora are, to some degree, omnivorous, except the Felidae and Pinnipedia, which are obligate carnivores. Most have highly developed senses, especially vision and hearing, and often a highly acute sense of smell in many species, such as in the Canoidea. They are excellent runners: some are long-distance runners, but more commonly are sprinters. Even bears and raccoons, although seemingly slow and clumsy, are capable of remarkable bursts of speed.\n", "Section::::Behavior.:Diet.\n\n\"D. ater\" are known to eat almost anything from vegetation to carrion to live prey; therefore, are best described as an opportunistic feeder. More specifically, their diet consists of nestlings and fledglings of other bird species, smaller birds such as flycatchers and pigeons, small mammals, carrion, frogs, reptiles, invertebrates, small fish, palm nuts and other fruit.\n", "Felines are natural carnivores and do not intentionally consume large quantities of carbohydrates. The domestic cat's liver has adapted to the lack of carbohydrates in the diet by using amino acids to produce glucose to fuel the brain and other tissues. Studies have shown that carbohydrate digestion in young kittens is much less effective than that of a mature feline with a developed gastrointestinal tract. Highly digestible carbohydrates can be found in commercial kitten food as a source of additional energy as well as a source of fiber to stimulate the immature gut tissue. Soluble fibre such as beet pulp is a common ingredient used as a fibrous stool hardener and has been proven to strengthen intestinal muscles and to thicken the gut mucosal layer to prevent diarrhea.\n", "When food has been degraded sufficiently it passes from the reticulorumen through the reticulo-omasal orifice to the omasum followed by the abomasum to continue the digestion process in the lower parts of the alimentary canal. No enzymes are secreted in the rumen. Enzymes and hydrochloric acid are only secreted from the abomasum (fourth stomach) onwards, and ruminants function from that point onwards much like monogastric animals, such as pigs and humans.\n\nSection::::Chemistry.\n", "The small intestine is long and holds to . This is the major digestive organ where 50 to 70 percent of all nutrients are absorbed into the bloodstream. Bile from the liver acts here, combined with enzymes from the pancreas and small intestine itself. Equids do not have a gall bladder, so bile flows constantly, an adaptation to a slow but steady supply of food, and another reason for providing fodder to horses in several small feedings.\n\nSection::::The digestive system.:The cecum and large intestine.\n", "Section::::Paleobiology.:Physiology.:Digestion.\n\nThe digestive tract of \"Scipionyx\" is generally short but wide. The overall length of the intestines — shorter than what was expected — indicates \"Scipionyx\" could process food very efficiently. The efficiency would be improved by the visible intestine folds, the \"plicae circulares\", enlarging the absorption surface. Dal Sasso & Maganuco emphasised that a short tract does not necessarily imply that the processing time was short too; retention could have been prolonged to optimise digestion. Most extant vertebrate predators are capable of extracting about 75% of the energetic value of the prey flesh.\n", "Hofmann and Stewart divided ruminants into three major categories based on their feed type and feeding habits: concentrate selectors, intermediate types, and grass/roughage eaters, with the assumption that feeding habits in ruminants cause morphological differences in their digestive systems, including salivary glands, rumen size, and rumen papillae. However, Woodall found that there is little correlation between the fiber content of a ruminant's diet and morphological characteristics, meaning that the categorical divisions of ruminants by Hofmann and Stewart warrant further research.\n", "Other animals, such as rabbits and rodents, practise coprophagia behaviours – eating specialised faeces in order to re-digest food, especially in the case of roughage. Capybara, rabbits, hamsters and other related species do not have a complex digestive system as do, for example, ruminants. Instead they extract more nutrition from grass by giving their food a second pass through the gut. Soft faecal pellets of partially digested food are excreted and generally consumed immediately. They also produce normal droppings, which are not eaten.\n", "Section::::Behavior.:Diet.\n\nThe pudús are herbivorous, consuming vines, leaves from low trees, shrubs, succulent sprouts, herbs, ferns, blossoms, buds, tree bark, and fallen fruit. They can survive without drinking water for long periods due to the high water content of the succulent foliage in their diets.\n", "Due to the high volume or water content of fiber-rich foods, fiber displaces available calories and nutrients from the diet. Consumption of viscous fibers delays gastric emptying, which may cause an extended feeling of fullness. Satiety is also induced by increasing chewing, which limits food intake by promoting the secretion of saliva and gastric juice, resulting in an expansion of the stomach.\n", "Highly soluble or fermentable fiber from carbohydrate sources mentioned, and others, above also provide short chain fatty acids. These short chain fatty acids can represent approximately 10% of an animal's energy requirement through microbial fermentation within the gut. Gut health is also promoted by increasing mucosal health, increasing the microbial balance, improving digestion, improving nutrient absorption and upregulating immunity. To insure this, owners should be looking to feed diets that contain 3%-7% of total digestible fiber (TDF) or ingredients such as beet pulp or rice bran which are moderately fermentable. Total dietary fiber is not standard on pet food labels and generally only crude fiber is provided, which does not given an indication of the solubility of fermentability of an ingredients. If non-soluble or non-fermentable fiber is found within the diet, the animal is likely to experience increased fecal bulk and moisture as well as a diluted energy intake. Consequently, dogs may experience decreased nutrient absorption, dehydration, pathogenic bacterial growth in the gut and diarrhea. Avoiding diets with crude fiber levels over 3% or high inclusions of ingredients such as cellulose or peanut hulls will assist in preventing some consequences such as pathogenic bacterial growth, colonic atrophy and dehydration.\n", "Section::::Digestion.\n\nDigestion in the reticulorumen is a complex process. Digestion occurs through fermentation by microbes in the reticulorumen rather than the animal \"per se\". The reticulorumen is one of the few organs present in animals in which digestion of cellulose and other recalcitrant carbohydrates can proceed to any appreciable degree.\n", "The glider can digest low nutrient foliage, specifically eucalypt leaf matter, which contains a variety of phenolic and terpenoid compounds and a high concentration of lignified fibre. Animals can digest about 50–60% of the leaf during its passage through the gut. The gut has a specialized caecum that contains a population of bacteria that ferment food residues that remain undigested in the small intestine. For a population in a eucalypt forest near Maryborough, Queensland, it has been calculated that their daily energy intake is about 1130 kJ, which is provided by about of dry matter daily.\n", "Obligate carnivores include the axolotl, which consumes mainly worms and larvae in its environment, but if necessary will consume algae, as well as all felids (including the domestic cat) which require a diet of primarily animal flesh and organs. Specifically, cats have high protein requirements and their metabolisms appear unable to synthesize essential nutrients such as retinol, arginine, taurine, and arachidonic acid; thus, in nature, they must consume flesh to supply these nutrients.\n\nSection::::Characteristics of carnivores.\n", "Centipedes are predominantly generalist predators, which means they have adapted to eat a variety of different available prey. Examination of centipede gut contents suggests that plant material is an unimportant part of their diets, although centipedes have been observed to eat vegetable matter when starved during laboratory experiments.\n", "Section::::Digestive system.\n\nDigestive systems take many forms. There is a fundamental distinction between internal and external digestion. External digestion developed earlier in evolutionary history, and most fungi still rely on it. In this process, enzymes are secreted into the environment surrounding the organism, where they break down an organic material, and some of the products diffuse back to the organism. Animals have a tube (gastrointestinal tract) in which internal digestion occurs, which is more efficient because more of the broken down products can be captured, and the internal chemical environment can be more efficiently controlled.\n", "A florivore's diet consists of bulky foodstuffs, including the items mentioned above, yet also bark, roots, and similar items. Many florivores are also omnivores, meaning that their diets can also be supplemented by various small insects, for instance.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nThe majority of birds in the Psittacine family are florivores, which includes most parrots, parakeets, macaws, and cockatoos. Other notable florivores are hummingbirds, sparrows, and toucans.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Herbivore\n\nBULLET::::- Frugivore\n\nBULLET::::- Nectarivore\n\nBULLET::::- Palynivore\n\nBULLET::::- Granivore\n\nSection::::Bibliography.\n\nBULLET::::- Approaches to Plant Evolutionary Ecology by G.P. Cheplick\n", "BULLET::::- Their external ears are large, and especially sensitive to high-frequency sounds in the smaller cat species. This sensitivity allows them to locate small rodent prey.\n\nBULLET::::- They have lithe and flexible bodies with muscular limbs.\n\nBULLET::::- The plantar pads of both fore and hind feet form compact three-lobed cushions.\n\nBULLET::::- The penis is subconical and boneless. Relative to body size, they have shorter bacula than canids.\n\nBULLET::::- They cannot detect the sweetness of sugar, as they lack the sweet-taste receptor.\n", "BULLET::::- Family Moschidae: musk deer, 4 living species in one genus\n\nBULLET::::- Family Bovidae: cattle, goats, sheep, and antelope, 143 living species in 53 genera\n\nNot all ruminants belong to the Ruminantia. Tylopoda (such as camels, which chew a cud) and Hippopotamidae (such as hippopotami, which do not chew a cud) are classified as pseudoruminants. A number of other large grazing mammals, e.g. horses and kangaroos, employ hindgut fermentation as an adaptation for surviving on large quantities of low-grade food.\n\nThe digestive system of ruminants is composed of:\n\nBULLET::::- Mouth\n\nBULLET::::- Tongue\n\nBULLET::::- Esophagus\n\nBULLET::::- Stomach\n\nBULLET::::- Rumen\n\nBULLET::::- Reticulum\n", "Section::::Foraging behavior.:Carrion Feeding.\n", "Obligate or \"true\" carnivores are those whose diet requires nutrients found only in animal flesh. While obligate carnivores might be able to ingest small amounts of plant matter, they lack the necessary physiology required to digest it. In fact, some obligate carnivorous mammals will only ingest vegetation for the sole purpose of its use as an emetic, to self-induce vomiting of the vegetation along with the other food it had ingested that upset its stomach.\n", "In most mammals, intestinal absorption of nutrients is thought to be dominated by transcellular transport, e.g., glucose is primarily absorbed via the SGLT1 transporter and other glucose transporters. Paracellular absorption therefore plays only a minor role in glucose absorption, although there is evidence that paracellular pathways become more available when nutrients are present in the intestinal lumen. In contrast, small flying vertebrates (small birds and bats) rely on the paracellular pathway for the majority of glucose absorption in the intestine. This has been hypothesized to compensate for an evolutionary pressure to reduce mass in flying animals, which resulted in a reduction in intestine size and faster transit time of food through the gut.\n", "Dietary fibre is a carbohydrate (polysaccharide or oligosaccharide) that is incompletely absorbed in some animals. \n\nSection::::Constituents of diet.:Protein.\n" ]	[ "Carnivores have very little fiber in their diet." ]	[ "Carnivores do get dietary fiber from their diet in the form of animal skin, fur, cartilage, bones." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Carnivores have very little fiber in their diet." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Carnivores do get dietary fiber from their diet in the form of animal skin, fur, cartilage, bones." ]
2018-06366	Why did it take so long for console games to run on 60fps while pc has this option for decades?	PC performance is limited by your budget. You could go build an insane $10000 rig right now to run games at 4k, 120fps if you wanted to. Consoles need to be cost effective, and historically their hardware is already somewhat middling and out of date when they're released. The console manufacturers have no interest in pushing out a thousand dollar system nobody will buy.	[ "Section::::History.:Internet capabilities.\n\nBy the sixth generation the console market had become larger than the PC market.\n", "CRT refresh rates have historically been an important factor in electronic game programming. Traditionally, one of the principles of video/computer game programming is to avoid altering the computer's video buffer except during the vertical retrace. This is necessary to prevent flickering graphics (caused by altering the picture in mid-frame) or screen tearing (caused by altering the graphics faster than the electron beam can render the picture). Some video game consoles such as the Famicom/Nintendo Entertainment System did not allow any graphics changes except during the retrace (the period when the electron guns shut off and return to the upper left corner of the screen).\n", "Video games have generally had access to less computing power, less flexible computing power, and lower resolution displays. Dedicated consoles were advanced graphically, especially in animation. This is because video game consoles had dedicated graphics hardware, were able to load data instantly from ROM, and a low resolution output would look better on a television because it naturally blurs the pixels.\n\nSection::::Technology.:Storage.\n", "Some monitors are designed exclusively for gamers, featuring higher refresh rates and improved response times at the expense of a lower resolution. E-sports, or competitive gamers, often favor higher framerates at the expense of reduced color accuracy, preferring TN panels over IPS panels.\n\nSection::::Hardware description.:Audio.\n\nGaming PCs are usually equipped with a dedicated sound card and speakers in a 5.1 or 7.1 surround sound configuration. The speaker setup or a set of quality headphones is required to enjoy the advanced sound found in most modern computer games.\n", "In the late 1980s, IBM PC compatibles became popular as gaming devices, with more memory and higher resolutions than consoles, but lacking in the custom hardware that allowed the slower console systems to create smooth visuals.\n\nSection::::History.:Rejuvenation.\n", "Section::::Platform characteristics.\n\nSection::::Platform characteristics.:Fidelity.\n\nIn high-end PC gaming, a PC will generally have far more processing resources at its disposal than other gaming systems. Game developers can use this to improve the visual fidelity of their game relative to other platforms, but even if they do not, games running on PC are likely to benefit from higher screen resolution, higher framerate, and anti-aliasing. Increased draw distance is also common in open world games.\n", "PC gaming remained popular throughout the decade, but was in an overall decline as consoles became more and more popular. Publishers also liked the standardization that consoles provided, whereas PC game performance was dependent on the graphic capabilities of a player's hardware. Nevertheless, the PC remained the device of choice for many popular strategy, simulation, and online games.\n", "BULLET::::- Variable Refresh Rate (VRR) reduces or eliminates lag, stutter and frame tearing for more fluid motion in games\n\nBULLET::::- Quick Media Switching (QMS) for movies and video eliminates the delay that can result in blank screens before content is displayed\n\nBULLET::::- Quick Frame Transport (QFT) reduces latency\n\nBULLET::::- Auto Low Latency Mode (ALLM) automatic latency setting to the lowest ideal latency\n", "Including peripheral vision, the visual field of the average person is approximately 170-180 degrees. Console games are usually played on a TV at a large distance from the viewer, while PC games are usually played on computer monitors close to the viewer. Therefore, a narrow FOV of around 60 degrees is used for console games as the screen subtends a small part of the viewer's visual field, and a larger FOV of 90 to 100 degrees is usually set for PC games as the screen occupies a larger amount of the viewer's vision.\n", "The PowerVR PCX cards were placed in the market as budget solutions and performed well in the games of their time, but weren't quite as fully featured as the 3DFX Voodoo accelerators (due to certain blending modes being unvailable, for instance). However, the PowerVR approach of rendering to the 2D card's memory meant that much higher 3D rendering resolutions could be possible in theory, especially with PowerSGL games that took full advantage of the hardware.\n\nBULLET::::- All models support DirectX 3.0 and PowerSGL, MiniGL drivers available for select games\n\nBULLET::::- Texture mapping units: render output units\n", "Generally, PC games are only limited by the display's resolution size. Drivers are capable of supporting very high resolutions, depending on the chipset of the video card. Many game engines support resolutions of 5760×1080 or 5760×1200 (typically achieved with three 1080p displays in a multi-monitor setup) and nearly all will display 1080p at minimum. 1440p and 4K are typically supported resolutions for PC gaming as well.\n", "Historically gaming computers had several distinct hardware components that set them apart from a typical PC. The push for better graphics began with color fidelity, from display systems such as CGA eventually graduating to VGA, which was adopted for the mass market. Gaming also led the push for the adoption of sound cards, a component that is now commonly integrated onto motherboards.\n", "When support for 4K at 60Hz was added in DisplayPort 1.2, no DisplayPort timing controllers (TCONs) existed which were capable of processing the necessary amount of data from a single video stream. As a result, the first 4K monitors from 2013 and early 2014, such as the SHARP PN-K321, ASUS PQ321Q, and Dell UP2414Q and UP3214Q, were addressed internally as two 19202160 monitors side-by-side instead of a single display and made use of DisplayPort's Multi-Stream Transport (MST) feature to multiplex a separate signal for each half over the connection, splitting the data between two timing controllers. Newer timing controllers became available in 2014, and after mid-2014 new 4K monitors such as the Asus PB287Q no longer rely on MST tiling technique to achieve 4K at 60Hz, instead using the standard SST (Single-Stream Transport) approach.\n", "During the 16-bit era, the Commodore Amiga and Atari ST became popular in Europe, while the PC-98, Sharp X68000 and FM Towns became popular in Japan. The Amiga, X68000 and FM Towns were capable of producing near arcade-quality hardware sprite graphics and sound quality when they first released in the mid-to-late 1980s.\n\nSection::::History.:Growth of IBM PC gaming.\n", "The 640 × 400i resolution (720 × 480i with borders disabled) was first introduced by home computers such as the Commodore Amiga and, later, Atari Falcon. These computers used interlace to boost the maximum vertical resolution. These modes were only suited to graphics or gaming, as the flickering interlace made reading text in word processor, database, or spreadsheet software difficult. (Modern game consoles solve this problem by pre-filtering the 480i video to a lower resolution. For example, Final Fantasy XII suffers from flicker when the filter is turned off, but stabilizes once filtering is restored. The computers of the 1980s lacked sufficient power to run similar filtering software.)\n", "Section::::History.:Graphic innovation.\n\nThe 1990s decade oversaw the transition from 2D-based gaming to fully immersive three-dimensional environments and gameplay. The 2000s continued on this trend by polishing many of the flaws of creating a new dimension for games such as rigid polygon characters and animations. By the decades end, Microsoft and Sony had already been releasing games in high definition.\n\nSection::::History.:Status of PC Gaming.\n", "With the introduction of SVGA, multiscan monitors became standard for personal computers supporting a range of resolutions and refresh rates. A typical screen resolution of the late 1990s was 1024x768 at 85 Hz, requiring a horizontal scan rate over 68 kHz, yet during system boot the POST display and operating system splash screen would be displayed at the standard VGA 31 kHz. Many MS-DOS and Windows computer games of the time would also switch to a lower resolution for greater compatibility, more colours, improved performance or to reduce the video memory required by the frame buffer.\n", "Section::::Technological innovation.:Memory cards.\n\nDue to CD-ROMs lacking the built-in memory of ROM Cartridges, the Sony PlayStation introduced the use of memory cards to store saved game data. This became the standard for video game consoles until it was replaced by the use of hard drives and built-in flash memory during the seventh generation in the late first decade of the 21st century.\n\nSection::::Technological innovation.:Game controllers.\n", "[1]: This applies to US 60 Hz C128s only. 50 Hz C128 machines output a signal with a 50 Hz vertical refresh. Although not conforming to the CGA standard, most CGA monitors were capable of displaying the 50 Hz signal without problems. However, some monitors either failed to resolve the signal or succeeded in resolving it, but sooner or later their deflection circuits would fail.\n\nSection::::Programming.\n", "Along side action cameras, gaming monitors often display very high refresh rates as high as 240 Hz as of 2017, while generally the standard is 144hz. This means gaming displays can display videos shot at high motion and play them back at their proper frame rates in real time at up to 240fps, achieving basically an authentic high motion look.\n", "By 1993, PC-compatibles were the standard for gaming in the US. \"Computer Gaming World\" stated in January:\n\nIn September, the magazine replied to a reader asking for \"the current '486' desktop dream machine for playing computer games\":\n", "Section::::History.:Seventh generation.\n\nVideo game consoles had become an important part of the global IT infrastructure. It is estimated that video game consoles represented 25% of the world's general-purpose computational power in the year 2007.\n\nSection::::History.:Seventh generation.:Home consoles.\n", "Section::::Home video game consoles.:Comparison.:HDTV-capable video support and service.\n", "BULLET::::- Not present on French model\n\nBULLET::::- Support for ComLynx I/O\n\nBULLET::::- NTSC/PAL machines can be identified by their power LED colour, Red = NTSC, Green = PAL\n\nSection::::Technical specifications.:COJAG arcade games.\n", "BULLET::::- BM7622: 12\" TTL CRT\n\nBULLET::::- CM2080: 14\" color CRT for Macintosh\n\nBULLET::::- CM2089: 14\" VGA color CRT\n\nBULLET::::- CM2099: 14\" VGA color CRT\n\nBULLET::::- CM4015: 15\" VGA color CRT\n\nBULLET::::- CM4017: 17\" VGA color CRT\n\nBULLET::::- CM8502: 12\" TTL CRT\n\nBULLET::::- CM8552: 12\" TTL CRT\n\nBULLET::::- CM8762: 12\" TTL CRT\n\nBULLET::::- CM8833: 12\" TTL CRT\n\nBULLET::::- CM9032: 14\" VGA color CRT\n\nBULLET::::- CM9043: 12\" TTL CRT\n\nMonitors - Vendex\n\nThese monitors were sold / shipped with Vendex PCs:\n\nBULLET::::- M-888-C: CGA CRT: shipped with the HeadStart LX-40.\n\nBULLET::::- M-888-VC: VGA color CRT: shipped with the HeadStart III\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00159	Why are we able to move our eyebrows?	Non-Verbal communication was important when it came to evolution. That's why we have so many muscles in our faces. (I'm not an expert on this subject)	[ "Blood supply to the forehead is via the left and right superorbital, supertrochealar, and anterior branches of the superficial temporal artery.\n\nSection::::Function.\n\nSection::::Function.:Expression.\n\nThe muscles of the forehead help to form facial expressions. There are four basic motions, which can occur individually or in combination to form different expressions. The occipitofrontalis muscles can raise the eyebrows, either together or individually, forming expressions of surprise and quizzicality. The corrugator supercilii muscles can pull the eyebrows inwards and down, forming a frown. The procerus muscles can pull down the centre portions of the eyebrows.\n\nSection::::Function.:Wrinkles.\n", "Section::::The motor system and facial patterns.\n\nIn contemporary perspectives, the motor cortex is composed of two distinct areas; however, this viewpoint is incorrect. The motor cortex is located in the posterior frontal lobe, and has multiple areas with anatomical and functional regions. Each area is involved in the circuitry of various inputs of sensory information. The motor and parietal areas are reciprocally intertwined and form a group of specialized circuits that work parallel to one another. These circuits transform sensory information into an action or movement.\n", "From this pathway, self instruction moves in a pattern that is called a \"response image\". This response is often the actual movement of the directed response. Therefore, by knowing the loop, it allows full or dysfunctional proprioceptive feedback and exteroceptive control of the movement that is necessary in facial muscles.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Neuro developmental treatment.\n", "Section::::Creation.\n\nSection::::Creation.:Facial muscles.\n\nFacial expressions are vital to social communication between humans. They are caused by the movement of muscles that connect to the skin and fascia in the face. These muscles move the skin, creating lines and folds and causing the movement of facial features, such as the mouth and eyebrows. These muscles develop from the second pharyngeal arch in the embryo. The temporalis, masseter, and internal and external pterygoid muscles, which are mainly used for chewing, have a minor effect on expression as well. These muscles develop from the first pharyngeal arch.\n\nSection::::Creation.:Neuronal pathways.\n", "Recent research, however, suggests that eyebrows in humans developed as a means of communication and that this is their primary function. Humans developed a smooth forehead with visible, hairy eyebrows capable of a wide range of movement which are able to express a wide range of subtle emotions – including recognition and sympathy. \n\nSection::::Cosmetics and modification.\n\nCosmetic methods have been developed to alter the look of one's eyebrows, whether the goal is to add or remove hair, change the color, or change the position of the eyebrow.\n", "From these attachments the fibers are directed upward, and join the galea aponeurotica below the coronal suture.\n\nThe medial margins of the frontalis muscles are joined together for some distance above the root of the nose; but between the occipitales there is a considerable, though variable, interval, occupied by the galea aponeurotica.\n\nSection::::Function.\n\nIn humans, the frontalis muscle only serves for facial expressions.\n\nIn the eyebrows, its primary function is to lift them (thus opposing the orbital portion of the orbicularis), especially when looking up. It also acts when a view is too distant or dim.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "The nucleus has a dorsal and ventral region, with neurons in the dorsal region innervating muscles of the upper face and neurons in the ventral region innervating muscles of the lower face.\n\nSection::::Function.\n\nBecause it innervates muscles derived from pharyngeal arches, the facial motor nucleus is considered part of the special visceral efferent (SVE) cell column, which also includes the trigeminal motor nucleus, nucleus ambiguus, and (arguably) the spinal accessory nucleus.\n\nSection::::Function.:Cortical input.\n", "Like all lower motor neurons, cells of the facial motor nucleus receive cortical input from the primary motor cortex in the frontal lobe of the brain. Upper motor neurons of the cortex send axons that descend through the internal capsule and synapse on neurons in the facial motor nucleus. This pathway from the cortex to the brainstem is called the corticobulbar tract.\n", "In humans, the eyebrows redirect flowing substances (such as rainwater or sweat) away from the eye.\n\nSection::::Function of the mammalian eye.\n\nThe structure of the mammalian eye owes itself completely to the task of focusing light onto the retina. This light causes chemical changes in the photosensitive cells of the retina, the products of which trigger nerve impulses which travel to the brain.\n", "Eyebrow\n\nThe eyebrow is an area of thick, delicate hair above the eye that follows the shape of the lower margin of the brow ridges of some mammals. The most recent research suggests that in humans its primary function is to allow for a wider range of ‘non-verbal’ communication. It is common for people to modify their eyebrows by means of hair removal and makeup.\n\nSection::::Functions.\n", "The motor system of the brain is responsible for the generation and control of movement. Generated movements pass from the brain through nerves to motor neurons in the body, which control the action of muscles. The corticospinal tract carries movements from the brain, through the spinal cord, to the torso and limbs. The cranial nerves carry movements related to the eyes, mouth and face.\n", "A number of auxiliary muscles assist in cooperating with the eyelid muscles. For example, the corrugator supercilii pulls the eyebrows to the bridge of the nose, making a roof over the middle of the forehead and forehead wrinkles, used mainly to protect the eyes from excess sunlight. The procerus (pyramidalis) muscles, in the bridge of the nose, arise from the lower nasal bone to the lower forehead, on each side of the midline. The procerus muscles pull the skin into horizontal wrinkles. The frontalis muscle, which runs from the upper forehead, halfway between the coronal suture (which traverses the top of the skull) and the top edge of the orbit, attaches to the eyebrow skin. Since it pulls the eyebrows upward, it is the antagonist of the orbicularis oculi. It is used in looking up, and increasing vision if there is insufficient light or when objects are far away.\n", "The neuronal information processes necessary for motor control were proposed as a network involving the thalamus as a subcortical motor center. Through investigations of the anatomy of the brains of primates the nature of the interconnected tissues of the cerebellum to the multiple motor cortices suggested that the thalamus fulfills a key function in providing the specific channels from the basal ganglia and cerebellum to the cortical motor areas. In an investigation of the saccade and antisaccade motor response in three monkeys, the thalamic regions were found to be involved in the generation of antisaccade eye-movement (that is, the ability to inhibit the reflexive jerking movement of the eyes in the direction of a presented stimulus].\n", "There are also meaningful non-manual signals in ASL. This may include movement of the eyebrows, the cheeks, the nose, the head, the torso, and the eyes.\n", "Section::::Origins.:Darwin's principles.\n\nIn the 1872 work, Darwin proposed three principles. The first of the three is the \"principle of serviceable habits,\" which he defined as useful habits reinforced previously, and then inherited by offspring. He used as an example contracting of eyebrows (furrowing the brow), which he noted is serviceable to prevent too much light from entering the eyes. He also said that the raising of eyebrows serves to increase the field of vision. He cited examples of people attempting to remember something and raising their brows, as though they could \"see\" what they were trying to remember.\n", "There are two brain pathways associated with facial expression; the first is voluntary expression. Voluntary expression travels from the primary motor cortex through the pyramidal tract, specifically the corticobulbar projections. The cortex is associated with display rules in emotion, which are social precepts that influence and modify expressions. Cortically related expressions are made consciously.\n", "The movements of the muscles in the forehead produce characteristic wrinkles in the skin. The occipitofrontalis muscles produce the transverse wrinkles across the width of the forehead, and the corrugator supercilii muscles produce vertical wrinkles between the eyebrows above the nose. The procerus muscles cause the nose to wrinkle.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.\n\nIn physiognomy and phrenology, the shape of the forehead was taken to symbolise intellect and intelligence. \"Animals, even the most intelligent of them,\", wrote Samuel R. Wells in 1942, \"can hardly be said to have any forehead at all, and in natural total idiots it is very diminished\".\n", "Facial motor nucleus\n\nThe facial motor nucleus is a collection of neurons in the brainstem that belong to the facial nerve (cranial nerve VII). These lower motor neurons innervate the muscles of facial expression and the stapedius.\n\nSection::::Structure.\n\nThe nucleus is situated in the caudal portion of the ventrolateral pontine tegmentum. Its axons take an unusual course, traveling dorsally and looping around the abducens nucleus, then traveling ventrally to exit the ventral pons medial to the spinal trigeminal nucleus. These axons form the motor component of the facial nerve, with parasympathetic and sensory components forming the intermediate nerve.\n", "Facial expression is used in sign languages to convey specific meanings. In American Sign Language (ASL), for instance, raised eyebrows combined with a slightly forward head tilt indicate that what is being signed is a yes/no question. Lowered eyebrows are used for wh-word questions. Facial expression is also used in sign languages to show adverbs and adjectives such as distance or size: an open mouth, squinted eyes, and tilted back head indicate something far while the mouth pulled to one side and the cheek held toward the shoulder indicate something close, and puffed cheeks mean very large. It can also show the manner in which something is done, such as carelessly or routinely. Some of these expressions, also called non-manual signs, are used similarly in different sign languages while others are different from one language to another. For example, the expression used for 'carelessly' in ASL means 'boring or unpleasant' in British Sign Language.\n", "Damage to the PPA (for example, due to stroke) often leads to a syndrome in which patients cannot visually recognize scenes even though they can recognize the individual objects in the scenes (such as people, furniture, etc.). The PPA is often considered the complement of the fusiform face area (FFA), a nearby cortical region that responds strongly whenever faces are viewed, and that is believed to be important for face recognition.\n\nSection::::Function.:Social context.\n", "Facial muscles\n\nThe facial muscles are a group of striated skeletal muscles supplied by the facial nerve (cranial nerve VII) that, among other things, control facial expression. These muscles are also called mimetic muscles.\n\nSection::::Structure.\n\nThe facial muscles are just under the skin (subcutaneous) muscles that control facial expression. They generally originate from the surface of the skull bone (rarely the fascia), and insert on the skin of the face. When they contract, the skin moves. These muscles also cause wrinkles at right angles to the muscles’ action line.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Nerve supply.\n", "A number of theories have been proposed to explain the function of the eyebrow in humans including that its main function is to prevent moisture, mostly salty sweat and rain, from flowing into the eye, or that clearly visible eyebrows provided safety from predators when early hominid groups started sleeping on the ground \n", "Section::::Physiology.:Vestibulo-ocular system.\n", "In order to prepare, there are green dots (control pins). First, there are 6 green dots, these are placed in important areas of the eyebrows. Next comes more dots, only this time they are used for placement in the eyes, then the nose, lips, hairline, & jaw. Placement of these dots are extremely important for proper morphing.\n\nSection::::Morphing.\n", "Unlike single-unit smooth muscle cells, multi-unit smooth muscle cells are found in the muscle of the eye and in the base of hair follicles. Multi-unit smooth muscle cells contract by being separately stimulated by nerves of the autonomic nervous system. As such, they allow for fine control and gradual responses, much like motor unit recruitment in skeletal muscle. \n\nSection::::Vertebrates.:Smooth muscle.:Mechanisms of smooth muscle contraction.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-19798	How do Satellites handle the millions if not billions of devices outfitted with GPS chips?	GPS chips don't "request". They're passive devices. They listen to a continuous broadcast from each GPS satellite and use some crazy math to figure things out themselves. It's a one way transmission from the GPS satellite to the receiver.	[ "The OmniSTAR service options include both single-frequency (L1 only) code phase DGPS solutions and dual-frequency (L1/L2) carrier phase solutions. Accuracy depends on satellite geometry, local conditions, receiver capability and other variables, but typically the L1-only solution (VBS - Virtual Base Station) yields horizontal accuracy of +/1 meter 95% of the time and the L1/L2 solutions (OmniSTAR HP, OmniSTAR XP or HP/XP combined) provide horizontal accuracies of +/- 15 cm 95% of the time.\n\nXP makes use of precise orbit and clock corrections of the GPS Satellites. The data is bought from Nasa JPL\n", "The MCS can also access U.S. Air Force Satellite Control Network (AFSCN) ground antennas (for additional command and control capability) and NGA (National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency) monitor stations. The flight paths of the satellites are tracked by dedicated U.S. Air Force monitoring stations in Hawaii, Kwajalein Atoll, Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, Colorado Springs, Colorado and Cape Canaveral, along with shared NGA monitor stations operated in England, Argentina, Ecuador, Bahrain, Australia and Washington DC. The tracking information is sent to the Air Force Space Command MCS at Schriever Air Force Base ESE of Colorado Springs, which is operated by the 2nd Space Operations Squadron (2 SOPS) of the U.S. Air Force. Then 2 SOPS contacts each GPS satellite regularly with a navigational update using dedicated or shared (AFSCN) ground antennas (GPS dedicated ground antennas are located at Kwajalein, Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, and Cape Canaveral). These updates synchronize the atomic clocks on board the satellites to within a few nanoseconds of each other, and adjust the ephemeris of each satellite's internal orbital model. The updates are created by a Kalman filter that uses inputs from the ground monitoring stations, space weather information, and various other inputs.\n", "Section::::Sequential receivers.\n\nA sequential GPS receiver tracks the necessary satellites by typically using one or two hardware channels. The set will track one satellite at a time, time tag the measurements and combine them when all four satellite pseudoranges have been measured. These receivers are among the least expensive available, but they cannot operate under high dynamics and have the slowest time-to-first-fix (TTFF) performance.\n\nSection::::Mishaps.\n", "Section::::GPS tracking unit architecture.\n\nA GPS \"track me\" essentially contains a GPS module that receives the GPS signal and calculates the coordinates. For data loggers, it contains large memory to store the coordinates. Data pushers additionally contain a GSM/GPRS/CDMA/LTE modem to transmit this information to a central computer either via SMS or GPRS in form of IP packets. Satellite-based GPS tracking units will operate anywhere on the globe using satellite technology such as GlobalStar or Iridium. They do not require a cellular connection.\n\nSection::::Types.\n", "GPS signals are already very weak when they arrive at the Earth’s surface. The GPS satellites only transmit 27 W (14.3 dBW) from a distance of 20,200 km in orbit above the Earth. By the time the signals arrive at the user's receiver, they are typically as weak as −160 dBW, equivalent to one-tenth of a million-billionth of a watt (100 attowatts). This is well below the thermal noise level in its bandwidth. Outdoors, GPS signals are typically around the −155 dBW level (−125 dBm).\n", "Standalone/self-ruling GPS devices depend solely on information from satellites. A-GPS augments that by using cell tower data to enhance quality and precision when in poor satellite signal conditions. In exceptionally poor signal conditions, for example in urban areas, satellite signals may exhibit multipath propagation where signals skip off structures, or are weakened by meteorological conditions or tree canopy. Some standalone GPS navigators used in poor conditions can't fix a position because of satellite signal fracture and must wait for better satellite reception. A regular GPS unit may need as long as 12.5 minutes (the time needed to download the GPS almanac and ephemerides) to resolve the problem and be able to provide a correct location.\n", "To be precise, A-GPS features depend mostly on an Internet network or connection to an ISP (or CNP, in the case of CP/mobile-phone device linked to a cellular network provider data service). A mobile (cell phone, smart phone) device with just an L1 front-end radio receiver and no GPS acquisition, tracking, and positioning engine only works when it has an internet connection to an ISP/CNP, where the position fix is calculated offboard the device itself. It doesn't work in areas with no coverage or internet link (or nearby base transceiver station (BTS) towers, in the case on CNP service coverage area). Without any of those resources, it can't connect to the A-GPS servers usually provided by CNPs. On the other hand, a mobile device with a GPS chipset requires no data connection to capture and process GPS data into a position solution, since it receives data directly from the GPS satellites and is able to calculate a position fix itself. However, the availability of a data connection can provide assistance to improve the performance of the GPS chip on the mobile device. \n", "BULLET::::- List of satellites in geosynchronous orbit\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Boeing Satellite Development Center\n\nBULLET::::- Complete list of past satellites and space probes from Boeing Satellite Systems\n\nBULLET::::- Complete list of current navigation and communications satellites projects at Boeing Satellite Systems\n\nBULLET::::- Complete list of satellites built on the 376, 601, and 702 platforms (almost every BSS satellite is an adaptation of one of these three designs)\n", "The satellites' atomic clocks experience noise and clock drift errors. The navigation message contains corrections for these errors and estimates of the accuracy of the atomic clock. However, they are based on observations and may not indicate the clock's current state.\n\nThese problems tend to be very small, but may add up to a few meters (tens of feet) of inaccuracy.\n", "A GPS receiver can shorten its startup time by comparing the current time, according to its RTC, with the time at which it last had a valid signal. If it has been less than a few hours, then the previous ephemeris is still usable.\n\nSection::::Power source.\n", "For each satellite used by the receiver, the receiver must first acquire the signal and then track it as long as that satellite is in use; both are performed in the digital domain in by far most (if not all) receivers.\n\nAcquiring a signal is the process of determining the frequency and code phase (both relative to receiver time) when it was previously unknown. Code phase must be determined within an accuracy that depends on the receiver design (especially the tracking loop); 0.5 times the duration of code chips (approx. 0.489 µs) is a representative value.\n", "BULLET::::- On Orbit Reprogrammable Digital Payload\n\nBULLET::::- High Power Amplifiers (SSPA's)\n\nBULLET::::- Regional Military Protection (RMP)\n\nSection::::New characteristics.:Technology Insertion Point 2 (estimated FY2028).\n\nBULLET::::- First Space Vehicle: GPS IIIF-07\n\nBULLET::::- Proposed/possible new functionality:\n\nBULLET::::- M-Code Space Service Volume\n\nSection::::New characteristics.:Technology Insertion Point 3 (estimated FY2030).\n\nBULLET::::- First Space Vehicle: GPS IIIF-13\n\nBULLET::::- Proposed/possible new functionality:\n\nBULLET::::- Near Real-Time Commanding\n\nBULLET::::- Advanced Clocks\n\nSection::::New characteristics.:Technology Insertion Point 4 (estimated FY2033).\n\nBULLET::::- First Space Vehicle: GPS IIIF-19\n\nBULLET::::- Proposed/possible new functionality:\n\nBULLET::::- TBD\n\nSection::::Satellites.\n\nThe 22 GPS Block IIIF satellites are scheduled for launch between FY2025 and FY2034.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "While most clocks are synchronized to Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), the atomic clocks on the satellites are set to \"GPS time\". The difference is that GPS time is not corrected to match the rotation of the Earth, so it does not contain leap seconds or other corrections which are periodically added to UTC. GPS time was set to match Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) in 1980, but has since diverged. The lack of corrections means that GPS time remains at a constant offset with International Atomic Time (TAI) (TAI - GPS = 19 seconds). Periodic corrections are performed on the on-board clocks to correct relativistic effects and keep them synchronized with ground clocks.\n", "Section::::Development.:Phase Two: Satellite Manufacturing.:Contract Award.\n\nOn September 14, 2018, the Air Force awarded a $7.2 billion manufacturing contract to Lockheed Martin.\n\nSection::::Development.:Funding.\n\nProcurement funds for GPS Block IIIF satellite manufacturing will be allocated from the federal budget, starting with Fiscal Year 2018 (FY18).\n\nSection::::New characteristics.\n\nThe Air Force has identified four \"technology insertion points\" for GPS Block IIIF.\n\nThese four points are the only four times during the block's lifecycle where new capabilities will be allowed to be introduced to Block IIIF satellites.\n\nSection::::New characteristics.:Technology Insertion Point 1 (estimated FY2026).\n\nBULLET::::- First Space Vehicle: GPS IIIF-01\n\nBULLET::::- Proposed/possible new functionality:\n", "In a software GNSS receiver, all digital processing is performed by a general purpose microprocessor. In this approach, a small amount of inexpensive hardware is still needed, known as the \"frontend\", that digitizes the signal from the satellites. The microprocessor can then work on this \"raw\" digital stream to implement the GNSS functionality.\n\nSection::::Hardware vs. software GNSS receivers.\n\nWhen comparing \"hardware\" vs \"software\" GNSS receivers, a number of pros and cons can be found for each approach:\n", "To compensate for the discrepancy, the frequency standard on board each satellite is given a rate offset prior to launch, making it run slightly slower than the desired frequency on Earth; specifically, at 10.22999999543 MHz instead of 10.23 MHz. Since the atomic clocks on board the GPS satellites are precisely tuned, it makes the system a practical engineering application of the scientific theory of relativity in a real-world environment. Placing atomic clocks on artificial satellites to test Einstein's general theory was proposed by Friedwardt Winterberg in 1955.\n\nSection::::Relativity.:Calculation of time dilation.\n", "Some hobbyists have also made some GPS devices and open-sourced the plans. Examples include the Elektor GPS units. These are based around a SiRFstarIII chip and are comparable to their commercial counterparts. Other chips and software implementations are also available.\n\nSection::::Aviators.\n", "The U.S. Air Force employed a two-phase competitive bid acquisition process for the GPS Block IIIF satellites.\n\nSection::::Development.:Phase One: Production Feasibility Assessment.\n\nOn May 5, 2016, the U.S. Air Force awarded three Phase One Production Readiness Feasibility Assessment contracts for GPS III Space Vehicles (SV's) 11+, one each to Boeing Network and Space Systems, Lockheed Martin Space Systems Company, and Northrop Grumman Aerospace Systems. The phase one contracts were worth up to six million dollars each. During the phase one effort, both Boeing and Northrop Grumman successfully demonstrated working navigation payloads.\n\nSection::::Development.:Phase Two: Satellite Manufacturing.\n", "BULLET::::- To calculate an ionospheric grid point's delay, that point must be located between a satellite and a reference station. The low number of satellites and ground stations limit the number of points which can be calculated.\n\nBULLET::::- Aircraft conducting WAAS approaches must possess certified GPS receivers, which are much more expensive than non-certified units. In 2006, Garmin's least expensive certified receiver, the GNS 430W, had a suggested retail price of US$10,750.\n", "A GPS navigation device and a mobile phone sit side-by-side in the same box, powered by the same battery. At regular intervals, the phone sends a text message via SMS or GPRS, containing the data from the GPS receiver. Newer GPS-integrated smartphones running GPS tracking software can turn the phone into a data pusher (or logger) device. As of 2009, open source and proprietary applications are available for common Java ME enabled phones, iPhone, Android, Windows Mobile, and Symbian.\n", "At design level, GPS receivers should be located in a place where satellites vision line is as direct as possible in order not to be out of range with these ones during the flight. In a metallic structure CanSat, the receivers should be always located where the structure does not affect this vision line.\n\nSection::::Operation of the CanSat.:Secondary elements.:Camera.\n", "While most clocks derive their time from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), the atomic clocks on the satellites are set to GPS time (GPST; see the page of United States Naval Observatory). The difference is that GPS time is not corrected to match the rotation of the Earth, so it does not contain leap seconds or other corrections that are periodically added to UTC. GPS time was set to match UTC in 1980, but has since diverged. The lack of corrections means that GPS time remains at a constant offset with International Atomic Time (TAI) (TAI − GPS = 19 seconds). Periodic corrections are performed to the on-board clocks to keep them synchronized with ground clocks.\n", "BULLET::::- Cold or factory: The receiver is missing, or has inaccurate estimates of, its position, velocity, the time, or the visibility of any of the GPS satellites. As such, the receiver must systematically search for all possible satellites. After acquiring a satellite signal, the receiver can begin to obtain approximate information on all the other satellites, called the almanac. This almanac is transmitted repeatedly over 12.5 minutes. Almanac data can be received from any of the GPS satellites and is considered valid for up to 180 days. Manufacturers typically claim the factory TTFF to be 15 minutes.\n", "The current GPS consists of three major segments. These are the space segment, a control segment, and a user segment. The U.S. Air Force develops, maintains, and operates the space and control segments. GPS satellites broadcast signals from space, and each GPS receiver uses these signals to calculate its three-dimensional location (latitude, longitude, and altitude) and the current time.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Space segment.\n", "Approximately five chipset versions were built by Agere and approximately 4 versions were built by STMicroelectronics after the initial prototypes, although all of the early receivers included an Agere chipset known as Northstar. This platform enjoyed the highest volume of chipsets to date, representing the bulk of total production from 2002 to 2010. As of 2010, most of the chipsets are produced by STMicroelectronics.\n" ]	[ "GPS chips send messages to satellites.", "Satellites handle millions if not billions of device requests." ]	[ "GPS chips monitor information sent by satellites.", "The satellites just emit information. It is the user end device that the computation of where the device is. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "GPS chips send messages to satellites.", "Satellites handle millions if not billions of device requests." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "GPS chips monitor information sent by satellites.", "The satellites just emit information. It is the user end device that the computation of where the device is. " ]
2018-20210	Why do scars in the palm of your hand hurt/sting more than on the upper side of the hand?	Nerves in our skin allow us to feel things, including temperature, sensation, and pain. Different parts of our bodies contain more or less nerves depending on what we use that body part for. Because of that, the skin on our main “feelers” (our hands) have more nerves than, say, our elbows. We have more nerves on our palms and the bottoms of our fingers than on the upper side for this same reason. We use the bottoms of our hands to hold and feel things, so we have more nerves there. More nerves mean that we feel more pain, too.	[ "Janeway lesion\n\nJaneway lesions are non-tender, small erythematous or haemorrhagic macular or nodular lesions on the palms or soles only a few millimeters in diameter that are indicative of infective endocarditis.\n\nOsler's nodes and Janeway lesions are similar and point to the same diagnostic conclusion. The only noted difference between the two is that Osler's nodes present with tenderness, while Janeway lesions do not.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "BULLET::::- The \"palm\" (Volar), which is the central region of the anterior part of the hand, located superficially to the metacarpus. The skin in this area contains dermal papillae to increase friction, such as are also present on the fingers and used for fingerprints.\n\nBULLET::::- The \"opisthenar\" area (dorsal) is the corresponding area on the posterior part of the hand.\n", "General lesions in the right hemisphere reduce or eliminate electrodermal response (skin conductance response ((SCR)) to emotionally meaningful stimuli while the lesions in the left hemisphere do not show changes in SCR response.\n", "The sting of a weever is acute and intense. The pain frequently is radiated to the area around the limb. The seriousness of the pain reaches its peak 30 minutes after the sting, and then slowly decreases. However, some pain (or other sensation, such as a tingle) may continue to affect the area for up to 24 hours. Very rarely, pain can be propagated to the tributary lymph nodes, i.e. those in the groin (when the sting is on the sole of the foot), or those in the armpit (if the sting is on the hands).\n", "BULLET::::- Presence of an ape hand deformity or when attempting to form a fist, the benediction sign, due to compression of the median nerve, as opposed to complete median nerve palsy\n\nBULLET::::- Sensory deficit: Numbness and tingling in lateral digits including their nail beds, but excluding the thenar eminence which is supplied by the palmar cutaneous branch of the median nerve Unlike in wrist laceration, sensation still occurs in the area of the central palm. Sensation is not lost because the palmar cutaneous branch runs above the flexor retinaculum, and is not affected in compression in carpal tunnel syndrome.\n", "Injury of median nerve at different levels causes different syndromes with varying motor and sensory deficits.\n\nAbove the elbow\n\nBULLET::::- Common mechanism of injury: A supracondylar humerus fracture\n\nBULLET::::- Motor deficit:\n\nBULLET::::- Loss of pronation of forearm, weakness in flexion of the hand at the wrist, loss of flexion of radial half of digits and thumb, loss of abduction and opposition of thumb.\n\nBULLET::::- Presence of an ape hand deformity when the hand is at rest, due to an hyperextension of index finger and thumb, and an adducted thumb\n", "The NPA participates in the active diminishing of the perception of pain stimuli (antinociception). Although the mechanism by which the NPA alters an organism's response to painful stimuli is not fully known, research has shown that activity in the ventral NPA triggers cholinergic and serotonergic neurons. These neurons activate descending pathways that synapse in the spinal cord and inhibit nociceptive cells in the dorsal horn. In addition to its direct antionociceptive mechanism, the NPA projects onto brain regions that, through connections to the somatosensory cortex, regulate the perception of painful stimuli. Two of these regions that the NPA is known to project to are the zona incerta and posterior thalamic nucleus. Regions of the NPA may be specialized to respond to different types of pain. Research has found that the dorsal NPA best diminished the perception of brief pain whereas the ventral NPA reduced the perception of chronic pain. Because of its role in the reduction of chronic pain, abnormal activity of the NPA is thought to be implicated in central pain syndrome.\n", "Pathologically, the lesion is described to be a microabscess of the dermis with marked necrosis and inflammatory infiltrate not involving the epidermis. They are caused by septic emboli which deposit bacteria, forming microabscesses. Janeway lesions are distal, flat, ecchymotic, and painless.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n\nJaneway lesions present as painless, non tender, subcutaneous maculopapular lesions on the pulp of the finger most commonly due to allergic or toxic inflammation of the vessel wall.\n\nSection::::Etymology.\n\nJaneway lesions are named after Edward Janeway (1841–1911), a prominent American physician and pathologist who initially described the lesions.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Roth's spots\n\nBULLET::::- Osler's node\n", "Section::::Causes.\n\nMedian nerve palsy is often caused by deep, penetrating injuries to the arm, forearm, or wrist. It may also occur from blunt force trauma or neuropathy.\n\nMedian nerve palsy can be separated into 2 subsections—high and low median nerve palsy. High MNP involves lesions at the elbow and forearm areas. Low median nerve palsy results from lesions at the wrist. Compression at the different levels of the median nerve produce variable symptoms and/or syndromes. The areas are:\n\nBULLET::::- Underneath Struthers' ligament\n\nBULLET::::- Passing by the bicipital aponeurosis (also known as lacertus fibrosus)\n", "When the general visceral sensory fiber is simulated, the central nervous system does not clearly discern whether the pain is coming from the body wall or from the viscera, so it perceives the pain as coming from somewhere on the body wall, e.g. left arm/hand pain, jaw pain.\n\nSo the pain is \"referred to\" the related dermatomes of the same spinal segment.\n", "Because lesions to different areas of the median nerve produce similar symptoms, clinicians perform a complete motor and sensory diagnosis along the nerve course. Decreased values of nerve conduction studies are used as indicators of nerve compression and may aid in determining the localization of compression.\n", "In Kenya, the lesions were almost always solitary and were found on the upper arm, face, neck, and truck. Conversely, in Zaire, 22% of patients had multiple lesions, usually two or three. The maximum number of lesions seen in one patient was ten. In the case of Zairian patients, the lesions were mostly found on the lower limbs, with a couple of patients reporting lesions on the upper limbs, trunk, and head.\n\nSection::::Histopathology.\n", "The first dorsal interosseous muscle is larger than the others. Between its two heads, the radial artery passes from the back of the hand into the palm. Between the heads of dorsal interossei two, three, and four, a perforating branch from the deep palmar arch is transmitted.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Proximal and distal interossei.\n", "There was immediate pain, as if being penetrated by a thorn much larger than the actual sting. The site of the sting felt tight and as if it was burning, although there was little visible inflimation. After approximately an hour, the pain had subsided to the point where I was more aware of a sensation of tingling like when you stick your tongue on a 9V battery. After an additional half hour, the pain and tingling had subsided to the point where my thumb felt like it had a sealed paper cut on it -- where moving my thumb felt odd but keeping it still was without much sensation. Several hours later, this too had subsided and I felt nothing. At no point did I experience any systemic effects, nor did the symptoms extend beyond the initial sting site -- not even as far as my first joint on my thumb.\n", "Cutaneous innervation of the upper limbs\n\nCutaneous innervation refers to the area of the skin which is supplied by a specific nerve.\n\nModern texts are in agreement about which areas of the skin are served by which nerves, but there are minor variations in some of the details. The borders designated by the diagrams in the 1918 edition of Gray's Anatomy, provided below, are similar but not identical to those generally accepted today.\n\nSection::::Arm and shoulder.\n\nBULLET::::- Supraclavicular nerves (yellow)\n\nBULLET::::- Axillary nerve (blue). Also Superior lateral cutaneous nerve of arm.\n", "Section::::Research findings.:Peripheral nervous system.:Nerve fibres.\n\nBoth the arms and the mantle contain nervous tissue that conduct nociceptive information to the higher processing areas of the CNS.\n\nNumerous studies have described the existence of neural tissue paths that connects the peripheral areas of cephalopods to their CNS. However it is unclear if specific pain pathways are among these.\n", "SCARs are here considered as a group focusing on the similarities and differences in their pathophysiologies, clinical presentations, instigating drugs, and recommendations for drug avoidance. Further details on these syndromes can be found on their individual Wikipedia pages.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nSection::::Types.:SJS, TEN, and SJS/TEN.\n", "The first four compartments are located in the grooves present on the dorsum of inferior side of radius while the 5th compartment is in between radius and ulna. The 6th compartment is in the groove on the dorsum of inferior side of ulna.\n\nSection::::Nerve supply.\n\nThe muscles of the hand are innervated by the radial, median, and ulnar nerves.\n", "Nociceptive pain may also be classed according to the site of origin and divided into \"visceral\", \"deep somatic\" and \"superficial somatic\" pain. Visceral structures (e.g., the heart, liver and intestines) are highly sensitive to stretch, ischemia and inflammation, but relatively insensitive to other stimuli that normally evoke pain in other structures, such as burning and cutting. Visceral pain is diffuse, difficult to locate and often referred to a distant, usually superficial, structure. It may be accompanied by nausea and vomiting and may be described as sickening, deep, squeezing, and dull. \"Deep somatic\" pain is initiated by stimulation of nociceptors in ligaments, tendons, bones, blood vessels, fasciae and muscles, and is dull, aching, poorly-localized pain. Examples include sprains and broken bones. \"Superficial\" pain is initiated by activation of nociceptors in the skin or other superficial tissue, and is sharp, well-defined and clearly located. Examples of injuries that produce superficial somatic pain include minor wounds and minor (first degree) burns.\n", "In contrast to the axons of second-order neurons in dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathway, the axons of second-order neurons in the spinothalamic tracts cross at every segmental level in the spinal cord. This fact aids in determining whether a lesion is in the brain or the spinal cord. With lesions in the brain stem or higher, deficits of pain perception, touch sensation, and proprioception are all contralateral to the lesion. With spinal cord lesions, however, the deficit in pain perception is contralateral to the lesion, whereas the other deficits are ipsilateral. See Brown-Séquard syndrome.\n", "Cutaneous innervation of the lower limbs\n\nCutaneous innervation refers to the area of the skin which is supplied by a specific nerve.\n\nModern texts are in agreement about which areas of the skin are served by which nerves, but there are minor variations in some of the details. The borders designated by the diagrams in the 1918 edition of \"Gray's Anatomy\", provided below, are similar but not identical to those generally accepted today.\n\nSection::::Pelvis and buttocks.\n\nBULLET::::- Lateral cutaneous nerve of thigh - labeled as \"lateral femoral cutaneous\" (pink)\n", "BULLET::::- Water hands are seeable by the long, sometimes oval-shaped palm, with long, flexible, conical fingers. The length of the palm from wrist to the bottom of the fingers is usually less than the width across the widest part of the palm, and usually equal to the length of the fingers.\n\nBULLET::::- Fire hands are characterized by a square or rectangular palm, flushed or pink skin, and shorter fingers. The length of the palm from wrist to the bottom of the fingers is usually greater than the length of the fingers.\n", "BULLET::::1. Truncal and proximal limb distribution, with less than 10% of lesions distal to mid-upper-arm and mid-thigh,\n\nBULLET::::2. Orientation of most lesions along skin cleavage lines, and\n\nBULLET::::3. A herald patch (not necessarily the largest) appearing at least two days before eruption of other lesions, from history of the patient or from clinical observation.\n\nThe exclusional clinical features are the following:\n\nBULLET::::1. Multiple small vesicles at the centre of two or more lesions,\n\nBULLET::::2. Two or more lesions on palmar or plantar skin surfaces, and\n\nBULLET::::3. Clinical or serological evidence of secondary syphilis.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "The third and fourth lumbricals (most ulnar two) are innervated by the ulnar nerve.\n\nThis is the usual innervation of the lumbricals (occurring in 60% of individuals). However 1:3 (median:ulnar - 20% of individuals) and 3:1 (median:ulnar - 20% of individuals) also exist. The lumbrical innervation always follows the innervation pattern of the associated muscle unit of flexor digitorum profundus (i.e. if the muscle units supplying the tendon to the middle finger are innervated by the median nerve, the second lumbrical will also be innervated by the median nerve).\n\nSection::::Structure.:Blood supply.\n", "The primary and most common symptom in patients with CMC OA of the thumb is pain. Pain at the base of the thumb is mainly experienced when moving the thumb or when applying pressure with the thumb. However, in advanced stages of CMC OA, pain might persist at rest. Another prominent symptom is loss of strength of the thumb. Patients struggle to grab or hold an object due to weakening of the thumb. For example, tying a knot or holding a saucepan becomes increasingly difficult.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-06331	Why does a wooden pipe, itself, not burn while in use?	A pipe will burn but very slowly. As you use the pipe ash and residue builds up in the bowl, called a cake, which will prevent it burning further.	[ "The caked layer that helps prevent burning through the bottom or sides of a briar wood pipe may damage other pipes, such as meerschaum or clay. As the cake layer heats up, it expands and may cause cracks or breaks in non-briar pipes.\n\nSection::::Use.:Smoking.\n", "All wood will release creosote vapors when burned. Modern stoves will burn the vapors, either via direct secondary combustion or via a catalyst. Very little, if any, creosote will escape a properly operating modern stove's secondary combustion.\n", "Section::::Use.:Burning prevention.\n\nWith care, a briar pipe can last a very long time without burning out. However, due to aggressive (hot) smoking, imperfections in the wood, a hole can be burned in the tobacco chamber of the pipe. There are several methods used to help prevent a wood pipe from burning out. These generally involve coating the chamber with any of a variety of substances, or by gently smoking a new pipe to build up a cake (a mixture of ash, unburned tobacco, oils, sugars, and other residue) on the walls.\n", "Exhaust gas emission from an internal combustion engine is significantly lower on wood gas than on petrol. Especially the hydrocarbon emissions are low on wood gas. A normal catalytic converter works well with wood gas, but even without it, emission levels less than 20 ppm HC and 0.2% CO can be easily achieved by most automobile engines. Combustion of wood gas generates no particulates, and the gas renders thus very little carbon black amongst motor oil.\n\nSection::::Usage.:Stoves, cooking and furnaces.\n", "A cake of ash eventually develops inside the bowl. This is generally considered desirable for controlling overall heat. However, if it becomes too thick, it may expand faster than the bowl of the pipe itself when heated, cracking the bowl. Before reaching this point, it needs to be scraped down with a reamer. It is generally recommended to keep the cake at approximately the thickness of a U.S. dime (about 1/20th of an inch or 1.5 mm), though sometimes the cake is removed entirely as part of efforts to eliminate flavors or aromas.\n", "Tubing for flow, either metal or plastic, is generally extruded.\n\nSection::::Materials.\n\nPipe is made out of many types of material including ceramic, glass, fiberglass, many metals, concrete and plastic. In the past, wood and lead (Latin \"plumbum\", from which comes the word 'plumbing') were commonly used.\n", "When dried, the wood has the highest BTU content of any commonly available North American wood, and burns long and hot.\n", "Cake is considered undesirable in meerschaum pipes because it can easily crack the bowl and/or interfere with the mineral's natural porosity. Meerschaum also softens when heated so it is recommended to allow meerschaum pipes to cool before cleaning as people have been known to push pipe cleaners through the walls of heated pipes.\n", "A pipe cleaner can be used to dry out the bowl and, wetted with alcohol, the inner channel. The bowl of the pipe can also become uncomfortably hot, depending on the material and the rate of smoking. For this reason, clay pipes in particular are often held by the stem. Meerschaum pipes are held in a square of chamois leather, with gloves, or else by the stem in order to prevent uneven coloring of the material.\n\nSection::::Use.:Cleaning.\n", "The majority of pipes sold today, whether handmade or machine-made, are fashioned from briar (). Briar is a particularly well suited wood for pipe making for a number of reasons. The first and most important characteristic is its natural resistance to fire. The second is its inherent ability to absorb moisture. The burl absorbs water in nature to supply the tree in the dry times and likewise will absorb the moisture that is a byproduct of combustion. Briar is cut from the root burl of the tree heath (\"Erica arborea\"), which is native to the rocky and sandy soils of the Mediterranean region. Briar burls are cut into two types of blocks; ebauchon and plateaux. Ebauchon is taken from the heart of the burl while plateaux is taken from the outer part of the burl. While both types of blocks can produce pipes of the highest quality, most artisan pipemakers prefer to use plateaux because of its superior graining.\n", "The body of a wooden pipe can be made of either a coniferous wood or hardwood, although the lower section of the pipe (comprising the foot, cap, block and mouth) will nearly always be made from hardwood to provide a precise edge for the pipe's mouth. Using screws and glue, the pipes are assembled from wooden pieces of various shapes and sizes. In contrast with the circular cross-section of a metal pipe, the cross-section of a wooden pipe is most commonly square or rectangular.\n\nSection::::Construction.:Materials.:Glass.\n", "The stem needs a long channel of constant position and diameter running through it for a proper draw, although filter pipes have varying diameters and can be successfully smoked even without filters or adapters. Because it is molded rather than carved, clay may make up the entire pipe or just the bowl, but most other materials have stems made separately and detachable. Stems and bits of tobacco pipes are usually made of moldable materials like Ebonite, Lucite, Bakelite, and soft plastic. Less common are stems made of reeds, bamboo, or hollowed out pieces of wood. Expensive pipes once had stems made of amber, though this is rare now.\n", "Section::::Wood smoke.\n\nHardwoods are made up mostly of three materials: cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. Cellulose and hemicellulose are the basic structural material of the wood cells; lignin acts as a kind of cell-bonding glue. Some softwoods, especially pines and firs, hold significant quantities of resin, which produces a harsh-tasting soot when burned; these woods are not often used for smoking.\n", "Meerschaum pipes can either be carved from a block of meerschaum, or made from meerschaum dust collected after carving and mixed with a binder then pressed into a pipe shape. The latter are far less absorbent, color in blotches, and lack the smoking quality of the block carved pipe.\n\nSection::::Typology.:Bowl materials.:Synthetics.\n", "The heat of combustion of \"producer gas\" — a term used in the United States meaning wood gas produced for use in a combustion engine — is rather low compared to other fuels. Taylor reports that producer gas has a lower heat of combustion of 5.7 MJ/kg versus 55.9 MJ/kg for natural gas and 44.1 MJ/kg for gasoline. The heat of combustion of wood is typically 15-18 MJ/kg. Presumably, these values can vary somewhat from sample to sample. The same source reports the following chemical composition by volume which most likely is also variable:\n\nBULLET::::- Nitrogen N: 50.9%\n", "The stove is connected by ventilating stove pipe to a suitable flue, which will fill with hot combustion gases once the fuel is ignited. The chimney or flue gases must be hotter than the outside temperature to ensure combustion gases are drawn out of the fire chamber and up the chimney.\n\nSection::::Operation.\n\nSection::::Operation.:Air supply.\n", "A catalytic wood stove will re-burn the gasses from the firebox in a catalyst- a matrix of steel or ceramic plated with a catalyst that allows combustion of these gasses at much lower temperatures than would ordinarily be possible. This is why among modern stoves, catalytic models tend to be much better at achieving low, even heat output, which is desirable in warmer weather.\n", "Section::::Workings of a tobacco pipe.:Materials.\n\nThe bowls of tobacco pipes are commonly made of briar wood, meerschaum, corncob, pear-wood, rose-wood or clay. Less common are other dense-grained woods such as cherry, olive, maple, mesquite, oak, and bog-wood. Minerals such as catlinite and soapstone have also been used. Pipe bowls are sometimes decorated by carving, and moulded clay pipes often had simple decoration in the mould.\n", "According to Jeffrey J. Rozum, \"The process of smoking fish occurs through the use of fire. Wood contains three major components that are broken down in the burning process to form smoke. The burning process is called pyrolysis, which is simply defined as the chemical decomposition by heat. The major wood components are cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin.\"\n", "Section::::Typology.:Bowl materials.:Meerschaum.\n", "The use of briar wood beginning in the early 1820s greatly reduced demand for clay pipes and, to a lesser degree, meerschaum pipes. The qualities of the meerschaum were combined with those of the briar wood pipes by lining a briar pipe with a meerschaum bowl. Some smokers believe that the meerschaum-lined briar pipe gives the porosity and sweet smoking qualities of meerschaum along with the heat-absorbing qualities and durability of briar. However, meerschaum must be cool before cleaning the pipe, and the briar must occasionally rest after a few days of smoking, so the combination comes with some of the drawbacks of both. The thinness of the lining can affect how long the pipe lasts and some smokers do not clean out the pipe causing the meerschaum to crack.\n", "Broken fragments of clay pipe can be useful as dating evidence for archaeologists. In the 1950s, the American archaeologist J. C. Harrington noted that the bore of pipe stems decreased over time, so a late sixteenth or early seventeenth centuries pipe would have a stem bore diameter of around , but a late eighteenth century pipe would have a bore diameter of around . The size of bowls also increased over time as tobacco became a cheaper commodity, and later pipes tend to be more decorated.\n\nSection::::Typology.:Bowl materials.:Corncob.\n", "BULLET::::- the humidity of the wood (usually 15 to 20%) and the water vapor created by the O- and H-atoms of the dry wood itself (about 0.4 liters of water loaded with organic substances per kg of dry wood) condenses during the gas cooling and filtering procedure and yields a liquid (see also wood tar), which needs specific waste water treatment. This treatment requires about 25 to 35% of the created wood gas energy.\n\nSection::::Design.:Safety consideration.\n", "The fire performance of Polyethylene is typically 25/50 E84 compliant up to 1\" thickness.\n\nSection::::Materials.:Cellular Glass.\n\n100% Glass manufactured primarily from sand, limestone & soda ash.\n\nSection::::Materials.:Aerogel.\n\nSilica Aerogel insulation has the lowest thermal conductivity of any commercially produced insulation. Although no manufacturer currently manufactures Aerogel pipe sections, it is possible to wrap Aerogel blanket around pipework, allowing it to function as pipe insulation.\n\nThe usage of Aerogel for pipe insulation is currently limited.\n\nSection::::Heat flow calculations and R-value.\n", "The material is not very strong and the early varieties had long thin stems, so they frequently broke, but were cheap to replace. It has been claimed that this fragility was somewhat intentional as it was utilized by Colonial American tavern keepers, for example, in renting the clay pipes to patrons. When the patron was done smoking the pipe and returned it to the keeper, the end of the stem was simply broken off so as to be ready for the next patron. However, there is no documentary evidence for this practice; it is known that communal pipes used in taverns were cleansed by being heated in an oven on special iron racks.\n" ]	[ "A wooden pipe doesn't burn itself while in use." ]	[ "A wooden pipe will burn but very slowly." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "A wooden pipe doesn't burn itself while in use.", "A wooden pipe doesn't burn itself while in use." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "A wooden pipe will burn but very slowly.", "A wooden pipe will burn but very slowly." ]
2018-18786	How does diet soda have zero calories but is still awful for you?	There’s lots of reasons why things are bad for you. A steel axe is calorie free but I would advise against swallowing one. The reason why diet sodas are still bad for you is because they make your body think its swallowing something sweet. When it thinks that, it releases a hormone called insulin that is designed to take the incoming sugar from the food and take it out of your blood, putting it into your cells. If this hormone is released but there is no sugar being eaten (since its diet) it creates a shortage of sugar in your blood. Your blood sugar needs to be kept within a small range or it is unhealthy for you. Long story short, diet sodas can mess up your hormone system or turn blood sugar into fat by storing it (by insulin) when it doesnt need to	[ "The widespread, though not universal, agreement that the newest formulations taste much more \"normal\" (sugar-like) than the older diet soft drinks have prompted some producers, such as Jones Soda, to abandon the \"diet\" label entirely in favor of \"sugar-free\", implying that the taste is good enough to drink even when not trying to lose weight. (This idea was first floated by Diet Coke in 1984, with the tagline, \"Just For the Taste of It.\")\n", "Another study was conducted \"of 263,925 adults aged 51–70, individuals who drank soda were 30% more likely to be diagnosed with depression over a period of 10 years\" It was also stated that \"The link was stronger for diet soda than regular soda\".\n\nSection::::Nomenclature.\n", "Section::::Composition.:Songs.\n", "In countries outside of the United States, United Kingdom and Canada, the term \"light\" is often used instead of \"diet\"; sometimes, even in countries that do not speak English, the word \"light\" in English is used (e.g., \"Coca-Cola Light\" in Spain). The formulation of these is slightly different than the \"diet\"-named versions and thus the taste is slightly different.\n\nSection::::Reduced-calorie drinks.\n", "Section::::Promotion.\n", "Initially launched in Argentina in 2013, Coca-Cola Life is made with a mix of stevia and sugar as its sweeteners. Pepsi has also released a variant of their cola sweetened with stevia and sugar, called Pepsi Next.\n\nSection::::Amount of artificial sweeteners in diet soft drinks.\n\nThe table below displays milligrams of sweetener in an 8-ounce (≈237 ml) serving of bottled or canned soft drink as provided by the manufacturers. To determine the amount in a 12-ounce (≈355 ml) can, multiply these numbers by 1.5. Fountain drinks may contain different sweeteners or different amounts of the same sweeteners.\n\nSection::::Health concerns.\n", "Half of the sugar of a can of regular cola still exceeds the daily sugar allowance of some popular low-carbohydrate diets. It is possible that these soft drinks were targeted to so-called \"carb-conscious consumers\", who are paying attention to their carbohydrate intake but not trying to drastically reduce it.\n\nSection::::Consumption.\n", "With regard to the ad's assertion that \"all calories count, no matter where they come from,\" critics have pointed out that \"calories from soda are entirely empty calories from added sugar and contain no nutritional value.\" This led The Atlantic's Ruth Faden to declare that this specific assertion was \"inappropriately misleading,\" as well as claiming that there is \"considerable research\" linking sugary drinks to obesity. It was also highlighted in a story by the Medill School of Journalism, which quoted Brenda Murray, a bariatric dietitian, who said, “They’re saying a calorie is just a calorie. But it’s not the amount of calories you take in, it’s the kind of calories, too.\" The ad was also criticized by outspoken critic of sugar David Ludwig, who wrote that \"I’d like to see the big beverage companies market less sugar not sugarcoat their marketing.\" He also stated that \"Consuming sugary drinks increases the risk of obesity more than any other food that we know of, based on recent research (by which he means a September 2012 study in the NEJM)\n", "Section::::Composition.\n\nSection::::Composition.:Music and lyrics.\n", "Section::::Critical reception.\n", "In an independent study by researchers with the Framingham Heart Study in Massachusetts, consumption of any kind of soft drink correlated with increased incidence of metabolic syndrome. Of the 9,000 males and females studied, these drinkers were at 48% higher risk for metabolic syndrome, which involves weight gain and elevated blood sugar. No significant difference in these findings was observed between sugary and diet soft drinks. The researchers surmised that diet drinkers were less likely to consume healthy foods, and that drinking diet beverages flavored with artificial sweeteners more than likely increases cravings for sugar-flavored sweets.\n", "Additional variations of Diet Pepsi have been introduced over the years, wherein other flavors (such as wild cherry, vanilla, lemon, and lime) have been added to the cola. A caffeine-free version of Diet Pepsi is also produced. The availability and brand identification of Diet Pepsi flavor variants varies by country. In addition to Diet Pepsi, PepsiCo also produces the low-calorie cola Pepsi Max.\n\nSection::::Composition.\n\nIn the United States, Diet Pepsi is marketed as having zero calories, as FDA guidelines categorize products with fewer than five calories per serving to be labeled as containing \"zero calories\".\n", "According to a study by the National Center for Health Statistics, about one-fifth of the US population ages 2 years and over consumed diet drinks on a given day in 2009‒2010, and 11% consumed 16 fluid oz. of diet drinks or more. Overall, the percentage consuming diet drinks was higher among females compared with males. The percentage consuming diet drinks was similar for females and males at all ages except among 12- to 19-year-olds, where a higher percentage of females than males consumed diet drinks. A higher percentage of non-Hispanic white people consumed diet drinks compared with non-Hispanic black and Hispanic people. The study included calorie-free and low-calorie versions of soft drinks, fruit drinks, energy drinks, sports drinks, and carbonated water.\n", "The most commonly distributed version of Diet Coke (and the majority of beverages that contain artificial sweeteners) relies on aspartame, which has been suggested to pose health concerns. Aspartame is one of the most intensively scrutinized food additives.\n\nCoca-Cola has now released Diet Coke sweetened with sucralose (under the brand name Splenda), although it is not as common.\n", "The process of making a diet version of a food usually requires finding an acceptable low-food-energy substitute for some high-food-energy ingredient. This can be as simple as replacing some or all of the food's sugar with a sugar substitute as is common with diet soft drinks such as Coca-Cola (for example Diet Coke). In some snacks, the food may be baked instead of fried thus reducing the food energy. In other cases, low-fat ingredients may be used as replacements.\n", "A can of Enviga has 5 calories, 100 mg of caffeine, 35 mg of sodium, and 20% of the daily recommended calcium based on a 2,000 calorie diet. It is sweetened with aspartame and has no carbohydrates, fat, or protein.\n\nSection::::Lawsuits over health claims.\n", "Multiple artificial sweeteners can be used to give diet soft drinks a sweet taste without sugar. Sometimes two sweeteners are used in the same beverage. Opinion is mixed as to the taste of these beverages: some think they lack the taste of their sugar-sweetened counterparts, while others think the taste is similar. Some also note an unusual non-sugary aftertaste. Some feel the opposite—that diet drinks have no aftertaste and that drinks sweetened by high fructose corn syrup have a gritty, over-sweet aftertaste.\n\nSection::::Sweetening.:Aspartame.\n", "Diet drink\n\nDiet (alternatively marketed as sugar-free, zero-calorie or low-calorie) drinks are sugar-free, artificially sweetened versions of fizzy beverages with virtually no calories. They are generally marketed toward health-conscious people, diabetics, athletes, and other people who want to lose weight, improve physical fitness, or reduce their sugar intake. However, studies show that the marketed effectiveness of diet soft drinks is questionable. \n\nSection::::History.\n", "The company recommends it for young people and pregnant women because of its nutritional value. Unfortunately, no information on said value can be found, other than the fact that it contains several B-Vitamins which support the metabolism and that it gives lots of energy to the body.\n\nSection::::Taste.\n\nDue to its containing brewing water, barley malt and hop, the taste of malt beer is related to that of alcohol-free lager; however it is notably sweeter, dominated by the glucose syrup which is extracted from, and adds a flavour of, sugar beets.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Advocates say drinks employing these sweeteners have a more natural sugar-like taste than those made just with aspartame, and do not have a strong aftertaste. The newer aspartame-free drinks can also be safely consumed by phenylketonurics, because they do not contain phenylalanine. Critics say the taste is not better, merely different, or note that the long-term health risks of all or certain artificial sweeteners is unclear.\n", "The process of making a diet version of a food usually requires finding an acceptable low-food-energy substitute for some high-food-energy ingredient. This can be as simple as replacing some or all of the food's sugar with a sugar substitute as is common with diet soft drinks such as Coca-Cola (for example Diet Coke). In some snacks, the food may be baked instead of fried thus reducing the food energy. In other cases, low-fat ingredients may be used as replacements.\n", "One study suggests that artificial sweeteners may not fully activate the brain's \"food reward pathways\" as sugar does, stating that, because sweetener does not provide full satisfaction, the user may search for, and then eat, additional high-calorie foods leading to weight gain.\n\nSection::::Environmental effects.\n", "Studies indicate \"soda and sweetened drinks are the main source of calories in [the] American diet\", so most nutritionists advise that Coca-Cola and other soft drinks can be harmful if consumed excessively, particularly to young children whose soft drink consumption competes with, rather than complements, a balanced diet. Studies have shown that regular soft drink users have a lower intake of calcium, magnesium, vitamin C, riboflavin, and vitamin A.\n", "Aspartame, commonly known by the brand name NutraSweet, is one of the most commonly used artificial sweeteners. The 1982 introduction of aspartame-sweetened Diet Coke accelerated this trend. Today, at least in the United States, \"diet\" is nearly synonymous with the use of aspartame in beverages.\n\nSection::::Sweetening.:Cyclamates.\n", "In 2005, The Coca-Cola Company announced it would produce a sucralose-containing formulation of Diet Coke known as Diet Coke with Splenda, but that it would continue to produce the aspartame version as well. There were also rumors that a sugar-free version of Coca-Cola Classic, also sweetened with sucralose, was being formulated as well. This formulation was eventually called Coca-Cola Zero, though it is sweetened with aspartame in conjunction with acesulfame potassium.\n\nSection::::Sweetening.:Stevia.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00549	Why do you have to put premium gasoline in certain vehicles? Will it really harm them if you put in regular?	The more you compress the air/gas mixture the more power you can get from it, but compressing it makes it hot and it can explode too early which will hurt the engine Premium gas has a higher octane rating than regular which means you can squeeze it more before it explodes. If you put regular gas in a high compression engine it will be exploding before the piston is at the top which is no good Modern engines have sensors to detect premature detonation (aka engine knock) and change how they're running to avoid damage but sacrifice performance to do so	[ "BULLET::::- Fast Stop Express - Diesel (select locations only)\n\nBULLET::::- G500 (Mexico)\n\nBULLET::::- Hele\n\nBULLET::::- HFN - Hawaii Fueling Network\n\nBULLET::::- Holiday (U.S., Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- Irving Oil (U.S., Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- Kirkland Signature Gasoline (U.S., Canada, Mexico)\n\nBULLET::::- Kirkland Signature - Diesel (U.S., Canada - select locations only)\n\nBULLET::::- Kwik Star\n\nBULLET::::- Kwik Trip\n\nBULLET::::- Marathon\n\nBULLET::::- Metro Petro\n\nBULLET::::- MFA\n\nBULLET::::- Mobil (U.S. and Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- Ohana Fuels\n\nBULLET::::- Petro-Canada (Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- Phillips 66\n\nBULLET::::- PUMA (El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Panama, Puerto Rico)\n\nBULLET::::- QuikTrip (QT)\n\nBULLET::::- Ranger (U.S., Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- Ranger Mustang (U.S., Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- Ranger Stallion (U.S., Canada)\n", "About 9 percent of all gasoline sold in the U.S. in May 2009 was premium grade, according to the Energy Information Administration. \"Consumer Reports\" magazine says, \"If [your owner’s manual] says to use regular fuel, do so—there's no advantage to a higher grade.\" The \"Associated Press\" said premium gas—which has a higher octane rating and costs more per gallon than regular unleaded—should be used only if the manufacturer says it is \"required\". Cars with turbocharged engines and high compression ratios often specify premium gas because higher octane fuels reduce the incidence of \"knock\", or fuel pre-detonation. The price of gas varies considerably between the summer and winter months.\n", "In addition to higher detergent levels, Top Tier standards also require that gasolines be free of metallic additives, which can be harmful to the emissions control systems in cars.\n\nIn October 2017 a Top Tier Diesel Fuel program was launched.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "Typically, Top Tier gasolines will contain two to three times the amount of detergent additives currently required by the EPA. The extra additives are estimated to cost less than a cent per gallon.\n\nIn addition to the detergent additive requirement, Top Tier gasoline cannot contain metallic additives, because they can be harmful to a car's emissions-control systems.\n", "BULLET::::- BP (U.S., Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- Breakaway (U.S., Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- Break Time\n\nBULLET::::- Cenex\n\nBULLET::::- Chevron (U.S., Canada, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Panama)\n\nBULLET::::- CITGO (U.S., Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- Conoco\n\nBULLET::::- Co-op (Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- Co-op Diesel (Canada - select locations only)\n\nBULLET::::- Costco Wholesale (U.S., Canada, Mexico)\n\nBULLET::::- Costco Wholesale - Diesel (U.S., Canada - select locations only)\n\nBULLET::::- Couche-Tard (U.S., Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- CountryMark\n\nBULLET::::- CountryMark Plus\n\nBULLET::::- Diamond Shamrock (U.S., Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- Energy (Mexico)\n\nBULLET::::- Esso (Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- Express Mart (U.S. - Wisconsin)\n\nBULLET::::- Exxon\n\nBULLET::::- Fast Fuel\n\nBULLET::::- Fast Stop - Diesel (select locations only)\n", "Cars with direct injection technology (GDI) have been especially prone to carbon buildup, and car makers recommend fuels with higher detergent levels to combat the problem. At first GDI was mainly available in high-end autos, but it is now being used in mid-range cars and economy cars, such as the Hyundai Sonata, Ford Focus and Hyundai Accent.\n", "BULLET::::- Denmark: 95 RON is a common choice, with 92 and 95 being widely available. However several fuel stations are phasing out 92 RON. By law, it is decided that all gasoline companies from July 2010 should use a mix containing 5% bioethanol in the gasoline.\n\nBULLET::::- Ecuador: \"Extra\" with 87 and \"Super\" with 92 (RON) are available in all fuel stations. \"Extra\" is the most commonly used. All fuels are unleaded.\n", "BULLET::::- Modifying the engine to run an alternative fuel. These include natural gas conversion of gasoline-powered cars and Vegetable oil conversion of diesel cars. Cars with Diesel engines can be converted reasonably cheaply and easily to run on 100% vegetable oil. Vegetable oil is often cheaper and cleaner than petrodiesel, but local laws often levy harsh fines to users who fail to pay fuel taxes when acquiring their fuel outside regular distribution channels. Liquid nitrogen, Hydrogen fuel conversions and Ethanol conversions are other alternative fuel conversions that can be done with internal combustion engines. The first two will eliminate all vehicle emissions, while the third one will only slightly decrease emissions.\n", "According to its auto industry research and to automotive journalists, all vehicles will benefit from using Top Tier Detergent Gasoline over gasoline meeting the basic EPA standard. New vehicles will supposedly benefit by keeping their engine clean and running optimally, while older vehicles may benefit with increased engine performance and prolonged vehicle life.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The other rarely-discussed reality with high-octane fuels associated with \"high performance\" is that as octane increases, the specific gravity and energy content of the fuel per unit of weight are reduced. The net result is that to make a given amount of power, more high-octane fuel must be burned in the engine. Lighter and \"thinner\" fuel also has a lower specific heat, so the practice of running an engine \"rich\" to use excess fuel to aid in cooling requires richer and richer mixtures as octane increases.\n", "BULLET::::- Engine, for LPG Conversion: Customers desiring LPG (Propane) instead of conventional gasoline will want to order this Special Order option which prepares the 4.9L (300-CID) I-6 engine for propane operation. This engine is specifically engineered to burn gaseous fuel and includes numerous special components for that purpose. Installation of an LPG fuel/carburetion system is the buyer's responsibility and must be accomplished within 90 days or 500 miles (whichever comes first) or the warranty is voided.\n", "The Standard variants get fabric seat upholstery and a matte centre console finishing, while the Executive model adds on fabric door trimmings and a glossy centre console finishing. The Premium is the only variant with leather seats, leather door trimmings, and a leather-wrapped steering wheel.\n", "Chris Martin at Honda states, \"We've supported it [Top Tier gasoline] because we've seen a benefit from it for our consumers in the long run. . . We don't require that our vehicle owners use Top Tier gas [but it helps] make sure the engines are going to last as long as they could.\"\n\nSection::::Characteristics of Top Tier gasoline.\n", "In order to be certified as Top Tier, a gasoline must pass a series of performance tests that demonstrate specified levels of: 1) deposit control on intake valves; 2) deposit control on fuel injectors; 3) deposit control on combustion chambers; 4) prevention of intake-valve sticking. Gasoline marketers agree when they sign on to Top Tier program that all their grades of gasoline meet these standards. However, premium grade gasoline may have yet higher levels of detergent additives.\n", "BULLET::::- Requires automobile manufacturers to ensure that at least 50% of 2013 and 2014 model year automobiles and light duty trucks manufactured for sale in the United States are dual fueled. Increases the minimum to 90% for later model years. (Excludes automobiles and light duty trucks that operate only on electricity.)\n", "BULLET::::- reformate, produced in a catalytic reformer, has a high octane rating with high aromatic content and relatively low olefin content. Most of the benzene, toluene and xylene (the so-called BTX hydrocarbons) are more valuable as chemical feedstocks and are thus removed to some extent.\n\nBULLET::::- catalytic cracked gasoline, or catalytic cracked naphtha, produced with a catalytic cracker, has a moderate octane rating, high olefin content and moderate aromatic content.\n\nBULLET::::- hydrocrackate (heavy, mid and light), produced with a hydrocracker, has a medium to low octane rating and moderate aromatic levels.\n", "BULLET::::- may be more costly than conventional fuels\n\nSection::::Externalities of Substitutional Fuels.:Positive.\n\nBULLET::::- more stable energy supply\n\nBULLET::::- less volatile fuel prices\n\nBULLET::::- less ecosystem damage\n\nBULLET::::- fewer health problems due to air pollution\n\nSection::::The Changing Market.\n\nSubstitutional fuel has been gaining popularity along with renewable energy in the United States over the past several decades. The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 requires that U.S. transportation fuels contain 36 billion gallons of renewable fuels.\n", "Using high octane gasoline fuel in a vehicle that does not need it is generally considered an unnecessary expense, although Toyota \"has\" measured slight differences in efficiency due to octane number even when knock is not an issue. All vehicles in the United States built since 1996 are equipped with OBD-II on-board diagnostics and most models will have knock sensors that will automatically adjust the timing if and when pinging is detected, so low octane fuel can be used in an engine designed for high octane, with some reduction in efficiency and performance. If the engine is designed for high octane then higher octane fuel will result in higher efficiency and performance under certain load and mixture conditions. The energy released during combustion of hydrocarbon fuel increases as the molecule chain length decreases, so gasoline fuels with higher ratios of the shorter chain alkanes such as heptane, hexane, pentane, etc. can be used under certain load conditions and combustion chamber geometries to increase engine output which can lead to lower fuel consumption, although these fuels will be more susceptible to predetonation ping in high compression ratio engines. Gasoline direct injection compression ignition engines make more efficient use of the higher combustion energy short chain hydrocarbons as the fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber during high compression which auto-ignites the fuel, minimizing the amount of time that the fuel is available in the combustion chamber for predetonation.\n", "Licensed Top Tier fuel retailers use a higher level of detergent additives compared to other non Top Tier retailers using only the minimum EPA required detergent additives in order to help prevent the buildup of harmful engine deposits which may reduce fuel economy and optimal engine performance. According to an automotive industry spokesman, the regular use of this type of gasoline results in improved engine life.\n\nThe Top Tier standards must apply to all grades of gasoline or diesel that a company sells, whether it is economy (low-octane) or premium (high-octane).\n\nSection::::Purpose of detergents in gasoline.\n", "API CK-4 and FA-4 have been introduced for 2017 model American engines. API CK-4 is backward compatible that means API CK-4 oils are assumed to provide superior performance to oils made to previous categories and could be used without problems in all previous model engines (but see Ford below).\n", "The premium compact class is the smallest category of luxury cars. It became popular in the mid-2000s, when European manufacturers— such as Audi, BMW and Mercedes-Benz— introduced new entry level models that were smaller and cheaper than their compact executive models.\n\nExamples of premium compact cars:\n\nBULLET::::- Acura ILX\n\nBULLET::::- Audi A3\n\nBULLET::::- Buick Verano\n\nBULLET::::- Lexus CT200h\n\nSection::::Luxury vehicles.:Compact executive / luxury compact.\n", "The selection of octane ratings available at the pump can vary greatly from region to region.\n", "Section::::Additives.:Ethanol.:Brazil.\n\nThe Brazilian National Agency of Petroleum, Natural Gas and Biofuels (ANP) requires gasoline for automobile use to have 27.5% of ethanol added to its composition. Pure hydrated ethanol is also available as a fuel.\n\nSection::::Additives.:Ethanol.:Australia.\n\nLegislation requires retailers to label fuels containing ethanol on the dispenser, and limits ethanol use to 10% of gasoline in Australia. Such gasoline is commonly called E10 by major brands, and it is cheaper than regular unleaded gasoline.\n\nSection::::Additives.:Ethanol.:United States.\n", "Nissan has classified several vehicles as \"premium\" and select dealerships offer the \"Nissan Premium Factory\" catalog. Vehicles in this category are:\n\nSection::::Products.:Trucks.\n", "BULLET::::- Tricresyl phosphate (TCP) (also an AW additive and EP additive)\n\nBULLET::::- 1,2-Dibromoethane\n\nBULLET::::- 1,2-Dichloroethane\n\nBULLET::::- Fuel dyes, most common:\n\nBULLET::::- Solvent Red 24\n\nBULLET::::- Solvent Red 26\n\nBULLET::::- Solvent Yellow 124\n\nBULLET::::- Solvent Blue 35\n\nBULLET::::- Fuel additives in general\n\nBULLET::::- Ether and other flammable hydrocarbons have been used extensively as starting fluid for many difficult-to-start engines, especially diesel engines\n\nBULLET::::- Nitromethane, or \"nitro,\" is a high-performance racing fuel\n\nBULLET::::- Acetone is a vaporization additive, mainly used with methanol racing fuel to improve vaporisation at start up\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04963	How did artists like Van Gogh paint self-portraits without the painting being mirrored?	You could always make a trace first and flip it if you're that concerned about 100% accuracy, but I wouldn't assume that a lot of famous self portraits aren't mirrored unless there's a clearly defining asymmetric feature that's present in both portaits and self portraits. Just a note about Van Gogh specifically, you could definitely get a picture done in 1880.	[ "Portraits of Vincent van Gogh\n\nThis article refers to portraits of Vincent Van Gogh (1853–1890). It includes self-portraits, portraits of him by other artists, and photographs, one of which is dubious. Van Gogh's dozens of self-portraits were an important part of his oeuvre as a painter. Most probably, van Gogh's self-portraits are depicting the face as it appeared in the mirror he used to reproduce his face, i.e. his right side in the image is in reality the left side of his face.\n\nSection::::Periods.\n\nSection::::Periods.:Paris 1886.\n\nThe first self-portrait by van Gogh that survived, is dated 1886.\n\nSection::::Periods.:Saint-Rémy.\n", "All the self-portraits executed in Saint-Rémy show the artist's head from the left, i.e. the side with non-mutilated ear.\n\nSection::::Periods.:Auvers-sur-Oise.\n\nNo self-portraits were executed by van Gogh in Auvers-sur-Oise, during the final weeks of his life.\n\nSection::::Remarks.\n", "Van Gogh created more than 43 self-portraits between 1885 and 1889. They were usually completed in series, such as those painted in Paris in mid-1887, and continued until shortly before his death. Generally the portraits were studies, created during introspective periods when he was reluctant to mix with others, or when he lacked models, and so painted himself.\n", "The self-portrait supposes in theory the use of a mirror; glass mirrors became available in Europe in the 15th century. The first mirrors used were convex, introducing deformations that the artist sometimes preserved. A painting by Parmigianino in 1524 \"Self-portrait in a mirror\", demonstrates the phenomenon. Mirrors permit surprising compositions like the \"Triple self-portrait\" by Johannes Gumpp (1646), or more recently that of Salvador Dalí shown from the back painting his wife, Gala (1972–73).\n", "Section::::European art.:Prolific modern self-portraitists.\n\nOne of the most famous and most prolific of self-portraitists was Vincent van Gogh, who drew and painted himself more than 43 times between 1886 and 1889. In all of these self-portraits one is struck that the gaze of the painter is seldom directed at the viewer; even when it is a fixed gaze, he seems to look elsewhere. These paintings vary in intensity and color and some portray the artist with bandages; representing the episode in which he severed one of his ears.\n", "Van Gogh's gaze is seldom directed at the viewer. The portraits vary in intensity and colour, and in those painted after December 1888 especially, the vivid colours highlight the haggard pallor of his skin. Some depict the artist with a beard, others without. He can be seen with bandages in portraits executed just after he mutilated his ear. In only a few does he depict himself as a painter. Those painted in Saint-Rémy show the head from the right, the side opposite his damaged ear, as he painted himself reflected in his mirror.\n\nSection::::Style and works.:Major series.:Flowers.\n", "The painting was executed in 1826 at time when Wilhelm Bendz was preoccupied by artists' new role; no longer craftsmen but instead considered intellectuals, artists in the modern sense of the word. During the 1820s he painted a series of portraits of artists at work. Here the model is Bendz's fellow student, Ditlev Blunck, in the process of painting a portrait of the painter Jørgen Sonne.\n\nSection::::Reason.\n", "The double portrait of Strangwish and Flicke is remarkable for a number of reasons. The portraits are both miniatures, less than four inches high. The self-portrait of Flicke, the earliest known self-portrait in oils painted in England, has a Latin inscription that may be translated, \"Such was the face of Gerlach Flicke when he was a painter in the City of London. This, he himself painted from a looking glass for his dear friends. So that they might have something to remember him after his death.\"\n", "The portrait was executed in the first days of September 1888, a few days before Boch's departure. In the first version of Van Gogh's Bedroom, executed in October 1888, this portrait is shown hanging to the left of the portrait of Paul-Eugène Milliet. Arranged this way, both portraits may have formed part of the \"Décoration for the Yellow House\".\n\nWhen Eugène Boch died in 1941, he bequeathed \"The Poet\" (that is Van Gogh's title for his portrait of Eugène Boch, which Boch received from Johanna van Gogh-Bonger as a present in July 1891) to the Louvre.\n", "The self-portraits reflect an unusually high degree of self-scrutiny. Often they were intended to mark important periods in his life; for example, the mid-1887 Paris series were painted at the point where he became aware of Claude Monet, Paul Cezanne and Signac. In \"Self-Portrait with Grey Felt Hat\", heavy strains of paint spread outwards across the canvas. It is one of his most renowned self-portraits of that period, \"with its highly organized rhythmic brushstrokes, and the novel halo derived from the Neo-impressionist repertoire was what Van Gogh himself called a 'purposeful' canvas\".\n", "1850: Poster Print: \"Portrait of a Young Man in a Victorian Interior\", offered at All Posters.com: Accessed 2016-02-09. The original of this print is likely a self-portrait of the artist, Frederick William Lock as he appeared to himself in a mirror. Using his training as a lithographer, Lock afterward converted this mirror image original into a \"true-image template\" that he used for producing two additional paintings of himself, one in the same \"pen and black ink and watercolour,\" and another in \"oil on canvas.\" Lock's two true image versions of his self-portrait, paired with his two paintings of \"the woman in a Victorian Interior,\" are described immediately below.\n", "This use of the mirror often results in right-handed painters representing themselves as left-handed (and vice versa). Usually the face painted is therefore a mirror image of that the rest of the world saw, unless two mirrors were used. Most of Rembrandt's self-portraits before 1660 show only one hand – the painting hand is left unpainted. He appears to have bought a larger mirror in about 1652, after which his self-portraits become larger. In 1658 a large mirror in a wood frame broke whilst being transported to his house; nonetheless, in this year he completed his Frick self-portrait, his largest.\n", "Louise de Broglie (1818–1882) was 27 at the time of the portrait. Ingres had two to three years earlier sketched her with black chalk as a preparatory drawing, and begun an oil-on-canvas painting, which excludes the mirror and reflected images, and reverses the pose, but that was abandoned. The sessions were long and slow, and de Broglie found them wearisome, at one stage complaining \"for the last nine days Ingres has been painting on one of the hands\". She fell pregnant with her third child, was thus unable to pose further, and the 1842 painting remains unfinished.\n", "The Hermitage collection includes a \"\" scene which is ascribed to van Tilborgh. This scene is set in a very large guardroom with numerous people engaging in various activities. In the middle of the guardroom stand two gentlemen in what appears to be oriental dress.\n\nSection::::Work.:Collaborations.\n", "There are a number of deliberate contradictions and explorations of mirror images at play. Hemessen holds the brush with her right hand; she would have corrected the reversal on the reflected image. Her head as shown on the panel is undersized and situated on the top left; that is opposite to the position her head appears on the actual painting. Her head is turned in the direction of the viewer but her eyes do not meet the viewer's. Typical of her work, the background is plain and dark, and gives no indication of the space occupied by the sitter. \n", "Art dealer Pierre Firmin-Martin, a friend of Van Gogh's brother Theo, displayed some of Van Gogh's paintings. \"Mother by a Cradle, Portrait of Leonie Rose Davy-Charbuy\" was made of Martin's niece who lived with her uncle. Reflective of the family's interest in art, paintings hang in the background. In the year the painting was made Theo commented that Van Gogh done a good job painting portraits but had never asked for payment.\n\nSection::::Paris 1886–1888.:Père Tanguy.\n", "Section::::Paris 1886–1888.:Etienne-Lucien Martin.\n\nThe \"Portrait of Etienne-Lucien Martin\" was made of the owner of a restaurant in Paris. He allowed artists to exhibit their work. In November 1887 Van Gogh and his friends showed their works; Van Gogh did not sell a painting. Van Gogh made the painting of Martin with care and precision. The colors within the portrait itself and the background were subdued, painted with delicate brushstrokes. The gentleman's face, though, has stripes of colors across the cheeks.\n\nSection::::Paris 1886–1888.:Leonie Rose Davy-Charbuy.\n", "BULLET::::- The \"Selfportrait 'a l'éstampe japonais\"', then in the collection of William Goetz, Los Angeles, was included, though all editors refused its authenticity.\n\nMeanwhile, the authenticity of a second \"\"self-portrait\"\" has been challenged:\n\nBULLET::::- The \"Selfportrait, 'à l'oreille mutilé\"', acquired in 1910 for the Nasjonalgalleriet, Oslo, has been unanimously rejected by recent scholars and technical researchers for decades, until provenance research by staff members now reported \"pro domo\" the contrary. The debate is on-going.\n\nNote the painter shows his right ear, if painted via a mirror, while Van Gogh cut his left ear.\n\nSection::::Photographs and supposed photographs.\n", "The art historian Jeffrey Meyers describes the intentional play on perspective and the apparent violation of the operations of mirrors: \"Behind her, and extending for the entire length of the four-and-a-quarter-foot painting, is the gold frame of an enormous mirror. The French philosopher Maurice Merleau-Ponty has called a mirror 'the instrument of a universal magic that changes things into spectacles, spectacles into things, me into others, and others into me.' We, the viewers, stand opposite the barmaid on the other side of the counter and, looking at the reflection in the mirror, see exactly what she sees... A critic has noted that Manet's 'preliminary study shows her placed off to the right, whereas in the finished canvas she is very much the centre of attention.' Though Manet shifted her from the right to the center, he kept her reflection on the right. Seen in the mirror, she seems engaged with a customer; in full face, she's self-protectively withdrawn and remote.\"\n", "The Van Gogh Museum attributes a painting generally considered a self-portrait to actually be a portrayal of his brother, Theo. In \"Portrait of Theo van Gogh,\" (F294), the museum says that the painting was made \"to experiment with color, as we can see in the effect of the yellow hat against the blue background, and the range of colors in the jacket, bow-tie and background.\" Albert J. Lubin, author of \"Stranger on the Earth: A Psychological Biography of Vincent van Gogh\" claims that Vincent made no portraits of his brother.\n", "In 1937, Meltsner painted a self-portrait titled \"Paul, Marcella and Van Gogh\". In the work, he poses in his studio with his daughter and his wire fox terrier, holding a workman's hammer instead of a paint brush. The painting was purchased by the Luxembourg Museum in Paris, but during the German occupation of France, it was confiscated by the Nazis because Meltsner was Jewish. He painted a copy of the work in 1940, and \"Paul, Marcella and Van Gogh (No. 2)\" now hangs in the Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art in Kansas City.\n", "Still Life with Mirror\n\nStill Life with Mirror is a lithograph by the Dutch artist M. C. Escher which was created in 1934. The reflection of the mirror mingles together two completely unrelated spaces and introduces the outside world of the small town narrow street in Abruzzi, Villalago, into internal world of the bedroom. This work of Escher is closely related to his later application of mirror effect in 1937 Still Life and Street. Escher manipulates the scale in different parts of the print to achieve the effect of smooth connection between worlds.\n", "While Van Gogh had few opportunities to make portraits, he completed at least three at Saint-Rémy.\n\nSection::::Portraits.:François and Jeanne Trabuc.\n", "Van Gogh's thoughts returned several times to the painting by Eugène Delacroix of Torquato Tasso in the madhouse. After a visit with Paul Gauguin to Montpellier to see Alfred Bruyas's collection in the Musée Fabre, Van Gogh wrote to Theo, asking if he could find a copy of the lithograph after the painting. Three and a half months earlier, he had been thinking of the painting as an example of the sort of portraits he wanted to paint: \"But it would be more in harmony with what Eugène Delacroix attempted and brought off in his \"Tasso in Prison\", and many other pictures, representing a real man. Ah! portraiture, portraiture with the thought, the soul of the model in it, that is what I think must come.\"\n", "In the famous \"Arnolfini Portrait\" (1434), Jan van Eyck is probably one of two figures glimpsed in a mirror – a surprisingly modern conceit. The Van Eyck painting may have inspired Diego Velázquez to depict himself in full view as the painter creating \"Las Meninas\" (1656), as the Van Eyck hung in the palace in Madrid where he worked. This was another modern flourish, given that he appears as the painter (previously unseen in official royal portraiture) and standing close to the King's family group who were the supposed main subjects of the painting.\n" ]	[ "Self portraits from artists are not mirrored. " ]	[ "Famous self portraits could be mirrored. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Self portraits from artists are not mirrored. ", "Self portraits from artists are not mirrored. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Famous self portraits could be mirrored. ", "Famous self portraits could be mirrored. " ]
2018-04534	How does somebody survive a jump from 11 meters into a pool of 30cm?	There are a lot of things happening all at once. First When you make contact with something that thing wants to apply the same amount of force that you applied to it back to you. But if that thing is to small or light to do so, the extra force turns into movement. Eventually with enough movement the force is canceled out. Water takes much less force to move than concrete or another solid which means it won't stop you as fast and you feel less of an impact.(for reference it only takes about 90cm of water to stop a .50cal bullet.) At the same time we've all dove into a pool only to end up with a sore stomach. This is because water likes sticking to itself which gives the water surface tension. (You can actually float a paperclip on top of this tension and see the water bend around it if you're really careful.) This is why the first thing to hit the water when they dive is the hands. This breaks the surface of the water and greatly reduces the tension. The other big thing that happens is the force being spread out, both in the water and in the diver. In the water each bit of water pushes on every other bit of water so you eventually have all the water moving at once which means the force ts spread out a lot. However the force isn't spread evenly which is why there is a splash and some water goes farther than the rest. The diver however wants to spread the force on his body as evenly as possible. which is why the second part of the body to hit the water is the chest. The chest has a lot of muscle which is really good as spreading out force. the bones in the chest are also a bit more flexible than your other bones meaning they also help spread the force. Also the chest is really close to the center of your body meaning the force has more space to spread out before it runs out of things to spread to. Lastly because the diver is hitting the water at an angle, the force will spread out more as more of their body makes contact with the water. To demonstrate this you can drop a book that is perfectly level and get a loud noise, but if you drop it at an angle the noise will be much quieter. tl;dr water stops you slower and your chest is surprisingly flexible.	[ "BULLET::::- Cofre en el Agua (Coffin in Water): Participantes lay down inside a transparent glass coffin being submerged underwater. At the signal of a pilot light, the Participante must open a lock using one of three keys to release themselves from the coffin and swim toward the edge of the pool marked with the logo. The two who finished the stunt the fastest would be exempted from further competing in the round. In case no one finished the stunt, the lengths of time the Participantes lasted underwater will also be assessed.\n", "Section::::Planning and preparation.:Death of rescue diver.\n\nOn 5 July at 8.37pm, Saman Kunan (), a 37-year-old former Thai Navy SEAL, made a dive from Chamber 3 to the T Junction close to Pattaya Beach to deliver three air tanks. During his return he lost consciousness underwater. His dive buddy attempted CPR without success. Kunan was brought to Chamber 3 where CPR was attempted again, but he could not be resuscitated and was pronounced dead about 1 am on 6 July.\n", "6 July: Saman Kunan, a former Thai navy diver and volunteer of the rescue mission, died between 01:00 to 02:00 after losing consciousness while placing diving cylinders underwater along the route to the stranded boys. Authorities urged that the rescue happen faster, due to oxygen levels falling to 15%, well below the 21% \"safe zone.\" \n", "BULLET::::- Cierre de Houdini (Houdini's Escape): Participantes are handcuffed and zipped inside a large plastic bag, which is then submerged. Participantes must release one wrist from a cuff using a key tied to the cuff, unzip oneself from the bag, resurface, and swim to the edge of the pool. They must also signal the safety divers in case they want to quit from the stunt. The one with the slowest time or spent the least time underwater before quitting must leave for the Philippines.\n", "BULLET::::- Event 3 – Water Jump: In the 1.40 m, German Thorsten Richter, Japanese Kengo Shiomi and South African Hugo Myburgh successfully avoided the bar but Great Briton Nathan Strange's feet as he was diving into the water touched the bar and failed. In the 1.50 m, German Thorsten Richter's touched the bar and failed but Japanese Kengo Shiomi and South African Hugo Myburgh successfully avoided the bar. In the 1.60 m, Japanese Kengo Shiomi successfully avoided the bar but South African Hugo Myburgh's knee hit the bar and failed.\n", "After an incident in Washington in 1993, most US and other pool builders are reluctant to equip a residential swimming pool with a diving springboard so home diving pools are much less common these days. In the incident, 14-year-old Shawn Meneely made a \"suicide dive\" (holding his hands at his sides, so that his head hit the bottom first) in a private swimming pool and became a tetraplegic. The lawyers for the family, Jan Eric Peterson and Fred Zeder, successfully sued the diving board manufacturer, the pool builder, and the National Spa and Pool Institute over the inappropriate depth of the pool.\n", "In 1998, Nathaniel Burton, a sixteen-year-old recruit in the Royal Marines died in Crazywell Pool. He was taking part in a routine training exercise and drowned while crossing the icy waters of the pool.\n\nSection::::Legends.\n", "The fatality rate of jumping is roughly 98%. As of July 2013, only 34 people are known to have survived the jump. Those who do survive strike the water feet-first and at a slight angle, although individuals may still sustain broken bones or internal injuries. One young woman, Sarah Rutledge Birnbaum, survived, but returned to jump again and died the second time. One young man survived a jump in 1979, swam to shore, and drove himself to a hospital. The impact cracked several of his vertebrae.\n", "For reasons that are unclear to Lemons and his colleagues, but attributed in part to the cold water and having been breathing air with a high partial pressure of oxygen, Lemons survived for around 30 minutes while he was located by a remote underwater vehicle and then by Yuasa, who was able to pull him back onboard the diving bell.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "On 14 January 1933, Dutchman Lou Vlasblom made a well documented dive from the top of one of the towers of the Rotterdam Koningshaven bridge from a height of 65 meters.\n\nThe first female world champion in this sport was Cesilie Carlton of the United States, who won the first gold medal at the 2013 World Aquatics Championships with a total score of 211.60. The first male world champion was Orlando Duque of Colombia who received a score of 590.20.\n\nSection::::Overview.\n\nSection::::Overview.:Pool diving.\n", "BULLET::::- Died: Allen Ludden, 63, American game show host (\"Password\"), and husband of comedian Betty White\n\nSection::::June 10, 1981 (Wednesday).\n\nBULLET::::- Six-year-old Alfredo Rampi fell into an unprotected artesian well while playing on a neighbor's property in Frascati, Italy. Over the next three days, the nation, and later the world, followed the attempt to save the boy's life. At one point, a rescuer was within reach of Alfredo, but the boy slipped 100 feet further down the well. By Saturday, Alfredo had died, and the property owner was arrested. The little boy's body was recovered on July 11.\n", "BULLET::::- Three 3–5 metres dives wearing clothes and retrieving two 5 kilo rings or similar objects with 3 m in between in less than 3 minutes. The first time with a dive start. The second and third time from the water level, with a dive head first and a dive feet first.\n\nBULLET::::- 50 metres rescue pulling or pushing stroke with a partner in less than 1:30 minutes (both wearing clothes).\n\nBULLET::::- Demonstrating proficiency in avoiding and breaking holds and chokes\n\nBULLET::::- Combination of:\n\nBULLET::::- 25 metres swim in less than 30 seconds\n", "Shawn and K38 had a feature story titled 'Heavy Water' in Surfing's Greatest Misadventures – Dropping in on the Unexpected, edited by Paul Diamond, 2006. This story was based on the rescue of professional surfer Ian Armstrong at a big wave surfing location called Dungeons, during the Red Bull Big Wave Africa surfing contest waiting period.\n", "The first 100 meters of the course originally began with a stream-wide drop from the start pool and a split around a \"Dark Destroyer\" boulder in the middle of the stream. However, in the winter of 2013 the top drop was narrowed and moved back into the start pool, reducing the slope, and the mid-stream boulder was removed. The next three drops were modified with underwater speed bumps to slow down the water and reduce surges. The first 100 meters remains the steepest and narrowest part of the course, but it is now more a pool-drop stream than a continuous rapid. At any point swimmers can escape the current and swim ashore.\n", "Section::::World record high dives.\n", "Shawn Alladio along with Jonathan Cahill survived a set of 100' waves at the famous big wave surfing sport called Mavericks on November 21, 2001. The story was featured in the San Francisco Chronicle Newspaper. Powerline Productions featured Shawn Alladio in several documentaries on the famous big wave surfing break, such as '100' Wednesday', 'Whipped', \"\"Considered by some to be the biggest day in big wave surfing history.\" They were featured in a Readers Digest 'Everyday Heroes' article based on eyewitness accounts.\n", "At the World Cup race on 10 March 2012 in Grindelwald, Switzerland, Zoricic crashed hard head first into netting lining the course after going wide and falling on the final jump. He was knocked unconscious, suffered severe skull and brain trauma and was airlifted to a hospital in Interlaken where he was later pronounced dead.\n", "The film took over four years to complete, and follows the story of Max Avery (Justin Flint Williford), as he pursues competitive freediving as an emotional and physical respite from chronic lung disease. His love for the potentially deadly sport, however, causes a rift between Avery and his father, a cautious physician. Christopherson had first met Justin Williford when they were roommates at the Olympic Training Center, where Wiliford was a shotgun shooter.\n", "In rock attack, contestants try to catch a giant ball that comes down a 15-degree slope, they must then push the ball back up the slope where a platform leads to the rock valley waterway. In rock valley, they try to walk on the ball, which weighs about 30 kg and has a diameter of 1.8 meters, across the aforementioned waterway 2.5 meters wide and 1.4 meters deep. Wei Tao, a 19-year-old Chinese freshman at Kyoto University, fell into the waterway during the rock valley obstacle. Takunori Isa, a 20-year-old junior at Tokai University, was knocked down when he tried to catch the ball in rock attack and was rolled over by the ball.\n", "BULLET::::- Two sets of brothers finished in the top ten placings in the 62nd Liffey Swim in 1981 - The Dunne brothers, Art and Gerry, 1st and 2nd, respectively, and the O'Dea brothers, Paul and Joe, 7th and 10th, respectively\n\nBULLET::::- Greatest number of fastest times in Liffey Swim - 9 - Francis \"Chalkey\" White (1966-1971,1973,1974,1980); he missed the Liffey Swim in 1972 while representing Ireland at an international meeting in Belgium and attempting to qualify for the Olympic Games in Munich\n\nBULLET::::- Longest sequence of fastest swims - 6 - Francis \"Chalkey\" White (1966-1971)\n", "The other 4 contestants all made it as far as the Floating Doors, where they all fell.\n", "BULLET::::- The ratio of the water depth before and after the jump depend solely on the ratio of velocity of the water entering the jump to the speed of the wave over-running the moving water.\n\nBULLET::::- The height of the jump can be many times the initial depth of the water.\n", "Death of Raymond Zack\n\nOn Memorial Day, 2011, 53-year-old Raymond Zack, of Alameda, California, walked into the waters off Robert Crown Memorial Beach and stood neck deep in water roughly 150 yards offshore for almost an hour. His foster mother, Dolores Berry, called 9-1-1 and said that he couldn't swim and was trying to drown himself. There are conflicting reports about Zack's intentions.\n", "Last Breath (2019 film)\n\nLast Breath is a 2019 documentary film directed by Richard da Costa and Alex Parkinson. It relates the story of a serious saturation diving accident in 2012, when diver Chris Lemons had his umbilical cable severed and became trapped around 100 metres under the sea without heat or light, and with only the small amount of air in his backup tank.\n\nSection::::Plot summary.\n", "BULLET::::- On July 6, 2011, a young boy was found face down in the pool. By the time the ambulance arrived, lifeguards performed CPR and were successful at getting a heartbeat and the boy breathing on his own. He died later at a local hospital from trouble breathing. It was later determined that the child suffered from a pre-existing heart condition that is associated with Noonan syndrome.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01525	Why isn't the Seven Years War considered the first world war?	To be a world war a minimum of 3 world powers from at least 2 major regions of the world must be fighting each other. While the 7 years war involved many of the World Powers, it was a European conflict. The only regions outside of Europe involved were the colonies of the European Empires and that simply does not count. It frankly was not big enough.	[ "The war has been described as the first \"world war\", although this label was also given to various earlier conflicts like the Eighty Years' War, the Thirty Years' War, the War of the Spanish Succession and the War of the Austrian Succession, and to later conflicts like the Napoleonic Wars. The term \"Second Hundred Years' War\" has been used in order to describe the almost continuous level of worldwide conflict between France and Great Britain during the entire 18th century, reminiscent of the Hundred Years' War of the 14th and 15th centuries.\n\nSection::::Background.\n\nSection::::Background.:In North America.\n", "Section::::First World War.\n", "Prior to World War II, the events of 1914–1918 were generally known as the Great War or simply the World War. In October 1914, the Canadian magazine \"Maclean's\" wrote, \"Some wars name themselves. This is the Great War.\" Contemporary Europeans also referred to it as \"the war to end war\" or \"the war to end all wars\" due to their perception of its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. After World War II began in 1939, the terms became more standard, with British Empire historians, including Canadians, favouring \"The First World War\" and Americans \"World War I\".\n\nSection::::Background.\n\nSection::::Background.:Political and military alliances.\n", "Section::::Battle.:4 October.\n\nSection::::Battle.:4 October.:\"Unternehmen Hohensturm\".\n", "Section::::Names.\n\nThe term \"First World War\" was first used in September 1914 by German biologist and philosopher Ernst Haeckel, who claimed that \"there is no doubt that the course and character of the feared 'European War' ... will become the first world war in the full sense of the word,\" citing a wire service report in \"The Indianapolis Star\" on 20 September 1914.\n", "BULLET::::- 1800 – War of the Second Coalition: Battle of Hohenlinden: French General Moreau decisively defeats the Archduke John of Austria near Munich. Coupled with First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte's earlier victory at Marengo, this will force the Austrians to sign an armistice and end the war.\n\nBULLET::::- 1800 – 1800 United States presidential election The Electoral College casts votes for President and Vice President that resulted in a tie between Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr.\n\nBULLET::::- 1818 – Illinois becomes the 21st U.S. state.\n\nBULLET::::- 1834 – The Zollverein (German Customs Union) begins the first regular census in Germany.\n", "BULLET::::- July 17 – King George V of the United Kingdom issues a proclamation, stating that thenceforth the male line descendants of the British Royal Family will bear the surname Windsor, vice the Germanic bloodline of \"House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha\", which is an offshoot of the historic (800+ years) House of Wettin.\n\nBULLET::::- July 20\n", "In English, the term \"First World War\" had been used by Charles à Court Repington, as a title for his memoirs (published in 1920); he had noted his discussion on the matter with a Major Johnstone of Harvard University in his diary entry of September 10, 1918.\n", "BULLET::::- China's Imperial Senate unanimously passed a resolution requesting that the Emperor's regent, move up the date for an elected parliament and a written constitution, at that time scheduled for 1916. A new date of 1913 would be set as a result.\n\nBULLET::::- The predecessor to the French Air Force, the \"Aéronautique Militaire\", was established as a branch of the Army of France.\n\nBULLET::::- Russia passed a law barring German immigration into its three western frontier provinces that bordered Germany. The areas on both sides of the border are now part of Poland.\n", "Wars described by some historians as \"World War Zero\" include the Seven Years' War and the onset of the Late Bronze Age collapse.\n", "Section::::Reactions.:League of Nations.\n", "Repington appears to be the first person to have used the term \"First World War\" on 10 September 1918 in a conversation noted in his diary, hoping that title would serve as a reminder and warning that the Second World War was a possibility in the future.\n\nSection::::Military correspondent.:\"Shells Scandal\".\n", "The criminal justice theoretician, Franz von Liszt, kindled a new debate in the Reichstag when he disputed the validity of the cabinet order from 1820. On January 23, Bethmann Hollweg confirmed the validity of the order, however, and legitimized the military actions in Saverne by doing so.\n\nSection::::Consequences.:Consequences for Alsace-Lorraine.\n", "On 2 July, the Saxon Ambassador in Berlin wrote back to his king that the German Army wanted Austria to attack Serbia as quickly as possible because the time was right for a general war since Germany was more prepared for war than either Russia or France. On 3 July, the Saxon military attaché in Berlin reported that the German General Staff \"would be pleased if war were to come about now\".\n", "BULLET::::- 5–12 September – World War I: First Battle of the Marne begins: Northeast of Paris, German forces are attacked by the British Expeditionary Force and the French 6th Army. Over 2 million fight (500,000 killed/wounded) in victory for the Anglo-French forces.\n\nBULLET::::- 13–28 September – World War I: First Battle of the Aisne involving British, French and German forces.\n\nBULLET::::- 21 September– World War I: All German armed forces in German New Guinea (Deutsch-Neuguinea) surrender to the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force.\n\nSection::::Events.:October.\n\nBULLET::::- 4 October – Manifesto of the Ninety-Three proclaimed in Germany.\n", "The German campaign covers all the military engagements that took place from 1813 to 1815 between the troops of Napoleonic France and the allies, consisting of Prussia, Austria, Russia and Great Britain. After the liberation of the German nations, the winter campaign of 1814 ended with the abdication of Napoleon and the First Treaty of Paris.\n\nSection::::Wars.:Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (1792–1815).:War of the Seventh Coalition (1815).\n\nThe War of the Seventh Coalition, also called the Hundred Days, occurred in the summer of 1815.\n", "Section::::Reactions.\n\nSection::::Reactions.:Germany.\n", "BULLET::::- Regent – George, Prince Regent\n\nBULLET::::- Prime Minister – Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool (Tory)\n\nBULLET::::- Parliament – 5th\n\nSection::::Events.\n\nBULLET::::- 2 January\n\nBULLET::::- Lord Byron marries Anna Isabella Milbanke, Seaham, County Durham.\n\nBULLET::::- The Prince Regent divides the Order of the Bath into three classes: the Knights Grand Cross, Knights Commander and Companions.\n\nBULLET::::- 3 January – Austria, Britain and Bourbon-restored France form a secret defensive alliance treaty against Prussia and Russia.\n", "Section::::Reactions.:United Kingdom.\n", "Historians more sympathetic to the Entente, such as British historian John Röhl, frequently see this as a conference as setting a time when a war was to begin, namely the summer of 1914. It was clearly established that, if there was going to be a war, the German Army wanted it to commence before the new Russian armaments program began to bear fruit.\n", "Section::::World War I.:Combat chronicle.\n", "BULLET::::- The German Kaiser announces that he will not attend the Archduke's funeral.\n\nBULLET::::- A council is held at Potsdam, powerful leaders within Austria-Hungary and Germany meet to discuss possibilities of war with Serbia, Russia, and France.\n\nSection::::Events.:August.\n\nBULLET::::- 1 August – The German Empire declares war on the Russian Empire, following Russia's military mobilization in support of Serbia; Germany also begins mobilization.\n\nBULLET::::- 3 August – World War I: Germany declares war on France\n\nBULLET::::- 4 August:\n\nBULLET::::- World War I: Germany declares war on Belgium\n", "Section::::Battle.:German 2nd Army.\n", "Section::::World War I.\n", "BULLET::::- End of World War I\n" ]	[ "Seven Years Wat should be the first world war." ]	[ "It was not a world war because it was a european conflict. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Seven Years Wat should be the first world war." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "It was not a world war because it was a european conflict. " ]
2018-03792	How come a person gets dehydrated when drinking certain liquids, such as beer? Shouldn't all liquids provide hydration?	Alcohol prevents the pituitary gland from secreting something called Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH). ADH signals your kidneys to return water to your bloodstream instead of sending it to your bladder. Enough alcohol means that ADH isn't reaching the kidneys, so they stop returning the water they filter. So yeah, you're adding water when you drink the beer, but not enough to overcome what the kidneys are removing. That's why pee is clear when you're drunk, and then dark when you wake up the next day. The alcohol has worn off, the pituitary can secrete ADH again, and your kidneys start returning water to your blood in an attempt to counter dehydration. TL;DR: Kidneys remove water unless told otherwise. Alcohol blocks the 'return water' signal, so the kidneys drain as much water as they can, dehydrating you.	[ "Briefly, to excrete free water from urine, the urine flow (which is solute clearance + free water clearance) will equal the rate of solute excretion divided by the urine osmolality. With a diet of only solute poor beer, only about 200–300 mOSM (normal 750 mOSM to greater than 900 mOSM) of solute will be excreted per day, capping the amount of free water excretion at four liters. Any intake above 4 liters would lead to a dilution of the serum sodium concentration and thus hyponatremia.\n", "When fresh water is unavailable (e.g. at sea or in a desert), seawater and ethanol will worsen the condition. Urine contains a lower solute concentration than seawater, and numerous guides advise against its consumption in survival situations. If somebody is dehydrated and is taken to a hospital, IVs are also used.\n", "Hydration\n\nHydration may refer to:\n\nBULLET::::- Hydrate, a substance that contains water\n\nBULLET::::- Hydration enthalpy, energy released through hydrating a substance\n\nBULLET::::- Hydration reaction, a chemical addition reaction where a hydroxyl group and proton are added to a compound\n\nBULLET::::- Hydration shell, a type of solvation shell\n\nBULLET::::- Hydration system, an apparatus that helps its user drink enough liquid while engaged in physical activity\n\nBULLET::::- Hydration pack, a type of hydration system composed of a carry-on pack used for hydration\n\nBULLET::::- Mineral hydration, an inorganic chemical reaction where water is added to the crystal structure of a mineral\n", "Section::::Risk factors.:Overexertion and heat stress.\n", "Under normal circumstances, accidentally consuming too much water is exceptionally rare. Nearly all deaths related to water intoxication in normal individuals have resulted either from water-drinking contests, in which individuals attempt to consume large amounts of water, or from long bouts of exercise during which excessive amounts of fluid were consumed. In addition, water cure, a method of torture in which the victim is forced to consume excessive amounts of water, can cause water intoxication.\n", "BULLET::::- The use of liquids that provide calories (usually in combination with flavoring and perhaps rehydration salts) increases the cleaning burden by nourishing bacteria, and if the user neglects to empty and rinse the bladder, judging the cleanliness of the bladder at a later date involves more effort than with containers that are more transparent and in some cases more accessible. Some users carry plain water, with or without ice, in a bladder, but drink something else from Nalgene-style bottles during rests.\n", "When an unconscious person is being fed intravenously (for example, total parenteral nutrition) or via a nasogastric tube, the fluids given must be carefully balanced in composition to match fluids and electrolytes lost. These fluids are typically hypertonic, and so water is often co-administered. If the electrolytes are not monitored (even in an ambulatory patient), either hypernatremia or hyponatremia may result.\n\nSome neurological/psychiatric medications (Oxcarbazepine, among others) have been found to cause hyponatremia in some patients. Patients with diabetes insipidus are particularly vulnerable due to rapid fluid processing.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "The term dehydration has sometimes been used incorrectly as a proxy for the separate, related condition hypovolemia, which specifically refers to a decrease in volume of blood plasma. The two are regulated through independent mechanisms in humans; the distinction is important in guiding treatment.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "Section::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Clathrate\n\nBULLET::::- Star formation and evolution\n\nBULLET::::- Clathrate gun hypothesis\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Shuqiang Gao, Waylon House, and Walter Chapman, “NMR/MRI Study of Clathrate Hydrate Mechanisms”, J. Phys. Chem. B, 109(41), 19090–19093, 2005.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Gas hydrates, from Leibniz Institute of Marine Sciences, Kiel (IFM-GEOMAR)\n\nBULLET::::- The SUGAR Project (Submarine Gas Hydrate Reservoirs), from Leibniz Institute of Marine Sciences, Kiel (IFM-GEOMAR)\n\nBULLET::::- Gas hydrates in video and – Background knowledge about gas hydrates, their prevention and removal (by manufacturer of hydrate autoclaves)\n", "The human kidneys will normally adjust to varying levels of water intake. The kidneys will require time to adjust to the new water intake level. This can cause someone who drinks a lot of water to become dehydrated more easily than someone who routinely drinks less.\n\nSection::::Routes of fluid loss and gain.:Output.\n\nBULLET::::- The majority of fluid output occurs via the urine, approximately 1500 ml/day (approx 1.59 qt/day) in the normal adult resting state.\n", "Section::::Prevention.\n\nWater intoxication can be prevented if a person's intake of water does not grossly exceed their losses. Healthy kidneys are able to excrete approximately 800 millilitres to 1 litre of fluid water (0.84 - 1.04 quarts) per hour. However, stress (from prolonged physical exertion), as well as disease states, can greatly reduce this amount.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nMild intoxication may remain asymptomatic and require only fluid restriction. In more severe cases, treatment consists of:\n\nBULLET::::- Diuretics to increase urination, which are most effective for excess blood volume.\n\nBULLET::::- Vasopressin receptor antagonists\n\nSection::::Notable cases.\n", "Osmolality of blood increases with dehydration and decreases with overhydration. In normal people, increased osmolality in the blood will stimulate secretion of antidiuretic hormone (ADH). This will result in increased water reabsorption, more concentrated urine, and less concentrated blood plasma. A low serum osmolality will suppress the release of ADH, resulting in decreased water reabsorption and more concentrated plasma.\n", "For severe cases of dehydration where fainting, unconsciousness, or other severely inhibiting symptom is present (the patient is incapable of standing or thinking clearly), emergency attention is required. Fluids containing a proper balance of replacement electrolytes are given orally or intravenously with continuing assessment of electrolyte status; complete resolution is the norm in all but the most extreme cases.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Hydrational fluids\n\nBULLET::::- Terminal dehydration\n\nBULLET::::- Dryness (medical)\n\nBULLET::::- Oral Rehydration Therapy\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Definition of dehydration by the U.S. National Institutes of Health's MedlinePlus medical encyclopedia\n", "This disease can have profound effects on everyday life. As well as the recurring side effects of excessive belching, dizziness, dry mouth, hangovers, disorientation, irritable bowel syndrome, and chronic fatigue syndrome, it can lead to other health problems such as depression, anxiety and poor productivity in employment. The random state of intoxication can lead to personal difficulties, and the relative obscurity of the condition can also make it hard to seek treatment.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "Physicians who specialize in treating OI agree that the single most important treatment is drinking more than two liters (eight cups) of fluids each day. A steady, large supply of water or other fluids reduces most, and for some patients all, of the major symptoms of this condition. Typically, patients fare best when they drink a glass of water no less frequently than every two hours during the day, instead of drinking a large quantity of water at a single point in the day.\n", "It is very common, within the first month post-surgery, for a patient to undergo volume depletion and dehydration. Patients have difficulty drinking the appropriate amount of fluids as they adapt to their new gastric volume. Limitations on oral fluid intake, reduced calorie intake, and a higher incidence of vomiting and diarrhea are all factors that have a significant contribution to dehydration. In order to prevent fluid volume depletion and dehydration, a minimum of 48–64 fl oz (1.4-1.9 L) should be consumed by repetitive small sips all day.\n\nSection::::Costs.\n", "At the onset of this condition, fluid outside the cells has an excessively low amount of solutes, such as sodium and other electrolytes, in comparison to fluid inside the cells, causing the fluid to move into the cells to balance its concentration. This causes the cells to swell. In the brain, this swelling increases intracranial pressure (ICP), which leads to the first observable symptoms of water intoxication: headache, personality changes, changes in behavior, confusion, irritability, and drowsiness. These are sometimes followed by difficulty breathing during exertion, muscle weakness & pain, twitching, or cramping, nausea, vomiting, thirst, and a dulled ability to perceive and interpret sensory information. As the condition persists, papillary and vital signs may result including bradycardia and widened pulse pressure. The cells in the brain may swell to the point where blood flow is interrupted resulting in cerebral edema. Swollen brain cells may also apply pressure to the brain stem causing central nervous system dysfunction. Both cerebral edema and interference with the central nervous system are dangerous and could result in seizures, brain damage, coma or death.\n", "Drinking\n\nDrinking is the act of ingesting water or other liquids into the body through the mouth. Water is required for many physiological processes. Both excessive and inadequate water intake are associated with health problems.\n\nSection::::Methods: Humans & Animals.\n\nSection::::Methods: Humans & Animals.:In humans.\n", "Dehydration\n\nIn physiology, dehydration is a deficit of total body water, with an accompanying disruption of metabolic processes. It occurs when free water loss exceeds free water intake, usually due to exercise, disease, or high environmental temperature. Mild dehydration can also be caused by immersion diuresis, which may increase risk of decompression sickness in divers.\n", "is based on the natural and non-destructive phenomenon of osmosis across cell membranes. The driving force for the diffusion of water from the tissue into the solution is provided by the higher osmotic pressure of the hyper-tonic solution. The diffusion of water is accompanied by the simultaneous counter diffusion of solutes from the osmotic solution into the tissue. Since the cell membrane responsible for osmotic transport is not perfectly selective, solutes present in the cells (organic acids, reducing sugars, minerals, flavors and pigment compounds) can also be leaked into the osmotic solution, which affects the organoleptic and nutritional characteristics of the product.\n", "Drinks especially high in simple sugars, such as soft drinks and fruit juices, are not recommended as the main source of hydration, or for children under 5 years of age as they may \"increase\" diarrhea. Plain water may be used if more specific and effective ORT preparations of hydrational fluids are unavailable or are not palatable. A nasogastric tube can be used in young children to administer fluids if warranted.\n\nSection::::Preparation.\n", "Section::::Causes.:Vitamin and electrolyte loss.\n\nThe metabolic processes required for alcohol elimination deplete essential vitamins and electrolytes. Furthermore, alcohol is a diuretic, causing excretion of electrolytes through urination. After a night of drinking, the resulting lack of key B and C vitamins, as well as potassium, magnesium, and zinc may cause fatigue, aching and other hangover-like symptoms.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Dehydration.\n", "BULLET::::- alcohol consumption – although alcohol consumption increases dehydration and therefore may increase susceptibility to DCS, a 2005 study found no evidence that alcohol consumption increases the incidence of DCS.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.\n", "In some cases, correction of a dehydrated state is accomplished by the replenishment of necessary water and electrolytes (through oral rehydration therapy or fluid replacement by intravenous therapy). As oral rehydration is less painful, less invasive, less expensive, and easier to provide, it is the treatment of choice for mild dehydration. Solutions used for intravenous rehydration must be isotonic or hypertonic. Pure water injected into the veins will cause the breakdown (lysis) of red blood cells (erythrocytes).\n", "Section::::Hydrates on Earth.:Natural gas hydrates.\n" ]	[ "Beer should not dehydrate you because it contains water. " ]	[ "Beer contains alcohol and alcohol prevents the pituitary gland when creating ADH, ADH signals kidneys to return water to the bloodstream, instead of the bladder, which means the water you consume is less than the water removed." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Beer should not dehydrate you because it contains water. ", "Beer should not dehydrate you because it contains water. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Beer contains alcohol and alcohol prevents the pituitary gland when creating ADH, ADH signals kidneys to return water to the bloodstream, instead of the bladder, which means the water you consume is less than the water removed.", "Beer contains alcohol and alcohol prevents the pituitary gland when creating ADH, ADH signals kidneys to return water to the bloodstream, instead of the bladder, which means the water you consume is less than the water removed." ]
2018-00819	How come you can hold your bladder for hours, but as soon as a toilet enters your vision it feels as though you’re going to explode?	Your brain is what's suppressing the urge to urinate when it knows that there's no chance of urinating at the time. Once you're near a toilet, the suppressing wears off, and you feel the full urge to urinate. You can think of it as a measure to ensure that you take the opportunity to urinate when you can.	[ "Section::::In fiction.\n\nBULLET::::- Georgia Lass, the protagonist of comedy-drama television series \"Dead Like Me\", is hit and killed in the pilot episode by a toilet seat falling from the deorbiting Mir space station.\n\nBULLET::::- The character Tywin Lannister in the book \"A Storm of Swords\", a novel from the A Song of Ice and Fire series written by George R.R. Martin, is killed while using the toilet.\n\nBULLET::::- Lawyer Donald Gennaro is devoured by a Tyrannosaurus Rex while sitting on the toilet of a destroyed restroom cabin in the 1993 movie \"Jurassic Park\".\n", "An episode of BPPV may be triggered by dehydration, such as that caused by diarrhea. For this reason, it commonly occurs in people with post-operative who have diarrhea induced by post-operative antibiotics.\n\nBPPV is one of the most common vestibular disorders in people presenting with dizziness; a migraine is implicated in idiopathic cases. Proposed mechanisms linking the two are genetic factors and vascular damage to the labyrinth.\n", "In general populations IOP ranges between and 20 mmHg with an average of 15.5 mmHg, aqueous flow averages 2.9 μL/min in young healthy adults and 2.2 μL/min in octogenarians, and episcleral venous pressure ranges from 7 to 14 mmHg with 9 to 10 mmHg being typical.\n\nSection::::Existing long-duration flight occurrences.\n", "In May 2016, an 11 ft snake, a reticulated python, emerged from a squat toilet and bit the man using it on his penis at his home in Chachoengsao Province, Thailand. Both victim and python survived.\n\nSection::::Self-induced injury.\n", "BULLET::::- A U.S. Air Force-funded University of Maryland Medical School study published in the \"Journal of Neurotrauma\" finds that rapid air evacuation of wounded personnel suffering from traumatic brain injury – previously assumed to have increased their chances of survival and recovery – leads to more inflammation of the brain and could cause more damage. Reduced air pressure in an airborne aircraft's interior is a major reason for the increased inflammation, as is overuse of 100 percent supplemental oxygen in such a lower-pressure environment.\n\nSection::::Events.:December.\n", "Section::::Predisposing factors.:Environmental.\n\nThe following environmental factors have been shown to increase the risk of DCS:\n\nBULLET::::- the magnitude of the pressure reduction ratio – a large pressure reduction ratio is more likely to cause DCS than a small one.\n\nBULLET::::- repetitive exposures – repetitive dives within a short period of time (a few hours) increase the risk of developing DCS. Repetitive ascents to altitudes above within similar short periods increase the risk of developing altitude DCS.\n", "Section::::Causes.\n\nCommon causes include, but not limited to:\n\nBULLET::::- Incomplete emptying of the bladder\n\nBULLET::::- Irritable bladder\n\nBULLET::::- Constipation\n\nBULLET::::- Stress\n\nBULLET::::- Urinary tract infection\n\nBULLET::::- Urgency (not “making it” to the bathroom in time)\n\nBULLET::::- Anatomic abnormality\n\nBULLET::::- Poor toileting habits\n\nBULLET::::- Small bladder capacity\n\nBULLET::::- Medical conditions like overactive bladder disorder\n\nSection::::Management.\n", "Aerosol droplets produced by flushing the toilet can enter the air of the room. Larger droplets will settle on a surface before they can dry, and can contaminate surfaces such as the toilet seat and handle which can then be contacted by hands. Smaller aerosol particles can become droplet nuclei as a result of evaporation of the water in the droplet, which have negligible settling velocity and are carried by natural air currents. Disease transmission through droplet nuclei is not a concern for many pathogens, because they are not excreted in feces or vomit, or are susceptible to drying. The critical size dividing these depends on the evaporation rate and vertical distance between the toilet and the surface.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Frequency.\n\nThe relative frequencies of different symptoms of DCS observed by the U.S. Navy are as follows:\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Onset.\n\nAlthough onset of DCS can occur rapidly after a dive, in more than half of all cases symptoms do not begin to appear for at least an hour. In extreme cases, symptoms may occur before the dive has been completed. The U.S. Navy and Technical Diving International, a leading technical diver training organization, have published a table that documents time to onset of first symptoms. The table does not differentiate between types of DCS, or types of symptom.\n", "Intraocular pressure is determined by the production and drainage of aqueous humour by the ciliary body and its drainage via the trabecular meshwork and uveoscleral outflow. The reason for this is because the vitreous humour in the posterior segment has a relatively fixed volume and thus does not affect intraocular pressure regulation.\n\nAn important quantitative relationship is provided below:\n\nWhere:\n\nBULLET::::- Po is the IOP in millimeters of mercury (mmHg)\n\nBULLET::::- F the rate of aqueous humour formation in microliters per minute (μL/min)\n\nBULLET::::- U the resorption of aqueous humour through the uveoscleral route (in μL/min)\n", "Although rare, CNS disorders can sometimes present as BPPV. A practitioner should be aware that if a person whose symptoms are consistent with BPPV, but does not show improvement or resolution after undergoing different particle repositioning maneuvers — detailed in the Treatment section below — need to have a detailed neurological assessment and imaging performed to help identify the pathological condition.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Differential diagnosis.\n\nVertigo, a distinct process sometimes confused with the broader term, dizziness, accounts for about six million clinic visits in the United States every year; between 17 and 42% of these people are eventually diagnosed with BPPV. \n", "Although the exact cause is not known at this time, it is suspected that microgravity-induced cephalad fluid shift and comparable physiological changes play a significant role in these changes. Other contributing factors may include pockets of increased CO and an increase in sodium intake. It seems unlikely that resistive or aerobic exercise are contributing factors, but they may be potential countermeasures to reduce intraocular pressure (IOP) or intracranial pressure (ICP) in-flight.\n\nSection::::Causes and current studies.\n", "Data collected in the North Sea have shown that the overall incidence of decompression sickness for in-water and surface decompression is similar, but surface decompression tends to produce ten times more type II (neurological) DCS than in-water decompression. A possible explanation is that during the final stage of ascent, bubbles are produced that are stopped in the lung capillaries. During recompression of the diver in the deck chamber, the diameter of some of these bubbles is reduced sufficiently that they pass through the pulmonary capillaries and reach the systemic circulation on the arterial side, later lodging in systemic capillaries and causing neurological symptoms. The same scenario was proposed for type II DCS recorded after sawtooth profile diving or multiple repetitive diving.\n", "Risk factors for VAP include underlying heart or lung disease, neurologic disease, and trauma, as well as modifiable risk factors such as whether the head of the bed is flat (increased risk) or raised, whether the patient had an aspiration event before intubation, and prior antibiotic exposure. Patients who are in the ICU for head trauma or other severe neurologic illness, as well as patients who are in the ICU for blunt or penetrating trauma, are at especially high risk of developing VAP. Further, patients hospitalized for blunt trauma are at a higher risk of developing VAP compared to patients with penetrating trauma.\n", "Urine that leaves the body of a healthy person is close to being sterile and requires much less treatment for pathogen removal than feces or fecal sludge. However, a contamination of urine with fecal pathogens is possible if the UDDT is not used correctly, i.e. when some fecal matter finds its way into the urine compartment. Also, for a few specific diseases, the relevant pathogens may be found in the urine; for example: Leptospira interrogans, Salmonella typhi, Salmonella paratyphi, Schistosoma haematobium, BK virus or Simian virus. The Ebola virus may also be found in urine from an infected person. The exact survival time of this particular virus in human urine outside of the human body is unclear but probably \"up to several days\" like with other body fluids at room temperature.\n", "BULLET::::- diving before travelling to altitude – DCS can occur without flying if the person moves to a high-altitude location on land immediately after diving, for example, scuba divers in Eritrea who drive from the coast to the Asmara plateau at increase their risk of DCS.\n\nBULLET::::- diving at altitude – diving in water whose surface altitude is above — for example, Lake Titicaca is at — without using versions of decompression tables or dive computers that are modified for high-altitude.\n\nSection::::Predisposing factors.:Individual.\n\nThe following individual factors have been identified as possibly contributing to increased risk of DCS:\n", "There are also injuries caused by animals. Some black widow spiders like to spin their web below the toilet seat because insects abound in and around it. Therefore, several persons have been bitten while using a toilet, particularly an outhouse toilet. Although there is immediate pain at the bite site, these bites are rarely fatal. The danger of spiders living beneath toilet seats is the subject of Slim Newton's comic 1972 country song \"The Redback on the Toilet Seat\".\n", "BULLET::::- the rate of ascent – the faster the ascent the greater the risk of developing DCS. The US Navy Dive Manual indicates that ascent rates greater than about when diving increase the chance of DCS, while recreational dive tables such as the Bühlmann tables require an ascent rate of with the last taking at least one minute. An individual exposed to a rapid decompression (high rate of ascent) above has a greater risk of altitude DCS than being exposed to the same altitude but at a lower rate of ascent.\n", "BULLET::::- Importance of Motion and Visual Latencies. In simulators with both visual and motion systems, it is particularly important that the latency of the motion system not be greater than of the visual system, or symptoms of simulator sickness may result. This is because in the real world, motion cues are those of acceleration and are quickly transmitted to the brain, typically in less than 50 milliseconds; this is followed some milliseconds later by a perception of change in the visual scene. The visual scene change is essentially one of change of perspective and/or displacement of objects such as the horizon, which takes some time to build up to discernible amounts after the initial acceleration which caused the displacement. A simulator should therefore reflect the real-world situation by ensuring that the motion latency is equal to or less than that of the visual system and not the other way round.\n", "Urinary incontinence appears late in the illness, and is present in 50% of patients at time of treatment. Urinary dysfunction begins as increased frequency often at night, and progresses to urge incontinence and permanent incontinence.\n\nSection::::Pathogenesis.\n", "BULLET::::- the duration of exposure – the longer the duration of the dive, the greater is the risk of DCS. Longer flights, especially to altitudes of and above, carry a greater risk of altitude DCS.\n", "BULLET::::- Officials briefly evacuate the passenger terminals at Hamburg Airport in Hamburg, Germany, after people in a luggage-check area begin to complain of a bad smell, nausea, and burning eyes. Twelve flights are canceled, but the airport terminal quickly returns to normal operations. Sixty-eight people experience eye irritation and breathing difficulties. Police blame the incident on a pepper spray cartridge in a bin in which passengers discard liquids before boarding, and believe that someone released its contents into the air conditioning system.\n\nBULLET::::- 13 February\n", "Experts suggest that anxiety-causing events occurring in the lives of children ages 2 to 4 might lead to incontinence before the child achieves total bladder control. Anxiety experienced after age 4 might lead to wetting after the child has been dry for a period of 6 months or more. Such events include angry parents, unfamiliar social situations, and overwhelming family events such as the birth of a brother or sister, or the death of someone very close.\n", "Following a decompression schedule does not completely protect against DCS. The algorithms used are designed to reduce the probability of DCS to a very low level, but do not reduce it to zero.\n\nSection::::Prevention.:Exposure to altitude.\n", "Dome-shaped protrusions representing anterior expansion of the ONG. Peripapillary halo is narrow and smoothly demarcated. Total obscuration of a segment of a major blood vessel may or may not be present. Obliteration of the optic cup.\n\nSection::::Risk factors and recommendations.\n\nRisk factors and underlying mechanisms based on anatomy, physiology, genetics and epigenetics need to be researched further.\n\nThe following actions have been recommended to assist in the research of vision impairment and increased intracranial pressure associated with long-duration space flight:\n\nSection::::Risk factors and recommendations.:Immediate actions.\n\nBULLET::::- Correlate pre-flight and post-flight MRIs with in-flight Ultrasound\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-19059	Why does the temperature sometimes feel cooler or warmer than it actually is?	You don't really feel temperature - you feel heat leaving or entering your body. This is why wind chill works. If the air is still (and you are standing still), then heat leaves your body more slowly. But if it is windy, then the wind is blowing your body heat away, and you feel colder because heat is leaving you faster. Similarly, on a humid day, it feels hotter because you are less able to use sweat to lose heat. Being in direct sunlight feels hot because it is making heat enter your body, despite the air being of a similar temperature.	[ "Section::::Influencing factors.:Relative humidity.:Interplay of temperature and humidity.\n\nVarious types of apparent temperature have been developed to combine air temperature and air humidity. \n\nFor higher temperatures, there are quantitative scales, such as the heat index.\n\nFor lower temperatures, a related interplay was identified only qualitatively:\n\nHigh humidity and low temperatures cause the air to feel chilly.\n\nCold air with high relative humidity \"feels\" colder than dry air of the same temperature because high humidity in cold weather increases the conduction of heat from the body.\n", "Apparent temperature\n\nApparent temperature is the temperature equivalent perceived by humans, caused by the combined effects of air temperature, relative humidity and wind speed. The measure is most commonly applied to the perceived outdoor temperature. However it also applies to indoor temperatures, especially saunas and when houses and workplaces are not sufficiently heated or cooled.\n\nBULLET::::- The heat index and humidex measure the effect of humidity on the perception of temperatures above . In humid conditions, the air feels much hotter because less perspiration evaporates from the skin.\n", "There has been controversy over why damp cold air feels colder than dry cold air. Some believe it is because when the humidity is high, our skin and clothing become moist and are better conductors of heat, so there is more cooling by conduction.\n\nSection::::Influencing factors.:Natural ventilation.\n", "Temperature and pain are thought to be represented as “feelings” of coolness/warmness and pleasantness/unpleasantness in the brain. These sensory and affective characteristics of thermoregulation may motivate certain behavioral responses depending on the state of the body (for example, moving away from a source of heat to a cooler space). Such perturbations in the internal homeostatic environment of an organism are thought to be key aspects of a motivational process giving rise to emotional states, and have been proposed to be represented principally by the insular cortex as feelings. These feelings then influence drives when the anterior cingulate cortex is activated.\n", "BULLET::::4. Owing to the \"circumstances, conditions or dispositions,\" the same objects appear different. The same temperature, as established by instrument, feels very different after an extended period of cold winter weather (it feels warm) than after mild weather in the autumn (it feels cold). Time appears slow when young and fast as aging proceeds. Honey tastes sweet to most but bitter to someone with jaundice. A person with influenza will feel cold and shiver even though she is hot with a fever.\n", "BULLET::::- The wind chill factor measures the effect of wind speed on cooling of the human body below 10 °C (50 °F). As airflow increases over the skin, more heat will be removed. Standard models and conditions are used.\n", "During winter months (Dec-Feb), high temperatures can vary between and , while night time temperatures can reach below . In the summer (Jun-Aug), temperatures peak around . The very high summer humidity (average 70%) and low cloud cover can mean that the heat index temperature is or more higher than the air temperature.\n\nBULLET::::- Climatic classification: zone D, 1416 GR/G\n\nBULLET::::- Atmospheric diffusivity: low, Ibimet CNR 2002\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Ancient and medieval ages.\n", "Section::::Uses.\n\nA location which combines an average temperature of 19 degrees Celsius, 60% average humidity and a temperature range of about 10 degrees Celsius around the average temperature (yearly temperature variation) is considered ideal in terms of comfort for the human species. Most of the places with these characteristics are located in the transition between temperate and tropical climates, approximately around the tropics, particularly in the Southern hemisphere (the tropic of Capricorn).\n\nSection::::Lifted minimum temperature.\n", "Section::::Models.:PMV/PPD method.:Local thermal discomfort.:Draft.\n\nWhile air movement can be pleasant and provide comfort in some circumstances, it is sometimes unwanted and causes discomfort. This unwanted air movement is called \"draft\" and is most prevalent when the thermal sensation of the whole body is cool. People are most likely to feel a draft on uncovered body parts such as their head, neck, shoulders, ankles, feet, and legs, but the sensation also depends on the air speed, air temperature, activity, and clothing.\n\nSection::::Models.:PMV/PPD method.:Local thermal discomfort.:Vertical air temperature difference.\n", "Section::::History.:Etymology.\n", "Research has tested the model against experimental data and found it tends to overestimate skin temperature and underestimate skin wettedness. Fountain and Huizenga (1997) developed a thermal sensation prediction tool that computes SET.\n\nSection::::Models.:PMV/PPD method.:Local thermal discomfort.\n", "Thermal comfort as a \"condition of mind\" is \"defined\" in psychological terms. Among the factors that affect the condition of mind (in the laboratory) are a sense of control over the temperature, knowledge of the temperature and the appearance of the (test) environment. A thermal test chamber that appeared residential \"felt\" warmer than one which looked like the inside of a refrigerator.\n\nSection::::Models.:Adaptive comfort model.:Physiological Adaptation.\n", "During summer, Cabo San Lucas is cooler than San José del Cabo by about 1.5 to 3 °C (3 to 5 °F). Sometimes during the summer, when winds blow from the Pacific Ocean instead of the Gulf of California, the differences in temperatures between San José del Cabo and Cabo San Lucas are higher.\n", "During the cooler winter months (October–March), the Coachella Valley regularly has the warmest winter temperatures out of any place west of the Rocky Mountains. East Los Angeles, the Gateway Cities, and parts of the San Gabriel Valley average the warmest winter high temps () in all of the western U.S., and Santa Monica averages the warmest winter lows () in all of the western U.S. Palm Springs, a city in the Coachella Valley, averages high/low/mean temperatures of 75 °F/50 °F/63 °F, (24 °C/10 °C/17 °C) respectively during the period of cooler weather from November to April.\n", "What thermal comfort humans, animals and plants experience is related to more than temperature shown on a glass thermometer. Relative humidity levels in ambient air can induce more or less evaporative cooling. Measurement of the wet-bulb temperature normalizes this humidity effect. Mean radiant temperature also can affect thermal comfort. The wind chill factor makes the weather feel colder under windy conditions than calm conditions even though a glass thermometer shows the same temperature. Airflow increases the rate of heat transfer from or to the body, resulting in a larger change in body temperature for the same ambient temperature.\n", "Section::::Location.\n\nIn humans, temperature sensation enters the spinal cord along the axons of Lissauer's tract that synapse on second order neurons in grey matter of the dorsal horn, one or two vertebral levels up. The axons of these second order neurons then decussate, joining the spinothalamic tract as they ascend to neurons in the ventral posterolateral nucleus of the thalamus.\n", "The temperature ranges from 75° to 105° Fahrenheit (23 °C to 41 °C) in the summer and 25° to 50° Fahrenheit (-4 °C to 10 °C) in the winter.\n\nSection::::Geography.:Climate.\n\nAccording to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Cool has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate, abbreviated \"Csa\" on climate maps.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Clearly, the temperature gradient may change substantially in time, as a result of diurnal or seasonal heating and cooling for instance. This most likely happens during an inversion. For instance, during the day the temperature at ground level may be cold while it's warmer up in the atmosphere. As the day shifts over to night the temperature might drop rapidly while at other places on the land stay warmer or cooler at the same elevation. This happens on the West Coast of the United States sometimes due to geography.\n\nSection::::Physical processes.:Weathering.\n", "Blood circulation transports heat throughout the body, and adjustments to this flow are an important part of thermoregulation. Increasing blood flow to the surface (e.g., during warm weather or strenuous exercise) causes warmer skin, resulting in faster heat loss. In contrast, when the external temperature is low, blood flow to the extremities and surface of the skin is reduced and to prevent heat loss and is circulated to the important organs of the body, preferentially.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Rate of blood flow.\n", "The cutaneous somatosensory system detects changes in temperature. The perception begins when thermal stimuli from a homeostatic set-point excite temperature specific sensory nerves in the skin. Then with the help of sensing range, specific thermosensory fibers respond to warmth and to cold. Then specific cutaneous cold and warm receptors conduct units that exhibit a discharge at constant skin temperature.\n\nSection::::Temperature modality.:Nerve fibers for temperature.\n", "Humidity is an important factor in determining how weather conditions feel to a person experiencing them. Hot and humid days feel even hotter than hot and dry days because the high level of water content in humid air discourages the evaporation of sweat from a person's skin.\n", "Average High °F (°C) while it should say °C (°F)\n\nAverage Low °F (°C) while it should say °C (°F)\n\nRecord Low °F (°C) while it should say °C (°F)\n\nSection::::History.\n", "There are two variations of a desert climate: a hot desert climate (\"BWh\"), and a cold desert climate (\"BWk\"). To delineate \"hot desert climates\" from \"cold desert climates\", there are three widely used isotherms: most commonly a mean annual temperature of , or sometimes a mean temperature of in the coldest month, so that a location with a \"BW\" type climate with the appropriate temperature above whichever isotherm is being used is classified as \"hot arid\" (\"BWh\"), and a location with the appropriate temperature below the given isotherm is classified as \"cold arid\" (\"BWk\").\n", "Thermoception\n\nThermoception or thermoreception is the sense by which an organism perceives temperature, or more accurately, temperature differences inferred from heat flux. The details of how temperature receptors work are still being investigated. Ciliopathy is associated with decreased ability to sense heat, thus cilia may aid in the process. Transient receptor potential channels (TRP channels) are believed to play a role in many species in sensation of hot, cold, and pain. Vertebrates have at least two types of sensor: those that detect heat and those that detect cold.\n", "In an article for HuffPost, Tony Sachs describe the album's sound (as well as the sound of his debut) as being a mix of “classic ‘60s songcraft, elements of ‘70s glam-rock, and the new-wave sheen of the ‘80s” while “sounding completely contemporary.”\n\nThe album's lead single \"Eloquence\" has been described as \"a stately, power chord-laden, midtempo tune that recalls Sgt. Pepper-era Beatles, along with more than a hint of “All The Young Dudes,” the ‘70s rock classic written by David Bowie and made famous by Mott The Hoople.\"\n\nSection::::Track listing.\n\nBULLET::::1. \"The Invitation\" – 0:25\n\nBULLET::::2. \"Author Unknown\" – 3:32\n" ]	[ "The temperature sometimes feels cooler or warmer than it actually is." ]	[ "One doesn't really feel temperature- one feels heat leaving or entering one's body, depending on the current of the wind, it can cause heat to leave or enter your body at a quicker rate. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The temperature sometimes feels cooler or warmer than it actually is.", "The temperature sometimes feels cooler or warmer than it actually is." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "One doesn't really feel temperature- one feels heat leaving or entering one's body, depending on the current of the wind, it can cause heat to leave or enter your body at a quicker rate. ", "One doesn't really feel temperature- one feels heat leaving or entering one's body." ]
2018-21119	Why do airlines have ashtrays in the toilets when you can’t smoke ?	Quoting this fantastic comment posted by /u/pixel_of_moral_decay in [this thread a few weeks ago]( URL_0 ) > The ashtray is actually one of my favorite engineering bits on an airplane. > The design parameters for aviation all center around one thing: redundancy. If something fails, you don't want it to cause a problem. That's why planes are designed to be able to fly if an engine fails (ETOPS), there's secondary hydraulics (you'll lose functionality, but not enough to crash), there's secondary everything. Landing gear doesn't deploy? It can drop with gravity. Electrical goes out? Ram Air Turbine (RAT)! Every thing critical to flight and safety has an alternative. You're effectively flying a plane inside a plane, but don't realize it. > The ashtray follows that engineering mantra perfectly. The primary method of avoiding fire is to not have cigarettes and open flames in the cabin. The secondary method is to not have flammable materials in the cabin when possible and things like an ashtray, so if someone does light up, there's less of a risk of them causing a fire (like dropping it in the trash with all the tissues). There's also smoke detectors for early detection and fire extinguishers. > Even something as mundane as a no smoking policy is engineered with the thinking "what if our primary defense doesn't work?" > Brilliant when you think about it. Even the smallest detail like that is thought about, and the solution is simplistic, which is the best kind of solution for an engineering problem when safety is involved. > That's why an airline can't take off without an ashtray in the lavatory. They will actually delay a flight over it. It's a redundancy and another thing to make flying safer.	[ "The presence of an ashtray is sometimes commented upon, given that smoking has been long banned on flights in many parts of the world. However it is a requirement of the Federal Aviation Administration that ashtrays continue to be fitted to the doors of aircraft toilets, due to the fire risk caused by the possible disposal of illicitly consumed smoking materials in the toilet's wastebin. In 2011, a Jazz flight from Fredericton, Canada to Toronto was prevented from taking off because an ashtray was missing – the aircraft instead flew to Halifax without passengers to have a new ashtray fitted.\n", "Smoking rooms can be found in public buildings such as airports, and in semi-public buildings such as workplaces. Such rooms are equipped with chairs, ashtrays and ventilation, and usually free to enter although there may be a smoking age restriction (usually 18). A cigarette company sometimes sponsors these smoking rooms, displaying its brand names on the room walls and financing the room or its maintenance. Cigarette companies have worked hard to ensure smoking was accommodated in major airports, which are high-profile locations serving many people who are often bored or nervous. Initially providing smoking and no smoking areas was their goal but when that policy failed they fell back on ventilated smoking rooms.\n", "But, just like the stand-alone ashtray, the vehicle ashtray began to lose popularity and in 1994, vehicles began to be produced without them and instead, offer the buyer the option to include one from the dealer.\n", "A possible cause of the fire was that the lavatory waste bin contents caught fire after a lit cigarette was thrown into it, the FAA issued AD 74-08-09 requiring \"installation of placards prohibiting smoking in the lavatory and disposal of cigarettes in the lavatory waste receptacles; establishment of a procedure to announce to airplane occupants that smoking is prohibited in the lavatories; installation of ashtrays at certain locations; and repetitive inspections to ensure that lavatory waste receptacle doors operate correctly\".\n\nSection::::Passengers.\n", "BULLET::::- that smoking is not allowed on board, including in the lavatories (though most airlines now refer to them as restrooms); on all domestic flights in the United States and international flights going to or from that country, a warning that prohibits the use of e-cigarettes is also announced\n\nBULLET::::- on flights where smoking was permitted a reminder was often issued that smoking was only acceptable in smoking sections but not when the no-smoking sign was turned on or anywhere else on board; smoking was banned on all domestic and international flights in 2000\n", "The most common ashtray design is a shallow cylinder with a flat base, to rest on a table. Other ashtrays, particularly in public places, are wall-mounted, and larger than standard tabletop ashtrays due to the increased use they receive. Many ashtrays have notches at the rim, to hold cigarettes and/or a cigar. Frequently ashtrays were equipped in older large or luxury cars before later being available as dealer-installed accessory items. For example, cars such as the BMW E38 featured ashtrays and lighters installed in both rear doors.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "As a consequence of the health risks associated with second-hand smoke, smoke-free regulations in indoor public places, including restaurants, cafés, and nightclubs have been introduced in a number of jurisdictions, at national or local level, as well as some outdoor open areas. Ireland was the first country in the world to institute a comprehensive national smoke-free law on smoking in all indoor workplaces on 29 March 2004. Since then, many others have followed suit. The countries which have ratified the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC) have a legal obligation to implement \"effective\" legislation \"for protection from exposure to tobacco smoke in indoor workplaces, public transport, indoor public places and, as appropriate, other public places.\" (Article 8 of the FCTC) The parties to the FCTC have further adopted \"Guidelines on the Protection from Exposure to Second-hand Smoke\" which state that \"effective measures to provide protection from exposure to tobacco smoke ... require the total elimination of smoking and tobacco smoke in a particular space or environment in order to create a 100% smoke-free environment.\"\n", "Restrictions upon smoking in offices and other enclosed public places often result in smokers going outside to smoke, frequently congregating outside doorways. This can result in non-smokers passing through these doorways getting exposed to more secondhand smoke rather than less. Many jurisdictions that have restricted smoking in enclosed public places have extended provisions to cover areas within a fixed distance of entrances to buildings.\n", "The Kennedy administration was the first to permit smoking in rooms on the State floor. To accommodate smoking, Jacqueline Kennedy wanted portable ashtrays for the East Room. She initially considered modified versions of ashtrays seen at the home of her friend, Bunny Mellon, but rejected this idea in favor of a unique design. Maison Jansen designed stands which featured brass legs shaped like bamboo, brass handles, and Carrara glass tops. The ashtrays cost $280, were manufactured in Maison Jansen's New York City office, and delivered in January 1963. Finding the cost too high (and without any economy of scale cost-savings), Kennedy then designed her own portable standing ashtrays. Twenty were eventually manufactured out of dark wood by White House carpenters, although the gray granite tops for the Kennedy-designed ashtrays were made by Jansen at a cost of $310.\n", "The tobacco industry has focused on proposing ventilation as an alternative to smoke-free laws, though this approach has not been widely adopted in the U.S. because \"in the end, it is simpler, cheaper, and healthier to end smoking\". The Italian smoke-free law ban permits dedicated smoking rooms with automatic doors and smoke extractors. Nevertheless, few Italian establishments are creating smoking rooms due to the additional cost.\n", "While the addition of vehicle ashtrays is now becoming something of the past, there was a time when these not only came standard, they were expected. In the early years, design oversights put these ash receptacles right below the A/C and heating so every time the owner would use either of these, the ash would inadvertently fly in their face or even all throughout the car. But as new models of vehicles were constantly introduced to the public, these little foibles gave way and many began to use chrome trays with covers that could be opened and closed at the driver's discretion. Many luxury cars would make it a more luxurious design and it was common to see intricately made ashtrays in some of the high-end cars of the day. These ashtrays would feature leather, high-end metals and even specialized engravings by the manufacturer.\n", "If the toilet's fire extinguishing or smoke detection systems are inoperative, the aircraft is still permitted to fly, provided the toilet is barred to passengers and only used by crew members.\n\nSection::::Passenger aircraft.:Servicing.\n", "BULLET::::- Sumter, April 20, 2009, banned in all enclosed workplaces, including bars and restaurants\n\nBULLET::::- Surfside Beach, October 1, 2007, banned in all enclosed workplaces, including bars and restaurants\n\nBULLET::::- Timmonsville, March 1, 2012, banned in bars and restaurants but allows workplaces and other privately owned businesses to establish designated break rooms for smoking that are enclosed and separately ventilated from the rest of the establishment in order to be exempt from the law\n\nBULLET::::- Walterboro, August 1, 2008, banned in all enclosed workplaces, including bars and restaurants\n", "Today, ashtrays are still used for cigarette smokers, but they have also been making a small revival in popularity from the cigar aficionados of the world. Cigars are not like cigarettes in the sense that they require a significantly longer time to get through. On average, cigars take about 40 to 60 minutes to complete. Holding a cigar the entire time can quickly become tedious on your grip, not to mention, they will probably be engaged in some other activities at some point during that hour. To help solve this problem, cigar smokers implement a cigar ashtray to ease the burden of holding the cigar the entire time.\n", "The word \"ashtray\" in unhyphenated form, rather than \"ash tray\" or \"ash-tray\", did not come into common use until 1926.\n\nAs time went on, and the onset of women smoking both cigars and cigarettes became less of a departure from the average person, ashtrays saw a decline in design aesthetics and began more of a shift towards practicality. However, it was not uncommon to see ashtrays featuring pin-up girls in bars during this decade. It was also during this time that another trend in ashtrays began to emerge, which was the auto-ashtray.\n", "BULLET::::- Marshall, August 1, 2007, banned in all enclosed workplaces, including bars and restaurants\n\nBULLET::::- McAllen, January 1, 2018, banned in all enclosed workplaces, including bars and restaurants\n\nBULLET::::- McKinney, September 4, 2008, banned in all enclosed workplaces, including bars and restaurants; exempts retail tobacco shops and country club smoking rooms, but includes all outdoor areas of parks with the exception of parking lots.\n\nBULLET::::- Mercedes, February 21, 2017, banned in all enclosed workplaces, including bars and restaurants\n\nBULLET::::- Mesquite, June 14, 2009, banned in bars and restaurants but not other workplaces\n", "Despite the name, 'e-cigarette,' these devices contain no tobacco and produce no smoke. They are clearly used as an alternative to smoking, or as devices where it increasingly looks like they are helping young people avoid smoking. Two hospitals run by Sandwell and West Birmingham Hospitals NHS Trust opened vape shops in 2019 in conjunction with a ban on smoking. Public Health England advises hospitals to let patients vape indoors - and even in bed. \n", "Since 2003 it is forbidden to smoke in all public indoor spaces, including bars, cafés, restaurants and discos. However, special smoking rooms are allowed. In such areas food can be served, but they are subjected to very strict conditions: they need to be separately ventilated, with high air replacement rates; their air pressure must constantly be lower than the pressure in the surrounding rooms; they must be equipped with automatic sliding doors to prevent smoke from spreading to tobacco-free areas; they may occupy at most 50% of the establishment. Only 1% of all public establishments have opted for setting up a smoking room.\n", "Waste bins are fitted with Halon fire-extinguishing bottles and \"oxygen-smothering flapper lids\", and the toilets equipped with smoke detectors. Over time these protective devices have been incorporated into aircraft lavatory designs due to fires that have started when the careless smoker of the past or the clandestine smoker of the present has incorrectly disposed of smouldering smoking material. Also, the danger from accidental fires in the toilet is considered to be higher than in other parts of the aircraft cabin as the fire would have more time to develop before being noticed by a passenger or crew-member. Several crashes and/or emergency landings have been linked to fires in or near lavatories, such as Varig Flight 820 and Air Canada Flight 797 in 1973 and 1983, respectively. \n", "In the United Kingdom smoking is illegal in any enclosed public place, so that smoking rooms cannot be provided and facilities must be outdoors; apart from private homes, almost the only legal exception is for smoking rooms in tobacconists where customers may sample the wares. Mental health units in the NHS providing long term in-patient care also have an exemption allowing the provision of designated smoking rooms for patients.\n", "The restrictions include all commercial entities such as lavatories, office buildings, gyms, cafés, restaurants, discos, pubs and bars, and it is illegal for the owners of such places to put ashtrays anywhere inside enclosed spaces. Also, owners of public places must display \"no smoking\" signs and prevent visitors from smoking. They can also designate a well-ventilated and completely separate area for smokers, as long as the non-smokers' area does not fall below 75% of the whole area. The fine for owners of public places is ₪ 5,000 (around US$1400) and for smokers – ₪ 1000.\n", "Under the new regulations, smoking rooms are allowed but are subjected to very strict conditions: they may occupy no more than 20% of the total floor space of the establishment and their size may not be more than 35 m². They need to be equipped with separate ventilation that replaces the full volume of air ten times per hour; the air pressure of the smoking room must constantly be lower than the pressure in the contiguous rooms; they must have doors that close automatically; no service can be provided in the smoking rooms and cleaning and maintenance personnel may enter the room only one hour after it was last used for smoking.\n", "Some of the advantages of vacuum flush technology systems, from aircraft designers’ perspective, is the increased safety attributes through less risk of corrosive waste spill over into recesses around the lavatories which can be difficult to protect. Additionally, vacuum flush systems are considered to be less odor-inducing and substantially lighter in weight, saving fuel by reducing the need to carry large reserves of blue recirculating water.\n\nSection::::Passenger aircraft.:Fixtures.\n\nBULLET::::- Ashtray (even on airlines that have banned smoking, as a safe place for disposing cigarette butts in case a passenger lights a cigarette)\n", "BULLET::::- Georgia\|Georgia (country): Until the introduction of new tobacco laws that was passed in 2018, there were virtually no regulation in e-cigarettes. However, since the passing of the Tobacco-Control Law 2017, persons caught smoking including using e-cigarettes have been prohibited in all enclosed areas, bar private houses and casinos and public transport, but not taxis, watercraft and designed areas in airports.\n", "Some laws stipulate that such a ban applies only when a passenger is under a certain age. A research study showed that after smoking one cigarette in a car, the time required for respirable particles' concentration to return to its initial value, depending on car movement cases, windows positions and ventilation settings, varies between 10 and 60 minutes.\n\nSection::::Wildfires.\n" ]	[ "It is not logical to have an ash tray in an airplane's bathroom when you can't smoke on the plane." ]	[ "The ashtray is a safety redundancy just in case someone does decide to light up in the bathroom." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "It is not logical to have an ash tray in an airplane's bathroom when you can't smoke on the plane.", "It is not logical to have an ash tray in an airplane's bathroom when you can't smoke on the plane." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "The ashtray is a safety redundancy just in case someone does decide to light up in the bathroom.", "The ashtray is a safety redundancy just in case someone does decide to light up in the bathroom." ]
2018-01884	why does speed affect the turning radius of a car?	it doesn't. turning radius is a mechanical angle of front wheel and distance between front wheel and rear wheel. due to speed, you may not be able to achieve that turning radius at speed because the mass of the car exceeds capabilities of friction of the rubber tires on ground. that's more of a skid pad result, not a turning radius.	[ "A notable exception in this description is of vehicles that are capable of spinning around their central axis, such as certain lawnmowers and wheelchairs as they do not follow a circular path as they turn. In this case the vehicle is referred to as a \"zero turning radius\" vehicle.\n\nSome camera dollies used in the film industry have a \"round\" mode which allows them to spin around their z axis by allowing synchronized inverse rotation of their front and rear wheel sets, effectively giving them \"zero\" turning radius.\n\nSection::::Common uses.\n\nBULLET::::- Aeroplanes\n\nBULLET::::- Watercraft\n\nBULLET::::- Wheeled vehicles\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Section::::Curb to curb.\n", "While designers pay attention to the overall shape of the automobile, they also bear in mind that reducing the frontal area of the shape helps reduce the drag. The product of drag coefficient and area - drag area - is represented as (or CA), a multiplication of the value by the area.\n", "It can be observed that the force gain increases exponentially with the coefficient of friction, the number of turns around the cylinder, and the angle of contact. Note that \"the radius of the cylinder has no influence on the force gain\".\n\nThe table below lists values of the factor formula_9 based on the number of turns and coefficient of friction \"μ\".\n", "The term \"turning radius\" is a technical term that has become popular automotive jargon. In the jargon sense, it is commonly used to mean the full diameter of the smallest circle, but in technical usage the turning radius is still used to denote the radius. The less ambiguous term \"turning circle\" avoids the mistaken jargon use of the word \"radius\". As an example, \"Motor Trend\" refers to a \"curb-to-curb turning circle\" of a 2008 Cadillac CTS as , but the terminology is not yet settled. AutoChannel.com refers to the \"turning radius\" of the same car as . It is often used as a generalized term rather than a numerical figure. For example, a vehicle with a very small turning circle may be described as having a \"tight turning radius\".\n", "The expression on the right hand side is the centripetal acceleration multiplied by mass, the force required to turn the vehicle. The left hand side is the maximum frictional force, which equals the coefficient of friction \"μ\" multiplied by the normal force. Rearranging the maximum cornering speed is\n\nNote that \"μ\" can be the coefficient for static or dynamic friction. In the latter case, where the vehicle is skidding around a bend, the friction is at its limit and the inequalities becomes equations. This also ignores effects such as downforce which can increase the normal force and cornering speed.\n", "But there is an even broader sense that would include energy wasted by wheel slippage due to the torque applied from the engine. This includes the increased power required due to the increased velocity of the wheels where the tangential velocity of the driving wheel(s) becomes greater than the vehicle speed due to slippage. Since power is equal to force times velocity and the wheel velocity has increased, the power required has increased accordingly.\n", "When considering the effects of friction on the system, once again we need to note which way the friction force is pointing. When calculating a maximum velocity for our automobile, friction will point down the incline and towards the center of the circle. Therefore, we must add the horizontal component of friction to that of the normal force. The sum of these two forces is our new net force in the direction of the center of the turn (the centripetal force):\n", "where \"formula_8\" is some characteristic diameter or linear dimension and formula_9 is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid (equal to the viscosity formula_10 divided by the density). At low formula_11, formula_6 is asymptotically proportional to formula_13, which means that the drag is linearly proportional to the speed. At high formula_11, formula_6 is more or less constant and drag will vary as the square of the speed. The graph to the right shows how formula_6 varies with formula_11 for the case of a sphere. Since the power needed to overcome the drag force is the product of the force times speed, the power needed to overcome drag will vary as the square of the speed at low Reynolds numbers and as the cube of the speed at high numbers.\n", "When any moving vehicle is making a turn, it is necessary for the forces acting on the vehicle to add up to a net inward force, to cause centripetal acceleration. In the case of an aircraft making a turn, the force causing centripetal acceleration is the horizontal component of the lift acting on the aircraft.\n", "This formula shows that the radius of turn is proportional to the square of the aircraft’s true airspeed. With a higher airspeed the radius of turn is larger, and with a lower airspeed the radius is smaller.\n\nThis formula also shows that the radius of turn decreases with the angle of bank. With a higher angle of bank the radius of turn is smaller, and with a lower angle of bank the radius is greater.\n", "The speed built up by acceleration can only be reduced at the same rate. This restriction reflects the inertia or momentum of the car. Note that in physics, speeding, braking, and turning right or left all are forms of \"acceleration\", represented by one vector. For a sports car, having the same maximum acceleration without loss of traction in all directions is not unrealistic; see Circle of forces. Note, however, that the circle of forces strictly applies to an individual tyre rather than an entire vehicle, that a slightly elongated ellipse would be more realistic than a circle, and that the theory of traction involving this circle or ellipse is quite simplified.\n", "where formula_2 is the forward speed, formula_3 is the radius of the turn and formula_4 is the acceleration of gravity.\n", "Turning radius\n\nThe turning radius or turning circle of a vehicle is the radius (or, depending on usage, \"diameter\") of the smallest circular turn (i.e. U-turn) that the vehicle is capable of making. \n\nSection::::Usage.\n", "This provides the velocity that in the absence of friction and with a given angle of incline and radius of curvature, will ensure that the vehicle will remain in its designated path. The magnitude of this velocity is also known as the \"rated speed\" (or \"balancing speed\" for railroads) of a turn or curve. Notice that the rated speed of the curve is the same for all massive objects, and a curve that is not inclined will have a rated speed of 0.\n\nSection::::Banked turn with friction.\n", "Because centripetal acceleration is:\n\nNewton's second law in the horizontal direction can be expressed mathematically as:\n\nwhere:\n\nIn straight level flight, lift is equal to the aircraft weight. In turning flight the lift exceeds the aircraft weight, and is equal to the weight of the aircraft (\"mg\") divided by the cosine of the angle of bank:\n\nwhere \"g\" is the gravitational field strength.\n\nThe radius of the turn can now be calculated:\n", "In an automobile, Shaft A is connected to the engine (through the transmission), and Shafts B and C are connected to two road wheels, one on each side of the vehicle. When the vehicle turns, the wheel going around the outside of the turning curve has to roll further and rotate faster than the wheel on the inside. The differential permits this to happen while both wheels are being driven by the engine. If the sum of the speeds of the wheels is constant, the speed of the engine does not change.\n", "As opposed to a vehicle riding along a flat circle, inclined edges add an additional force that keeps the vehicle in its path and prevents a car from being \"dragged into\" or \"pushed out of\" the circle (or a railroad wheel from moving sideways so as to nearly rub on the wheel flange). This force is the horizontal component of the vehicle's normal force. In the absence of friction, the normal force is the only one acting on the vehicle in the direction of the center of the circle. Therefore, as per Newton's second law, we can set the horizontal component of the normal force equal to mass multiplied by centripetal acceleration:\n", "where \"v\" is the forward speed, \"r\" is the radius of the turn and \"g\" is the acceleration of gravity. This is in the idealized case. A slight increase in the lean angle may be required on motorcycles to compensate for the width of modern tires at the same forward speed and turn radius.\n", "BULLET::::- The angular speed of rotating machinery, such as automobile engines, is commonly measured in revolutions per minute or RPM.\n\nBULLET::::- Turn is used in complex dynamics for measure of external and internal angles. The sum of external angles of a polygon equals one turn. Angle doubling map is used.\n\nBULLET::::- Pie charts illustrate proportions of a whole as fractions of a turn. Each one percent is shown as an angle of one centiturn.\n\nSection::::Kinematics of turns.\n\nIn kinematics, a turn is a rotation less than a full revolution.\n", "As the angle of bank \"θ\" approaches 90°, the tangent function approaches infinity, allowing larger values for \|v\|/\"r\". In words, this equation states that for greater speeds (bigger \|v\|) the road must be banked more steeply (a larger value for \"θ\"), and for sharper turns (smaller \"r\") the road also must be banked more steeply, which accords with intuition. When the angle \"θ\" does not satisfy the above condition, the horizontal component of force exerted by the road does not provide the correct centripetal force, and an additional frictional force tangential to the road surface is called upon to provide the difference. If friction cannot do this (that is, the coefficient of friction is exceeded), the ball slides to a different radius where the balance can be realized.\n", "The most common engine types in production are built to square, or below square. That is, a square engine has the same diameter of cylinder bore as the total length of the stroke from 0 to 180 degrees, whereas in an undersquare engine, the total length of the stroke is greater than the diameter of the bore. The opposite, oversquare, is mostly used in higher performance engines where the torque curve approaches the peak of the maximum piston velocity. Generally in this type of engine, the volume of the cylinder can be artificially enhanced with turbochargers or superchargers, increasing the amount of fuel/air available for combustion.\n", "If the bank angle is zero, the surface is flat and the normal force is vertically upward. The only force keeping the vehicle turning on its path is friction, or traction. This must be large enough to provide the centripetal force, a relationship which can be expressed as an inequality, assuming the car is driving in a circle of radius \"r\":\n", "Inverterization offers advantages in multiple domains:\n\nBULLET::::- Higher durability through smoothly starting engines improves efficiency through an increase in power factor, and improves process control.\n\nBULLET::::- Reducing motor speed saves energy. For example, slowing down a fan motor from 100% to 80% when less airflow is needed can save as much as 50% ofn energy use.\n\nBULLET::::- Inverterization reduces noise and vibration.\n", "Angular inertia is an integral over the \"square\" of the distance from the center of gravity, so it favors small cars even though the lever arms (wheelbase and track) also increase with scale. (Since cars have reasonable symmetrical shapes, the off-diagonal terms of the angular inertia tensor can usually be ignored.)\n" ]	[ "Speed affects the turning radius of a car.", "Speed affects the turning radius of a car. " ]	[ "Turning radius is affected by the angle of front wheel and the distance between front wheel and rear wheel.", "Speed does not affect the turning radius of a car." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Speed affects the turning radius of a car.", "Speed affects the turning radius of a car. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Turning radius is affected by the angle of front wheel and the distance between front wheel and rear wheel.", "Speed does not affect the turning radius of a car." ]
2018-03103	Why does skin turn blue/purple when you get hurt	Bruising. Your tissue is filled with blood from broken vessels. If you look at someone with pale skin, they should have some blush, reddish hue in certain places, or even blue streaks where their larger blood vessels are. Bruising causes that blood to leak into the surrounding tissue, which shows through your skin. The same thing happens when you break a blood vessel in your eye, but it's much more red as it's close to the surface. Bruising may also turn yellow as the body breaks down the clotted blood and clears it out from the surrounding tissue.	[ "There are at least five different pigments that determine the color of the skin. These pigments are present at different levels and places.\n\nBULLET::::- Melanin: It is brown in color and present in the basal layer of the epidermis.\n\nBULLET::::- Melanoid: It resembles melanin but is present diffusely throughout the epidermis.\n\nBULLET::::- Carotene: This pigment is yellow to orange in color. It is present in the stratum corneum and fat cells of dermis and superficial fascia.\n\nBULLET::::- Hemoglobin (also spelled \"haemoglobin\"): It is found in blood and is not a pigment of the skin but develops a purple color.\n", "Peripheral cyanosis is the blue tint in fingers or extremities, due to an inadequate or obstructed circulation. The blood reaching the extremities is not oxygen-rich and when viewed through the skin a combination of factors can lead to the appearance of a blue color. All factors contributing to central cyanosis can also cause peripheral symptoms to appear but peripheral cyanosis can be observed in the absence of heart or lung failures. Small blood vessels may be restricted and can be treated by increasing the normal oxygenation level of the blood.\n\nPeripheral cyanosis may be due to the following causes:\n", "These events are episodic, and when the episode subsides or the area is warmed, the blood flow returns, and the skin color first turns red (rubor), and then back to normal, often accompanied by swelling, tingling, and a painful \"pins and needles\" sensation.\n\nAll three color changes are observed in classic Raynaud's. However, not all patients see all of the aforementioned color changes in all episodes, especially in milder cases of the condition. Symptoms are thought to be due to reactive hyperemias of the areas deprived of blood flow.\n", "Sympathetic ophthalmia is currently thought to be an autoimmune inflammatory response toward ocular antigens, specifically a delayed hypersensitivity to melanin-containing structures from the outer segments of the photoreceptor layer of the retina. The immune system, which normally is not exposed to ocular proteins, is introduced to the contents of the eye following traumatic injury. Once exposed, it senses these antigens as foreign, and begins attacking them. The onset of this process can be from days to years after the inciting traumatic event.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "BULLET::::- It begins with an inciting event at the level of the vasculature, probably the endothelium. The inciting event is yet to be elucidated but may be a viral agent, oxidative stress or autoimmune. Endothelial cell damage and apoptosis ensue, leading to the vascular leakiness that manifests in early clinical stages as tissue oedema. At this stage it is predominantly a Th1 and Th17-mediated disease.\n", "Also called neovascularization, the process of angiogenesis occurs concurrently with fibroblast proliferation when endothelial cells migrate to the area of the wound. Because the activity of fibroblasts and epithelial cells requires oxygen and nutrients, angiogenesis is imperative for other stages in wound healing, like epidermal and fibroblast migration. The tissue in which angiogenesis has occurred typically looks red (is erythematous) due to the presence of capillaries.\n\nAngiogenesis occurs in overlapping phases in response to inflammation:\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nBruises often induce pain immediately after the trauma that results in their formation, but small bruises are not normally dangerous alone. Sometimes bruises can be serious, leading to other more life-threatening forms of hematoma, such as when associated with serious injuries, including fractures and more severe internal bleeding. The likelihood and severity of bruising depends on many factors, including type and healthiness of affected tissues. Minor bruises may be easily recognized in people with light skin color by characteristic blue or purple appearance (idiomatically described as \"black and blue\") in the days following the injury.\n\nSection::::Cause.\n", "Prussian blue is a common histopathology stain used by pathologists to detect the presence of iron in biopsy specimens, such as in bone marrow samples. The original stain formula, known historically (1867) as \"Perls' Prussian blue\" after its inventor, German pathologist Max Perls (1843–1881), used separate solutions of potassium ferrocyanide and acid to stain tissue (these are now used combined, just before staining). Iron deposits in tissue then form the purple Prussian blue dye in place, and are visualized as blue or purple deposits. The formula is also known as Perls' Prussian blue and (incorrectly) as Perl's Prussian blue.\n", "BULLET::::- One of the most frequent changes of the lips is a blue coloring due to cyanosis; the blood contains less oxygen, and thus has a dark red to blue color, which shows through the thin skin. Cyanosis is the reason why corpses sometimes have blue lips. In cold weather cyanosis can appear, so especially in the winter, blue lips may not be an uncommon sight.\n", "Raynaud’s disease is a rare peripheral vascular syndrome that narrows blood vessels, generally in the hands and feet, due to cold or stressful emotion. It is recognized by the reduction of blood flow to fingers and toes with periodic spasm and results in a drastic color change to white or blue. The disease may further develop into ischaemic pain and necrosis of fingers or toes. The pathology of Raynaud's disease starts with the activation of sympathetic nervous system triggered by cold or the feeling of stress.\n\nSection::::Types of Blood Vessel Disorder.:Venous thromboembolism.\n", "During this time, larger bruises may change color due to the breakdown of hemoglobin from within escaped red blood cells in the extracellular space. The striking colors of a bruise are caused by the phagocytosis and sequential degradation of hemoglobin to biliverdin to bilirubin to hemosiderin, with hemoglobin itself producing a red-blue color, biliverdin producing a green color, bilirubin producing a yellow color, and hemosiderin producing a golden-brown color. As these products are cleared from the area, the bruise disappears. Often the underlying tissue damage has been repaired long before this process is complete.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "BULLET::::- The cross represents Christianity, the Copts' religion. The blue color stems from the Egyptian sky and water. It also reminds the Copts of their persecution, when some of Muslim rulers forced their ancestors to wear heavy crosses around their necks until their necks became blue.\n", "The healing corneal wounds consist of newly abutting corneal stroma, fibroblastic cells, and irregular fibrous connective tissue. Closer to the wound surface lies the epithelial plug, a bed of the cells that form the normal corneal epithelium which have fallen into the wound. Often this plug is three to four times as deep as the normal corneal epithelium layer. As the cells migrate from the depth of the plug up to the surface, some die before reaching it, forming breaches in the otherwise healthy epithelial layer. This, consequently, leaves the cornea more susceptible to infections. The risk is estimated to be between 0.25% and 0.7% Healing of the RK incisions is very slow and unpredictable, often incomplete even years after surgery. Similarly, infection of these chronic wounds can also occur years after surgery, with 53% of ocular infections being late in onset. The pathogen most commonly involved in such infections is the highly virulent bacterium \"Pseudomonas aeruginosa\".\n", "Such vascularization is likely to result in blurring of vision secondary to corneal stromal scarring, the presence of ghost vessels, and thinning of the cornea, especially if it involves the visual axis.\n\nSection::::Cause.\n", "Corneal sensitization and evaporative hyperalgesia occur as a result of trauma and environmental stress, the cornea has the highest density of nociceptors of any tissue in the body, and can become more sensitive to normal environmental stimuli. Predisposing factors to developing neuropathic pain include LASIK where it can occur as a result of aberrant nerve regeneration, tear dysfunction, blepharoplasty, excessive UV light exposure, chemical injury, and trigeminal zoster. \n\nSection::::Causes.:Peripheral injuries and central sensitization.\n", "Section::::Connections with other vitreous material and with metals.\n", "Opacities may be keratic, that is, due to the deposition of inflammatory cells, hazy, usually from corneal edema, or they may be localized in the case of corneal ulcer or keratitis.\n\nCorneal epithelial disruptions may be detected with fluorescein staining of the eye, and careful observation with cobalt-blue light.\n\nCorneal epithelial disruptions would stain green, which represents some injury of the corneal epithelium.\n\nThese types of disruptions may be due to corneal inflammations or physical trauma to the cornea, such as a foreign body.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Pupillary abnormalities.\n", "Chemically, exposure to sunlight turns the red 6,6'-dibromoindigo in snails into a mixture of blue indigo dye and blue-purple 6-bromoindigo. The \"leuco\" (white) solution form of dibromoindigo loses some bromines in the ultraviolet radiation.\n\nSection::::Gallery.\n\n In conclusion, its color varies between central sky blue in sunlight, and the iris indigo of the rainbow; translated in a German translation of the biblical book of Exodus, as \"blauem purpur\".\n\nSection::::Alternative interpretations.\n", "Since antiquity, the cardinal signs of inflammation have been known as: calor (warmth), dolor (pain), tumor (swelling), and rubor (redness). The eicosanoids are involved with each of these signs.\n\n\"Redness\"—An insect's sting will trigger the classic inflammatory response. Short acting vasoconstrictors — TXA—are released quickly after the injury. The site may momentarily turn pale. Then TXA mediates the release of the vasodilators PGE and LTB. The blood vessels engorge and the injury reddens.br\n\n\"Swelling\"—LTB makes the blood vessels more permeable. Plasma leaks out into the connective tissues, and they swell. The process also loses pro-inflammatory cytokines.br\n", "A contusion is the discoloration of the skin, which results from underlying muscle fibers and connective tissue being crushed.This can happen in a variety of ways such as a direct blow to the skin, or a fall taken against a hard surface. The discoloration in the skin is present when blood begins to pool around the injury.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Tendinitis.\n", "BULLET::::- Stage 2: Swelling is not reversible overnight, and does not disappear without proper management. The tissue now has a spongy consistency and is considered non-pitting: when pressed by the fingertips, the affected area bounces back without indentation. Fibrosis found in Stage 2 lymphedema marks the beginning of the hardening of the limbs and increasing size.\n", "BULLET::::- Neoplasm – Melanomas can also be very lightly pigmented, and a lighter colored iris may be a rare manifestation of metastatic disease to the eye.\n\nBULLET::::- Parry–Romberg syndrome – due to tissue loss.\n\nHeterochromia has also been observed in those with Duane syndrome.\n\nBULLET::::- Chronic iritis\n\nBULLET::::- Juvenile xanthogranuloma\n\nBULLET::::- Leukemia and lymphoma\n\nSection::::Classification.:Central heterochromia.\n", "Many patients who suffer with spider veins seek the assistance of physicians who specialize in vein care or peripheral vascular disease. These physicians are called vascular surgeons or phlebologists. More recently, interventional radiologists have started treating venous problems.\n\nSome telangiectasias are due to developmental abnormalities that can closely mimic the behaviour of benign vascular neoplasms. They may be composed of abnormal aggregations of arterioles, capillaries or venules. Because telangiectasias are vascular lesions, they blanch when tested with diascopy.\n", "Damage to the blood vessel wall by angioplasty triggers physiological response that can be divided into two stages. The first stage that occurs immediately after tissue trauma, is thrombosis. A blood clot forms at the site of damage and further hinders blood flow. This is accompanied by an inflammatory immune response.\n\nThe second stage tends to occur 3–6 months after surgery and is the result of proliferation of cells in the media, a smooth muscle wall in the vessel. This is also known as Neointimal Hyperplasia (NIHA).\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Imaging.\n", "Calciphylaxis, also known as calcific uremic arteriolopathy (CUA) or “Grey Scale”, is a rare painful syndrome of calcification of the small blood vessels located within the fatty tissue and deeper layers of the skin, blood clots, and the death of skin cells due to too little blood flow. It is seen mostly in people with end-stage kidney disease but can occur in the earlier stages of chronic kidney disease and rarely in people with normally functioning kidneys. It results in chronic non-healing wounds and is usually fatal. Calciphylaxis is a rare but serious disease, believed to affect 1-4% of all dialysis patients.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-10891	Why is it that sometimes when someone tells me to do something I was about to do, I really don't want to do it anymore?	Most people like their autonomy, but it’s also kind of demeaning when it happens a lot or is something obvious that needs to be done, like the person doesn’t know.	[ "Even if the need to change course or cease action is recognized, communication speed, policies, and business politics can be hindrances. A larger organization, especially one with a spread of subgroups, has to communicate the argument and decision to go against previous actions across the appropriate levels. If this communication does not occur in a timely manner or is blocked, the final decision may not be made and acted upon. A decision that goes against existing rules and processes may also reach resistance even with support from those within the organization. Individuals and groups that are directly employed due to a project, have financial stake in it may provide enough opposition to prevent changes from being made as well. They feel personally responsible for the parts they've worked on and can also feel that they too are being replaced or terminated. Escalation of commitment can then occur in any of these situations. External groups can play an even larger part in escalating commitment if their power is greater than that of the group taking action and they use that power to directly lead and influence.\n", "This is one factor that plays a role in how issues are addressed. When there are a group of individuals involved in communication, decisions, and change, with the lack of consistency in the group, most of the tasks fail to complete. This phenomenon occurs in situations such as policy change, rulings and procedures.\n", "Undoing is a defense mechanism in which a person tries to cancel out or remove an unhealthy, destructive or otherwise threatening thought or action by engaging in contrary behavior. For example, after thinking about being violent with someone, one would then be overly nice or accommodating to them. It is one of several defense mechanisms proposed by the founder of psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud during his career, many of which were later developed further by his daughter Anna Freud. The German term \"\"Ungeschehenmachen\"\" was first used to describe this defense mechanism. When translated, it literally means \"\"making un-happen\"\", which is essentially the core of \"undoing\". Undoing refers to the phenomenon whereby a person tries to alter the past in some way to avoid or feign disappearance of an adversity or mishap.\n", "Jennifer has just been dumped by her boyfriend, who excused his leaving by explaining that he at first found her exotic, but was disappointed when she was not \"submissive\". Albert has just been passed over for a promotion at his company. Looking for explanations for their relative failures, they first blame their parents. They decide it would be therapeutic to confront the parents to demand an apology for the \"tiger parenting\" that fostered unrealistic expectations but inadequate life skills. Says Albert, \"I'm gonna yell at my mom like a white girl!\"\n", "Section::::Examples and fields of application.\n\nInformation cascades occur in situations where seeing many people make the same choice provides evidence that outweighs one's own judgment. That is, one thinks: \"It's more likely that I'm wrong than that all those other people are wrong. Therefore, I will do as they do.\"\n\nIn what has been termed a reputational cascade, late responders sometimes go along with the decisions of early responders, not just because the late responders think the early responders are right, but also because they perceive their reputation will be damaged if they dissent from the early responders.\n", "Mechanics of this technique are urgency and guilt. When the repeated message is presented to the target it may be perceived as urgent, thus making it seem more important, and more willing to comply. By creating a sense of obligation in the request, the target may develop guilt if not willing to comply.\n\nSection::::Recent techniques.:Just-One-More (JOM).\n", "Social Responsibility – this theory describes the social repercussions and pressures that occur if an individual declines a request.\n\nAll together the theories propose that a target who declines the first request feel a \"personal or social responsibility\" to comply with the second request. In an effort to avoid feeling guilty or reduce the sense of obligation the target would have.\n\nSection::::Recent techniques.\n\nSection::::Recent techniques.:Disrupt-then-reframe (DTR).\n", "In \"Classifying Compliance Gaining Messages: Taxonomic Disorder and Strategic Confusion\", Kathy Kellermann and Tim Cole put together 64 compliance gaining strategies as an attempt to classify more than 820 previous strategies.\n\nBULLET::::1. Actor Takes Responsibility: Try to get others to comply by stating your willingness to help them or even work on the request yourself. That is, try to gain their compliance by offering to do it yourself as a means of getting them to do what you want. Example: \"Is there anything I can do to so you can finish the project on time?\"\n", "These friends and co-workers begin to get irritated by his lack of commitment to payback, and this \n\nleads the protagonist being pressed into self-doubt and constant searching for both “a way out” and purposeful meaning in his life. Proclaiming to push ahead through his frustration and predicament is based more on stubbornness than enlightenment, where a “donʼt quit“ mind-set becomes “fuel- to-the-fire” for his out-of-control situation. Ram has his car stolen, and he becomes enslaved to his \n", "Individuals present themselves cautiously to others in the environment. They don't concentrate on themselves and what they believe is accurate and competent—they are only interested in their organization appearing competent. Escalation of commitment is about decision making that usually comes in a form of a group or individual deciding a course of action. Managers have a responsibility to choose the fate of what a group of people have been working on. A manager who decides to back a team out of a project isn't concerned that the project failed, they are concerned that team members may think the manager is incompetent. Studies that tested this phenomenon included factors such as policy resistance, job insecurity (Fox & Staw 1979), and audience size (Rubin & Lang 1981). All showed a spike in commitment when these realistic factors are present. This mental and emotional response is referred to as the face-saving effect. Individuals who are responsible for others are constantly checking themselves to assure that their actions and beliefs are parallel to the expectations for their viewers. One's social identity to the public can decide your fate. For example, a team can identify a level of commitment and personal connection to an idea or project. Team members consistently use statements like \"that project is Bob's baby,\" or \"oh, we had the same idea.\" Both ends of the spectrum are crucial to how others view and analyze a situation, especially something that failed.\n", "Beth and Paul arrive home from a date and Beth explains that she liked hearing from the other people at the school about Paul's childhood. \"When you talk about the past, it changes how you look,\" she says. \"You're not so intimidating.\" Paul leans in to kiss her, but Beth asks what he's doing. Paul tells her that he's not an \"animal satisfying urges\" and explains that he wants to connect with her. \"I need a partner by my side,\" he says. \"Someone I can trust. I think you can be that person. The question is, do you?\" He kisses her but Beth slaps him. Angry, Paul tells Beth that he wants her to move out by the end of the week. Later, Beth is on the phone to her mother and explains that Paul wants her to leave. \"I am trying to make it work,\" she says. \"I swear I do everything he asks me.\" Beth suggests that she should come home, adding: \"Oh yes, I know I made a commitment but I am so unhappy... Of course I want you to be proud of me. OK, I will. I'll try.\"\n", "High costs of ending a project or changing its course, potential financial gain upon completion, and extensive structure can factor in to escalation of commitment, making it difficult to walk away from the project. Preventing future monetary loss, potential savings, and having clearly available alternatives can allow for avoidance of the behavior. In studies by Teger and later Ross and Staw, situations where ending an action costs more than completing it resulted in decision makers being trapped in their current, costly behaviors.\n\nSection::::Determinants.:Psychological.\n", "BULLET::::3. Postpone action. Sometimes it is best to do nothing at all. People frequently react to sudden threats by instinctively hiding behind their “masks.” Given sufficient time, however, a more rational reaction usually takes over.\n\nBULLET::::4. Recognize human limitations. Do not expect to be able to solve every problem that comes up, especially the human ones. More importantly, remember that a layman should not try to be a psychologist. Offering employees understanding is one thing; trying to deal with deep psychological problems is another matter entirely.\n", "For some people undoing can be used to reduce cognitive dissonance, the uncomfortable feeling created when an attitude and an action, or two attitudes are in conflict with one another.\n\nIn criminal profiling the term refers to a pattern of behavior by which an offender tries to undo their crime symbolically, e.g. by painting the face of a person killed by the perpetrator, covering up and decorating the corpse with flowers, personal belongings and jewelry, or folding the hands, imitating a laying-out.\n\nSection::::Effects of positive emotions.\n", "Loss and avoidance is the core drive that motivates us to avoid something negative from happening. On a small scale, it could be to avoid losing previous work or changing one's behavior. On a larger scale, it could be to avoid admitting that everything you did up to this point was useless because you are now quitting. Opportunities that are fading away have a strong utilization of this core drive, because people feel if they didn't act immediately, they would lose the opportunity to act forever. This is commonly known as fear of missing out and can often be seen in marketing promotions with limited time periods, or speculative investments where any delay may lead to missing out on a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity.\n", "BULLET::::- Change the environment: This can include increasing opportunities for access to a variety of activities, balancing cognitively and physically demanding activities with periods of rest, providing a predictable environment in order to reduce the level of cognitive demands on the person, trying to provide consistent routines (be mindful of events that may not occur, try not to make promises that cannot be kept, if unable to go out at a particular time then say so), checking for safety in the home environment (e.g. changing/moving furniture).\n", "Compliance (psychology)\n\nCompliance refers to a response—specifically, a submission—made in reaction to a request. The request may be explicit (e.g., foot-in-the-door technique) or implicit (e.g., advertising). The target may or may not recognize that he or she is being urged to act in a particular way.\n", "Section::::Production.\n", "In sociology, \"irrational escalation of commitment\" or \"commitment bias\" describe similar behaviours. The phenomenon and the sentiment underlying them are reflected in such proverbial images as \"throwing good money after bad\" or \"in for a penny, in for a pound\", or \"It's never the wrong time to make the right decision.\"\n\nSection::::Early use.\n\nEscalation of commitment was first described by Barry M. Staw in his 1976 paper, \"Knee deep in the big muddy: A study of escalating commitment to a chosen course of action\".\n", "Section::::In psychoanalysis after Freud.\n", "The attribution theory, originating from Fritz Heider, \"attempts to find causal explanations for events and human behaviors.\" This theory approaches two methods of inquiry including locus of causality and stability. Locus of causality reflects on internal characteristics of an individual, such as intelligence levels and attention seeking, with the relationship of the external space such as weather forecasts and task difficulty. Aspects of control become a significant factor in how a manager justifies a decision made. Managers will use the relationship between internal and external factors to describe why they made a decision to a single point of view. Managers may justify their actions by explaining that this was out of their personal control of the event, or they could believe that the decision could not be controlled by anyone else. Research suggests that \"the type of attribution made by an employee across these dimensions is likely to impact an employee's tendency to engage in the negative emotional activity referred to as escalation of commitment.\"\n", "Section::::Explanations.:Neurological explanations.\n", "2) Schaller and Cialdini found that people who are anticipating positive events (listening to a comedy tape), will show low helping motivation since they are expecting their negative emotions to be lifted up by the upcoming stimulation.\n\nSection::::Perspectives on helping behavior.:Empathy-altruism hypothesis.\n\nHelping behavior may be initiated when we feel empathy for the person, that is, identifying with another person and feeling and understanding what that person is experiencing.\n", "For Example: \"Do you want to buy this car? I need just one more sale to reach my quota this month.\"\n\nIf the target finds that the requestor is lying or being deceptive about being the last one, it will create a negative outlook on the person and the organization that he or she represents. Even though losing some of the effectiveness the requestor could state that they are \"close to their goal\" or \"almost there\".\n\nSection::::Recent techniques.:64 compliance gaining strategies.\n", "These and other varieties of role conflict tend to increase an individual's anxiety and frustration. Sometimes they motivate him to do more and better work. Other times they can lead to frustration and reduced efficiency.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Passive aggressive behavior.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01829	Why doesn’t cooking something at a high temperature for a short amount of time not produce the same results as cooking something at a lower temperature for a longer amount of time?	Food is cooked through heat radiation. Each minute it's in the oven, the heat radiates further in. The idea is to bring the temp up throughout the meat/cookies/cake. Too much heat too fast will burn the outside before it reaches the inside. Heat can only radiate so fast.	[ "The use of temperatures much lower than for conventional cooking is an equally essential feature of sous-vide, resulting in much higher succulence at these lower temperatures, as cell walls in plant-based food do not burst. In the case of meat cooking, tough collagen in connective tissue can be hydrolysed into gelatin, without heating the meat’s proteins high enough that they denature to a degree that the texture toughens and moisture is wrung out of the meat. In contrast, with the cooking of vegetables, where extreme tenderness or softness is seen as undesirably overcooked, the ability of the sous-vide technique to cook vegetables at a temperature below the boiling point of water allows vegetables to be thoroughly cooked (and pasteurized, if necessary) while maintaining a firm or somewhat crisp texture. While the cell walls will generally not burst, the de-polymerization of the pectic polysaccharides that connect the vegetable cells together and/or the gelatinisation of starch in the vegetable can be achieved without overcooking.\n", "While PTFE is stable and nontoxic at lower temperatures, it begins to deteriorate after the temperature of cookware reaches about , and decomposes above . The degradation by-products can be lethal to birds, and can cause flu-like symptoms in humans—see polymer fume fever. Meat is usually fried between , and most oils start to smoke before a temperature of is reached, but there are at least two cooking oils (refined safflower oil at and avocado oil at ) that have a higher smoke point.\n\nSection::::Ecotoxicity.\n", "In 1912, Maillard published a paper to explain what happens when amino acids react with sugars at elevated temperatures. However, chemist John E. Hodge, working at the U.S. Department of Agriculture in Peoria, Illinois, published a paper in 1953 that established a mechanism for the Maillard reaction.\n\nSection::::Foods and products with Maillard reactions.\n", "Thermostatically controlled methods, such as sous-vide, can also prevent overcooking by bringing the meat to the exact degree of doneness desired, and holding it at that temperature indefinitely. The combination of precise temperature control and long cooking duration makes it possible to be assured that pasteurization has been achieved, both on the surface and the interior of even very thick cuts of meat, which can not be assured with most other cooking techniques. (Although extremely long-duration cooking can break down the texture of the meat to an undesirable degree.)\n", "Section::::Importance of cooking temperature on interfaces.\n", "Toughness in meat is derived from several proteins, such as actin, myosin and collagen, that combined form the structure of the muscle tissue. Heating these proteins causes them to denature, or break down into other substances, which in turn changes the structure and texture of meat, usually reducing its toughness and making it more tender. This typically takes place between over an extended period of time.\n\nSection::::Theory.:Flavour.\n", "The same is true, up to a point, of the chemical reactions of living things. They are usually catalyzed by enzymes which change reaction rates, but with no variation in catalytic action, the rule of thumb is still mostly applicable. In the case of bacteria and fungi, the reactions needed to feed and reproduce speed up at higher temperatures, up to the point that the proteins and other compounds in their cells themselves begin to break down, or denature, so quickly that they cannot be replaced. This is why high temperatures kill bacteria and other micro-organisms: 'tissue' breakdown reactions reach such rates that they cannot be compensated for and the cell dies. On the other hand, 'elevated' temperatures short of these result in increased growth and reproduction; if the organism is harmful, perhaps to dangerous levels.\n", "The reaction is a form of non-enzymatic browning which typically proceeds rapidly from around . Many recipes call for an oven temperature high enough to ensure that a Maillard reaction occurs. At higher temperatures, caramelization (the browning of sugars, a distinct process) and subsequently pyrolysis (final breakdown leading to burning) become more pronounced.\n", "With the adequate combination of temperature and cooking time, pathogens, such as bacteria will be killed, and pasteurization can be achieved. Because browning (Maillard reactions) can only occur at higher temperatures (above the boiling point of water), these moist techniques do not develop the flavors associated with browning. Meat will often undergo searing in a very hot pan, grilling or browning with a torch before moist cooking (though sometimes after).\n", "Surface chemistry of cooking\n\nIn cooking several factors, including materials, techniques, and temperature, can influence the surface chemistry of the chemical reactions and interactions that create food. All of these factors depend on the chemical properties of the surfaces of the materials used. The material properties of cookware, such as hydrophobicity, surface roughness, and conductivity can impact the taste of a dish dramatically. The technique of food preparation alters food in fundamentally different ways, which produce unique textures and flavors. The temperature of food preparation must be considered when choosing the correct ingredients.\n\nSection::::Materials in cooking.\n", "Section::::In organic synthesis.:Conditions for side reactions.\n\nIn organic synthesis, elevated temperatures usually lead to more side products. Side products are usually undesirable, therefore low temperatures are preferred (\"mild conditions\"). The ratio between competing reactions may be influenced by a change in temperature because their activation energies are different in most cases. Reactions with high activation energy can be stronger accelerated by an increase in temperature than those with low activation energy. Also the state of equilibrium depends on temperature.\n\nDetection reactions can be distorted by side reactions.\n\nSection::::Kinetics.\n", "Internal energy is the only factor controlling the extent of rDA reactions, and temperature is usually the only variable cited for these reactions. Thus, there are no conditions which can be regarded as \"typical.\" For rDA reactions that afford a volatile product, removal of this product may facilitate the reaction, although most of these reactions (nitrogen- and oxygen-releasing rDA, for instance) are irreversible without any extra inducement.\n", "If W is expressed as a fraction \"f\" of the process heat Q (Eq.(14)), Eq.(15) becomes after reorganization,\n\n\" Using a work input equals to a fraction f of the heat input is equivalent relative to the choice of the reactions to operate a pure similar thermochemical cycle but with a hot source with a temperature increased by the same proportion f.\"\n", "Smoking can be done in four ways: cold smoking, warm smoking, hot smoking, and through the employment of \"liquid smoke\". However, these methods of imparting smoke only affect the food surface, and are unable to preserve food, thus, smoking is paired with other microbial hurdles, such as chilling and packaging, to extend food shelf-life.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The interaction of heat and carbohydrate is complex. Long-chain sugars such as starch tend to break down into simpler sugars when cooked, while simple sugars can form syrups. If sugars are heated so that all water of crystallisation is driven off, then caramelization starts, with the sugar undergoing thermal decomposition with the formation of carbon, and other breakdown products producing caramel. Similarly, the heating of sugars and proteins elicits the Maillard reaction, a basic flavor-enhancing technique.\n", "The higher temperature causes food to cook faster; cooking times can typically be reduced to one-third of the time for conventional cooking methods. The actual cooking time also depends on the pressure release method used after timing \"(see Pressure release methods for details)\" and the thickness and density of the food, since thicker (and denser) foods take longer to cook. Meat joints and some other foods like sponge puddings and Christmas puddings are typically timed according to their weight. Frozen foods need extra cooking time to allow for thawing.\n", "Kurti demonstrated making meringue in a vacuum chamber, the cooking of sausages by connecting them across a car battery, the digestion of protein by fresh pineapple juice, and a reverse baked alaska—hot inside, cold outside—cooked in a microwave oven. Kurti was also an advocate of low temperature cooking, repeating 18th century experiments by British scientist Benjamin Thompson by leaving a lamb joint in an oven at . After 8.5 hours, both the inside and outside temperature of the lamb joint were around , and the meat was tender and juicy. \n", "The other non-enzymatic reaction is the Maillard reaction. This reaction is responsible for the production of the flavor when foods are cooked. Examples of foods that undergo Maillard reaction include breads, steaks, and potatoes. It is a chemical reaction that takes place between the amine group of a free amino acid and the carbonyl group of a reducing sugar, usually with the addition of heat. The sugar interacts with the amino acid, producing a variety of odors and flavors. The Maillard reaction is the basis for producing artificial flavors for processed foods in the flavoring industry, since the type of amino acid involved determines the resulting flavor.\n", "Combustion is not necessarily favorable to the maximum degree of oxidation, and it can be temperature-dependent. For example, sulfur trioxide is not produced quantitatively by the combustion of sulfur. NOx species appear in significant amounts above about , and more is produced at higher temperatures. The amount of NOx is also a function of oxygen excess.\n", "There are many cooking techniques that do not use oil as part of the process such as steaming or boiling. Water based techniques are typically used to cook vegetables or other plants which can be consumed as food. When no oil is present the method of heat transfer to the food is typically water vapor. Water vapor molecules do not have any significant surface interactions with the food surface. Since food, including vegetables, is cooked by the vaporization of water within the food, the use of water vapor as the mode of heat transfer has no effect on the chemical interactions on the surface of the food.\n", "\"Cooking off\" is typically encountered only in fully automatic weapons, such as machine guns, when they are fired for long periods of time without allowing the barrel and chamber of the weapon to cool down to safe temperatures. For this reason, modern crew-served machine guns are equipped with spare barrels to allow a machine gun crew to replace an overheated barrel with a cool one, thus restoring the weapon to action while the overheated barrel is allowed to cool. Also, the majority of machine guns fire from an open bolt, so the round is chambered only after pressing the trigger, just before firing.\n", "Cooking techniques can be broken down into two major categories: Oil based and water based cooking techniques. Both oil and water based techniques rely on the vaporization of water to cook the food. Oil based cooking techniques have significant surface interactions that greatly affect the quality of the food they produce. These interactions stem from the polar oil molecules interacting with the surface of the food. Water based techniques have far less surface interactions that affect the quality of the food.\n\nSection::::Interaction of cooking techniques.:Pan fry.\n", "Ohmic heating is limited by viscosity, electrical conductivity, and fouling deposits. The density of particles within the suspension liquid can limit the degree of processing. A higher viscosity fluid will provide more resistance to heating, allowing the mixture to heat up quicker than low viscosity products.\n\nA food product’s electrical conductivity is a function of temperature, frequency, and product composition. This may be increased by adding ionic compounds, or decreased by adding non-polar constituents. Changes in electrical conductivity limit ohmic heating as it is difficult to model the thermal process when temperature increases in multi-component foods.\n", "One limitation of sous-vide cooking is the fact that browning (Maillard reactions) happens at temperatures above the boiling point of water. The flavors and 'crust' texture developed by browning are generally seen as very desirable in the cooking of certain types of meat, such as a steak. The flavors and texture produced by browning cannot be obtained with only the sous-vide technique. In many cases, chefs will brown meats and other foods before placing them in the water bath or after the sous-vide cooking, using techniques such as grilling or searing on an extremely hot pan. This secondary browning is done briefly, and sometimes at higher heat than usually used, so as to affect only the surface of the food and to avoid overcooking the interior. Similarly, the skin of fish can be cooked at high temperatures after the sous-vide to make the skin crisp.\n", "A limitation to hot water blanching is the leaching of water-soluble nutrients and the degradation of thermal sensitive compounds. Vitamins, minerals, and other water-soluble compounds, such as proteins, sugars, and flavor compounds, diffuse out of the food and into the water, lowering the overall quality of the food. The degree to which compounds diffuse out of food depends on the food's composition and characteristics, the water to food ratio, the blanching temperature, and other variables. Ascorbic acid, thiamin, and many aromatic compounds are heat-sensitive.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00223	Why is that sometimes when I’m sharpening a pencil with an electric sharpener, it gets really sharp but if you push the tip in one direction even slightly the graphite tip falls out? Then no matter how many times I resharpen it, it won’t sharpen correctly.	It's possible you may have dropped the pencil. When you drop a pencil (especially colored pencils, funny enough), the graphite can shatter. Now you have a long tube full of broken graphite pieces that easily break off once they've been exposed by the sharpener. Source: My high school art teacher. She flipped her wig any time she heard a pencil drop.	[ "An artist's or draftsman's pencil sharpener leaves the graphite untouched and sharpens only the wood (some models can switch from standard to wood-only by an adjustment). The graphite lead is then honed to a sharp point with a lead pointer, which sharpens only the lead without wood. Lead pointers are also used with mechanical lead holders, which have removable/refillable leads. Some sharpeners which function as a long point sharpener, have a second hole in which the blade sharpens the untouched graphite to a long, more precise point than would be otherwise possible using a single hole long point sharpener.\n", "Mechanical pencils dispense the graphite lead progressively during use and thus do not require sharpening; such pencils are sometimes called \"self-sharpening\". A type of mechanical pencil has a rotating gear mechanism which rotates the lead slightly every time the lead is lifted off the paper, helping to maintain a consistent, sharp point. If a finer or broader line is needed, a separate mechanical pencil using a lead with a different diameter is required.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Mechanical pencil\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- André Grahl: History of pencil sharpeners and pointers\n\nBULLET::::- Video of production of hand-held pencil sharpeners\n", "Blades may also be damaged by being corroded by acid (as when cutting lemons or tomatoes) or by high temperatures and corrosive chemicals in a dishwasher.\n\nIf a knife is used as a scraper, a pry-bar, or encounters hard particles in softer materials, there may be a sideways load at the tip, causing bending damage.\n\nBlade damage is avoided by:\n", "Pencils with sub-millimeter leads can usually hold multiple leads at the same time, reducing the frequency of refills. One exception was the Pentel 350 E, possibly Pentel's first mechanical pencil, which could only hold a single stick of 0.5 mm lead. Refill leads can be bought in small tubes and inserted into the barrel as needed.\n\nThe bracketed values in inches were found by calculation and rounded to 3 decimal places.\n\nSection::::Lead variations.:Hardness.\n", "Section::::Tools.\n\nTurning tools are generally made from three different types of steel; carbon steel, high speed steel (HSS), and more recently powdered metal. Comparing the three types, high speed steel tools maintain their edge longer, requiring less frequent sharpening than carbon steel, but not as long as powdered metal tools. The harder the type of high speed steel used, the longer the edge will maintain sharpness. Powdered steel is even harder than HSS, but takes more effort to obtain an edge as sharp as HSS, just as HSS is harder to get as sharp as carbon steel.\n", "This condition of high cyclic strain is often the result of extreme operating conditions, such as high changes in temperature. Thermal stresses originating from an expansion or contraction of materials can exacerbate the loading conditions on a part and LCF characteristics can come into play.\n\nSection::::Mechanics.\n\nA commonly used equation that describes the behavior of low-cycle fatigue is the \"Coffin-Manson relation\" (published by L. F. Coffin in 1954 and S. S. Manson in 1953):\n\nwhere,\n\nBULLET::::- Δε /2 is the plastic strain amplitude;\n", "The rate of erosive wear is dependent upon a number of factors. The material characteristics of the particles, such as their shape, hardness, impact velocity and impingement angle are primary factors along with the properties of the surface being eroded. The impingement angle is one of the most important factors and is widely recognized in literature. For ductile materials, the maximum wear rate is found when the impingement angle is approximately 30°, whilst for non-ductile materials the maximum wear rate occurs when the impingement angle is normal to the surface.\n\nSection::::Wear types and mechanisms.:Corrosion and oxidation wear.\n", "The friction in the flange region is mainly affected by blank holding force. Blank holding force is required for checking the amount of the metal flow in to the die. The low value of blank holding force results in wrinkling in the flange region and too high value of holding force results in increase in the drawing force due to the increase in the friction between the flange region. The blank holding force should be just enough to restrict the flow of the metal.\n\nSection::::Drawing Ratio.\n", "BULLET::::- Zero shift with temperature - If the TCGF of each gauge is not the same, there will be a zero shift with temperature. This is also caused by anomalies in the force collector. This is usually compensated for with one or more resistors strategically placed in the compensation network.\n\nBULLET::::- Linearity is an error whereby the sensitivity changes across the pressure range. This is commonly a function of the force collection thickness selection for the intended pressure and the quality of the bonding.\n\nBULLET::::- Hysteresis is an error of return to zero after pressure excursion.\n", "Mechanical pencil mechanisms use only a single lead diameter. Some pencils, such as the Pentel Function 357, place several mechanisms within the same housing, so as to offer a range of thicknesses (in this case three: 0.3, 0.5 and 0.7 mm). 1.00 mm leads also exist, but they are very rare. (See table below.)\n", "Higher-end mechanical pencils often feature a lead hardness grade indicator and sometimes feature a retractable lead guide pipe. This allows the lead guide pipe to retract back into the pencil body, which will keep it protected in storage and during transit and makes it 'pocket-safe'.\n\nSection::::Lead variations.\n", "Fretting\n\nFretting refers to wear and sometimes corrosion damage at the asperities of contact surfaces. This damage is induced under load and in the presence of repeated relative surface motion, as induced for example by vibration. The ASM \"Handbook on Fatigue and Fracture\" defines fretting as: \"A special wear process that occurs at the contact area between two materials under load and subject to minute relative motion by vibration or some other force.\" Fretting tangibly degrades the surface layer quality producing increased surface roughness and micropits, which reduces the fatigue strength of the components.\n", "BULLET::::- edge wear, in drills, refers to wear to the outer edge of a drill bit around the cutting face caused by excessive cutting speed. It extends down the drill flutes, and requires a large volume of material to be removed from the drill bit before it can be corrected.\n\nSection::::Effects of Tool Wear.\n\nSome General effects of tool wear include:\n\nBULLET::::- increased cutting forces\n\nBULLET::::- increased cutting temperatures\n\nBULLET::::- poor surface finish\n\nBULLET::::- decreased accuracy of finished part\n\nBULLET::::- May lead to tool breakage\n\nBULLET::::- Causes change in tool geometry\n", "Reduction in tool wear can be accomplished by using lubricants and coolants while machining. These reduce friction and temperature, thus reducing the tool wear.\n\nA more general form of the equation is\n\nwhere\n\nBULLET::::- formula_2=cutting speed\n\nBULLET::::- \"T\"=tool life\n\nBULLET::::- \"D\"=depth of cut\n\nBULLET::::- \"S\"=feed rate\n\nBULLET::::- \"x\" and \"y\" are determined experimentally\n\nBULLET::::- \"n\" and \"C\" are constants found by experimentation or published data; they are properties of tool material, workpiece and feed rate.\n\nSection::::Temperature Considerations.\n\nAt high temperature zones crater wear occurs.\n", "The number of vacancies does not directly affect the PLC start point. It was found if a material is pre-strained to a value ½ of that required to initiate jerky flow and then rested at the test temperature or annealed to remove vacancies (but low enough that the dislocation structure is not affected), the total critical strain is only slightly decreased as well as the types of serrations that do occur.\n\nSection::::Serrations descriptors.\n", "Electric pencil sharpeners were introduced by 1940. They work on the same principle as manual ones, but one or more flat-bladed or cylindrical cutters are rotated by an electric motor. Some electric pencil sharpeners are powered by batteries rather than being plugged into a building's electrical system, making them more portable.\n\nAuto-stop electric pencil sharpeners are able to sense when the tip of the pencil is long enough, so they stop automatically. In basic automatic pencil sharpeners, the lead may become too long and break, and so users must be careful to supervise the operation.\n\nSection::::Razor knife.\n", "Though the limbs of the chevron are assumed to be linear with denaturant concentration, it is not always the case. Non-linearities are usually observed in the either both the limbs or one of them and are termed chevron roll-overs. The reason for such an observation is not clear. Many interpretations including on-pathway intermediates, dead-time limitations, transition state movements (Hammond effect), aggregation artifacts, downhill folding, and salt-induced Debye–Hückel effects have been proposed to explain this behavior. In many cases the folding limb roll-overs are ignored as they occur at low denaturant concentrations, and the data is fit to a two-state model with a linear dependence of the rates. The folding rates reported for such proteins in the absence of denaturants are therefore an over-estimation.\n", "In a traditional Floyd Rose (and vintage tremolo), the pivot is a knife edge against the pivot post; when sharpened, the pivot provides zero rotational friction. However, like any knife edge it can become dulled over time and the result is the tremolo cannot return to the zero position. In the ZR tremolo, the pivot is a ball-bearing based joint, which provides greater stability over time.\n", "A clutch pencil (or leadholder) tends to use thicker leads (2–5.6 mm) and generally holds only one piece of lead at a time. A typical clutch pencil is activated by pressing the eraser cap on the top, to open the jaws inside the tip and allow the lead to freely drop through from the barrel (or back into it when retracting). Because the lead falls out freely when the jaws are opened, its forward movement cannot be controlled except by external means. This can be easily done by keeping the tip of the pencil a few millimeters above a work surface or the palm of one's hand. Some clutch pencils do have mechanisms which incrementally advance the lead, such as the Alvin Tech-Matic leadholder, but these are not normally considered to be in the same category as most pencils with propelling mechanisms.\n", "BULLET::::- The feeder's amplitude gradually fades or slowly decreases.\n\nBULLET::::- The flow of material discharging from the feeder is turbulent, creating inconsistent flow to the process.\n\nBULLET::::- The feeder output is inconsistent, creating feed rate fluctuations.\n\nSection::::Placement speed.:Placement system set up.\n", "A few prism sharpeners are hand-cranked, rotating the cutting blade instead of rotating the pencil. Moderate care is needed to not break the tip of the pencil being sharpened, requiring the pencil to be sharpened again. However, because pencils may have different standard diameters in different nations, imported sharpeners may have non-standard-sized alignment guide-holes, making sharpening attempts difficult. If the alignment hole is too small, the pencil cannot be inserted, while if it is too large, the tip of the pencil repeatedly will break off. Prism sharpeners may be right- or left-handed, requiring clockwise or counter-clockwise rotation of the pencil being sharpened.\n", "Design stresses that have been determined from the ultimate or yield point values of the materials give safe and reliable results only for the case of static loading. Many machine parts fail when subjected to a non steady and continuously varying loads even though the developed stresses are below the yield point. Such failures are called fatigue failure. The failure is by a fracture that appears to be brittle with little or no visible evidence of yielding. However, when the stress is kept below \"fatigue stress\" or \"endurance limit stress\", the part will endure indefinitely. A purely reversing or cyclic stress is one that alternates between equal positive and negative peak stresses during each cycle of operation. In a purely cyclic stress, the average stress is zero. When a part is subjected to a cyclic stress, also known as stress range (Sr), it has been observed that the failure of the part occurs after a number of stress reversals (N) even if the magnitude of the stress range is below the material’s yield strength. Generally, higher the range stress, the fewer the number of reversals needed for failure.\n", "The Martens hardness, formula_40, is a simple software for any programmer having minimal background to develop. The software starts by searching for the maximum displacement, formula_41, point and maximum load, formula_2.\n\nThe displacement is used to calculate the contact surface area, formula_44, based on the indenter geometry. For a perfect Berkovich indenter the relationship is formula_45.\n\nThe indentation hardness, formula_46 is defined slightly different.\n\nHere, the hardness is related to the projected contact area formula_48.\n", "BULLET::::- the cutting speed is low. This is because at high cutting speeds the metal moving away from the workpiece becomes hot enough to recover before seizing onto the tool, preventing the formation of a BUE.\n\nBULLET::::- the metal being cut is one that work-hardens and is reluctant to recover. A BUE will not form with pure metals since they do not work-harden much. Conversely, alloys, such as steel, do work-harden and recover less so they are prone to forming a BUE.\n\nSection::::Effects on the cutting process.\n", "There exist protection mechanisms that prevent the lead from breaking (within certain limits) when excessive pressure is exerted while writing. A mechanism employed in the \"DelGuard\" system by Zebra of Japan, causes the lead sleeve to extend outward when excessive pressure is applied at an angle. When excess vertical pressure is applied on the lead, the lead is automatically retracted inwards.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00424	Why does the iPhone 8’s home button only press down when pressed with a finger?	I believe it doesn't actually press even with a finger. There's just a taptic response so it FEELS like it pressed. When you have a cloth over it the button doesn't respond so no response.	[ "Directly above the volume controls is a ring/silent switch that when engaged mutes telephone ringing, alert sounds from new & sent emails, text messages, and other push notifications, camera shutter sounds, Voice Memo sound effects, phone lock/unlock sounds, keyboard clicks, and spoken auto-corrections. This switch does not mute alarm sounds from the Clock application, and in some countries or regions it will not mute the camera shutter or Voice Memo sound effects. All buttons except Home were made of plastic on the original first generation iPhone and metal on all later models. The touchscreen furnishes the remainder of the user interface.\n", "Beginning with the iPhone 4, Apple's smartphones also include a gyroscopic sensor, enhancing its perception of how it is moved.\n\nSection::::Hardware.:Sensors.:Radio.\n", "The iPhone 6S and 6S Plus, introduced in 2015, feature 3D Touch displays which allows the screen to recognize how hard it is being pressed using pressure sensitive multi-touch technology. All subsequent iPhones with the exception of the iPhone SE and iPhone XR have this feature. An example of how this technology will be used is lightly pressing the screen to preview a photograph and pressing down to take it.\n\nSection::::Hardware.:Sensors.\n", "As with all previous generations of iPhone and iPad hardware, there are four buttons and one switch on the iPad Air. With the device in its portrait orientation, these are: a \"home\" button on the face of the device under the display that returns the user to the home screen, a \"wake/sleep\" button on the top edge of the device, and two buttons on the upper right side of the device performing \"volume up/down\" functions, under which is a switch whose function varies according to device settings, functioning either to switch the device into or out of silent mode or to lock/unlock the orientation of the screen. In addition, the WiFi only version weighs 469 grams while the cellular model weighs 478 grams – over 25% lighter than their respective predecessors. The display responds to other sensors: an ambient light sensor to adjust screen brightness and a 3-axis accelerometer to sense orientation and switch between portrait and landscape modes. Unlike the iPhone and iPod Touch's built-in applications, which work in three orientations (portrait, landscape-left and landscape-right), the iPad's built-in applications support screen rotation in all four orientations, including upside-down. Consequently, the device has no intrinsic \"native\" orientation; only the relative position of the home button changes.\n", "The user has the ability to change keyboard settings specifically for physical keyboards (such as autocorrect and auto-capitalization).\n\nSection::::System features.:Lock screen.\n\nThe \"slide to unlock\" mechanism on the lock screen has been removed in favor of pressing the home button.\n\nSimilar to the feature on the Apple Watch, \"Raise to Wake\" wakes up the device when the user lifts it. This function requires a device with an M9 motion coprocessor or newer.\n", "The traditional home button, found on all previous devices in the iPhone lineup, has been removed entirely, replaced by touch-based gestures. To wake up the device, users can tap the display or use the side button; to access the home screen, users must swipe up from the bottom of the display; and to access the multitasking window, users must swipe up similarly to the method of accessing the home screen, but stop while the finger is in the middle of the screen, causing an app carousel to appear.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n\nSection::::Reception.:General reviews.\n", "The iPhone has a minimal hardware user interface, with most models featuring five buttons. The only physical menu button is situated directly below the display, and is called the \"Home button\" because its primary function is to close the active app and navigates to the home screen of the interface. Earlier models included a rounded square, reminiscent of the shape of icons on the home screen, however, new models which include Apple's fingerprint recognition feature Touch ID (which use the Home button as the fingerprint sensor) have no symbol. The iPhone X and later doesn't have a Home button but instead Face ID, a facial recognition authentication method.\n", "As with all previous generations of iPad hardware, there are four buttons and one switch on the iPad Mini 2. With the device in its portrait orientation, these are: a \"home\" button on the face of the device under the display that returns the user to the home screen, a \"wake/sleep\" button on the top edge of the device, and two buttons on the upper right side of the device performing \"volume up/down\" functions, under which is a switch whose function varies according to device settings, functioning either to switch the device into or out of silent mode or to lock/unlock the orientation of the screen. In addition, the WiFi only version weighs 331 grams while the cellular model weighs 341 grams – slightly more than their respective predecessors. The display responds to other sensors: an ambient light sensor to adjust screen brightness and a 3-axis accelerometer to sense orientation and switch between portrait and landscape modes. Unlike the iPhone and iPod Touch's built-in applications, which work in three orientations (portrait, landscape-left and landscape-right), the iPad's built-in applications support screen rotation in all four orientations, including upside-down. Consequently, the device has no intrinsic \"native\" orientation; only the relative position of the home button changes.\n", "There are four physical switches on the iPad, including a home button near the display that returns the user to the main menu, and three plastic physical switches on the sides: \"wake/sleep\" and \"volume up/down\", plus a software-controlled switch whose function has changed with software updates. Originally the switch locked the screen to its current orientation, but the iOS 4.2 changed it to a mute switch, with rotation lock now available in an onscreen menu. In the iOS 4.3 update, released with the iPad 2, a setting was added to allow the user to specify whether the side switch was used for rotation lock or mute.\n", "In 2015, the Apple Watch was launched. It uses skin tap sensing to deliver notifications and alerts from the mobile phone of the watch wearer.\n\nSection::::Implementation.\n\nSection::::Implementation.:Vibration.\n", "iPhone 6S and after uses taptic engine for vibration and haptic feedback, which works similar to the eccentric rotating mass motor.\n\nSection::::Software.\n", "There are four physical switches on the third-generation iPad, including a home button near the display that returns the user to the home screen, and three plastic switches on the sides: \"wake/sleep\" and \"volume up/down\", plus a software-controlled switch whose function varies with software update. The display responds to other sensors: an ambient light sensor to adjust screen brightness and a 3-axis accelerometer to sense orientation and to switch between portrait and landscape modes. Unlike the iPhone and iPod Touch's built-in applications, which work in three orientations (portrait, landscape-left and landscape-right), the iPad's built-in applications support screen rotation in all four orientations, including upside-down. Consequently, the device has no intrinsic \"native\" orientation; only the relative position of the home button changes.\n", "Almost all input is given through the touch screen, which understands complex gestures using multi-touch. The iPhone's interaction techniques enable the user to move the content up or down by a touch-drag motion of the finger. For example, zooming in and out of web pages and photos is done by placing two fingers on the screen and spreading them farther apart or bringing them closer together, a gesture known as \"pinching\".\n", "The taptic engine in the iPhone 6S provides haptic feedback each time users press the screen harder.\n\nSection::::System features.:Battery.\n", "The iPad keyboard could be undocked from the bottom of the screen, and could be split into two half-keyboards.\n\nSection::::App features.\n\nSection::::App features.:Photos and Camera.\n", "Since iOS 7, it also included an integrated flashlight function to operate the reverse camera's flash LED as a flashlight. The flashlight feature is only available on iPhone and iPod Touch, and iPad Pro. Beginning with iOS 9.3, a Night Shift toggle became available through the Control Center on all iPhone, iPod Touch and iPad models that have an Apple A7 chip or later.\n", "The keys are somewhat larger and spaced farther apart when in landscape mode, which is supported by only a limited number of applications. Touching a section of text for a brief time brings up a magnifying glass, allowing users to place the cursor in the middle of existing text. The virtual keyboard can accommodate 21 languages, including character recognition for Chinese.\n", "The first-generation iPad features an Apple A4 SoC, which comprises a 1 GHz processor, 256 MB of RAM and a PowerVR SGX535 GPU. There are four physical switches on the iPad, including a home button near the display that returns the user to the main menu, and three plastic physical switches on the sides: \"wake/sleep\" and \"volume up/down\", plus a software-controlled switch whose function has changed with software updates. Originally the switch locked the screen to its current orientation, but iOS 4.2 changed it to a mute switch, moving the rotation lock function to an onscreen menu. In the iOS 4.3 update, a setting was added to allow the user to specify whether the side switch was used for rotation lock or mute. Unlike its successors, the first-generation iPad has no cameras.\n", "The proximity sensor shuts off the screen and touch-sensitive circuitry when the iPhone is brought close to the face, both to save battery and prevent unintentional touches. The iPhone does not support video calling or videoconferencing on versions prior to the fourth generation, as there is only one camera on the opposite side of the screen.\n", "The V70 uses a \"slider\" form factor, where the user can push on a plastic bar located under the screen in order to open the sliding top portion of the phone. When opened, the top portion slides upwards, revealing the standard bell keypad (including numeric, star, and pound keys). These keys are covered when the phone is closed, but the remaining keys, including the side keys, can be used normally once the keypad is unlocked; such keys are automatically locked after the device is closed to prevent accidental activation when in a purse or pocket.\n", "Section::::Hardware.\n\nTouch ID is built into the home button, which is built of laser-cut sapphire crystal, and does not scratch easily (scratching would prevent Touch ID from working). It features a stainless steel detection ring to detect the user's finger without pressing it. There is no longer a rounded square icon in the home button, nor is it concave.\n", "Section::::Main Elements.\n\nSection::::Main Elements.:Today Screen Plugin.\n\nThe Today screen plugin is the main aspect of TouchFLO 3D, and consists of several tabs, which can be viewed by sliding a finger along the bottom bar or touching one of the visible icons. The tabs to the immediate right and left of the current tab can be accessed by swiping in the relevant direction. The tabs are:\n\nBULLET::::- Home - Displays the date and time, the time the alarm is set for, any missed calls, and upcoming calendar appointments. Flicking the clock upwards reveals more appointments.\n", "On the Internet, and most particularly on the social media site Facebook, the thumbs up gesture is shown as an icon and is associated with the term \"like\"—which within that context means to follow or subscribe to the page, posts, or profile of another individual or company; and on YouTube, individual videos may be voted on positively or negatively by clicking the thumbs-up or thumbs-down icons respectively (which in some previous versions of the site, used to be accompanied by \"Like\" and \"Dislike\" labels, and are still referred as such nowadays), and in the case of a thumbs-up, the video gets added to the user's \"Liked videos\" playlist. See Like button.\n", "Mobile operating system that run on smartphones and tablets typically use a gesture based lock-screen. Phones manufactured by Neonode were unlocked by swiping to the right on its touchscreen. Apple's iOS, used by the iPhone and iPad lines, utilized a similar unlock mechanism until iOS 10, with an on-screen slider slid to the right. Beginning on iOS 5, sliding in the other direction sends the user directly to the camera app. On iOS 7, the slider widget was removed as part of a larger overhaul of the iOS interface, and users could now swipe from any point of the screen. The lock screen also displays a clock, notifications, and provides audio playback controls. iOS 10 made major changes to the lock screen by removing the swiping gesture for accessing the home screen (requiring a touch of the home button). Swiping is still used to access the camera, as well as an additional page to the left with widgets. The iPhone X uses a swipe up gesture to access the home screen once authenticated, as it does not have a physical home button.\n", "The display responds to other sensors: an ambient light sensor to adjust screen brightness and a 3-axis accelerometer to sense iPad orientation and switch between portrait and landscape modes. Unlike the iPhone and iPod Touch's built-in applications, which work in three orientations (portrait, landscape-left and landscape-right), the iPad's built-in applications support screen rotation in all four orientations, including upside-down. Consequently, the device has no intrinsic \"native\" orientation; only the relative position of the home button changes.\n" ]	[ "Iphone home button gets pressed down with finger." ]	[ "There is no button to press down it is just a haptic response to make it feel like there was. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Iphone home button gets pressed down with finger." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "There is no button to press down it is just a haptic response to make it feel like there was. " ]
2018-02009	why if you hang upside down your blood all goes to your head and it hurts, but when you're right side up the blood doesn't all go into your feet and they feel fine?	We evolved to stand upright. So our veins have one-way valves in them that prevent blood from flowing back down toward our feet. But we don't have any such valves to prevent flow in the other direction, because there was no survival pressure for them to evolve.	[ "Section::::Positions.\n\nBULLET::::- Supine position: The most common surgical position. The patient lies with back flat on operating room bed.\n\nBULLET::::- Trendelenburg position: Same as supine position but the upper torso is lowered.\n\nBULLET::::- Reverse Trendelenburg position: Same as supine but upper torso is raised and legs are lowered.\n\nBULLET::::- Fracture Table Position: For hip fracture surgery. Upper torso is in supine position with unaffected leg raised. Affected leg is extended with no lower support. The leg is strapped at the ankle and there is padding in the groin to keep pressure on the leg and hip.\n", "BULLET::::- Jackknife position: Also called the Kraske position. Patient's abdomen lies flat on the bed. The bed is scissored so the hip is lifted and the legs and head are low.\n\nBULLET::::- Knee-chest position: Similar to the jackknife except the legs are bent at the knee at a 90 degree angle.\n\nBULLET::::- Lateral position: Also called the side-lying position, it is like the jackknife except the patient is on his or her side. Other similar positions are Lateral chest and Lateral kidney.\n", "BULLET::::- External Rotation Recurvatum Test - One of the first tests developed to assess the PLC, the external rotation recurvatum test is performed with the patient lying supine. The practitioner stabilizes the distal thigh with one hand while lifting the great toe with the other. The injured side is compared to the healthy one and a positive test is indicated by an increased amount of recurvatum, or hyperextension, in the affected knee. Increased recurvatum indicates possible combined injuries to the posterolateral corner and cruciate ligaments. The increase on recurvatum is best reported as the heel height off the examining table.\n", "Pushing behavior has shown that perception of body posture in relation to gravity is altered. Patients experience their body as oriented \"upright\" when the body is actually tilted to the side of the brain lesion. In addition, patients seem to show no disturbed processing of visual and vestibular inputs when determining subjective visual vertical. In sitting, the push presents as a strong lateral lean toward the affected side and in standing, creates a highly unstable situation as the patient is unable to support their body weight on the weakened lower extremity. The increased risk of falls must be addressed with therapy to correct their altered perception of vertical.\n", "BULLET::::- Weight gain: this is commonly found in patients with large ASD and can be a symptom of developing right-sided heart failure. As there is a chronically increased left-to-right blood flow through the atria, this will lead in the future to right-sided heart failure.\n\nBULLET::::- Ankle edema: This is also caused by a large ASD and has the same symptoms and causes as seen in weight gain and right upper quadrant pain. As blood flow is not happening correctly and the heart is pumping under strain, pooling of blood and fluid will happen in the ankles.\n", "Pseudoclaudication, now generally referred to as neurogenic claudication, typically worsens with standing or walking, and improves with sitting, and is often related to posture and lumbar extension. Lying on the side is often more comfortable than lying flat, since it permits greater lumbar flexion. Vascular claudication can resemble spinal stenosis, and some individuals experience unilateral or bilateral symptoms radiating down the legs rather than true claudication.\n", "On some vinyl pressings of the album, the cover does not crop off their feet. On the \"Deluxe Edition\" case the feet are presented on the back cover, and the band sold an official T-shirt with a shot of the band's feet after the deluxe edition release.\n", "Tripod position\n\nThe tripod position is a physical stance often assumed by people experiencing respiratory distress (such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease patients) or who are simply out of breath (such as a person who has just run a sprint). In tripod position, one sits or stands leaning forward and supporting the upper body with hands on the knees or on another surface. Among medical professionals, a patient adopting the tripod position is considered an indication that the patient may be in respiratory distress. In the setting of chest pain without labored respirations, the tripod position may indicate acute pericarditis.\n", "BULLET::::3. When doing this test, stand facing the patient with your arms outstretched and hands are at the level of the patient’s shoulders to catch or stabilise him/her in case of a positive Romberg’s test.\n\nBULLET::::- Ober's test for tight ITB (IlioTibial Band, also called IlioTibial Tract) performed with patient side lying on unaffected side and the provider extending the affected hip. Stabilize the pelvis and let the affected leg drop. A positive test is indicated if the leg does not adduct to the table.\n", "Right atrial pressure (RAP) is the blood pressure in the right atrium of the heart. RAP reflects the amount of blood returning to the heart and the ability of the heart to pump the blood into the arterial system. RAP is often nearly identical to central venous pressure (CVP), although the two terms are not identical, as a pressure differential can sometimes exist between the venae cavae and the right atrium. CVP and RAP can differ when venous tone (i.e the degree of venous constriction) is altered. This can be graphically depicted as changes in the slope of the venous return plotted against right atrial pressure (where central venous pressure increases, but right atrial pressure stays the same; VR = CVP − RAP).\n", "BULLET::::- Dial Test (anteromedial rotation test)- This test should be executed with the patient lying both supine and prone. When the patient is supine, the knees must be flexed 30° off the table. The thigh is then stabilized and the foot externally rotated. The examiner watches for the tibial tubercle of the affected knee to rotate as the foot rotates, comparing it to the contralateral knee. A positive test will show rotation of greater than 10-15° of rotation compared to the opposite knee. This is most easily assessed with a hand placed over the tibia while testing. When the patient is prone, the knee is flexed to 90° and both feet are externally rotated and compared, noting the difference from the non-injured joint. Similar to the anteromedial drawer test, a false positive test can result from a posterolateral corner injury. Testing at both 30° and 90° helps to distinguish between these injuries: one should monitor where the tibial rotation occurs (anteromedial or posterolateral) in the supine position and also assess for medial or lateral joint line gapping to differentiate between these two injuries.\n", "The patient will need to be in an upright position to enable a proper study of blood flow direction\n", "BULLET::::6. Assisted Trendlenburg test If balance is a problem, face the patient and ask them to place their hands on yours to support him/her as he/she does alternate one-legged stance. Increased asymmetrical pressure on one hand indicates a positive Trendelenburg test, on the side of the abnormal hip\n\nBULLET::::7. A ‘delayed’ Trendelenburg has also been described, where the pelvic tilt appears after a minute or so: this indicates abnormal fatiguability of the hip abductors.\n\nRomberg’s test This assesses proprioception/balance (dorsal columns of spinal cord/spino-cerebellarpathways).\n", "The patient must be placed supine, without the head or any extremities dangling over the edge of the table. Measurement of ankle blood pressures in a seated position will grossly overestimate the ABI (by approximately 0.3).\n", "BULLET::::- Dial Test (posterolateral rotation test) - The dial test can be performed with a patient lying supine or prone. With the patient supine and the knees flexed 30° off the table, stabilize the thigh and externally rotate the foot. As the foot rotates, watch for external rotation of the tibial tubercle of the affected knee compared to the healthy one. A difference of greater than 10-15° indicates a positive test and likely injuries to the posterolateral knee. Next, repeat the test with the patient's knees flexed at 90°. Increased rotation at 90° indicates a combined PCL and posterolateral knee injury. If the rotation decreases compared to 30°, then an isolated PLC injury has occurred. Beware of a possible medial knee injury in the face of a positive dial test.\n", "The use of electrocardiogram (ECG) to measure cardiac chamber hypertrophy is well established but since the left ventricular activity is dominant on the ECG a large degree of RVH is often required for any detectable changes. Nonetheless, the ECG is used to assist with the diagnosis of RVH. A post mortem study on 51 adult male patients concluded that anatomical RVH may be diagnosed using one or more of the following ECG criteria:\n\nBULLET::::- Right axis deviation of more than (or equal to) 110° (see hexaxial reference figure)\n\nBULLET::::- R-wave dominant over S-wave in V1 or V2\n", "When medical professionals use this term to describe the position of a patient, they first state the part of the body on which the patient is resting followed by the word \"decubitus\". For example, the \"right lateral decubitus position\" (RLDP) would mean that the patient is lying on his or her right side. \"Left lateral decubitus position\" (LLDP) would mean that the patient is lying on his or her left side.\n\nAnother example is \"angina decubitus\" 'chest pain while lying down'.\n", "In January 2019, Dirkschneider suffered pain in his right knee and performed as a handicap during U.D.O.'s touring in Europe without causing disappointment to the fans.\n\nSection::::Side Project.\n", "He described what is now universally recognised as \"Romberg's sign\" in his original account of tabes dorsalis (a disease caused by syphilis damaging the back of the spinal cord). He related early symptoms as: \"\"The feet feel numbed in standing, walking or lying down, and the patient has the sensation as if they were covered in fur; the resistance of the ground is not felt...\"\"\n", "In order to make this test more specific, the ankle can be dorsiflexed and the cervical spine flexed. This increases the stretching of the nerve root and dura.\n\nSection::::Interpretation.\n\nIf the patient experiences sciatic pain, and more specifically pain radiating down the leg (radiculopathy), when the straight leg is at an angle of between 30 and 70 degrees, then the test is positive and a herniated disk is a possible cause of the pain. A negative test suggests a likely different cause for back pain.\n", "Rose position\n\nRose position is a position in which a patient is placed while undergoing a tonsillectomy, adenoidectomy or uvulopalatopharyngoplasty.\n\nSection::::Position.\n\nIn this position both the head and neck are extended. This is done by keeping a sand bag under the supine patient's shoulder blade. For a patient with a kyphosis or a stiff neck, the head piece of the table is raised so that the head ring really does support the head. Its contraindicated in patients with Down's syndrome owing to atlanto-axial instability.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Neurogenic claudication may present in one or both legs and usually presents as some combination of discomfort, pain, numbness and weakness in the calves, buttocks, and/or thighs. In some patients, it is precipitated by walking and prolonged standing. The pain is classically relieved by a change in position or flexion of the waist. Although a flexed position may also potentially relieve symptoms, resting typically offers the greatest relief of pain.\n\nTherefore, patients with neurogenic intermittent claudication have less disability in climbing steps, pushing carts and cycling. This is because those movements flex the lumbar spine, and the vertebral foramen widens.\n", "Section::::Variations.:Plus-maze discriminative avoidance test.\n", "BULLET::::- Posterolateral Drawer Test - The posterolateral drawer test is similar to the commonly known posterior drawer test for PCL stability. Have the patient lie on their back with the knee flexed at 90° and externally rotate the foot to approximately 15°. While stabilizing the foot, apply a posterolateral rotation force to the tibia and watch for the amount of posterolateral rotation. Increased mobility and posterolateral rotation compared to the contralateral normal side usually indicates an injury to the popliteus complex.\n", "The field is located at the northern tip of the island of Manhattan, at 218th Street and Broadway. The close proximity of the Spuyten Duyvil Creek, which separates the island from the Bronx, means that the venue's center field fence is extremely shallow in comparison with its left and right field fences.\n\nThe venue hosted the Ivy League Baseball Championship Series in 2010, 2013, and 2014. Dartmouth won the 2010 series, while Columbia swept the opening doubleheader in front of 952 spectators to win the 2013 series. The Lions won again in 2014.\n\nSection::::See also.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-02846	Why do white supremisists adopt the Nazi Swastika and Hitler himself as symbolic of their beliefs when none of them would pass Nazi "racial purity" standards?	You're absolutely correct. However the rise of white supremacy doesn't start off targeting EVERYONE who isn't "pure" rather it starts with obvious targets. Then slowly moves in to a narrower and narrower definition. First they target those who are obviously non-white, then the religions that are "not white" then the religions who stood against them, then the groups that didn't actively support them, then it becomes those who supported them but think differently because they "might" betray them, it just gets narrower and narrower until the staunch supporters realize that they are next.	[ "When Hitler created a flag for the Nazi Party, he sought to incorporate both the Hakenkreuz and \"those revered colors expressive of our homage to the glorious past and which once brought so much honor to the German nation\". (Red, white, and black were the colors of the flag of the old German Empire.) He also stated: \"As National Socialists, we see our program in our flag. In red, we see the social idea of the movement; in white, the nationalistic idea; in the Hakenkreuz, the mission of the struggle for the victory of the Aryan man, and, by the same token, the victory of the idea of creative work.\"\n", "Raelians believe in \"reclaiming\" the swastika by restoring its historical meaning as a symbol of peace and good luck. While the swastika has been used for millennia in the East as a religious symbol of peace and harmony, it is most commonly associated with Nazism in the United States and Western countries since the 1930s.\n", "The New Mexico State University yearbook continued under the name \"The Swastika\" in honour of the traditional meaning of the symbol.\n\nIn January 1999, Civil Rights groups asked the Jefferson County, Alabama Commission to remove nine swastikas carved into stone pillars at the county courthouse in Birmingham, Alabama. The building was completed in 1931 with symbols featuring both left and right facing arms. A commission aide said officials would not consider the request unless there were \"an awful lot of folks worrying us.\"\n", "Many Nazi flags make use of \"Hakenkreuz\", or swastika symbols; however, the swastika is not always used in connection with the National Socialist German Workers' Party movement or of the German Third Reich or the combined German military of 1933–1945. Outside of Nazism, use of swastikas pre-dates the German Third Reich by some 3,000 years. It is possible to display certain non-Nazi swastikas even in areas where Nazi \"hakenkreuz\" swastikas are prohibited.\n\nSection::::Austria.\n", "Section::::Nazism.:Post–World War II stigmatization.:United States.\n\nThe public display of Nazi-era German flags (or any other flags) is protected by the First Amendment to the United States Constitution, which guarantees the right to freedom of speech. The Nazi \"Reichskriegsflagge\" has also been seen on display at white supremacist events within United States borders.\n", "By the late 1980s, Tom Metzger began \"Race and Reason\", a public-access cable television show, airing WAR propaganda and interviewing other neo-Nazis. The show caused much controversy, and its guests included anti-abortion speakers, Holocaust deniers and pro-segregation lawyers. WAR members gained attention through appearances on talk shows throughout the late 1980s.\n\nIn 1988 Metzger, recorded this message on his \"WAR HOTLINE\",\n", "In the United States, some white supremacist groups and terrorists—including several with neo-fascist or neo-Nazi leanings—have built their ideologies around pagan religious imagery, including Odinism or Wotanism. One such group is the White Order of Thule. Founding members of The Order were Wotanists (a racial form of Odinism). Anders Brievik, a Norwegian terrorist who committed the 2011 Oslo attacks, identified himself as an Odinist. Wotanism is another religion that has appeared in the American white supremacist movement and also utilizes imagery derived from paganism. Odalism is a European ideology advocated by the defunct Heathen Front and the National Socialist Black Metal musician Varg Vikernes.\n", "Based on Nuremberg Laws, those who were also classified as ethnic Jews wore a badge comprising a purple triangle superimposed on a yellow triangle.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Identification in Nazi camps\n\nBULLET::::- Nazi concentration camp badges\n\nBULLET::::- Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Nazi Germany\n\nBULLET::::- Religion in Nazi Germany\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Jehovah's Witnesses Stand Firm Against Nazi Assault\n\nBULLET::::- US Holocaust Memorial Museum summary\n\nBULLET::::- \"Jehovah's Witnesses in Germany\" University of Minnesota's Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies\n", "In \" Adolf Hitler described the symbolism of the Nazi flag: \"The red expressed the social thought underlying the movement. White the national thought. And the swastika signified the mission allotted to us-the struggle for the victory of Aryan mankind and at the same time the triumph of the ideal of creative work ...\"\n", "Rockwell and other white supremacists (e.g. Willis Carto) also supported less well-known black separatist groups, such as Hassan Jeru-Ahmed's Blackman's Army of Liberation, in reference to which Rockwell told \"Los Angeles Times\" reporter Michael Drosnin in 1967 that if \"Any Negro wants to go back to Africa, I'll carry him piggy-back.\"\n", "Hitler's choice of the Swastika as the Nazis' main and official symbol was linked to the belief in the Aryan cultural descent of the German people. They considered the early Aryans to be the prototypical white invaders and the sign of the Swastika to be a symbol of the Aryan master race. The theory was inspired by the German archaeologist Gustaf Kossinna, who argued that the ancient Aryans were a superior Nordic race from northern Germany who expanded into the steppes of Eurasia, and from there into India, where they established the Vedic religion.\n", "Following Nazi Germany's defeat in World War II and the end of the Holocaust, overt expressions of support for Nazi ideas were prohibited in Germany and other European countries. Nonetheless, movements which self-identify as National Socialist or which are described as adhering to National Socialism continue to exist on the fringes of politics in many western societies. Usually espousing a white supremacist ideology, many deliberately adopt the symbols of Nazi Germany.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Comparison of Nazism and Stalinism\n\nBULLET::::- Consequences of Nazism\n\nBULLET::::- Fascism in the United States\n\nBULLET::::- Functionalism versus intentionalism\n\nBULLET::::- Italian fascism\n", "That the origins of the Nazi Party can be traced to the lodge organisation of the Thule Society is fact. However, there were only two points in which the NSDAP was a successor to the Thule Society. One is the use of the swastika. Friedrich Krohn, who was responsible for the colour scheme of the Nazi flag, had been a member of the Thule Society and also of the \"Germanenorden\" since 1913. Goodrick-Clarke concludes that the origins of the Nazi symbol can be traced back through the emblems of the Thule Society and the Germanenorden and ultimately to Guido von List, but it is not evident that the Thulean ideology filtered through the DAP into the NSDAP. Goodrick-Clarke implies that ariosophical ideas were of no consequence: \"the DAP line was predominantly one of extreme political and social nationalism, and not based on the Aryan-racist-occult pattern of the Germanenorden [and Thule Society]\". Godwin summarises the differences in outlook which separated the Thule Society from the direction taken by the Nazis:\n", "Some neo-Nazi organizations continue to use the swastika, but many have moved away from such inflammatory symbols of early fascism. Some neo-fascist groups use symbols that are reminiscent of the swastika or other cultural or ancestral symbols that may evoke nationalistic sentiment but do not carry the same racist connotations.\n\nBULLET::::- Crosses:\n\nBULLET::::- Celtic cross – used by neo-Nazi white nationalist groups worldwide, the Italian New Force, Stormfront, David Duke's website and VSBD/PdA, a banned German neo-Nazi party\n\nBULLET::::- Cross crosslet – Lithuanian National Socialist Party\n\nBULLET::::- Sun cross – Nordic Reich Party, Sweden, Knights Party\n", "BULLET::::- Until 2013 in Hungary, it was a criminal misdemeanour to publicly display \"totalitarian symbols\", including the swastika, the SS insignia, and the Arrow Cross, punishable by custodial arrest. Display for academic, educational, artistic or journalistic reasons was allowed at the time. The communist symbols of hammer and sickle and the red star were also regarded as totalitarian symbols and had the same restriction by Hungarian criminal law until 2013.\n", "The ultimate aim for those 11 years during which I have been the Reichsfuehrer SS has been invariably the same: to create an order of good blood which is able to serve Germany; which unfailingly and without sparing itself can be made use of because the greatest losses can do no harm to the vitality of this order, the vitality of these men, because they will always be replaced; to create an order which will spread the idea of Nordic blood so far that we will attract all Nordic blood in the world, take away the blood from our adversaries, absorb it so that never again, looking at it from the viewpoint of grand policy, Nordic blood, in great quantities and to an extent worth mentioning, will fight against us.\n", "The ideology of James H. Madole, leader of the National Renaissance Party, was influenced by Blavatskian Theosophy. Helena Blavatsky developed a racial theory of evolution, holding that the white race was the \"fifth rootrace\" called the Aryan Race. According to Blavatsky, Aryans had been preceded by Atlanteans who had perished in the flood that sunk the continent Atlantis. The three races that preceded the Atlanteans, in Blavatsky's view, were proto-humans; these were the Lemurians, Hyperboreans and the first Astral rootrace. It was on this foundation that Madole based his claims that the Aryan Race has been worshiped as \"White Gods\" since time immemorial and proposed a governance structure based on the Hindu Laws of Manu and its hierarchical caste system.\n", "In the United States, some white supremacist groups and terrorists—including several with neo-fascist or neo-Nazi leanings—have built their ideologies around pagan religious imagery, including Odinism or Wotanism. One such group is the White Order of Thule. Founding members of the Order were Wotanists (a racial form of Odinism). Anders Brievik, a Norwegian terrorist who committed the 2011 Oslo attacks, identified himself as an Odinist. Wotanism is another religion that has appeared in the US white supremacist movement, and also utilizes imagery derived from paganism. Odalism is a European ideology advocated by the defunct Heathen Front and the National Socialist Black Metal musician Varg Vikernes.\n", "Influenced by the guidelines, in a directive sent out to the troops under his command, General Erich Hoepner of the Panzer Group 4 stated:\n\nHeinrich Himmler in a speech to the Eastern Front Battle Group \"Nord\" declared:\n\nDuring the war, Himmler published the pamphlet \"Der Untermensch\" (The Subhuman) which featured photographs of ideal Aryans contrasted with photographs of the ravages of barbarian races (Jews) from the days of Attila and Genghis Khan to massacres in the Jewish-dominated Soviet Union.\n", "As a result, all of its use, or its use as a Nazi or hate symbol, is prohibited in some countries, including Germany. Because of the stigma attached to the symbol, many buildings that have used the symbol as decoration have had the symbol removed. In some countries, such as the United States' \"Virginia v. Black\" 2003 case, the highest courts have ruled that the local governments can prohibit the use of swastika along with other symbols such as cross burning, if the intent of the use is to intimidate others.\n\nSection::::Nazism.:Post–World War II stigmatization.:Germany.\n", "BULLET::::- \"\"White Power, White Pride!\": The White Separatist Movement in the United States\" by Betty A. Dobratz with Stephanie L. Shanks-Meile (hardcover, Twayne Publishers, 1997, ); a.k.a. \"The White Separatist Movement in the United States: White Power White Pride\" (paperback, Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 2000, )\n\nBULLET::::- \"Encyclopedia of White Power: A Sourcebook on the Radical Racist Right\" by Jeffrey Kaplan (Rowman & Littlefield Pub Inc, 2000, )\n\nBULLET::::- \"Blood in the Face: The Ku Klux Klan, Aryan Nations, Nazi Skinheads, and the Rise of a New White Culture\" by James Ridgeway (Thunder's Mouth Press; 2nd edition, 1995, )\n", "Section::::Heinrich Himmler and the SS.\n\nCredited retrospectively with being the founder of \"Esoteric Hitlerism\", and certainly a figure of major importance for the officially sanctioned research and practice of mysticism by a Nazi elite, was Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler who, more than any other high official in the Third Reich (including Hitler) was fascinated by pan-Aryan (i.e., broader than Germanic) racialism. Himmler's capacity for rational planning was accompanied by an \"enthusiasm for the utopian, the romantic and even the occult.\"\n", "Some writers came before the Nazi era and their writings were incorporated into Nazi ideology:\n\nBULLET::::- Madame Blavatsky (1831–1891), founder of Theosophy and the Theosophical Society. Guido von List took up some of Blavatsky's racial theories, and mixed them with nationalism to create Ariosophy, a precursor of Nazi ideology. Ariosophy emphasized intellectual expositions of racial evolution. The Thule Society was one of several German occult groups drawing on Ariosophy to preach Aryan supremacy. It provides a direct link between occult racial theories and the racial ideology of Hitler and the emerging Nazi party.\n", "In the United States the pivotal case involving National Socialist Party occurred in 1977. In Nationalist Socialist Party v. Village of Skokie the Supreme Court of the Illinois declared the symbol of the swastika to be protected under the First Amendment, which permitted further advances of the party within the US including a planned march in the town of Skokie. In its decision the Court specifically stated that the swastika, and other nazi memorabilia, do not constitute “fighting words”, a term coined by Justice Murphy in the landmark free speech case Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire. This made a clear statement of the Court’s protection of free speech involving the NSP, considering the fact that the town of Skokie had a large population of Holocaust survivors. This case was cited by Justice O’Connor in 2003 when she gave the majority opinion in Virginia v. Black which dealt with KKK member’s ritual of burning a cross. Skokie was cited reiterate the fact that the Court holds a robust interpretation of the first amendment that even protects hateful speech.\n", "In Germany, Spain and the Netherlands, the Lonsdale clothing brand has been popular among some neo-Nazi skinheads. This was partly because the four middle letters of Lonsdale, \"NSDA\", are almost the same as the abbreviation for the name of Adolf Hitler's political party, the Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (NSDAP). The Lonsdale brand has been popular with non-racist skinheads for decades, and the company has sponsored anti-racist events and campaigns, and has refused to deliver products to known neo-Nazi retailers.\n\nSection::::Notable organizations with white power skinhead members.\n\nBULLET::::- Alt-Right\n\nBULLET::::- Aryan Brotherhood\n\nBULLET::::- Aryan Guard\n\nBULLET::::- Blood and Honour\n\nBULLET::::- British Movement\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04688	Why do scientists try to find oxygen to find life on other planets? Aren´t other forms of life-based on other chemical elements possible?	Usually we're looking for water, not oxygen. And this is because all life on Earth as we know it requires water, and since this is our only example of actual life, we are looking for similar conditions elsewhere. Is it possible? Sure. But we don't know if it actually happens/exists so we're looking for signs based on what we DO know.	[ "Hypothetical types of biochemistry are forms of biochemistry speculated to be scientifically viable but not proven to exist at this time. The kinds of living organisms currently known on Earth all use carbon compounds for basic structural and metabolic functions, water as a solvent, and DNA or RNA to define and control their form. If life exists on other planets or moons, it may be chemically similar; it is also possible that there are organisms with quite different chemistries—for instance, involving other classes of carbon compounds, compounds of another element, or another solvent in place of water.\n", "It is generally assumed that any extraterrestrial life that might exist will be based on the same fundamental biochemistry as found on Earth, as the four elements most vital for life, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, are also the most common chemically reactive elements in the universe. Indeed, simple biogenic compounds, such as very simple amino acids such as glycine, have been found in meteorites and in the interstellar medium. These four elements together comprise over 96% of Earth's collective biomass. Carbon has an unparalleled ability to bond with itself and to form a massive array of intricate and varied structures, making it an ideal material for the complex mechanisms that form living cells. Hydrogen and oxygen, in the form of water, compose the solvent in which biological processes take place and in which the first reactions occurred that led to life's emergence. The energy released in the formation of powerful covalent bonds between carbon and oxygen, available by oxidizing organic compounds, is the fuel of all complex life-forms. These four elements together make up amino acids, which in turn are the building blocks of proteins, the substance of living tissue. In addition, neither sulfur, required for the building of proteins, nor phosphorus, needed for the formation of DNA, RNA, and the adenosine phosphates essential to metabolism, is rare.\n", "Some scientists have reported methods of detecting hydrogen and methane in extraterrestrial atmospheres. Habitability indicators and biosignatures must be interpreted within a planetary and environmental context. For example, the presence of oxygen and methane together could indicate the kind of extreme thermochemical disequilibrium generated by life. Two of the top 14,000 proposed atmospheric biosignatures are dimethyl sulfide and chloromethane (). An alternative biosignature is the combination of methane and carbon dioxide.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Atmospheric.:Methane on Mars.\n", "Oxygen is essential to all life. Plants and phytoplankton photosynthesize water and carbon dioxide and water, both oxides, in the presence of sunlight to form sugars with the release of oxygen. The sugars are then turned into such substances as cellulose and (with nitrogen and often sulfur) proteins and other essential substances of life. Animals especially but also fungi and bacteria ultimately depend upon photosynthesizing plants and phytoplankton for food and oxygen.\n", "There are geological and atmospheric processes that produce free oxygen, so the detection of oxygen is not necessarily an indication of life.\n", "BULLET::::- Boranes are dangerously explosive in Earth's atmosphere, but would be more stable in a reducing environment. However, boron's low cosmic abundance makes it less likely as a base for life than carbon.\n", "BULLET::::- Various metals, together with oxygen, can form very complex and thermally stable structures rivaling those of organic compounds; the heteropoly acids are one such family. Some metal oxides are also similar to carbon in their ability to form both nanotube structures and diamond-like crystals (such as cubic zirconia). Titanium, aluminium, magnesium, and iron are all more abundant in the Earth's crust than carbon. Metal-oxide-based life could therefore be a possibility under certain conditions, including those (such as high temperatures) at which carbon-based life would be unlikely. The Cronin group at Glasgow University reported self-assembly of tungsten polyoxometalates into cell-like spheres. By modifying their metal oxide content, the spheres can acquire holes that act as porous membrane, selectively allowing chemicals in and out of the sphere according to size.\n", "The possibility of life-forms being based on \"alternative\" biochemistries is the topic of an ongoing scientific discussion, informed by what is known about extraterrestrial environments and about the chemical behaviour of various elements and compounds. It is also a common subject in science fiction.\n", "BULLET::::- The Orion's Arm Universe Project, an online collaborative science-fiction project, includes a number of extraterrestrial species with exotic biochemistries, including organisms based on low-temperature carbohydrate chemistry, organisms that consume and live within sulfuric acid, and organisms composed of structured magnetic flux tubes within neutron stars or gas giant cores.\n\nBULLET::::- In Muv-Luv Alternative, BETA aliens, while being carbon-based life forms, were made by silicone-based extra terrestrial creators, whom do not see carbon-based life forms capable of achieving intelligence.\n", "Since Ward & Brownlee's assertion that \"there is irrefutable evidence that oxygen is a necessary ingredient for animal life\", anaerobic metazoa have been found that indeed do metabolise without oxygen. Spinoloricus nov. sp., for example, a species discovered in the hypersaline anoxic L'Atalante basin at the bottom of the Mediterranean Sea in 2010, appears to metabolise with hydrogen, lacking mitochondria and instead using hydrogenosomes. Stevenson (2015) has proposed other membrane alternatives for complex life in worlds without oxygen. In 2017, scientists from the NASA Astrobiology Institute discovered the necessary chemical preconditions for the formation of azotosomes on Saturn's moon Titan, a world that lacks atmospheric oxygen. Independent studies by Schirrmeister and by Mills concluded that Earth's multicellular life existed prior to the Great Oxygenation Event, not as a consequence of it.\n", "Carbon is the 15th most abundant element in the Earth's crust, and the fourth most abundant element in the universe by mass after hydrogen, helium, and oxygen. Carbon's abundance, its unique diversity of organic compounds, and its unusual ability to form polymers at the temperatures commonly encountered on Earth enables this element to serve as a common element of all known life. It is the second most abundant element in the human body by mass (about 18.5%) after oxygen.\n", "There are not many other elements which even appear to be promising candidates for supporting life, for example, processes such as metabolism. The most frequently suggested alternative is silicon. Silicon is in the same group in the Periodic Table of elements, and has four valence bonds, and bonds to itself, generally in the form of crystal lattices rather than long chains. It is considerably more electropositive than carbon. Silicon compounds do not readily recombine into different permutations in a manner that would plausibly support lifelike processes.\n\nSection::::Key molecules.\n", "Aside from water, life also needs sources of energy to survive. The abundance of superoxides makes life on the surface of Mars very unlikely, which essentially rules out sunlight as a possible source of energy for life. Therefore, alternative sources of energy must be searched for, such as geothermal and chemical energy. These sources, which are both used by life forms on Earth, could be used by microscopic life forms living under the Mars' surface.\n", "The element silicon has been much discussed as a hypothetical alternative to carbon. Silicon is in the same group as carbon on the periodic table and, like carbon, it is tetravalent. Hypothetical alternatives to water include ammonia, which, like water, is a polar molecule, and cosmically abundant; and non-polar hydrocarbon solvents such as methane and ethane, which are known to exist in liquid form on the surface of Titan.\n\nSection::::Overview.\n\n\"NOTES:\" All information referenced and cited below.\n\nSection::::Overview.:Alternative-chirality biomolecules.\n", "When looking for life on other planets like Earth, some simplifying assumptions are useful to reduce the size of the task of the astrobiologist. One is the informed assumption that the vast majority of life forms in our galaxy are based on carbon chemistries, as are all life forms on Earth. Carbon is well known for the unusually wide variety of molecules that can be formed around it. Carbon is the fourth most abundant element in the universe and the energy required to make or break a bond is at just the appropriate level for building molecules which are not only stable, but also reactive. The fact that carbon atoms bond readily to other carbon atoms allows for the building of extremely long and complex molecules.\n", "The performance of oxygen scavengers is affected by ambient temperature and relative humidity.\n\nNewer packaging technologies may use oxygen scavenging polymers to prevent accidental ingestion of oxygen scavengers.\n\nSection::::Non-ferrous oxygen scavengers.\n\nWhile most standard oxygen scavengers contain ferrous carbonate and a metal halide catalyst, there are several non-ferrous variants, such as ascorbate, sodium hydrogen carbonate, citrus and others available.\n", "Moreover, boron has been suggested to be necessary for life to form. Its presence stabilizes the sugar ribose which is an ingredient in RNA. Ribose would rapidly decompose in water without boron being present. On Earth, boron compounds may have been needed to link the organic compounds that were produced without life into RNA-like molecules that were used for the very first life forms. \n\nSection::::Structure of RNA.\n", "Single nucleotides have been shown to catalyze organic reactions.\n\nSteven Benner has argued that chemical conditions on the planet Mars, such as the presence of boron, molybdenum and oxygen, may have been better for initially producing RNA molecules than those on Earth. If so, life-suitable molecules, originating on Mars, may have later migrated to Earth via panspermia or similar process.\n\nSection::::Alternative hypotheses.\n", "Every possible biosignature is associated with its own set of unique false positive mechanisms, or non-biological processes that can mimic the detectable feature of a biosignature. An important example of this is using oxygen as a biosignature. On Earth, the majority of life is centered around oxygen. It is a byproduct of photosynthesis and it is subsequently used by other forms of life to breathe. Oxygen is also readily detectable in spectra, with multiple bands across a relatively wide wavelength range, therefore it makes a very good biosignature. However, finding oxygen alone in a planet's atmosphere is not enough to confirm a biosignature because of the false positive mechanisms associated with it. One possibility is that oxygen can build up abiotically via photolysis if there is a low inventory of non-condensible gasses or if it loses a lot of water. Finding and distinguishing a biosignature from its potential false positive mechanisms is one of the most complicated parts of testing for viability because it relies on human ingenuity to break an abiotic-biological degeneracy, if nature allows.\n", "About 29 chemical elements play an active role in living organisms on Earth. About 95% of living matter is built upon only six elements: carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus and sulfur. These six elements form the basic building blocks of virtually all life on Earth, whereas most of the remaining elements are found only in trace amounts. The unique characteristics of carbon make it unlikely that it could be replaced, even on another planet, to generate the biochemistry necessary for life. The carbon atom has the unique ability to make four strong chemical bonds with other atoms, including other carbon atoms. These covalent bonds have a direction in space, so that carbon atoms can form the skeletons of complex 3-dimensional structures with definite architectures such as nucleic acids and proteins. Carbon forms more compounds than all other elements combined. The great versatility of the carbon atom, and its abundance in the visible universe, makes it the element most likely to provide the bases—even exotic ones—for the chemical composition of life on other planets.\n", "The presence of molecular oxygen () may be detectable by ground-based telescopes, and it can be produced by geophysical processes, as well as a byproduct of photosynthesis by life forms, so although encouraging, is not a reliable biosignature. In fact, planets with high concentration of in their atmosphere may be uninhabitable. Abiogenesis in the presence of massive amounts of atmospheric oxygen could be difficult because early organisms relied on the free energy available in redox reactions involving a variety of hydrogen compounds; on an -rich planet, organisms would have to compete with the oxygen for this free energy.\n", "For early work in this area, a science project by David and John Watkins at Fairborn High School tested use of chlorella pyrenoidosa to support generation of oxygen for use in space missions. This was reported in the January 31, 1959 edition of the Fairborn Daily Herald and the project went on to win a top ranking at the Ohio State science fair in Columbus Ohio that year. The brothers were 14 and 13 years old at the time and based part of their work on information from the Kettering Foundation.\n", "All life forms require certain core chemical elements needed for biochemical functioning. These include carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur—the elemental macronutrients for all organisms—often represented by the acronym CHNOPS. Together these make up nucleic acids, proteins and lipids, the bulk of living matter. Five of these six elements comprise the chemical components of DNA, the exception being sulfur. The latter is a component of the amino acids cysteine and methionine. The most biologically abundant of these elements is carbon, which has the desirable attribute of forming multiple, stable covalent bonds. This allows carbon-based (organic) molecules to form an immense variety of chemical arrangements. Alternative hypothetical types of biochemistry have been proposed that eliminate one or more of these elements, swap out an element for one not on the list, or change required chiralities or other chemical properties.\n", "Silicon compounds may possibly be biologically useful under temperatures or pressures different from the surface of a terrestrial planet, either in conjunction with or in a role less directly analogous to carbon. Polysilanols, the silicon compounds corresponding to sugars, are soluble in liquid nitrogen, suggesting that they could play a role in very-low-temperature biochemistry.\n", "The spectroscopy of molecular oxygen is associated with the atmospheric processes of aurora and airglow. The absorption in the Herzberg continuum and Schumann–Runge bands in the ultraviolet produces atomic oxygen that is important in the chemistry of the middle atmosphere. Excited state singlet molecular oxygen is responsible for red chemiluminescence in solution.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Isotopes and stellar origin.\n\nNaturally occurring oxygen is composed of three stable isotopes, O, O, and O, with O being the most abundant (99.762% natural abundance).\n" ]	[ "Scientists try to look for signs of life in the universe by detecting oxygen.", "We are looking for oxygen to find life." ]	[ "Scientists look for water on other planets because they use the fact that life on earth needs water for reference.", "We are looking for water to find life. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Scientists try to look for signs of life in the universe by detecting oxygen.", "We are looking for oxygen to find life." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Scientists look for water on other planets because they use the fact that life on earth needs water for reference.", "We are looking for water to find life. " ]
2018-08116	Why is it that we have a single packet of food that can give all the required nutrition to sustain our pets, but we can't do the same for humans?	You can do the same for humans and a few companies have tried over the years, but humans are easily bored and don't like eating nutrient paste for every meal. Your dog doesn't really get a choice.	[ "In 2015, an estimated 77.8 million dogs and 85.6 millions cats were living in the USA. The consumer desire to feed their pets premium foods which advertise healthy and human-grade ingredients coupled with the increasing prevalence of pet ownership is causing increased pressure on the meat industry which could result in increased land usage for raising livestock to meet the growing demand. In a study conducted by Okin in 2017, he suggests that if a quarter of all animal protein used in the food of American pets was human-grade, it would be equivalent to the energy needs of 5 million Americans. Okin uses an estimate of 33% of an animal's energy needs is derived from animal products; however, this is conservative in that many diets now have more than 33% of their diet in animal protein alone. Lowering protein levels in feline diets may help to improve the sustainability of both the human and pet food system by decreasing pressure on livestock agriculture and ultimately improving environmental effects.\n", "Based on 2004 numbers, cats in the US consume the caloric equivalent of what 192,000 (0.0655187%) Americans consume. While pet food is made predominantly using byproducts from human food productions, the increase in popularity of human-grade and byproduct-free pet food means there is increasing pressure on the overall meat supply.\n\nSection::::Environmental impact.:Protein.\n", "New food technologies can also offer solutions to malnutrition. According to the WHO (World Health Organization) approximately 30% of the global population is malnourished. It is suggested that by 2020 the whole European Union will consume less food than China and India together.\n\nSection::::Respirable food.\n\nHarvard University professor David Edwards has invented a device called 'Le Whiff'. It helps to spray chocolate. Later this device was developed and on American market it appeared as 'Le Whaf'. Ten minutes of usage of such device provides 200 calories.\n\nSection::::Printed food.\n", "BULLET::::- Likewise, during the Siege of Paris in the Franco-Prussian War, the menu in Parisian cafes was not limited to cats but also dogs, rats, horses, donkeys, camels, and even elephants.\n\nBULLET::::- During the Japanese occupation of Malaya, due to a severe shortage of rice, the locals resorted to surviving on hardy tuberous roots such as cassava, sweet potato, and yam.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Waltham Book of Companion Animal Nutrition\", 15 July 1993, Butterworth–Heinemann, 136pp,\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Waltham Book of Human Animal Interaction\", 30 September 1995,Butterworth–Heinemann , 148pp, HC 0-08-042285-3 PB\n\nBULLET::::- \"Waltham pocket book of essential nutrition for cats and dogs. 2nd edition\", 2012\n\nBULLET::::- \"Waltham pocket book of human animal interactions\", 2012\n\nBULLET::::- \"Waltham pocket book of puppy nutrition and care\", 2012\n\nBULLET::::- \"Waltham pocket book of healthy weight maintenance for cats and dogs\", 2010\n\nSection::::Structure.\n", "Section::::Anarchy against capitalism.:Effect on the economy.:Lack of nutrition in neoliberalism.\n", "Section::::Feeding human foods to animals.\n\nPrepared foods and some raw ingredients may be toxic for animals, and care should be taken when feeding animals leftover food. It is known that the following foods are potentially unsafe for cats, dogs and pigs:\n\nBULLET::::- Chocolate, coffee-based products and soft drinks\n\nBULLET::::- Raisins and grapes\n\nBULLET::::- Macadamia nuts\n\nBULLET::::- Garlic (in large doses) and onions\n\nBULLET::::- Alcohol\n", "Frances Moore Lappé, later co-founder of the Institute for Food and Development Policy (Food First) argued in \"Diet for a Small Planet\" (1971) that vegetarian diets can provide food for larger populations, with the same resources, compared to omnivorous diets.\n", "Section::::Potential risks of a plant-based diet.:Homemade diets.:Inadequate feeding recommendations.\n\nFeeding instructions for homemade diets often lack clarity. Improper or excluded caloric information and body weight recommendations increase the risk of energy over-consumption leading to obesity. Dogs can also be undernourished and develop deficiency symptoms. Vague feeding guidelines can contribute to poor weight management because ideal body weight values are not communicated to the consumer.\n\nSection::::Processing.\n", "BULLET::::- The Observer Tech Monthly: A world in which we all consume the same food will end up with a serving of disaster\n\nBULLET::::- The Wall Street Journal: Simran Sethi Drills Down Into the Taste of Home\n\nBULLET::::- The Boston Globe: Review of \"Bread, Wine, Chocolate\"\n\nBULLET::::- The Salt (NPR): Why Eating Out Alone Doesn’t Have To Be Lonely\n\nBULLET::::- Civil Eats: Saving Bread, Wine, and Chocolate\n\nBULLET::::- Marie Claire: These 8 Women Are Saving The Planet As We Know It\n\nBULLET::::- USA TODAY: Six actions you can take to battle extreme weather\n", "Consumers are directly and indirectly responsible for wasting a lot of food, which could for a large part be avoided if they were willing to accept suboptimal food (SOF) that deviates in sensory characteristics (odd shapes, discolourations) or has a best-before date that is approaching or has passed, but is still perfectly fine to eat. COSUS (COnsumers in a SUStainable food supply chain) is a SUSFOOD ERA-net research project under the topic 'Understanding consumer behaviour to encourage a (more) sustainable food choice'.\n\nSection::::Extent.\n\nSection::::Extent.:Global extent.\n", "Deficient micronutrients can be provided through fortifying foods. Fortifying foods such as peanut butter sachets (see Plumpy'Nut) have revolutionized emergency feeding in humanitarian emergencies because they can be eaten directly from the packet, do not require refrigeration or mixing with scarce clean water, can be stored for years and, vitally, can be absorbed by extremely ill children.\n", "According to Dr. Marion Nestle, former chair of the Department of Nutrition, Food Studies, and Public Health at New York University, \"There’s a great deal of money at stake in what these guidelines say.\" Talking about her work as an HHS and USDA expert, she said \"I was told we could never say ‘eat less meat’ because USDA would not allow it.\"\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- 5 A Day\n\nBULLET::::- Food and Nutrition Service\n\nBULLET::::- Food guide pyramid\n\nBULLET::::- Food pyramid\n\nBULLET::::- Food Balance Wheel\n\nBULLET::::- Healthy diet\n\nBULLET::::- Healthy eating pyramid\n\nBULLET::::- Human nutrition\n\nBULLET::::- MyPyramid\n\nBULLET::::- Nutrition Education\n", "According to \"Cooking Light\", \"This report was developed by experts in food sustainability, food security, nutrition, human rights and agriculture to help us understand how to eat for optimal health and a healthier planet.\" Eleanor Beardsley of NPR's \"Morning Edition\" said, \"As it turns out, the way we humans eat is very much linked to preserving wildlife — and many other issues.\" Claiming a 60% decline in wildlife populations since 1970, David Edwards of WWF advocates addressing \"the drivers of habitat loss and species collapse\", identifying the biggest driver as global farming. \n", "Section::::North America.:Food aid for pets.\n", "Chronic (or permanent) food insecurity is defined as the long-term, persistent lack of adequate food. In this case, households are constantly at risk of being unable to acquire food to meet the needs of all members. \n\nChronic and transitory food insecurity are linked, since the reoccurrence of transitory food security can make households more vulnerable to chronic food insecurity.\n\nSection::::Effects of food insecurity.\n\nFamine and hunger are both rooted in food insecurity. Chronic food insecurity translates into a high degree of vulnerability to famine and hunger; ensuring food security presupposes elimination of that vulnerability.\n", "As a backup plan, it is even possible that humans could eat this predigested biomass. In a sun-obscuring crisis, stored food would last the human population less than one year. The book shows how many of these solutions can be ramped up in less than one year.\n\nThis book also addresses other issues, including energy supply, water supply, forest products, human nutrition, and preserving endangered species. Furthermore, the book gives instructions for the prepper movement.\n\nSection::::Criticisms.\n", "The solution to hunger and poverty can be found by increasing the amount of food intake per individual. The amount to increase by depends on how much food is needed to carry out day-to-day tasks. Some challenges that this solution faces are: having enough money to afford the cost of food, having the food supply, and having a sufficient supply of nutritional foods. Also, having the education on what foods to buy and which are nutritional can be an issue. These are all factors that can cause a food policy to fail.\n", "Pollan concludes that the fast food meal and the hunter-gatherer meal are \"equally unreal and equally unsustainable\". He believes that if we were once again aware of the source of our food – what it was, where it came from, how it traveled to reach us, and its true cost – we would see that we \"eat by the grace of nature, not industry\".\n\nSection::::Summary.:Veganism.\n", "In 1989, Donald Knuth published a paper recounting lessons from the development of his TeX Typesetting software, in which the benefits of the approach were mentioned:\n\nSection::::Alternative terms.\n", "Pollan argues that to \"give up\" human consumption of animals would lead to a \"food chain…even more dependent than it already is on fossil fuels and chemical fertilizers since food would need to travel even farther and fertility—in the form of manures—would be in short supply\". Given that, according to Pollan, other than raising ruminants for human consumption, no viable alternatives exist in such grassy areas, for growing any grains or other plant foods for human consumption.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nThe idea of preparing specialized food for cats came later than for dogs (see dog biscuits and dog food). This was likely due to the idea that cats could readily fend for themselves. In 1837, a French writer Mauny de Mornay critiqued this idea:\n\nIn 1844, another French writer expanded on this idea:\n\nHe goes on to say that it is all the more unreasonable to expect a cat to live from hunting in that cats take mice more for amusement than to eat: \"A good cat takes many and eats few\".\n", "Section::::Barriers to CFS.\n\nThere are many barriers to CFS. These barriers relate to the complexity of the concept, the difficulty of data collection, and the lack of political will among those in power to make effective changes a reality.\n\nSection::::Barriers to CFS.:Complexity.\n", "In 2002, Dr. John McDougall wrote a correction to the American Heart Association for a 2001 publication that questioned the completeness of plant proteins, and further asserted that \"it is impossible to design an amino acid–deficient diet based on the amounts of unprocessed starches and vegetables sufficient to meet the calorie needs of humans.\"\n\nLater that year, Dr. Andrew Weil wrote that \"you don’t have to worry that you won’t get enough usable protein if you don’t put together some magical combination of foods at each meal.\"\n", "Cellulosic biofuel production typically already creates sugar as an intermediate product. There are edible calories in leaves, but there is too much dietary fiber, so solutions include making tea, chewing and not swallowing the solids, and making leaf protein concentrate. Biomass can be predigested by bacteria so that animals that are poor at digesting cellulose can derive nutrition, such as rats and possibly chickens.\n" ]	[ "There isn't a single packet of food that gives required nutrition to humans." ]	[ "Companies have made food packets, but humans prefer variety." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "There isn't a single packet of food that gives required nutrition to humans.", "There isn't a single packet of food that gives required nutrition to humans." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Companies have made food packets, but humans prefer variety.", "Companies have made food packets, but humans prefer variety." ]
2018-05058	Why is our stomach "in knots" when we are stressed out or worried?	There are several things. Your guts is has the [vagus nerve]( URL_0 ) going from your brain to your guts. Therefore, some psychological issues can affect your digestive system. Like a headache can cause vomiting (it's not the only cause of vomiting, however). The other thing is the [sympathetic nervous sytem]( URL_1 ). The sympathetic nervous system is responsible for fight-or-flight response, which causes changes in your guts to facilitate your ability to fight or run. When you're stressed or worried, you're at a heightened state of mind (you're in the fight-or-flight mode), therefore, your sympathetic system is active.	[ "\"Psychosomatic disease states in monkeys and the limbic system\" was the result of Foltz’ investigation of chaired \"executive\" monkeys. They were trained to conditioned avoidance and \"conditioned stress,\" and monitored as to agitate states by the degree of lever pulling and the effect on intestinal motility (direct contraction measurements). The study proved that cingulotomy reduced the agitated responses, thus modifying lever pulling to an efficient level and reducing the increased gut motility.\n", "Anger, happiness, joy, stress, and excitement are some of the feelings that can be experienced in life. In response to these emotions, our bodies react as well. For example, nervousness can lead to the sensation of knots in the stomach.\n", "People with anxiety and mood disorders tend to have gastrointestinal problems; small studies have been conducted to compare the gut flora of people with major depressive disorder and healthy people, but those studies have had contradictory results.\n", "Likewise, chronic or acutely stressful situations activate the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis, causing changes in the gut flora and intestinal epithelium, and possibly having systemic effects. Additionally, the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway, signaling through the vagus nerve, affects the gut epithelium and flora. Hunger and satiety are integrated in the brain, and the presence or absence of food in the gut and types of food present, also affect the composition and activity of gut flora.\n", "Another emotion with a bodily effect that can be measured by EGG is that of stress. When the body is stressed and engages in the fight-or-flight response, blood flow is directed to the muscles in the arms and legs and away from the digestive system. This loss of blood flow slows the digestive system, and this slowing can be seen on the EGG. However, this response can vary from person to person and situation to situation.\n", "The parasympathetic nervous system originates in the sacral spinal cord and medulla, physically surrounding the sympathetic origin, and works in concert with the sympathetic nervous system. Its main function is to activate the \"rest and digest\" response and return the body to homeostasis after the fight or flight response. This system utilises and activates the release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Reaction.\n", "Section::::Structure.:Autonomic nervous system.:Sympathetic nervous system.\n\nThe sympathetic system is activated during a “fight or flight” situation in which mental stress or physical danger is encountered. Neurotransmitters such as norepinephrine, and epinephrine are released, which increases heart rate and blood flow in certain areas like muscle, while simultaneously decreasing activities of non-critical functions for survival, like digestion. The systems are independent to each other, which allows activation of certain parts of the body, while others remain rested.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Autonomic nervous system.:Parasympathetic nervous system.\n", "The perception of a \"threat\" may also trigger an associated ‘feeling of distress’.\n\nPhysiological reactions triggered by mind cannot differentiate both the physical or mental threat separately, Hence the \"fight-or-flight\" response of mind for the both reactions will be same.\n\nSection::::Duration of threat and its different physiological effects on the nervous system..\n", "This response is recognised as the first stage of the general adaptation syndrome that regulates stress responses among vertebrates and other organisms.\n\nSection::::Physiology.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Autonomic nervous system.\n\nThe autonomic nervous system is a control system that acts largely unconsciously and regulates heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, pupillary response, urination, and sexual arousal. This system is the primary mechanism in control of the fight-or-flight response and its role is mediated by two different components: the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Autonomic nervous system.:Sympathetic nervous system.\n", "Another related biological system that regulates stress response is the autonomic nervous system. In general, the sympathetic system is activated during times of stress and the parasympathetic system acts to decrease physical readiness for stress. These systems are sometimes called the “fight-or-flight” and “rest-or-digest” systems, respectively, and operate in a balance, as opposed to being totally on or off. Researchers can approximate the relative balance by looking at skin conductance, blood pressure and heart rate. Studies of this kind provided hard evidence that avoidant infants were truly distressed during the strange situation task despite their minimally distressed appearance as they showed elevations in heart rate when caregivers were away and took longer to return to baseline when the caregiver returned in comparison to securely attached infants. Studies of skin conductance and heart rate in adults have shown that those with avoidant attachment and anxious attachment will show markers of increased distress during attachment and non-attachment stressors compared to those securely attached.\n", "Additionally, there is a link between the gut microbiome, mood disorders and anxiety, and sleep. The microbial composition of the gut microbiome changes depending on the time of day, meaning that throughout the day, the gut is exposed to varying metabolites produced by the microbes active during that time. These time-dependent microbial changes are associated with differences in the transcription of circadian clock genes involved in circadian rhythm. One mouse study showed that altering clock gene transcription by disrupting circadian rhythm, such as through sleep deprivation, potentially has a direct effect on the composition of the gut microbiome. Another study found that mice that could not produce the CLOCK protein, made by a clock gene, were more likely to develop depression. Stress and sleep disturbances can lead to greater gut mucosal permeability via activation of the HPA axis. This in turn causes immune inflammatory responses that contribute to the development of illnesses that cause depression and anxiety.\n", "Whenever a person moves, to lift something or simply to move from one position to another, the core region is tensed first. This tension is usually made unconsciously and in conjunction with a change in breathing pattern. An example to try is to sit in a chair and to reach forward over a table to pick up a cup. This movement is first accompanied by a tension in the core region of the abdomen and can be felt by placing one hand on the abdomen as the movement is made.\n", "Long reflexes to the digestive system involve a sensory neuron sending information to the brain, which integrates the signal and then sends messages to the digestive system. While in some situations, the sensory information comes from the GI tract itself; in others, information is received from sources other than the GI tract. When the latter situation occurs, these reflexes are called feedforward reflexes. This type of reflex includes reactions to food or danger triggering effects in the GI tract. Emotional responses can also trigger GI response such as the butterflies in the stomach feeling when nervous. The feedforward and emotional reflexes of the GI tract are considered cephalic reflexes.\n", "This model explains pathological worry to be an interaction between involuntary (bottom-up) processes, such as habitual biases in attention and interpretation favoring threat content, and voluntary (top-down) processes, such as attentional control. Emotional processing biases influence the probability of threat representations into the awareness as intruding negative or positive thoughts. At a pre-conscious level, these processes influence the competition among mental representations in which some correspond to the assertive power of worry with impaired cognitive process and others to the preventive power of worry with attentional control or exhaustive vigilance. The biases determine threatening degree and nature of worry content the worrier attempts to resolve the perceived threat and the redirection of anticipations, responses and coping in such situations.\n", "All of these examples are part of a larger theory of a brain–gut connection. This theory states that the vagus nerve provides a direct link between the brain and the gut so that emotions can affect stomach rhythms and vice versa. This idea originated in the mid-1800s when Alexis St. Martin, a man with a gunshot-induced fistula in his abdomen, experienced lower secretions of digestive juices and a slower stomach emptying when he was upset. In this case, the emotions St. Martin was feeling affected his physiological reaction, but the reverse can also be true. In a study with Crohn's disease patients where patients and unaffected controls watched happy, frightening, disgusting, and saddening films, patients with active Crohn's disease had more responsive EGG (a greater physiological response) and reported feeling more aroused when feeling the negative emotions of disgust or sadness. This leads researchers to believe that increased physiological activation can influence increased experience of emotions. Another study published in 1943 that studied the fistulated man Tom discovered that if \"Tom was fearful or depressed his gastic activity decreased but when he was angry or hostile his gastric activity increased\". This finding is contrasted by an EGG study by Ercolani et al. who had subjects perform either difficult or easy mental arithmetic or puzzles. They found that new tasks slowed down the myoelectrical activity of the stomach, suggesting that stress tends to impede gastric activity and that this can be picked up on an EGG. While there is still much research to be done on the brain-gut connection, research thus far has indeed shown that your stomach does indeed churn differently when you are emotionally aroused, and this could be the basis of the gut feeling that many people describe experiencing.\n", "Interest in the field was sparked by a 2004 study (Nobuyuki Sudo and Yoichi Chida) showing that germ-free mice (genetically homogeneous laboratory mice, birthed and raised in an antiseptic environment) showed an exaggerated HPA axis response to stress compared to non-GF laboratory mice.\n", "Interest in the field was sparked by a 2004 study showing that germ-free (GF) mice showed an exaggerated HPA axis response to stress compared to non-GF laboratory mice.\n", "Section::::Cause.:Stress.\n\nPublications suggesting the role of brain-gut \"axis\" appeared in the 1990s and childhood physical and psychological abuse is often associated with the development of IBS. It is believed that psychological stress may trigger IBS in predisposed individuals.\n", "The sympathetic nervous system originates in the spinal cord and its main function is to activate the physiological changes that occur during the fight-or-flight response. This component of the autonomic nervous system utilises and activates the release of norepinephrine in the reaction.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Autonomic nervous system.:Parasympathetic nervous system.\n", "The specific components of cognitions in the fight or flight response seem to be largely negative. These negative cognitions may be characterised by: attention to negative stimuli, the perception of ambiguous situations as negative, and the recurrence of recalling negative words. There also may be specific negative thoughts associated with emotions commonly seen in the reaction.\n\nSection::::Cognitive components.:Perception of control.\n", "Acute Stress Reaction - The body executes the “Fight-or-flight” reaction to get the body out of danger quickly. When the timing between the \"threat\" and the resolution of the \"threat\" are close, the “fight-or-flight\" reaction is executed, the \"threat\" is handled, and the body returns to its previous state (taking care of the business of life - digestion, relaxation, tissue repair etc.). The body has evolved to stay in this mode for only a short time.\n", "The autonomic nervous system controls all automatic functions in the body and contains two subsections within it that aids in response to an acute stress reaction. These two subunits are the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. The sympathetic response is colloquially known as the \"fight or flight\" response, indicated by accelerated pulse and respiration rates, pupil dilation, and a general feeling of anxiety and hyper-awareness. This is caused by the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal glands. The epinephrine and norepinephrine strike the beta receptors of the heart, which feeds the heart sympathetic nerve fibers in order to increase the strength of heart muscle contraction; as a result more blood gets circulated, increasing the heart rate and respiratory rate. The sympathetic nervous system also stimulates the skeletal system and muscular system in an effort to pump more blood to those areas to handle the acute stress. Simultaneously the sympathetic nervous system inhibits the digestive system and the urinary system in order to optimize blood flow to the heart, lungs, and skeletal muscles. This plays a role in the alarm reaction stage. The para-sympathetic response is colloquially known as the \"rest and digest\" response, indicated by reduced heart and respiration rates, and more obviously by a temporary loss of consciousness if the system is fired at a rapid rate. The parasympathetic nervous system stimulates the digestive system and urinary system in order to send more blood to those systems to increase the process of digestion. In order to do this, it must inhibit the cardiovascular system and respiratory system in an effort to optimize blood flow to the digestive tract causing low heart and respiratory rates. Parasympathetic plays no role in acute stress response (VanPutte Regan Russo 2014).\n", "In vertebrates, the avoidance behaviour appears to be processed in the telencephalon. This has been shown repeatedly in goldfish, as individuals with ablated telencephalons were significantly impaired in acquiring avoidance behaviour. As a result, some researchers conclude that damage to the telencephalon can interfere with the emotion internal fear to produce an avoidance response.\n\nResearchers will often evoke an escape response to test the potency of hormones and/or medication and their relationship to stress. As such, the escape response is fundamental to anatomical and pharmacological research\n\nSection::::The role of learning in the escape response.\n", "Some of the hormones involved during the state of fight-or-flight include epinephrine, which regulates heart rate and metabolism as well as dilating blood vessels and air passages, norepinephrine increasing heart rate, blood flow to skeletal muscles and the release of glucose from energy stores, and cortisol which increases blood sugar, increases circulating neutrophilic leukocytes, calcium amongst other things.\n", "The avoidance model of worry (AMW) theorizes that worry is a verbal linguistic, thought based activity, which arises as an attempt to inhibit vivid mental imagery and associated somatic and emotional activation. This inhibition precludes the emotional processing of fear that is theoretically necessary for successful habituation and extinction of feared stimuli. Worry is reinforced as a coping technique due to the fact that most worries never actually occur, leaving the worrier with a feeling of having successfully controlled the feared situation, without the unpleasant sensations associated with exposure.\n\nSection::::Theories.:Cognitive model.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-10585	Why is sweating profusely our body’s go to defense when battling nervousness?	Stress response activates our sympathetic Nervous system (Fight or Flight response) and since we evolved to deal with stress by killing or running, it is trying to pre-cool our body in anticipation of combat or running. Our other major autonomic (largely operating without our conscious control) nervous system is our parasympathetic nervous system (feed and breed, or rest and digest system). Basically, our stress response system didn't evolve to deal with "do you think that hot chick will say yes if I ask her out" and "Does my boss hate me" and the other major causes of stress in our modern life. If you want a complete rundown of this topic, I can recommend a book "Why zebras don't get Ulcers" by Dr Robert Sapolsky. Essentially, our autonomic nervous system didn't evolve to deal with the stresses of modern living, and it causes lots of problems in our life. Edit: Made a mistake in the book title.	[ "Although sweating is found in a wide variety of mammals, relatively few (exceptions include humans and horses) produce large amounts of sweat in order to cool down.\n\nSection::::Definitions.\n\nBULLET::::- The words diaphoresis and hidrosis both can mean either perspiration (in which sense they are synonymous with \"sweating\") or excessive perspiration (in which sense they can be either synonymous with hyperhidrosis or differentiable from it only by clinical criteria involved in narrow specialist senses of the words).\n\nBULLET::::- Hypohidrosis is decreased sweating from whatever cause.\n", "A sweat response stimulates M3 muscarinic receptors on sweat glands and a sudomotor axon reflex. In the sudomotor reflex, cholinergic agents bind to the nicotinic receptors on the sudomotor nerve terminals, evoking an impulse that travels towards the soma, or opposite of the normal impulse. At the soma of the postganglionic sympathetic sudomotor neuron, the impulse branches and travels orthodromically, or away from the soma. Finally, as this impulse reaches other sweat glands, it causes an indirect axon-reflex sweat response. Sudomotor axon reflexes can be peripherally amplified in the transmission of the action potential magnitude by acetylcholine. Acetylcholine also activates sudomotor fibers and primary afferent nociceptors, triggering axon reflexes in both. However, with nerve damage (neuropathy) there is still some increase in axon reflex mediated sweating.\n", "The lateral grey column's connections mediate the functions of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS), which changes cardiac, pulmonary, hepatic (liver), and gastrointestinal activities to prepare the body for emergency situations (although the sympathetic system is always active to some extent, including in the absence of a stressful environment, to maintain the appropriate level of sympathetic function). Thus, when the brain responds to potential threats by sending signals to lateral grey column cells, the lateral column passes on the signals to initiate a variety of physiological changes that prepare the body for a “fight-or-flight” response. Hairs stand up to conserve heat. The gut relaxes and digestion slows so that more energy can be directed toward dealing with the threatening situation. The adrenal medulla is activated and releases epinephrine (adrenaline) into the bloodstream, where it mediates many changes, such as the preparation of muscles for emergency activity. A variety of smooth muscles relax; for example, the muscles wrapped around the bronchioles of the lungs relax, allowing more oxygen to enter the bloodstream. Heart rate increases to ensure all cells are supplied quickly with the substances they need. The liver produces glucose (sugar) to fuel the muscles. Blood vessels contract (vasoconstriction), which reduces bleeding and conserves body heat (the exception is blood vessels fueling large muscles that would be used in running or fighting). The pupils dilate, improving vision. Perspiration increases in certain areas of the body (the purpose of this is not yet fully understood, but there is some evidence that the odor produced by this sweat serves as a signal to other individuals).\n", "Section::::Physiological adaptations.:Heat.\n\nThe only mechanism the human body has to cool itself is by sweat evaporation. Sweating occurs when the ambient air temperatures is above 28 °C (82 °F) and the body fails to return to the normal internal temperature. The evaporation of the sweat helps cool the blood beneath the skin. It is limited by the amount of water available in the body, which can cause dehydration.\n", "Increased production of cortisol during stress results in an increased availability of glucose in order to facilitate fighting or fleeing. As well as directly increasing glucose availability, cortisol also suppresses the highly demanding metabolic processes of the immune system, resulting in further availability of glucose.\n", "Section::::Mechanism.\n\nThe term 'compensatory' is largely misleading, as it indicates that there is a compensatory mechanism that takes effect after sympathectomy, in which the body 'redirects' the sweating from the palms or face to other areas of the body. Sweating after sympathetic surgery is a reflex cycle between the sympathetic system and the anterior portion of the hypothalamus. Reflex sweating will not happen if hand sweating can be stopped without interrupting sympathetic tone to the human brain.\n", "Section::::Sweating.\n\nIn hoofed animals and marsupials, apocrine glands act as the main thermoregulator, secreting watery sweat. For most mammals, however, apocrine sweat glands secrete an oily (and eventually smelly) compound that acts as a pheromone, territorial marker, and warning signal. Being sensitive to adrenaline, apocrine sweat glands are involved in emotional sweating in humans (induced by anxiety, stress, fear, sexual stimulation, and pain).\n", "Sweating (cooking)\n\nSweating in cooking is the gentle heating of vegetables in a little oil or butter, with frequent stirring and turning to ensure that any emitted liquid will evaporate. Sweating usually results in tender, sometimes translucent, pieces. Sweating is often a preliminary step to further cooking in liquid; onions, in particular, are often sweated before including in a stew. This differs from sautéing in that sweating is done over a much lower heat, sometimes with salt added to help draw moisture away, and making sure that little or no browning takes place.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Braising\n\nBULLET::::- Frying\n", "Acute Stress Reaction - The body executes the “Fight-or-flight” reaction to get the body out of danger quickly. When the timing between the \"threat\" and the resolution of the \"threat\" are close, the “fight-or-flight\" reaction is executed, the \"threat\" is handled, and the body returns to its previous state (taking care of the business of life - digestion, relaxation, tissue repair etc.). The body has evolved to stay in this mode for only a short time.\n", "This same reaction mechanism is also responsible for the loss of body heat in the extremities, demonstrated via the Hunter's Test. One clinical test for the patient that can be performed is the QSART, or the Quantitative Sudomotor Axon Reflex Testing, which stimulates the autonomic nervous system of an individual by stimulating sweat glands through the promotion of axon reflexes. The skin is stimulated with electricity, causing said axon reflexes, which allows for the assessment of the type and severity of autonomic nervous disorders and peripheral neuropathies like asthma or multiple sclerosis.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Sweat response.\n", "Gustatory sweating refers to thermal sweating induced by the ingestion of food. The increase in metabolism caused by ingestion raises body temperature, leading to thermal sweating. Hot and spicy foods also leads to mild gustatory sweating in the face, scalp and neck: capsaicin (the compound that makes spicy food taste \"hot\"), binds to receptors in the mouth that detect warmth. The increased stimulation of such receptors induces a thermoregulatory response.\n\nSection::::Sweat.:Antiperspirant.\n", "In both apocrine and eccrine sweat glands, the sweat is originally produced in the gland's coil, where it is isotonic with the blood plasma there. When the rate of sweating is low, salt is conserved and reabsorbed by the gland's duct; high sweat rates, on the other hand, lead to less salt reabsorption and allow more water to evaporate on the skin (via osmosis) to increase evaporative cooling.\n", "In the immune system, the increase in levels of chronic stress results in the elevation of inflammation. The increase in inflammation levels is caused by the ongoing activation of the sympathetic nervous system. The impairment of cell-mediated acquired immunity is also a factor resulting in the immune system due to chronic stress.\n\nSection::::Relationship to allostasis and homeostasis.\n", "Secretions of sweat from the eccrine glands play a large role in controlling the body temperature of humans. Regulation of body temperature, also known as thermoregulation, is very important when it comes to instances that bring the body’s temperature outside of the homeostatic temperature such as with a fever or even exercise. Together these glands make up the size of about one kidney and in one day a human can perspire amounts as much as 10 liters. The two functions consist of secretion of a filtrate in response to acetylcholine and reabsorption of sodium near the duct when there is water in excess so that a sweat can be surfacing the skin.\n", "Cortisol is produced by the adrenal cortex above the kidneys and plays a major factor in neuroendocrinological behaviors. Cortisol helps in the regulation of metabolism and helps the body and brain respond to stress. Higher levels of cortisol to stressful situations promote:\n\nBULLET::::- Mental and physical preparation for stress\n\nBULLET::::- weakened inflammatory actions resulting in temporary pain toleration\n\nBULLET::::- fat, carbohydrate, and protein metabolism resulting high blood glucose levels (glucogenesis)\n\nBULLET::::- Sleep deprivation\n\nBULLET::::- Temporarily impaired cognitive performance\n\nBULLET::::- Possible anxiousness\n\nSection::::Adrenal Hormones.:Adrenaline.\n", "Emotional sweating is stimulated by stress, anxiety, fear, and pain; it is independent of ambient temperature. Acetylcholine acts on the eccrine glands and adrenaline acts on both eccrine and apocrine glands to produce sweat. Emotional sweating can occur anywhere, though it is most evident on the palms, soles of the feet, and axillary regions. Sweating on the palms and soles is thought to have evolved as a fleeing reaction in mammals: it increases friction and prevents slipping when running or climbing in stressful situations.\n\nSection::::Sweat.:Stimuli.:Gustatory.\n", "In humans, sweating is primarily a means of thermoregulation, which is achieved by the water-rich secretion of the eccrine glands. Maximum sweat rates of an adult can be up to 2–4 liters per hour or 10–14 liters per day (10–15 g/min·m), but is less in children prior to puberty. Evaporation of sweat from the skin surface has a cooling effect due to evaporative cooling. Hence, in hot weather, or when the individual's muscles heat up due to exertion, more sweat is produced. Animals with few sweat glands, such as dogs, accomplish similar temperature regulation results by panting, which evaporates water from the moist lining of the oral cavity and pharynx.\n", "Section::::Description.:Physiological basis.:Examples.\n\nA painful stimulus such as a pinprick elicits a sympathetic response by the sweat glands, increasing secretion. Although this increase is generally very small, sweat contains water and electrolytes, which increase electrical conductivity, thus lowering the electrical resistance of the skin. These changes in turn affect GSR. Another common manifestation is the vasodilation (dilation) of blood vessels in the face, referred to as blushing, as well as increased sweating that occurs when one is embarrassed.\n", "Compensatory hyperhidrosis\n\nCompensatory hyperhidrosis is a form of neuropathy. It is encountered in patients with myelopathy, thoracic disease, cerebrovascular disease, nerve trauma or after surgeries. The exact mechanism of the phenomenon is poorly understood. It is attributed to the perception in the hypothalamus (brain) that the body temperature is too high. The sweating is induced to reduce body heat.\n\nExcessive sweating due to nervousness, anger, previous trauma or fear is called hyperhidrosis.\n", "Section::::Cause.\n", "BULLET::::6. Storage and synthesis: acts as a storage center for lipids and water, as well as a means of synthesis of vitamin D by action of UV on certain parts of the skin.\n\nBULLET::::7. Excretion: sweat contains urea, however its concentration is 1/130th that of urine, hence excretion by sweating is at most a secondary function to temperature regulation.\n", "Higher organisms maintain their integrity via homeostasis which relies on negative feedback regulation which, in turn, typically depends on the autonomic nervous system. Some typical actions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems are listed below.\n\nSection::::Function.:Sympathetic nervous system.\n\nPromotes a fight-or-flight response, corresponds with arousal and energy generation, and inhibits digestion\n\nBULLET::::- Diverts blood flow away from the gastro-intestinal (GI) tract and skin via vasoconstriction\n\nBULLET::::- Blood flow to skeletal muscles and the lungs is enhanced (by as much as 1200% in the case of skeletal muscles)\n", "If the UPR pathway is activated in an abnormal fashion, such as when obesity triggers chronic ER stress and the pathway is constitutively active, this can lead to insensitivity to insulin signaling and thus insulin resistance. Individuals suffering from obesity have an elevated demand placed on the secretory and synthesis systems of their cells. This activates cellular stress signaling and inflammatory pathways because of the abnormal conditions disrupting ER homeostasis.\n", "BULLET::::- Eccrine sweat glands under the skin secrete sweat (a fluid containing mostly water with some dissolved ions), which travels up the sweat duct, through the sweat pore and onto the surface of the skin. This causes heat loss via evaporative cooling; however, a lot of essential water is lost.\n", "Some careers present challenges for people with hyperhidrosis. For example, careers that require the use of a knife may not be safely performed by people with excessive sweating of the hands. The risk of dehydration can limit the ability of some to function in extremely hot (especially if also humid) conditions. Even the playing of musical instruments can be uncomfortable or difficult because of sweaty hands.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-11758	Are batteries heavier when fully charged? Why/why not?	No. Batteries don't give out charge, per se, to power electronics. They generate a potential difference, causing electrons to flow through a circuit. A charged battery doesn't hold extra charge, it provides a voltage source by separating charges inside it. It dies when those charges slowly disperse, causing the voltage they generate to drop.	[ "Battery discharge profiles are often described in terms of a factor of battery capacity. For example, a battery with a nominal capacity quoted in ampere-hours (Ah) at a C/10 rated discharge current (derived in amperes) may safely provide a higher discharge current – and therefore higher power-to-weight ratio – but only with a lower energy capacity. Power-to-weight ratio for batteries is therefore less meaningful without reference to corresponding energy-to-weight ratio and cell temperature. This relationship is known as Peukert's law.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Electrochemical (galvanic) and electrostatic cell systems.:Electrostatic, electrolytic and electrochemical capacitors.\n", "Mechanical properties of the lithiated sulfur compounds are strongly contingent on the lithium content, and with increasing lithium content, the strength of lithiated sulfur compounds improves, although this increment is not linear with lithiation.\n", "formula_1\n\nwhere \"k, q, [S]\" and \"I\" are respectively the kinetic constant, specific capacity contributing to the anodic plateau, the total sulfur concentration and charge current. \n\nSection::::Electrolyte.\n", "This method works only with batteries that offer access to their liquid electrolyte, such as non-sealed lead acid batteries. The specific gravity or pH of the electrolyte can be used to indicate the SoC of the battery.\n\nHydrometers are used to calculate the specific gravity of a battery. To find specific gravity, it is necessary to measure out volume of the electrolyte and to weigh it. Then specific gravity is given by (mass of electrolyte [g]/ volume of electrolyte [ml])/ (Density of Water, i.e. 1g/1ml). To find SoC from specific gravity, a look-up table of SG vs SoC is needed.\n", "Fuel cells and flow cells, although perhaps using similar chemistry to batteries, have the distinction of not containing the energy storage medium or fuel. With a continuous flow of fuel and oxidant, available fuel cells and flow cells continue to convert the energy storage medium into electric energy and waste products. Fuel cells distinctly contain a fixed electrolyte whereas flow cells also require a continuous flow of electrolyte. Flow cells typically have the fuel dissolved in the electrolyte.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Vehicles.\n", "Goodenough responded to the skepticism, stating: \"The answer is that if the lithium plated on the cathode current collector is thin enough for its reaction with the current collector to have its Fermi energy lowered to that of the current collector, the Fermi energy of the lithium anode is higher than that of the thin lithium plated on the cathode current collector.\" Goodenough went on to say in a later interview with \"Slashdot\" that the lithium plated on the cathode is on the \"order of a micron thick\".\n", "The voltage of a LiPo cell depends on its chemistry and varies from about 2.7–3.0 V (discharged) to about 4.2 V (fully charged), for cells based on lithium-metal-oxides (such as LiCoO); this compares to 1.8–2.0 V (discharged) to 3.6–3.8 V (charged) for those based on lithium-iron-phosphate (LiFePO).\n\nThe exact voltage ratings should be specified in product data sheets, with the understanding that the cells should be protected by an electronic circuit that won't allow them to overcharge nor over-discharge under use.\n", "Being lightweight is an advantage when the application requires minimum weight, as in the case of radio controlled aircraft. However, it has been established that moderate pressure on the stack of layers that compose the cell results in increased capacity retention, because the contact between the components is maximised and delamination and deformation is prevented, which is associated with increase of cell impedance and degradation.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n", "Conventional lithium-ion cells use binders to hold together the active material and keep it in contact with the current collectors. These inactive materials make the battery bigger and heavier. Experimental binderless batteries do not scale because their active materials can be produced only in small quantities. The prototype has no need for current collectors, polymer binders or conductive powder additives. Silicon comprises over 80 percent of the electrode by weight. The electrode delivered 802 mAh/g after more than 600 cycles, with a Coulombic efficiency of 99.9 percent.\n\nSection::::Anode.:Tin.\n", "All electrochemical cell batteries deliver a changing voltage as their chemistry changes from \"charged\" to \"discharged\". A nominal output voltage and a cutoff voltage are typically specified for a battery by its manufacturer. The output voltage falls to the cutoff voltage when the battery becomes \"discharged\". The nominal output voltage is always less than the open-circuit voltage produced when the battery is \"charged\". The temperature of a battery can affect the power it can deliver, where lower temperatures reduce power. Total energy delivered from a single charge cycle is affected by both the battery temperature and the power it delivers. If the temperature lowers or the power demand increases, the total energy delivered at the point of \"discharge\" is also reduced.\n", "While capacitors tend not to be as temperature sensitive as batteries, they are significantly capacity constrained and without the strength of chemical bonds suffer from self-discharge. Power-to-weight ratio of capacitors is usually higher than batteries because charge transport units within the cell are smaller (electrons rather than ions), however energy-to-weight ratio is conversely usually lower.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Electrochemical (galvanic) and electrostatic cell systems.:Fuel cell stacks and flow cell batteries.\n", "For LiPo battery packs with cells connected in series, a specialised charger may monitor the charge on a per-cell basis so that all cells are brought to the same state of charge (SOC).\n\nSection::::Applying pressure on LiPo cells.\n\nUnlike lithium-ion cylindrical and prismatic cells, which have a rigid metal case, LiPo cells have a flexible, foil-type (polymer laminate) case, so they are relatively unconstrained. \n", "Section::::Technology.\n\nBalancing can be active or passive. The term \"battery regulator\" typically refers only to devices that perform passive balancing.\n\nIn passive balancing, energy is drawn from the most charged cell and dissipated as heat, usually through resistors.\n\nIn active balancing, energy is drawn from the most charged cell and transferred to the least charged cells, usually through capacitor-based, inductor-based or DC-DC converters.\n\nBattery balancing can be performed by DC-DC converters, in one of 3 topologies:\n\nBULLET::::- Cell-to-battery\n\nBULLET::::- Battery-to-cell\n\nBULLET::::- Bidirectional\n", "Batteries are commonly evaluated by their theoretical capacity (the total capacity of the battery if 100% of active material were utilized in the reaction). This value can be calculated as followed:\n\nformula_1\n\nwhere m is the total mass of active material, n is the number of transferred electrons per molar mass of active material, M is the molar mass of active material, and F is Faraday's constant. \n\nSection::::Charge and Discharge.:Charge and Discharge Testing.\n", "All these lithium cells are rated nominally 3 volts (on-load), with open circuit voltage about 3.6 volts. Manufacturers may have their own part numbers for IEC standard size cells. The capacity listed is for a constant resistance discharge down to 2.0 volts per cell.\n\nSection::::Button cells - coin, watch.:Silver oxide and alkaline cells.\n\nRound button cells have heights less than their diameter. The metal can is the positive terminal, and the cap is the negative terminal.\n", "In the following table, sizes are shown for the silver-oxide IEC number; types and capacity are identified as \"(L)\" for alkaline, \"(M)\" for mercury (no longer manufactured), and \"(S)\" for silver-oxide. Some sizes may be interchangeably used in battery holders. For example, the 189/389 cell is 3.1 mm high and was designated 1131, while the 190/390 size is 3.0 mm high and was designated 1130, but a battery holder will accept either size.\n\nSection::::Button cells - coin, watch.:Zinc air cells (hearing aid).\n", "Lithium–sulfur batteries were used on the longest and highest solar-powered flight.\n\nSection::::Lifetime.\n", "while vehicles such as ST Kinetics' Terrex 3 had a quoted combat weight of 35 tonnes, and Nexter's VBCI, Patria's AMV and General Dynamics' Piranha V all weighing in around the 32 to 33 tonne mark.\n\nBoxer consists of two key elements: the platform/drive-line and the removable mission module.\n", "This resolution defines weight as a vector, since force is a vector quantity. However, some textbooks also take weight to be a scalar by defining:\n\nThe gravitational acceleration varies from place to place. Sometimes, it is simply taken to have a standard value of , which gives the standard weight.\n\nThe force whose magnitude is equal to \"mg\" newtons is also known as the m kilogram weight (which term is abbreviated to kg-wt)\n\nSection::::Definitions.:Operational definition.\n", "Section::::Camera batteries.\n\nAs well as other types, digital and film cameras often use specialized primary batteries to produce a compact product. Flashlights and portable electronic devices may also use these types.\n\nSection::::Button cells - coin, watch.\n\nSection::::Button cells - coin, watch.:Lithium cells.\n\nCoin-shaped cells are thin compared to their diameter. Polarity is usually stamped on the metal casing.\n", "BULLET::::- Capacity in mAh: mAh stands for milli Ampere-hour and measures the amount of power flow that can be supplied by a certain power bank at a specific voltage. Many manufacturers rate their products at 3.7 V, the voltage of cell(s) inside. Since USB outputs at 5 V, calculations at this voltage will yield a lower mAh number. For example, a battery pack advertised with a 3000 mAh capacity (at 3.7 V) will produce 2220 mAh at 5 V. Power losses due to efficiency of the charging circuitry also occur.\n", "No lithium remains in the cathode of a fully charged cell—in a cell, approximately 50% remains in the cathode. is highly resilient during oxygen loss, which typically results in an exothermic reaction in other lithium cells.\n", "Load cell will produce a small electric current when weight is applied. The electric current is sent to Digital Weight Indicator via a normal cable. The Digital Weight Indicator will amplify the electric current and translate it to digital weight. Example: 15.7 kg\n\nSection::::Interactions.:With printer.\n\nWhen attached to a printer via a printer cable, it can print the weight on paper. Usually Weight Indicator come with a basic printing feature. It can be program in the firmware to print in few basic format. Usually there is a print button on the Digital Weight Indicator for user to press to print.\n", "BULLET::::3. The investment per pullet may be higher than in the case of floor operations.\n\nBULLET::::4. There is a slightly higher percentage of blood spots in the eggs.\n\nBULLET::::5. The bones are more fragile and processors often discount the fowl price.\n\nDisadvantages 1 and 2 can be eliminated by manure conveyors, but some industrial systems do not feature manure conveyors.\n\nSection::::Legislation.\n\nSection::::Legislation.:European Union.\n", "BULLET::::- formula_12 = ionic specific resistance of the electrolyte\n\nBULLET::::- formula_13 = electric specific resistance of the electrolyte.\n" ]	[ "Batteries give out a charge. " ]	[ "Batteries actually provide a voltage source that separates charges contained within the battery." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Batteries give out a charge. ", "Batteries give out a charge. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Batteries actually provide a voltage source that separates charges contained within the battery.", "Batteries actually provide a voltage source that separates charges contained within the battery." ]
2018-01191	Why is it much easier to reverse a car into a tight parking space than drive it in forwards?	It's much easier to reverse into a carspace where room is limited than it is to drive straight in. The reason for this is that the back wheels are fixed in direction in relation to the car. This effectively makes the pivot point of the car the middle of the rear axle.	[ "In the 1950s, General Motors automobiles with automatic transmissions placed the R for reverse at the furthest clockwise position in the rotation of the column-mounted shift lever. L for low position was just adjacent as one would move the lever one notch counterclockwise. Because it was very easy to select L, a forward position when desiring R, to reverse, there were many unintended lurches forward while the driver was watching toward the rear, expecting to reverse the automobile. By the 1960s, gear selection arrangements became standardized in the familiar PRNDL, with reverse well away from the forward positions and between the Park and Neutral selections. The elimination of 'push-button' drive control on all Chrysler products began after 1965 to eliminate the ease of selecting an unintended direction.\n", "However, if the spring is too weak to always move the rooster comb to the bottom of the trough between the teeth, the vehicle can be left between gears. On certain U.S. car manufacturers' vehicles, the problem is made worse as there is a flat spot between \"Park\" and \"Reverse\" detents where the ball can rest, also resulting in a \"false park\".\n\nSection::::Park to reverse lawsuits.\n\nBULLET::::- Mraz vs. DaimlerChrysler (2007)\n", "From this false park position, slight movements in the vehicle, vibration, or the build up of hydraulic pressure in the transmission can then cause the vehicle to reengage powered reverse after a delay from a few seconds to longer periods of time (what is called a \"self shift\"). This will cause the vehicle to suddenly and without warning move backwards unexpectedly under engine power.\n", "Parallel parking is considered to be one of the hardest skills for new drivers to learn and is a required part of most road tests. Parallel parking enables the driver to park a vehicle in a smaller space than would be true of forward parking. Driving forward into a parking space on the side of a road is typically not possible unless two successive parking spaces are empty. Reversing into the spot via the parallel parking technique allows one to take advantage of a single empty space not much longer than the car (in order to complete the parking within three wheel-turns the parking space would generally need to be about one and a half car-length long).\n", "Park-to-Reverse issues are nearly always caused by several possible design flaws in a vehicle's transmission which makes it possible for a driver to unknowingly place the vehicle's shift selector into a position in between the \"park\" and \"reverse\" gear positions. Yet rather than being in \"park', this area is a transitional zone between gears, which is sometimes called \"false park\".\n", "A park-to-reverse situation involves a driver who believes that they have shifted into \"park\" and believing so, proceeds to exit the vehicle. There can then be a delay in vehicle movement sufficient for the driver to either fully or partially exit the vehicle before the vehicle moves. Typically, the vehicle will move backwards. However, when on certain vehicles the shift selector can be placed \"between\" the detented park and reverse gear positions; i.e. in false park the transmission is in hydraulic neutral, without the parking pawl engaged. As such the vehicle can also roll either forward or back in neutral. While less common, transmissions with the defect, can also be shifted to between \"neutral\" and \"drive\", and then self shift into \"drive\" or roll (called a \"neutral to drive\" accident).\n", "If the driver has exited the vehicle with the engine running (to for example retrieve an item, open a gate or close a garage door, etc.), a vehicle in false park can shift into powered reverse from a few seconds to several minutes or longer, after the driver has exited, and then run over the driver or a bystander.\n\nSection::::NHTSA.\n\nNHTSA (National Highway Traffic Safety Administration) refers to the \"Park to Reverse\" issue using various terms including \"Unintended Powered Roll-Away\" and has opened numerous investigations of these events over the last 35 years.\n\nSection::::Mechanical cause.\n", "For back-in parking, vehicles preparing to enter a parking space drive slightly past the space, signal, and then back into the space. When leaving the space, drivers have an unobstructed view of traffic and can enter the traffic stream directly. In comparison, drivers using traditional pull-in angle parking often have difficulty seeing other traffic as they back out of the space, resulting in traffic delays and considerable risk of collisions with pedestrians, bicyclists, and vehicles.\n", "Back-in angle parking\n\nBack-in angle parking, also called \"back-in diagonal parking\", \"reverse angle parking\", \"reverse diagonal parking\", or (in the United Kingdom) \"reverse echelon parking,\" is a traffic engineering technique intended to improve the safety of on-street parking. \n", "Park-to-reverse\n\nA park-to-reverse defect is a scenario in which cars with automatic transmission can fail to properly engage the parking mechanism, causing the vehicle to unintentionally roll, sometimes resulting in injury or vehicular accidents. This has significance in product liability law, and a number of major cases in the United States have been brought in which car manufacturers were accused of negligence for not addressing an alleged dangerous flaw in the transmission.\n", "Often, in car parking lots using perpendicular parking, two rows of parking spaces may be arranged front to front, with aisles in between. If no other cars are blocking, a driver may perform a \"pullthrough\" by driving through one parking space into the connecting space to avoid having to reverse out of a parking space upon their return.\n\nSometimes, a single row of perpendicular car parking spaces is marked in the center of a street. This arrangement eliminates reversing from the manoeuvre; cars are required to drive in forwards and drive out forwards.\n\nSection::::Patterns.:Angle parking/echelon parking.\n", "In Australia, FR cars remained popular throughout this period, with the Holden Commodore and Ford Falcon having consistently strong sales, though Ford has regularly threatened to replace the Falcon with a front-wheel-drive car. In Europe, front-wheel drive was popularized by small cars like the Mini, Renault 5 and Volkswagen Golf and adopted for all mainstream cars. Upscale marques like Mercedes-Benz, BMW, and Jaguar remained mostly independent of this trend, and retained a lineup mostly or entirely made up of FR cars. Japanese mainstream marques such as Toyota were almost exclusively FR until the late 1970s and early 1980s. Toyota's first FF vehicle was the Toyota Tercel, with the Corolla and Celica later becoming FF while the Camry was designed as an FF from the beginning. The Supra, Cressida, Crown, and Century remained FR. Luxury division Lexus has a mostly FR lineup. Subaru's BRZ is an FR car. That a driveshaft is needed to transfer power to the rear wheels means a large centre tunnel between the rear seats; therefore, cars such as the Mazda RX8 and the Porsche Panamera forgo a centre rear seat, and divide both seats by a centre tunnel.\n", "This can also be called a \"shunt\" where the driver has to attempt a gate and then shout shunt. they are then allowed a space of 1 and a half car lengths to reverse and line the car better to enter through the gate\n", "A case involving the death of a Los Angeles dockworker killed by a park-to-reverse defect in a Dodge Dakota. The jury returned a verdict of $55.2 million, including $50 million in punitive damages. California Lawyer Attorney of the Year (CLAY) Award called the Mraz victory against DaimlerChrysler, \"“one of the year's largest personal injury verdicts,: and noted that \"this was the first park-to-reverse case against Chrysler in 25 years to make it to trial.\"”\n\nBULLET::::- Guillot vs. Chrysler (2008)\n", "Parallel parking\n\nParallel parking is a method of parking a vehicle parallel to the road (hence the term 'Parallel Parking'), in line with other parked vehicles. Parallel parking usually requires initially driving slightly past the parking space, parallel to the parked vehicle in front of that space, keeping a safe distance, then followed by reversing into that space. Subsequent position adjustment may require the use of forward and reverse gears.\n\nSection::::Techniques.\n", "With some automatic transmissions, it was possible to place the shift selector at any point, either in an intended gear or between a gear. Because of the possible safety issue of this, and because driving a vehicle not fully in a gear over a long period of time could damage the transmission, automakers developed what is called the \"detent system.\" The system of detents was often used in conjunction with the \"push button\" shifters used on many automatics in the 1950s. Typical detent systems use either a detent spring and ball or a cantilever spring and this spring moves up and down over a series of teethed gears (called a \"rooster comb\" for how it looks, or an \"inner manuel lever\") turning the rooster comb to fine center the transmission in the intended gear position at the bottom of each gear.\n", "When a vehicle's transmission is in false park, it may appear to the driver that the vehicle is fully locked in \"park\". However, on vehicles with this defect the transmission is neither in park nor in hydraulic reverse. Instead, it is in neutral, an unstable position between the two gears.\n\nSection::::Risks.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Section::::Uses in passenger cars.:Shift by wire.\n\nThe direction of motion of the vehicle (Forward, Reverse) is set by commanding the actuators inside the transmission through electronic commands based on the current input from the driver (Park, Reverse, Neutral or Drive).\n\nSection::::Uses in passenger cars.:Steer by wire.\n", "Section::::The current test.:Practical test.:Manoeuvres.\n\nThe Driving test changed on December 4, 2017. The manoeuvres have now changed and you will not be asked to do a Turn in the Road or a Reverse to the left, If you are taking driving lessons your Instructor should still teach you these reversing exercises so you are able to carry them out if necessary. You may be asked to:-\n\nBULLET::::- Reverse park into a parking space either parallel to the kerb (on road), or oblique or right-angle (in a marked bay in an off-road car park)\n", "Reverse gear is usually not synchromesh, as there is only one reverse gear in the normal automotive transmission and changing gears into reverse while moving is not required—and often highly undesirable, particularly at high forward speed. Additionally, the usual method of providing reverse, with an idler gear sliding into place to bridge what would otherwise be two mismatched forward gears, is necessarily similar to the operation of a crash box. Among the vehicles that have synchromesh in reverse are the 1995–2000 Ford Contour and Mercury Mystique, '00–'05 Chevrolet Cavalier, Mercedes 190 2.3-16, the V6 equipped Alfa Romeo GTV/Spider (916), certain Chrysler, Jeep, and GM products which use the New Venture NV3500 and NV3550 units, the European Ford Sierra and Granada/Scorpio equipped with the MT75 gearbox, the Volvo 850, and almost all Lamborghinis, Hondas and BMWs.\n", "Independent of the shift pattern, the location of the reverse gear may vary. Depending on the particular transmission design, reverse may be located at the upper left extent of the shift pattern, at the lower left, at the lower right, or at the upper right. There is often a mechanism that allows selection of reverse only from the neutral position, or a reverse lockout that must be released by depressing the spring-loaded gear knob or lifting a spring-loaded collar on the shift stick, to reduce the likelihood of the driver inadvertently selecting reverse.\n", "By reducing drivetrain weight and space needs, vehicles could be made smaller and more efficient without sacrificing acceleration. Integrating the powertrain with a transverse as opposed to a longitudinal layout, along with unibody construction and the use of constant velocity jointed drive axles, along with front wheel drive has evolved into the modern-day mass market automobile. Some suggest that the introduction of the modern Volkswagen Golf in 1974, from a traditional U.S. competitor, and the introduction of the 1973 Honda Civic, and the 1976 Honda Accord served as a wake-up call for the \"Big Three\" (only Chrysler already produced front-wheel-drive vehicles in their operations outside North America). GM was even later with the 1979 Vauxhall Astra/Opel Kadett. Captive imports were the US car makers initial response to the increased demand for economy cars. The popularity of front-wheel drive began to gain momentum, with the 1981 Ford Escort, the 1982 Nissan Sentra, and the 1983 Toyota Corolla. Front-wheel drive became the norm for mid-sized cars starting with the 1982 Chevrolet Celebrity, 1982 Toyota Camry, 1983 Dodge 600, 1985 Nissan Maxima, 1986 Honda Legend, and the 1986 Ford Taurus. By the mid-1980s, most formerly rear-wheel-drive Japanese models were front-wheel drive, and by the mid-1990s, most American brands only sold a handful of rear-wheel-drive models.\n", "Two major types of parallel parking technique differ in whether they will use two or three positions of the steering wheel while backing. A skilled driver is theoretically able to parallel park by having their car move along two arcs, the first having its center on the parking side of the car and the second having its center on the other side. There will be a point in the transition between these curves where all the car's wheels will be parallel with each other. Less-confident drivers may choose to drive further while transitioning, making it a pronounced middle step of three. Such a step allows greater tolerances to avoid hitting anything, but forces the car to start further from the road's edge and requires more space to the rear.\n", "Reversing a vehicle can serve the purpose of changing lanes in traffic when a driver wishes to change to an adjacent lane but the destination lane is relatively full of vehicles. This is performed by driving in the reverse direction until the vehicle can move into the adjacent lane (or adjacent lanes) at the back of the queue in the next lane.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-22331	how do we know about different things on planets (water, air, heat, etc.)?	It depends on the planet, but for most things we can tell just by looking. For Mars we have all those robots that are driving around the planet and taking samples that they analyze, but mostly we are reduced to just looking at things from afar. Fortunately for us, understanding physics and chemistry means that we can tell a whole lot about things just by looking at them. The light (and other types of radiation) that comes to us from an object contains a wealth of information. Different elements absorb and emit light on different very specific wavelength (this is what gives things color). So we can look at something far away and learn things about its chemical composition. Looking at things in the infrared spectrum tells us about its temperature. Tracking how stuff moves in orbits around other stuff gives us clues about the mass of the objects and seeing just how big something is tells us about its volume, though which we can calculate density. There is a lot more than that and in practice it involves a bit more than just looking, but the simple and eli5 answer is that for most distant objects looking is all we can do, so that is what we do and make the most of it.	[ "a civilization heat signature should be within a \"comfortable\" temperature range, like terrestrial urban heat islands, i.e. only a few degrees warmer than the planet itself. In contrast, such natural sources as wild fires, volcanoes, etc. are significantly hotter, so they will be well distinguished by their maximum flux at a different wavelength.\n", "Section::::Methods.:Satellites and space probes.\n\nSatellites in space have made it possible to collect data from not only the visible light region, but in other areas of the electromagnetic spectrum. The planets can be characterized by their force fields: gravity and their magnetic fields, which are studied through geophysics and space physics.\n", "The Solar System has now been relatively well-studied, and a good overall understanding of the formation and evolution of this planetary system exists. However, there are large numbers of unsolved questions, and the rate of new discoveries is very high, partly due to the large number of interplanetary spacecraft currently exploring the Solar System.\n\nSection::::Disciplines.\n\nSection::::Disciplines.:Planetary astronomy.\n", "Mars has been studied by Earth-based instruments since the 17th century, but it is only since the exploration of Mars began in the mid-1960s that close-range observation has been possible. Flyby and orbital spacecraft have provided data from above, while landers and rovers have measured atmospheric conditions directly. Advanced Earth-orbital instruments today continue to provide some useful \"big picture\" observations of relatively large weather phenomena.\n", "Section::::Observation.\n\nObservation of space weather is done both for scientific research and for applications. Scientific observation has evolved with the state of knowledge, while application-related observation expanded with the ability to exploit such data.\n\nSection::::Observation.:Ground-based.\n\nSpace weather is monitored at ground level by observing changes in the Earth's magnetic field over periods of seconds to days, by observing the surface of the Sun and by observing radio noise created in the Sun's atmosphere.\n", "Planetary science frequently makes use of the method of comparison to give a greater understanding of the object of study. This can involve comparing the dense atmospheres of Earth and Saturn's moon Titan, the evolution of outer Solar System objects at different distances from the Sun, or the geomorphology of the surfaces of the terrestrial planets, to give only a few examples.\n", "Section::::Methodology.:Laboratory studies.\n", "Observations, lab measurements, and modeling are the three central elements in atmospheric chemistry. Progress in atmospheric chemistry is often driven by the interactions between these components and they form an integrated whole. For example, observations may tell us that more of a chemical compound exists than previously thought possible. This will stimulate new modelling and laboratory studies which will increase our scientific understanding to a point where the observations can be explained.\n\nSection::::Methodology.:Observation.\n", "This field of observations and computer modeling was first applied to Mars due to the ideal atmospheric pressure for characterising granular materials based upon temperature. The Mariner 6, Mariner 7, and Mariner 9 spacecraft carried thermal infrared radiometers, and a global map of thermal inertia was produced from modeled surface temperatures collected by the Infrared Thermal Mapper Instruments (IRTM) on board the Viking 1 and 2 Orbiters.\n", "BULLET::::- Radiometers and photometers are the most common instrument in use, collecting reflected and emitted radiation in a wide range of frequencies. The most common are visible and infrared sensors, followed by microwave, gamma ray and rarely, ultraviolet. They may also be used to detect the emission spectra of various chemicals, providing data on chemical concentrations in the atmosphere.\n", "Antarctic meteorite collection, and the other 37 are from hot desert localities in Africa,\n\nAustralia, and the Middle East. The total mass of recognized lunar meteorites is close to\n\n50 kg.\n\nSection::::Disciplines.:Planetary geology.:Geophysics.\n\nSpace probes made it possible to collect data in not only the visible light region, but in other areas of the electromagnetic spectrum. The planets can be characterized by their force fields: gravity and their magnetic fields, which are studied through geophysics and space physics.\n", "Planet formation and planet evolution is of interest when gathering and interpreting data for planetary atmospheres. Atmospheric circulation, meteorology, and boundary layers are also part of the original published research. Understanding is gained through remote sensing and laboratory simulation.\n\nThe study of planets also includes magnetospheres and ionospheres. The origin of their respective magnetic fields, magnetospheric plasma and radiation belts is also of interest. Included in this area is the interaction of magnetospheres and ionospheres with the sun, solar wind, and their natural satellites.\n\nSection::::Scope.:Other studies.\n", "Section::::Fields of study.:Planetary Science.\n\nSection::::Fields of study.:Planetary Science.:Mars.\n", "Section::::Space shuttle observations.\n", "Section::::Metals.\n", "The Board and the Governing Body are chaired by Pierre Bahurel.\n\nSection::::Organisation.:TAC (Thematic Assembly Centres) Production Centres.\n\nTheir role is to collect the measurements or observations, whether satellite or in situ, and to calibrate, validate, edit, archive and distribute them. There are 5 TACs (WP Leader shown in brackets):\n\nBULLET::::- Sea Level TAC (CLS)\n\nBULLET::::- Ocean Color TAC (CNR)\n\nBULLET::::- Sea Surface Temperature TAC (Met Office)\n\nBULLET::::- Sea Ice and Wind TAC (MET Norway)\n\nBULLET::::- In Situ TAC (Ifremer), see CORA dataset global temperature and salinity product\n", "The search for scientific knowledge ends far back into antiquity. At some point in the past, at least by the time of Aristotle, philosophers recognized that a fundamental distinction should be drawn between two kinds of scientific knowledge—roughly, knowledge \"that\" and knowledge \"why\". It is one thing to know \"that\" each planet periodically reverses the direction of its motion with respect to the background of fixed stars; it is quite a different matter to know \"why\". Knowledge of the former type is descriptive; knowledge of the latter type is explanatory. It is explanatory knowledge that provides scientific understanding of the world. (Salmon, 2006, pg. 3)\n", "Section::::Planets, asteroids, and comets.:Planets.\n\nThe reflected light of a planet contains absorption bands due to minerals in the rocks present for rocky bodies, or due to the elements and molecules present in the atmosphere. To date over 3,500 exoplanets have been discovered. These include so-called Hot Jupiters, as well as Earth-like planets. Using spectroscopy, compounds such as alkali metals, water vapor, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and methane have all been discovered.\n\nSection::::Planets, asteroids, and comets.:Asteroids.\n", "Section::::History.:Atmospheric composition research.\n", "Surface features can be distinguished from atmospheric features by comparing emission and reflection spectroscopy with transmission spectroscopy. Mid-infrared spectroscopy of exoplanets may detect rocky surfaces, and near-infrared may identify magma oceans or high-temperature lavas, hydrated silicate surfaces and water ice, giving an unambiguous method to distinguish between rocky and gaseous exoplanets.\n\nSection::::Surface.:Surface temperature.\n", "BULLET::::- Planetary atmospheres and aeronomy: The institute has been recently investigating the electric and magnetic fields, plasma instabilities and the dynamics of the upper atmosphere are being carried out by elegant radio, optical and plasma diagnostic techniques. The role of trace gases in the chemical and radiative properties of the Earth's atmosphere and their impact on climate, ionization and electrodynamical parameters of the middle atmosphere are a few of the topics which are also being studied.\n", "Here are some selected examples of missions to planetary-sized objects. Other major targets of study are the Earth itself, the Sun, and smaller Solar System bodies like asteroids and comets. In addition, the moons of the planets or body are also studied.\n\nExamples of missions for the Sun\n\nBULLET::::- Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph\n\nBULLET::::- Solar Dynamics Observatory\n\nBULLET::::- STEREO\n\nBULLET::::- Ulysses\n\nBULLET::::- Parker Solar Probe\n\nExamples of missions to small Solar System bodies (e.g. Comets and asteroids)\n\nBULLET::::- NEAR Shoemaker\n\nBULLET::::- Deep Impact\n\nBULLET::::- OSIRIS-REx\n\nExamples of missions to the Moon\n\nBULLET::::- Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter\n\nBULLET::::- LADEE\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Section::::Methodology.:Modeling.\n", "Section::::Evidence and research.:Model atmosphere.\n\nA numerical model of a star's atmosphere will calculate pressures and temperatures at different depths, and can predict the spectrum for different elemental concentrations.\n\nSection::::Application.\n", "BULLET::::- How Did We Find Out about Germs?\n\nBULLET::::- How Did We Find Out about Lasers?\n\nBULLET::::- How Did We Find Out about Life in the Deep Sea?\n\nBULLET::::- How Did We Find Out about Microwaves?\n\nBULLET::::- How Did We Find Out about Neptune?\n\nBULLET::::- How Did We Find Out about Nuclear Power?\n\nBULLET::::- How Did We Find Out about Numbers?\n\nBULLET::::- How Did We Find Out about Oil?\n\nBULLET::::- How Did We Find Out about Our Human Roots?\n\nBULLET::::- How Did We Find Out about Outer Space?\n\nBULLET::::- How Did We Find Out about Photosynthesis?\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-14971	Why are cans more recyclable than plastic bottles?	Plastics are made of polymer chains that are tangled up. It's like a big mess of spaghetti. For most plastics, when you recycle it you'll end up breaking down some of those chains. If you keep recycling it you'll get rice which behaves quite different from spaghetti, and finally couscous which is even weaker. Many plastics become a worse form of plastic when reprocessed which limits what you can do. You'd also need to perfectly sort them to get great recyclability Aluminum and iron don't break down in the recycling process. You just heat them up until you've got pure aluminum or iron again and then add in the impurities that you need to make your alloy. When you're done, you can heat it again and make a different alloy. Metals are particles that form crystals with each other rather than long interlocking chains that break down	[ "Cans can be made with easy open features. Some cans have screw caps for pouring liquids and resealing. Some have hinged covers or slip-on covers for easy access. Paint cans often have a removable plug on the top for access and for reclosing.\n\nSection::::Recycling.\n\nSteel from cans and other sources is the most recycled packaging material. Around 65% of steel cans are recycled. In the United States, 63% of steel cans are recycled, compared to 52% of aluminium cans. In Europe the recycling rate in 2016 is 79,5%.\n", "Section::::Recycled Materials vs New Materials.:Aluminum.\n\nAluminum offers the most savings, with cans from recycled material requiring as little as 4% of the energy required to make the same cans from bauxite ore. Metals don't degrade as they're recycled in the same way plastics and paper do, fibers shortening every cycle, so many metals are prime candidates for recycling, especially considering their high value per ton compared to other recyclables.\n\nSection::::Recycled Materials vs New Materials.:Plastics.\n", "Most steel cans also carry some form of recycling identification such as the Metal Recycles Forever Mark Recyclable Steel and the Choose Steel campaign logo . There is also a campaign in Europe called Every Can Counts, encouraging can recycling in the workplace \n\nSection::::Recycling.:Sustainability and recycling of steel beverage cans.:Smaller carbon footprint.\n", "Steel is a permanent material (a steel can can be recycled again and again without loss of quality). Recycling a single can saves the equivalent power for one laundry load, 1 hour of TV or 24 hours of lighting (10W LED bulb). \n\nSteel beverage cans are recycled by being melted down in an electric arc furnace or basic oxygen furnace. \n", "There is a high recycling rate for metal cans in the UK, with aluminium recycling and steel cans being the most common items. Metal can be recycled indefinitely, and aluminium cans use just 5% of the energy needed to produce them from scratch and only release 5% of the amount of greenhouse gases. In addition, it is the easiest material to extract and separate from the other reyclables, using magnets for steel cans and special magnets (eddy currents) it guarantees recycling of every can.\n\nSection::::Main aspects of UK recycling policy.:Other materials.\n\nSection::::Main aspects of UK recycling policy.:Other materials.:Cartons.\n", "All beverage packaging creates CO emissions at every stage in the production process, from raw material extraction, processing and manufacture through to recycling. However, steel cans are an ecological top performer, as cans can always be recycled. The steel industry needs the used cans and will use them in the production of new steel product. By recycling the cans and closing the loop, CO emissions are dramatically reduced. There is also the potential for higher global steel recycling rates as consumers become more aware of the benefits.\n\nSection::::Health issues.\n\nSection::::Health issues.:Dissolution of tin into the food.\n", "From an ecological perspective, steel may be regarded as a closed-loop material: post-consumer waste can be collected, recycled and used to make new cans or other products. Each tonne of scrap steel recycled saves 1.5 tonnes of CO, 1.4 tonnes of iron ore and 740kg of coal. Steel is the world’s most recycled material, with more than 85% of all the world’s steel products being recycled at the end of their life: an estimated 630 million tonnes of steel scrap were recycled in 2017, saving 945 million tonnes of CO. \n\nSection::::Recycling.:Sustainability and recycling of steel beverage cans.:Steel can recycling.\n", "The easy-open aluminum end for beverage cans was developed by Alcoa in 1962 for the Pittsburgh Brewing Company and is now used in nearly all of the canned beer market.\n\nSection::::Recycling.\n\nAluminum cans are often made with recycled aluminum; approximately 68% of a standard North American can is recycled aluminum. In 2012, 92% of the aluminum beverage cans sold in Switzerland were recycled. Cans are the most recycled beverage container, at a rate of 69% worldwide.\n", "The vast amount of aluminium used means that even small percentage losses are large expenses, so the flow of material is well monitored and accounted for financial reasons. Efficient production and recycling benefits the environment as well.\n\nSection::::Process for beverage cans.\n\nAluminium beverage cans are usually recycled by the following method:\n\nBULLET::::1. Cans are first divided from municipal waste, usually through an eddy current separator, and cut into small, equally sized pieces to lessen the volume and make it easier for the machines that separate them.\n", "Much can recycling occurs at the smelters, but individual consumers also directly reuse cans in various ways. For instance some people use two tin cans to form a camp or survival stove to cook small meals.\n\nSection::::Recycling.:Sustainability and recycling of steel beverage cans.\n\nSection::::Recycling.:Sustainability and recycling of steel beverage cans.:Steel recycling.\n", "Closed loop recycling strategy of environmental protection is applied in multiple range, such as fuel alcohol production, nutrient recycling from microalgae biomass as well as discontinuous carbon fiber polypropylene composites . A basic example of it is the recycling of aluminum, such as cans which can be recycled and reproduced into a new can with few material degradation or waste creation. Another example is the production of plastic products which is almost 3.7 million tons each year. The grocery industry demonstrated that the consumers utilized at least 69% of produced 1 million tonnes of plastic in a year which equate to 9 billion carrier bags. In past five years, the manufactures focused on recycling plastics and the recycling rate has significantly increased. Closed loop recycling system saves 7.4 cubic yards of landfill space by recycling one ton of plastic. Hence, the closed loop recycling dramatically decreases the occupancy space, economizes the prime cost of manufacture and promote the economic efficiency.\n", "In many parts of the world a deposit can be recovered by turning in empty plastic, glass, and aluminium containers. Scrap metal dealers often purchase aluminium cans in bulk, even when deposits are not offered. Aluminium is one of the most cost-effective materials to recycle. When recycled without other metals being mixed in, the can–lid combination is perfect for producing new stock for the main part of the can—the loss of magnesium during melting is made up for by the high magnesium content of the lid. Also, reducing ores such as bauxite into aluminium requires large amounts of electricity, making recycling cheaper than producing new metal.\n", "Section::::Early history.\n\nThe first recorded mass recycling program in the United States, \"Ban The Can,\" was conceived and executed in 1970 by Ruth \"Pat\" Webb in Honolulu, Hawaii. Webb organized military and civilian volunteers to collect over 9 tons (8,200 kg) of metal cans from the roadways and highways of Oahu. The metal cans were later recycled into steel reinforcement bars to be used in local construction projects.\n", "The effects of plastic bottled water on the environment are catastrophic. It is known that only about 9% of all plastic is recycled. About 79% of this plastic waste is ending up in landfills and polluting the lands and oceans. In contrast, 65% of all aluminum cans are recycled. Making aluminum cans the most recycled beverage container on the planet. Due to the detrimental impact of plastic on the environment, many manufacturers are turning towards aluminum cans and aluminum bottles as a more viable solution to package drinking water. \n", "Automated recycling of bottles has been in use since the 1970s. Aluminum and steel beverage cans had a 5,60 kr surtax in Norway up until the end of the 20th century. In 1999, a container deposit legislation was passed, which also abolished this regulation. Today, these are the following container deposits in Norway:\n\nBULLET::::- Cans, glass and plastic bottles up to 0.5 L: 2.00 krone\n\nBULLET::::- Cans, glass and plastic bottles over 0.5 L: 3 kr\n\nBULLET::::- Bottle crates are also reverse vended.\n", "Plastic Pyrolysis can convert petroleum based waste streams such as plastics into quality fuels, carbons. Given below is the list of suitable plastic raw materials for pyrolysis:\n\nBULLET::::- Mixed plastic (HDPE, LDPE, PE, PP, Nylon, Teflon, PS, ABS, FRP, etc.)\n\nBULLET::::- Mixed waste plastic from waste paper mill\n\nBULLET::::- Multi-layered plastic\n\nSection::::Recycling loops.\n\nThe (ideal) recycling process can be differentiated into three loops, one for manufacture (production-waste recycling) and two for disposal of the product (product and material recycling).\n", "In the United States, steel containers, cans, automobiles, appliances, and construction materials contribute the greatest weight of recycled materials. For example, in 2008, more than 97% of structural steel and 106% of automobiles were recycled, comparing the current steel consumption for each industry with the amount of recycled steel being produced (the late 2000s recession and the associated sharp decline in automobile production in the US explains the over-100% calculation). A typical appliance is about 75% steel by weight and automobiles are about 65% steel and iron.\n", "In-plant recycling has long been common for producing packaging materials. Post-consumer recycling of aluminum and paper-based products has been economical for many years: since the 1980s, post-consumer recycling has increased due to curbside recycling, consumer awareness, and regulatory pressure.\n", "Section::::Global statistics.\n\nWorldwide, approximately 7.5 million tons of PET were collected in 2011. This gave 5.9 million tons of flake. In 2009 3.4 million tons were used to produce fibre, 500,000 tons to produce bottles, 500,000 tons to produce APET sheet for thermoforming, 200,000 tons to produce strapping tape and 100,000 tons for miscellaneous applications.\n", "Section::::Aspects of plastic processing.\n\nSection::::Aspects of plastic processing.:Degradable plastics.\n\nOxo-degradable plastics: these are petroleum-based plastics with additives such as transition metals and metals salts that promote the process of fragmentation of the plastic when exposed to a particular environment, such as high temperature or oxygen rich one, for a prolonged period of time. Fragmentation exposes a larger surface area of the plastic to colonies of bacteria that eventually decompose the polymer into its lower energy state components: carbon dioxide and water.\n\nSome aspects to take into account regarding this method to dispose of end-of-life plastics are:\n", "Many potential factors are involved in environmental comparisons of returnable vs non-returnable systems. Researchers have often used life cycle analysis methodologies to balance the many diverse considerations. Often the comparisons show benefits and problems with all alternatives. It helps provide a objective view of a complex subject.\n", "As of 2015, approximately 6.3 billion tons of plastic waste had been generated, around 9% of which had been recycled, 12% was incinerated, and 79% was accumulated in landfills or the natural environment. In 2016 only 14% of plastic waste was recycled globally. According to the EPA, the recycling rate for plastics overall was 9.1% in 2015. Certain products have higher rates, such as PET bottles and jars at 29.9%, and HDPE natural bottles at 30.3%. These rates are lower than certain other materials, like steel cans, that had an estimated recycling rate of 71.3% in 2015.\n", "Drink can\n\nA drink can (or beverage can) is a metal container designed to hold a fixed portion of liquid such as carbonated soft drinks, alcoholic drinks, fruit juices, teas, herbal teas, energy drinks, etc. Drink cans are made of aluminium (75% of worldwide production) or tin-plated steel (25% worldwide production). Worldwide production for all drink cans is approximately 370 billion cans per year worldwide.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The greatest challenge to the recycling of plastics is the difficulty of automating the sorting of plastic wastes, making it labor-intensive. Typically, workers sort the plastic by looking at the resin identification code, although common containers like soda bottles can be sorted from memory. Typically, the caps for PETE bottles are made from a different kind of plastic which is not recyclable, which presents additional problems for the sorting process. Other recyclable materials such as metals are easier to process mechanically. However, new processes of mechanical sorting are being developed to increase the capacity and efficiency of plastic recycling.\n", "BULLET::::- Bismuth recycling\n\nBULLET::::- Lead recycling\n\nSection::::Plastic.\n\nThe vast majority of plastic is non-biodegradable, so recycling is a part of global efforts to reduce plastic in the waste stream. There are many types of plastic and they generally have to be separated by type for successful recycling. The low density of plastics increases transportation costs per unit weight.\n\nSection::::Timber.\n" ]	[ "Recycling plastic should be easier than recycling cans.", "Recycling plastic should be easier than recycling cans." ]	[ "Recycling plastic shortens polymer chains, which degrades the quality of the plastic, but metal cans can be melted back down to their elemental metal.", "Recycling plastic shortens polymer chains, which degrades the quality of the plastic, but metal cans can be melted back down to their elemental metal." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Recycling plastic should be easier than recycling cans.", "Recycling plastic should be easier than recycling cans.", "Recycling plastic is similar to recycling metal" ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Recycling plastic shortens polymer chains, which degrades the quality of the plastic, but metal cans can be melted back down to their elemental metal.", "Recycling plastic shortens polymer chains, which degrades the quality of the plastic, but metal cans can be melted back down to their elemental metal.", "Recycling plastic shortens polymer chains, which degrades the quality of the plastic, but metal cans can be melted back down to their elemental metal." ]
2018-14091	How far do you have to get in science or math to be working on modern day questions that are still unsolved?	In the very broad strokes, your Bachelors and Masters degrees are spent proving your mastery of the material. Your Masters thesis may require you to analyze prior research in a way that may contribute to the knowledge base. Your doctoral thesis, however, is expected to expand the knowledge base in your field and generally must be original research.	[ "The Mystery Hunt was started in 1981 by then-graduate student Brad Schaefer. The first Hunt consisted of 12 subclues on a single sheet of paper including a Vigenere cipher, a short runaround, and an integral. The answers to the subclues detailed the location of an Indian Head penny hidden on campus. The individuals who found the coin were allowed to take their pick of a $20 gift certificate to the school bookstore, a $50 donation to the charity of their choice, and a keg of beer. The hunt was organized for the next two years by Brad Schaefer and after he graduated, the winners were given the honor of writing the hunt the next year.\n", "As of 2017, the show maintains a YouTube page where viewers can submit their own mysteries. If accepted, \"Unsolved Mysteries\" posts a video of the viewer describing the mystery.\n", "BULLET::::- Ep. 4: \"Egypt's Darkest Hour\" (4/3/2019, #1704)The discovery of a rare mass grave with the bones of nearly 60 people outside Luxor sends archaeologists on a quest to find out who the remains belong to, why they were buried the way they were and what was happening in ancient Egypt that would have led to a mass burial.\n\nBULLET::::- Ep. 5: \"World War Speed\" (6/25/2019, #1705)Historian James Holland, on his quest to understand how the use of amphetamines affected the course of World War II and unleashed “the world’s first pharmacological arms race.”\n", "Section::::Episodes - US series.:Season 17 (2017-18).\n\nBULLET::::- Special: \"Secrets of Spanish Florida\" (12/26/2017, #AMFC) — 2\n\nBULLET::::- Ep. 1: \"Scanning the Pyramids\" (1/24/2018, #1701)\n\nBULLET::::- Ep. 2: \"Hannibal in the Alps\" (4/10/2018, #1702)A team of experts determines which of 4 possible routes was used by Hannibal\n\nSection::::Episodes - US series.:Season 18 (2018-19).\n\nBULLET::::- Ep. 1: \"The Woman in the Iron Coffin\" (10/03/2018)Forensic experts investigate the preserved remains of a young 19th century New York African American woman and reveal details of early America’s free black communities.\n", "Unsolved problems in chemistry tend to be questions of the kind \"Can we make \"X\" chemical compound?\", \"Can we analyse it?\", \"Can we purify it?\" and are commonly solved rather quickly, but may just as well require considerable efforts to be solved. However, there are also some questions with deeper implications. This article tends to deal with the areas that are the center of new scientific research in chemistry. Problems in chemistry are considered unsolved when an expert in the field considers it unsolved or when several experts in the field disagree about a solution to a problem.\n", "On June 22, 2018, Terror Vision Records released the official soundtrack for the series.\n\nIn 2017, the show's creators expressed interest in reviving the series. On January 18, 2019, Netflix picked up a reboot of the series.\n\nSection::::Overview.\n\n\"Unsolved Mysteries\" used a documentary format to profile real-life mysteries and featured re-enactments of unsolved crimes, missing persons cases, conspiracy theories and unexplained paranormal phenomena (alien abductions, ghosts, UFOs, and \"secret history\" theories).\n", "In most cases, basic steps crucial to analysis (such as cleaning and labeling artifacts) are performed in a general laboratory setting while more sophisticated techniques are performed by specialists in their own labs. The sections of this article describe specialized techniques and section descriptions assume that artifacts have already been cleaned and cataloged.\n\nSection::::Inorganic remains.\n\nSection::::Inorganic remains.:Pottery studies.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Death at the Opera House\" - the disappearance of Ambrose Small\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Impossible is Possible\" - the murder of Roy Orsini\n\nBULLET::::- \"A Riddle in Life and a Riddle in Death\" - the disappearance of Jimmy Hoffa and the surrounding conspiracy theory\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Mysterious Mummy\" - an ornamental mummy which was discovered to contain a real corpse during the filming of a \"Six Million Dollar Man\" episode\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Prairie's Murder Inn\" - the Bloody Benders, a family of serial killers\n", "BULLET::::- Leslie Greif is an executive producer of the show and frequently appears on camera. He has worked in various movie and television projects for the past 25 years. He produced and co-created \"Walker, Texas Ranger\", starring Chuck Norris, and directed documentaries on Steve McQueen and Marlon Brando. His feature film credits include \"Funny Money\", starring Chevy Chase, and \"Keys to Tulsa\".\n\nBULLET::::- Dr. Allan Morton is fellowship coordinator. He has been an archaeologist for twenty years, and holds a Ph.D from Cambridge University.\n", "Section::::Developments.\n", "BULLET::::- David Cheetham is a consulting archaeologist. He has been an archaeologist for two decades, and has conducted research in the countries of Guatemala, Belize, and Mexico.\n\nSection::::Cast.:Archaeological fellows.\n\nBULLET::::- Zoë D'Amato is an actress who has studied anthropology and art history at McGill University. She has worked as a librarian, an English teacher, bartender, and fundraiser for Greenpeace.\n\nBULLET::::- Alice Robinson is a curator at the British Museum and archaeological researcher. She holds a master's degree in archaeology and anthropology from Oxford University.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Moneyball\" (2011) – Oakland Athletics baseball team's general manager Billy Beane attempts to assemble a competitive team using statistics.\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Oxford Murders\" (2008) – A Student (Elijah Wood) finds out about mysterious killings in Oxford and helped by a professor, they reveal the math patterns used by the killer.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pi\" (1998) – A mathematician searches for the number that underlies all of nature.\n", "Unsolved History\n\nUnsolved History is an American documentary television series that aired from 2002 to 2005. The program was produced by MorningStar Entertainment, Termite Art Productions, Lions Gate Television, and Discovery Communications for the Discovery Channel. The series lasted over three seasons and had a total of 47 episodes, in which a team of people, each with different skills, try to solve historical mysteries. As of 2007, the series airs on Investigation Discovery and occasionally on the Science Channel. However, episodes regarding the military are sometimes aired on the Military Channel.\n\nSection::::Episodes.\n", "Section::::Broadcast history.:Reboot.\n\nA 12-part reboot was announced by \"Deadline Hollywood\" on January 19, 2019. The series is being \"refreshed\" by \"Stranger Things\" executive producer Shawn Levy and his company 21 Laps Entertainment along with Cosgrove-Meurer Productions and Netflix. Cosgrove and Meurer are expected to showrun the series, with Levy and Josh Barry as executive producers. Robert Wise will act as co-executive producer, along with showrunner Dunn Meurer. Each episode will focus on a single mystery.\n\nSection::::Spin-offs.\n", "Famous actors and celebrities have appeared on the show, both as role actors (before finding stardom) and also in episodes where they had a connection with the events being portrayed.\n\nSection::::Notable actors and celebrities.:As role actors.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Jurassic Park\" (1993) – A mathematician (chaos theorist) (Jeff Goldblum) is among those invited to a theme park with cloned dinosaurs, in order to assess its safety.\n\nBULLET::::- \"\" (1997) – Mathematician Ian Malcolm (Jeff Goldblum) travels to an auxiliary Jurassic Park site to document dinosaurs.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Travelling Salesman\" (2012 film) - an intellectual thriller about four mathematicians solving the P vs NP problem\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Mathematical Fiction: films by Alex Kasman (College of Charleston)\n\nBULLET::::- The Mathematical Movie Database by Burkard Polster and Marty Ross\n\nBULLET::::- Mathematics in Movies by Oliver Knill (Harvard University)\n", "The pilot of what eventually became \"Unsolved Mysteries\" was a special that aired on NBC on January 20, 1987, with Raymond Burr as host/narrator. Throughout the 1987–88 television season, six more specials aired, the first two hosted by Karl Malden and the final four by Robert Stack.\n", "BULLET::::- Derek Lincoln has an undergraduate degree in history and anthropology from the University of South Florida and a master's degree in Mediterranean archaeology from Bristol University.\n\nBULLET::::- Lindsay Tanner has a degree in acting and anthropology from New York University.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "BULLET::::- Ep. 1: \"Vampire Legend\" (10/27/2015, #1501)\n\nBULLET::::- Ep. 2: \"Jamestown's Dark Winter\" (11/24/2015, #1403)\n\nBULLET::::- Ep. 3: \"The Alcatraz Escape\" (3/29/2016, #1503)\n\nBULLET::::- Ep. 4: \"Cleopatra’s Lost Tomb\" (5/17/2016, #1502)\n\nBULLET::::- Ep. 5: \"Teotihuacán’s Lost Kings\" (5/24/2016, #1504)\n\nSection::::Episodes - US series.:Season 16 (2016-17).\n\nBULLET::::- Ep. 1: \"After Stonehenge\" (10/26/2016, #1601)\n\nBULLET::::- Ep. 2: \"Graveyard of the Giant Beasts\" (11/2/2016, #1505)\n\nBULLET::::- Ep. 3: \"Van Gogh’s Ear\" (12/14/2016, #1602)\n\nBULLET::::- EP. 4: \"Nero's Sunken City\" (03/29/2017)Archaeologists map the underwater ruins of Baiae, ancient Rome's version of Los Vegas\n\nBULLET::::- Ep. 5: \"Leonardo, The Man Who Saved Science\" (04/05/2017, #1604)\n", "During the analysis phase an investigator recovers evidence material using a number of different methodologies and tools. In 2002, an article in the \"International Journal of Digital Evidence\" referred to this step as \"an in-depth systematic search of evidence related to the suspected crime.\" In 2006, forensics researcher Brian Carrier described an \"intuitive procedure\" in which obvious evidence is first identified and then \"exhaustive searches are conducted to start filling in the holes.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Betsy Aardsma (22), from Holland, Michigan, was a graduate student at Penn State University. She was stabbed to death in the stacks of Pattee Library on Penn State's campus on 28 November 1969. She was stabbed a single time through the heart with a single-edged small knife. Approximately one minute later two men told a desk clerk, \"Somebody better help that girl,\" and then left the library. The men were never identified. 25–35 minutes later she was pronounced dead at the hospital. She had been wearing a red dress, and since there was only a small amount of blood visible, no one realized immediately that she had been stabbed.\n", "Uhlenbeck is a self-described \"messy reader\" and \"messy thinker\", with boxes of books stacked on her desk at Princeton's Institute for Advanced Study. In spontaneous remarks made to Institute colleagues after winning the Abel Prize in March 2019, Uhlenbeck noted that for lack of prominent female role models during her apprenticeship in the field of mathematics, she had instead emulated chef Julia Child: \"She knew how to pick the turkey up off the floor and serve it\".\n\nSection::::Awards and honors.\n", "BULLET::::- Ⅶ, (lit. \"Egypt Regained\"; chapter deleted in English edition) – This chapter evokes the works of Howard Carter in the Valley of the Kings (tomb of Tutankhamun), and Pierre Montet's excavations at Tanis (tombs of Psusennes I, Amenemope, Shoshenq II …), it's already in the first half of 20 century. If the discoveries of the tombs of Tutankhamun and Psusennes had the international exposure, the truth is that almost every year new findings have been brought to light, many of which are only in the knowledge of the teams of work, of scholars and readers of specialised Egyptology journals. At a good pace, the discoveries continue today, methodically exploring the archaeological sites that exist not only in Egypt but also in Nubia; so \"the philologists, epigraphists, historians can examine unearthed documents\", and \"Egyptology has passed the stage of childhood, it is entering its maturity\".\n", "BULLET::::29. \"The Queen Pharaoh\" original air date 11 April 1996\n\nBULLET::::30. \"Secrets of Sex: The Kama Sutra\" original air date 18 April 1996\n\nBULLET::::31. \"Temples of Eternity\" original air date 21 April 1996\n\nBULLET::::32. \"The Forbidden City: The Dynasty and Destiny\" original air date 25 April 1996\n\nBULLET::::33. \"The Incredible Monuments of Ancient Rome\" original air date 5 May 1996\n\nBULLET::::34. \"Lost Spirits of Cambodia\" original air date 9 May 1996\n\nBULLET::::35. \"Lost Legions of Rome\" original air date 12 May 1996\n\nBULLET::::36. \"Voodoo!\" (two-hour special) original air date 16 May 1996\n", "BULLET::::- Richard III: Solving a 500 Year Old Cold Case (TEDx Leicester)\n\nBULLET::::- Richard III – The DNA Analysis & Conclusion (University of Leicester)\n\nBULLET::::- Richard III: The Resolution of A 500-Year-Old Cold Case (Irving K. Barber Learning Centre Lecture, UBC)\n\nBULLET::::- Richard III: The King in the Car Park\n\nSection::::Career and research.:Current projects.\n\nThe following is a list of projects Dr. King is either heading or is involved with:\n\nBULLET::::- The King's DNA: whole genome sequencing of Richard III\n\nBULLET::::- What's in a Name? Applying Patrilineal Surnames to Forensics, Population History, and Genetic Epidemiology\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-23769	When you have a cold/your nose is stuffed, and then suddenly it feels like an air bubble appears and clears your nose so you can breathe again. What's happening?	Actually it is your turbinates swelling or shrinking. Turbinates are “erectile” tissue in your nose that fill with blood and block off airflow. When they swell or shrink it feels funny. This is how instant nasal decongestants like Afrin work. They contain a chemical that causes the blood vessels to constrict which shrink the turbinates.	[ "Sinusitis (or rhinosinusitis) is defined as an inflammation of the mucous membrane that lines the paranasal sinuses and is classified chronologically into several categories:\n\nBULLET::::- Acute sinusitis – A new infection that may last up to four weeks and can be subdivided symptomatically into severe and non-severe. Some use definitions up to 12 weeks.\n\nBULLET::::- Recurrent acute sinusitis – Four or more full episodes of acute sinusitis that occur within one year\n\nBULLET::::- Subacute sinusitis – An infection that lasts between four and 12 weeks, and represents a transition between acute and chronic infection\n", "Parapneumonic effusion\n\nA parapneumonic effusion is a type of pleural effusion that arises as a result of a pneumonia, lung abscess, or bronchiectasis. There are three types of parapneumonic effusions: uncomplicated effusions, complicated effusions, and empyema. Uncomplicated effusions generally respond well to appropriate antibiotic treatment. \n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "Pneumomediastinum\n\nPneumomediastinum (from Greek \"pneuma\" – \"air\", also known as mediastinal emphysema) is pneumatosis (abnormal presence of air or other gas) in the mediastinum. First described in 1819 by René Laennec, the condition can result from physical trauma or other situations that lead to air escaping from the lungs, airways, or bowel into the chest cavity.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "Peribronchial cuffing\n\nPeribronchial cuffing, also referred to as peribronchial thickening or bronchial wall thickening, is a radiologic sign which occurs when excess fluid or mucus buildup in the small airway passages of the lung causes localized patches of atelectasis (lung collapse). This causes the area around the bronchus to appear more prominent on an X-ray. It has also been described as donut sign, considering the edge is thicker, and the center contains air.\n\nPeribronchial cuffing is seen in a number of conditions including: \n\nBULLET::::- Acute bronchitis\n\nBULLET::::- Asthma following exercise or during an acute episode\n\nBULLET::::- Bronchiolitis\n", "There is no single cause for this condition. The air can be removed by incising or aspirating through the skin over the back. Antibiotic cover should be given. This may be associated with lung/chest wall damage or a small external wound acting like a valve or a clostridium type infection.\n\nSection::::Human influence.\n", "Section::::Causes and treatment.\n\nThe British Hedgehog Preservation Society advises that: \"There is no single cause for this condition. The air can be removed by incising or aspirating through the skin over the back. Antibiotic cover should be given. This may be associated with lung/chest wall damage or a small external wound acting like a valve or a clostridium type infection\". Incisions in the affected parts of the hedgehog will allow the trapped air to escape, but these must remain open until after the animal's lungs have healed to prevent recurrence of the syndrome.\n", "BULLET::::- Acute: Any sinus infection which lasts for a maximum of three weeks can be referred to as acute sinusitis; with the affected individual displaying symptoms such as congestion, post nasal drip, halitosis, a runny nose as well as sinus pressure and pain in the affected areas.\n", "Acute bronchitis, also known as a chest cold, is short term inflammation of the bronchi of the lungs. The most common symptom is a cough, that may or may not produce sputum. Other symptoms include coughing up mucus, wheezing, shortness of breath, fever, and chest discomfort. The infection may last from a few to ten days. The cough may persist for several weeks afterwards, with the total duration of symptoms usually around three weeks. Symptoms may last for up to six weeks.\n\nSection::::Acute bronchitis.:Cause.\n", "Acute interstitial pneumonitis\n\nAcute interstitial pneumonitis is a rare, severe lung disease that usually affects otherwise healthy individuals. There is no known cause or cure.\n\nAcute interstitial pneumonitis is often categorized as both an interstitial lung disease and a form of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) but it is distinguished from the \"chronic\" forms of interstitial pneumonia such as idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis.\n\nSection::::Symptoms.\n", "If the outlet is blocked during ascent, the situation is reversed and \"reverse squeeze\" appears. Pressure inside the sinus increases, affecting the walls of the sinus and producing pain or epistaxis.\n\nSection::::Location.\n\nThe majority of episodes of sinus barotrauma occur in the frontal sinuses with pain localized over the frontal area. Possible explanations for this might be the relatively long and delicate nasofrontal duct that connects the narrow frontal recess with the frontal sinuses.\n", "The pressure difference causes the mucosal lining of the sinuses to become swollen and submucosal bleeding follows with further difficulties ventilating the sinus, especially if the orifices are involved. Ultimately fluid or blood will fill the space.\n", "The most common symptoms of acute interstitial pneumonitis are highly productive cough with expectoration of thick mucus, fever, and difficulties breathing. These often occur over a period of one to two weeks before medical attention is sought. The presence of fluid means the person experiences a feeling similar to 'drowning'. Difficulties breathing can quickly progress to an inability to breathe without support (respiratory failure).\n\nAcute interstitial pneumonitis typically progresses rapidly, with hospitalization and mechanical ventilation often required only days to weeks after initial symptoms of cough, fever, and difficulties breathing develop.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "The incubation period is 5–7 days (with a range of 3–10). Symptoms can include a harsh, dry cough, retching, sneezing, snorting, gagging or vomiting in response to light pressing of the trachea or after excitement or exercise. The presence of a fever varies from case to case.\n\nSection::::Symptoms.:Types.\n", "Balloon syndrome\n\nBalloon syndrome is a rare condition in hedgehogs in which gas is trapped under the skin as a result of injury or infection, causing the animal to inflate. It is akin to surgical emphysema seen in humans, although somewhat more profound in hedgehogs due to their tissue structure. The British Hedgehog Preservation Society describes the symptoms as: \"Hedgehog has blown up appearance, subcutaneous emphysema\".\n\nSection::::Reported incidents.\n", "Section::::Causes.\n\nIt is caused by Klebsiella rhinoscleromatis—subspecies of\n\n\"Klebsiella pneumoniae\"— a gram-negative, encapsulated, nonmotile, rod-shaped bacillus (diplobacillus), member of the family Enterobacteriaceae. It is sometimes referred to as the \"Frisch bacillus,\" named for Anton von Frisch who identified the organism in 1882. It is contracted directly by droplets or by contamination of material that is subsequently inhaled.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "The term is often used in medicine to refer specifically to the production of airborne particles (e.g. tiny liquid droplets) containing infectious virus or bacteria. The infectious organism is said to be \"aerosolized\". This can occur when an infected individual coughs, sneezes exhales, or vomits, but can also arise from flushing a toilet, or disturbing dried contaminated feces.\n\nTreatment of some respiratory diseases relies on aerosolization of a liquid medication using a nebulizer, which is then breathed in for direct transport to the lungs.\n", "Hot nose sign\n\nThe hot nose sign refers to increased perfusion in the nasal region on nuclear medicine cerebral perfusion studies in the setting of brain death. The absent or reduced flow in the internal carotid arteries is thought to lead to increased flow within the external carotid arteries and subsequent increased perfusion in the nasal region.\n", "In May 2013, the Coronavirus Study Group of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses adopted the official designation, the Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV). which was adopted by the World Health Organization to \"provide uniformity and facilitate communication about the disease\"\n", "The first report of subcutaneous emphysema resulting from air in the mediastinum was made in 1850 in a patient who had been coughing violently. In 1900, the first recorded case of spontaneous subcutaneous emphysema was reported in a bugler for the Royal Marines who had had a tooth extracted: playing the instrument had forced air through the hole where the tooth had been and into the tissues of his face. Since then, another case of spontaneous subcutaneous emphysema was reported in a submariner for the US Navy who had had a root canal in the past; the increased pressure in the submarine forced air through it and into his face. In recent years a case was reported at the University Hospital of Wales of a young man who had been coughing violently causing a rupture in the esophagus resulting in SE. The cause of spontaneous subcutaneous emphysema was clarified between 1939 and 1944 by Macklin, contributing to the current understanding of the pathophysiology of the condition.\n", "Once microbubbles have formed, they can grow by either a reduction in pressure or by diffusion of gas into the gas from its surroundings. In the body, bubbles may be located within tissues or carried along with the bloodstream. The speed of blood flow within a blood vessel and the rate of delivery of blood to capillaries (perfusion) are the main factors that determine whether dissolved gas is taken up by tissue bubbles or circulation bubbles for bubble growth.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.:Pathophysiology.\n", "The treatment of RM involves withdrawal of the offending nasal spray or oral medication. Both a \"cold turkey\" and a \"weaning\" approach can be used. Cold turkey is the most effective treatment method, as it directly removes the cause of the condition, yet the time period between the discontinuation of the drug and the relief of symptoms may be too long and uncomfortable for some individuals (particularly when trying to go to sleep when they are unable to breathe through their nose).\n", "BULLET::::- Postnasal drip, when excess mucus is produced in the sinus of the nose and drips back towards the throat, causing a cough reflex also known as upper airway cough syndrome. Postnasal drip can be caused by direct irritation of the post nasal drip or an inflammation of cough receptors in the upper airway. 34% of postnasal drip cases contribute to the cause of chronic cough.\n\nBULLET::::- Asthma that affects the upper respiratory tract. Other causes such as cold air or chemicals breathed in can also induce coughing.\n", "A common anatomic variant is an air-filled cavity within a concha known as a concha bullosa. In rare cases a polyp can form inside a bullosa. Usually a concha bullosa is small and without symptoms but when large can cause obstruction to sinus drainage.\n", "Air embolism\n\nAn air embolism, also known as a gas embolism, is a blood vessel blockage caused by one or more bubbles of air or other gas in the circulatory system. Air embolisms may also occur in the xylem of vascular plants, especially when suffering from water stress. Air can be introduced into the circulation during surgical procedures, lung over-expansion injury, decompression, and a few other causes.\n", "The name equine encephalosis is misleading as the disease is not primarily a neurological disorder. Although the majority of infections result only in mild clinical signs, in more severe cases clinical signs include a short period (typically two to five days) of fluctuating fever, accompanied by varying degrees of inappetence.\n\nElevated heart and respiratory rates are also common, and occasionally as a result of nasal congestion, a red-brown discolouration of the mucous membranes may be observed.\n\nAlthough rare, more severe clinical signs may occur including facial swelling (lips and eyelids), respiratory distress, and petechial haemorrhages of the conjunctivae.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01570	Why is there a little wall in the gas container of a lighter?	A longer, thinner cylinder is stronger than a shorter, fatter one. Alas, the short, fat shape is more desirable in a lighter. The result is that a long, thin cylinder is folded in half to get the desired strength in the desired shape.	[ "A metal enclosure with air holes generally surrounds the flame, and is designed to allow mixing of fuel and air while making the lighter less sensitive to wind. The high energy jet in butane lighters allows mixing to be accomplished by using Bernoulli's principle, so that the air hole(s) in this type tend to be much smaller and farther from the flame.\n", "To make a smooth transition from door (or window frame) to tin can wall with plaster, sheets of metal lath are attached to the rim of the frame and folded over the gap between the frame and the can wall. A double-layered wooden frame is therefore required, to give a surface for the metal lath to be nailed to while leaving the inside frame untouched. However, this is not necessarily a necessity. \n", "The very small vessels used to make liquid butane fueled cigarette lighters are subjected to about 2 bar pressure, depending on ambient temperature. These vessels are often oval (1 x 2 cm ... 1.3 x 2.5 cm) in cross section but sometimes circular. The oval versions generally include one or two internal tension struts which appear to be baffles but which also provide additional cylinder strength.\n\nBULLET::::- Link to image of a carbon-fiber composite gas cylinder, showing construction details\n\nBULLET::::- Link to image of a carbon-fiber composite oxygen cylinder for an industrial breathing set\n\nSection::::Pressure vessel features.:Construction materials.:Working pressure.\n", "Not to be confused with the meaning of \"match\" as in matchsticks or the \"permanent match\" (see below), this type of lighter consists of a length of \"slow match\" in a holder, with means to ignite and to extinguish the match.\n\nWhile the glowing match does not generally supply enough energy to start a fire without further kindling, it is fully sufficient to light a cigarette. The main advantage of this design shows itself in windy conditions, where the glow of the match is fanned by the wind instead of being blown out.\n\nSection::::Other types.:Permanent match.\n", "A typical form of lighter is the \"permanent match\" or \"everlasting match\", consisting of a naphtha fuel-filled metal shell and a separate threaded metal rod assembly —the \"match\"— serving as the striker and wick. This \"metal match\" is stored screwed into the fuel storage compartment, the shell.\n", "Electrical wiring is simple, with the wires attached to the cans or fastened to the concrete before the initial coat. If a wire needs to go to the other side of a wall it can be punched directly through a can. Plumbing and pipework can use similar methods. The can wall can always be built around a pipe, or there can be a wooden frame made similar to a window or door to house the pipe.\n\nSection::::Strength and use.\n", "Three-piece can construction results in top and bottom rims. In two-piece construction, one piece is a flat top and the other a deep-drawn cup-shaped piece that combines the (at least roughly) cylindrical wall and the round base. Transition between wall and base is usually gradual. Such cans have a single rim at the top. Some cans have a separate cover that slides onto the top or is hinged.\n", "The patenting of ferrocerium (often misidentified as flint) by Carl Auer von Welsbach in 1903 has made modern lighters possible. When scratched it produces a large spark which is responsible for lighting the fuel of many lighters, and is suitably inexpensive for use in disposable items.\n\nUsing Carl Auer von Welsbach's flint, companies like Ronson were able to develop practical and easy to use lighters. In 1910, Ronson released the first Pist-O-Liter, and in 1913, the company developed its first lighter, called the \"Wonderlite\", which was a permanent match style of lighter.\n", "The theory of the integrating sphere assumes a uniform inside surface with diffuse reflectivity approaching 100%. Openings where light can exit or enter, used for detectors and sources, are normally called ports. The total area of all ports must be small, less than about 5% of the surface area of the sphere, for the theoretical assumptions to be valid. Unused ports should therefore have matching plugs, with the interior surface of the plug coated with the same material as the rest of the sphere.\n", "Tin cans have not been around for a long time, and neither have their building methods. The two main structural methods for building with tin cans are by laying them horizontally in a concrete matrix and by stacking them vertically.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Rigid ladders were originally made of wood, but in the 20th century aluminium became more common because of its lighter weight. Ladders with fiberglass stiles are used for working on or near overhead electrical wires, because fiberglass is an electrical insulator. Henry Quackenbush patented the extension ladder in 1867.\n\nSection::::Variations.:Flexible ladders.\n", "The second speculation is the most likely the one since in the 1937 edition of Hackh’s Chemical Dictionary “platinum policeman,” defined as \"“a platinum-iridium claw that fits over a glass rod and is used to hold a quantitative filter during ignition,”\" which the purpose of the policeman was to prevent the escape of stray filter paper from the crucible during the ignition process that causes thermal updrafts from the burner. Therefore, for policeman, it likely means to prevent the escape of stray precipitate.\n\nSection::::Structure.\n", "Again, the puzzle comes from considering the situation from the frame of the ladder. In the above analysis, in its own frame, the ladder was always longer than the garage. So how did we ever close the doors and trap it inside?\n", "During WWl soldiers started to create lighters of empty cartridge cases. During that time one of the soldiers came up with a means to insert a chimney cap with holes in it to make it more windproof.\n\nThe Zippo lighter and company were invented and founded by George Grant Blaisdell in 1932. The Zippo was noted for its reliability, \"Life Time Warranty\" and marketing as \"Wind-Proof\". Most early Zippos used naphtha as a fuel source.\n", "The cases of Zippo lighters are typically made of brass and are rectangular with a hinged top. On most models, the top of the case is slightly curved.\n\nInside the case are the works of the lighter. The insert contains the spring-toggle lever that keeps the top closed, the wick, windscreen chimney, flintwheel, and flint, all of which are mounted on an open-bottom metal box that is slightly smaller than the bottom of the outer case, and into which it slips snugly.\n", "The term is used colloquially to refer to cartridges with the 7/16\" UNEF threaded valve used on disposable butane and butane/isobutane/propane mix cartridges used in some backpacking stoves. The correct name for this is \"Lindal B188 valve\", the manufacturer's designation. This informal use is improper, as the EN 417 standard applies also to cartridges that do not have a Lindal valve, such as the valveless pierceable Epigas canisters often used in Europe.\n", "At first, the card clothing for wool mills was made in the form of sheets, and when attached to the cylinder and to all the rollers including the last doffer there were gaps of about an inch between the sheets. This made it impossible to make endless slubbings. Even when it became possible to wrap the doffer with fillet clothing with no gaps, sheets with gaps continued to be used because a continuous woolen sliver was too difficult to manage through the subsequent steps.\n", "BULLET::::- the outer jacket will be at a much lower, safer, temperature, protecting objects or people that might touch it\n\nBULLET::::- the hot-running inner envelope is protected from contamination, and the bulb may be handled without damaging it\n\nBULLET::::- surroundings are protected from possible shattering of the inner capsule\n\nBULLET::::- the jacket may filter out UV radiation\n\nBULLET::::- when a halogen bulb is used to replace a normal incandescent in a fitting, the larger jacket makes it mechanically similar to the bulb replaced\n\nSection::::Form factors.\n", "In the unpressurized open-top design the double wall acts as a gas generator, transferring heat from the flame to the fuel. This effect enhances combustion, producing more heat than other passive designs. The inner wall also creates a convenient preheat chamber for starting the stove. Once the fuel has warmed up, its vapor will travel up the hollow wall, pass through the perforations, and form a ring of flame. This improves air/fuel mixing and therefore combustion. Vapor also rises from the center of the stove and burns when passing through the ring of flame as long as a pot is over the stove. \n", "At the same year (2002) as the discovery of nanoscale windows, adsorption isotherms of hydrogen in internal and interstitialspaces of SWNH assemblies were also determined experimentally, which provided the adsorbed density of hydrogen in internal and interstitial spaces. The fact that the adsorbed density of hydrogen in interstitial spaces is lower than that in internal spaces against the prediction from the interaction potential calculation was explained by the self-stabilization effect of the self-locking mechanism.\n", "The Smith & Wesson Model 36 was designed in the era just after World War II, when Smith & Wesson stopped producing war materials and resumed normal production. For the Model 36, they designed a small concealable 5-shot revolver with a 2\" barrel that could fire the more powerful .38 Special cartridge. Since the older I-frame was not able to handle this load, a new frame was designed, which became the J-frame.\n", "POL valve\n\nA POL valve (originally for Prest-O-Lite) is a gas connection fitting used on LPG cylinders.\n\nThe oldest standard for such connections, it is still the most common such fitting in some countries such as Australia. POL valves are legal and quite common in the United States, especially on larger containers, although certain uses (smaller portable containers) require a modified version of the POL valve that includes some safety features.\n\nIt was developed by the Prest-O-Lite company, hence the name, and uses a left-handed thread.\n", "Zippo lighters, which have gained popularity as “windproof” lighters, are able to stay lit in harsh weather, due to the design of the windscreen and adequate rate of fuel delivery.\n", "Section::::Equipment.:Indirect extrusion.\n\nIn indirect extrusion, also known as backwards extrusion, the billet and container move together while the die is stationary. The die is held in place by a \"stem\" which has to be longer than the container length. The maximum length of the extrusion is ultimately dictated by the column strength of the stem. Because the billet moves with the container the frictional forces are eliminated. This leads to the following advantages:\n\nBULLET::::- A 25 to 30% reduction of friction, which allows for extruding larger billets, increasing speed, and an increased ability to extrude smaller cross-sections\n", "One solution to this for side-valve engines was to place a screwed plug directly above each valve, and to access the valves through this (illustrated). The tapered threads of the screwed plug provided a reliable seal. For low-powered engines this was a popular solution for some years. It was difficult to cool this plug, as the water jacket didn't extend into the plug. As performance increased, it also became important to have better combustion chamber designs with less \"dead space\". One solution was to place the spark plug in the centre of this plug, which at least made use of the space. However this also placed the spark plug further away from the main combustion chamber, leading to long flame paths and slower ignition.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-08287	What are the contributing reasons why the many different countries that comprise Africa have not become first-world countries, or rose up to have a helpful government that took good care of its people?	1. Africans lagged behind the rest of the world politically, socially, and economically. They did have their own kings and chiefs but not well- organized states like Europeans. Europeans have had thousands of years to establish national identities. 2. National boundaries in Africa are arbitrary and group together hostile ethnic groups into a single country. Most people blame the Europeans for this. If you look at a map of Africa it is clearly impossible to draw national boundaries that would actually make sense, but the Africans probably should have been given the right to figure that out for themselves. Anyway, it’s hard to hold a country together when different regions have diametrically opposite cultures. 3. Europeans set a really, really, really bad example. Instead of demonstrating how government could help the people, they shamelessly robbed the place and enslaved the population. Government in Africa’s sole function was to steal as much as possible to make Europeans rich. Small wonder African leaders now do the same thing. 4. Scarcity. Finally, something we can’t blame on Europeans! The fact is that Africa just doesn’t have much in the way of natural resources. They have some diamonds and precious metals, but little else of value. Europeans who were late to the colonization game claimed their territory and then realized Africa was nowhere near as lucrative as somewhere like India. Anyway, when you are poor survival becomes the name of the game, so it is little surprise that people fight each other over resources. (And those places that do have natural resources, like the Congo, turn into war zones.) 5. Geography works against many African countries. Big parts of the continent are landlocked. In Europe, practically everyone is close to the sea or a major river. In America, the Mississippi River basin made it very easy to travel into the interior and back. Africa has no such river system. For example, it would be very easy to travel into the interior on the Nile, except for the cataracts that make it unnavigable. 6. The Europeans... Again. After WW2 European powers gave up on African colonialism, and the withdrawal was not pretty. One good example is the French. When former colonies asked for independence, they did not help the Africans transition to functioning self-governance. Instead, they took everything that wasn’t nailed down, even going so far as to rip out telephone wires and break the glass in buildings. It was a very spiteful ‘we’re-taking-our-toys-and-going-home’ kind of tantrum. Not only did this leave the Africans without the infrastructure they needed to govern, but it demonstrated that when there’s a political outcome you don’t like, the proper response is violent rage. Not a good role model to follow, but that hasn’t stopped the Africans from emulating them. Additionally: There are two exceptions to the above. The first is Saharan Africa, which is on the Mediterranean and populated mostly by Arabs. Generalizations about Sub-Saharan Africa do not apply to the Northern region, which is politically, economically, and ethnically much different. The other exception is South Africa, where Europeans colonized and never left. To this day, South Africa is not exactly a pleasant place but it has been far more stable at the macro level than other African countries.	[ "countries have been acting based on their own personal interests. It was during the late 1800s that the western world really started to explore deeper into the heart of Africa. What the explorers found was an abundance of land and resources. The only thing standing in their way was a group of primitive people with spears, not guns. Through this technological advantage, Europe was able to successfully claim Africa, its people, and its resources as its own. Seeking only to reap the economic and territorial benefits, settlers created quick local governments instead of industrializing Africa. When countries in Africa began to declare their independence, these newly formed countries were left hundreds of years behind the Western world, with corrupt governments in control.\n", "Great instability was mainly the result of marginalization of ethnic groups, and graft under these leaders. For political gain, many leaders fanned ethnic conflicts, some of which had been exacerbated, or even created, by colonial rule. In many countries, the military was perceived as being the only group that could effectively maintain order, and it ruled many nations in Africa during the 1970s and early 1980s. During the period from the early 1960s to the late 1980s, Africa had more than 70 coups and 13 presidential assassinations. Border and territorial disputes were also common, with the European-imposed borders of many nations being widely contested through armed conflicts.\n", "It is a case of Africans themselves, especially the leaders, contributing to the underdevelopment of Africa. Bad leadership including corruption in African countries is one of the subjects Mwakikagile has addressed extensively in his books, especially in \"Africa is in A Mess: What Went Wrong and What Should be Done\", \"The Modern African State: Quest for Transformation\", \"Africa After Independence: Realities of Nationhood\", \"Africa at the End of the Twentieth Century: What Lies Ahead\", \"Statecraft and Nation Building in Africa: A Post-colonial Study\", \"Africa in Transition: Witness to Change\", and \"Post-colonial Africa: A General Survey\".\n", "Section::::Historical examples.:Postcolonial Africa.\n\nIn the twentieth-century, as African states adjusted to postcolonial independence, legitimation crises and state collapse were constant threats. While authority was passed from colonial to independent rule successfully in most African states throughout the continent, some attempts at transition resulted in collapse. In Congo, for example, the state collapsed as its respective institutions (e.g. army, executives, local governments, populations) refused to recognize each other's authority and work together. It took international intervention and the installation of a strongman with foreign connivance to reconstitute the state there.\n", "In other African countries, state collapse was not a strictly postcolonial issue, as most states had some success transferring between regimes. Problems arose, however, when second-generation (and later) regimes began overthrowing original nationalist ones. Chad, Uganda, and Ghana are all instances of this happening – in each, a successfully established, but dysfunctional independent regime was replaced by a military regime that managed to concentrate power, but failed to effectively wield it. Legitimation crises and state collapse soon followed.\n\nSection::::Historical examples.:Eastern Europe.\n", "For example, in \"\" (2000), Jeffrey Herbst explains that \"domestic security threats, of the type African countries face so often, may force the state to increase revenue; however, civil conflicts result in fragmentation and considerable hostility among different segments of the population\", undermining the state's ability to rally the population's support for the \"national project\" (2000: 126). In a later article, Herbst argues that war in Europe lead to strong states and that without war African states will remain weak. In Europe, external threats allowed states to tax, increase taxation, and forge a national identity. Additionally, the states that were invaded and taken over (such as Poland-Lithuania or Ireland) by stronger countries were militarily and politically weak. African states are poor, have weak governments, and are fragmented on ethnic or regional lines. According to theory, these weak African states should be susceptible to external threats, but this is not the case. In Africa, Herbst notes, there are rarely conflicts between states, and if there are, war does not threaten the existence of the state. For example, in the 1979 Uganda-Tanzania War, Tanzania invaded Uganda to overthrow Idi Amin, but after the Tanzanians had removed Amin, they left the country. Although African states do not experience widespread interstate war, Herbst argues they need it to reform the tax structure and to build a national identity. Herbst concludes that war in Africa is likely to occur when African leaders realize that their economic reforms and efforts to build a national identity do not work and in desperation will start wars to build the states that their countries need. James Robinson disagrees with Herbst in the grade of influence of war on state-building, stating that European colonization and European influences in the continent impacted more deeply the creation of institutions, and therefore, states in Africa.\n", "According to Cooper, African governments suffer from a peculiar politico-economic dysfunction that derives from a particular historical sequence. Specifically, he contends \"Africa was systematically conquered but not so systematically ruled\" (2002: 196-197) and hence \"colonial states had been gate-keeper states\" (\"ibid\".: 5) which had \"trouble extending their power and their command of people’s respect... inward\" (\"ibid\".: 156) but could control \"the interface of national and world economies\" (\"ibid\".: 141).\n", "The undermining of cultural values was potentially more damaging than even the plunder of resources that's felt within the African continent today. We know that autonomous, purposive actors with the necessary capabilities and instruments often attempt to influence others to operate in an equilibrium in which degree of reciprocity and extent of influence establish the relative distribution of behavioral power within the international system (Ward & House, 1998).\n", "Critics of foreign humanitarian efforts in Africa argue that Western society’s obsession with “saving” Africa bear traces of ethnocentrism. Western ethnocentric perception of Africa results in it being viewed as less civilized and developed. Thus, these views perpetuate Africa’s appearance as a continent composed of inferior countries. As a result, the continent Africa is painted as helpless without foreign intervention. Names of organizations, which call for Westerners to “save the children,” reflect this notion\n", "But that does not really explain why he has not fully addressed the subject, the dilemma African intellectuals face in their quest for fundamental change, especially in his books – \"The Modern African State: Quest for Transformation\", \"Africa is in A Mess: What Went Wrong and What Should Done\", and \"Africa After Independence: Realities of Nationhood\" – which are almost exclusively devoted to such transformation in Africa in the post-colonial era.\n", "Rodney argues that a combination of power politics and economic exploitation of Africa by Europeans led to the poor state of African political and economic development evident in the late 20th century. Though, he did not intend \"to remove the ultimate responsibility for development from the shoulders of Africans... [He believes that] every African has a responsibility to understand the [capitalist] system and work for its overthrow.\"\n\nThis book is one of the most acclaimed books written in the 20th century about African development and post-colonial theory alongside Frantz Fanon's The Wretched of the Earth. \n\nSection::::Background.\n", "Media coverage of current events in Africa result heavily influences public opinions in Western societies. Africa is often portrayed as a continent plagued with extreme poverty and genocidal warfare. However, it is also portrayed as a continent on the brink of becoming “civilized” if only more developed foreign nations would intervene. Media is often criticized as failing to report positive movements within African countries. As a result, foreign nations often view Africa as one of the two extremes. While the media depicts these extremes, it fails to report the success of local governments and domestic efforts by African countries to aid themselves.\n", "He also states that by turning against traditional Africa, modernised Africans have lost their soul since it is traditional Africa which is the essence of their very being.\n\nEffects of colonial rule\n", "Van de Walle introduces the notion that in Africa, states are hybrid regimes where patrimonial practices and bureaucracies coexist to a higher or lesser degree. African states have laws and constitutional order and in parallel are ruled by patrimonial logic in which political authority is based on clientelism and office holders constantly appropriate public resources for their own benefit. The dual nature of African regimes means that clientelism is not incidental and cannot be easily corrected with capacity building policies and at the same time formal structures play an important role, even in the least-institutionalized states. \n", "In the 1880s the European powers had divided up almost all of Africa (only Ethiopia and Liberia were independent). They ruled until after World War II when forces of nationalism grew much stronger. In the 1950s and 1960s the colonial holdings became independent states. The process was usually peaceful but there were several long bitter bloody civil wars, as in Algeria, Kenya and elsewhere. Across Africa the powerful new force of nationalism drew upon the organizational skills that natives learned in the British and French and other armies in the world wars. It led to organizations that were not controlled by or endorsed by either the colonial powers not the traditional local power structures that were collaborating with the colonial powers. Nationalistic organizations began to challenge both the traditional and the new colonial structures and finally displaced them. Leaders of nationalist movements took control when the European authorities exited; many ruled for decades or until they died off. These structures included political, educational, religious, and other social organizations. In recent decades, many African countries have undergone the triumph and defeat of nationalistic fervor, changing in the process the loci of the centralizing state power and patrimonial state.\n", "BULLET::::5. Borrowing during conflicts led to bureaucracies being created to service the skyrocketing state debts, which in turn encouraged states to intervene in the local economy.\n\nSection::::Overview.:State Building in the Developing World.\n\nJeffrey Herbst is an example of a scholar that builds on Tilly's theory. Herbst explains the relative failure of state building in Africa by the lack of external threats that forced European leaders to concentrate capital and power.\n", "Furthermore, unlike the colonial powers (at least before the \"development era\" after about 1940) African rulers wanted to impose their authority internally in order to affect a far-reaching transformation of the economy and society. And given, moreover, that control of the gate was an \"either/or phenomenon\" (\"ibid\".: 159) or a zero-sum game, the stakes of control were extremely high because the winners gained control of resources they could use to entrench their rule. Consequently, fierce competition for control of the gate arose soon after independence, and this resulted in the collectively irrational political instability that occurred in Africa after independence as evidenced by, among other things, cycles of coups and counter coups.\n", "Moss, Todd, Gunilla Pettersson, and Nicolas Van de Walle (2006) acknowledged the controversy over the effect of foreign aid that has developed in recent years. They argued that although there is a call for an increase in large aid efforts in Africa by the international community, this will actually create what they call an “aid-institutions paradox.” This paradox is formed because the large cash contributions that Western countries have given to African countries have created institutions that are “less accountable to their citizens and under less pressure to maintain popular legitimacy.” They mention that the gradual decrease of aid may help foster long-lasting institutions, which is proven by the United States’ efforts in Korea after the Cold War.\n", "Colonial economic exploitation led to European extraction of Ghana’s mining profits to shareholders, instead of internal development, causing major local socioeconomic grievances. Nevertheless, local African industry and towns expanded when U-boats patrolling the Atlantic Ocean reduced raw material transportation to Europe. In turn, urban communities, industries and trade unions grew, improving literacy and education, leading to pro-independence newspaper establishments.\n", "Another problem is that \"neo-patrimonial\" states in and outside Africa have pursued a wide range of policies including some that are squarely developmental. In other words, other than indicating the style of governance, neo-patrimonialism does not tell us much about what policies a state will pursue and with what success. In the African case \"neo-patrimonialism\" has been used to explain import substitution, export orientation, parastatals, privatization, the informal sector development, etc. The result is that, in seeking to explain everything, it explains nothing except perhaps that capitalist relations in their idealized form are not pervasive in Africa.\n", "While Western efforts have good intentions, critics argue that movements paint Africa as helpless without Western aid. Many critics have also brought up the neglect of domestic humanitarian efforts. Media coverage often shows Western organizations aiding impoverished sub-Saharan countries, yet fail to acknowledge inter-country activism and efforts. \n", "A variety of causes have been blamed for Africa's political instability, including Cold War conflicts between the United States and the Soviet Union, over-reliance on foreign aid, decades of corruption and mismanagement by socialist leaders, as well as the policies of the International Monetary Fund. When a country became independent for the first time, it would often align itself with one of the two superpowers in order to get support. Many countries in Northern Africa received Soviet military aid, while many in Central and Southern Africa were supported by the United States, France or both. The 1970s saw an escalation, as newly independent Angola and Mozambique aligned themselves with the Soviet Union, and the West and South Africa sought to contain Soviet influence by funding insurgency movements. There was a major famine in Ethiopia, when hundreds of thousands of people starved. Some claimed that Marxist/Soviet policies made the situation worse. The most devastating military conflict in modern independent Africa has been the Second Congo War; this conflict and its aftermath have killed an estimated 5.5 million people.[66] Since 2003 there has been an ongoing conflict in Darfur which has become a humanitarian disaster. Another notable tragic event is the 1994 Rwandan Genocide in which an estimated 800,000 people were murdered. AIDS in post-colonial Africa has also been a prevalent issue.\n", "Economic situations only took a turn during the mid-1990s. Countries within the region started to input more stabilization policies. What was originally a high exchange rate eventually fell to a more reasonable exchange rate after devaluations in 1994. Eighteen countries had an exchange rate 50% higher than the official exchange rate, by 1994, the number of countries that had such exchange rate was decreased to four. However, there is still limited progress in improving trade policies within the region according to van de Walle. In addition, the post-independent countries still rely heavily on donors for development plans. Balkanization still has an impact on today's Africa.\n", "For many reasons it was thought that centralisation equalled a strong (powerful) state (government). The reasons could be\n\nBULLET::::- the wish to induce a feeling of nationhood, which also led to the establishment of brand new capitals (to be mentioned later);\n\nBULLET::::- a lack of qualified government officers; someone had to do the work that the colonial officers had done, but in some places these people simply did not exist;\n\nBULLET::::- the fear that local authorities would turn against central authorities. (Rakodi, 1997).\n", "Furthermore, Binyavanga Wainaina (2009) likens Western aid to colonization, in which countries believe that large cash contributions to spur the African economy will lead to political development and less violence. In reality, these cash contributions do not invest in Africa's growth economically, politically and most of all, socially.\n\nSection::::Theoretical mechanisms for state development.:Neotrusteeship.\n" ]	[ "No African countries became first-world countries with helpful governments. " ]	[ "Most African countries have not become first-world countries with helpful government, with two exceptions, Sub-Saharan Africa and South Africa." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "No African countries became first-world countries with helpful governments. ", "No African countries became first-world countries with helpful governments. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Most African countries have not become first-world countries with helpful government, with two exceptions, Sub-Saharan Africa and South Africa.", "Most African countries have not become first-world countries with helpful government, with two exceptions, Sub-Saharan Africa and South Africa." ]
2018-15635	Why do children have a tendency to smile so much more than adults ?	Because children’s brains are literally tripping all the time . The world is still met with awe and wonder and everything is new . As you develop, our brains start operating in a different mode cycling through “priors” or past experiences and using those as templates for subconscious decision making .	[ "People are also relatively good at determining if a smile is real or fake. A recent study looked at individuals judging forced and genuine smiles. While young and elderly participants equally could tell the difference for smiling young people, the \"older adult participants outperformed young adult participants in distinguishing between posed and spontaneous smiles\". This suggests that with experience and age, we become more accurate at perceiving true emotions across various age groups.\n\nSection::::Function.:Perception and recognition of faces.\n", "Beginning at birth, newborns have the capacity to signal generalized distress in response to unpleasant stimuli and bodily states, such as pain, hunger, body temperature, and stimulation. They may smile, seemingly involuntarily, when satiated, in their sleep, or in response to pleasant touch. Infants begin using a “social smile,” or a smile in response to a positive social interaction, at approximately 2 to 3 months of age, and laughter begins at 3 to 4 months. Expressions of happiness become more intentional with age, with young children interrupting their actions to smile or express happiness to nearby adults at 8–10 months of age, and with markedly different kinds of smiles (e.g., grin, muted smile, mouth open smile) developing at 10 to 12 months of age.\n", "The Sunda slow loris may grin or bare its teeth. When stressed, infants may grin, while adults bear their teeth to show aggression or fear, but also during play.\n\nSection::::Behavior and ecology.:Reproduction.\n", "Facial expressions are produced to express a reaction to a situation or event or to evoke a response from another individual or individuals. They are signals of emotion and social intent. People make faces in response to \"direct audience effects\" when they are watching sports, discussing politics, eating or smelling, in pain, and see or hear something humorous. While one may have the same emotional reaction to a particular situation, he or she is more likely to express this emotion via a facial expression if they are in a social situation. Smiles, in particular, are \"evolved signaling displays [that] are the result of selective pressures for conspicuous, stereotyped, and redundant communication\". Smiling is a visual signal that requires eye contact from the recipient to the one smiling and is intended to communicate a feeling of happiness and joy. In an experiment by Alan Fridlund, smiling occurred least when one was watching a video alone, then more often when a person was alone watching the video but believed a friend was performing another task, even more often when that person believed a friend was simultaneously watching the video somewhere else, and most often when one was watching a movie with a friend physically present. This evidence shows that even if someone has the same internal reaction to a stimulus (like a movie), they are more likely to externalize these feelings when surrounded by peers or under the assumption that peers are engaged in the same activity.\n", "While there remains a general gap in the literature regarding the production of facial expressions and the processes which underlie this production at middle childhood and adolescence ages, research has been done to assess the overall production capabilities of children ranging in ages 5–13. Results generally indicate that the ability to produce facial emotion increases with age and is slightly correlated with the ability to discriminate the facial expressions of another. Odom and Lemond (1972) created a study to test the potential for \"a developmental lag between the perception and production of facial expressions,\" meaning they were looking to uncover a relationship between previously created schemas and mental representations of different expressions and the ability to transform these representations into facial expression. They operated using the logical assumption that coding perceptions of expressions comes before the discrimination of expressions which then precedes production. Upon assessing two differing age groups, one in kindergarten and the other in fifth grade, they discovered that there is a lag between perception and production of facial expressions, however this lag does not decrease with age. Production and discrimination do not develop at the same rate. Odom and Lemond (1972) have arrived at the far conclusion that production of facial expressions will never be at the same level of discrimination of facial expressions, which supports the findings of another study by Izard (1971) who found that even adults have difficulty producing requested expressions. Despite this, the increased accurate productions of the older kids was found to be due to their discrimination abilities yet the older children still made many errors leading researchers to believe that full discrimination abilities are not at full potential at the middle childhood and adolescence stage of development.\n", "In a study by McCabe (1984) of children whose ages ranged from toddlers to teenagers, the children with more \"adult-like\" facial proportions were more likely to have experienced physical abuse than children of the same age who had less \"adult-like\" facial proportions.\n", "As infants age, their social referencing capacity becomes more developed. By 14 months, infants are able to use information gained from social referencing to inform decisions outside of the immediate moment. By 18 months, infants are able to socially reference interactions not directed at them. For example, if their caregiver responded with anger when their older brother went to take a cookie, the infant is able to harness that information and is less likely to take a cookie themselves. At this age, social referencing also begins to support children's understanding of others, as children learn what others like and dislike based on the information gained from social referencing (e.g., facial expression). As such, if an adult reacts by smiling when given a ball but with anger when given a doll, an 18-month-old will choose to give that adult a ball, rather than a doll, regardless of their own preferences.\n", "More than anything though, what shapes a child's cognitive ability to detect facial expression is being exposed to it from the time of birth. The more an infant is exposed to different faces and expressions, the more able they are to recognize these emotions and then mimic them for themselves. Infants are exposed to an array of emotional expressions from birth, and evidence indicates that they imitate some facial expressions and gestures (e.g., tongue protrusion) as early as the first few days of life. In addition, gender affects the tendency to express, perceive, remember, and forget specific emotions. For instance, angry male faces and happy female faces are more recognizable, compared to happy male faces and angry female faces.\n", "The recognition of faces is an important neurological mechanism that individuals in society use every day. Jeffrey and Rhodes write that faces \"convey a wealth of information that we use to guide our social interactions\". Emotions play a large role in our social interactions. The perception of a positive or negative emotion on a face affects the way that an individual perceives and processes that face. For example, a face that is perceived to have a negative emotion is processed in a less holistic manner than a face displaying a positive emotion. The ability of face recognition is apparent even in early childhood. The neurological mechanisms responsible for face recognition are present by age five. Research shows that the way children process faces is similar to that of adults, but adults process faces more efficiently. The reason for this may be because of advancements in memory and cognitive functioning that occur with age.\n", "Further, Ekman, Roper and Hager (1980) researched the different means of producing facial expressions which could be influenced by age. They found studies completed by Charlesworth and Kreutzer (1973) and Ekman and Oster (1979) who classified two methods of facial expression. They categorized deliberate action as an imitation of an observed expression or making a face which relates to a memory. Generating emotion is a more complex process with an individual focuses on an experience and attempts to relive that experience in order to create an emotional expression. They suggested age as an impact on the ability to utilize these processes considering the developmental requirements might not be met in order to use one or the other of the aforementioned skills. The study completed by Ekman, Roper and Hager (1980) consisted of three groups of children, the first group having a mean age of 5 years, the second 9 years and the third 13 years. Their results include a significantly larger increase in ability to produce facial movements between the ages of 5 and 9 rather than between the ages 9 and 13.\n", "The neural substrates of face perception in infants are likely similar to those of adults, but the limits of imaging technology that are feasible for use with infants currently prevent very specific localization of function as well as specific information from subcortical areas like the amygdala, which is active in the perception of facial expression in adults. In a study on healthy adults, it was shown that faces are likely to be processed, in part, via a retinotectal (subcortical) pathway.\n", "Section::::Social effects.\n\nA smile seems to have a favorable influence upon others and makes one likable and more approachable. In the social context, smiling and laughter have different functions in the order of sequence in social situations:\n\nBULLET::::- Smiling is sometimes a pre-laughing device and is a common pattern for paving the way to laughter;\n\nBULLET::::- Smiling can be used as a response to laughter in the previous turn.\n", "Section::::Discrimination and production of facial expressions in infants.\n\nA concept of sociality is acquired over time and through various social interactions. It has long been theorized that children expand the ability to regulate their facial expressions during the course of their development and that their expressions become \"socialized\" as they grow up. But how soon does socialization start and how big of a role does it play during infancy?\n", "Developmental differences in solitary facial expressions\n\nFacial expressions are used to communicate emotions. They can also occur solitarily, without other people being present. People often imagine themselves in social situations when alone, resulting in solitary facial expressions. Toddlers and children in early childhood use social cues and contexts to discriminate and recognize facial expressions. They develop at this early stage facial expressions in order to provoke reactions from their caregivers and receive nurturance and support. Children reflect their peers' emotions in their own expressions for social interaction.\n", "From birth, infants possess rudimentary facial processing capacities and show heightened interest in faces. For example, newborns (1–3 days) have been shown to be able to recognize faces even when they are rotated up to 45 degrees. However, interest in faces is not continuously present in infancy and shows increases and decreases over time as the child grows older. Specifically, while newborns show a preference for faces, this behavior is reduced between one- to four months of age. Around three months of age, a preference for faces re-emerges and interest in faces seems to peak late during the first year but then declines again slowly over the next two years of life. The re-emergence of a preference for faces at three months of age may be influenced by the child's own motor abilities and experiences. Infants as young as two days of age are capable of mimicking the facial expressions of an adult, displaying their capacity to note details like mouth and eye shape as well as to move their own muscles in a way that produces similar patterns in their faces. However, despite this ability, newborns are not yet aware of the emotional content encoded within facial expressions. Five-month-olds, when presented with an image of a person making a fearful expression and a person making a happy expression, pay the same amount of attention to and exhibit similar event-related potentials (ERPs) for both. However, when seven-month-olds are given the same treatment, they focus more on the fearful face, and their event-related potential for the scared face shows a stronger initial negative central component than that for the happy face. This result indicates an increased attentional and cognitive focus toward fear that reflects the threat-salient nature of the emotion. In addition, infants' negative central components were not different for new faces that varied in the intensity of an emotional expression but portrayed the same emotion as a face they had been habituated to but were stronger for different-emotion faces, showing that seven-month-olds regarded happy and sad faces as distinct emotive categories. While seven-month-olds have been found to focus more on fearful faces, another study by Jessen, Altvater-Mackensen, and Grossmann found that \"happy expressions elicit enhanced sympathetic arousal in infants\" both when facial expressions were presented subliminally and when they were presented supraliminally, or in a way that the infants were consciously aware of the stimulus. These results show that conscious awareness of a stimulus is not connected to an infant's reaction to that stimulus.\n", "Facial expression is used as a dominance signal in humans. Derived from our primate ancestors, faces of mature members have broader faces with a more defined jaw, smaller ratio of eye size to face size and larger noses. Younger members are perceived as having baby-faced features which includes rounder, softer faces, larger eyes when compared to face ratio, and smaller noses. These facial features can be used as dominance signals as baby-faced individuals are perceived as weak and submissive compared to mature faces which can indicate physical and social dominance.\n", "Following infancy, the discrimination and production of facial expressions improves as toddlers grow into early childhood. At young ages, children know what the most common facial expressions look like (expressions of happiness or sadness), what they mean, and what kinds of situations typically elicit them. Children develop these skills at very early stages in life and continue to improve facial recognition, discrimination, and imitation between the ages of 3 and 10. One study showed that toddler's spontaneous facial expressions reflect the emotions shown by other toddlers, this is called \"decoding\". This indicates that facial expressions are affected by the social environment, and are an important aspect in creating relationships with others in our social groups.\n", "Physical anthropologist Barry Bogin said that the pattern of children's growth may intentionally increase the duration of their cuteness. Bogin said that the human brain reaches adult size when the body is only 40 percent complete, when \"dental maturation is only 58 percent complete\" and when \"reproductive maturation is only 10 percent complete\". Bogin said that this allometry of human growth allows children to have a \"superficially infantile\" appearance (large skull, small face, small body and sexual underdevelopment) longer than in other \"mammalian species\". Bogin said that this cute appearance causes a \"nurturing\" and \"care-giving\" response in \"older individuals\".\n", "Additionally, both Ekman, Roper and Hager (1980) and Odom and Lemond (1972) found the expressions for fear, sadness and anger to be the most difficult to produce. Odom and Lemond (1972) give a potential explanation for this using a suggestion made by Izard (1971) that \"expression production may be inhibited by socialization training\". The significance of this is that some expressions, such as anger or sadness, are socially undesirable. Therefore, socializing agents may discourage such expressions leading to a smaller chance that older children will produce such expressions spontaneously.\n", "In 1962, the director of the British Institute of Management, John Marsh, said that young men who entered industry needed a sense of service and duty; they must be \"men of character who know how to behave well as in phases of success\"; they must possess self-discipline in thinking and behaviour: \"There is something still to be said for Samuel Smiles's doctrine of self-help\".\n", "The influence of smiling on others is not necessarily benign. It may take the form of positive reinforcement, possibly for an underhand manipulative and abusive purpose. See also superficial smile.\n\nSection::::Cultural differences.\n", "A study found that the faces of \"attractive\" Northern Italian Caucasian children have \"characteristics of babyness\" such as a \"larger forehead\", a smaller jaw, \"a proportionately larger and more prominent maxilla\", a wider face, a flatter face and larger \"anteroposterior\" facial dimensions than the Northern Italian Caucasian children used as a reference.\n\nSection::::Juvenile traits.:Biological function.\n", "In a solely Westernized study, it was recorded that the high ratio of neurocranial to lower facial features, signified by a small nose and ears, and full lips, is viewed interchangeably as both youthful and or neotenous. This interchangeability between neotenous features and youth leads to the idea that male attraction to youth may also apply to females that display exaggerated age-related cues. For example, if a female was much older but retained these “youthful” features, males may find her more favorable over other females who look their biological age. Beyond the face value of what males find physically attractive, secondary sexual characteristics related to body shape are factored in so adults may be able to recognize other adults from juveniles. In fact, a major part of the cosmetic world is built around capitalizing on enhancing these features. Making eyes and lips appear larger as well as reducing the appearance of any age-related blemishes such as wrinkles or skin discoloration are some of the key target areas of this industry.\n", "Physical anthropologist Barry Bogin said that the pattern of children's growth may intentionally increase the duration of their cuteness. Bogin said that the human brain reaches adult size when the body is only 40 percent complete, when \"dental maturation is only 58 percent complete\" and when \"reproductive maturation is only 10 percent complete\". Bogin said that this allometry of human growth allows children to have a \"superficially infantile\" appearance (large skull, small face, small body and sexual underdevelopment) longer than in other \"mammalian species\". Bogin said that this cute appearance causes a \"nurturing\" and \"care-giving\" response in \"older individuals\".\n", "The production of facial expressions, however, is not solely limited to interpersonal situations. Since humans are inherently social beings, they often imagine themselves in social situations even when they are alone. This phenomenon occurs in a variety of different contexts: treating oneself as a social interactant (talking to oneself), imagining others are present (either who are currently existent or have died), envisioning future social interactions, and personifying animals or inanimate objects (talking to pets). Solitary facial expressions are generated for an imagined other. According to role and impression- management theories, a perceived audience, whether real or imaginary, causes one to assume a role that is consistent with their audience. For example, a young girl may smile to herself in the mirror while imagining herself talking to a boy from class, but may grimace while imagining herself responding to her mother's scolding. Thus, \"solitary faces occur for the same reasons as public ones, if only because when we are alone we create social interactions in our imaginations. They suggest the possibility that sociality may play a major role in the mediation of solitary faces\". There are developmental differences in solitary facial expression, beginning with instinctive expressions in infancy and developing into more complex ones as a child's concept of sociality and emotion matures.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-13696	why do girls (generally) have neater and more appealing handwriting than those of boys?	Girls and boys develop their accurate muscle movements at different times. However they are taught how to write at the same time. Boys accurate muscle movement develops later so when they learn to write they can't physically write as neatly or have to work a lot harder in order to do so.	[ "Sometimes children need some assistance when developing their fine motor skills. This requires one to find strategies to assist children with their development. Occupational therapists are experts in the field of fine motor and handwriting development. More exposure to physical activity is known to be the most efficient method for developing any skill. Girls at the age of four tend to use their fine motor skills more effectively than boys at the same age. Similarly, boys tend to have better control of gross motor skills.\n", "In addition, the article \"Gender Differences in EFL Writing\" states that \"research on gender differences in writing have mostly been conducted among children. Punter and Burchell’s study (1996) on the GCSE English language exam in the UK primary school discovered that girls scored better in imaginative, reflective, and empathetic writing while boys scored better in argumentative and factual writing\", which provides evidence for the stance that there is an ingrained difference in the writing of men and women, one that starts very early on in life. This, however, is not the case for everybody, as shown by Alice Sheldon's \"The Girl Who Was Plugged In,\" which was believed to be written by a man based on the type of language used. Further evidence for the difference between written word of boys and girls is provided in Written Communication. Analysis of the assignments of eighth graders shows that the girls consistently scored higher on their assignments than the boys, even when the boys showed an increased or above average proclivity towards writing. The article even states that the writing behaviors of girls are \"more desirable\" in the public school setting. The studies show that when all factors are the same, including learning behavior and attitude, girls are still more successful in writing classes.\n", "According to a study done in the UK it was observed that females between the age of 4 and 7 years old show finer motor skills compared to males of the same age. This was discovered by putting 100+ females and 100+ males through observation and having them complete a variety of fine motor skills and then grading them on each skill. They then proceeded to take the total of the grades given for the skills observed and found that females tended to have finer motor skills than males. This could potentially be due to stereotypes since young girls are generally known to color or play with small dolls which both would require fine motor skills, but this has yet to be proven.\n", "BULLET::::- Gender – gender plays an important role in the development of the child. Girls are more likely to be seen performing fine stationary visual motor-skills, whereas boys predominantly exercise object-manipulation skills. While researching motor development in preschool-aged children, girls were more likely to be seen performing skills such as skipping, hopping, or skills with the use of hands only. Boys were seen to perform gross skills such as kicking or throwing a ball or swinging a bat. There are gender-specific differences in qualitative throwing performance, but not necessarily in quantitative throwing performance. Male and female athletes demonstrated similar movement patterns in humerus and forearm actions but differed in trunk, stepping, and backswing actions.\n", "Section::::Dyson's Research.:\"The Brothers and Sisters Learn to Write\".\n", "Like spatial ability, sex differences in verbal abilities have been widely established in literature. There is a clear higher female performance on a number of verbal tasks prominently a higher level of performance in speech production which reaches a deviation of 0.33 and also a higher performance in writing Studies have also found greater female performance in phonological processing, identifying alphabetical sequences, and word fluency tasks. Studies have also females outperforming males in verbal learning especially on tests such as \"Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test\" and \"Verbal Paired Associates\". and A 2010 study published in the \"Journal of Advanced Prosthodentics\" found women showed significantly higher speech intelligibility scores than men and differences in acoustic (sound) parameters. Meanwhile, in another studies, a female advantage in generating synonyms and solving anagrams have also been found. Furthermore, a 2009 study published in the \"Archive of Clinical Neuropsychology\" found better female performance in writing that reached about 8 points in a sample of 22–80 year old adults, in relation to better male performance in math which reached about 4 points. It has also been found that the hormone estrogen increases ability of speech production and phonological processing in women, which could be tied to their advantages in these areas. Overall better female performance have also been found in verbal fluency which include a trivial advantage in vocabulary and reading comprehension while a significantly higher performance in speech production and essay writing. This manifests in higher female international PISA scores in reading and higher female Grade 12 scores in national reading, writing and study skills. Researchers Joseph M. Andreano and Larry Cahill have also found that the female verbal advantage extends into numerous tasks, including tests of spatial and autobiographical abilities. Another 2008 study published in the journal \"Act Psychologica\" found no sex differences in remembering phonologically-unfamiliar novel words but higher female ability to remember phonologically-familiar novel words. Meanwhile, higher depth of processing in semantic analysis among females compared to males have also been found in brain imaging studies, while greater female performance in many verbal abilities might be linked to their higher verbal memory. A 2013 study published in the \"International Journal of Psychology\" also found an adult female advantage in time for performing a verbal lexical task and temperament scale of social-verbal tempo.\n", "BULLET::::4. \"Behavior related findings.\"\n\nBULLET::::- In spreadsheet problem-solving tasks, tinkering (playfully experimenting) with features was adopted by males more often than females. While males were comfortable with this behavior, some did it to excess. For females, the amount of tinkering predicted success. Pauses after any action were predictive of better understanding for both genders.\n", "The number of students with dysgraphia may increase from 4 percent of students in primary grades, due to the overall difficulty of handwriting, and up to 20 percent in middle school because written compositions become more complex. With this in mind, there are no exact numbers of how many individuals have dysgraphia due to its difficulty to diagnose. There are slight gender differences in association with written disabilities; overall it is found that males are more likely to be impaired with handwriting, composing, spelling, and orthographic abilities than females.\n", "Section::::Distinctions.:Coding.\n\nThe stylistic differences between the syntax and lexicon of men and women extends even beyond written communication. In other applications of communication the same rift exists. In computer programming and coding, women are believed to write code that is more user-friendly, containing comments that explain how to use it, and easy to understand variables, while code written by men tends to be cryptic and obscure. Emma McGrattan, a programmer located in Silicon Valley, says she can accurately determine whether code was written by a man or a woman just by looking at it.\n", "Parental involvement can influence the stage of writing within their child. Parents who are more involved in their child's learning process, will see significant improvements in their child's accuracy and clarity. Those children who are exposed to the support of their parents will develop more proficient fine motor skills.\n\nSection::::Children’s drawings.\n", "A 2007 meta-analysis found that males are more variable on most measures of quantitative and visuospatial ability.\n\nRecent studies shows that greater male variability in mathematics persists in the U.S., although the ratio of boys to girls at the top end of the distribution is reversed in some specific immigrant groups. A 2010 meta-analysis of 242 studies found that males have an 8% greater variance in mathematical abilities than females. \n", "Children were taught the art of letter-writing, as well; they were particularly taught to form letters neatly with instructive books filled with drawing and line instruction. One of these such books, “\"Elementary Drawing Copy Books\",” incorporated traditional alphabet practice with instructions on drawing elements of the natural world. Aside from proper handwriting, young boys and girls were taught to compose letters for different reasons. Girls’ writing books taught them to use their writing skills for household management tasks, while those for boys taught proper form for business correspondence.\n\nSection::::References.\n", "During the ages between 5 and 7 the fine motor skills will have developed to a much higher degree, and are now being refined. As the child interacts with objects the movements of the elbows and shoulders should be less apparent, as should the movements of wrist and fingers. From the ages of 3–5 years old, girls advance their fine motor skills more than boys. Girls develop physically at an earlier age than boys; this is what allows them to advance their motor skills at a faster rate during prepubescent ages. Boys advance in gross motor skills later on at around age 5 and up. Girls are more advanced in balance and motor dexterity. \n", "It was once thought that sex differences in cognitive task and problem solving did not occur until puberty. However, as of 2000, evidence suggested that cognitive and skill differences are present earlier in development. For example, researchers have found that three- and four-year-old boys were better at targeting and at mentally rotating figures within a clock face than girls of the same age were. Prepubescent girls, however, excelled at recalling lists of words. These sex differences in cognition correspond to patterns of ability rather than overall intelligence. Laboratory settings are used to systematically study the sexual dimorphism in problem solving task performed by adults.\n", "It seems hardly likely that we are even to-day so lukewarm in our interest in letters or serious discussion as to be content to reduce our treatment of sex to the standard of a child's library in the supposed interest of a salacious few, or that shame will for long prevent us from adequate portrayal of some of the most serious and beautiful sides of human nature.\n", "The differing maturation speed of the brain between boys and girls affects how each gender processes information and could have implications for how they perform in school.\n", "Men, on the other hand, only have a ratio of about .70 clauses per sentence, suggesting that they present just one idea per sentence. Similarly, women used about 21% more cohesive devices in their writing than men did, indicating that they carried ideas into multiple sentences or phrases more often, presenting a more complicated argument. Women also tended to use paraphrasing rather than direct quotation when integrating information from outside sources.\n\nSection::::Distinctions.:Children.\n", "On average, females excel relative to males on tests that measure recollection. They have an advantage on processing speed involving letters, digits and rapid naming tasks. Females tend to have better object location memory and verbal memory. They also perform better at verbal learning. Females have better performance at matching items and precision tasks, such as placing pegs into designated holes. In maze and path completion tasks, males learn the goal route in fewer trials than females, but females remember more of the landmarks presented. This shows that females use landmarks in everyday situations to orient themselves more than males. Females are better at remembering whether objects had switched places or not.\n", "BULLET::::- In spreadsheet problem-solving tasks, female end users were significantly slower to try out unfamiliar features. Females significantly more often agreed with the statement, \"I was afraid I would take too long to learn the [untaught feature].\" Even if they tried it once, females were significantly less likely to adopt new features for repeated use. For females, unlike for males, self-efficacy predicted the amount of effective feature usage. There was no significant difference in the success of the two genders or in learning how the features worked, implying that females’ low self-efficacy about their usage of new features was not an accurate assessment of their problem-solving potential, but rather became a self-fulfilling prophecy.\n", "In the childhood stages of development, gender differences can greatly influence motor skills. In the article \"An Investigation of Age and Gender Differences in Preschool Children's Specific Motor Skills\", girls scored significantly higher than boys on visual motor and graphomotor tasks. The results from this study suggest that girls attain manual dexterity earlier than boys. Variability of results in the tests can be attributed towards the multiplicity of different assessment tools used. Furthermore, gender differences in motor skills are seen to be affected by environmental factors. In essence, \"parents and teachers often encourage girls to engage in [quiet] activities requiring fine motor skills, while they promote boys' participation in dynamic movement actions\". In the journal article \"Gender Differences in Motor Skill Proficiency From Childhood to Adolescence\" by Lisa Barrett, the evidence for gender-based motor skills is apparent. In general, boys are more skillful in object control and object manipulation skills. These tasks include throwing, kicking, and catching skills. These skills were tested and concluded that boys perform better with these tasks. There was no evidence for the difference in locomotor skill between the genders, but both are improved in the intervention of physical activity. Overall, the predominance of development was on balance skills (gross motor) in boys and manual skills (fine motor) in girls.\n", "In many contexts, female illiteracy co-exists with other aspects of gender inequality. Martha Nussbaum suggests illiterate women are more vulnerable to becoming trapped in an abusive marriage, given that illiteracy limits their employment opportunities and worsens their intra-household bargaining position. Moreover, Nussbaum links literacy to the potential for women to effectively communicate and collaborate with one another in order \"to participate in a larger movement for political change.\"\n\nSection::::Modern literacy.:Gender disparities.:Challenges of increasing female literacy.\n", "The study by Shriber et al. (1999) further explains that this gap in the prevalence of language impairment could be because males tend to be more visible. These researchers reveal that male children tend to act out behaviorally when they have any sort of disorder, while female children tend to turn inward and develop emotional disorders as well. Thus, the high ratio of males with language impairments may be connected with the fact that males are more visible, and thus more often diagnosed.\n\nSection::::Writing development.\n", "Booth, Johns, and Bruce state that at both national and international levels \"male students do not do as well as girls in reading and writing and appear more often in special education classes, dropout rates and are less likely to go to university\". Boys face a multitude of difficulties when it comes to literacy and the article lists some of the possible areas of literacy education where these difficulties could stem from. These include, but are not limited to, their own gender identity, social and cultural issues, religion, technology, school cultures, teaching styles, curriculum, and the failures of pre-service and in-service teaching courses.\n", "There was a lack of formal educational institutions for girls during the early modern times, but it did not prevent some early modern women from acquiring their reading and writing skills. Laura Knoppers suggests that informal education for girls took place in multiple spaces and ways. The early women writers used three handwriting styles: italic, secretary, and mixed. The writing process was linked with the reading of the books. Because many books were expensive, some women personally copied them and made their own writing in the margins of a book. Throughout the early modern period, many women tend to choose manuscript writings and circulation for their diaries, traveling journals, recipe books, religious and personal devotional writing, and miscellanies. Knoppers argues that miscellanies writings include women's authorship and response to texts. Some early feminist studies suggest that women's writing process began in the home, because in the early modern period, their homes were considered to be a place of work and business. Importantly, Knoppers argues that, \"architectural spaces within the household as well as such places as the royal courts, churches and law courts generated and shaped women’s writing.\" In the early modern period, most of the educational spaces for girls were found within the household, which helped women to be engaged in writing about cookery, carving, and needlework. Many women writers' voice openly show their support for gender and class hierarchies. A gender issue was a primary motive for women's writing, which included politics, religion, class, ethnicity, and practical affairs. As Jane Anger, many women writers wrote to defend themselves and their reputations through legal contexts and various domestic forms of life-writing. The reasons for their writing were various, many women writers wrote for themselves, on behalf of and to their family members, or simply for devotional purposes. Despite the fact that education was not available for early modern women, they were able to find multiple ways of writing and of circulating their work.\n", "In the Article \"The Relationship Between Fundamental Motor Skills and Outside-School Physical Activity of Elementary School Children\" we can see that the developmental level of overhand throwing and jumping of elementary kids is related to skill specific physical activity outside of school. In the studies done boys were seen to have higher scores in developmental level of overhand throwing and higher scores for the Caltrac accelerometer, rapid-trunk movement, and motor skill related physical activity. Girls were seen to have higher scores in lower-intensity physical activities and physical inactivity. The study showed that the developmental level of the fundamental skills (Overhand-throwing and Jumping) are related to skill-specific physical activity outside of school in elementary children. We can conclude that boys at a younger age develop fundamental motor skills quicker than girls will. In other studies it has been seen that having a higher motor proficiency leads to kids being more active, and in most cases more athletic. This can lead to some issues in childhood development such as issues with weight, and increasing the public health epidemic of childhood obesity.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04397	What causes the wind to howl?	It not the wind by itself, but rather the wind blowing past an object be it trees, lightposts, edges of your roof. I was amazed how quiet skydiving was once the chute opens. The only sound you hear is the air in the chute itself. Very peaceful.	[ "\"I Felt Like A Gringo\" is an autobiographical song written by Watt about a day trip Minutemen took in Mexico on the 4th July, 1982. There was an election that day for President of Mexico, which was referenced in the lyric \"\"Who won,\" I said, \"the election?\"\" (the winner in question was Miguel de la Madrid).The same trip would also inspire the D. Boon composition \"Corona\" on \"Double Nickels...\".\n", "Section::::Reception.\n", "\"The New York Times\" sent Richard Eberhart to San Francisco in 1956 to report on the poetry scene there. The result of Eberhart's visit was an article published in the September 2, 1956 \"New York Times Book Review\" titled \"West Coast Rhythms\". Eberhart's piece helped call national attention to \"Howl\" as \"the most remarkable poem of the young group\" of poets who were becoming known as the spokespersons of the Beat generation.\n", "BULLET::::- The 1970 Tim Buckley song \"Venice Beach\" includes the lyrics \"White heat of swaying day/ Dark slap of conga cries/ 'Come out and breathe as one'/ Salt sea and fiddles drone/ Out on the dancing stone/ While the Santanas blow/ Sing the music boats in the bay.\"\n\nBULLET::::- The 1983 Randy Newman song I Love L.A. includes the lines \"Santa Ana winds blowin’ hot from the north / And we was born to ride\"\n", "The most common and effective method of woodwind growling is to hum, sing, or even scream into the mouthpiece of the instrument. This method introduces interference within the instrument itself, breaking up the normal quality of sound waves produced. Furthermore, the vibration of the vocal note in the mouth and lips creates rustle noise in the instrument.\n", "On another occasion, he explained: \"the line length ... you'll notice that they're all built on bop—you might think of them as a bop refrain—chorus after chorus after chorus—the ideal being, say, Lester Young in Kansas City in 1938, blowing 72 choruses of 'The Man I Love' until everyone in the hall was out of his head...\"\n\nSection::::1957 Obscenity Trial.\n", "Boston independent alternative rock radio station WFNX became the first commercial radio station to broadcast \"Howl\" on Friday, July 18, 1997 at 6:00 PM despite Federal Communications Commission (FCC) Safe Harbor laws which allow for mature content later at night.\n\nSection::::Critical reception.:2007 broadcasting fears.\n", "Members of Black Flag were direct inspiration for three of the songs on \"Buzz or Howl...\"'. \"Cut\" was written by Mike Watt in admiration of Black Flag guitarist Greg Ginn's playing style; Henry Rollins provided the title for the improvised instrumental \"Dreams Are Free, Motherfucker!\" (which was actually a segment of a warm-up jam done with trumpet player Crane at the beginning of the January 30th session); and original Black Flag bassist Chuck Dukowski wrote some of the lyrics to \"Little Man With A Gun In His Hand\" and gave them to D. Boon at the end of both bands' 1982 European tour.\n", "BULLET::::- The King of Ingary employs Howl to produce transport spells. When the Witch of the Waste threatens his baby daughter Valeria, he sends Suliman the Royal Wizard to the Waste to deal with the Witch. When the King's brother disappears whilst looking for Wizard Suliman, he asks Howl to look for the missing men and get rid of the Witch of the Waste. He then appoints Howl as the Royal Wizard, a move which creates a bad mood in the household of the moving castle.\n", "Section::::Music.\n", "Section::::Behavior.\n", "The growl gives the performer's sound a dark, guttural, gritty timbre resulting largely from the rustle noise and desirable consonance and dissonance effects produced. The technique of simultaneous playing a note and singing into an instrument is also known as horn chords or multiphonics.\n\nSection::::Method.\n", "A Liberal-Party member of the Finnish Parliament, Arne Berner, happened to hear the broadcast, and started an interpellation, addressed to the Minister of Transport and Public Works. It was signed by him and 82 other members of the 200 members of parliament. It is unclear how many of the other signatories actually had heard the broadcast. The interpellation text only contained a short extract of six lines (considered to be offensive, and representative of the poem) of over seventy from the poem, and the debate was mainly based upon them.\n", "Section::::Behavior.:Communication.\n", "Section::::Operation.\n\nLike all rides at Holiday World, \"The Howler\" closes when there is lightning or high winds in the park's immediate area.\n", "BULLET::::- Howl (American band), American metal band\n\nBULLET::::- Howl, former name of Australian punk band Hunting Grounds\n\nSection::::Other uses.\n\nBULLET::::- Howl, in the List of animal sounds\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Howl\", a 1970 Italian film\n\nBULLET::::- \"Howl\" (2010 film), a 2010 American arthouse film by Rob Epstein and Jeffrey Friedman, and starring James Franco as Allen Ginsberg\n\nBULLET::::- \"Howl\" (2015 film), a 2015 independent British horror film about werewolves attacking a train\n\nBULLET::::- Wizard Howl, fictional character in the 1986 novel \"Howl's Moving Castle\" by Diana Wynne Jones\n\nBULLET::::- \"Howl\", the magazine of the Hunt Saboteurs Association, Britain\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "\"The Toe Jam\" is another improvised cut, recorded the same day as \"Dreams Are Free, Motherfucker\", only with another band friend, Dirk Vandenburg (who would also do photography on several Minutemen covers, including \"Double Nickels...\") playing drums, while drummer George Hurley attempted to play Crane's trumpet, Crane did some scat-singing, and another friend ad-libbed a poem about wanting to wear a wedding ring on her second toe (hence the name of the song).\n", "Section::::Music video.:Reception.\n", "The opening song on the album, \"America\", reflects on Kennedy's childhood memories dreaming of all things American and when cowboys and the astronauts of the Apollo 11 spacecraft were his heroes. \"The Skinny\" comments that \"Album opener America is a sentimental look across the ocean with a slow and smooth acoustic-driven beat with laid back vocals that unsurprisingly declare, ‘All I want to do/Is to be like you’.\n", "Section::::Characters.:Other characters.\n", "The song contains multiple references to the children's book \"Where the Wild Things Are\" by Maurice Sendak. Newman sings, \"Do you know where the wild things go?\" In addition, the repeated refrain at the end of the song is a modified version of a portion of the book. Breezeblocks' lyrics are \"Please don’t go, I'll eat you whole / I love you so\". Sendak's words are \"Oh, please don't go — we'll eat you up — we love you so!\".\n\nSection::::Music video.\n", "\"The Ballad of Neil Armstrong\" celebrates Apollo 11's mission commander Neil Armstrong and the song \"Irish Moon\" is Kennedy's ode to another of the three astronauts, Michael Collins, who piloted the spacecraft as the other two astronauts landed on the moon.\n\n\"The Blue One\" is named for the Earth's image as seen on a photo taken by Voyager 1.\n\nSection::::Promotion.\n", "The Cub Scouts of Scouts Canada use the traditional Grand Howl. The following version is used in French speaking Packs:\n\nSection::::National variants.:Australia.\n\nThe Grand Howl used by the Cub Scouts of Scouts Australia is as follows:\n\nSection::::National variants.:New Zealand.\n\nThe Grand Howl used by the Cubs of Scouts New Zealand is identical to the version currently used in the United Kingdom.\n\nSection::::Brownies.\n", "Section::::Release.\n", "\"Cold War Country Blues\" namechecks more of Kennedy's boyhood heroes, Hank Williams, Elvis Presley, John F. Kennedy and Apollo 8 astronaut Jim Lovell. Critic Nic Oliver calls the song, \"pure Hank Williams honky-tonk, all toe-tapping melody and acoustic guitar\".\n\nThe song \"Brave Captain\" is dedicated to the Apollo 8 crew and on \"The Heart of Universal Love\", Kennedy imagines the earth as seen from the view of an astronaut standing on the moon and looking up at the illuminated planet in the darkness of space.\n" ]	[ "Wind makes a howling sound.", "The wind howls. " ]	[ "It is the wind hitting objects that makes the sound.", "The wind does not howl, however the objects the wind blows by causes it to howl." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Wind makes a howling sound.", "The wind howls. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "It is the wind hitting objects that makes the sound.", "The wind does not howl, however the objects the wind blows by causes it to howl." ]
2018-02875	Why are the savings account interest rates so abysmally low in the US?	Because the Federal Reserve has set the government's rate for lending money to banks very low. That means that banks can't afford to pay you more than they pay the government, or they would lose money, because your terms are not as generous as the governments (like you want to be able to withdraw the money).	[ "The advent of Internet banking at the end of the 20th century saw a new phase in savings banks with the online savings bank that paid higher levels of interest in return for clients only having access over the web.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nIn Europe, savings banks originated in the 19th or sometimes even the 18th century. Their original objective was to provide easily accessible savings products to all strata of the population. In some countries, savings banks were created on public initiative, while in others, socially committed individuals created foundations to put in place the necessary infrastructure.\n", "To be able to provide home buyers and builders with the funds needed, banks must compete for deposits. The phenomenon of disintermediation had to dollars moving from savings accounts and into direct market instruments such as U.S. Department of Treasury obligations, agency securities, and corporate debt. One of the greatest factors in recent years in the movement of deposits was the tremendous growth of money market funds whose higher interest rates attracted consumer deposits.\n\nTo compete for deposits, US savings institutions offer many different types of plans:\n", "The number of U.S. commercial and savings bank institutions reached a peak of 14,495 in 1984; this fell to 6,532 by the end of 2010. The ten largest U.S. banks held nearly 50% of U.S. deposits as of 2011.\n\nSection::::Analysis.:Implicit guarantee subsidy.\n", "An important trend involved raising rates paid on savings to lure deposits, a practice that resulted in periodic rate wars between thrifts and even commercial banks. These wars became so severe that in 1966, the United States Congress took the highly unusual move of setting limits on savings rates for both commercial banks and S&Ls. From 1966 to 1979, the enactment of rate controls presented thrifts with a number of unprecedented challenges, chief of which was finding ways to continue to expand in an economy characterized by slow growth, high interest rates and inflation. These conditions, which came to be known as stagflation, wreaked havoc with thrift finances for a variety of reasons. Because regulators controlled the rates that thrifts could pay on savings, when interest rates rose depositors often withdrew their funds and placed them in accounts that earned market rates, a process known as disintermediation. At the same time, rising loan rates and a slow growth economy made it harder for people to qualify for mortgages that in turn limited the ability of the S&Ls to generate income.\n", "The researcher found it intuitive that basic interest rate caps are most likely to bite at the lower end of the market, with interest rates charged by microfinance institutions generally higher than those by banks and this is driven by a higher cost of funds and higher relative overheads. Transaction costs make larger loans relatively more cost effective for the financial institution.\n", "BULLET::::1. Lack of net worth for many institutions as they entered the 1980s, and a wholly inadequate net worth regulation.\n\nBULLET::::2. Decline in the effectiveness of Regulation Q in preserving the spread between the cost of money and the rate of return on assets, basically stemming from inflation and the accompanying increase in market interest rates.\n\nBULLET::::3. Inability to vary the return on assets with increases in the rate of interest required to be paid for deposits.\n", "Savings and loans were given a certain amount of preferential treatment by the Federal Reserve inasmuch as they were given the ability to pay higher interest rates on savings deposits compared to a regular commercial bank. This was known as Regulation Q (The Interest Rate Adjustment Act of 1966) and gave the S&Ls 50 basis points above what banks could offer. The idea was that with marginally higher savings rates, savings and loans would attract more deposits that would allow them to continue to write more mortgage loans, which would keep the mortgage market liquid, and funds would always be available to potential borrowers.\n", "BULLET::::- Offshore private banking is usually more accessible to those with higher incomes, because of the costs of establishing and maintaining offshore accounts. However, simple savings accounts can be opened by anyone and maintained with scale fees equivalent to their onshore counterparts. The tax burden in developed countries thus falls disproportionately on middle-income groups. Historically, tax cuts have tended to result in a higher proportion of the tax take being paid by high-income groups, as previously sheltered income is brought back into the mainstream economy. The Laffer curve demonstrates this tendency.\n", "Although the economy recovered in 1983, the residual effects of high inflation and high interest rates had a profound impact on the savings and loans industry. Savings and loan associations were limited by interest rate ceilings. As a result of rising interest rates, many savings and loan institutions experienced frequent account withdrawals, as depositors moved their money to higher-earning accounts offered by commercial banks. The already struggling savings and loans industry posted large losses in 1981 and 1982.\n", "In the United Kingdom, some online banks offer rates higher as many savings accounts, along with free banking (no charges for transactions) as institutions that offer centralised services (telephone, internet or postal based) tend to pay higher levels of interest. The same holds true for banks within the EURO currency zone.\n\nSection::::Interest.:High-yield accounts.\n\nHigh-yield accounts pay a higher interest rate than typical NOW accounts and frequently function as loss-leaders to drive relationship banking.\n\nSection::::Lending.\n\nAccounts can lend money in two ways: overdraft and offset mortgage.\n\nSection::::Lending.:Overdraft.\n", "In the 1980s the situation changed. The United States Congress granted all thrifts in 1980, including savings and loan associations, the power to make consumer and commercial loans and to issue transaction accounts. The Depository Institutions Deregulation and Monetary Control Act (DIDMCA) of 1980 was designed to help the banking industry to combat disintermediation of funds to higher-yielding non-deposit products such as money market mutual funds. It also allowed thrifts to make consumer loans up to 20 percent of their assets, issue credit cards, and provide negotiable order of withdrawal (NOW) accounts to consumers and nonprofit organizations. Over the next several years, this was followed by provisions that allowed banks and thrifts to offer a wide variety of new market-rate deposit products. For S&Ls, this deregulation of one side of the balance sheet essentially led to more inherent interest rate risk inasmuch as they were funding long-term, fixed-rate mortgage loans with volatile shorter-term deposits.\n", "SSBs are seen as alternatives to Singapore fixed deposits which are offered by banks or finance companies. This is due to the fact that before SSBs were issued, most Singaporeans have no access to the SGS market due to the high minimum denominations and preference for institutional investors. Hence, fixed deposits became the preferred choice for Singaporeans to store their savings as they offer relatively higher interest rates as compared to an average savings account and yet are covered by Singapore's Deposit Insurance up to a maximum of $50,000 for each bank or finance company. \n", "BULLET::::2. It is important to understand fraud mechanisms. Economists grossly underestimate its prevalence and impact, and prosecutors have difficulties finding it, even without the political pressure from politicians who receive campaign contributions from the banking industry.\n\nBULLET::::3. Control fraud can occur in waves created by poorly designed deregulation that creates a criminogenic environment.\n\nBULLET::::4. Waves of control fraud cause immense damage.\n\nBULLET::::5. Control frauds convert conventional restraints on abuse into aids to fraud.\n\nBULLET::::6. Conflicts of interest matter.\n\nBULLET::::7. Deposit insurance was not essential to S&L control frauds.\n", "Between 1982 and 1985, S&L assets grew by 56% (compared to growth in commercial banks of 24%). In part, the growth was tilted toward financially weaker institutions which could only attract deposits by offering very high rates and which could only afford those rates by investing in high-yield, risky investments and loans.\n", "Possibly before modern capital markets, there have been some accounts that savings deposits could achieve an annual return of at least 25% and up to as high as 50%. (William Ellis and Richard Dawes, \"Lessons on the Phenomenon of Industrial Life... \", 1857, p III–IV)\n\nSection::::Reasons for changes.\n", "BULLET::::3. Absence of an ability to vary the return on assets with increases in the rate of interest required to be paid for deposits.\n\nBULLET::::4. Increased competition on the deposit gathering and mortgage origination sides of the business, with a sudden burst of new technology making possible a whole new way of conducting financial institutions generally and the mortgage business specifically.\n", "The simple connection between monetary policy and monetary aggregates such as M1 and M2 changed in the 1970s as the reserve requirements on deposits started to fall with the emergence of money funds, which require no reserves. Then in the early 1990s, reserve requirements, for example in Canada, were dropped to zero on savings deposits, CDs, and Eurodollar deposit. At present, reserve requirements apply only to \"transactions deposits\" – essentially checking accounts. The vast majority of funding sources used by private banks to create loans are not limited by bank reserves. Most commercial and industrial loans are financed by issuing large denomination CDs. Money market deposits are largely used to lend to corporations who issue commercial paper. Consumer loans are also made using savings deposits, which are not subject to reserve requirements. This means that instead of the value of loans supplied responding passively to monetary policy, we often see it rising and falling with the demand for funds and the willingness of banks to lend.\n", "BULLET::::3. The Federal Housing Finance Board (FHFB) was created as an independent agency to replace the FHLBB, i.e. to oversee the 12 Federal Home Loan Banks (also called district banks) that represent the largest collective source of home mortgage and community credit in the United States.\n\nBULLET::::4. The Savings Association Insurance Fund (SAIF) replaced the FSLIC as an ongoing insurance fund for thrift institutions (like the FDIC, the FSLIC was a permanent corporation that insured savings and loan accounts up to $100,000). SAIF is administered by the FDIC.\n", "The yields of SSBs are usually lower than the interest rates for Singapore fixed deposits for short holding periods but higher than the interest rates for Singapore fixed deposits for longer holder periods assuming depositors renew their fixed deposits at the current interest rates every time their tenure is up. It is also noted that yields of SSBs and fixed deposit interest rates are highly correlated and usually move in the same direction.\n", "The International Banking Act of 1978 requires branches of foreign banks operating in the United States to follow the same required reserve ratio standards.\n\nSection::::Required reserves.:Countries without reserve requirements.\n\nCanada, the UK, New Zealand, Australia, Sweden and Hong Kong have no reserve requirements.\n\nThis does not mean that banks can—even in theory—create money without limit. On the contrary, banks are constrained by capital requirements, which are arguably more important than reserve requirements even in countries that have reserve requirements.\n", "However, savings and loans were not allowed to offer checking accounts until the late 1970s. This reduced the attractiveness of savings and loans to consumers, since it required consumers to hold accounts across multiple institutions in order to have access to both checking privileges and competitive savings rates.\n", "At the same time, the expansion of monetary policy is also likely to reduce the income gap. First, low interest rates (expansionary monetary policy) can damage savers (reducing their interest income) and favor borrowers. Since savers are usually richer, that may reduce the income gap. Savings here refers to broad-based assets, and interest refers to the income of various assets. One of the main goals of the expansionary monetary policy is to reduce the unemployment rate, which is the majority of the income of low-income people, thus helping to reduce the income gap of the whole society.\n", "Deposit brokers, somewhat like stockbrokers, are paid a commission by the customer to find the best certificate of deposit (CD) rates and place their customers' money in those CDs. Previously, banks and thrifts could only have five percent of their deposits be brokered deposits; the race to the bottom caused this limit to be lifted. A small one-branch thrift could then attract a large number of deposits simply by offering the highest rate. To make money off this expensive money, it had to lend at even higher rates, meaning that it had to make more, riskier investments. This system was made even more damaging when certain deposit brokers instituted a scam known as \"linked financing\". In \"linked financing\", a deposit broker would approach a thrift and say he would steer a large amount of deposits to that thrift if the thrift would lend certain people money. The people, however, were paid a fee to apply for the loans and told to give the loan proceeds to the deposit broker.\n", "BULLET::::- 1942: Millburn Building and Loan Association\n\nBULLET::::- 1943: Connecticut Farms Building and Loan Association, Battle Hill Building and Loan Association\n\nBULLET::::- 1947: Brick Church Savings and Loan Association\n\nBULLET::::- 1958: Lyons Farms Building and Loan Association\n\nBULLET::::- 1963: Divident Hill Savings and Loan Association\n\nBULLET::::- 1969: Plainfield Savings and Loan Association\n\nBULLET::::- 1973: Camptown Savings and Loan Association\n\nBULLET::::- 1977: Supreme Savings and Loan Association\n\nBULLET::::- 1991: East Jersey Savings Bank\n\nBULLET::::- 1995: five Carteret Federal Savings Bank branches\n\nBULLET::::- 2008: Summit Federal Savings Bank\n\nBULLET::::- 2009: American Bank of New Jersey, six Banco Popular branches in New Jersey\n", "Therefore, foreign investment in the United States has been increased. And it was good for U.S. The notion that the U.S. economy depends on foreign capital may sound dangerous. But the situation is not that serious. The savings fund is still based on the U.S. dollar, as its size is so large that only two kinds of the assets denominated in dollar and Euro assets are properly invested to cover the large amounts of capital. What European policymakers do not want to face the world's excessive saving funds is flowing in to Europe and it makes Euro more valuable. Because it means that Europe's product lower position in the world's market. The dollar is still an essential commodity for the commodity, currency, and derivatives of the world. The value of the dollar, which reflects inflation, is too high compared to other Asian currencies. It is necessary to implement coordinated efforts to resolve the exchange rate gap. But if the U.S. financial system fails to restore trust or if the Federal fails to respond to inflation expectations, the debate will end and the dollar will fall into turmoil.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02610	What would happen if i just ate peanut butter and jam sandwiches for the rest of my life?	you'll survive, you'll be fine, you just won't be particularly healthy. if you take a multivitamin and you're otherwise young and healthy you'll be fine. i'd try to add some calcium in there at some point, though.	[ "Section::::Nutrition.\n\nA peanut butter and jelly sandwich made with white bread, two tablespoons each of peanut butter and strawberry jelly, provides 403 kcal, 18 g fat, 58 g carbs and 12 g protein which is 27% of the Recommended Daily Intake of fat and 22% of calories.\n\nWhile roughly 50% of the calories are from fat, most of them come from monounsaturated fat and polyunsaturated fats, which have been linked positively with heart health.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Fluffernutter\n\nBULLET::::- Fool's Gold Loaf\n\nBULLET::::- Jam sandwich\n\nBULLET::::- Peanut butter, banana and bacon sandwich\n\nBULLET::::- List of sandwiches\n", "Ready-to-use therapeutic foods, which possibly mimic the Citadel Spread recipe, are manufactured for treatment of severe acute malnutrition, as shown in one clinical report. Such formulations support rapid weight gain, supply multiple essential nutrients and are easy for children to eat because they can feed themselves the soft paste from a tear-open individual package. The fortified peanut butter-like paste contains fats, carbohydrates, proteins (macronutrients), vitamins and minerals (micronutrients). Peanut butter is relatively high in calories and an excellent source of vitamin E, B vitamins, dietary fiber and numerous dietary minerals.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Famine relief\n\nBULLET::::- Pemmican\n", "BULLET::::- Fool's Gold Loaf – a sandwich made by the Colorado Mine Company, a restaurant in Denver, Colorado. It consists of a single warmed, hollowed-out loaf of bread filled with the contents of one jar of creamy peanut butter and one jar of grape jelly, and a pound of bacon.\n\nBULLET::::- Peanut butter and jelly sandwich – includes one or more layers of peanut butter and one or more layers of either jelly or jam on bread\n\nBULLET::::- Candwich – a canned sandwich product, as of November 2011 it is only available in a peanut butter and jelly version\n", "Meds & Food for Kids produces a Ready-to-Use Therapeutic Food called “Medika Mamba,” or “Peanut Butter Medicine” in Haitian Creole. It is made from a combination of ground peanuts, powdered milk, sugar, oil, and vitamins, does not require refrigeration, and unlike previous treatments for severe acute malnutrition, does not require clean water for preparation. MFK produces “Medika Mamba” in their Cap Haitien factory with Haitian employees, using as many Haitian raw materials as possible. A treatment program for one child lasts six to eight weeks and requires 25 pounds of Medika Mamba.\n", "The sandwich has had numerous variations, many of which were billed as \"Elvis Presley's\" or owing to \"Elvis\" himself. Nigella Lawson of the cooking show \"Nigella Bites\" featured \"Elvis Presley's Fried Peanut Butter and Banana Sandwich\" in a 2007 episode that was made of white bread, butter, a banana, and peanut butter.\n\nAnother cooking show \"Sara's Secrets\" featured \"The Elvis\" with the Peanut Butter & Co.s recipe, which includes 8 slices of bread, butter, a banana, peanut butter, 12 slices of bacon and honey.\n", "For people with a peanut allergy, peanut butter can cause a variety of possible allergic reactions, including life-threatening anaphylaxis. This potential effect has led to banning peanut butter, among other common foods, in some schools.\n\nSection::::Other uses.\n\nSection::::Other uses.:As an ingredient.\n\nPeanut butter is included as an ingredient in many recipes: peanut butter and jelly sandwiches, peanut butter cookies, and candies where peanut is the main flavor, such as Reese's Pieces, or various peanut butter and chocolate treats, such as Reese's Peanut Butter Cups and the Crispy Crunch candy bar.\n", "Former employees interviewed by the \"Chicago Tribune\" stated that conditions in the plant were \"filthy and nasty\", and that they would never eat the peanut butter or allow their children to eat it. One employee remembered seeing a family of baby mice in a tote of peanuts, and others recalled having to step over standing water inside the building after heavy rain. Another former employee told CBS News that he saw a rat dry-roasting in a peanut area. Another told ABC News that workers had no idea the company had positive \"Salmonella\" tests because \"that information is not for the average employee to see.\"\n", "Section::::Elvis Presley and the sandwich.\n\nThe peanut butter and banana sandwich has been referred to as a favorite of Elvis Presley, who was renowned for his food cravings such as the Fool's Gold Loaf, a loaf of Italian bread filled with a pound each of bacon, peanut butter, and grape jelly. Books on Elvis Presley's favorite foods and culinary tastes, as well as other published reports on his taste for peanut butter and banana sandwiches with or without bacon, have made the sandwich widely associated with Presley. It is often referred to using his name.\n", "BULLET::::- Take 5\n\nBULLET::::- Whatchamacallit – from 1987 to 2008, it utilized peanut butter as the flavoring agent for the crisp part of the bar\n\nBULLET::::- Thingamajig – a limited edition of the Whatchamacallit bar that is no longer produced\n\nBULLET::::- Zagnut\n\nSection::::Sandwiches.\n\nBULLET::::- Fluffernutter – a sandwich made with peanut butter and marshmallow fluff, usually served on white bread\n", "Peanut butter and peanut paste manufactured by PCA were distributed to hundreds of firms for use as an ingredient in thousands of different products, such as cookies, crackers, cereal, candy, and ice cream, all of which were recalled. Some products were also sold directly to consumers in retail outlets, such as dollar stores.\n", "A peanut butter and jelly (or jam) sandwich, or PB&J, includes one or more layers of peanut butter and one or more layers of jelly (called \"jam\" in British English and Canadian English) on bread. Sometimes the sandwich is eaten open-faced, or with one slice of bread folded over (effectively a \"half sandwich\"). The sandwich is quite common and popular in North America, especially for children; a 2002 survey showed the average American will have eaten 1,500 of these sandwiches before graduating from high school. Smuckers manufactures a commercial sealed crustless sandwich made of peanut butter and jelly.\n", "Peanut butter's flavor combines well with other flavors, such as oatmeal, cheese, cured meats, savory sauces, and various types of breads and crackers. The creamy or crunchy, fatty, salty taste pairs very well with complementary soft and sweet ingredients like fruit preserves, bananas, apples, and honey. The taste can also be enhanced by similarly salty things like bacon (see peanut butter, banana and bacon sandwich), especially if the peanut butter has added sweetness.\n", "Frank Delfino, former Skippy plant manager and engineer, remembers the Alameda plant producing around 500 cases of a ready-to-use fortified food in the 1960s, using peanut oil with added vitamins and minerals. Skippy proposed a collaboration with the US government to use the product for nutritional needs of children, but the proposal was not adopted.\n", "BULLET::::- Plumpy'nut, a solid RUTF, made in France since 1996 for treatment of severe acute malnutrition\n\nBULLET::::- Medika Mamba, an enriched peanut butter therapeutic food produced and distributed by Meds and Food for Kids in Haiti since 2003\n\nBULLET::::- BP-100, a nutrient-fortified wheat-and-oat bar designed to provide a similar nutritional profile to F-100 by the World Health Organization\n\nBULLET::::- Nutribun, a fortified bread product developed by United States Agency for International Development and distributed under the Food for Peace program\n", "BULLET::::- P.B. Slices – a company that produced P.B. Slices brand sliced peanut butter squares, which were sold in individually wrapped slices\n\nBULLET::::- Peanut brittle – a confection consisting of flat broken pieces of hard sugar candy embedded with peanuts\n\nBULLET::::- Peanut butter bun – sweet bun found in Hong Kong as well as various Chinatown bakery shops\n\nBULLET::::- Peanut butter – a food paste or spread made from ground dry roasted peanuts\n\nBULLET::::- Peanut butter cookie – peanut butter is a principal ingredient in this cookie\n", "2006 - Dole Baby Spinach \"E.coli\" outbreak: Baby spinach packaged in Dole's freshly bagged spinach was contaminated by the spinach field's proximity to cattle ranches. There were 238 who fell ill, of which 103 were hospitalized, and five people died.\n\n2008 - King Nut Peanut Butter \"Salmonella\" outbreak: The King Nut creamy peanut butter was a source of salmonella outbreak throughout the United States with 714 total infected and a death toll of nine.\n", "A variant on the sandwich is the peanut butter banana club sandwich, which combines the sandwich with a club sandwich by adding lettuce, brown sugar and lemon juice. Another version of the sandwich was sold under the name \"The Memphis\" at the \"all peanut butter sandwich\" restaurant P.B. Loco prior to the company going out of business, which added honey and substituted bacon bits for bacon strips.\n\nThe sandwich has also been featured in a cookbook for canines in \"The Everything Cooking for Dogs Book\". The book suggests alternative fillings including sweet potato, carrots, pumpkin, and apples.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Section::::Ingredients.\n\nBULLET::::- Any type of jam\n\nBULLET::::- Bread or brown bread (i.e., white or wholemeal)\n\nSection::::In popular culture.\n\nThe popular Scottish folk song \"The Jeely Piece Song\", which appeared in the 1960s, humorously describes the effect of new social housing policies on the eating habits of Scottish youngsters. The lyrics were written by Adam McNaughton. It was performed by Matt McGinn and many others.\n", "BULLET::::- Maafe – a stew or sauce made from lamb, beef, chicken, or without meat and cooked with a sauce based on groundnuts\n\nBULLET::::- Mirchi ka salan – a popular chili and peanut curry of Hyderabad, Telangana, India\n\nBULLET::::- Nutter Butter – a Nabisco brand peanut-shaped sandwich cookie with a peanut butter filling\n\nBULLET::::- Nutty Bars – a snack manufactured by McKee Foods under the brand title of Little Debbie, it consists of four wafers sandwiched together in a peanut butter mixture and covered in chocolate\n", "On January 17, 2009, the FDA announced they had traced the source of an outbreak of \"Salmonella typhimurium\" to a plant in Blakely, Georgia, owned by Peanut Corporation of America (PCA), and urged people to postpone eating commercially prepared or manufactured peanut butter-containing products and institutionally served peanut butter. \"Salmonella\" was reported to be found in 46 states in the United States in at least 3,862 peanut butter-based products, such as crackers, energy bars, and peanut butter cookies from at least 343 food companies. Dog treats were affected, as well. At least 691 people in more than 46 states became sick, and the \"Salmonella\" claimed at least 9 lives as of March 25.\n", "Section::::Astrocaryum murumuru butter.\n", "Peanut butter, banana and bacon sandwich\n\nThe Peanut Butter and banana sandwich, or peanut butter, banana and bacon sandwich, sometimes referred to as an Elvis sandwich or simply the Elvis, consists of toasted bread slices with peanut butter, sliced or mashed banana, and sometimes bacon. Honey is seen in some variations of the sandwich. The sandwich is frequently cooked in a pan or on a griddle. The recipe for the sandwich has been published in numerous cookbooks and newspaper stories. It is sold commercially in restaurants that specialize in peanut butter sandwiches, such as Peanut Butter & Co.\n", "Presley's fondness for peanut butter and banana sandwiches is well established; however, bacon is not mentioned in all accounts. A book about Presley and his mother, Gladys Presley, though, says he had \"sandwich after sandwich of his favorite—peanut butter, sliced bananas, and crisp bacon\". Another passage describes him talking \"feverishly until dawn\" while \"wolfing\" down the sandwiches (described in this instance as being made with mashed banana).\n", "Deficient micronutrients can be provided through fortifying foods. Fortifying foods such as peanut butter sachets (see Plumpy'Nut) have revolutionized emergency feeding in humanitarian emergencies because they can be eaten directly from the packet, do not require refrigeration or mixing with scarce clean water, can be stored for years and, vitally, can be absorbed by extremely ill children.\n", "Barbara \"Sandi\" Robison fell ill while performing in Butte, Montana and died of toxic shock poisoning 16 days later, on April 22, 1988, in a hospital in Billings, at the age of 42.\n\nJim Voigt (born September 24, 1946) died of a heart attack on November 7, 2000, at the age of 54.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00647	Why are some websites browser specific, if their underlying code is based on a standardization, supported by most browsers (Google Earth on FF)?	There are some specific tags that only specific browsers understand, there was a fair amount of Internet Explorer specific HTML and CSS years ago that wasn't part of the standard but IE implemented it. Other times you're relying on different implementations having different quirks, you made your page work with IE which uses a slightly off standard look and now it doesn't work with Firefox which uses a slightly different off standard way Now you're likely to run into things like ActiveX that need Internet Explorer to be able to run because its coupled tightly with windows. Its rather uncommon to find something that works in Firefox that doesn't work in Chrome. Google stuff generally works with every browser(can't risk losing customers!)	[ "Microsoft contacted the Web Standards Project and experts on Web standards and asked for assistance in devising a new DOCTYPE-like technique that could work across browsers and let Web developers specify exact browser versions under which their Web sites are known to work correctly, and browsers implementing this form of version targeting would use the correct rendering engine versions to display the site correctly. Members of the WaSP Microsoft Task Force were involved in the proposal, albeit not every member backed it.\n", "All modern browsers implement some form of the Same-Origin Policy as it is an important security cornerstone. The policies are not required to match an exact specification but are often extended to define roughly compatible security boundaries for other web technologies, such as Microsoft Silverlight, Adobe Flash, or Adobe Acrobat, or for mechanisms other than direct DOM manipulation, such as XMLHttpRequest.\n\nSection::::Origin determination rules.\n", "In 2015, a community working group formed under the W3C to create a single standard application programming interface (API) for browser extensions. While that goal is unlikely to be achieved, the majority of browsers already use the same or very similar APIs due to the popularity of Google Chrome.\n", "In addition to these testing tools, many sites maintain lists of browser support for specific CSS properties, including CanIUse and the Mozilla Developer Network. Additionally, the CSS 3 defines feature queries, which provide an codice_38 directive that will allow developers to target browsers with support for certain functionality directly within their CSS. CSS that is not supported by older browsers can also sometimes be patched in using JavaScript polyfills, which are pieces of JavaScript code designed to make browsers behave consistently. These workarounds—and the need to support fallback functionality—can add complexity to development projects, and consequently, companies frequently define a list of browser versions that they will and will not support.\n", "In response, in April 2004, the Mozilla Foundation and Opera Software joined efforts to develop new open-technology standards which add more capability while remaining backward-compatible with existing technologies. The result of this collaboration was the WHATWG, a working group devoted to the fast creation of new standard definitions that would be submitted to the W3C for approval.\n", "Section::::Implementation.\n\nCurrently, no browsers natively support WebCL. However, non-native add-ons are used to implement WebCL. For example, Nokia developed a WebCL extension. Mozilla does not plan to implement WebCL in favor of OpenGL ES 3.1 Compute Shaders.\n\nBULLET::::- Mozilla (Firefox) -\n\nSection::::Implementation.:WebCL working draft.\n\nBULLET::::- Samsung (WebKit) - (unavailable)\n\nBULLET::::- Nokia (Firefox) - (down since Nov 2014, Last Version for FF 34)\n\nBULLET::::- Intel (Crosswalk) -\n\nSection::::Implementation.:Example Code.\n", "Not to be confused with multi-browser compatible, cross browser compatible applications and websites will be stable in any version of a browser. The ability of a site to be easily viewed across different browsers is essential to usability for Internet users. A web application behaves exactly as desired in one browser but might have other issues in another browsers. So the issues will hamper the vigorous functionality of an application. The clients who look out for a professional application or a website can rely on cross browser testing which would help client applications in producing different results on different web browsers as they run in applets, Flash, JavaScript requests and so on. \n", "Vendor prefixes were designed for features that were under development, meaning that the syntax may not even be final. Also, adding a rule for each browser's implementation of a function does not scale well when you want to support many browsers. Consequently, the major browser vendors are moving away from vendor prefixes in favor of other methods such as @supports feature queries.\n\nSection::::Alternatives.:Feature detection.\n\nSection::::Alternatives.:Feature detection.:JavaScript feature detection.\n", "Support for an early version of Custom Elements and Shadow DOM, known as \"v0\", is present in some Blink-based browsers like Google Chrome and Opera and is in Mozilla Firefox (requires a manual configuration change). The newer Custom Elements and Shadow DOM \"v1\" APIs are implemented in Safari, Google Chrome, and Mozilla Firefox and are in development for Microsoft Edge.\n\nBackward compatibility with older browsers is implemented using JavaScript-based polyfills.\n\nSection::::Libraries.\n", "BULLET::::- Presto-based browsers (Opera) implement CORS as of Opera 12.00 and Opera Mobile 12, but not Opera Mini.\n\nBULLET::::- WebKit (Initial revision uncertain, Safari 4 and above, Google Chrome 3 and above, possibly earlier).\n\nBULLET::::- Microsoft Edge All versions.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The history of cross-browser is involved with the history of the \"browser wars\" in the late 1990s between Netscape Navigator and Microsoft Internet Explorer as well as with that of JavaScript and JScript, the first scripting languages to be implemented in the web browsers. Netscape Navigator was the most widely used web browser at that time and Microsoft had licensed Mosaic to create Internet Explorer 1.0. New versions of Netscape Navigator and Internet Explorer were released at a rapid pace over the following few years. Due to the intense competition in the web browser market, the development of these browsers was fast-paced and new features were added without any coordination between vendors. The introduction of new features often took priority over bug fixes, resulting in unstable browsers, fickle web standards compliance, frequent crashes and many security holes.\n", "Current use of the term \"standards-compliance\" generally refers to the adherence to coding practices in relation to the use of HTML or XHTML, with Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) to define the layout, colors, and fonts of a web page.\n\nSection::::Purpose.\n\nModern web browsers currently under development, or recently released (Opera 10, Mozilla Firefox 4, Microsoft Internet Explorer 9, Safari 5, Google Chrome 5) fully support the CSS 2.0 standard, as well as some of the CSS 3.0 standards.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Speeding up Browser Evolution\", an article by Mike Davidson (2004).\n", "As of 2018, Google Chrome (Android) and Safari (iOS) allow the creation of site-specific browsers for Progressive Web Apps.\n\nSection::::Software.\n\nUtilities that produce site-specific browsers:\n\nBULLET::::- SiteSpecificBrowser.com (Flagged By Norton as a virus, specifically SONAR.Heuristic.120)\n\nBULLET::::- WebCatalog (macOS/Windows/Linux, isolated cookie storage)\n\nBULLET::::- Fluid (Mac OS X only, isolated cookie storage)\n\nBULLET::::- Epichrome (Mac OS X only)\n\nBULLET::::- Google Chrome (Available for Windows, Mac, and Linux: \"Application shortcut\" feature, though not entirely sand-boxed like Mozilla Prism)\n\nBULLET::::- ICE (Linux only, developed for Peppermint OS)\n\nBULLET::::- Mailplane (Mac OS X only)\n", "Each of the most popular browser rendering engines has its own vendor-specific prefix for experimental properties. However, due to the proliferation of these properties in live code, the browser vendors have begun to move away from this in favor of user-controlled feature flags.\n\nSection::::Alternatives.:Browser prefixes.:List of prefixes.\n\nThe following is a list of prefixes from various layout engines:\n\nSection::::Alternatives.:Browser prefixes.:Limitations.\n", "This issue was known by cross browsing in browser war between Internet Explorer and Netscape. Windows Internet Explorer was the dominant browser after that, but modern web browsers such as Mozilla Firefox, Opera and Safari have supported web standards. Because of backward compatibility of Internet Explorer, many web pages have supported non-standard HTML tags and DOM handling script yet as well platform-dependent techniques such as ActiveX. These are very harmful for Web accessibility and device independence.\n\nSection::::Elements.\n\nBULLET::::- Structural and semantic markup with XHTML\n\nBULLET::::- CSS-based layout with layout elements such as position and float.\n", "During the browser wars, other companies besides Microsoft introduced proprietary, non–standards-compliant extensions. For example, in 1995, Netscape implemented the \"font\" tag, among other HTML extensions, without seeking review from a standards body. With the rise of Internet Explorer, the two companies became locked in a dead heat to out-implement each other with non–standards-compliant features. In 2004, to prevent a repeat of the \"browser wars\", and the resulting morass of conflicting standards, the browser vendors Apple Inc. (Safari), Mozilla Foundation (Firefox), Google Inc. (Google Chrome) and Opera Software (Opera browser) formed the Web Hypertext Application Technology Working Group (WHATWG) to create open standards to complement those of the World Wide Web Consortium. Microsoft refused to join, citing the group's lack of a patent policy as the reason.\n", "JavaScript authors can deal with these differences by writing standards-compliant code that can be executed correctly by most browsers. Failing that, they can write code that behaves differently in the absence of certain browser features. Authors may also find it practical to detect what browser is running, as two browsers may implement the same feature with differing behavior. Libraries and toolkits that take browser differences into account are also useful to programmers.\n\nFurthermore, scripts may not work for some users. For example, a user may:\n\nBULLET::::- use an old or rare browser with incomplete or unusual DOM support;\n", "With its own market share in decline, Mozilla also decided to conform. In 2015, the organization announced that the long-standing XUL and XPCOM extension capabilities of Firefox would be replaced with a less-permissive API very similar to Chrome's. This change was enacted in 2017 with the release of Firefox 57. Firefox extensions are now largely compatible with their Chrome counterparts.\n\nApple is the lone major exception to this trend. Its current API for Safari requires using the Xcode tool to create extensions.\n\nSection::::Unwanted behavior.\n", "Section::::History.:Creation of W3C and Web standardization.\n", "Standards-compliant\n\nStandards-compliance is the compliance of a website or web browser with the web standards of the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). To ensure interoperability a standards-compliant web site does not use proprietary software methods or features of a browser.\n\nAlthough there is no perfect browser that adheres to all standards, advancement has been made by most web browsers in the past few years that will ensure better interoperability. In the past a \"standards-compliant browser\" sometimes meant \"a browser other than Internet Explorer\" (which had poor compliance prior to the release of version 8.0 in 2009).\n", "The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), founded in 1994 to promote open standards for the World Wide Web, pulled Netscape and Microsoft together with other companies to develop a standard for browser scripting languages called \"ECMAScript\". The first version of the standard was published in 1997. Subsequent releases of JavaScript and JScript would implement the ECMAScript standard for greater cross-browser compatibility. After the standardization of ECMAScript, W3C began work on the standardization of Document Object Model (DOM), which is a way of representing and interacting with objects in HTML, XHTML and XML documents. DOM Level 0 and DOM Level 1 were introduced in 1996 and 1997. Only limited supports of these were implemented by the browsers, as a result, non-conformant browsers such as Internet Explorer 4.x and Netscape 4.x were still widely used as late as 2000. DOM Standardization became popular since the introduction of DOM Level 2, which was published in 2000. It introduced the \"getElementById\" function as well as an event model and support for XML namespaces and CSS. DOM Level 3, the current release of the DOM specification, published in April 2004, added support for XPath and keyboard event handling, as well as an interface for serializing documents as XML. By 2005, large parts of W3C DOM were well-supported by common ECMAScript-enabled browsers, including Microsoft Internet Explorer, Opera, Safari and Gecko-based browsers (like Firefox, SeaMonkey and Camino).\n", "Each web browser uses a layout engine to render web pages, and support for CSS functionality is not consistent between them. Because browsers do not parse CSS perfectly, multiple coding techniques have been developed to target specific browsers with workarounds (commonly known as CSS hacks or CSS filters). Adoption of new functionality in CSS can be hindered by lack of support in major browsers. For example, Internet Explorer was slow to add support for many CSS 3 features, which slowed adoption of those features and damaged the browser's reputation among developers. In order to ensure a consistent experience for their users, web developers often test their sites across multiple operating systems, browsers, and browser versions, increasing development time and complexity. Tools such as BrowserStack have been built to reduce the complexity of maintaining these environments.\n", "Site-specific browsers are often implemented through the use of existing application frameworks such as Gecko, WebKit, Microsoft's Internet Explorer (the underlying layout engines, specifically Trident and JScript) and Opera's Presto. SSBs built upon these frameworks allow web applications and social networking tools to start with desktop icons launching in a manner similar to standard non-browser applications. Some technologies, including Adobe's AIR and JavaFX use specialized development kits that can create cross-platform SSBs. Since version 6.0, the Curl platform has offered detached applets and the EmbeddedBrowserGraphic class which can be used as an SSB on the desktop.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n", "Protocol support and the difficulty of adding new link type protocols also vary widely across not only these browsers but across versions of these browsers. Opera has historically been most robust and consistent about supporting cutting-edge protocols such as robust file sharing eDonkey links or bitcoin transactions. These can be difficult to support in Firefox without relying on unknown small developers, which defeats the privacy purpose of these protocols. Instructions for supporting new link protocols vary widely across operating systems and Firefox versions, and are generally not implementable by end users who lack systems administration comfort and the ability to follow exact detailed instructions to type in strings.\n", "Regarding fears of this split from the public, then head of WHATWG, Ian Hickson said the split would not be as harmful as people thought. \"\"It’s certainly possible that the specs will fork, but it’s unlikely, or at least, unlikely to happen in a way that is harmful.\"\"\n\nIn his opinion, possible conflicts will lead to a more precise standard. And \"\"Browser vendors will just know to use the more precise one.\"\"\n\nSection::::Differences between WHATWG and HTMLWG.\n\nWHATWG maintains a \"living standard\" and stopped using version numbers. W3C’s HTMLWG leaves the WHATWG spec in order to stick producing \"snapshots\".\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03501	Why is it that when people are alone for a long time, they go insane?	I don't think that's universally true. There are many people that spend very long periods in isolation and don't go insane. They probably lose a lot of their social skills, but that doesn't equal insanity. I think the important part is being able to keep your mind occupied and stimulated. If you're trapped in an empty room for a long time, then yeah you'll probably lose it a lot faster than someone who just lives by themselves with no human contact.	[ "Ryan J. Pardo of \"Paste\" gave the album a score of 7.7 out of 10 and wrote, \"The whole album is awash in swaths of watery shimmer, as if recorded underwater.\" Giving the album a score of 7.4, \"Pitchfork\" writer Sasha Geffen felt the \"varied taxonomy of the band gels together as they relay the psychological slog of trying really hard to just be OK.\"\n", "While the long term effects of extended periods of loneliness are little understood, it has been noted that people who are isolated or experience loneliness for a long period of time fall into a “ontological crisis” or “ontological insecurity,” where they are not sure if they or their surroundings exist, and if they do, exactly who or what they are, creating torment, suffering, and despair to the point of palpability within the thoughts of the person.\n", "Symptoms from complete isolation, called sensory deprivation, often include anxiety, sensory illusions, or even distortions of time and perception. However, this is the case when there is no stimulation of the sensory systems at all, and not only lack of contact with people. Thus, by having other things to keep one's mind busy, this is avoided.\n", "“We were disintegrating as couples, by virtue of that, we were suffering as people. So in order to get work done, I had to go through this elaborate exercise in denial – leaving whole areas of baggage on the other side of the room, compartmentalize feelings... no time to get closure, to work things out... working in a very highly charged and ambivalent environment. So the go insane thing – would just be whenever I let my guard down and got back to all the things I hadn’t dealt with, it was almost like going insane – like I always do. Took a long, long time, working in an artificial environment on a personal level. So many things not worked through for a long, long time.\" – Lindsey Buckingham \n", "Another noteworthy type of isolation is referred to as \"temporal bracketing\", in which some perceived failure or shortcoming is buried away in one's past, effectively removing its impact on the current self. This type of separation from the past can be seen in religious conversion or \"born again\" experiences, in certain drug addiction recovery programs, and in the throwing away of delinquent files in the legal system. These socially accepted practices effectively make isolation socially permissible, at least in certain instances; and those behaviors seem to relieve some of the stress from past events. People with low self-esteem often use temporal bracketing when describing past failures. By isolating themselves from whatever misdeed they are bringing to cognition, they contend that it has nothing to do with their current state or relationships with people.\n", "Section::::Effects on the mind.\n", "BULLET::::- \"When you cease to fear your solitude, a new creativity awakens in you. Your forgotten or neglected wealth begins to reveal itself. You come home to yourself and learn to rest within. Thoughts are our inner senses. Infused with silence and solitude, they bring out the mystery of inner landscape.\"\n", "The storylines of \"What It's Like Being Alone\" revolve around the residents of the fictional Gurney Orphanage, a dark, run-down building. The orphanage has been described by a columnist as Victorian, and it may be set in a bog on the Canadian island of Newfoundland.\n", "Alone (Strindberg novella)\n\nAlone () is a novella from 1903 by Swedish writer August Strindberg. The protagonist is a 50-year-old writer who has returned to Stockholm after spending several years in the countryside. The novel has been subject to treatment by a number of literary researchers. An English translation of the novella by Arvid Paulson was published under the title \"Days of Loneliness\" (New York: Phaedra, 1971).\n", "In contrast, some psychological conditions (such as schizophrenia and schizoid personality disorder) are strongly linked to a tendency to seek solitude. In animal experiments, solitude has been shown to cause psychosis.\n\nEmotional isolation is a state of isolation where one has a well-functioning social network but still feels emotionally separated from others.\n", "Solitude does not necessarily entail feelings of loneliness, and in fact may, for those who choose it with deliberate intent, be one's sole source of genuine pleasure. For example, in religious contexts, some saints preferred silence and found immense pleasure in their perceived uniformity with God. Solitude is a state that can be positively modified utilizing it for prayer allowing to \"be alone with ourselves and with God, to put ourselves in listening to his will, but also of what moves in our hearts, let purify our relationships; solitude and silence thus become spaces inhabited by God, and ability to recover ourselves and grow in humanity. \"\n", "The Victorian poet Algernon Charles Swinburne, in the Preface to the 1875 edition of \"Christabel\", argues, \n", "Section::::Background and recording.\n", "Solitude can have positive effects on individuals. One study found that, although time spent alone tended to depress a person's mood and increase feelings of loneliness, it also helped to improve their cognitive state, such as improving concentration. Furthermore, once the alone time was over, people's moods tended to increase significantly. Solitude is also associated with other positive growth experiences, religious experiences, and identity building such as solitary quests used in rites of passages for adolescents.\n", "Section::::Psychological effects.\n\nThere are both positive and negative psychological effects of solitude. Much of the time, these effects and the longevity is determined by the amount of time a person spends in isolation. The positive effects can range anywhere from more freedom to increased spirituality, while the negative effects are socially depriving and may trigger the onset of mental illness. While positive solitude is often desired, negative solitude is often involuntary or undesired at the time it occurs.\n\nSection::::Psychological effects.:Positive effects.\n", "There is a clear distinction between feeling lonely and being socially isolated (for example, a loner). In particular, one way of thinking about loneliness is as a discrepancy between one's necessary and achieved levels of social interaction, while solitude is simply the lack of contact with people. Loneliness is therefore a subjective experience; if a person thinks they are lonely, then they are lonely. People can be lonely while in solitude, or in the middle of a crowd. What makes a person lonely is the fact that they need more social interaction or a certain type of social interaction that is not currently available. A person can be in the middle of a party and feel lonely due to not talking to enough people. Conversely, one can be alone and not feel lonely; even though there is no one around that person is not lonely because there is no desire for social interaction. There have also been suggestions that each person has their own optimal level of social interaction. If a person gets too little or too much social interaction, this could lead to feelings of loneliness or over-stimulation.\n", "Alone\n\nAlone may refer to:\n\nBULLET::::- Solitude, a state of seclusion or isolation\n\nBULLET::::- Loneliness, negative emotions arising from seclusion\n\nSection::::Film and television.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alone\" (1931 film), Soviet film by Leonid Trauberg and Grigori Kozintsev\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alone\" (1997 film), American film starring Ed Begley Jr.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alone\" (2001 film), Croatian film by Lukas Nola\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alone\" (2004 film), German film\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alone\", a 2004 short film by Gregory Orr\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alone\" (2007 film), Thai horror film by Banjong Pisanthanakun and Parkpoom Wongpoom\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alone\" (2008 film), Turkish film by Çağan Irmak\n", "There are many potential reasons for becoming a recluse, including, but are not limited to: a personal philosophy may reject consumer society; a mystical religious outlook may involve becoming a hermit or an anchorite; a survivalist may be practicing self-sufficiency; a criminal might hide away from people to avoid detection by police; or a misanthrope may be unable to tolerate human society. In the Russian Orthodox and Catholic Church tradition, a temporary hermit is called a Poustinik, where one has been called to pray and fast alone in a cabin for a minimum of 24 hours.\n", "Habitual repressors have been shown to have fewer unhappy memories than other people, but the difference rests in the secondary associations. Research of repressors concluded that they had equally strong negative reactions to bad memories, however those memories did not evoke other negative feelings as much as they did for non-repressors. The phrase, \"architecture of less complex emotions\" was created to describe this phenomenon. Repressors have bad memories just like anyone else, but are less troubled by them because they are relatively isolated in memory. The most current researchers have agreed that isolation is one of the more effective and important mechanisms of defense from harmful cognitions. It is a coping mechanism that does not require delusions of reality, which makes it more plausible than some alternatives (denial, sublimation, projection, etc.). Further research will be needed for accounts of isolation to be considered fully concrete.\n", "Section::::Internet.\n\nSection::::Internet.:Isolating the factors that remove isolation.\n", "Still, long-term solitude is often seen as undesirable, causing loneliness or reclusion resulting from inability to establish relationships. Furthermore, it might even lead to clinical depression. However, for some people, solitude is not depressing. Still others (e.g. monks) regard long-term solitude as a means of spiritual enlightenment. Indeed, marooned people have been left in solitude for years without any report of psychological symptoms afterwards.\n\nEnforced loneliness (solitary confinement) has been a punishment method throughout history. It is often considered a form of torture.\n", "Section::::Internal references.\n", "D. W. Winnicott in his article of that name (1958/64) highlighted the importance of the capacity to be alone, distinguishing it from both withdrawal and loneliness, and seeing it as derived from an internalisation of the non-intrusive background presence of a mothering figure. Winnicott in his writings always stressed the importance of the baby being allowed \"just to lie back and float\", and of the \"opportunity that the baby has to experience separation without separation\". Out of those early experiences emerges the capacity to be alone in (or out of) the presence of others - something which might have to be re-acquired later in life through psychotherapy.\n", "Psychiatric institutions may institute full or partial isolation for certain patients, particularly the violent or subversive, in order to address their particular needs and to protect the rest of the recovering population from their influence.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Hermit\n\nBULLET::::- Hikikomori\n\nBULLET::::- Hitbodedut\n\nBULLET::::- Lone wolf (trait)\n\nBULLET::::- Boredom\n\nBULLET::::- Loner\n\nBULLET::::- Privacy regulation theory\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Deresiewicz, William (March 2010). Solitude and Leadership. \"If you want others to follow, learn to be alone with your thoughts.\" \"The American Scholar\"\n", "But the young educated adults of the 90s got to watch all this brave new individualism and self-expression and sexual freedom deteriorate into the joyless and anomic self-indulgence of the Me Generation. Today's sub-40s have different horrors, prominent among which are anomie and solipsism and a peculiarly American loneliness: the prospect of dying without once having loved something more than yourself.\n\nSigmund Freud used these ideas in his essay \"Civilization and Its Discontents\", he wrote civilisation is created through restraint - is \"built up upon a renunciation of instinct\"\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Suicide by Émile Durkheim.\n\nSection::::References.\n" ]	[ "People go insane after being alone for a long time." ]	[ "Not all people go insane after being alone for a long time." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "People go insane after being alone for a long time." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Not all people go insane after being alone for a long time." ]
2018-02448	Why are award shows and big sports games such as the Super Bowl on Sunday nights?	I think the tv viewing audience is bigger on a Sunday night, because more people are at home in preparation for going to work the next day, whereas people go out and do stuff on Saturdays.	[ "BULLET::::- Saturday nights: Until the 1990s, many popular series aired on Saturdays, including CBS series such as \"Have Gun - Will Travel\", \" All in the Family\", \"The Mary Tyler Moore Show\", \"The Bob Newhart Show\", \"The Carol Burnett Show\", \"Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman\", \"Early Edition\" and \"Walker, Texas Ranger\", NBC series such as \"The Golden Girls\" and its numerous spin-offs, \"The Pretender\", and \"Profiler\", as well as Fox's \"Cops\" and \"America's Most Wanted\"; most networks maintained a full schedule (though the night was also often used for airing movies). However, in the past decade a similar situation to Friday nights has emerged, with fewer viewers in front of a TV set. The last major efforts to program Saturday nights on the Big Three networks ended in 2001, when CBS canceled \"Walker, Texas Ranger\" and NBC failed with the XFL; Fox continued to air \"Cops\" and \"America's Most Wanted\" on Saturday nights until both programs ended their Fox runs between 2011 and 2013 (with \"Cops\" moving to what is now Paramount Network and \"America's Most Wanted\" moving to Lifetime, where it remained until its cancellation in 2012). Between 2017 and 2019, CBS aired \"Ransom\" on Saturday nights during the middle of the television season.\n", "Typically, family-oriented comedy programs led in the early part of prime time, although in recent years, reality television programs (such as \"Dancing with the Stars\" and \"American Idol\"), and more adult-oriented scripted programs – both comedies and dramas – have largely replaced them. Later in the evening, drama series of various types (such as \"NCIS\", \"\" and \"Grey's Anatomy\") air. Sunday is the most-watched night on American television, with many of TV's most popular shows airing on that night. Viewership tends to then decline throughout the week, culminating in the lowest ratings being registered on Friday and Saturday night; most broadcast networks abandoned the programming of first-run scripted fare on Saturdays by 2004, in favor of sports, newsmagazines and burn-offs and reruns of other prime time series; however first-run scripted programming continues to air on Fridays, being mixed in with newsmagazines and/or reality series, depending on the network. Networks, however, pay special attention to Thursday night, which is the last night for advertisers of weekend purchases – such as cars, movie tickets and home video rentals – to reach large television audiences. Throughout the 1990s, NBC called its own Thursday night lineup \"Must See TV\", and during that decade, some of the country's most watched television shows aired on Thursday nights (several of which aired on NBC), before the re-emergence of Sunday as the top night of prime time programming in the 2000s.\n", "Period or older-skewing television dramas, such as \"Downton Abbey\", \"Call the Midwife\", \"Lark Rise to Candleford\" and \"Heartbeat\" are commonly shown on Sunday evenings in the UK; the first of these was \"Dr Finlay's Casebook\" in the 1960s. Similarly, \"Antiques Roadshow\" has been shown on Sundays on BBC1 since 1979 and \"Last of the Summer Wine\" was shown on Sundays for many years until it ended in 2010.\n\nMany American, Australian and British television networks and stations also broadcast their political interview shows on Sunday mornings.\n\nSection::::Common occurrences on Sunday.:In sports.\n", "After many years of being held on Mondays at 9:00 pm Eastern/6:00 p.m Pacific, since the 1999 ceremonies, it was moved to Sundays at 8:30 pm ET/5:30 pm PT. The reasons given for the move were that more viewers would tune in on Sundays, that Los Angeles rush-hour traffic jams could be avoided, and an earlier start time would allow viewers on the East Coast to go to bed earlier. For many years the film industry opposed a Sunday broadcast because it would cut into the weekend box office. In 2010, the Academy contemplated moving the ceremony even further back into January, citing TV viewers' fatigue with the film industry's long awards season. However, such an accelerated schedule would dramatically decrease the voting period for its members, to the point where some voters would only have time to view the contending films streamed on their computers (as opposed to traditionally receiving the films and ballots in the mail). Furthermore, a January ceremony on Sunday would clash with National Football League playoff games. In 2018, the Academy announced that the ceremony would be moved from late February to mid February beginning with the 92nd Academy Awards in 2020.\n", "BULLET::::- \"NBC Saturday Night at the Movies\" broke the long-standing feud between the American movie and television industries, showing semi-recent hit films, after coming to an agreement with 20th Century Fox. Beginning in 1956, motion pictures made before 1948 had been shown on TV without the need to compensate the actors. The first offering was the 1953 comedy \"How to Marry a Millionaire\". ABC introduced a Sunday night movie in 1962, NBC had movie nights Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday over the next four years, and CBS started a Thursday night film in 1965.\n", "BULLET::::- The finale of the popular pan-European TV show, \"Eurovision Song Contest\", has always aired on a Saturday.\n\nBULLET::::- In the United Kingdom popular TV shows air on a Saturday \"Strictly Come Dancing\", \"The Voice UK\", and \"The X Factor\" air on Saturday nights.\n\nSection::::In popular culture.:Arts, entertainment, and media.:Video Games.\n\nBULLET::::- Saturday Night Slam Masters - Published by Capcom Wrestling, 1993 video game\n\nBULLET::::- Saturday Morning RPG\n\nBULLET::::- \"Saturday Smash Origins\" - Publisheb by Nintendo, Action and Fighting in Released 2020 was A Prequel to Smash Bros. Specials Trilogy\n\nSection::::In popular culture.:Sports.\n", "Section::::Advertising.\n\nThursday nights are coveted by advertisers due to the large proportion of young, affluent viewers that watch television on that night of the week. Of particular interest, movie advertisers promote their upcoming releases to this target demographic on Thursday night, in hopes of influencing what movies they see on the following Friday, the traditional opening night for most films outside of holiday periods and certain major film releases outside said periods.\n", "NFL executives have called for a three-day weekend in order to allow fans to celebrate the event, and there is thought to be a loss of productivity in the American work force on Monday after the event. The television network carrying the game (either CBS, Fox, or NBC) will usually devote the entire day's programming schedule to the game, with extended pregame shows, NFL Films retrospectives of the previous season, and special versions of the Sunday morning talk shows in the morning and afternoon hours leading into the game. Competing networks, due to the severe loss of viewers to the Super Bowl festivities, generally resort to low-cost counterprogramming measures like the \"Puppy Bowl.\"\n", "Branding the quality Thursday night lineup began as early as the 1982 fall season, which promoted \"Fame\", \"Cheers\", \"Taxi\" and \"Hill Street Blues\" as \"America's Best Night of Television on Television.\"\n", "In North America, not many new programs air on Saturday nights, with the focus more on movies, reruns and sports. This is largely due to the increasing status of Saturday prime time as a \"death slot\", which led most American broadcast networks to abandon first-run scripted fare on that night by the mid-2000s. In Canada, CBC Television has historically aired Saturday night NHL hockey nationally under the title \"Hockey Night in Canada\", dating back to the early days of radio. Other Canadian networks use the Saturday night slot to meet Canadian content quotas (a practice colloquially known as the \"beaver hour\"). The U.S.-based Fox network established a permanent sports block on Saturday night in 2012, carrying a range of sports including Pac-12 Conference college football, Major League Baseball, NASCAR and the Ultimate Fighting Championship on a periodic basis with reruns airing when sports events are not scheduled (this block displaced Fox's long-running reality series \"COPS\" from its time slot of over two decades); ABC carries Saturday Night College Football during the fall, then switches to a mix of NBA basketball, movies, news magazines and prime time reruns for the rest of the year.\n", "BULLET::::- CBS, which holds the rights to most Sunday afternoon AFC road games, protects its acclaimed newsmagazine \"60 Minutes\" by delaying its entire prime time broadcast programming schedule if a game overruns, resulting in the show scheduled for the 10p.m. slot being pushed well past its original start time and occasionally being bumped. After a series of failures in the time slot, beginning in 2010 CBS attempted to stabilize it by moving an established series (usually one co-owned CBS Television Distribution already offers to stations in off-network syndication) there, starting with \"\" which moved from its original Monday night slot to Sunday nights. \"CSI: Miami\" was nonetheless canceled after two seasons in its Sunday time slot, and as of 2019, the last show of the evening, \"Madam Secretary\" is pre-empted occasionally if a game runs long to allow local newscasts to air as close to 11p.m. Eastern as possible. For the 2019-20 season, CBS will fill the 10p.m. slot with the final seasons of \"Madam Secretary\" in the fall and \"Criminal Minds\" in the spring.\n", "More recently, the CBS fantasy series \"Ghost Whisperer\" enjoyed a successful five-season run on Friday nights, as did the light crime thriller \"Numb3rs\", which ran for six, and \"The Unit\", which ran for four. Currently airing shows \"Hawaii Five-0\" and \"Blue Bloods\" are also faring well, though they admittedly appeal to older audiences who are more likely to stay home on Friday nights (CBS in and of itself typically targets a slightly older key demographic than its competitors). From 2014 to 2016, the long-running reality TV series \"The Amazing Race\" moved from Sunday to Friday nights. \"The Amazing Race\" moved out of its Friday schedule for the 29th season and now aired on Thursdays, .\n", "Between 1976 and 1981, the \"Sunday Night Movie\" was replaced by an umbrella program, \"The Big Event\". Although many \"Big Events\" were film premieres, made for TV movies and installments of miniseries, some were specials and sports events.\n\nSimilar to \"The NBC Monday Movie\".\n\nSection::::List of films.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rage of Angels\"; 22.3 rating (Nielsen Media Research)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Merlin\"; 21.7 rating\n\nBULLET::::- \"Kindergarten Cop\"; 21.4 rating\n\nBULLET::::- \"Schindler's List\"; 20.9\n\nBULLET::::- \"Noah's Ark\" (Part 1 of 2); 20.9\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Executioner's Song\" (Part 1 of 2); 20.7\n\nBULLET::::- \"Asteroid (film)\" (Part 1 of 2); 19.9 rating; 34.5 million viewers\n", "The NFL Network's coverage was not the first time that NFL games were covered on Thursday or Saturday. ABC televised occasional Thursday night games from 1978-1986 as part of its Monday Night Football package. Prior to the new contract, ESPN carried a handful of sporadic Thursday night games (usually those displaced from Sunday night) and the broadcast networks used to air several national games on Saturday afternoons in mid-to-late December after the college football regular season ended. Incidentally, the only reason the league is even allowed to televise football games on Saturday night stems from a legal loophole: the league's antitrust exemption, the Sports Broadcasting Act of 1961, was written when the NFL regular season ended in mid-December, and as such, it contains specific language that prohibits televising NFL games in most markets on Friday nights and all day on Saturdays between the second week of September and the second week of December, to protect high school and college football. Since most high school and college seasons have ended by mid-December, other than bowl games, there has been little desire to close this loophole, even though the regular season has expanded well beyond mid-December since the law's passage.\n", "BULLET::::- ABC, which has not carried regular season NFL games since the move of \"Monday Night Football\" to sister network ESPN in 2006, has for most of its history since the 1990s carried \"America's Funniest Home Videos\", a relatively low-cost and low-risk program popular for family viewing, in the early time slot. More recently, ABC has had somewhat greater success later in the evening with scripted dramas (e.g. \"The Practice\" and \"Brothers & Sisters\"). The NFL's preference for a marquee Sunday night game as opposed to Mondays, which became difficult to envision due to the success of such aforementioned scripted dramas and the then-recently launched \"Dancing with the Stars\", played a factor in \"Monday Night Football\" moving to ESPN.\n", "It was not until after Aubrey's departure from CBS in early 1965 that Paley finally conceded on the issue and cleared the way for the network to embark on its own prime-time weekly movie broadcast. After completing negotiations with various studios that year, the network acquired exclusive rights to televise a total of 90 titles from Columbia Pictures, United Artists, Paramount, and Warner Brothers—news of which resulted in rumors that the network would actually slate films for two prime-time nights rather than just one. This scheduling addition, however, would not be made until a season later; but reports of further meetings between CBS and Columbia over the acquisition of 20 more titles signaled that the network was now a serious movie-night contender. The \"Thursday Night Movie\" thus began on September 16, 1965, with the TV debut of the original \"The Manchurian Candidate\" (1962), starring Frank Sinatra and Laurence Harvey.\n", "During the summer of 1975, all three networks decided to cut one movie night per week from their fall prime-time schedules. For CBS, it was a choice of keeping either a Thursday-night or a Friday-night anthology. The network chose to retain Thursday. As CBS program director Fred Silverman explained, \"There aren't that many good pictures to begin with...We'd rather take those 2 hours [on Friday nights] and do original television programming. Because finally that's what television is all about: Creating new material for the viewer at home.\" Apparently, Mr. Silverman's idea of \"creating new material\" was the programming of more episodes for two old crime serials, \"Hawaii Five-O\" and \"Barnaby Jones\"—because beginning in September, that was what Friday night viewers were offered. But in cutting back the airing of theatrical films to its original movie-night, CBS may have provided some consolation for film buffs. There were fewer reruns of old product and less pre-emptions for news and variety specials. In that respect, the Fall 1975 season of \"The Thursday Night Movie\" would resemble the format of its maiden Fall 1965 schedule—one where viewers could feel reasonably confident that Thursday's 9:00-11:00 pm (ET) time slot would be reserved only for movies.\n", "Until 2014, teams that played on Thanksgiving in a given year typically did not appear on the NFL Network package that season, with the exception of , when the Cowboys played the Green Bay Packers on week after their traditional Thanksgiving game. The Cowboys and Detroit Lions were ineligible for appearing on the NFL Network, due to hosting Thanksgiving games every year. Each year since 2014, the Thursday Night game the week after Thanksgiving has featured two teams that played on Thanksgiving, effectively giving both teams a full week of practice rather than the short week that most teams have for a Thursday Night game.\n", "Despite relatively high, if declining, TV ratings, ABC decided to end its relationship with the NFL after losing significant money on \"Monday Night Football\". In addition to the fees, part of this decision may have been the result of a resurgent ABC prime time entertainment schedule during the 2004–05 season, particularly on Sunday evening with \"Desperate Housewives\"; thus ABC would be unable to satisfy the league's reported preference for a Sunday night game on broadcast television as opposed to Monday.\n", "BULLET::::- Opposite popular annual programming specials: Programs such as the Academy Awards (on ABC since 1976), the Super Bowl, and the Olympic Games; as well as seasonal airings of popular classic films such as \"The Wizard of Oz\", have been known to draw so many viewers that almost all efforts to counterprogram against them have failed. As such, broadcasters have traditionally countered these events with either reruns or movies. The Super Bowl has historically attracted more unusual fare (such as Animal Planet's \"Puppy Bowl\", a football-themed special featuring puppies at play), with most aiming to counter the halftime show to emulate Fox's success with its live \"In Living Color\" special in 1992. However, as all four major commercial networks now have some tie to the National Football League's television deals (current through Super Bowl LVII in 2023, with all but ABC alternating to air the game), major networks have aired little to no new original programming on the night of the Super Bowl under an unsaid gentleman's agreement. This agreement also played a factor in the recent decision of CBS and NBC to swap broadcast rights for Super Bowl LV in 2021 and Super Bowl LVI in 2022; the latter was swapped from CBS to NBC in order to eliminate a conflict with NBC's concurrent coverage of the 2022 Winter Olympics in Beijing.\n", "Section::::Reception and legacy.\n", "The problem of having a national spotlight game which during the season's most critical weeks late in the year probably would not show the most important game of the week was long known by the league and network. As a result of this, the NFL wished to move the \"Game of the Week\" idea to Sunday nights as to make flex scheduling possible. This was a move which would ultimately mean the end of \"Monday Night Football\" on ABC (cable games are protected from the NFL's flexible scheduling rule adopted for the 2006–07 season; the new rule applies only to CBS, Fox, and NBC's Sunday night games). The league currently has no interest in expanding flexible scheduling to include \"Monday Night Football\", citing the logistical issues of moving games back and forth between Sundays and Mondays.\n", "BULLET::::- Saturday night was briefly returned to the other networks as a \"flex night\" to accommodate holidays and other scheduling conflicts; ESPN used a Saturday game (Falcons at Lions) on December 22, 2012, to avoid playing a game on Christmas Eve as it was forced to do in 2007. It was during that Falcons-Lions game that Detroit's Calvin Johnson set an NFL record for most receiving yards in a season (he finished the season with 1,964 receiving yards). NFL Network later reclaimed Saturday nights as their own in 2017; by 2018, the league was again forced to schedule a game on Christmas Eve night because of this.\n", "Airing movies on Monday nights was far more common during the time in which ABC held rights to \"Monday Night Football\", which occupied four months of ABC's prime time schedule and required any scripted series on Monday night to be a midseason replacement. ABC transferred its \"Monday Night Football\" rights to ESPN in 2006, clearing the Monday night time slot for regular scripted programming. (ABC now has a similar strategy with the \"ABC Saturday Night Movie\", which airs after the end of the \"Saturday Night Football\" college package.)\n", "In 2014, the NFL returned to Saturdays with a Week 16 doubleheader, with the Saturday afternoon game airing on the NFL Network and a Saturday night game airing on CBS. CBS Sports produced coverage for both games. In 2015, this schedule was modified again to one Saturday night game during both Week 15 and Week 16, these games were cable-only and produced by CBS. In 2016, Christmas fell on a Sunday, so the regional slate of week 16 games will air on Saturday afternoon, with a national game also airing that night, along with a national week 15 Saturday game the previous week, with CBS and Fox producing the regional games and NBC producing the national games for cable.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-03515	Why is Columbus Ohio shaped the way it is?	That's not terribly unusual for any large city. Typically the largest city in an area started out just one of many smaller cities. It grows faster than the either, and either annexes its neighbors or if they don't want to be annexed, grows around them.	[ "Section::::Transportation.:Rail.\n", "Section::::Transportation.:Airports.\n", "BULLET::::- United States Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776\n\nBULLET::::- Treaty of Paris, September 3, 1783\n\nBULLET::::- Unorganized territory of the United States, 1783–1787\n\nBULLET::::- Northwest Indian War, 1785–1795\n\nBULLET::::- Battle of Fallen Timbers, 1794\n\nBULLET::::- Treaty of Greenville, 1795\n\nBULLET::::- Territory Northwest of the River Ohio, 1787–1803\n\nBULLET::::- The \"first forty-eight\" found Marietta as the first permanent settlement of the new United States in the Northwest Territory, April 7, 1788\n\nBULLET::::- Connecticut Western Reserve, 1776–1800\n\nBULLET::::- State of Ohio becomes 17th state admitted to the United States of America on March 1, 1803\n", "Section::::Neighborhoods.:Linworth.\n", "Cities along the Ohio are also among the oldest cities in their respective states and among the oldest cities in the United States west of the Appalachian Mountains (by date of founding): Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 1758; Wheeling, West Virginia, 1769; Huntington, West Virginia, 1775; Louisville, Kentucky, 1779; Clarksville, Indiana, 1783; Maysville, Kentucky, 1784; Martin's Ferry, Ohio, 1785; Marietta, Ohio, 1788; Cincinnati, Ohio, 1789; Manchester, Ohio, 1790; and Beaver, Pennsylvania, 1792.\n", "Section::::Structures and Landmarks.\n", "Section::::Transportation.:Bridges.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Ohio Country.\n\nThe area including modern-day Columbus once comprised the Ohio Country, under the nominal control of the French colonial empire through the Viceroyalty of New France from 1663 until 1763. In the 18th century, European traders flocked to the area, attracted by the fur trade.\n\nThe area found itself frequently caught between warring factions, including American Indian and European interests. In the 1740s, Pennsylvania traders overran the territory until the French forcibly evicted them.\n", "Section::::Neighborhoods.:Northcrest.\n", "Section::::Culture.:Fairs and festivals.\n", "Section::::Neighborhoods.:Perry Township.\n", "Columbus is the oldest town in Kentucky's Jackson Purchase. It was first settled on the Mississippi floodplain in 1804 and known as \"Iron Banks\" after the site's French name \"les rivages de fer\". The long-held local rumor that President Thomas Jefferson planned to remove the American capital to the site has absolutely no basis in fact.\n", "Geography of Columbus, Ohio\n\nThe city of Columbus is located in central Ohio at the confluence of the Scioto and Olentangy rivers. The region is dominated by a humid continental climate, characterized by hot, muggy summers and cold, dry winters.\n\nSection::::Topography.\n", "Section::::Neighborhoods.:Olentangy Commons.\n", "Significant moderating variables for the overall climate are:\n\nBULLET::::- South and central: Ohio River, Licking River, relatively large hills and valleys, and a combined urban heat island effect due to the close proximity of the Cincinnati-Northern Kentucky cities of Covington, Newport, and Downtown Cincinnati\n\nBULLET::::- Suburban: large parking lots that take up much land in Mason, West Chester, and Florence create a heat island effect.\n\nBULLET::::- North: Great Miami River, the area is situated on a glaciated flat plateau, the Miami Valley, and some urban heat island effect in the immediate area of downtown Dayton and Hamilton.\n", "Timeline of Columbus, Ohio\n\nThe following is a of the history of the city of Columbus, Ohio, USA\n\nSection::::19th century.\n\nBULLET::::- 1812\n\nBULLET::::- Columbus founded.\n\nBULLET::::- Population: 300.\n\nBULLET::::- 1816\n\nBULLET::::- Columbus becomes the capitol of Ohio.\n\nBULLET::::- Jarvis W. Pike elected mayor.\n\nBULLET::::- 1817 - Ohio State Library headquartered in Columbus.\n\nBULLET::::- 1832 - Ohio School for the Deaf established.\n\nBULLET::::- 1831 - Columbus connected to Ohio and Erie Canal.\n\nBULLET::::- 1833 - National Road in operation.\n\nBULLET::::- 1834\n\nBULLET::::- Columbus chartered as a city.\n\nBULLET::::- John Brooks becomes mayor.\n\nBULLET::::- Ohio Penitentiary begins operating.\n", "Section::::History.:19th Century.\n", "According to the Franklinton Area Commission:\n\nBULLET::::- Though Franklinton is the last downtown neighborhood to be redeveloped, it is actually the birthplace of Columbus, settled 15 years before the city itself\n\nBULLET::::- Since the completion of the flood wall, the community redevelopment has included more than 400 residential projects, a new firehouse, two new schools, new residential dorms at the former location of Mount Carmel West (which will soon move to Grove City) and the exploration of countless commercial projects\n\nBULLET::::- This neighborhood has easy and rapid access to all of Columbus' major highways\n\nSection::::In popular culture.\n", "Section::::Transportation.:Bicycle.\n\nCycling as transportation is steadily increasing in Columbus with its relatively flat terrain, intact urban neighborhoods, large student population, and off-road bike paths. The city has put forth the 2012 Bicentennial Bikeways Plan as well as a move toward a Complete Streets policy. Grassroots efforts such as Bike To Work Week, Consider Biking, Yay Bikes, Third Hand Bicycle Co-op, Franklinton Cycleworks, and \"Cranksters\", a local radio program focused on urban cycling, have contributed to cycling as transportation.\n", "After the American Revolution, the Virginia Military District became part of Ohio Country as a territory of Virginia. Colonists from the East Coast moved in, but rather than finding an empty frontier, they encountered people of the Miami, Delaware, Wyandot, Shawnee, and Mingo nations, as well as European traders. The tribes resisted expansion by the fledgling United States, leading to years of bitter conflict. The decisive Battle of Fallen Timbers resulted in the Treaty of Greenville, which finally opened the way for new settlements. By 1797, a young surveyor from Virginia named Lucas Sullivant had founded a permanent settlement on the west bank of the forks of the Scioto River and Olentangy River. An admirer of Benjamin Franklin, Sullivant chose to name his frontier village \"Franklinton\". The location was desirable for its proximity to navigable rivers—but Sullivant was initially foiled when, in 1798, a large flood wiped out the new settlement. He persevered, and the village was rebuilt.\n", "Northside was a small settlement in Indian territory until the introduction of the Miami and Erie Canal in the 1820s caused the population to grow. The settlement became known as \"Cumminsville\" after David Cummins, one of site's original settlers. He ran a tannery, served as a judge in Indiana, and may have been the first \"born of Cincinnati\".\n", "Cincinnati also is known as the \"City of Seven Hills\". The seven hills are fully described in the June, 1853 edition of the \"West American Review\", \"Article III--Cincinnati: Its Relations to the West and South\". The hills form a crescent from the east bank of the Ohio River to the west bank: Mount Adams, Walnut Hills, Mount Auburn, Vine Street Hill, College Hill, Fairmount, and Mount Harrison.\n", "Section::::Culture.\n\nSection::::Culture.:Museums.\n", "Section::::Geography.:Fort Hayes.\n", "Section::::History.:20th century to the present.\n\n\"The Columbus Experiment\" was an environmental project in 1908, which involved construction of the first water plant in the world to apply filtration and softening, designed and invented by two brothers, Clarence and Charles Hoover. Those working to construct the project included Jeremiah O'Shaughnessy, name-bearer of the Columbus metropolitan area's O'Shaughnessy Dam. This invention helped drastically reduce typhoid deaths. The essential design is still used today.\n" ]	[ "Columbus, Ohio is shaped strangely." ]	[ "Large cities grow by annexing their neighbors or growing around them." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Columbus, Ohio is shaped strangely." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Large cities grow by annexing their neighbors or growing around them." ]
2018-13617	Why is it so hard to fold/crease the type of foil that potato chip bags come in, compared to normal paper or aluminum foil?	Potato chip bags are usually a metalized piece of plastic which is a very thin film of aluminum deposited on a thin plastic film. This means it will have more of the characteristics of plastic for folding. Normal aluminum foil is a generally mostly aluminum, and no plastic. Aluminum as a sheet has characteristics which allow sharp creases like paper.	[ "Wrapping the potato in aluminium foil before cooking in a standard oven will help to retain moisture, while leaving it unwrapped will result in a crisp skin. When cooking over an open fire or in the coals of a barbecue, it may require wrapping in foil to prevent burning of the skin. A potato buried directly in coals of a fire cooks very nicely, with a mostly burned and inedible skin. A baked potato is fully cooked when its internal temperature reaches .\n", "Much of the economic impact of zebra chip stems not from edibility issues, but cosmetic ones; while not deemed hazardous to one's health, infected potatoes are visually unappealing and will not be purchased by processing companies. From this refusal stems most of the other costs, including lost wages from processing fewer potatoes.\n\nSection::::Economic impact.:New Zealand.\n", "Another possible health concern related to potato chips is acrylamide, which is produced when potatoes are fried or baked at high temperatures. Studies suggest that rodents exposed to high levels of acrylamide develop cancer; however, it is currently unclear whether a similar risk exists in humans. Many potato chip manufacturers attempt to remove burned and thus potentially acrylamide-rich chips before the packaging process. Large scanners are used to eliminate chips worst affected by heat.\n\nSection::::Regional varieties.\n\nSection::::Regional varieties.:Canada.\n", "The song opens with Yankovic lamenting that he cannot finish food at restaurants, opting for a doggy bag from the waiter to take it home. The song's first verse and chorus find the narrator expanding upon the usage of aluminum foil for food storage purposes: \"That kind of wrap is just the best / to keep your sandwich nice and fresh.\" Yankovic deems it better than what he feels as inferior food storage options, among them \"baggies, glass jars, [and] Tupperware containers.\"\n", "A \"platen\" is sometimes used inside the bag for the piece being glued to lie on. The platen has a series of small slots cut into it, to allow the air under it to be evacuated. The platen must have rounded edges and corners to prevent the vacuum from tearing the bag.\n", "Several methods of making packages easy to open have long been available. These include perforations, \"tear tapes\" and break-open components. Some easy-open features can add extra cost to packaging.\n\nSection::::Solutions.:Opening.\n\nHousehold scissors or a utility knife are sometimes used to open difficult packaging. Tin snips are effective for tough plastics; the higher mechanical advantage of compound metal snips make it possible to cut such packages open even using little hand strength. Trauma shears have also shown to be effective at opening packaging of this type.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Computer rage\n\nBULLET::::- Rage (emotion)\n\nBULLET::::- Road rage\n\nBULLET::::- Tamper resistance\n", "In 2006, \"Consumer Reports\" magazine recognized the wrap rage phenomenon when it created the Oyster Awards for the products with the hardest-to-open packaging. A story in the \"Pittsburgh Post-Gazette\" about wrap rage was featured on \"The Colbert Report\" when host Stephen Colbert tried to use a knife to remove a new calculator from its plastic packaging, to no avail.\n", "The lamination process was costly and labor-intensive, and required extensive handling of the individual sheets. These sheets were more brittle than potato chips, hence easily damaged; breaking off even a small corner rendered the sheet as unusable waste. Improved manufacturing processes had yet to be devised. After a meeting of the parent corporation's Research Coordinating Committee, Cyanamid's Director of Corporate Development and Planning, Mr. Kent L. Aldershof, suggested a new approach to Formica's Research Director, Dr. Arthur Giddings.\n", "Some lubrication is needed during the rolling stages; otherwise, the foil surface can become marked with a herringbone pattern. These lubricants are sprayed on the foil surface before passing through the mill rolls. Kerosene based lubricants are commonly used, although oils approved for food contact must be used for foil intended for food packaging.\n", "An additional variant of potato chips exists in the form of \"potato sticks\", also called \"shoestring potatoes\". These are made as extremely thin (2 to 3 mm) versions of the popular French fry but are fried in the manner of regular salted potato chips. A hickory-smoke-flavored version is popular in Canada, going by the vending machine name \"Hickory Sticks\". Potato sticks are typically packaged in rigid containers, although some manufacturers use flexible pouches, similar to potato chip bags. Potato sticks were originally packed in hermetically sealed steel cans. In the 1960s, manufacturers switched to the less expensive composite canister (similar to the Pringles container). Reckitt Benckiser was a market leader in this category under the Durkee Potato Stix and French's Potato Sticks names but exited the business in 2008. In 2014, French's reentered the market.\n", "Many packs of cards produced by manufacturers have unintentional, almost indistinguishable edge irregularities. Typically the backs of every card in such a pack are identical, but the two long edges of each card are distinguishable from one another: the back pattern of one card is not symmetrical to another that has been rotated 180° (half a full turn).\n", "In the 1920s, Laura Scudder, an entrepreneur in Monterey Park, California, started having her workers take home sheets of wax paper to iron into the form of bags, which were filled with chips at her factory the next day. This pioneering method reduced crumbling and kept the chips fresh and crisp longer. This innovation, along with the invention of cellophane, allowed potato chips to become a mass-market product. Today, chips are packaged in plastic bags, with nitrogen gas blown in prior to sealing to lengthen shelf life, and provide protection against crushing.\n\nSection::::Production.:Kettle cooked.\n", "Some small producers continued to use a batch process, notably in Maui. In 1980, inspired by the Maui Chip, an entrepreneur started Cape Cod Potato Chips to produce thicker, batch-cooked \"Hawaiian style\" potato chips, which came to be known as kettle-style (US) or hand-cooked (UK) chips and became a premium, \"gourmet\" item. Kettle chips are thicker and the surface starch is not rinsed off, resulting in a style of chip called \"hard bite\".\n\nSection::::Nomenclature.\n", "Steve Taylor & The Perfect Foil\n", "Aluminium foils thicker than are impermeable to oxygen and water. Foils thinner than this become slightly permeable due to minute pinholes caused by the production process.\n", "In the early days, potato chips were distributed in bulk from barrels or glass display cases, or tins, which left chips at the bottom stale and crumbled. Laura Scudder started paying her workers to take home sheets of wax paper and iron them into the form of bags, which were filled with chips at her factory the next day. This innovation kept the chips fresh and crisp longer and, along with the invention of cellophane, allowed potato chips to become a mass market product. Other potato chip makers soon began to package their chips in bags.\n", "During the rolling process the rollers bow slightly, which results in the sheets being thinner on the edges. The tolerances in the table and attachments reflect current manufacturing practices and commercial standards and are not representative of the Manufacturer's Standard Gauge, which has no inherent tolerances.\n\nSection::::Forming processes.\n\nSection::::Forming processes.:Bending.\n\nThe equation for estimating the maximum bending force is,\n\nformula_1,\n", "BULLET::::- Potato starch is used in the food industry as a thickener and binder for soups and sauces, in the textile industry as an adhesive, and for the manufacturing of papers and boards.\n\nBULLET::::- Maine companies are exploring the possibilities of using waste potatoes to obtain polylactic acid for use in plastic products; other research projects seek ways to use the starch as a base for biodegradable packaging.\n", "The first flavored chips in the United States, barbecue flavor, were being manufactured and sold by 1954. In 1958, Herr's was the first company to introduce barbecue-flavored potato chips in Pennsylvania.\n\nSection::::Production.:Potato chip bag.\n\nChips sold in markets were usually sold in tins or scooped out of storefront glass bins and delivered by horse and wagon. Early potato chip bags were wax paper with the ends ironed or stapled together. At first, potato chips were packaged in barrels or tins, which left chips at the bottom stale and crumbled.\n", "BULLET::::- Chip-on-board (COB), a bare silicon chip, that is usually an integrated circuit, is supplied without a package (usually a lead frame overmolded with epoxy) and is attached, often with epoxy, directly to a circuit board. The chip is then wire bonded and protected from mechanical damage and contamination by an epoxy \"glob-top\".\n\nBULLET::::- Chip-on-flex (COF), a variation of COB, where a chip is mounted directly to a flex circuit. Tape-automated bonding process is also a chip-on-flex process as well.\n", "Robotic palletizers were introduced in the early 1980s and have an end of arm tool (end effector) to grab the product from a conveyor or layer table and position it onto a pallet. Both conventional and robotic palletizers can receive product at a high elevation (typically between 84” - 2.13m to 124” - 3.15m) or low “floor level” elevation (typically at 30” - 0.76m to 36” - 0.91m). The end of arm tooling has evolved in recent years to accommodate a variation of pack pattern and package types.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Unit load\n\nBULLET::::- Pallet inverter\n\nBULLET::::- Stretch wrap\n", "The \"Flexifoil\" kite, still sold today as a 'Stacker' has a solid carbon spar in its leading edge to maintain its shape as it flies.\n", "Brownie Brittle\n\nBrownie Brittle is a food product produced by Sheila G. Brands.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Uses.:Cooking.\n\nAluminium foil is also used for barbecuing delicate foods, such as mushrooms and vegetables. Using this method, sometimes called a hobo pack, food is wrapped in foil, then placed on the grill, preventing loss of moisture that may result in a less appealing texture.\n", "Unsalted chips are available, e.g. the longstanding British brand Salt 'n' Shake, whose chips are not seasoned, but instead include a small salt sachet in the bag for seasoning to taste. Many other popular brands in the United States, such as Frito-Lay, also offer such a product.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00163	At what point does a knife become a sword?	The transitions are a bit muddy and have shifted through history but a dagger is a double edged knife, a dirk is a dagger that is 6"-12" and a short sword is 1'-2' in length. Then you have numerous kinds of longer swords. But the answer to your question is 1'.	[ "Section::::Classification by blade type.:Double-edge and straight swords.:Long knife and short sword.\n\nKnives such as the seax and other blades of similar length – between 1 and 2 feet (~ 30 cm and 60 cm) – are sometimes construed as \"swords\". This is especially the case for weapons from antiquity, made before the development of high quality steel that is necessary for longer swords, in particular:\n\nBULLET::::- Iron Age swords:\n\nBULLET::::- Seax, a tool and weapon, common in Northern Europe.\n\nBULLET::::- Gladius, an early ancient Roman blade\n\nBULLET::::- Xiphos, a double-edged, single-hand blade used by the ancient Greeks;\n\nBULLET::::- Certain Renaissance era sidearms:\n", "Classification of swords\n\nThe English language terminology used in the classification of swords is imprecise and has varied widely over time. There is no historical dictionary for the universal names, classification or terminology of swords; a sword was simply called \"sword\" in whatever language the swordsmen spoke.\n", "The sword developed from the knife or dagger. A knife is unlike a dagger in that a knife has only one cutting surface, while a dagger has two cutting surfaces. Construction of longer blades became possible during the 3rd millennium BC in the Middle East, first in arsenic copper, then in tin-bronze.\n", "Section::::Classification by blade type.:Double-edge and straight swords.:Longsword.\n\nThese days, the term longsword most frequently refers to a late Medieval and Renaissance weapon designed for use with two hands.\n\nThe German \"langes Schwert\" (\"long sword\") in 15th-century manuals did not necessarily denote a type of weapon, but the technique of fencing with both hands at the hilt.\n", "Sword\n\nA sword is a bladed weapon intended for slashing or thrusting that is longer than a knife or dagger, consisting of a long blade attached to a hilt. The precise definition of the term varies with the historical epoch or the geographic region under consideration. The blade can be straight or curved. Thrusting swords have a pointed tip on the blade, and tend to be straighter; slashing swords have a sharpened cutting edge on one or both sides of the blade, and are more likely to be curved. Many swords are designed for both thrusting and slashing.\n", "Historically, the sword developed in the Bronze Age, evolving from the dagger; the earliest specimens date to about 1600 BC. The later Iron Age sword remained fairly short and without a crossguard. The spatha, as it developed in the Late Roman army, became the predecessor of the European sword of the Middle Ages, at first adopted as the Migration Period sword, and only in the High Middle Ages, developed into the classical arming sword with crossguard. The word \"sword\" continues the Old English, \"sweord\".\n", "Tang fitted into a handle, can often have hand guards\n\nSection::::Hilted blades/fitted into handles.:knives.\n\n#top\n\nSection::::Hilted blades/fitted into handles.:daggers.\n\n#top\n\nSection::::Hilted blades/fitted into handles.:Short swords/long knives.\n\nThe iffy category between dagger and knife and sword. Most chopping backswords are here as well as daggers over 12\"\n\nSection::::Hilted blades/fitted into handles.:Short swords/long knives.:Stabbers.\n\n#top\n\nSection::::Hilted blades/fitted into handles.:Short swords/long knives.:Chopping sword.\n\n#top\n\nSection::::Hilted blades/fitted into handles.:Swords-one handed.\n\nBULLET::::- Korean sword – overview—Types & history\n\nBULLET::::- Backsword – overview—Sabre type\n\nBULLET::::- Bronze Age swords – overview—Sword beats club\n\nBULLET::::- Iron Age swords – overview—they rust\n\nBULLET::::- Sverd – overview—Viking type\n\nBULLET::::- Migration Period sword—Viking sword stub\n", "Some of these terms originate contemporaneously with the weapons which they describe. Others are modern or early modern terms used by antiquarians, curators, and modern-day sword enthusiasts for historical swords.\n", "Historical terms without a universal consensus of definition (i.e. \"arming sword\", \"broadsword\", \"long sword\", etc.) were used to label weapons of similar appearance but of different historical periods, regional cultures and fabrication technology. These terms were often described in relation to other unrelated weapons, without regard to their intended use and fighting style. In modern history, many of these terms have been given specific, often arbitrary meanings that are unrelated to any of their historical meanings.\n\nSection::::Terminology.\n", "Section::::Classification by blade type.:Single-edge and curved swords.:Falchion and cutlass.\n\nThe falchion (French \"braquemart\", Spanish \"bracamarte\") proper is a wide straight-bladed but curved edged hanger or long knife. The term falchion may also refer to the early cutlass.\n\nThe cutlass or curtal-axe also known as a falchion (French \"badelaire, braquemart, coutelas, malchus\" Italian \"coltellaccio, storta\", German \"messer, dussack, malchus\") is a broad-bladed curved hanger or long knife. In later usage, the cutlass referred to the short naval boarding sabre.\n\nSection::::Classification by blade type.:Single-edge and curved swords.:Sabre.\n", "Terminology was further complicated by terms introduced or misinterpreted in the 19th century by antiquarians and in 20th century pop culture, and by the addition of new terms such as \"great sword\", \"\"Zweihänder\"\" (instead of \"Beidhänder\"), and \"cut-and-thrust sword\". Historical European Martial Arts associations have turned the term \"spada da lato\" into \"side-sword\". Furthermore, there is a deprecation of the term \"broadsword\" by these associations. All these newly introduced or redefined terms add to the confusion of the matter.\n", "Section::::Classification by blade type.:Edgeless and thrusting swords.:Rapier.\n\nThe term \"rapier\" appeared in the English lexicon via the French \"épée rapière\" which either compared the weapon to a rasp or file; it may be a corruption of \"rasping sword\" which referred to the sound the blade makes when it comes into contact with another blade. There is no historical Italian equivalent to the English word \"rapier\".\n\nSection::::Classification by blade type.:Edgeless and thrusting swords.:Panzerstecher and koncerz.\n", "Edged weapons and blades are associated with the premodern age but continue to be used in modern armies. Combat knives, machetes and bayonets are used for close combat or stealth operations and are issued as a secondary or sidearm. Modern bayonets are often intended to be used in a dual role as a combat knife. Improvised and dedicated edged weapons were extensively used in trench warfare of the First World War. Entrenching tools and shovels were modified to take an edge and used as weapons.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of premodern combat weapons\n\nBULLET::::- Lists of swords\n", "In most Asian countries, a sword (jian 劍, geom (검), ken/tsurugi (剣), pedang) is a double-edged straight-bladed weapon, while a knife or saber (dāo 刀, do (도), to/katana (刀), pisau, golok) refers to a single-edged object.\n\nSection::::Typology.:Single and double-edged.:Kirpan.\n\nIn Sikh history, the sword is held in very high esteem. A single-edged sword is called a kirpan, and its double-edged counterpart a khanda or tega.\n\nSection::::Typology.:Single and double-edged.:Churika.\n\nThe South Indian \"churika\" is a handheld double-edged sword traditionally used in the Malabar region of Kerala. It is also worshipped as the weapon of Vettakkorumakan, the hunter god in Hinduism.\n", "Some variations included\n\nBULLET::::- the flame blade (undulated blade, for both psychological effect and some tactical advantage of using a non-standard blade: vibrations and easier parry)\n\nBULLET::::- the colichemarde, found in smallsword\n\nSection::::Marks and decoration.\n\nBlades are sometimes marked or inscribed, for decorative purposes, or with the mark of either the maker or the owner. Blade decorations are often realized in inlay in some precious metal (gold or silver).\n", "The use of a sword is known as swordsmanship or, in a modern context, as fencing. In the Early Modern period, western sword design diverged into roughly two forms, the thrusting swords and the sabers.\n", "BULLET::::- Baselard, a late medieval heavy dagger;\n\nBULLET::::- Cinquedea, a civilian long dagger;\n\nBULLET::::- Dirk, the Scottish long dagger (\"biodag\");\n\nBULLET::::- Hanger or wood-knife, a type of hunting sword or infantry sabre;\n\nBULLET::::- Certain fascine knives:\n\nBULLET::::- Model 1832 Foot Artillery Sword, a blade of about 25 inches in length designed after the Roman \"gladius\". Also known as a \"coupe-chou\" (literally a cabbage cutter) in France.\n\nOversized two-handers used as parade swords or ceremonial weapons often exceeded the length and weight of practical weapons of war.\n\nSection::::Classification by blade type.:Edgeless and thrusting swords.\n", "Section::::By country.:United Kingdom.:Sword.\n", "Originally the sword was only referred to as \"the Sword of Elendil\" or \"the Broken Sword\"; later the name Branding (from Old English \"brand\" 'sword') was devised for the Sword Reforged. This was replaced by \"Andúril\" after the emergence of \"Narsil\".\n\nSection::::Named items.:Named swords and knives.:Orcrist.\n", "The German ' (\"long sword\") in 15th and 16th-century manuals does not denote a type of weapon, but the technique of fencing with both hands at the hilt, contrasting with ' (\"short sword\") used of fencing with the same weapon, but with one hand gripping the blade (also known as a half-sword).\n", "BULLET::::- In a \"full\" tang (most commonly used in knives and machetes), the tang has about the same width as the blade, and is generally the same shape as the grip. In European or Asian swords sold today, many advertised \"full\" tangs may actually involve a forged rat-tail tang.\n\nSection::::Morphology.\n\nThe sword consists of the blade and the hilt.\n\nThe term \"scabbard\" applies to the cover for the sword blade when not in use.\n\nSection::::Morphology.:Blade.\n\nThere is considerable variation in the detailed design of sword blades. The diagram opposite shows a typical Medieval European sword.\n", "The Elizabethan long sword (cf. George Silver and Joseph Swetnam) is a single-handed \"cut-and-thrust\" sword with a blade similar to the long rapier. \"Let thy (long) Rapier or (long) Sword be foure foote at the least, and thy dagger two foote.\" Historical terms (15th to 16th century) for this type of sword included the Italian \"spada longa (lunga)\" and French \"épée longue\".\n\nThe term longsword has also been used to refer to different kinds of sword depending on historical context:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bidenhänder\" or two-hander, a late Renaissance sword of the 16th century \"Landsknechte\", the longest sword of all;\n", "The terms Baraw and Daga can be used either as \"Solo Baraw\" or \"Solo Daga\" associated with single knife fighting and defense systems, \"Doble Baraw\" or \"Doble Daga\" associated with the double knife fighting systems or even with a combination of long and short weapons e.g. stick and dagger fighting systems \"Olisi Baraw\" or sword and dagger fighting systems \"Espada y Daga\".\n\nBULLET::::- Daga/Cuchillo (Spanish for dagger and knife) or Baraw/ Pisaw: daggers or knives of different shapes and sizes\n", "The edgeless swords category comprises weapons which are related to or labeled as “swords” but do not emphasise \"hacking or slashing techniques\" or have any \"cutting edges\" whatsoever. The majority of these elongated weapons were designed for agility, precision and rapid thrusting blows to exploit gaps in the enemy's defenses; some are capable of piercing iron or steel armour.\n\nSection::::Classification by blade type.:Edgeless and thrusting swords.:Xiphos.\n", "Edged and bladed weapons\n\nBladed and edged weapons are types of melee weapons used throughout history for combat, hunting and in ceremonies. Bladed weapons include swords, knives and, in more recent times, bayonets. Edged weapons are used to hack and slash but, depending on the weapon, to also thrust and stab. Not all swords, knives and bayonets have blades, but points – intended for thrusting rather than slashing. Other dedicated edged weapons include battleaxes and poleaxes.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "There is a distinct difference between a knife and a sword." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "The transition from knife to sword is a bit muddy." ]
2018-08838	Why are most metals other than gold and copper, silver in color?	Well a lot of metals, when hit with photons (particles of light) go through an energy change. The electrons go through an energy change and go from one energy level to another. In order to do this only the strongest photon waves are absorbed, therefore it reflects some minor amount of light that weren't strong enough. Waves of color are absorbed so there is no color reflected, just light. We refer to this colorless reflection as silver. Gold and copper each have their own explanation as to why they are different. Gold also goes through an energy shift, but I stead of going from energy level 2 to level 3, it goes from 1 to 2. When the shift from 2 to 3 happens it absorbs all light and. When the shift from 1 to 2 happens, blue light is absorbed, reflected a goldish light. I looked into this a long time ago so I don't remember specific terms, but it's very common for metals to go through a 2 to 3 energy shift because of how their electrons are placed and how many they have. It is important to not that metal alloys can be found in nature that can have bright red, yellow, and green colors so that may help. Sorry for any formatting issues, I am on mobile. I hope that helped!	[ "\"Roman silver\", a blue-gray tone of silver, is one of the colors on the Resene Color List, a color list widely popular in Australia and New Zealand.\n\nSection::::Variations of silver.:Old silver.\n\nAt right is displayed the color old silver.\n\n\"Old silver\" is a color that was formulated to resemble tarnished silver.\n\nThe first recorded use of \"old silver\" as a color name in English was in 1905.\n\nSection::::Variations of silver.:Sonic silver.\n\nSonic silver is a tone of silver included in Metallic FX crayons, specialty crayons formulated by Crayola in 2001.\n\nSection::::Silver in nature.\n\nBULLET::::- Plants\n", "Silver is a metallic chemical element with the chemical symbol Ag (, from the Indo-European root \"*arg-\" for \"grey\" or \"shining\") and atomic number 47. A soft, white, lustrous transition metal, it has the highest electrical conductivity of any element and the highest thermal conductivity of any metal. The metal occurs naturally in its pure, free form (native silver), as an alloy with gold and other metals, and in minerals such as argentite and chlorargyrite. Most silver is produced as a byproduct of copper, gold, lead, and zinc refining.\n", "All United States 1965-1970 and one half of the 1975-1976 Bicentennial San Francisco proof and mint set Kennedy half dollars are \"clad\" in a silver alloy and contain 40% silver.\n", "The color name \"silver sand\" for this tone of silver has been in use since 2001, when it was promulgated as one of the colors on the Xona.com Color List.\n\nSection::::Variations of silver.:Silver chalice.\n\nAt right is displayed the color silver chalice.\n\nThe color name \"silver chalice\" for this tone of silver has been in use since 2001, when it was promulgated as one of the colors on the Xona.com Color List.\n\nSection::::Variations of silver.:Roman silver.\n\nAt right is displayed the color Roman silver.\n", "Silver is 6% more conductive than copper, but due to cost it is not practical in most cases. However, it is used in specialized equipment, such as satellites, and as a thin plating to mitigate skin effect losses at high frequencies. Famously, of silver on loan from the Treasury were used in the making of the calutron magnets during World War II due to wartime shortages of copper.\n", "Silver has long been valued as a precious metal. Silver metal is used in many bullion coins, sometimes alongside gold: while it is more abundant than gold, it is much less abundant as a native metal. Its purity is typically measured on a per-mille basis; a 94%-pure alloy is described as \"0.940 fine\". As one of the seven metals of antiquity, silver has had an enduring role in most human cultures.\n", "The visual sensation usually associated with the metal silver is its metallic shine. This cannot be reproduced by a simple solid color, because the shiny effect is due to the material's brightness varying with the surface angle to the light source. In addition, there is no mechanism for showing metallic or fluorescent colors on a computer without resorting to rendering software which simulates the action of light on a shiny surface. Consequently, in art and in heraldry one would normally use a metallic paint that glitters like real silver. A matte grey color could also be used to represent silver.\n", "Silver was one of the seven metals of antiquity that were known to prehistoric humans and whose discovery is thus lost to history. In particular, the three metals of group 11, copper, silver, and gold, occur in the elemental form in nature and were probably used as the first primitive forms of money as opposed to simple bartering. However, unlike copper, silver did not lead to the growth of metallurgy on account of its low structural strength, and was more often used ornamentally or as money. Since silver is more reactive than gold, supplies of native silver were much more limited than those of gold. For example, silver was more expensive than gold in Egypt until around the fifteenth century BC: the Egyptians are thought to have separated gold from silver by heating the metals with salt, and then reducing the silver chloride produced to the metal.\n", "Silver forms alloys with most other elements on the periodic table. The elements from groups 1–3, except for hydrogen, lithium, and beryllium, are very miscible with silver in the condensed phase and form intermetallic compounds; those from groups 4–9 are only poorly miscible; the elements in groups 10–14 (except boron and carbon) have very complex Ag–M phase diagrams and form the most commercially important alloys; and the remaining elements on the periodic table have no consistency in their Ag–M phase diagrams. By far the most important such alloys are those with copper: most silver used for coinage and jewellery is in reality a silver–copper alloy, and the eutectic mixture is used in vacuum brazing. The two metals are completely miscible as liquids but not as solids; their importance in industry comes from the fact that their properties tend to be suitable over a wide range of variation in silver and copper concentration, although most useful alloys tend to be richer in silver than the eutectic mixture (71.9% silver and 28.1% copper by weight, and 60.1% silver and 28.1% copper by atom).\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Section::::Compounds.\n\nSection::::Compounds.:Oxides and chalcogenides.\n", "The most popular way to improve a simple neutral gray color, up until now, has been by the use of mica (pearlescent) and poly coatings. The problem with mica is it causes a color shift. To improve on a well-balanced neutral gray, without introducing color shifting, non-interference pigments are used. It was discovered that by adding aluminum-based paint (which is water-based, primarily made out of aluminum with no other colorants), a gray color was created. This paint has been used over the years as a 'silver' substitute, since the aluminum's bright and reflective properties are conducive to applications such as manufacturing mirrors.\n", "Section::::Symbolic role.\n\nSilver plays a certain role in mythology and has found various usage as a metaphor and in folklore. The Greek poet Hesiod's \"Works and Days\" (lines 109–201) lists different ages of man named after metals like gold, silver, bronze and iron to account for successive ages of humanity. Ovid's \"Metamorphoses\" contains another retelling of the story, containing an illustration of silver's metaphorical use of signifying the second-best in a series, better than bronze but worse than gold:\n", "Section::::Applications.:Photography.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nThe first recorded use of \"silver\" as a color name in English was in 1481. In heraldry, the word argent is used, derived from Latin \"argentum\" over Medieval French \"argent\".\n\nSection::::Silver.\n\nDisplayed at right is the web color silver.\n\nSince version 3.2 of HTML \"silver\" is a name for one of the 16 basic-VGA-colors.\n\nBULLET::::- HTML-example: codice_1\n\nBULLET::::- CSS-example: codice_2\n\nSection::::Variations of silver.\n\nSection::::Variations of silver.:Pale silver.\n\nPale silver is the pale tone of silver color called \"silver\" in Crayola crayons.\n\n\"Silver\" has been a Crayola color since 1903.\n", "Nickel silver was originally called “German Silver,” until World War I. It has been called “white brass” but probably should be termed “nickel brass,” because it generally contains 75% copper, 20% nickel, and 5% zinc. Different percentages result in a range of colors, including silvery-white, yellow, slight blue, green or pink. Nickel silver hardware was popular in the US during the Art Deco and Depression Modern periods. Architects and designers preferred nickel silver because it could take and retain appropriate finishes, and it resisted corrosion.\n", "\"Fine silver\", for example 99.9% pure silver, is relatively soft, so silver is usually alloyed with copper to increase its hardness and strength. Sterling silver is prone to tarnishing, and elements other than copper can be used in alloys to reduce tarnishing, as well as casting porosity and firescale. Such elements include germanium, zinc, platinum, silicon, and boron. Recent examples of alloys using these metals include argentium, sterlium, sterilite and silvadium.\n\nSection::::Etymology.\n", "Native silver is a rare element, although it exists as such. It is usually found in nature combined with other metals, or in minerals that contain silver compounds, generally in the form of sulfides such as galena (lead sulfide) or cerussite (lead carbonate). So the primary production of silver requires the smelting and then cupellation of argentiferous lead ores. \n", "BULLET::::- The \"Silver Cord\" is a 1926 play by Sidney Howard about the emotional tie between a mother and a son and the term \"silver cord\" is sometimes used to represent this tie.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Silver Child\" is the first in \"The Silver Sequence\" is a fantasy brook trilogy by Cliff McNish consisting of \"Silver Child\", \"Silver City\" and \"Silver World\".\n\nBULLET::::- The Silver Chair is a book in C.S. Lewis's allegorical fantasy series \"The Chronicles of Narnia\".\n\nBULLET::::- Marriage\n", "The use of silver nitrate and silver halides in photography has rapidly declined with the advent of digital technology. From the peak global demand for photographic silver in 1999 (267,000,000 troy ounces or 8304.6 metric tonnes) the market contracted almost 70% by 2013.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Nanoparticles.\n", "Argent is similarly derived from the Latin \"argentum\", \"silver\". Although sometimes depicted as metallic silver or faint grey, it is more often represented by white, in part because of the tendency for silver paint to oxidize and darken over time, and in part because of the pleasing effect of white against a contrasting colour. Notwithstanding the widespread use of white for argent, some heraldic authorities have suggested the existence of white as a distinct heraldic colour.\n\nSection::::List.:Colours.\n", "BULLET::::- The Chinese name \"Silver River\" (銀河) is used throughout East Asia, including Korea and Japan to denote the Milky Way Galaxy (An alternative name for the Milky Way in ancient China, especially in poems, is \"Heavenly Han River\"(天汉).). In Japanese, \"Silver River\" (銀河 \"ginga\") means galaxies in general and the Milky Way is called the \"Silver River System\" (銀河系 \"gingakei\") or the \"River of Heaven\" (天の川 \"Amanokawa or Amanogawa\").\n\nBULLET::::- Film\n", "Chemically, silver is not very reactive—it does not react with oxygen or water at ordinary temperatures, so does not easily form a silver oxide. However, it is attacked by common components of atmospheric pollution: silver sulfide slowly appears as a black tarnish during exposure to airborne compounds of sulfur (byproducts of the burning of fossil fuels and some industrial processes), and low level ozone reacts to form silver oxide. As the purity of the silver decreases, the problem of corrosion or tarnishing increases because other metals in the alloy, usually copper, may react with oxygen in the air.\n", "Pure silver metal is used as a food colouring. It has the E174 designation and is approved in the European Union. Traditional Pakistani and Indian dishes sometimes include decorative silver foil known as \"vark\", and in various other cultures, silver \"dragée\" are used to decorate cakes, cookies, and other dessert items.\n", "Silver age\n\nA silver age is a name often given to a particular period within a history coming after a historical golden age whereby the Silver Age is a replication, being similarly prestigious and eventful but less so than the prior Golden Age. In many cultures the metal silver is generally valuable but less so than gold.\n\nSection::::Greek myth.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00012	Why does eating something sweet make other less sweeter things taste not sweet?	You can actually tire out the nerve cells in your tongue, by overstimulating them temporarily with a particular taste.	[ "The ability to taste sweetness often atrophies genetically in species of carnivores who do not eat sweet foods like fruits, including bottlenose dolphins, sea lions, spotted hyenas and fossas.\n\nSection::::Sweet receptor pathway.\n", "Sweetness\n\nSweetness is a basic taste most commonly perceived when eating foods rich in sugars. Sweet tastes are generally regarded as pleasurable, except when in excess. In addition to sugars like sucrose, many other chemical compounds are sweet, including aldehydes, ketones, and sugar alcohols. Some are sweet at very low concentrations, allowing their use as non-caloric sugar substitutes. Such non-sugar sweeteners include saccharin and aspartame. Other compounds, such as miraculin, may alter perception of sweetness itself.\n", "Generally regarded as the most pleasant taste, sweetness is almost always caused by a type of simple sugar such as glucose or fructose, or disaccharides such as sucrose, a molecule combining glucose and fructose. Complex carbohydrates are long chains and thus do not have the sweet taste. Artificial sweeteners such as sucralose are used to mimic the sugar molecule, creating the sensation of sweet, without the calories. Other types of sugar include raw sugar, which is known for its amber color, as it is unprocessed. As sugar is vital for energy and survival, the taste of sugar is pleasant.\n", "The critic for the \"Sydney Morning Herald\" wrote that:\n", "BULLET::::- Sweetness\n\nSweetness is produced by the presence of sugars, some proteins, and a few other substances. It is often connected to aldehydes and ketones, which contain a carbonyl group. Sweetness is detected by a variety of G protein-coupled receptors coupled to a G protein that acts as an intermediary in the communication between taste bud and brain, gustducin. These receptors are T1R2+3 (heterodimer) and T1R3 (homodimer), which account for sweet sensing in humans and other animals.\n\nBULLET::::- Saltiness\n", "A few substances alter the way sweet taste is perceived. One class of these inhibits the perception of sweet tastes, whether from sugars or from highly potent sweeteners. Commercially, the most important of these is lactisole, a compound produced by Domino Sugar. It is used in some jellies and other fruit preserves to bring out their fruit flavors by suppressing their otherwise strong sweetness.\n", "Richard Stevenson mentions in \"The Psychology of Flavour\" that people often do not realize that a food's flavor can be described by the food's smell, taste, or texture. Instead, he claims, people perceive flavor as a \"unitary percept\", in which a descriptor for either taste or smell is used to describe a food's flavor. Consider the terms that are used to describe the flavors of foods. For instance, a food may \"taste\" sweet, but often its flavor is described as such while not considering its smell or other sensory characteristics. For example, honey \"tastes\" sweet so its smell is associated with that descriptor, and \"sweet\" is also used to describe its flavor. In fact, sweetness is one of the four basic taste qualities and only comprises part of a food's flavor.\n", "Section::::Examples of sweet substances.\n", "Human studies have shown that sweet taste receptors are not only found in tongue, but also in the lining of gastrointestinal tract as well as nasal epithelium, pancreatic islet cells, sperm and testes. It is proposed that the presence of sweet taste receptors in the GI tract controls the feeling of hunger and satiety.\n", "Section::::Music video.\n", "Section::::History.:Forming a new image.\n", "Section::::Re-release.:Music video.\n", "In bigger music TV shows, sweetening is used to enhance the sound of the visible audience. It is often difficult, for a number of reasons, to pick up the sound of the real audience, so audio sweetening is used so that viewers hear what they see - an engaged audience.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Canned heat\n\nBULLET::::- Laugh track\n\nBULLET::::- Charles Douglass\n\nSection::::References.\n\nSimons, David (2004). Studio Stories - How the Great New York Records Were Made. San Francisco: Backbeat Books. Cf. pp.94-97.\n", "Section::::Critical reception.\n", "A number of plant species produce glycosides that are sweet at concentrations much lower than sugar. The most well-known example is glycyrrhizin, the sweet component of licorice root, which is about 30 times sweeter than sucrose. Another commercially important example is stevioside, from the South American shrub \"Stevia rebaudiana\". It is roughly 250 times sweeter than sucrose. Another class of potent natural sweeteners are the sweet proteins such as thaumatin, found in the West African katemfe fruit. Hen egg lysozyme, an antibiotic protein found in chicken eggs, is also sweet.\n", "Sweetening (disambiguation)\n\nSweetening is the process of making food more sweet. Wikipedia does not yet have an article on this process.\n\nSweetening may also refer to:\n\nBULLET::::- Copper sweetening, a petroleum refining process\n\nBULLET::::- Food sweetening, adding the basic taste of sweetness to a food\n\nBULLET::::- Gas sweetening, a group of processes that use aqueous solutions of various amines to remove hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide from gases, see Amine gas treating\n\nBULLET::::- Pipe sweetening, a method by which foul tasting residues are removed from the bowl and shank of a briar tobacco pipe\n", "Section::::Cognition.\n\nThe color of food can affect sweetness perception. Adding more red color to a drink increases its perceived sweetness. In a study darker colored solutions were rated 2–10% higher than lighter ones despite having 1% less sucrose concentration. The effect of color is believed to be due to cognitive expectations. Some odors smell sweet and memory confuses whether sweetness was tasted or smelled.\n\nSection::::Historical theories.\n", "Section::::Processing in the cerebral cortex.\n\nThe primary taste perception areas in the cerebral cortex are located in the insula and regions of the somatosensory cortex; the nucleus of the solitary tract located in the brainstem also plays a major role in taste perception. These regions were identified when human subjects were exposed to a taste stimulus and their cerebral blood flow measured with magnetic resonance imaging. Although these regions have been identified as the primary zones for taste processing in the brain, other cortical areas are also activated during eating, as other sensory inputs are being signaled to the cortex.\n", "The breakthrough for the present understanding of sweetness occurred in 2001, when experiments with laboratory mice showed that mice possessing different versions of the gene T1R3 prefer sweet foods to different extents. Subsequent research has shown that the T1R3 protein forms a complex with a related protein, called T1R2, to form a G-protein coupled receptor that is the sweetness receptor in mammals.\n", "In the case of a music performance or recording, sweetening may refer to the process of adding instruments in post-production such as those found on \"The Sounds of Silence\" by folk troubadours Simon and Garfunkel. The original acoustic version of the song features just their vocals with one guitar. Producers at Columbia Records, however, felt that it needed a little spicing up to be a commercial hit, and so without the consent of the artists, they added drums, electric bass and electric guitar.\n", "Section::::Films and recordings.\n", "BULLET::::- In winemaking, fruit sugars are converted into alcohol by a fermentation process. If the must formed by pressing the fruit has a low sugar content, additional sugar may be added to raise the alcohol content of the wine in a process called chaptalization. In the production of sweet wines, fermentation may be halted before it has run its full course, leaving behind some residual sugar that gives the wine its sweet taste.\n\nSection::::Consumption.\n", "Priming is often considered to play a part in the success of sensory branding of products and connected to ideas like crossmodal correspondencies and sensation transference. Known effects are e.g. consumers perceiving lemonade suddenly as sweeter when the logo of the drink is more saturated towards yellow.\n\nSection::::Criticism.\n", "The most elaborate theory of sweetness to date is the multipoint attachment theory (MPA) proposed by Jean-Marie Tinti and Claude Nofre in 1991. This theory involves a total of eight interaction sites between a sweetener and the sweetness receptor, although not all sweeteners interact with all eight sites. This model has successfully directed efforts aimed at finding highly potent sweeteners, including the most potent family of sweeteners known to date, the guanidine sweeteners. The most potent of these, lugduname, is about 225,000 times sweeter than sucrose.\n\nSection::::Notes.\n", "Sweetening (show business)\n\nIn sound design, sweetening (\"to sweeten\") refers to \"juicing up\" the audio portion of a film, play, computer game software or any other multimedia project. Its origin may have been old-time radio, which produced visual detail with sound effects such as people walking, horses galloping, doors opening and closing, gunshots, \"body slams,\" etc. \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-14618	In school we learnt that honey doesn't spoil. So how is it that packaged honey, even those that claim to be "pure", have an expiration date?	They don’t spoil but they do lose flavour, smell and water. If you store honey in fridge, some times you might notice it crystallises. This will happen in room temperature after a couple of years. So the expiration date is really a best by date.	[ "It should be acknowledged that a durable life date is NOT an indicator of food safety. Once something is opened, depending on how it is stored, the shelf life can change. For example, an open box of crackers meant to expire in two weeks, will expire much faster should the seal be left open after each use.\n\nSection::::Requirements.:Geographical indications.\n", "Special reviews allow the PMRA to cancel or amend the registration of one or more registered pest control products without waiting for its scheduled re-evaluation. The special review of a product is initiated if there is reason to believe that risks may no longer acceptable based on new scientific information.\n", "Section::::Main Activities.:Post Market Review.\n\nRe-evaluations are used to access any changes in data requirements and verify that the products comply with modern day standards. A re-evaluation must be initiated if 15 years have passed since the last major risk assessment. Re-evaluations can result in amendments to the use pattern, label statements, or classification of a product. However, if it is determined that the risks to human health or the environment are no longer acceptable, or that the product is without value for its intended purpose, the registration is cancelled.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Durable life\": The period between when a prepackaged package is packaged for resale and when it is good until; based on proper conditions. When the product expires, meaning that it is no longer fit for consumption, it is known as the expiry or best before date. An expiration date in one in which the manufacturer does not recommend the product be consumed (they can be located on any label panel).\n\nAccording to the Canadian Food Inspection Agency, the following foods are exempted from having to have a durable life or packaging date:\n", "Section::::Enforcement.:Regulations in the European Union.:Regulations in the UK.\n\nAccording to the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs dates must be in the day/month or day/month/year format. Technical expertise should be hired for regular end of shelf life safety and quality testing. Shelf life trials should be conducted using the same ingredients, equipment, procedures and manufacturing environment as will be used during the actual production. \n\nSection::::Enforcement.:Regulation in the US.\n", "Foodstuffs in the UK have one of two labels to indicate the nature of the deterioration of the product and any subsequent health issues. EHO Food Hygiene certification is required to prepare and distribute food. While there is no specified expiry date of such a qualification the changes in legislation it is suggested to update every five years.\n\nBest before indicates a future date beyond which the food product \"may\" lose quality in terms of taste or texture amongst others, but does not imply any serious health problems if food is consumed beyond this date (within reasonable limits).\n", "Section::::United States.\n\nThe Food and Drug Administration in the United States notes that \"[a] principle of U.S. food law is that foods in U.S. commerce must be wholesome and fit for consumption\". However, the agency also states:\n", "BULLET::::- whole-wheat bread is often referred to as \"brown bread\", as in \"Would you like white or brown bread for your toast?\"\n\nBULLET::::- An \"expiry date\" is the term used for the date when a perishable product will go bad (similar to the UK \"Use By\" date). The term \"expiration date\" is more common in the United States (where \"expiry date\" is seen mostly on the packaging of Asian food products). The term \"Best Before\" also sees common use, where although not spoiled, the product may not taste \"as good\".\n", "No application has been submitted for subvention for honey production, because for submission of the application, pursuant to the Law on Primary Agricultural Production Support, it was necessary to submit the receipt of purchase or sale together with other necessary receipts.\n", "Use by indicates a legal date beyond which it is not permissible to sell a food product (usually one that deteriorates fairly rapidly after production) due to the potential serious nature of consumption of pathogens. Leeway is sometimes provided by producers in stating display until dates so that products are not at their limit of safe consumption on the actual date stated (this latter is voluntary and not subject to regulatory control). This allows for the variability in production, storage and display methods.\n\nSection::::Consumer labeling.:United States.\n", "In Canada expiration dates must be used on the following food items (list and comments copied from\n\nCFIA website):\n\nBULLET::::- formulated liquid diets (nutritionally complete diets for people using oral or tube feeding methods)\n\nBULLET::::- foods represented for use in a very low-energy diet (foods sold only by a pharmacist and only with a written order from a physician)\n\nBULLET::::- meal replacements (formulated food that, by itself, can replace one or more daily meals)\n\nBULLET::::- nutritional supplements (food sold or represented as a supplement to a diet that may be inadequate in energy and essential nutrients)\n", "The product title \"Honey Smacks\" is inconsistent with honey being a minor ingredient in the recipe. The ingredient label implies that sugar and dextrose are at least two-thirds of the sugar ingredients by weight. Conversely, the proportion of honey in the recipe could range from trace amounts to one-third.\n\nSection::::2018 recall.\n", "Following authorization by the FDA and USDA, Castleberry's Food Company restarted operations at its canning plant in September 2007, producing products which carried substantially different labeling and UPCs from those printed on cans of recalled food. Listed amongst the frequently asked questions on the Castleberry's Food Company Web site from November 2007 was the following query: \"How do I know Castleberry's Food products are safe to eat?\" However, in March 2008, the canning plant was closed when the FDA revoked the \"temporary emergency operating permit\" that was allowing production to continue.\n\nSection::::Sale to Hanover Foods.\n", "Sale of expired food products, \"per se\", is lightly regulated in the US. Some states restrict or forbid the sale of expired products, require expiration dates on all perishable products, or both, while other states do not. However, sale of contaminated food is generally illegal, and may result in product liability litigation if consumption of the food results in injury.\n\nAfter losing an expensive lawsuit, one pharmacy chain – CVS – implemented a system that causes its registers to recognize expired products and avert their sale.\n", "BULLET::::- human milk substitutes (infant formula)\n", "For a CBER warning letter, the agency schedules a follow-up inspection for approximately 30 days after they receive the warning letter response to determine the adequacy of reported corrective actions. If the firm has made no corrective action or has failed to respond, the district considers suitable follow-up.\n", "The CFIA is responsible for monitoring pesticide residues in food. Health Canada establishes Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) for pesticide residues in all foods. MRLs are supposedly set for each pesticide-crop combination.\n\nSection::::Role and responsibilities.:Power to recall.\n", "BULLET::::- Product/manufacturing information\n\nBULLET::::- Pre-clinical studies\n\nBULLET::::- Clinical studies\n\nBULLET::::- Labeling\n\nSome biological products are regulated by the Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER) while others are regulated by Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research (CBER).\n\nA BLA is submitted after an investigational new drug has been approved. If the Form 356h is missing information, the FDA will reply within 74 days. \n\nA BLA asserts that the product is \"safe, pure, and potent\", the manufacturing facilities are inspectable, and each package of the product bears the license number.\n", "Mānuka honey for export from New Zealand must be independently tested and pass the Mānuka Honey Science Definition test as specified by the Ministry for Primary Industries (MPI), The test comprises five attributes. Four (4) are chemical and one (1) is DNA of \"Leptospermum scoparium\". The honey must pass all five tests to be labeled as mānuka. This testing came into effect on 5 January 2018.\n\nThe MPI does not have a definition for mānuka sold in the New Zealand domestic market. The MPI Five attributes test is the only standard recognised by New Zealand legislation.\n", "Beet sugar comes from regions with cooler climates: northwest and eastern Europe, northern Japan, plus some areas in the United States (including California). In the northern hemisphere, the beet-growing season ends with the start of harvesting around September. Harvesting and processing continues until March in some cases. The availability of processing plant capacity and the weather both influence the duration of harvesting and processing – the industry can store harvested beets until processed, but a frost-damaged beet becomes effectively unprocessable.\n", "Honey grading in the United States is performed voluntarily based upon USDA standards (USDA does offer inspection and grading \"as on-line (in-plant) or lot inspection...upon application, on a fee-for-service basis.\") . Honey is graded based upon a number of factors, including water content, flavor and aroma, absence of defects and clarity. Honey is also classified by color though it is not a factor in the grading scale. U.S. honey grade scales are Grade A, Grade B, Grade C and Grade substandard.\n\nSection::::By food type.:Lobster.\n", "\"Sell by date\" is a less ambiguous term for what is often referred to as an \"expiration date\". Most food is still edible after the expiration date. A product that has passed its shelf life might still be safe, but quality is no longer guaranteed. In most food stores, waste is minimized by using stock rotation, which involves moving products with the earliest sell by date from the warehouse to the sales area, and then to the front of the shelf, so that most shoppers will pick them up first and thus they are likely to be sold before the end of their shelf life. Some stores can be fined for selling out of date products; most if not all would have to mark such products down as wasted, resulting in a financial loss.\n", "Before the invention of removable frames, bee colonies were often sacrificed to conduct the harvest. The harvester would take all the available honey and replace the entire colony the next spring. Since the invention of removable frames, the principles of husbandry led most beekeepers to ensure that their bees have enough stores to survive the winter, either by leaving some honey in the beehive or by providing the colony with a honey substitute such as sugar water or crystalline sugar (often in the form of a \"candyboard\"). The amount of food necessary to survive the winter depends on the variety of bees and on the length and severity of local winters.\n", "Some glues and adhesives also have a limited storage life, and will stop working in a reliable and usable manner if their safe shelf life is exceeded.\n\nRather different is the use of a time limit for the use of items like vouchers, gift certificates and pre-paid phone cards, so that after the displayed date the voucher etc. will no longer be valid. Bell Mobility and its parent company, BCE Inc. have been served with notice of a $100-million class-action lawsuit alleging that expiry dates on its pre-paid wireless services are illegal.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Accelerated aging\n\nBULLET::::- Cold chain\n", "According to former UK minister Hilary Benn, the use by date and sell by dates are old technologies that are outdated and should be replaced by other solutions or disposed of altogether. The UK government's Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs revised guidance in 2011 to exclude the use of sell by dates. The guidance was prepared in consultation with the food industry, consumer groups, regulators, and Waste & Resources Action Programme (WRAP). It aims to reduce the annual £12bn of wasted supermarket food.\n\nSection::::Enforcement.\n\nSection::::Enforcement.:Regulations in Canada.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-07032	why do some tend to feel hotter than others in the same climatic conditions? Others also claim to feel colder. How does this work when our healthy body temperature is all the same?	Different metabolic rates, different people are used to different temperatures. Also varying amounts of body fat is a contributing factor.	[ "Section::::Resiliency mechanisms.:Social resources and health-promoting behaviour.\n", "Several investigations have found hardiness and physical exercise to be uncorrelated. On the other hand, one study examined a broader array of health-protective behaviours, including exercise, and found that hardiness worked indirectly through these behaviours to influence health. Another study also found that hardiness was negatively correlated with self-reported alcohol use and drug use obtained through both urine screens and self-report.\n\nSection::::Resiliency mechanisms.:Biophysiology.\n", "Section::::Historical roots.\n", "Food and drink habits may have an influence on metabolic rates, which indirectly influences thermal preferences. These effects may change depending on food and drink intake. Body shape is another factor that affects thermal comfort. Heat dissipation depends on body surface area. A tall and skinny person has a larger surface-to-volume ratio, can dissipate heat more easily, and can tolerate higher temperatures more than a person with a rounded body shape.\n\nSection::::Influencing factors.:Clothing insulation.\n", "Section::::Variation in animals.:Variations due to fever.\n\nFever is a regulated elevation of the set point of core temperature in the hypothalamus, caused by circulating pyrogens produced by the immune system. To the subject, a rise in core temperature due to fever may result in feeling cold in an environment where people without fever do not.\n\nSection::::Variation in animals.:Variations due to biofeedback.\n\nSome monks are known to practice Tummo, biofeedback meditation techniques, that allow them to raise their body temperatures substantially.\n\nSection::::Low body temperature increases lifespan.\n", "There are six primary factors that directly affect thermal comfort that can be grouped in two categories: personal factors - because they are characteristics of the occupants - and environmental factors - which are conditions of the thermal environment. The former are metabolic rate and clothing level, the latter are air temperature, mean radiant temperature, air speed and humidity. Even if all these factors may vary with time, standards usually refer to a steady state to study thermal comfort, just allowing limited temperature variations.\n\nSection::::Influencing factors.:Metabolic rate.\n", "Section::::Resiliency mechanisms.\n", "Hardiness (psychological)\n\nPsychological hardiness, alternatively referred to as personality hardiness or cognitive hardiness in the literature, is a personality style first introduced by Suzanne C. Kobasa in 1979. Kobasa described a pattern of personality characteristics that distinguished managers and executives who remained healthy under life stress, as compared to those who developed health problems. In the following years, the concept of hardiness was further elaborated in a book and a series of research reports by Salvatore Maddi, Kobasa and their graduate students at the University of Chicago.\n\nSection::::Definitions.\n", "Changes in body temperature – either hotter or cooler – increase the metabolic rate, thus burning more energy. Prolonged exposure to extremely warm or very cold environments increases the basal metabolic rate (BMR). People who live in these types of settings often have BMRs 5–20% higher than those in other climates.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Atwater system\n\nBULLET::::- Basal metabolic rate\n\nBULLET::::- Chemical energy\n\nBULLET::::- Food chain\n\nBULLET::::- Food composition\n\nBULLET::::- Heat of combustion\n\nBULLET::::- List of countries by food energy intake\n\nBULLET::::- Nutrition facts label\n\nBULLET::::- Table of food nutrients\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Section::::Measurement.\n\nThere are several instrument developed to measure hardiness, the most frequently used being the Personal Views Survey, the Dispositional Resilience Scale, and the Cognitive Hardiness Scale. In addition to these, other scales based on hardiness theory have been designed to measure the construct in specific contexts and in special populations, such as for example parental grief and among the chronically ill.\n", "BULLET::::- People with dry Mizaj Have dry skin and people with wet Mizaj have soft and squishy skin. Having naturally high body temperature once someone touches people with warm Mizaj tells they are warm. People with cold Mizaj feel cold and run colder than the other people and once someone touches them can tell they are colder than normal.\n\nSection::::How to recognize one's temperament.:Activity.\n", "In addition to varying throughout the day, normal body temperature may also differ as much as from one day to the next, so that the highest or lowest temperatures on one day will not always exactly match the highest or lowest temperatures on the next day.\n\nNormal human body temperature varies slightly from person to person and by the time of day. Consequently, each type of measurement has a range of normal temperatures. The range for normal human body temperatures, taken orally, is (). This means that any oral temperature between is likely to be normal.\n", "The manner in which hardiness confers resiliency appears to be a combination of cognitive, behavioural mechanisms, and biophysical processes. Very simplified, as stressful circumstances mount, so does the physical and mental strain on the individual, and if this strain is sufficiently intense and prolonged, breakdowns in health and performance are to be expected. In short, the personality style of hardiness is proposed to have a moderating effect on this process by encouraging effective mental and behavioural coping, building and utilizing social support, and engagement in effective self-care and health practices.\n\nSection::::Resiliency mechanisms.:Cognitive appraisals.\n", "Temperature also varies with the change of seasons during each year. This pattern is called a \"circannual\" rhythm. Studies of seasonal variations have produced inconsistent results. People living in different climates may have different seasonal patterns.\n\nIncreased physical fitness increases the amount of daily variation in temperature.\n\nWith increased age, both average body temperature and the amount of daily variability in the body temperature tend to decrease. Elderly patients may have a decreased ability to generate body heat during a fever, so even a somewhat elevated temperature can indicate a serious underlying cause in geriatrics.\n\nSection::::Variations.:Measurement methods.\n", "Reported values vary depending on how it is measured: oral (under the tongue): (), internal (rectal, vaginal): . A rectal or vaginal measurement taken directly inside the body cavity is typically slightly higher than oral measurement, and oral measurement is somewhat higher than skin measurement. Other places, such as under the arm or in the ear, produce different typical temperatures. While some people think of these averages as representing normal or ideal measurements, a wide range of temperatures has been found in healthy people. The body temperature of a healthy person varies during the day by about with lower temperatures in the morning and higher temperatures in the late afternoon and evening, as the body's needs and activities change. Other circumstances also affect the body's temperature. The core body temperature of an individual tends to have the lowest value in the second half of the sleep cycle; the lowest point, called the nadir, is one of the primary markers for circadian rhythms. The body temperature also changes when a person is hungry, sleepy, sick, or cold.\n", "Situational factors include the health, psychological, sociological, and vocational activities of the persons.\n\nSection::::Specificity and sensitivity.:Biological gender differences.\n\nWhile thermal comfort preferences between sexes seems to be small, there are some differences. Studies have found males report discomfort due to rises in temperature much earlier than females. Males also estimate higher levels of their sensation of discomfort than females. One recent study tested males and females in the same cotton clothing, performing mental jobs while using a dial vote to report their thermal comfort to the changing temperature.\n", "The environment can have major influences on human physiology. Environmental effects on human physiology are numerous; one of the most carefully studied effects is the alterations in thermoregulation in the body due to outside stresses. This is necessary because in order for enzymes to function, blood to flow, and for various body organs to operate, temperature must remain at consistent, balanced levels.\n\nSection::::Animals.:Humans.:Thermoregulation.\n\nTo achieve this, the body alters three main things to achieve a constant, normal body temperature:\n\nBULLET::::- Heat transfer to the epidermis\n\nBULLET::::- The rate of evaporation\n\nBULLET::::- The rate of heat production\n", "Section::::Controls of variables.\n\nSection::::Controls of variables.:Core temperature.\n\nMammals regulate their core temperature using input from thermoreceptors in the hypothalamus, brain, spinal cord, internal organs, and great veins. Apart from the internal regulation of temperature, a process called allostasis can come into play that adjusts behaviour to adapt to the challenge of very hot or cold extremes (and to other challenges). These adjustments may include seeking shade and reducing activity, or seeking warmer conditions and increasing activity, or huddling.\n", "Hardiness appears to be related to differences in physiological arousal. It is believed that hardiness helps decrease the ability of stressful events to produce arousal in the sympathetic nervous system. Some support for this notion can be found in studies demonstrating that participants that score high on hardiness exhibit lower cardiovascular reactivity in response to stress.\n", "Human body temperature\n\nNormal human body temperature, also known as normothermia or euthermia, is the typical temperature range found in humans. The normal human body temperature range is typically stated as .\n\nIndividual body temperature depends upon the age, exertion, infection, sex, and reproductive status of the subject, the time of day, the place in the body at which the measurement is made, and the subject's state of consciousness (waking, sleeping or sedated), activity level, and emotional state. It is typically maintained within this range by thermoregulation.\n\nSection::::Methods of measurement.\n", "Since there are large variations from person to person in terms of physiological and psychological satisfaction, it is hard to find an optimal temperature for everyone in a given space. Laboratory and field data have been collected to define conditions that will be found comfortable for a specified percentage of occupants.\n", "Different methods used for measuring temperature produce different results. The temperature reading depends on which part of the body is being measured. The typical daytime temperatures among healthy adults are as follows:\n\nBULLET::::- Temperature in the anus (rectum/rectal), vagina, or in the ear (otic) is about\n\nBULLET::::- Temperature in the mouth (oral) is about\n\nBULLET::::- Temperature under the arm (axillary) is about\n\nGenerally, oral, rectal, gut, and core body temperatures, although slightly different, are well-correlated.\n", "Other studies have associated hardiness with cholesterol and hormonal variations. Bartone and associates examined hardiness levels against a full lipid profile including high-density lipoprotein, usually considered a beneficial type of cholesterol. Findings from this study showed that participants high in hardiness were more than two times as likely to also have high levels of high-density lipoprotein compared with participants low in hardiness. Although it has been suggested that hardiness might be related with lower levels of the “stress-hormone” cortisol, one of the few studies that have investigated the two found that higher hardiness was associated with higher levels of cortisol.\n", "Section::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Atmospheric temperature\n\nBULLET::::- Body temperature (thermoregulation)\n\nBULLET::::- Color temperature\n\nBULLET::::- Dry-bulb temperature\n\nBULLET::::- Heat conduction\n\nBULLET::::- Heat convection\n\nBULLET::::- Instrumental temperature record\n\nBULLET::::- ISO 1\n\nBULLET::::- ITS-90\n\nBULLET::::- Laser Schlieren Deflectometry\n\nBULLET::::- List of cities by temperature\n\nBULLET::::- Maxwell's demon\n\nBULLET::::- Orders of magnitude (temperature)\n\nBULLET::::- Outside air temperature\n\nBULLET::::- Planck temperature\n\nBULLET::::- Rankine scale\n\nBULLET::::- Relativistic heat conduction\n\nBULLET::::- Satellite temperature measurements\n\nBULLET::::- Scale of temperature\n\nBULLET::::- Sea surface temperature\n\nBULLET::::- Stagnation temperature\n\nBULLET::::- Thermal radiation\n\nBULLET::::- Thermoception\n\nBULLET::::- Thermodynamic (absolute) temperature\n\nBULLET::::- Thermography\n\nBULLET::::- Thermometer\n\nBULLET::::- Virtual temperature\n\nBULLET::::- Wet-bulb globe temperature\n\nBULLET::::- Wet-bulb temperature\n", "Section::::Contributing theories.\n\nSection::::Contributing theories.:Supplementary fit.\n\nSupplementary fit refers to the similarity between characteristics of a person and characteristics of the environment, or other persons within the environment (Kristof, 1996; Muchinsky & Monahan, 1987). Based on compatibility that derives from similarity (Kristof-Brown & Guay, 2011), a person fits into some environmental context because he/she supplements, embellishes, or possesses characteristics that are similar to other individuals in the environment (Kristof-Brown & Guay, 2011)\n\nSection::::Contributing theories.:Complementary fit.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00838	If the theory that the Moon is created from asteroid and Earth collision, why does the Moon reflect sunlight and the Earth doesn't?	The earth does reflect sunlight! How do you think astronauts take all those [nice pictures of earth from space]( URL_0 )?	[ "Features on Earth, the Moon, and some other bodies have, to some extent, retroreflective properties. Light striking them is backscattered, or diffusely reflected preferentially back in the direction from which it has come rather than in other directions. If the light comes from the Sun, it is reflected preferentially back toward the Sun and in nearby directions. For example, when its phase is full, the Moon reflects light preferentially toward the Sun and also Earth, which is in almost the same direction. As viewed from Earth, the full Moon therefore appears brighter than it would if it scattered light uniformly in all directions. Similarly, near new moon, sunlight that has been backscattered from Earth toward the Sun and also the Moon, which is in almost the same direction, and then backscattered again from the Moon toward Earth appears much brighter, as viewed from Earth, than it would without the retroreflective effects.\n", "Since the Moon's axial tilt relative to its orbit around the Sun is nearly zero, the Sun traces out almost exactly the same path through the Moon's sky over the course of a year. As a result, there are craters and valleys near the Moon's poles that never receive direct sunlight, and there may exist mountains and hilltops that are never in shadow (see Lunar south pole and Peak of eternal light).\n\nSection::::The Moon.:The Earth from the Moon.\n", "Earthlight (astronomy)\n\nEarthlight is the diffuse reflection of sunlight reflected from Earth's surface and clouds. Earthshine (an example of planetshine), also known as the Moon's ashen glow, is the dim illumination of the otherwise dark side of the Moon by this indirect sunlight. Earthlight on the Moon during the waxing crescent is called \"the old Moon in the new Moon's arms\", while that during the waning crescent is called \"the new Moon in the old Moon's arms\".\n", "Leonardo da Vinci explained the phenomenon in the early 16th century when he realized that both Earth and the Moon reflect sunlight at the same time. Light is reflected from Earth to the Moon and back to Earth as earthshine.\n", "Among the most prominent features of the Moon's sky is Earth. Earth's angular diameter (1.9°) is four times the Moon's as seen from Earth, although because the Moon's orbit is eccentric, Earth's apparent size in the sky varies by about 5% either way (ranging between 1.8° and 2.0° in diameter). Earth shows phases, just like the Moon does for terrestrial observers. The phases, however, are opposite; when the terrestrial observer sees the full Moon, the lunar observer sees a \"new Earth\", and vice versa. Earth's albedo is three times as high as that of the Moon (due in part to its whitish cloud cover), and coupled with the wider area, the full Earth glows over 50 times brighter than the full Moon at zenith does for the terrestrial observer. This Earth light reflected on the Moon's un-sunlit half is bright enough to be visible from Earth, even to the unaided eye – a phenomenon known as earthshine.\n", "The Moon's appearance, like the Sun's, can be affected by Earth's atmosphere. Common optical effects are the 22° halo ring, formed when the Moon's light is refracted through the ice crystals of high cirrostratus clouds, and smaller coronal rings when the Moon is seen through thin clouds.\n\nThe illuminated area of the visible sphere (degree of illumination) is given by formula_3, where formula_4 is the elongation (i.e., the angle between Moon, the observer (on Earth) and the Sun).\n\nSection::::Earth-Moon system.:Tidal effects.\n", "Moonlight\n\nMoonlight consists of mostly sunlight (with little earthlight) reflected from the parts of the Moon's surface where the Sun's light strikes.\n\nSection::::Illumination.\n\nThe intensity of moonlight varies greatly depending on its phase, but even the full Moon typically provides only about 0.05–0.1 lux illumination. When the full Moon is at perigee and viewed around upper culmination from the tropics, the illuminance can reach up to 0.32 lux. From Earth, the apparent magnitude of the full Moon is only about that of the Sun.\n", "Among the most prominent features of the Moon's sky is Earth. Earth's angular diameter (1.9°) is four times the Moon's as seen from Earth, although because the Moon's orbit is eccentric, Earth's apparent size in the sky varies by about 5% either way (ranging between 1.8° and 2.0° in diameter). Earth shows phases, just like the Moon does for terrestrial observers. The phases, however, are opposite; when the terrestrial observer sees the full Moon, the lunar observer sees a \"new Earth\", and vice versa. Earth's albedo is three times as high as that of the Moon (due in part to its whitish cloud cover), and coupled with the wider area, the full Earth glows over 50 times brighter than the full Moon at zenith does for the terrestrial observer. This Earth light reflected on the Moon's un-sunlit half is bright enough to be visible from Earth, even to the unaided eye – a phenomenon known as earthshine.\n", "Analysis of this phenomenon has a long history and can be traced back almost a century. Past work has resulted in empirical models designed to fit experimental data as well as theoretical results derived from first principles. Much of this work was motivated by the non-Lambertian reflectance of the moon.\n", "Later, the physical form of the Moon and the cause of moonlight became understood. The ancient Greek philosopher Anaxagoras reasoned that the Sun and Moon were both giant spherical rocks, and that the latter reflected the light of the former. Although the Chinese of the Han Dynasty believed the Moon to be energy equated to \"qi\", their 'radiating influence' theory also recognized that the light of the Moon was merely a reflection of the Sun, and Jing Fang (78–37 BC) noted the sphericity of the Moon. In the 2nd century AD, Lucian wrote the novel \"A True Story\", in which the heroes travel to the Moon and meet its inhabitants. In 499 AD, the Indian astronomer Aryabhata mentioned in his \"Aryabhatiya\" that reflected sunlight is the cause of the shining of the Moon. The astronomer and physicist Alhazen (965–1039) found that sunlight was not reflected from the Moon like a mirror, but that light was emitted from every part of the Moon's sunlit surface in all directions. Shen Kuo (1031–1095) of the Song dynasty created an allegory equating the waxing and waning of the Moon to a round ball of reflective silver that, when doused with white powder and viewed from the side, would appear to be a crescent.\n", "Syzygy causes the bimonthly phenomena of spring and neap tides. At the new and full moon, the Sun and Moon are in syzygy. Their tidal forces act to reinforce each other, and the ocean both rises higher and falls lower than the average. Conversely, at the first and third quarter, the Sun and Moon are at right angles, their tidal forces counteract each other, and the tidal range is smaller than average. Tidal variation can also be measured in the earth's crust, and this may affect the frequency of earthquakes.\n", "Earthshine is used to help determine the current albedo of Earth. The data are used to analyze global cloud cover, a climate factor. Oceans reflect the least amount of light, roughly 10%. Land reflects 10–25% of sunlight, and clouds reflect around 50%. Thus, the part of Earth where it is daytime and from where the Moon is visible determines how bright the earthshine on the Moon appears at any given time.\n", "Finding this imagery in the \"Book of Genesis\", the Allegory images authentic spiritual authority as the Sun and any and all civil, or political or secular, authority as the Moon. By doing so, it illustrates that the Roman Catholic Pope, as \"Supreme Pontiff\", \"Vicar of Christ\", et cetera, and therefore the supreme universal spiritual authority on Earth, is like the Sun that is the one source of light for itself and all other celestial bodies orbiting it; while the Holy Roman Emperor, as symbolic and intended supreme civil, political, and secular authority on Earth, and having theoretically received his authority from and at the pleasure of the Pope, is like the Moon - that is, dependent upon the Sun for any illumination, merely reflects solar light, and ultimately has no light without the Sun. This theory dominated European political theory and practice in the 13th century. It is related to the general theory of Papal supremacy and \"plenitudo potestatis\" as articulated by the Roman Catholic Church.\n", "The \"solar corrections\" approximately undo the effect of the Gregorian modifications to the leap days of the solar calendar on the lunar calendar: they (partially) bring the epact cycle back to the original Metonic relation between the Julian year and lunar month. The inherent mismatch between sun and moon in this basic 19 year cycle is then corrected every three or four centuries by the \"lunar correction\" to the epacts. However, the epact corrections occur at the beginning of Gregorian centuries, not Julian centuries, and therefore the original Julian Metonic cycle is not fully restored.\n", "By 499 AD, the Indian astronomer Aryabhata mentioned in his \"Aryabhatiya\" that reflected sunlight is the cause behind the shining of the Moon.\n", "The Sun looks the same from the Moon as it does from Earth's orbit, somewhat brighter than it does from the Earth's surface, and colored pure white, due to the lack of atmospheric scattering and absorption.\n", "Earthshine is most readily visible from a few nights before until a few nights after a new moon, during the (waxing or waning) crescent phase. When the lunar phase is new as viewed from Earth, Earth would appear nearly fully sunlit from the Moon. Sunlight is reflected from Earth to the night side of the Moon. The night side appears to glow faintly, and the entire disk of the Moon is dimly illuminated.\n", "While the moon's surface luminance remains the same, because it is closer to the earth the illuminance is about 30% brighter than at its farthest point, or apogee. This is due to the inverse square law of light which changes the amount of light received on earth in inverse proportion to the distance from the moon.\n\nWhile a typical summer full moon at temperate latitudes provides only about 0.05-0.1 lux, a supermoon directly overhead in the tropics could provide up to 0.36 lux.\n\nSection::::Effects on Earth.\n", "The Earth's mean distance from the Sun is approximately , though the distance varies as the Earth moves from perihelion in January to aphelion in July. At this average distance, light travels from the Sun to Earth in about 8 minutes, 19 seconds. The energy of this sunlight supports almost all life on Earth by photosynthesis, and drives Earth's climate and weather. As recently as the 19th century scientists had little knowledge of the Sun's physical composition and source of energy. This understanding is still developing; a number of present-day anomalies in the Sun's behavior remain unexplained. Sun.§\n\nSection::::Solar cycle.\n", "Planetshine has also been observed elsewhere in the Solar System. In particular, the \"Cassini\" space probe used Saturn's shine to image portions of the planet's moons, even when they do not reflect direct sunlight.\n\nSection::::Earthshine.\n\nEarthshine is visible earthlight reflected from the Moon's night side. It is also known as the Moon's \"ashen glow\" or as \"the new Moon with the old Moon in her arm\".\n", "Over the centuries, many scientific hypotheses have been advanced concerning the origin of Earth's Moon. One of the earliest was the so-called \"binary accretion model\", which concluded that the Moon accreted from material in orbit around the Earth left over from its formation. Another, the \"fission model\", was developed by George Darwin (son of Charles Darwin), who noted that, as the Moon is gradually receding from the Earth at a rate of about 4 cm per year, so at one point in the distant past it must have been part of the Earth, but was flung outward by the momentum of Earth's then–much faster rotation. This hypothesis is also supported by the fact that the Moon's density, while less than Earth's, is about equal to that of Earth's rocky mantle, suggesting that, unlike the Earth, it lacks a dense iron core. A third hypothesis, known as the \"capture model\", suggested that the Moon was an independently orbiting body that had been snared into orbit by Earth's gravity.\n", "The Moon's appearance is considerably more complex. Its motion, like the Sun, is between two limits—known as \"luni\"stices rather than \"sol\"stices. However, its travel between lunistices is considerably faster. It takes a sidereal month to complete its cycle rather than the year-long trek of the Sun. This is further complicated as the lunistices marking the limits of the Moon's movement move on an 18.6 year cycle. For slightly over nine years the extreme limits of the Moon are outside the range of sunrise. For the remaining half of the cycle the Moon never exceeds the limits of the range of sunrise. However, much lunar observation was concerned with the \"phase\" of the Moon. The cycle from one New Moon to the next runs on an entirely different cycle, the Synodic month. Thus when examining sites for lunar significance the data can appear sparse due the extremely variable nature of the moon. See Moon for more details.\n", "The Moon, on the other hand, is a natural laboratory for regolith processes and weathering on anhydrous airless bodies- modification and alteration by meteoroid and micrometeoroid impacts, the implantation of solar and interstellar charged particles, radiation damage, spallation, exposure to ultraviolet radiation, and so on. Knowledge of the processes that create and modify the lunar regolith is essential to understanding the compositional and structural attributes of other airless planet and asteroid regoliths.\n\nOther possibilities include extrasolar planets completely covered by oceans, which would lack some Earthly processes.\n\nSection::::Dynamics.\n", "Measuring the effect of sky glow on a global scale is a complex procedure. The natural atmosphere is not completely dark, even in the absence of terrestrial sources of light and illumination from the Moon. This is caused by two main sources: \"airglow\" and \"scattered light\".\n", "The comparison of Christ with the astronomical Sun is common in ancient Christian writings. In the 5th century, Pope Leo I (the Great) spoke in several sermons on the Feast of the Nativity of how the celebration of Christ's birth coincided with increase of the Sun's position in the sky. An example is: \"But this Nativity which is to be adored in heaven and on earth is suggested to us by no day more than this when, with the early light still shedding its rays on nature, there is borne in upon our senses the brightness of this wondrous mystery.\n" ]	[ "The Earth does not reflect sunlight.", "If the moon and the earth were created from a collision of an asteroid and the Earth, the Earth should reflect sunlight just like the moon. " ]	[ "The Earth reflects sunlight.", "The Earth actually does reflect sunlight. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The Earth does not reflect sunlight.", "If the moon and the earth were created from a collision of an asteroid and the Earth, the Earth should reflect sunlight just like the moon. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The Earth reflects sunlight.", "The Earth actually does reflect sunlight. " ]
2018-04927	why your lips get chapped. I’ve always thought it was from your lips being dry and also has something to do with cold air. If they get chapped from being dry, why wouldn’t adding water to keep your lips moist solve the problem?	Just adding moisture to your lips doesn't last. Our skin has oils in it to prevent evaporation and water loss (and help resist obsorbing too much water) and dry lips also lose these skin oils. An oily or waxy substance will help lips retain moisture as opposed to a watery substance which will make them wet briefly. And of course lip balms are waxy substances for this purpose.	[ "The primary purpose of lip balm is to provide an occlusive layer on the lip surface to seal moisture in lips and protect them from external exposure. Dry air, cold temperatures, and wind all have a drying effect on skin by drawing moisture away from the body. Lips are particularly vulnerable because the skin is so thin, and thus they are often the first to present signs of dryness. Occlusive materials like waxes and petroleum jelly prevent moisture loss and maintain lip comfort while flavorants, colorants, sunscreens, and various medicaments can provide additional, specific benefits.\n", "BULLET::::- Blistex\n\nBULLET::::- Carmex\n\nBULLET::::- ChapStick\n\nBULLET::::- Labello\n\nBULLET::::- Lip Smacker\n\nBULLET::::- Lypsyl\n\nBULLET::::- EOS\n\nSection::::Dependency.\n\nSome physicians have suggested that certain types of lip balm can be addictive or contain ingredients that actually cause drying. Lip balm manufacturers sometimes state in their FAQs that there is nothing addictive in their products or that all ingredients are listed and approved by the FDA. Snopes found the claim that there are substances in Carmex that are irritants necessitating reapplication, such as ground glass, to be false.\n", "The effect of the increased resistance (compared to stoma breathing without HME) in laryngectomy patients is poorly understood, but HMEs add a variable resistance to the airflow resistance, depending on the flow rate, though the outcomes of studies are not consistent.\n", "BULLET::::- Lip plumper is a cosmetic product used to make lips appear fuller. These products work by irritating the skin of the lips with ingredients such as Capsaicin. This makes the lips swell slightly, temporarily creating the appearance of fuller lips.\n\nBULLET::::- Suction pumps, a special device for lips uses vacuum pumping to increase blood pressure in each lip and to pull them out a bit, making it quite an instrument to adjust proper lip length/value in a slow determinite step-by-step way.\n\nSection::::Risks and side effects.\n", "While the rainy season, autumn rainfall from the area is the season of spring is at least fall. But there are no significant differences among seasons. Following up on a regular basis every season rainfall is spread. This applies to regular temperature distribution. However, the sudden temperature drop in some years appears to have caused the frost, it has also damaged local crops quite. E.g. tea plants generally can not stand frost. After the tree developed -4 meters easily and resist the cold. If this continues for a long time, but low temperatures will be obtained will decrease the quality of tea.\n", "The lip skin is not hairy and does not have sweat glands. Therefore, it does not have the usual protection layer of sweat and body oils which keep the skin smooth, inhibit pathogens, and regulate warmth. For these reasons, the lips dry out faster and become chapped more easily.\n\nThe lower lip is formed from the mandibular prominence, a branch of the first pharyngeal arch. The lower lip covers the anterior body of the mandible. It is lowered by the depressor labii inferioris muscle and the orbicularis oris borders it inferiorly.\n", "Alexander Lipsey\n\nAlexander \"Sandy\" Lipsey is a Democratic politician from the U.S. state of Michigan. As a member of the Michigan State House of Representatives, he represented the 60th District from 2000 to 2006. On July 20, 2007, Lipsey was appointed by Michigan Governor Jennifer Granholm to replace Judge Philip Schaefer on the Kalamazoo County Circuit Court.\n\nSection::::Education.\n\nLipsey earned his juris doctorate from the University of Michigan Law School and his bachelor's degree from Kalamazoo College.\n\nSection::::Political career.\n", "Gertrude Bell described Sassoon’s ministerial qualities in another letter dated 18 December 1920:“The man I do love is Sasun Eff. and he is by far the ablest man in the Council. A little rigid, he takes the point of view of the constitutional lawyer and doesn't make quite enough allowance for the primitive conditions of the 'Iraq, but he is genuine and disinterested to the core. He has not only real ability but also wide experience and I feel touched and almost ashamed by the humility with which he seeks—and is guided by—my advice. It isn't my advice, really; I'm only echoing what Sir Percy thinks. But what I rejoice in and feel confident of is the solid friendship and esteem which exists between us. And in varying degrees I have the same feeling with them all. That's something, isn't it? that's a basis for carrying out the duties of a mandatory?”\n", "Generally speaking, the best way of overcoming swollen lips is to refrain from playing, or to practice for a shorter period of time and with a good warm-up in the days following any period of extensive playing. When a player is deprived of the opportunity to recuperate after a period of extensive playing, the simple matter of swollen lips is not allowed to heal, and the player is forced to work harder to compensate for diminished lip strength. Eventually, the player's facial muscles may collapse under the strain of playing.\n\nSection::::Mouthpiece pressure.\n", "In a \"hybrid\" design, direct or indirect cooling has been combined with vapor-compression or absorption air conditioning to increase the overall efficiency and/or to reduce the temperature below the wet-bulb limit.\n\nSection::::Designs.:Materials.\n\nTraditionally, evaporative \"cooler pads\" consist of excelsior (aspen wood fiber) inside a containment net, but more modern materials, such as some plastics and melamine paper, are entering use as cooler-pad media. Modern rigid media, commonly 8\" or 12\" thick, adds more moisture, and thus cools air more than typically much thinner aspen media. Another material which is sometimes used is corrugated cardboard.\n\nSection::::Designs.:Design considerations.\n\nSection::::Designs.:Design considerations.:Water use.\n", "The original release was by Paul Whiteman and His Orchestra of which Busse was a member in 1922. He left the Paul Whiteman orchestra in 1928 to form his own group. Lockridge was a Busse trumpeter whose recording of the song was part of an album tribute to Busse shortly after Busse's death in 1955.\n", "water harvesting and keyline design, are examples of methods that might help prevent or lessen these drying effects.\n\nSection::::Mountain meteorological effects.\n\nSection::::Mountain meteorological effects.:Orographic lift.\n\nOrographic lift occurs when an air mass is forced from a low elevation to a higher elevation as it moves over rising terrain. As the air mass gains altitude it quickly cools down adiabatically, which can raise the relative humidity to 100% and create clouds and, under the right conditions, precipitation.\n\nSection::::Mountain meteorological effects.:Rain shadow.\n", "BULLET::::- He is said to have given an explanation of the flooding of the Nile each summer. On the basis of observations of the temperature of water in deep wells he seems erroneously to have inferred that underground water is in fact cooler in summer than in winter. In winter, when rain fell and seeped into the ground it would soon evaporate again because of the heat in the soil. However, in summer, when water in the ground was supposedly colder, there would be less evaporation. The surplus of moisture would then have to be carried off otherwise, thereby causing the Nile to overflow.\n", "BULLET::::- Artecoll. Both Artecoll and ArteFill are not used to inject the body of the lips because the substance is heavy and would show as white through the thin skin of the lips. Additionally, both products contain tiny microspheres known as PMMA (polymethylmethacrylate) which remain in the face permanently. In cases where Artecoll has been used around the edges of the lips to remove fine lines and wrinkles, some patients have reported annoying nodules or small lumps. In a few cases, surgery was required to remove the Artecoll.\n\nSection::::Non-surgical alternatives.\n", "Chapped lips (also cheilitis simplex or common cheilitis) are characterized by cracking, fissuring, and peeling of the skin of the lips, and are one of the most common types of cheilitis. While both lips may be affected, the lower lip is the most common site. There may also be burning or the formation of large, painful cracks when the lips are stretched. Chronic cheilitis simplex can progress to crusting and bleeding.\n", "Section::::Examples.\n\nNotable examples in British history include Captain Lawrence Oates's understated act of Antarctic sacrifice: aware that his own ill health was compromising his three companions' chances of survival, he calmly left the tent and chose certain death; Sir Francis Drake finishing his game of bowls before embarking on the defeat of the Spanish Armada; and The Earl of Uxbridge's calm assessment of his injuries (he had lost his leg) to the Duke of Wellington when hit by a cannonball during the Battle of Waterloo in the Napoleonic Wars.\n\nSection::::Origins.\n", "The open head joint process is done by leaving out mortar from the joints. This create open holes of the same size of the typical spacing of the joints. This is the most common method and most effective way to evaporate water from the cavity. The spacing between open head joints can be done at every . One of the problems with this method is that the open head joints create large holes which may not be appealing. Some maintenance workers may also inadvertently patch those holes up without realizing they are weep holes. There are some products such as aluminum vent and plastic grid that can be inserted into the weep holes to make them less conspicuous.\n", "ChapStick\n\nChapStick is a brand name of lip balm manufactured by Pfizer Consumer Healthcare and used in many countries worldwide. It is intended to help treat and prevent chapped lips, hence the name. Many varieties also include sunscreen in order to prevent sunburn.\n", "Lip licking, biting, or rubbing habits are frequently involved. Counterintuitively, constant licking of the lips causes drying and irritation, and eventually the mucosa splits or cracks. The lips have a greater tendency to dry out in cold, dry weather. Digestive enzymes present in saliva may also irritate the lips, and the evaporation of the water in saliva saps moisture from them.\n\nSome children have a habit of sucking and chewing on the lower lip, producing a combination of cheilitis and sharply demarcated perioral erythema (redness). \n", "Washer fluid may sometimes be preheated before being delivered onto the windshield. This is especially desirable in colder climates when a thin layer of ice or frost accumulates on the windshield's surface, because it eliminates the need to manually scrape the windshield or pour warm water on the glass. Although there are a few aftermarket preheat devices available, many automobile makers offer this feature factory installed on at least some of their vehicles. For example, General Motors had begun equipping vehicles with heated washer fluid systems from the factory beginning in 2006 with the Buick Lucerne sedan. The system emits a fine mist of heated water that clears frost without damaging the windshield itself. GM also claims heated washer fluid helps in removing bug splatters and other road accumulation. The company halted the production of these mechanisms after they found that it was prone to start engine fires. A different system patented by BMW first sprays \"intensive\" washer fluid and then standard washer fluid on to the windscreen.\n", "Section::::Chart performance.\n", "My Lips Betray\n\nMy Lips Betray is a 1933 American pre-Code musical comedy film directed by John G. Blystone and starring Lilian Harvey, John Boles and El Brendel. The film's sets were designed by the art director Joseph C. Wright.\n\nSection::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Lilian Harvey as Lili Wieler\n\nBULLET::::- John Boles as King Rupert aka Captain von Linden\n\nBULLET::::- El Brendel as Oswald Stigmat, Chauffeur\n\nBULLET::::- Irene Browne as Queen Mother Therese\n\nBULLET::::- Maude Eburne as Mamma Watscheck\n\nBULLET::::- Henry Stephenson as De Conti\n\nBULLET::::- Herman Bing as Weininger\n\nBULLET::::- Frank Atkinson as Baptiste, Royal Valet\n", "BULLET::::- Between the age 40 to 60, called “middle age”, warmness and wetness will plummet and instead, coldness and dryness will be predominant in the body. After the age 60, also called “old age”, abnormal wetness may occur in the body so the \"Mizaj\" will become cold and wet. And due to the excessive wetness for many old age is synonymous with puffy eyes and face, loose skin, drowsiness and loss of memory.\n", "Controlling water vapor in air is a key concern in the heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) industry. Thermal comfort depends on the moist air conditions. Non-human comfort situations are called refrigeration, and also are affected by water vapor. For example, many food stores, like supermarkets, utilize open chiller cabinets, or \"food cases\", which can significantly lower the water vapor pressure (lowering humidity). This practice delivers several benefits as well as problems.\n\nSection::::In Earth's atmosphere.\n", "In arid and semi-arid climates, the scarcity of water makes water consumption a concern in cooling system design. From the installed water meters, 420938 L (111,200 gal) of water were consumed during 2002 for the two passive cooling towers at the Zion National Park visitors' center. However, such concerns are addressed by experts who note that electricity generation usually requires a large amount of water, and evaporative coolers use far less electricity, and thus comparable water overall, and cost less overall, compared to chillers.\n\nSection::::Designs.:Design considerations.:Shading.\n" ]	[ "Adding moisture to lips should prevent them from being chapped.", "Adding water to lips would be enough to keep lips moist." ]	[ "Lips get chapped due to excessive loss of moisture. Saliva or water hastens this process by removing the oil layer on skin that protects lips from water loss. ", "Adding water to the skin won't last, it would only make them wet briefly." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Adding moisture to lips should prevent them from being chapped.", "Adding water to lips would be enough to keep lips moist." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Lips get chapped due to excessive loss of moisture. Saliva or water hastens this process by removing the oil layer on skin that protects lips from water loss. ", "Adding water to the skin won't last, it would only make them wet briefly." ]
2018-16530	Why do ancient Greek sculptures have such small penises?	At the time, large male members were considered primitive / uncultured / barbarian in nature.	[ "The ancient Greeks believed that small penises were ideal. Scholars believe that most ancient Greeks probably had roughly the same size penises as most other Europeans, but Greek artistic portrayals of handsome youths show them with inordinately small, uncircumcised penises with disproportionately large foreskins, indicating that these were seen as ideal. Large penises in Greek art are reserved exclusively for comically grotesque figures, such as satyrs, a class of hideous, horse-like woodland spirits, who are shown in Greek art with absurdly massive penises. Actors portraying male characters in ancient Greek comedy wore enormous, fake, red penises, which dangled underneath their costumes; these were intended as ridiculous and were meant to be laughed at.\n", "The Greeks regularly built a shrine which they called \"Herm\" at the entrance of major public buildings, homes and along roads to honor Hermes, messenger of the gods. The shrines typically \"took the form of a vertical pillar topped by the bearded head of a man and from the surface of the pillar below the head, an erect phallus protruded\". It is believed that they sought their inspiration from the ancient Egyptians and their phallic image of Min, the valley god, who was similarly \"depicted as a standing bearded king with simplified body, one arm raised, the other hand holding his erect phallus.\"\n", "Life-size human sculpture in hard stone began in Greece in the archaic period. This was inspired in part by ancient Egyptian stone sculpture: the proportions of the New York Kouros exactly correspond to Egyptian rules about the proportion of human figures. In Greece, these sculptures best survive as religious dedications and grave markers, but the same techniques would have also been used to make cult images.\n", "Nonetheless, there are indications that the Greeks had an open mind about large penises. A statue of the god Hermes with an exaggerated penis stood outside the main gate of Athens and in Alexandria in 275 BC, a procession in honor of Dionysus hauled a 180-foot phallus through the city and people venerated it by singing hymns and reciting poems. The Romans, in contrast to the Greeks, seem to have admired large penises and large numbers of large phalli have been recovered from the ruins of Pompeii. Depictions of Priapus were very popular in Roman erotic art and literature. Over eighty obscene poems dedicated to him have survived.\n", "Grave monuments of this kind were regularly set up along streets of graves at the edges of Greek cities. The figures appear blocky. At the time of its creation, the relief was deeper and the figural depictions distinct from the background. The grave relief is an early example of this new type of depiction. The figures retain a strong, plastic liveliness.\n", "Section::::Works.\n\nWorks ascribed to Lydos can be found on all types of vase shape then produced in the Athenian potters’ quarter, including a series of grave \"pinakes\".\n", "Perceptions of penis size are culture-specific. Some prehistoric sculptures and petroglyphs depict male figures with exaggerated erect penises. Ancient Egyptian cultural and artistic conventions generally prevented large penises from being shown in art, as they were considered obscene, but the scruffy, balding male figures in the Turin Erotic Papyrus are shown with exaggeratedly large genitals. The Egyptian god Geb is sometimes shown with a massive erect penis and the god Min is almost always shown with an erection.\n\nSection::::Historical perceptions.:Antiquity.\n", "BULLET::::- An unfinished statue of a young naked man with wreath\n\nBULLET::::- A gargoyle head representing the Greek cook-slave\n\nBULLET::::- A frieze of a naked man, possibly the god Hermes, wearing a chlamys\n\nBULLET::::- A hermaic sculpture of an old man thought to be a master of the gymnasium, where it was found. He used to hold a long stick in his left hand, symbol of his function.\n", "The obelisk shows male forms in two separate registers. The lower figure is a nude male who kneels with a pestle and mortar, which could suggest equally craftsmen or food preparation. He has parallels on the Warka Vase, where likewise nude males carry baskets of food for religious purposes. \n", "Section::::Phalluses.\n\nThe phallus (the erect penis), whether on Pan, Priapus or a similar deity, or on its own, was a common image. It was not seen as threatening or even necessarily erotic, but as a ward against the evil eye. The phallus was sculpted in bronze as \"tintinnabula\" (wind chimes). Phallus-animals were common household items. Note the child on one of the wind chimes.\n\nSection::::Priapus.\n", "Still in the time-frame of the Prenuragic age, but in this case during the Eneolithic period, there is a remarkable production of \"Laconi-type\" statue-menhirs or statue-stelae, assigned to the Abealzu-Filigosa culture and characterized by a uniform tripartite scheme encompassing, from top to bottom: a stylized T-shaped human face; the depiction of the enigmatic \"capovolto\" (the capsized) in the kind of \"trident capovolto\"; and a double-headed dagger in relief.\n", "Section::::Minoan and Mycenaean.:Utensils.\n", "Section::::Development of Greek sculptures.:Archaic.\n", "In Ancient Greece, \"phalloi\" were believed to have apotropaic qualities. Often stone reliefs would be placed above doorways, and three-dimensional versions were erected across the Greek world. Most notable of these were the urban monuments found on the island of Delos. Grotesque, satyr-like bearded faces, sometimes with the pointed cap of the workman, were carved over the doors of ovens and kilns, to protect the work from fire and mishap.\n", "There stand two statues of naked men in the Anaktoron of the Samothracians, with both hands stretched up toward heaven and their pudenda turned up, just as the statue of Hermes at Kyllene. The aforesaid statues are images of the primal man and of the regenerated, spiritual man who is in every respect consubstantial with that man.\n", "One set, dated to c. 8th-7th century BC and presently in the Louvre depicts a male couple consisting of an older bearded male and a younger male with long, flowing hair and curls in front. The older partner, who carries a horn bow, grasps the younger by the arm and draws him close. The younger carries a slain goat on his shoulders, presumably a sacrificial animal. They are looking intently at each other, their legs and feet touch, and the genitals of the younger male are exposed.\n", "An intermediate stage of this process could be represented by the appearance of hammered relief sculptures during the Middle Bronze Age – in both Sardinia and Corsica: in the former country, baetyls were engraved with male or female sexual characters in relief, while in the latter – perhaps due to the greater presence of metal implements – relief sculpture was applied for the first time to menhirs. In both islands, anthropomorphic statuary in the strict sense of the word would not exist between 1600 and 1250 BC, but sexual characters and weapons were represented in Sardinia and Corsica respectively. In a successive evolution stage, the relief technique was employed in Sardinia – for the first time after Eneolithic sculptures – to represent a human face, as shown in the famous baetyl of \"San Pietro di Golgo\" (Baunei).\n", "Depending on the different hypotheses, the dating of the \"Kolossoi\" – the name that archaeologist Giovanni Lilliu gave to the statues – varies between the 11th and the 8th century BC. If this is further confirmed by archaeologists, they would be the most ancient anthropomorphic sculptures of the Mediterranean area, after the Egyptian statues, preceding the kouroi of ancient Greece.\n\nThe scholar David Ridgway on this unexpected archaeological discovery wrote: while the archaeologist Miriam Scharf Balmuth said: \n\nSection::::History of Prenuragic statuary.\n", "The Greek Monumental Period (660–650 BCE) was marked by life-sized sculpture, the origins of which several scholars trace to Greek cultural interaction with Egypt and Mesopotamia. In fact, Homolle notes in his initial publication regarding the sculpture that \"the hair is spread out on the shoulders, pretty much in the manner of the hairstyle of the Egyptians - which at first sight gives are statue the look of an Egyptian work\", although he later insists that such similarities are purely coincidental. Nikandre's dedication, which stands tall and thick, is one of the earliest whole surviving life-size marble sculptures, meaning that many have attributed it to the start of this new period of Archaic monumental sculpture.\n", "The subsequent Minoan and Mycenaean cultures developed sculpture further, under influence from Syria and elsewhere, but it is in the later Archaic period from around 650 BCE that the kouros developed. These are large standing statues of naked youths, found in temples and tombs, with the kore as the clothed female equivalent, with elaborately dressed hair; both have the \"archaic smile\". They seem to have served a number of functions, perhaps sometimes representing deities and sometimes the person buried in a grave, as with the Kroisos Kouros. They are clearly influenced by Egyptian and Syrian styles, but the Greek artists were much more ready to experiment within the style.\n", "Section::::Development of Greek sculptures.:Classical.\n", "Around seventy metope reliefs carved in local sandstone have been recovered in excavations. They had been broken up, often into small fragments, and had to be pieced together like jigsaws. Thirty eight of these belong to a more ancient group (second half of the 6th century) and must have decorated buildings which cannot now be reconstructed. It was once thought they came from a rectangular building thought to be a treasury, but excavations demonstrated that this was built much too late for the style of the reliefs. The metopes of this group depict episodes from the Twelve Labours of Heracles, the Trojan War, and the lives of Jason and Orestes.\n", "Fertility was present in art traditionally in many different forms. These include ceramic figures from some Pre-Columbian cultures, and a few figures from most of the ancient Mediterranean cultures. Many of these seem to be connected with fertility. Palielothic statuettes had round bellies, short heads and short, pointed legs. They also exaggerate the hips, breasts, thighs, or vulva of the subject.\n", "One of the more striking features of this panoply was the decoration of the cuirass, directly comparable – identical, almost – to the decoration seen on the earliest of the later Olympia examples, dating to the next century. Courbin, in his publication of the 1953 Argos excavations, also noted similarities in the marking of the thoracic arch in the breastplate of the newly unearthed Argos cuirass and in the statues of Kleobis and Biton at Delphi.\n", "The only exceptions were three projects that were not constructed in situ: the work MMXD 3010, I-ΙΙ-ΙΙΙ by Jason Molfessis, a steel construction manufactured in a factory in Aspropyrgos and then transferred to Delphi as well as an interior steel sculpture THE MEETING POINT OF THE SANCTUARY & OF THE THEATRE AT THE BOTTOM OF THE SEA by Panayiotis Tanimanidis, and ARCHAIC CONSTRUCTIONS by Nikos Alexiou, interior work made of reed, papyrus and plexiglas, made at the artists’ workshops in Athens.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-07309	how did pre industrial sailing ships move up to or move away from docks in a controlled manner?	If winds were not suitable for sailing right up to the docks, they would run a line (rope) between ship and dock, and then gradually pull it in.	[ "The earliest known description of a floating dock comes from a small Italian book printed in Venice in 1560, titled \"Descrittione dell'artifitiosa machina\". In the booklet, an unknown author asks for the privilege of using a new method for the salvaging of a grounded ship and then proceeds to describe and illustrate his approach. The included woodcut shows a ship flanked by two large floating trestles, forming a roof above the vessel. The ship is pulled in an upright position by a number of ropes attached to the superstructure.\n\nLifting tower\n", "Mariner's astrolabe\n\nThe earliest recorded uses of the astrolabe for navigational purposes are by the Portuguese explorers Diogo de Azambuja (1481), Bartholomew Diaz (1487/88) and Vasco da Gama (1497/98) during their sea voyages around Africa.\n\nDry dock\n\nWhile dry docks were already known in Hellenistic shipbuilding, these facilities were reintroduced in 1495/96, when Henry VII of England ordered one to be built at the Portsmouth navy base.\n\nSection::::Basic technology.:16th century.\n\nFloating dock\n", "In 1826, M.F. Bourdon tested a variant with two steam ships. One of the ships drove forward using a paddle wheel whilst simultaneously uncoiling a rope, long. After unwinding the rope fully, the ship anchored and hauled the second tugboat with its chain of attached barges up to itself, the rear tugboat assisting the process with its own power. The two boats then changed position and repeated the procedure. However, a lot of time was lost during the anchoring manoeuvre.\n", "In the 16th century, the use of freeboard and freeing ports became widespread on galleons.\n", "Logs when hauled were always carried above deck, secured by heavy chain, the space between decks being left empty to give added buoyancy. The logs were taken to Auckland and unloaded into floating \"booms\" to await breaking down in the sawmills of the Kauri Timber Company and other such mills that operated right on the edge of Auckland Harbour.\n\nThe golden age of scows and schooners lasted from the 1890s to the end of the First World War when schooners were superseded by steamers and scows were gradually replaced with tugs.\n", "In his book \"Captain Joshua Slocum\", Joshua's son Victor Slocum stated that \"the ballast was concrete cement, stanchioned down securely to ensure it against shifting should the vessel be hove on her beam-ends. There was no outside ballast whatever. The \"Spray\" could have been self-righting if hove on her beam-ends, a fact that was proven, since, by an experiment on an exact duplicate of the original boat and ballasted just like her. The test boat was hove down with mast flat to the water and when released righted herself.\"\n", "Given the limited maneuverability of sailing ships, it could be difficult to enter and leave harbor with the presence of a tide without coordinating arrivals with a flooding tide and departures with an ebbing tide. In harbor, a sailing ship stood at anchor, unless it needed to be loaded or unloaded at a dock or pier, in which case it had to be towed to shore by its boats or by other vessels.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nThese are examples of sailing ships; some terms have multiple meanings:\n\nDefined by general configuration\n\nBULLET::::- Caravel: small maneuverable ship, lateen rigged\n", "The scow in particular, in the form of the scow schooner, was the first significant example of a hard chine sailing vessel. While sailing scows had a poor safety reputation, that was due more to their typical cheap construction and tendency to founder in storms. As long as it sailed in the protected inland and coastal waters it was designed to operate in, however, the sailing scow was an efficient and cost effective solution to transporting goods from inland sources to the coast. A good example of this is the gundalow.\n", "Initially, the hulls were constructed of wood, with lines like those of any other small merchant ship. This proved to be unsatisfactory for a ship that was permanently anchored, and the shape of the hull evolved to reduce rolling and pounding. As iron and steel were used in other ships, so were they used in lightvessels, and the advent of steam and diesel power led to self-propelled and electrically lighted designs. Earlier vessels had to be towed to and from station.\n", "The scow schooner \"Alma\" of San Francisco, built in 1891, restored in the 1960s, and designated a National Historic Landmark (NHL) in 1988, was one of the last scow schooners in operation. She is a small example, 59 feet in length, 22.6 feet in beam, with a draft of 4 feet and a loaded displacement of 41 tons.\n\n\"Elsie\" was the last scow sloop operated on the Chesapeake Bay. Although sailing scows were once numerous around the Bay, they are very poorly documented.\n", "Usually, the main vessel towed behind a smaller \"tender\" for landing. Data from Marco Polo records made it possible to calculate that the largest ships may have had capacities of 500-800 tons, about the same as Chinese vessels used to trade in the 19th century. The tender itself may have been able to carry about 70 tons.\n", "When a ship was becalmed, mastless, run aground or otherwise unable to move, a ship's boat provided a source of motive power. The ship's anchor and cable would be rowed a distance from the ship before being laid, the crew would then man the ship's capstans to haul the ship forward, known as kedging or warping, this would be repeated as many times as needed.\n\nThe ship's boats could also when needed be used as a lifeboats and rescue boats.\n\nSection::::Age of sail.:Storage.\n", "The \"baands\" divided the boat into four sections: the \"fore room\", for fishing tackle etc.; the \"mid room\", for ballast; the \"owsin room\", which was kept clear for bailing, \"owsin\", any water which came aboard, using an \"owsekerri\"; and the \"shot room\", which is where the catch was stored.\n", "Ted Wright had formulated this theory much earlier, as set out in his book \"The Ferriby Boats: Seacraft of the Bronze Age\", published in 1990.\n\nSection::::Display.\n\nThe original boats were excavated in 1946 and unfortunately had to be cut up to be moved. They were housed in the Archaeological Gallery of the National Maritime Museum in Greenwich, but are now in the care of Hull Museums. Details concerning the boats can be found on an information board on Ferriby foreshore, on a public footpath that forms part of the Trans Pennine Trail.\n\nSection::::Replicas.\n", "Possibly the earliest description of a floating dock comes from a small Italian book printed in Venice in 1560, called \"Descrittione dell'artifitiosa machina\". In the booklet, an unknown author asks for the privilege of using a new method for the salvaging of a grounded ship and then proceeds to describe and illustrate his approach. The included woodcut shows a ship flanked by two large floating trestles, forming a roof above the vessel. The ship is pulled in an upright position by a number of ropes attached to the superstructure.\n\nSection::::History.:Modern era.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Sailing carriage.\n\nThe earliest text describing the Chinese use of mounting masts and sails on large vehicles is the \"Book of the Golden Hall Master\" written by the Daoist scholar and crown prince Xiao Yi, who later became Emperor Yuan of Liang (r. 552–554 AD). He wrote that Gaocang Wushu invented a \"wind-driven carriage\" which was able to carry thirty people at once. There was another built in about 610 for the Emperor Yang of Sui (r. 604–617), as described in the \"Continuation of the New Discourses on the Talk of the Times\".\n", "On the Delaware, the usual crew was three men. Movement downstream was by the current with occasional use of two 18-foot oars. The boat was propelled upstream by the use of 12 to 18 foot iron-shod setting poles. Twelve inch wide “walking-boards” ran the length of the boat on either side. Crew members set their poles on the bottom of the river and walked from the forward end of the boat to the stern, driving the boat forward. The captain, who steered, held the boat from going back with the current with a pole while the crew returned to repeat the process.\n", "The problem of the inaccessibility of gear was met in the Thames barge by stepping the mast in a tabernacle and using a windlass on the foredeck to strike the whole lot, mast, sprit, sails and rigging. The crew could sail under a low bridge such as at Aylesford or Rochester the without losing steerage way. The windlass is below the tack of the foresail and the tackle at the foot of the forestay. In striking the gear, the foresail tack tackle had to be cast off, the bridge cleared, the skipper and an extra man (the huffler) used the windlass to raise the mast.\n", "He also designed a system for moving cannons from one side of a vessel to the other, permitting her to carry fewer cannon. The system was tried on , but was not adopted more widely. One problem was that when all the guns were on one side, there was little freeboard.\n", "The steering gear of earlier ships's wheels sometimes consisted of a double wheel where each wheel was connected to the other with a wooden \"spindle\" that ran through a \"barrel\" or \"drum\". The spindle was held up by two \"pedestals\" that rested on a wooden \"platform\", often no more than a grate. A \"tiller rope\" or \"tiller chain\" (sometimes called a \"steering rope\" or \"steering chain\") ran around the barrel in five or six loops and then down through two \"tiller rope/ chain slots\" at the top of the platform before connecting to two sheaves just below deck (one on either side of the ship's wheel) and thence out to a pair of pulleys before coming back together at the tiller and connecting to the ship's rudder. Movement of the wheels (which were connected and moved in unison) caused the tiller rope to wind in one of two directions and angled the tiller left or right. In a typical and intuitive arrangement, a forward-facing helmsman turning the wheel \"counter\"clockwise would cause the tiller to angle to starboard and therefore the rudder to swing to port causing the vessel to also turn to port (see animation). On many vessels the helmsman stood facing the rear of the ship with the ship's wheel before him and the rest of the ship behind him— this still meant that the direction of travel of the wheel at its apex corresponded to the direction of turn of the ship. Having two wheels connected by an axle allowed two people to take the helm in severe weather when one person alone might not have had enough strength to control the ship's movements.\n", "Between barge and boat well is the undershot water wheel, which is driven by the flowing water of the current. There is also evidence of water mills for which both sides had a narrower water wheel, similar to an old paddle steamer. The floating platform is anchored at the most intense point in the current, to the bridge piers for easy access to the mill, or to the shore.\n", "In the example shown below, a tugboat was positioned on the left side of the barge (our right in the apron view), pulling it with a stout rope called a springline. Nearly identical structures were used around San Francisco Bay. Unlike the electric motor drive used here and elsewhere, the Point Richmond ferry slip used water tanks as a portion of the counterweight, with the amount of water (provided by gravity from a local creek) regulated to move the apron up or down by admitting or draining water from the tanks.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nCogs are first mentioned in 948 AD, in Muiden near Amsterdam. These early cogs were influenced by the Norse Knarr, which was the main trade vessel in northern Europe at the time, and probably used a steering oar, as there is nothing to suggest a stern rudder in northern Europe until about 1240.\n", "Iron-hulled sailing ships, often referred to as \"windjammers\" or \"tall ships\", represented the final evolution of sailing ships at the end of the Age of Sail. They were built to carry bulk cargo for long distances in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. They were the largest of merchant sailing ships, with three to five masts and square sails, as well as other sail plans. They carried lumber, guano, grain or ore between continents. Later examples had steel hulls. Iron-hulled sailing ships were mainly built from the 1870s to 1900, when steamships began to outpace them economically, due to their ability to keep a schedule regardless of the wind. Steel hulls also replaced iron hulls at around the same time. Even into the twentieth century, sailing ships could hold their own on transoceanic voyages such as Australia to Europe, since they did not require bunkerage for coal nor freshwater for steam, and they were faster than the early steamers, which usually could barely make .\n", "The mast could be taken down so that the trow could go under bridges, such as the bridge at Worcester and the many bridges up and downstream. The mast was stepped in a three sided frame open at the rear but closed with an iron pin or rope lashing. From the top of the mast a forestay ran down to the bow winch. To lower the mast the pin was removed and the winch slackened off to let the mast fall towards the stern. The reverse operation pulled the mast up. \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Sailing ships needed to be able to direct themselves into docks without external help before the Industrial Age." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Sailing ships could be pulled into dock using a rope system." ]
2018-12016	Why is it that when I'm trying to hold it in, the urge to #1/#2 comes in waves and not continuously?	It’s mostly because whenever you feel your bladder pressing, you have an urge to squeeze your PC muscles tightly. This stops the stream, but only temporarily. The waves you feel are your PC muscles loosening from the fatigue caused by holding in your pee for so long. As for your bowels, it’s your sphincter muscle doing the same thing. Unless you’re compromised in some way, your muscles won’t loosen completely. Older people have looser muscles which is why they have bowel and urinary incontinence.	[ "Urininary urgency may be as a result of anxiety or in some cases extended sexual arousal. When a human male is attracted to a mate, there is an autonomic nervous system response, and the body is therefore not entirely under conscious control, with many hormones including norepinephrine being released in the parasympathetic system in a cascade of ways designed by genetics to make the male more likely to breed. Specifically, the release of norepinephrine will lead to sweaty palms, inability to find words, rough and lowered voice, increased need to blink and urinary urgency. \n", "Despite the concerns about long acting agents, a mixture of lidocaine and marcaine is often used. A mixture of 1 part 2% lidocaine with 3 parts 0.5% bupivacaine (trade name:Marcaine) provides 0.5% lidocaine and 0.375% bupivacaine. This has the advantages of immediate anesthesia with lidocaine during injection to minimize injection pain while providing a longer duration of action with a lowered concentration of bupivacaine.\n\nIn 1979, a study by Czech physician Karl Lewit reported that dry needling had the same success rate as anesthetic injections for the treatment of trigger points. He dubbed this the 'needle effect'.\n", "In some circumstances, release of nitric oxide precedes relaxation of the clitoral cavernosal artery and nearby muscle, in a process similar to male arousal. More blood flows in through the clitoral cavernosal artery, the pressure in the corpora cavernosa clitoridis rises, and the clitoris is engorged with blood. This leads to extrusion of the glans clitoridis and enhanced sensitivity to physical contact.\n", "Section::::Commercial performance.\n", "Dry needling can be divided into categories in terms of depth of penetration: deep and superficial dry needling. Deep dry needling will inactivate myofascial triggers points by provoking a local twitch response (LTR), which is an involuntary spinal cord reflex in which the muscle fibers in the taut band of muscle contract. The LTR indicates the proper placement of the needle in a trigger point. Dry needling that elicits LTRs improves treatment outcomes, and may work by activating endogenous opioids. The activation of the endogenous opioids is for an analgesic effect using the Gate Control Theory of Pain. In addition to relieving myofascial trigger points, deep dry needling is also identified to decreases pain, increase range of motion, and minimize myofascial trigger point irritability. In regards to the factor of pain reduction, relief occurs at four central levels: local pain, spinal pain through nerves, brain stem pain, and higher brain center pain.\n", "Once signed to Capitol Records, Hammer re-issued his first record (a revised version of \"Feel My Power\") with additional tracks added and sold over 2 million copies. Recorded between 1987–1988, it was released on September 28, 1988. \"Pump It Up\", \"Turn This Mutha Out\", \"Let's Get It Started\" and \"They Put Me in the Mix\" were released as singles from this album which all charted.\n", "To examine facilitation during shorter intervals, Katz and Miledi directly applied brief depolarizing stimuli to nerve endings. When increasing the depolarizing stimulus from 1-2 ms, neurotransmitter release greatly increased due to accumulation of active . Therefore, the degree of facilitation depends on the amount of active , which is determined by the reduction in conductance over time as well as the amount of removed from axon terminals after the first stimulus. Facilitation is greatest when the impulses are closest together because conductance would not return to baseline prior to the second stimulus. Therefore, both conductance and accumulated would be greater for the second impulse when presented shortly after the first.\n", "H-reflex amplitudes measured by EMG are shown to decrease significantly with applied pressure such as massage and tapping to the cited muscle. The amount of decrease seems to be dependent on the force of the pressure, with higher pressures resulting in lower H-reflex amplitudes. H-reflex levels return to baseline immediately after pressure is released except in high pressure cases which had baseline levels returned within the first 10 seconds.\n", "BULLET::::- There is noted sex difference in prepulse inhibition and facilitation, with men having higher PPI (i.e., when a prepulse is quickly followed by a pulse, all subjects tend to experience a reduced startle response, with men often experiencing lesser startle responses compared to women) and women having higher PPF (i.e., when the prepulse occurs more than half a second before the pulse, all subjects tend to experience heightened startle responses, with women tending to experience greater startle responses than men) .\n", "Section::::Release and reaction.\n", "The fear grows palpable when it is realised that the number of victims is growing exponentially; the time between each attack halves each time, and the number of victims doubles. The hero, Sir Robert Nailer, realised this trend when he was following a van sporting the advertisement for a typewriter which read, \"Twice the output in half the time\".\n", "Don't Give It Up (Lemar song)\n\n\"Don't Give It Up\" was the third single and final single taken from British R&B singer Lemar's second album \"Time to Grow\". \n", "\"Open Up And Say Ahh\" was certified platinum in 1988 and 5x platinum in 1991 by the RIAA. It also has been certified 4x platinum in Canada and gold by the BPI.\n\nSection::::Production and marketing.\n", "\"1-2-3\" reached number two in the US \"Billboard\" chart, (\"I Hear a Symphony\" by The Supremes kept it from the number one spot). \"1-2-3\" also went to number 11 on the \"Billboard\" R&B chart. Overseas, the song peaked at number three on the UK Singles Chart. In addition, it was also a Top 10 hit in both Australia, where it went to number seven, and in Ireland, where it went to number eight.\n\nIt sold over one and three quarter million copies, and was awarded a gold disc.\n\nSection::::Covers.\n", "Hold Out\n\nHold Out is the sixth album by American singer-songwriter Jackson Browne, released in 1980 (see 1980 in music). Although critically the album has not been as well received as other Browne recordings, it remains his only album to date to reach number 1 on the \"Billboard\" chart.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Duration of nerve block.\n\nThe duration of the nerve block depends on the type of local anesthetics used and the amount injected around the target nerve. There are short acting (45–90 minutes), intermediate duration (90–180 minutes), and long acting anesthetics (4–18 hours). Block duration can be prolonged with use of a vasoconstrictor such as epinephrine, which decreases the diffusion of the anesthetic away from the nerve.\n", "Section::::Chart performance.\n", "Based on Janov's own in-house studies, Janov and Holden concluded that the pre-primal rise in vital signs indicates the person's neurotic defenses are being stretched by the ascending Pain to the point of producing an \"acute anxiety attack\" (the conventional description), and the fall to more normal levels than pre-primal levels indicates a degree of resolution of the Pain.\n", "BULLET::::2. Milking: The tongue moves from areola to nipple, coaxing milk from the mother to be swallowed by the child.\n\nSection::::Rooting reflex.\n", "According to Janov, Primal Pains are imprinted in the lower brain first, then later the limbic system, and still later intellectual defenses are formed by the cortex simply because this is the sequence of neurological development. The therapy therefore occurs in the reverse sequence: \"There is no way to go deep without first going shallow.\" In primal therapy, medication is prescribed for some \"overloaded\" patients, so they do not overshoot into first-line pains that they are not ready to feel, thereby allowing them to feel the more recent pains first.\n\nSection::::Concepts.:Origins of neurosis.\n", "This is in contrast to negative emotions, which prompt narrow, immediate survival-oriented behaviors. For example, the negative emotion of anxiety leads to the specific fight-or-flight response for immediate survival. On the other hand, positive emotions do not have any immediate survival value, because they take one's mind off immediate needs and stressors. However, over time, the skills and resources built by broadened behavior enhance survival.\n\nWhen a life-threatening event occurs, people typically have a narrow range of possible responses or urges. Having a limited number of urges, called specific action tendencies, quickens a person's response time in these situations.\n", "While the band no longer plays it at shows for the most part, many concerts are usually filled with shouts of the song's name from fans in the crowd. The band has played the song in the past couple years at some shows, taking half of it and half of \"Softer to Me\" and playing the two back-to-back.\n\nSection::::Music video.\n", "Current levels and density are an important consideration in all cortical stimulation mapping procedures. Current density, that is the amount of current applied to a defined area of the brain, must be sufficient to stimulate neurons effectively and not die off too quickly, yet low enough to protect brain tissue from damaging currents. Currents are kept at levels that have been determined safe and are only given as short bursts, typically bursts that slowly increase in intensity and duration until a response (such as a muscle movement) can be tested. Current intensity is usually set around bursts of 1 mA to begin and gradually increased by increments of 0.5 to 1 mA, and the current is applied for a few seconds. If the current applied causes afterdischarges, nerve impulses that occur after stimulation, then the levels are lowered. Studies on patients who have received cortical stimulation mapping have found no cortical damage in the tested areas.\n", "\"It's ['Give It 2 Me'] very anthemic. I basically wrote it so I could have a great time doing it in a stadium. The words are very autobiographical. 'Got no boundaries, got no limits. [...] Don't stop me now. [...] If it's against the law, arrest me.' [...] Yes, that's me. It's the provocative me. The boring, predictable me.\"\n", "BULLET::::- The opening quotation, \"Yet our best trained, best educated, best equipped, best prepared troops refuse to fight! Matter of fact, it's safe to say that they would rather \"switch\" than fight!,\" was taken from a 1967 speech by Chicago attorney and civil rights activist, Thomas \"TNT\" Todd. Todd's comment parodied a contemporary cigarette advertising campaign. By changing the order of \"switch\" and \"fight,\" Todd implies that potential soldiers would rather be gay — and thus ineligible to serve — than go to fight in Vietnam.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Different Strokes\" by Syl Johnson\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02246	Why are the countries that make up Great Britain allowed to team up to compete in the Olympics as a single entity?	The real question is why they compete separately in other sports. Usually by the word "country" we mean a sovereign state. The UK is a sovereign state. The UK isn't particularly unusual as sovereign states go, except for the fact that it calls its constituent parts "countries". So the UK can be considered a country, or it can be considered a union of constituent countries. The Olympics usually has a team per sovereign state. Although there are many exceptions for dependent territories, the UK proper is not an exception (although it has dependent territories which are). Other sports like football are different. Although its still usually the case that there is one team per sovereign state, the UK is an exception because the sport originated in the UK. The first "international" football games were between the nations within the UK, so they've continued to compete separately.	[ "In international competition the constituent nations of Great Britain ordinarily compete as separate unions representing England, Scotland and Wales. Northern Irish players who normally represent Ireland would have been eligible however the IRFU insisted that they do not play for Great Britain. \n", "In international competition the constituent nations of Great Britain ordinarily compete as separate unions representing England, Scotland and Wales. Northern Irish players who normally represent Ireland would have been eligible however the IRFU insisted that they do not play for Great Britain. For the purposes of qualification for the 2016 Olympics the three British unions agreed in advance of the 2013–14 men's and women's Sevens World Series that their highest-finishing teams in that season would represent all three unions in the first stage of qualification during the 2014–15 series. The England men's and women's teams earned the right to represent the British unions in that stage of their respective competitions.\n", "BULLET::::- 29 May 2009: After last-ditch talks prompted by a FIFA deadline, the four national federations within the UK come to a compromise regarding football participation at the Games. By that time, Northern Ireland had pulled out of any potential \"Team GB\". On that date, the four federations sent a letter to FIFA stating that while the Scottish, Welsh, and Northern Ireland federations would not participate in unified Olympic men's and women's football teams, they would not prevent England from fielding teams under the Great Britain banner for the Games.\n\nSection::::Announcements and developments.:Organisation.\n", "The qualifiers in the mixed team events are also entitled to compete in the individual events.\n\nBULLET::::- Individual\n\nBULLET::::- Team\n\nSection::::Athletics.\n", "Section::::Sports not contested by Great Britain in Rio.:Football.\n", "A significant complication is that the Olympic Council of Ireland, established in 1920 while Ireland was part of the United Kingdom, claims to represent the whole island of Ireland and not merely the Republic. The OCI and BOA have an agreement under which Northern Ireland sportspeople may choose to compete for either team, and in fact most Northern Ireland athletes choose to represent the OCI at the Olympic Games and not Team GB.\n", "After London's successful bid to host the 2012 Olympics, UK Sport submitted a funding request to the Department for Culture, Media and Sport setting an \"aspirational goal\" of fourth place in the 2012 medals table, to be reviewed after the 2008 Olympics, for which a target of eighth place was set. The British Olympic Association dissociated itself from setting targets. When Britain finished fourth in 2008, the 2012 target was settled at fourth, with the team ultimately finishing third.\n", "Section::::Archery.\n\nAt the 2007 World Outdoor Target Championships, Great Britain's men's team placed second and its women's team placed third. This qualified the nation to send full teams of three men and three women to the Olympics.\n\nBULLET::::- Men\n\nBULLET::::- Women\n\nSection::::Athletics.\n", "On 13 March 2011, Fiba voted 17-3 in favour of Great Britain receiving their host nation spot at the 2012 Olympic games with one condition, they have until 30 June 2012 to decide on whether to merge the three nations that make up the team or disband after the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro.\n\nSection::::Elite level team sports.:Field hockey.\n", "Great Britain secured its first spot for Rio 2016 when Jack Burnell finished fifth in the 10 km open water marathon at the 2015 FINA World Championships. Meanwhile, in the pool, British swimmers earned places for Rio in all the relay events at the same meet with the exception of the women's 4 × 100 m freestyle relay; therefore, they will rely on the ranking times for one of the final four places available in these events.\n", "Representatives of the devolved Northern Ireland government from a unionist background, however, have objected to the name \"Team GB\", and have called for it to be renamed as Team UK to make it clearer that Northern Ireland is included on the team.\n", "British participation in Olympic events, both as a competitor and as a host, is the responsibility of the British Olympic Association.\n\nSection::::1908 Summer Olympics.\n", "As hosts, Great Britain gained automatic entry for men's and women's teams in both indoor and beach volleyball.\n\nSection::::Volleyball.:Indoor.\n\nSection::::Volleyball.:Indoor.:Men's tournament.\n\nBULLET::::- Squad\n\nBULLET::::- Group play\n\nSection::::Volleyball.:Indoor.:Women's tournament.\n\nBULLET::::- Squad\n\nBULLET::::- Group play\n\nSection::::Water polo.\n\nAs hosts, Great Britain gained automatic entry for both men's and women's teams.\n\nSection::::Water polo.:Men's tournament.\n\nBULLET::::- Team roster\n\nBULLET::::- Group play\n\nSection::::Water polo.:Women's tournament.\n\nBULLET::::- Team roster\n\nBULLET::::- Group play\n\nBULLET::::- Quarter-final\n\nBULLET::::- Semi-final 5–8\n\nBULLET::::- Classification 7–8\n\nSection::::Weightlifting.\n", "Great Britain at the 2015 European Games\n\nGreat Britain participated at the 2015 European Games, in Baku, Azerbaijan from 12 to 28 June 2015. As this was the inaugural Games, this was Great Britain's first appearance.\n\nSection::::Before the Games.\n\nOn 17 October 2014, the British Olympic Association announced that 14 sports and 20 disciplines were seeking qualification for the games.\n", "The British Olympic Association of the United Kingdom, its constituent countries, the Crown dependencies and British overseas territories which do not have their own NOC competes at all summer, winter and youth Olympics as –\n\nbr\n\nBULLET::::- Great Britain (\"Team GB\")\n\nSection::::BOA members and Sport Bodies.:Members.\n\nThe association comprises members from the following –\n\nNote – Northern Irish athletes can choose whether to compete for Great Britain or for the Republic of Ireland, as they are entitled to citizenship of either nation under the Good Friday Agreement.\n\nCrown dependencies:\n\nBritish Overseas Territories:\n", "BULLET::::- 16 November 2005: Lord Coe is awarded the Walpole Medal of Excellence by the Walpole Group, and Keith Mills is named as \"Business Leader of the Year\" in the 2005 London Business Awards.\n\nBULLET::::- 12 December 2005: Lord Coe is given a special award at the BBC Sports Personality of the Year awards ceremony for his role in the bid.\n\nBULLET::::- 31 December 2005: In the New Year's honours list numerous members of the bidding team are given recognition and join The Most Excellent Order of the British Empire:\n", "For the purposes of qualification for the 2020 Olympics the three British unions agreed in advance of the 2017-18 men's and women's Sevens World Series that their highest-finishing teams in that season would represent all three unions in the first stage of qualification during the 2018–19 series. The England men's and women's teams earned the right to represent the British unions in that stage of their respective competitions, but failed to qualify for the Olympic events through a top four finish.\n\nAs a result, England took part in the Rugby Europe Olympic qualification events for both men and women.\n", "There have, however, been times when a single team has competed under a UK banner, the most noticeable being in the Summer Olympic Games where a UK team competes as one country under the name Great Britain. In the early years, the Olympic football competition was contested between amateur sides and the British Olympic Committee agreed to let the England amateur team represent the entire UK. More recently the Olympic competition has been played by under-23s teams and Great Britain has not normally been represented. This is because qualification is based on the UEFA Under-21 championship, which means it is impossible for Great Britain to qualify as the national teams participate separately in that competition. There have been instances where an individual nation would have qualified, but a lower ranked nation has taken its place instead.\n", "The team, known by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) as \"Great Britain\", selects athletes from all four of the Home Nations (England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales), as well as the three Crown Dependencies (Isle of Man, Jersey and Guernsey), and all but three of the British overseas territories (Cayman Islands, British Virgin Islands and Bermuda having their own NOCs). The team is organised by the British Olympic Association (BOA) who have since 1999 branded it Team GB, explaining that \"\"Team GB\" is the Great Britain and Northern Ireland Olympic Team.\"\n", "The team is officially known as the Great Britain and Northern Ireland Olympic Team, and the use of Team GB as the BOA's branding is seen as inadequate by some, as it suggests the team is drawn from Great Britain alone, which only consists of England, Scotland and Wales, while omitting the rest of the territories where BOA athletes are eligible for selection, most notably Northern Ireland, as well as the Crown dependencies (Isle of Man, Jersey and Guernsey), and those British Overseas Territories (BOT) that are not represented by their own National Olympic Committee.\n", "UK Sport set targets for medals and positions for each individual Olympic sports except Football. These are listed in the table below, along with the actual Team GB performance.\n\nThe only sport which Team GB failed to meet its medal target was in Swimming.\n\nSection::::Medal and performance targets.:UK Sport funding.\n", "The name was trademarked in September 1999 at the United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office (UK IPO).\n\nSection::::Branding strategy.\n\nThe British Olympic Association state that there \"is only one Olympic team from Great Britain and Northern Ireland: Team GB. There is not an Olympic swimming team or Olympic rowing team. The individual sports join to become Team GB, the Great Britain and Northern Ireland Olympic Team.\" \n", "As hosts, Great Britain received one automatic qualification place per gender. A maximum of two British men and two British women were able to qualify for modern pentathlon events. In the event, Great Britain earned two quota places in each gender.\n\nSection::::Rowing.\n\nGreat Britain qualified boats in 13 of the 14 Olympic events at the 2011 World Championships; the only boat which Britain did not qualify for the Olympics was in the women's single sculls event where Frances Houghton was one place short.\n", "*\n\nSection::::Equestrian.:Show jumping.\n\nBULLET::::- JO = Jump off for gold medal\n\nSection::::Fencing.\n\nAs hosts, Great Britain received eight quota places which could be allocated to any of the fencing events. Additional places could be won in specific disciplines in a series of qualification events.\n", "BULLET::::- Women's team event – 1 team of 18 players\n\nSection::::Modern pentathlon.\n\nBritish athletes qualified for the following spots in the modern pentathlon at the Games. Rio 2016 Olympian Joe Choong secured an outright berth in the men's event by winning the gold medal at the 2019 UIPM World Cup Final in Tokyo, Japan, becoming the first athlete to be named to Team GB for Tokyo 2020.\n\nSection::::Rugby sevens.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04759	How doesn’t a drink fall out a straw when we press the top end with a finger?	For the drink to fall out, something else has to get in to occupy that space. Usually this will be air, but if you seal the top there's no way for air to enter. The drink can't fall out now because it would generate a vacuum inside the straw, and the negative pressure from that vacuum is much stronger then the miniscule weight of the drink.	[ "Inertia is seen when a bowling ball is pushed horizontally on a level, smooth surface, and continues in horizontal motion. This is quite distinct from its weight, which is the downwards gravitational force of the bowling ball one must counter when holding it off the floor. The weight of the bowling ball on the Moon would be one-sixth of that on the Earth, although its mass remains unchanged. Consequently, whenever the physics of \"recoil kinetics\" (mass, velocity, inertia, inelastic and elastic collisions) dominate and the influence of gravity is a negligible factor, the behavior of objects remains consistent even where gravity is relatively weak. For instance, billiard balls on a billiard table would scatter and recoil with the same speeds and energies after a break shot on the Moon as on Earth; they would, however, drop into the pockets much more slowly.\n", "Another common misconception about siphons is that because the atmospheric pressure is virtually identical at the entrance and exit, the atmospheric pressure cancels, and therefore atmospheric pressure can't be pushing the liquid up the siphon. But equal and opposite forces may not completely cancel if there is an intervening force that counters some or all of one of the forces. In the siphon, the atmospheric pressure at the entrance and exit are both lessened by the force of gravity pulling down the liquid in each tube, but the pressure on the down side is lessened more by the taller column of liquid on the down side. In effect, the atmospheric pressure coming up the down side doesn't entirely \"make it\" to the top to cancel all of the atmospheric pressure pushing up the up side. This effect can be seen more easily in the example of two carts being pushed up opposite sides of a hill. As shown in the diagram, even though the person on the left seems to have his push canceled entirely by the equal and opposite push from the person on the right, the person on the left's seemingly canceled push is still the source of the force to push the left cart up.\n", "When an object is placed on a liquid, its weight depresses the surface, and if surface tension and downward force becomes equal than is balanced by the surface tension forces on either side , which are each parallel to the water's surface at the points where it contacts the object. Notice that small movement in the body may cause the object to sink. As the angle of contact decreases surface tension decreases the horizontal components of the two arrows point in opposite directions, so they cancel each other, but the vertical components point in the same direction and therefore add up to balance . The object's surface must not be wettable for this to happen, and its weight must be low enough for the surface tension to support it.\n", "To demonstrate, the longer lower leg of a common siphon can be plugged at the bottom and filled almost to the crest with liquid as in the figure, leaving the top and the shorter upper leg completely dry and containing only air. When the plug is removed and the liquid in the longer lower leg is allowed to fall, the liquid in the upper reservoir will then typically sweep the air bubble down and out of the tube. The apparatus will then continue to operate as a normal siphon. As there is no contact between the liquid on either side of the siphon at the beginning of this experiment, there can be no cohesion between the liquid molecules to pull the liquid over the rise. It has been suggested by advocates of the liquid tensile strength theory, that the air start siphon only demonstrates the effect as the siphon starts, but that the situation changes after the bubble is swept out and the siphon achieves steady flow. But a similar effect can be seen in the flying-droplet siphon (see above). The flying-droplet siphon works continuously without liquid tensile strength pulling the liquid up.\n", "The father and son researchers, Ramette and Ramette, successfully siphoned carbon dioxide under air pressure in 2011 and concluded that molecular cohesion is not required for the operation of a siphon but that: \"The basic explanation of siphon action is that, once the tube is filled, the flow is initiated by the greater pull of gravity on the fluid on the longer side compared with that on the short side. This creates a pressure drop throughout the siphon tube, in the same sense that 'sucking' on a straw reduces the pressure along its length all the way to the intake point. The ambient atmospheric pressure at the intake point responds to the reduced pressure by forcing the fluid upwards, sustaining the flow, just as in a steadily sucked straw in a milkshake.\"\n", "In recent years a number of different techniques have been developed to characterize fluid with very low visco-elasticity, commonly not able to be tested in CaBER devices.\n\nBULLET::::- The Cambridge Trimaster a fluid is symmetrically stretched to form an unstable liquid bridge. This instrument is similar to the CaBER, but the higher imposed stretch velocity of 150 mm/s prevents sample breakup during the stretching step in case of low visco-elastic sample.\n", "A basic spring-loaded pin consists of 3 main parts: a \"plunger\", \"barrel\", and \"spring\". When force is applied to the pin, the spring is compressed and the plunger moves inside the barrel. The shape of the barrel retains the plunger, stopping the spring from pushing it out when the pin is not locked in place.\n", "Again in 2011, Richert and Binder (at the University of Hawaii) examined the siphon and concluded that molecular cohesion is not required for the operation of a siphon but relies upon gravity and a pressure differential, writing: \"As the fluid initially primed on the long leg of the siphon rushes down due to gravity, it leaves behind a partial vacuum that allows pressure on the entrance point of the higher container to push fluid up the leg on that side\".\n", "Another example of mechanical equilibrium is a person pressing a spring to a defined point. He or she can push it to an arbitrary point and hold it there, at which point the compressive load and the spring reaction are equal. In this state the system is in mechanical equilibrium. When the compressive force is removed the spring returns to its original state.\n", "An occasional misunderstanding of siphons is that they rely on the tensile strength of the liquid to pull the liquid up and over the rise. While water has been found to have a significant tensile strength in some experiments (such as with the z-tube), and siphons in vacuum rely on such cohesion, common siphons can easily be demonstrated to need no liquid tensile strength at all to function. Furthermore, since common siphons operate at positive pressures throughout the siphon, there is no contribution from liquid tensile strength, because the molecules are actually repelling each other in order to resist the pressure, rather than pulling on each other.\n", "Consider an object suspended by a spring as a simple proportional control. The spring will attempt to maintain the object in a certain location despite disturbances which may temporarily displace it. Hooke's law tells us that the spring applies a corrective force that is proportional to the object's displacement. While this will tend to hold the object in a particular location, the absolute resting location of the object will vary if its mass is changed. This difference in resting location is the offset error.\n", "To illustrate the concept of \"d'Alembert's principle\", let's use a simple model with a weight formula_18, suspended from a wire. The weight is subjected to a gravitational force, formula_19, and a tension force formula_20 in the wire. The mass accelerates upward with an acceleration formula_21. Newton's Second Law becomes formula_22 or formula_23. As an observer with feet planted firmly on the ground, we see that the force formula_20 accelerates the weight, formula_18, but, if we are moving with the wire we don’t see the acceleration, we feel it. The tension in the wire seems to counteract an acceleration “force” formula_26 or formula_27.\n", "If a tube is sufficiently narrow and the liquid adhesion to its walls is sufficiently strong, surface tension can draw liquid up the tube in a phenomenon known as capillary action. The height to which the column is lifted is given by Jurin's law:\n\nwhere\n\nBULLET::::- is the height the liquid is lifted,\n\nBULLET::::- is the liquid–air surface tension,\n\nBULLET::::- is the density of the liquid,\n\nBULLET::::- is the radius of the capillary,\n\nBULLET::::- is the acceleration due to gravity,\n", "Another difference is that under most practical circumstances, dissolved gases, vapor pressure, and (sometimes) lack of adhesion with tube walls, conspire to render the tensile strength within the liquid ineffective for siphoning. Thus, unlike a chain, which has significant tensile strength, liquids usually have little tensile strength under typical siphon conditions, and therefore the liquid on the rising side cannot be pulled up in the way the chain is pulled up on the rising side.\n", "Section::::The hydrometer in an accelerating frame of reference.\n\nThe upward or downward acceleration of the elevator, as long as the net force is directed downward, will not change the equilibrium point of the hydrometer either. The force due to acceleration acts on the hydrometer exactly as it would on an equal mass of water or other liquid.\n", "There are two leading theories about how siphons cause liquid to flow uphill, against gravity, without being pumped, and powered only by gravity. The traditional theory for centuries was that gravity pulling the liquid down on the exit side of the siphon resulted in reduced pressure at the top of the siphon. Then atmospheric pressure was able to push the liquid from the upper reservoir, up into the reduced pressure at the top of the siphon, like in a barometer or drinking straw, and then over. However, it has been demonstrated that siphons can operate in a vacuum and to heights exceeding the barometric height of the liquid. Consequently, the cohesion tension theory of siphon operation has been advocated, where the liquid is pulled over the siphon in a way similar to the chain model. It need not be one theory or the other that is correct, but rather both theories may be correct in different circumstances of ambient pressure. The atmospheric pressure with gravity theory obviously cannot explain siphons in vacuum, where there is no significant atmospheric pressure. But the cohesion tension with gravity theory cannot explain CO gas siphons, siphons working despite bubbles, and the flying droplet siphon, where gases do not exert significant pulling forces, and liquids not in contact cannot exert a cohesive tension force.\n", "Section::::System in equilibrium.\n\nA system is in equilibrium when the sum of all forces is zero.\n\nFor example, consider a system consisting of an object that is being lowered vertically by a string with tension, T, at a constant velocity. The system has a constant velocity and is therefore in equilibrium because the tension in the string, which is pulling up on the object, is equal to the weight force, mg (\"m\" is mass, \"g\" is the acceleration caused by the gravity of Earth), which is pulling down on the object.\n\nSection::::System under net force.\n", "Imagine the same spring and object in a weightless environment. In this case, the spring will tend to hold the object in the same location regardless of its mass. There is no offset error in this case because the proportional action is not working against anything in the steady state.\n\nSection::::Proportional band.\n\nThe proportional band is the band of controller output over which the final control element (a control valve, for instance) will move from one extreme to another. Mathematically, it can be expressed as:\n\nformula_32 br\n", "For perfectly good wetting, contact angle (\"θ\") at equilibrium should be minimized. However, it is valid only at equilibrium, and rate of the equilibrium depends on the balance between driving force of wetting and viscosity of the liquid. In the case of polymer melts, viscosity can be very high and it may take a long time to reach the equilibrium contact angle (dynamic contact angle is likely higher than the contact angle at equilibrium).\n", "The effects of buoyancy do not just affect balloons; both liquids and gases are fluids in the physical sciences, and when all macrosize objects larger than dust particles are immersed in fluids on Earth, they have some degree of buoyancy. In the case of either a swimmer floating in a pool or a balloon floating in air, buoyancy can fully counter the gravitational weight of the object being weighed, for a weighing device in the pool. However, as noted, an object supported by a fluid is fundamentally no different from an object supported by a sling or cable—the weight has merely been transferred to another location, not made to disappear.\n", "In 1948, Malcolm Nokes investigated siphons working in both air pressure and in a partial vacuum, for siphons in vacuum he concluded that: \"The gravitational force on the column of liquid in the downtake tube less the gravitational force in the uptake tube causes the liquid to move. The liquid is therefore in tension and sustains a longitudinal strain which, in the absence of disturbing factors, is insufficient to break the column of liquid\". But for siphons of small uptake height working at atmospheric pressure, he concluded that: \"... the tension of the liquid column is neutralized and \"reversed\" by the compressive effect of the atmosphere on the opposite ends of the liquid column.\"\n", "The primary force that creates the capillary action movement of water upwards in plants is the adhesion between the water and the surface of the xylem conduits. Capillary action provides the force that establishes an equilibrium configuration, balancing gravity. When transpiration removes water at the top, the flow is needed to return to the equilibrium.\n", "Archimedes' principle does not consider the surface tension (capillarity) acting on the body. Moreover, Archimedes' principle has been found to break down in complex fluids.\n", "In a simple case such as an object resting upon a table, the normal force on the object is equal but in opposite direction to the gravitational force applied on the object (or the weight of the object), that is, formula_2, where \"m\" is mass, and \"g\" is the gravitational field strength (about 9.81 m/s on Earth). The normal force here represents the force applied by the table against the object that prevents it from sinking through the table and requires that the table is sturdy enough to deliver this normal force without breaking. However, it is easy to assume that the normal force and weight are action-reaction force pairs (a common mistake). In this case, the normal force and weight need to be equal in magnitude to explain why there is no upward acceleration of the object. For example, a ball that bounces upwards accelerates upwards because the normal force acting on the ball is larger in magnitude than the weight of the ball. \n", "Capillary thinning and breakup of complex fluids can be studied using different configurations. Historically, mainly three types of free-surface conformations have been employed in experiments: statically-unstable liquid bridges, dripping from a nozzle under gravity and continuous jets. Even though the initial evolution of the capillary instability is affected by the type of conformation used, each configurations capture the same phenomenon at the last stages close to breakup, where thinning dynamics is dominated by fluid properties exclusively.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00711	why haven’t we been to the moon again since 1969?	Because there is nothing up there. The Moon is a god forsaken hellscape that smells of gunpowder and Moon dust is so abrasive that it works its way through kevlar in no time. We haven't been back because it costs a lot of money to do something that gains nothing.	[ "The deaths of astronauts Gus Grissom, Ed White, and Roger B. Chaffee in the Apollo 1 fire on 27 January 1967 put a temporary hold on the U.S. space program, but afterward progress was steady, with the Apollo 8 crew (Frank Borman, Jim Lovell, William Anders) being the first manned mission to orbit another celestial body (the moon) during Christmas of 1968.\n", "Crewed exploration of the Moon began in 1968 with the Apollo 8 mission that successfully orbited the Moon, the first time any extraterrestrial object was orbited by humans. In 1969, the Apollo 11 mission marked the first time humans set foot upon another world. Crewed exploration of the Moon did not continue for long, however. The Apollo 17 mission in 1972 marked the sixth landing and the most recent human visit there, and the next, Exploration Mission 2, is due to orbit the Moon in 2023. Robotic missions are still pursued vigorously.\n\nSection::::Targets of exploration.:Mars.\n", "The United States launched its first lunar impactor attempt, Ranger 3, on January 26, 1962, which also failed to reach the Moon. This was followed by the first US success, Ranger 4, on April 23, 1962. This was followed by another 27 missions to the Moon from 1962 to 1973, including five successful Surveyor soft landers, five Lunar Orbiter surveillance probes, and nine Apollo missions which landed the first humans on the Moon.\n\nThe first human-crewed mission to perform TLI was Apollo 8 on December 21, 1968, making them the first humans to leave the Earth's influence.\n", "BULLET::::- Born: Mick Doohan, Australian motorcycle racer and five time 500 cc World Champion; in Gold Coast, Queensland\n\nSection::::June 5, 1965 (Saturday).\n\nBULLET::::- Joseph F. Shea, NASA's manager of the Apollo program, told reporters that the ongoing Gemini 4 mission had resolved five important issues for a manned mission to the Moon, and that \"If everything goes as well as the Gemini-4 shot today, then we can get everything done for the Moon shot by mid-1968\", at least one and a half years ahead of the projected 1970 date.\n", "Section::::Background.:Political pressure builds.\n", "While the United States focused on the crewed Apollo program, the Soviet Union conducted uncrewed missions that deployed rovers and returned samples to the Earth. Three rover missions were launched, of which two were successful, and eleven sample return flights were attempted with three successes.\n", "Following the abandoned US Constellation program, plans for crewed flights followed by moonbases were declared by Russia, Europe (ESA), China, Japan and India. All of them intend to continue the exploration of Moon with more uncrewed spacecraft.\n\nIndia expects to launch another lunar mission in 2nd half of 2019, the Chandrayaan-2, which would place a robotic rover on the Moon.\n\nChina planned to conduct a sample return mission with its Chang'e 5 spacecraft in 2017, but that mission has been postponed until December 2019 due failure of the Long March 5 launch vehicle.\n", "Section::::July 22, 1967 (Saturday).\n\nBULLET::::- An 7.1 magnitude earthquake struck Turkey at 4:57 in the afternoon local time, with an epicenter at the village of Mudurnu\n\nBULLET::::- Explorer 35, launched by the United States to study and measure \"the shadowing effect of the moon on solar electrons\", entered lunar orbit and began sending back data. Although its instruments would be switched off by 1973, Explorer 35 would still be orbiting the Moon half a century later.\n", "The idea of a joint Moon mission was abandoned after Kennedy's death, but the Apollo Project became a memorial to him. His goal was fulfilled in July 1969, with the successful Apollo 11 Moon landing. This accomplishment remains an enduring legacy of Kennedy's speech, but his deadline demanded a necessarily narrow focus, and there was no indication of what should be done next once it was achieved. Apollo did not usher in an era of lunar exploration, and no further missions were sent to the Moon after Apollo 17 in 1972. Subsequent planned Apollo missions were canceled. The Space Shuttle and International Space Station projects never captured the public imagination the way the Apollo Project did, and NASA would struggle to realize its visions with inadequate resources. Ambitious visions of space exploration were proclaimed by Presidents George H. W. Bush in 1989, George W. Bush in 2004, and Donald J. Trump in 2017, but the future of the American space program remains uncertain.\n", "The United States continued other space exploration, including major participation with the ISS with its own modules. It also planned a set of unmanned Mars probes, military satellites, and more. The Constellation space program, began by President George W. Bush in 2004, aimed to launch a next-generation multifunction Orion spacecraft by 2018. A subsequent return to the Moon by 2020 was to be followed by manned flights to Mars, but the program was canceled in 2010 in favor of encouraging commercial US manned launch capabilities.\n", "1969 in spaceflight\n\n1969 saw humanity step onto another world for the first time. On 21 July 1969, the Apollo 11 Lunar Module, \"Eagle,\" landed on the moon's surface with two astronauts aboard. Days later the crew of three returned safely to Earth, satisfying U.S. President John F. Kennedy's 1962 challenge of 25 May 1961, that \"this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth.\"\n", "Section::::Early U.S. uncrewed lunar missions (1958–1965).\n\nIn contrast to Soviet lunar exploration triumphs in 1959, success eluded initial U.S. efforts to reach the Moon with the Pioneer and Ranger programs. Fifteen consecutive U.S. uncrewed lunar missions over a six-year period from 1958 to 1964 all failed their primary photographic missions; however, Rangers 4 and 6 successfully repeated the Soviet lunar impacts as part of their secondary missions.\n", "List of missions to the Moon\n\nAs part of human exploration of the Moon, numerous space missions have been undertaken to study Earth's natural satellite. Of the Moon landings, Luna 2 of the Soviet Union was the first spacecraft to reach its surface successfully, intentionally impacting the Moon on 13 September 1959. In 1966, Luna 9 became the first spacecraft to achieve a controlled soft landing, while Luna 10 became the first mission to enter orbit.\n", "In 1960, President John F. Kennedy challenged US scientists to land Americans on the moon and bring them back safely to earth, before the decade was out. NASA rose to the occasion and achieved this staggering task with the landing of Apollo 11 on the moon in 1969.\n", "Missions to the Moon have been conducted by the Soviet Union, United States, European Space Agency, Japan, India, People's Republic of China and Israel. The Moon has also been visited by five spacecraft not dedicated to studying it; four spacecraft have flown past it to gain gravity assistance, and a radio telescope, Explorer 49, was placed into selenocentric orbit in order to use the Moon to block interference from terrestrial radio sources.\n\nSection::::Future missions.\n\nThere are several future lunar missions scheduled or proposed by various nations or organisations.\n\nSection::::Future missions.:Proposed but full funding still unclear.\n", "Now it is time to take longer strides - time for a great new American enterprise - time for this nation to take a clearly leading role in space achievement, which in many ways may hold the key to our future on Earth.brbr...I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth. No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more important in the long-range exploration of space; and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish. \n", "India, Japan, China, the United States, and the European Space Agency each sent lunar orbiters, and especially ISRO's \"Chandrayaan-1\" has contributed to confirming the discovery of lunar water ice in permanently shadowed craters at the poles and bound into the lunar regolith. The post-Apollo era has also seen two rover missions: the final Soviet Lunokhod mission in 1973, and China's ongoing Chang'e 3 mission, which deployed its Yutu rover on 14 December 2013. The Moon remains, under the Outer Space Treaty, free to all nations to explore for peaceful purposes.\n\nSection::::Observation and exploration.:By spacecraft.:21st century.\n", "Since the conception of NASA, there had been considerations about the possibility of flying a man to the moon. On July 5, 1961 the \"Research Steering Committee on Manned Spaceflight\", led by George Low presented the concept of the Apollo program to the NASA \"Space Exploration Council\". Although under the Dwight D. Eisenhower presidential administration NASA was given very little authority to further explore space travel, it was proposed that after the manned Earth-orbiting missions, Project Mercury, that the government-civilian administration should make efforts to successfully complete a manned lunar spaceflight mission. NASA administrator T. Keith Glennan explained that President Dwight D. Eisenhower, restricted any further space exploration beyond Project Mercury. After John F. Kennedy had been elected as President the previous November, policy for space exploration underwent a revolutionary change.\"This nation should commit itself to the achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to Earth\" -John F. KennedyAfter President John F. Kennedy made this proposal to Congress on May 25, 1961, he remained true to this commitment to send a manned lunar spaceflight in the ensuing 30 months prior to his assassination. Directly after his proposal, there was an 89% increase in government funding for NASA, followed by a 101% increase in funding the subsequent year. This marked the beginning of the United States' mission to the Moon.\n", "BULLET::::- The long-awaited film \"Cleopatra\", starring Elizabeth Taylor and Richard Burton, had its worldwide premiere, in New York City. With a running time of 248 minutes, the epic historical drama lasted more than four hours.\n\nBULLET::::- NASA Administrator James E. Webb announced to the U.S. Senate Space Committee that there would be no further spaceflights for Project Mercury, with the next manned missions being with two astronauts each for on the Gemini program.\n", "In 1967, both nations faced serious challenges that brought their programs to temporary halts. Both had been rushing at full-speed toward the first piloted flights of Apollo and Soyuz, without paying due diligence to growing design and manufacturing problems. The results proved fatal to both pioneering crews.\n", "The Soviet program lost its sense of direction with the death of chief designer Sergey Korolyov in 1966. Political pressure, conflicts between different design bureaus, and engineering problems caused by an inadequate budget would doom the Soviet attempt to land men on the moon.\n\nA succession of unmanned American and Soviet probes traveled to the Moon, Venus, and Mars during the 1960s, and commercial satellites also came into use.\n\nSection::::Science and technology.:Science.:Other scientific developments.\n\nBULLET::::- 1960 – The female birth-control contraceptive, the pill, was released in the United States after Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval.\n", "The Apollo Program was undertaken by NASA during the years 1961–1975 with the goal of conducting manned Moon landing missions. In 1961, President John F. Kennedy announced a goal of landing a man on the moon by the end of the decade. It was accomplished on July 20, 1969, by the landing of astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin, with Michael Collins orbiting above during the Apollo 11 mission. Five other Apollo missions also landed astronauts on the Moon, the last one in 1972. These six Apollo spaceflights are the only times humans have landed on another celestial body.\n", "After the first 20 years of exploration, focus shifted from one-off flights to renewable hardware, such as the Space Shuttle program, and from competition to cooperation as with the International Space Station (ISS).\n\nWith the substantial completion of the ISS following STS-133 in March 2011, plans for space exploration by the U.S. remain in flux. Constellation, a Bush Administration program for a return to the Moon by 2020 was judged inadequately funded and unrealistic by an expert review panel reporting in 2009. \n", "On 20 July 1969, Apollo 11, the first human spaceflight landed on the Moon. Launched on 16 July 1969, it carried mission Commander Neil Armstrong, Command Module Pilot Michael Collins, and the Lunar Module Pilot Buzz Aldrin. Apollo 11 fulfilled President John F. Kennedy's goal of reaching the moon by the end of the 1960s, which he had expressed during a speech given before a joint session of Congress on 25 May 1961: \"I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth.\"\n", "In 1959 the Soviets obtained the first images of the far side of the Moon, never previously visible to humans. The U.S. exploration of the Moon began with the Ranger 4 impactor in 1962. Starting in 1966 the Soviets successfully deployed a number of landers to the Moon which were able to obtain data directly from the Moon's surface; just four months later, \"Surveyor 1\" marked the debut of a successful series of U.S. landers. The Soviet uncrewed missions culminated in the Lunokhod program in the early 1970s, which included the first uncrewed rovers and also successfully brought lunar soil samples to Earth for study. This marked the first (and to date the only) automated return of extraterrestrial soil samples to Earth. Uncrewed exploration of the Moon continues with various nations periodically deploying lunar orbiters, and in 2008 the Indian Moon Impact Probe.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04183	Why do systems in the universe operate as flat plains?	Clumps of objects, like solar systems or galaxies, have a whole heap of motion. Each object within that system will have its own motion, but as a whole the system will have an overall average rotational motion. This rotational motion is effectively made up of the combined linear motion of the objects in two of the three dimensions, a 2D plane. As the system formed, objects within the system (eg rocks, dust, early planets etc), collide with each other, effectively cancelling out all the motion in the direction not encompassed by the overall rotation. This means that all the objects eventually end up constrained to the 2D plane of rotation, making it flat. Minutephysics has a great video talking about this far better than I can URL_0	[ "One such observation is that of anisotropies (that is, variations with direction - see below) in the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) radiation. The CMB is electromagnetic radiation which fills the universe, left over from an early stage in its history when it was filled with photons and a hot, dense plasma. This plasma cooled as the universe expanded, and when it cooled enough to form stable atoms it no longer absorbed the photons. The photons present at that stage have been propagating ever since, growing fainter and less energetic as they spread through the ever-expanding universe.\n", "In the case of the flatness problem, the parameter which appears fine-tuned is the density of matter and energy in the universe. This value affects the curvature of space-time, with a very specific critical value being required for a flat universe. The current density of the universe is observed to be very close to this critical value. Since the total density departs rapidly from the critical value over cosmic time, the early universe must have had a density even closer to the critical density, departing from it by one part in 10 or less. This leads cosmologists to question how the initial density came to be so closely fine-tuned to this 'special' value.\n", "If the average density of the universe exactly equals the critical density so that formula_8, then the geometry of the universe is flat: as in Euclidean geometry, the sum of the angles of a triangle is 180 degrees and parallel lines continuously maintain the same distance. Measurements from Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe have confirmed the universe is flat with only a 0.4% margin of error.\n", "Flatness problem\n\nThe flatness problem (also known as the oldness problem) is a cosmological fine-tuning problem within the Big Bang model of the universe. Such problems arise from the observation that some of the initial conditions of the universe appear to be fine-tuned to very 'special' values, and that small deviations from these values would have extreme effects on the appearance of the universe at the current time.\n", "This problem with the Big Bang model was first pointed out by Robert Dicke in 1969, and it motivated a search for some reason the density should take such a specific value.\n\nSection::::Solutions to the problem.\n", "This relationship can be expressed by the first Friedmann equation. In a universe without a cosmological constant, this is:\n", "The problem was first mentioned by Robert Dicke in 1969. The most commonly accepted solution among cosmologists is cosmic inflation, the idea that the universe went through a brief period of extremely rapid expansion in the first fraction of a second after the Big Bang; along with the monopole problem and the horizon problem, the flatness problem is one of the three primary motivations for inflationary theory.\n\nSection::::Energy density and the Friedmann equation.\n", "An alternative approach, which makes use of the 'weak anthropic principle', is to suppose that the universe is infinite in size, but with the density varying in different places (i.e. an inhomogeneous universe). Thus some regions will be over-dense and some under-dense . These regions may be extremely far apart - perhaps so far that light has not had time to travel from one to another during the age of the universe (that is, they lie outside one another's cosmological horizons). Therefore, each region would behave essentially as a separate universe: if we happened to live in a large patch of almost-critical density we would have no way of knowing of the existence of far-off under- or over-dense patches since no light or other signal has reached us from them. An appeal to the anthropic principle can then be made, arguing that intelligent life would only arise in those patches with Ω very close to 1, and that therefore our living in such a patch is unsurprising.\n", "The Vedic texts depict the cosmos in many ways. The earliest Indian cosmological texts picture the Earth as one of a stack of flat disks.\n", "The flatness problem is naturally solved by the Einstein–Cartan–Sciama–Kibble theory of gravity, without an exotic form of matter required in inflationary theory. This theory extends general relativity by removing a constraint of the symmetry of the affine connection and regarding its antisymmetric part, the torsion tensor, as a dynamical variable. It has no free parameters. Including torsion gives the correct conservation law for the total (orbital plus intrinsic) angular momentum of matter in the presence of gravity. The minimal coupling between torsion and Dirac spinors obeying the nonlinear Dirac equation generates a spin-spin interaction which is significant in fermionic matter at extremely high densities. Such an interaction averts the unphysical big bang singularity, replacing it with a bounce at a finite minimum scale factor, before which the Universe was contracting. The rapid expansion immediately after the big bounce explains why the present Universe at largest scales appears spatially flat, homogeneous and isotropic. As the density of the Universe decreases, the effects of torsion weaken and the Universe smoothly enters the radiation-dominated era.\n", "Some cosmologists agreed with Dicke that the flatness problem was a serious one, in need of a fundamental reason for the closeness of the density to criticality. But there was also a school of thought which denied that there was a problem to solve, arguing instead that since the universe must have some density it may as well have one close to formula_27 as far from it, and that speculating on a reason for any particular value was \"beyond the domain of science\". Enough cosmologists saw the problem as a real one, however, for various solutions to be proposed.\n", "Section::::Motivations.:Flatness problem.\n\nThe flatness problem is sometimes called one of the Dicke coincidences (along with the cosmological constant problem). It became known in the 1960s that the density of matter in the Universe was comparable to the critical density necessary for a flat universe (that is, a universe whose large scale geometry is the usual Euclidean geometry, rather than a non-Euclidean hyperbolic or spherical geometry).\n", "This latter argument makes use of a version of the anthropic principle which is 'weaker' in the sense that it requires no speculation on multiple universes, or on the probabilities of various different universes existing instead of the current one. It requires only a single universe which is infinite - or merely large enough that many disconnected patches can form - and that the density varies in different regions (which is certainly the case on smaller scales, giving rise to galactic clusters and voids).\n", "Planetesimals may also be formed from the concentration of chondrules between eddies in a turbulent disk. In this model the particles are split unequally when large eddies fragment increasing the concentrations of some clumps. As this process cascades to smaller eddies a fraction of these clumps may reach densities sufficient to be gravitationally bound and slowly collapse into planetesimals. Recent research, however, indicates that larger objects such as conglomerates of chondrules may be necessary and that the concentrations produced from chondrules may instead act as the seeds of streaming instabilities.\n", "As the universe expands the scale factor formula_4 increases, but the density formula_3 decreases as matter (or energy) becomes spread out. For the standard model of the universe which contains mainly matter and radiation for most of its history, formula_3 decreases more quickly than formula_23 increases, and so the factor will decrease. Since the time of the Planck era, shortly after the Big Bang, this term has decreased by a factor of around formula_24 and so must have increased by a similar amount to retain the constant value of their product.\n\nSection::::Current value of Ω.\n\nSection::::Current value of Ω.:Measurement.\n", "The magnetic monopole objection was raised in the late 1970s. Grand unified theories predicted topological defects in space that would manifest as magnetic monopoles. These objects would be produced efficiently in the hot early universe, resulting in a density much higher than is consistent with observations, given that no monopoles have been found. This problem is also resolved by cosmic inflation, which removes all point defects from the observable universe, in the same way that it drives the geometry to flatness.\n\nSection::::Problems and related issues in physics.:Flatness problem.\n", "According to Einstein's field equations of general relativity, the structure of spacetime is affected by the presence of matter and energy. On small scales space appears flat – as does the surface of the Earth if one looks at a small area. On large scales however, space is bent by the gravitational effect of matter. Since relativity indicates that matter and energy are equivalent, this effect is also produced by the presence of energy (such as light and other electromagnetic radiation) in addition to matter. The amount of bending (or curvature) of the universe depends on the density of matter/energy present.\n", "The right hand side of the last expression above contains constants only and therefore the left hand side must remain constant throughout the evolution of the universe.\n", "Friedman defines ten \"flatteners\" that he sees as leveling the global playing field:\n", "Streaming instabilities, first described by Andrew Youdin and Jeremy Goodman, are driven by differences in the motions of the gas and solid particles in the protoplanetary disk. The gas is hotter and denser closer to the star, creating a pressure gradient that partially offsets gravity from the star. The partial support of the pressure gradient allows the gas to orbit at roughly 50 m/s below the Keplerian velocity at its distance. The solid particles, however, are not supported by the pressure gradient and would orbit at Keplerian velocities in the absence of the gas. The difference in velocities results in a headwind that causes the solid particles to spiral toward the central star as they lose momentum to aerodynamic drag. The drag also produces a back reaction on the gas, increasing its velocity. When solid particles cluster in the gas, the reaction reduces the headwind locally, allowing the cluster to orbit faster and undergo less inward drift. The slower drifting clusters are overtaken and joined by isolated particles, increasing the local density and further reducing radial drift, fueling an exponential growth of the initial clusters. In simulations the clusters form massive filaments that can grow or dissipate, and that can collide and merge or split into multiple filaments. The separation of filaments averages 0.2 gas scale heights, roughly 0.02 AU at the distance of the asteroid belt. The densities of the filaments can exceed a thousand times the gas density, sufficient to trigger the gravitational collapse and fragmentation of the filaments into bound clusters.\n", "Whether the universe is “flat″ could determine its ultimate fate; whether it will expand forever, or ultimately collapse back into itself. The geometry of spacetime has been measured by the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) to be nearly flat. According to the WMAP 5-year results and analysis, “WMAP determined that the universe is flat, from which it follows that the mean energy density in the universe is equal to the critical density (within a 1% margin of error). This is equivalent to a mass density of 9.9 × 10 g/cm, which is equivalent to only 5.9 protons per cubic meter.” The WMAP data are consistent with a flat geometry, with Ω = 1.02 +/- 0.02.\n", "The actual value for critical density value is measured as ρ= 9.47×10 kg m. From these values, within experimental error, the universe seems to be flat.\n", "BULLET::::- Abyssal plains, flat or very gently sloping areas of the deep ocean basin.\n\nBULLET::::- Planitia, the Latin word for plain, is used in the naming of plains on extraterrestrial objects (planets and moons), such as Hellas Planitia on Mars or Sedna Planitia on Venus.\n\nBULLET::::- Alluvial plains, which are formed by rivers and which may be one of these overlapping types:\n", "For these reasons work is still being done on alternative solutions to the flatness problem. These have included non-standard interpretations of the effect of dark energy and gravity, particle production in an oscillating universe, and use of a Bayesian statistical approach to argue that the problem is non-existent. The latter argument, suggested for example by Evrard and Coles, maintains that the idea that Ω being close to 1 is 'unlikely' is based on assumptions about the likely distribution of the parameter which are not necessarily justified. Despite this ongoing work, inflation remains by far the dominant explanation for the flatness problem.\n", "Suppose that at some initial time, say decoupling, there are small irregularities in the distribution of matter. Those regions with more matter will exert a greater gravitational force on their neighboring regions, and hence tend to draw in the surrounding material. This extra material makes them even more dense than before, increasing their gravitational attraction and further enhancing their pull on their neighbors. An irregular distribution of matter is therefore unstable under the influence of gravity, becoming more and more irregular as time goes by.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-11249	If the years we use in the modern calendar started with Christ, how come he was born on Dec the 25th, the last month, and not Jan 1st?	* Our current Gregorian calendar wasn't accepted until hundreds of years after Christianity became a thing. * Gregorian calendar wasn't started with or because of Christianity. It was meant to fix the problems with the Julian calendar so that seasonal changes and leap years could be taken into effect. The holiday that was taken into consideration was Easter, but this is a logistical change, and wasn't meant to center the calendar around Easter (which is a lunar-based holiday anyway). * Christ wasn't born on December 25th. He was probably born in springtime based on descriptions of constellations. December 25th is used because that was part of the old Saturnalia holiday honoring Saturn (Zeus), and the coming of the Sun (winter solstice, when days start getting longer). The Roman Empire wanted to convert people to Christianity, so they just took existing pagan holidays and renamed them to Christian holidays, but left the dates the same.	[ "The era based on the Incarnation of Christ was introduced by Dionysius Exiguus in 525 and is in continued use with various reforms and derivations. The distinction between the Incarnation being the conception or the Nativity of Jesus was not drawn until the late ninth century. The beginning of the numbered year varied from place to place: when, in 1600, Scotland adopted January 1 as the date the year number changes, this was already the case in much of continental Europe. England adopted this practice in 1752.\n", "During the Middle Ages 1 January retained the name \"New Year's Day\" (or an equivalent name) in all western European countries (affiliated with the Roman Catholic Church), since the medieval calendar continued to display the months from January to December (in twelve columns containing 28 to 31 days each), just as the Romans had. However, most of those countries began their numbered year on 25 December (the Nativity of Jesus), 25 March (the Incarnation of Jesus), or even Easter, as in France (see the Liturgical year article for more details).\n", "The earliest source stating December 25 as the date of birth of Jesus was Hippolytus of Rome (170–236), written very early in the 3rd century, based on the assumption that the conception of Jesus took place at the Spring equinox which he placed on March 25, and then added nine months. There is historical evidence that by the middle of the 4th century the Christian churches of the East celebrated the birth and Baptism of Jesus on the same day, on January 6 while those in the West celebrated a Nativity feast on December 25 (perhaps influenced by the Winter solstice); and that by the last quarter of the 4th century, the calendars of both churches included both feasts. The earliest suggestions of a fast of Baptism of Jesus on January 6 during the 2nd century comes from Clement of Alexandria, but there is no further mention of such a feast until 361 when Emperor Julian attended a feast on January 6 in the year 361.\n", "In his Rudolphine Tables (1627), Johannes Kepler used a prototype of year zero which he labeled \"Christi\" (Christ's) between years labeled \"Ante Christum\" (Before Christ) and \"Post Christum\" (After Christ) on the mean motion tables for the Sun, Moon, Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Venus and Mercury. In 1702, the French astronomer Philippe de la Hire used a year he labeled at the end of years labeled \"ante Christum\" (BC), and immediately before years labeled \"post Christum\" (AD) on the mean motion pages in his \"Tabulæ Astronomicæ\", thus adding the designation \"0\" to Kepler's \"Christi\". Finally, in 1740 the French astronomer Jacques Cassini , who is traditionally credited with the invention of year zero, completed the transition in his \"Tables astronomiques\", simply labeling this year \"0\", which he placed at the end of Julian years labeled \"avant Jesus-Christ\" (before Jesus Christ or BC), and immediately before Julian years labeled \"après Jesus-Christ\" (after Jesus Christ or AD).\n", "The Alexandrian monk Panodoros reckoned 5904 years from Adam to the year AD 412. His years began with 29 August, corresponding to the First of Thoth, or the Egyptian new year. Annianus of Alexandria however, preferred the Annunciation style as New Year's Day, 25 March, and shifted the Panodoros era by about six months, to begin on 25 March. This created the \"Alexandrian era\", whose first day was the first day of the proleptic Alexandrian civil year in progress, 29 August 5493 BC, with the ecclesiastical year beginning on 25 March 5493 BC.\n", "BULLET::::- John Chrysostom, 27 January, moved to day before his death, 13 September.\n\nBULLET::::- Peter Nolasco, 28 January, added in 1664, left to particular calendars: not \"truly of universal importance\".\n\nBULLET::::- 2nd Feast of Agnes, 28 January, deleted as a duplicate of her feast on 21 January.\n\nBULLET::::- Francis de Sales, 29 January, moved to 24 January, day of his burial at Annecy in 1624.\n\nBULLET::::- Martina, 30 January, added in 1635, left to the calendar of the Roman basilica dedicated under the name of that person, of whom nothing is known.\n", "Section::::History.:New year.\n\nWhen the reckoning from Jesus' incarnation began replacing the previous dating systems in western Europe, various people chose different Christian feast days to begin the year: Christmas, Annunciation, or Easter. Thus, depending on the time and place, the year number changed on different days in the year, which created slightly different styles in chronology:\n", "The Bible never states when Jesus was born, but, by late antiquity, Christians had begun celebrating his birth on 25 December. In 274 AD, the Roman emperor Aurelian had declared 25 December the birthdate of Sol Invictus, a sun god of Syrian origin whose cult had been vigorously promoted by the earlier emperor Elagabalus. Christians may have thought that they could attract more converts to Christianity by allowing them to continue to celebrate on the same day. 25 December also falls around the same time as the Roman festival of Saturnalia, which was much older and more widely celebrated. Many of the customs originally associated with Saturnalia eventually became associated with Christmas. Early Christians may have also been influenced by the idea that Jesus had died on the anniversary of his conception; because Jesus died during Passover and, in the third century AD, Passover was celebrated on 25 March, they may have assumed that Jesus's birthday must have come nine months later, on 25 December.\n", "In 1627, the German astronomer Johannes Kepler first used an astronomical year which was to become year zero in his \"Rudolphine Tables\". He labeled the year \"Christi\" and inserted it between years labeled \"Ante Christum\" (BC) and \"Post Christum\" (AD) on the mean motion pages of the Sun, Moon, and planets. Then in 1702 the French astronomer Philippe de la Hire used a year he labeled at the end of years labeled \"ante Christum\" (BC), immediately before years labeled \"post Christum\" (AD) on the mean motion pages in his \"Tabulæ Astronomicæ\", thus adding the designation \"0\" to Kepler's \"Christi\". Finally, in 1740 the French astronomer Jacques Cassini , who is traditionally credited with the invention of year zero, completed the transition in his \"Tables astronomiques\", simply labeling this year \"0\", which he placed at the end of years labeled \"avant Jesus-Christ\" (BC), immediately before years labeled \"après Jesus-Christ\" (AD).\n", "BULLET::::- Maternity of the Blessed Virgin Mary, 11 October, celebrated in the solemnity of 1 January.\n\nBULLET::::- Edward, 13 October, added in 1679, left to particular calendars: not \"truly of universal importance\".\n\nBULLET::::- Margaret Mary Alacoque, 17 October, moved to 16 October, the day before her death.\n\nBULLET::::- Peter of Alcantara, 19 October, added in 1670, left to particular calendars: not \"truly of universal importance\".\n\nBULLET::::- John of Kanty, 20 October, moved to the day before his death, 23 December.\n\nBULLET::::- Hilarion, 21 October, left to particular calendars: not \"truly of universal importance\".\n", "This is the reason that some dates have an apparent discrepancy of one year. For example, a birth date of 10 March 1552 in Florentine reckoning translates to 10 March 1553 in present reckoning, setting aside the aforementioned discrepancy in the beginning of the day. Beginning the year on a date other than 1 January was common during the mediaeval period: the English year also began on 25 March, until 1752; the Venetian year began on 1 March, until 1522; and the French year on Easter day, until 1564 (see beginning of the year).\n", "In 1545, the Council of Trent authorized Pope Paul III to reform the calendar, requiring that the date of the vernal equinox be restored to that which it held at the time of the First Council of Nicaea in 325 and that an alteration to the calendar be designed to prevent future drift. This would allow for a more consistent and accurate scheduling of the feast of Easter.\n", "December 25 may have been selected due to its proximity to the winter solstice, because of its theological significance. After the solstice, the days begin to lengthen with more sunlight, which Christians see as representing the Light of Christ entering the world. This mirrors the celebration of the Nativity of Saint John the Baptist on June 24, near the summer solstice; John said of Jesus \"He must increase, I must decrease.\" \n", "BULLET::::- Eusebius, 16 December, moved to the day after his death, 2 August.\n\nBULLET::::- Thomas, 21 December, moved to the date of the transfer of his relics, 3 July, in order not to interrupt the series of major weekdays leading to Christmas\n\nBULLET::::- Vigil of Christmas, 24 December, reduced to the optional evening Mass.\n", "BULLET::::- Josaphat, 14 November, moved to date of his death, 12 November.\n\nBULLET::::- Gregory Thaumaturgus, 17 November, left to particular calendars: not \"truly of universal importance\".\n\nBULLET::::- Elizabeth of Hungary, 19 November, moved to date of her death, 17 November.\n\nBULLET::::- Pontian, 19 November, moved to 13 August joined with Hippolytus.\n\nBULLET::::- Felix of Valois, 20 November, added in 1679, left to particular calendars: from the historical point of view the documents concerning his life present many difficulties.\n", "The Anglo-Saxon historian the Venerable Bede, who was familiar with the work of Dionysius, used \"Anno Domini\" dating in his \"Ecclesiastical History of the English People\", completed in AD 731. Both Dionysius and Bede regarded \"Anno Domini\" as beginning at the incarnation of Jesus, but \"the distinction between Incarnation and Nativity was not drawn until the late 9th century, when in some places the Incarnation was identified with Christ's conception, i.e., the Annunciation on March 25\". On the continent of Europe, \"Anno Domini\" was introduced as the calendrical system of choice of the Carolingian Renaissance by the English cleric and scholar Alcuin in the late eighth century. Its endorsement by Emperor Charlemagne and his successors popularizing this calendar throughout the Carolingian Empire ultimately lies at the core of the calendar's global prevalence today.\n", "Other calendars have been used historically in different parts of the world; some calendars count years numerically, while others do not.\n\nDuring the Middle Ages in western Europe, while the Julian calendar was still in use, authorities moved New Year's Day, depending upon locale, to one of several other days, including March 1, March 25, Easter, September 1, and December 25. Beginning in 1582, the adoptions of the Gregorian calendar and changes to the Old Style and New Style dates meant the various local dates for New Year's Day changed to using one fixed date, January 1.\n", "Historically the paschal full moon date for a year was found from its sequence number in the Metonic cycle, called the golden number, which cycle repeats the lunar phase 1 January every 19 years. This method was abandoned in the Gregorian reform because the tabular dates go out of sync with reality after about two centuries, but from the epact method, a simplified table can be constructed that has a validity of one to three centuries.\n\nThe epacts for the current Metonic cycle, which began in 2014, are:\n", "Therefore, a more likely reason why the festival falls on June 24 lies in the Roman way of counting, which proceeded backward from the Kalends (first day) of the succeeding month. Christmas was \"\"the eighth day before the Kalends of January\"\" (\"Octavo Kalendas Januarii\"). Consequently, Saint John's Nativity was put on the \"eighth day before the Kalends of July.\" However, since June has only thirty days, in our present (Germanic) way of counting, the feast falls on June 24.\n", "Dionysius did not use AD years to date any historical event. This began with the English cleric Bede (c. 672–735), who used AD years in his \"Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum\" (731), popularizing the era. Bede also used a term similar to the English before Christ once, but that practice did not catch on until very much later. Bede did not sequentially number days of the month, weeks of the year, or months of the year. However, he did number many of the days of the week using a counting origin of one in Ecclesiastical Latin. Previous Christian histories used \"anno mundi\" (\"in the year of the world\") beginning on the first day of creation, or \"anno Adami\" (\"in the year of Adam\") beginning at the creation of Adam five days later (the sixth day of creation according to the Genesis creation narrative), used by Africanus, or \"anno Abrahami\" (\"in the year of Abraham\") beginning 3,412 years after Creation according to the Septuagint, used by Eusebius of Caesarea, all of which assigned \"one\" to the year beginning at Creation, or the creation of Adam, or the birth of Abraham, respectively. Bede continued this earlier tradition relative to the AD era.\n", "BULLET::::- Antoninus, 10 May, left to particular calendars: not \"truly of universal importance\".\n\nBULLET::::- Gordian and Epimachus, 10 May, left to particular calendars: nothing is known of them other than their names and the place and day of their burial.\n\nBULLET::::- Philip and James, 11 May, moved to 3 May, the first day free after that of their ancient feast.\n\nBULLET::::- Nereus, Achilleus, Domitilla, and Pancras, 12 May: Nereus and Achilleus and Pancras celebrated separately; Domitilla, added in 1595 removed as without basis in tradition\n\nBULLET::::- Robert Bellarmine, 13 May, moved to date of his death, 17 September.\n", "During the Middle Ages under the influence of the Catholic Church, many countries in western Europe decided to move the start of the year to one of several important Christian festivals – December 25 (the Nativity of Jesus), March 1, March 25 (the Annunciation), or even Easter. The Byzantine Empire began its numbered year on September 1.\n", "The earliest source stating December 25 as the date of birth of Jesus was Hippolytus of Rome (170–236), written very early in the 3rd century, based on the assumption that the conception of Jesus took place at the Spring equinox which he placed on March 25, and then added nine months. There is historical evidence that by the middle of the 4th century the Christian churches of the East celebrated the birth and Baptism of Jesus on the same day, on January 6 while those in the West celebrated a Nativity feast on December 25 (perhaps influenced by the Winter solstice); and that by the last quarter of the 4th century, the calendars of both churches included both feasts. The earliest suggestions of a fast of Baptism of Jesus on January 6 during the 2nd century comes from Clement of Alexandria, but there is no further mention of such a feast until 361 when Emperor Julian attended a feast on January 6 in the year 361.\n", "The early development of the Christian liturgical year coincided with the Roman Empire (east and west), and later the Byzantine Empire, both of which employed a taxation system labeled the Indiction, the years for which began on September 1. This timing may account for the ancient church's establishment of September 1 as the beginning of the liturgical year, despite the official Roman New Year's Day of January 1 in the Julian calendar, because the indiction was the principal means for counting years in the empires, apart from the reigns of the Emperors. The September 1 date prevailed throughout all of Christendom for many centuries, until subsequent divisions eventually produced revisions in some places.\n", "BULLET::::- John of Capistrano, 28 March, moved to 14 October, his date of death\n\nBULLET::::- Friday before Palm Sunday, Seven Sorrows of Mary, deleted as a duplicate of the 15 September feast\n\nSection::::Changes to the General Roman Calendar, by month.:April.\n\nBULLET::::- Leo I, 11 April, moved to date of his death, 10 November.\n\nBULLET::::- Hermenegild, 13 April, added in 1632, left to particular calendars: not \"truly of universal importance\".\n\nBULLET::::- Justin, 14 April, moved to 1 June, the date used in the Byzantine Rite.\n" ]	[ "Times started with Jesus Christ, so his birthday should be Jan 1st and not Dec 25th.", "Christ was born on December 25th." ]	[ "Due to differences in calendars created in the past, and calendars created today, a misconception has been created. Jesus Christ was not born on Dec 25th in previous calendars.", "Christ was probably born in springtime, based on descriptions of constellations." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Times started with Jesus Christ, so his birthday should be Jan 1st and not Dec 25th.", "Christ was born on December 25th." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Due to differences in calendars created in the past, and calendars created today, a misconception has been created. Jesus Christ was not born on Dec 25th in previous calendars.", "Christ was probably born in springtime, based on descriptions of constellations." ]
2018-06350	what is the difference between REST & SOAP web services?	A SOAP web service has a very structured request and response. Data types, required fields, etc., are all defined in a WSDL that you can consume with your application to automatically build the entire request structure. All of it goes over HTTP POST methods. The entire web service has a single endpoint that covers many methods. A RESTful web service is a more open concept that uses the raw HTTP data fields in the request to pass parameters. It also uses the HTTP methods (GET, POST, PUT, DELETE) to handle things differently. The URL is also part of your parameters, as that handles part of the function routing. (i.e., URL_1 would be expected to do stuff about inventory 12345, but URL_0 would be doing stuff about Customer 12345). The URL can also contain mandatory variables, such as those key ID fields.	[ "Representational state transfer\n\nRepresentational State Transfer (REST) is a software architectural style that defines a set of constraints to be used for creating Web services. Web services that conform to the REST architectural style, called \"RESTful\" Web services (RWS), provide interoperability between computer systems on the Internet. RESTful Web services allow the requesting systems to access and manipulate textual representations of Web resources by using a uniform and predefined set of stateless operations. Other kinds of Web services, such as SOAP Web services, expose their own arbitrary sets of operations. \n", "With a distributed objects view of the network, WSRF is also at loggerheads with the REST model of the network, in which everything is a resource, but in which all actions are enabled through a limited and standardized set of operations. In some ways, the two models are closer than pure SOAP and REST, because they both have stateful resources at the far end. However, REST, as implemented on HTTP, assumes that the URL is all that is needed to address the resource – there is no need for the complexity of the WS-Addressing ReferenceParameters. The idea of managing the lifetime of remote content through renewable leasing comes in for particular criticism. The other issue with the architecture from the REST community is that callbacks/notifications, as described in WS-Notification, do not go through firewalls. This is why REST designs prefer polling, such as in RSS and Atom (standard) feeds. WSRF has done nothing to make SOAP more acceptable to the REST community.\n", "Unlike SOAP-based Web services, there is no \"official\" standard for RESTful Web APIs. This is because REST is an architectural style, while SOAP is a protocol. REST is not a standard in itself, but RESTful implementations make use of standards, such as HTTP, URI, JSON, and XML. Many developers also describe their APIs as being RESTful, even though these APIs actually don't fulfill all of the architectural constraints described above (especially the uniform interface constraint).\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Atomicity, consistency, isolation, durability (ACID)\n\nBULLET::::- Clean URLs\n\nBULLET::::- Create, read, update and delete (CRUD)\n\nBULLET::::- Domain Application Protocol (DAP)\n\nBULLET::::- Microservices\n", "Section::::Web Services (generic).\n\nSection::::Web Services (generic).:Asynchronous JavaScript And XML.\n\nAsynchronous JavaScript And XML (AJAX) is a dominant technology for Web services. Developing from the combination of HTTP servers, JavaScript clients and Plain Old XML (as distinct from SOAP and W3C Web Services), now it is frequently used with JSON as well as, or instead of, XML.\n\nSection::::Web Services (generic).:REST.\n\nRepresentational State Transfer (REST) is an architecture for well-behaved Web services that can function at \"Internet scale\".\n\nIn a 2004 document, the W3C sets following REST as a key distinguishing feature of Web services:\n", "The term \"Web service\" describes a standardized way of integrating Web-based applications using the XML, SOAP, WSDL and UDDI open standards over an Internet Protocol backbone. XML is the data format used to contain the data and provide metadata around it, SOAP is used to transfer the data, WSDL is used for describing the services available and UDDI lists what services are available.\n", "Section::::History and status.\n\nThe Restful Objects specification version 1.0.0 was released in June 2012.\n\nSection::::Framework implementations.\n\nThere are three known implementations of the Restful Objects specification, all open source:\n\nBULLET::::- Apache Isis (for the Java platform)\n\nBULLET::::- Naked Objects for .NET (for the .NET platform)\n\nBULLET::::- Restful Objects for Ruby (for the Ruby platform)\n\nSection::::Relationship to other ideas.\n", "Section::::UDDI nodes and registry.\n\nUDDI nodes are servers which support the UDDI specification and belong to a UDDI registry while UDDI registries are collections of one or more nodes.\n\nSOAP is an XML-based protocol to exchange messages between a requester and a provider of a Web Service.\n\nThe provider publishes the WSDL to UDDI and the requester can join to it using SOAP.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- ebXML\n\nBULLET::::- XML-RPC\n\nBULLET::::- Java API for XML Registries\n\nBULLET::::- WS-I Basic Profile\n\nBULLET::::- United Nations Standard Products and Services Classification (UNSPSC)\n\nBULLET::::- S-RAMP\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "There is an overlap with the naked objects pattern, in that both are concerned with creating generic interfaces to domain objects models. But while the latter creates some kind of user interface, Restful Objects creates an API - specifically a Restful API. The first two frameworks to implement the Restful Objects standard were both built on top of existing frameworks that implement the Naked Objects pattern.\n", "W3C Web Services may use SOAP over HTTP protocol, allowing less costly (more efficient) interactions over the Internet than via proprietary solutions like EDI/B2B. Besides SOAP over HTTP, Web services can also be implemented on other reliable transport mechanisms like FTP. In a 2002 document, the Web Services Architecture Working Group defined a Web services architecture, requiring a standardized implementation of a \"Web service.\"\n\nSection::::W3C Web Services (specific).:Explanation.\n", "RESTful Web Services discusses many software frameworks which provide some or many features of the ROA. These include\n\nBULLET::::- /db - constructs resource oriented architecture from relational databases\n\nBULLET::::- Django\n\nBULLET::::- TurboGears\n\nBULLET::::- Flask\n\nBULLET::::- EverRest\n\nBULLET::::- JBoss RESTEasy\n\nBULLET::::- JBoss Seam\n\nBULLET::::- Apache Wink\n\nBULLET::::- Jersey\n\nBULLET::::- NetKernel\n\nBULLET::::- Recess\n\nBULLET::::- Restlet\n\nBULLET::::- Ruby on Rails\n\nBULLET::::- Symfony\n\nBULLET::::- Yii2\n\nBULLET::::- Play Framework \n\nSection::::Why the Web?\n", "Restful Objects\n\nRestful Objects is a standard covering RESTful interfaces to domain object models. The specification is published under a Creative Commons license.\n\nSection::::Representations and resources defined by the standard.\n\nThe standard defines a small set of JSON representations covering the generic constructs in a domain object model including the following:\n\nBULLET::::- A list of links to domain objects\n\nBULLET::::- A single domain object\n\nBULLET::::- A property, collection, belonging to a domain object\n\nBULLET::::- An action that may be invoked on a domain object\n\nBULLET::::- An action result (which will typically include a domain object or list)\n", "Web 2.0 Web APIs often use machine-based interactions such as REST and SOAP. RESTful web APIs are typically loosely based on HTTP methods to access resources via URL-encoded parameters and the use of JSON or XML to transmit data. By contrast, SOAP protocols are standardized by the W3C and mandate the use of XML as the payload format, typically over HTTP. Furthermore, SOAP-based Web APIs use XML validation to ensure structural message integrity, by leveraging the XML schemas provisioned with WSDL documents. A WSDL document accurately defines the XML messages and transport bindings of a Web service.\n\nSection::::Server side.:Documentation.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nRoy Fielding defined REST in his 2000 PhD dissertation \"Architectural Styles and the Design of Network-based Software Architectures\" at UC Irvine. He developed the REST architectural style in parallel with HTTP 1.1 of 1996–1999, based on the existing design of HTTP 1.0 of 1996.\n\nIn a retrospective look at the development of REST, Fielding said: \n\nSection::::Architectural properties.\n\nThe constraints of the REST architectural style affect the following architectural properties:\n\nBULLET::::- performance in component interactions, which can be the dominant factor in user-perceived performance and network efficiency;\n", "REST, or Representational State Transfer, describes a series of architectural constraints that exemplify how the web's design emerged. Various concrete implementations of these ideas have been created throughout time, but it has been difficult to discuss the REST architectural style without blurring the lines between actual software and the architectural principles behind it.\n", "SOAP with Attachments\n\nSOAP with Attachments (SwA) or MIME for Web Services is the use of web services to send and receive files with a combination of SOAP and MIME, primarily over HTTP.\n\nNote that SwA is not a new specification, but rather a mechanism for using the existing SOAP and MIME facilities to perfect the transmission of files using Web Services invocations. \n\nSection::::Status.\n", "SOAP evolved from XML-RPC and was designed as an object-access protocol by Dave Winer, Don Box, Bob Atkinson, and Mohsen Al-Ghosein in 1998, with backing from Microsoft, where Atkinson and Al-Ghosein worked at the time.\n\nSOAP 1.1 was submitted to the W3C by Microsoft, IBM, and UserLand, amongst others, on May 9, 2000. Version 1.2 of the proposed standard became a W3C recommendation on June 24, 2003.\n\nSection::::XML-based protocols and formats.:RSS.\n", "The access layer in the WoT is built around two core patterns:\n\nFirstly, all things should be exposing their services through a RESTful API (either directly or through gateway). REST is an architectural style at the root of the programmable Web thanks to its implementation in HTTP 1.1. As a consequence, if things offer RESTful APIs over HTTP, they get a URL and become seamlessly integrated to the World Wide Web and its tools such as browsers, hyperlinked HTML pages and JavaScript applications.\n\nSeveral designs describing how the services offered by things can be accessed via REST have been proposed.\n", "WSIF fixes these problems by allowing WSDL to be used as a normalized description of disparate software, and allows one to access this software in a manner that is independent of protocol or location. So whether it is SOAP, an EJB, JMS (or potentially .NET and other software frameworks), there is an API centered around WSDL which is used to access the functionality, which lets one write code that adapts to changes easily. The separation of the API from the actual protocol also means there is flexibility - you can switch protocols, location, etc. without having to even recompile your client code. So if your externally available SOAP service becomes available as an EJB, one can switch to using RMI/IIOP by just changing the service description (the WSDL), without having to make any modification in applications that use the service. You can exploit WSDL's extensibility, its capability to offer multiple bindings for the same service, deciding on a binding at runtime, etc.\n", "BULLET::::- A domain service (essentially a stateless domain object)\n\nBULLET::::- A small number of very specific representations such as Home, Version, and User.\n\nRestful Objects also defines a standard set of resources for accessing or manipulating these representations. The specification defines which HTTP methods may be used with each resource, and their meaning. The table below shows a partial summary:\n\nTaken together the resources and representations allow the complete functionality of a domain object model to be accessed over HTTP. The following diagram, taken from the specification, illustrates the relationship between the most commonly used resources and representations:\n", "Its latest version, Soaplab2, first released in late 2007, resolved the known maintainability problems and included several enhancements. For example, the legacy Applab layer, which required an additional CORBA server running in parallel to Soaplab servers, was removed and its functionality re-implemented as part of Soaplab2. It allowed deployment of Web Services in two configurations:\n\nBULLET::::- Document/literal-wrapped Web Services interface, based on JAX-WS Web Services stack\n\nBULLET::::- RPC/encoded Web Services interface, based on Axis-1 Web Services stack (for backward compatibility of the existing clients)\n", "Section::::History.\n\nThere are two previous major description languages: WSDL2.0 (Web Services Description Language) and WADL (Web Application Description Language). Neither is widely adopted in the industry for describing RESTful APIs, citing poor human readability of both and WADL being actually unable to fully describe a RESTful API.\n\nSection::::Alternatives.\n\nSection::::Alternatives.:Hypertext-driven APIs.\n", "One of the most mature and widely used communication mechanisms is provided by the Web services framework. Further to choosing a communication framework, the actual message protocols also need to be standardized upon. For example, whether web services are built using SOAP over HTTP or by simply using RESTful services. Similarly, when standardizing on SOAP based web services, the specific version of SOAP protocol needs to be agreed upon as well i.e. SOAP v 1.1 or SOAP v 1.2.\n\nSection::::Considerations.\n", "List of web service specifications\n\nThere are a variety of specifications associated with web services. These specifications are in varying degrees of maturity and are maintained or supported by various standards bodies and entities. These specifications are the basic web services framework established by first-generation standards represented by WSDL, SOAP, and UDDI. Specifications may complement, overlap, and compete with each other. Web service specifications are occasionally referred to collectively as \"WS-*\", though there is not a single managed set of specifications that this consistently refers to, nor a recognized owning body across them all.\n", "Before WSRF, no standard in the Web Services family of specifications explicitly defined how to deal with stateful interactions with remote resources. This does not mean that web services could not be stateful. Where required a web service could read from a database, or use session state by way of cookies or WS-Session.\n", "Implementers commonly build SOAs using web services standards. One example is SOAP, which has gained broad industry acceptance after recommendation of Version 1.2 from the W3C (World Wide Web Consortium) in 2003. These standards (also referred to as web service specifications) also provide greater interoperability and some protection from lock-in to proprietary vendor software. One can, however, also implement SOA using any other service-based technology, such as Jini, CORBA or REST.\n\nArchitectures can operate independently of specific technologies and can therefore be implemented using a wide range of technologies, including:\n\nBULLET::::- Web services based on WSDL and SOAP\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02165	why don’t you hear about the history of Africa before colonialism?	Egypt is one of the oldest civilizations on the planet and we hear a lot about them and their history prior to European colonial era. We also hear a lot about the Caliphate eras of the middle ages and dark ages which controlled much of North and Central Africa, and of Carthage that was in North Africa during the Roman era. But you are correct that there is not a lot on Central and Southern Africa. That would be because most of those tribal groups did not have written language so we do not have records of their history outside of oral traditions of the groups, or records of them made by other groups. Also you talk as though slavery was something unique to Imperial Europe and the Americas. It was not. Slavery has existed as long as civilization has existed and virtually every ethnic group on the planet has owned slaves and been slaves at some point in their history.	[ "The chronology of African recorded history encompasses many movements of art, African nations and dialects, and its history has permeated through many mediums. History concerning the much of the pre-colonialist African continent is depicted through art or passed down through word of mouth. As European colonization emerged, the cultural identity and socio-political structure of the continent drastically shifted, and the written documentation of Africa and its people was dominated by European academia, which was later acknowledged and criticized in post-colonialist movements of the 20 century.\n\nSection::::Antiquity.\n", "The historical works of the time were predominantly written by scholars of the various European powers and were confined to individual nations, leading to disparities in style, quality, language and content between the many African nations. These works mostly concerned the activities of the European powers and centered on events concerning economic and military endeavors of the powers in the region. Examples of British works were Lilian Knowles' The Economic Development of the British Overseas Empire and Allan McPhees The Economic Revolution in British West Africa, which discuss the economic achievements of the British empire and the state of affairs in African nations controlled by Britain. \n", "Section::::Digitisation and open access.\n", "Bearing in mind that history teaching is instrumental in shaping peoples’ identities and in understanding the common ties underlying the cultural diversity in any region, and in order to implement one of the goals initially set for the General History of Africa by its initiators, UNESCO, in collaboration with the African Union Commission, launched in March 2009, Phase II of GHA entitled the “Pedagogical Use of the General History of Africa” project.\n\nSection::::Phase Two.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Western Sudan history : the Raudthât'ul Alfâri\", Journal of the African Society15 -, 1915–16, – pp. 261–73\n\nBULLET::::- \"History of Katsina\", Journal of the African Society, 26, 103, – April 1927, – pp. 216–236\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Kano Chronicle\", Journal of the Anthropological Institute, 38 – 1909 – pp. 58–98\n\nSection::::Family.\n", "Acknowledgement and acceptance of African nations and peoples as individuals free of European domination has allowed African history to be approached from new perspectives and with new methods. Africa has lacked a defined means of communication or academic body due to its variety of cultures and communities, and the plurality and diversity of its many peoples means a historiographical approach that confines itself to the development and activity of a singular people or nation incapable of capturing the comprehensive history of African nations without a vast quantity of historical works. This quantity and diversity of history that has yet to be documented is better suited to the contemporary historiographical movements that incorporate the social sciences: anthropology, sociology, geography and other fields that closer examine the human element of History rather than constrain it to political history.\n", "Much of the creation of African history can be attributed to the popularity of Whig history, the historiographical movement of writing history as a progression towards an idyllic future determined by western ideals. Popularized by Thomas Macaulay, this approach considered History to be a linear progression towards a predetermined goal decided by the values and governmental structures held at the time and place of the works creation, in this case being a British parliamentary, constitutional monarchy. Much of Colonial history and European rule in Africa consists of this imposition of social, cultural and political systems onto African nations.\n\nSection::::Post-colonialist historiography.\n", "\"Of scientific literature on British East Africa\", remarked John Walter Gregory in 1896, \"there is unfortunately little to record. There is nothing which can compare with the magnificent series of works issued in description of German East Africa […] The history of the exploration of Equatorial Africa is one to which Englishmen can look back with feelings of such just pride, that we may ungrudgingly admit the superiority of German scientific work in this region.\" It is no surprise, therefore, that most of the important sources for the history of the Hehe are German. Once German East Africa was split between the British and Belgian empires after World War I, the interest of German scholars waned, and the British chose not to continue their research. \n", "In the absence of valid historical records, historians accept oral tradition as a primary source of writing African history, the defects associated with this method notwithstanding. The history of the origin of the people is traceable to the waves of migrations from the Ibo country.\n\nSection::::Occupation.\n", "African historiography\n\nAfrican historiography is a branch of historiography concerning the African continent, its peoples, nations and variety of written and non-written histories. It has differentiated itself from other continental areas of historiography due to its multidisciplinary nature, as Africa’s unique and varied methods of recording history have resulted in a lack of an established set of historical works documenting events before European colonialism. As such, African historiography has lent itself to contemporary methods of historiographical study and the incorporation of anthropological and sociological analysis.\n", "“This project gives us a formidable opportunity to develop a pan-African vision that also highlights the contribution of African cultures and civilizations to humankind.” \n\nThe main objective of Phase Two, entitled \"The Pedagogical Use of the General History of Africa\" is to contribute to the regenerating of the teaching of African history on the basis of the General History of Africa in African Union member States with the view to promote the African regional integration process. In particular, the project aims to:\n", "In present-day Mali, oral historians / griots are sometimes seen as “intermediaries” between two parties. Oral historians in modern Mali often act as mediators between those from different political parties. Jan Jansen in \"The Griot’s Craft: An Essay on Oral Tradition and Diplomacy\" discusses the role and skills of oral historians in modern-day Mali:\n", "The main preoccupation of Phase 1 was to provide a culturally relevant perspective based on an interdisciplinary approach with a focus on the history of ideas and civilizations, societies and institutions. To that end, it was envisaged to develop an African centered point of view using African sources, such as oral traditions, art forms and linguistics. It was decided as well to adopt a continental perspective of Africa as a whole avoiding the usual dichotomy between North Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa. This shift in perspective is reflected by the significant number of renowned African scholars who contributed to this project as members of the International Scientific Committee, editors and authors.\n", "The first historical studies in English appeared in the 1890s, and followed one of four approaches. 1) The territorial narrative was typically written by a veteran soldier or civil servant who gave heavy emphasis to what he had seen. 2) The \"apologia\" were essays designed to justify British policies. 3) Popularizers tried to reach a large audience. 4) Compendia appeared designed to combine academic and official credentials. Professional scholarship appeared around 1900, and began with the study of business operations, typically using government documents and unpublished archives.\n", "Coverage of West African economics by historians, mostly British, has left a legacy of controversy. Three historians, in particular, were accused by Adu Boahen for inaccurate reportage, mainly of Gold Coast and Ghana: William Walton Claridge, in \"A History of the Gold Coast and Ashanti\" (1915, reprint by Frank Cass in 1964); William Ernest Frank Ward in \"History of the Gold Coast\" (1940, published 1948, as \"A History of Ghana\" in 1958); and John Donnelly Fage in \"Ghana: A Historical Interpretation\".\n", "During the 16th century and onset of the early modern period, military alliances with the Portuguese Empire were made, the Jesuit Catholic missionaries arrived, and prolonged warfare with Islamic foes including the Adal Sultanate and Ottoman Empire, as well as with the polytheistic Oromo people, threatened the security of the Ethiopian Empire. These contacts and conflicts inspired works of ethnography, by authors such as the monk and historian Bahrey, which were embedded into the existing historiographic tradition and encouraged a broader view in historical chronicles for Ethiopia's place in the world. The Jesuit missionaries Pedro Páez (1564–1622) and Manuel de Almeida (1580–1646) also composed a history of Ethiopia, but it remained in manuscript form among Jesuit priests of Portuguese India and was not published in the West until modern times.\n", "The economic approach was widely practiced in the 1930s, primarily to provide descriptions of the changes underway in the previous half-century. In 1935, American historian William L. Langer published \"The Diplomacy of Imperialism: 1890–1902\", a book that is still widely cited. In 1939, Oxford professor Reginald Coupland published \"The Exploitation of East Africa, 1856–1890: The Slave Trade and the Scramble\", another popular treatment.\n\nWorld War II diverted most scholars to wartime projects and accounted for a pause in scholarship during the 1940s.\n", "As expected of pre-literate African societies, the history of the people is wrapped in myth and mystery. This presupposes that historians may have to resort to oral tradition for the justifiable/credible reconstruction of the people's history. From the post-colonial dispensation to the present, professional historians and other personals have attempted to reconstruct the history of the people. For instance, the works of Elechi Amadi, especially \"The Concubine\", \"The Great Ponds\", \"The Slave\" (novels) and \"Isiburu\" (a verse play) are a literary attempt at reconstructing a semblance of the Ikwerre society in the pre-colonial era.\n", "Not only were griots used to recite history of births and deaths, battles and marriages in the villages, but oral historians and griots are also an important cultural facet in Mali in terms of language. Because oral history, is exactly as the name describes, a means of passing history verbally, language is also passed on by oral historians.\n\nSection::::Skills of oral historians in modern Mali.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Suriname Folk Lore,\" 1936, with Frances Herskovits\n\nBULLET::::- \"Life in a Haitian Valley\", 1937\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dahomey: An Ancient West African Kingdom\" (2 vols), 1938\n\nBULLET::::- \"Economic Life of Primitive People\", 1940\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Myth of the Negro Past\", 1941\n\nBULLET::::- \"Trinidad Village\", 1947, with Frances Herskovits\n\nBULLET::::- \"Man and His Works: The Science of Cultural Anthropology\", 1948\n\nBULLET::::- \"Les bases de L'Anthropologie Culturelle,\" Payot, Paris, 1952\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dahomean Narrative: A Cross-Cultural Analysis\", 1958, with Frances Herskovits\n\nBULLET::::- \"Continuity and Change in African Culture\", 1959\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Human Factor in Changing Africa\", 1962\n\nBULLET::::- \"Economic Transition in Africa\", 1964\n", "Great Britain\n", "BULLET::::- Carl Christian Reindorf (31 May 1834 – 1 July 1917) was a Euro-African-born pioneer historian, teacher, farmer, trader, physician and pastor who worked with the Basel Mission on the Gold Coast.He wrote The History of the Gold Coast and Asante in the Ga language, considered a pioneering work and a \"historical classic\". The work was later translated into English and published in 1895 in Switzerland. He used written sources and oral tradition, interviewing more than 200 people in the course of assembling his history\n", "Section::::The situation of ethnographic collections in Africa.\n", "In the late 19th century, as French forces occupied the region in which ancient Ghana lay, colonial officials began collecting traditional accounts, including some manuscripts written in Arabic somewhat earlier in the century. Several such traditions were recorded and published. While there are variants, these traditions called the most ancient polity they knew of Wagadu, or the \"place of the Wago\" the term current in the 19th century for the local nobility. The traditions described the kingdom as having been founded by a man named Dinga, who came \"from the east\" (e.g., Aswan, Egypt), after which he migrated to a variety of locations in the western Sudan, in each place leaving children by different wives. In order to achieve power in his final location he had to kill a goblin, and then marry his daughters, who became the ancestors of the clans that were dominant in the region at the time of the recording of the tradition. Upon Dinga's death, his two sons Khine and Dyabe contested the kingship, and Dyabe was victorious, founding the kingdom.\n", "Edward Ullendorff considered the German orientalist Hiob Ludolf (1624–1704) to be the founder of Ethiopian studies in Europe, thanks to his efforts in documenting the history of Ethiopia and the Ge'ez language, as well as Amharic. The Ethiopian monk Abba Gorgoryos (1595–1658), while lobbying the \"Propaganda Fide\" in Rome to become bishop of Ethiopia following his Catholic conversion and expulsion of the Jesuits by Ethiopian emperor Fasilides, collaborated with Ludolf – who never actually visited Ethiopia – and provided him with critical information for composing his \"Historia Aethiopica\" and its \"Commentaries\". The ethnically-Ethiopian Portuguese cleric António d'Andrade (1610–1670) aided them as a translator, since Abba Gorgoryos was not a fluent speaker of either Latin or Italian. After Ludolf, the 18th-century Scottish travel writer James Bruce, who visited Ethiopia, and German orientalist August Dillmann (1823–1894) are also considered pioneers in the field of early Ethiopian studies. After spending time at the Ethiopian royal court, Bruce was the first to systematically collect and deposit Ethiopian historical documents into libraries of Europe, in addition to composing a history of Ethiopia based on native Ethiopian sources. Dillmann cataloged a variety of Ethiopian manuscripts, including historical chronicles, and in 1865 published the \"Lexicon Linguae Aethiopicae\", the first such lexicon to be published on languages of Ethiopia since Ludolf's work.\n" ]	[ "You don't hear about the history of Africa before colonialism" ]	[ "Oral traditions of these areas exist." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "You don't hear about the history of Africa before colonialism" ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Oral traditions of these areas exist." ]
2018-03748	Why didn't POE (power-over-ethernet) replace the electric sockets	I'm sure there are other technical reasons as well but basically: PoE operates at 48v DC while electrical outlets operate at 120 AC. So first of all you need a device capable of operating on that frequency. Many devices like electric motors require AC voltage to operate so you would need an inverter built into all those devices. EDIT: or 240v in Europe/Japan etc Secondly is amperage. You can only run so many amps through the tiny wires of CAT6 cable. EDIT: PoE is 48v DC and a max of 13 watts, which is .25 amps. By comparison a traditional 60 watt light bulb (at 120v) requires .5 amps. While it's true that modern CFLs and LEDs need less juice to run, it shows how little power PoE is able to provide. You couldn't even make your coffee on .25 amps. CAT6 is considered low-voltage cable and has very different rules related to its installation for a reason. You couldn't power say a stove, or a fridge, or a blender on CAT6. That much amperage through CAT6 would cause it to melt and probably catch fire. You also need power to power the switch itself, which is considerably more power that PoE can provide.	[ "Ethernet networking of this period (mid 1980s to mid 1990s) used \"thin coax\" or 10BASE2. All devices on a network segment connected to the same electrical section of RG-58 coaxial cable. Intermediate devices were connected via a T piece. The two ends of the segment were terminated with a resistive network terminator. Although these networks were reliable when connected, they were prone to accidental misconnection by non-technical office staff. This was particularly an issue when devices, such as desktop computers, were being added or removed from the network. Although a rare need at this time, the situation was even worse for portable laptops. \n", "Many powered devices have an auxiliary power connector for an optional external power supply. Depending on the design, some, none, or all of the device's power can be supplied from the auxiliary port, with the auxiliary port also sometimes acting as backup power in case PoE-supplied power fails.\n\nSection::::Power management features and integration.\n", "Advocates of PoE expect PoE to become a global long term DC power cabling standard and replace a multiplicity of individual AC adapters, which cannot be easily centrally managed. Critics of this approach argue that PoE is inherently less efficient than AC power due to the lower voltage, and this is made worse by the thin conductors of Ethernet. Advocates of PoE, like the Ethernet Alliance, point out that quoted losses are for worst case scenarios in terms of cable quality, length and power consumption by powered devices. In any case, where the central PoE supply replaces several dedicated AC circuits, transformers and inverters, the power loss in cabling can be justifiable.\n", "In Australia, the same or similar T-configuration sockets are used for DC power sockets, such as in stand-alone power systems (SAPS), on boats and in police vehicles. Polarity is inconsistent.\n\nIn the former Soviet Union this socket was and still is commonly used for wiring in places where the voltage is lowered for safety purposes, like in schools, filling stations or in wet areas, and is rated 42 V at 10 A AC. Such an unusual connection is intended specifically to make the connection of standard higher-voltage equipment impossible.\n\nSection::::Obsolete types.:U.S. combination duplex socket.\n", "In response to greater bandwidth needs, and the challenge of Ethernet, a new standard called ARCnet Plus was developed by Datapoint, and introduced in 1992. ARCnet Plus ran at , and was backward compatible with original ARCnet equipment. However, by the time ARCnet Plus products were ready for the market, Ethernet had captured the majority of the network market, and there was little incentive for users to move back to ARCnet. As a result, very few ARCnet Plus products were ever produced. Those that were built, mainly by Datapoint, were expensive, and hard to find.\n", "These devices would have been for 277 and 600 volt two-pole, two-wire non-grounding devices similar to the straight-blade NEMA 3 and 4 families, but were never specified by NEMA.\n\nSection::::Twist-locking connectors.:NEMA L5.\n", "Devices needing 5 Volts cannot typically use PoE at 5 V on Ethernet cable beyond short distances (about ) as the voltage drop of the cable becomes too significant, so a 24 V or 48 V to 5 V DC-DC converter is required at the remote end. \n", "The original IEEE 802.3af-2003 PoE standard provides up to of DC power (minimum and ) on each port. Only is assured to be available at the powered device as some power dissipates in the cable. The updated IEEE 802.3at-2009 PoE standard also known as PoE+ or PoE plus, provides up to of power for \"Type 2\" devices. The 2009 standard prohibits a powered device from using all four pairs for power. Both of these standards have since been incorporated into the IEEE 802.3-2012 publication.\n", "In Italy, the system was never definitively abandoned. Though very rarely seen today, it is still marked as available in BTicino’s catalogue, (except for the three-phase version, which stopped production in July 2011).\n", "In addition to the standard Swedish plugs and sockets, RJ11 connectors are quite common, especially in offices. Even 8P8C modular telephone sockets can be found. Most telephone equipment sold in Sweden today has RJ11 sockets and corresponding cables with 6P4C plugs on each end and an adaptor from RJ11 to SS 455 15 50 sockets. The Swedish practice with sockets connected in cascade can be maintained with RJ plugs and sockets by using the first pair for connecting the terminal equipment to the PSTN and the second pair for the connection of a line towards the next socket. However, the presence function found in Swedish Standard sockets is lost, so disconnecting a telephone from its socket requires replacing it with a dummy plug so the sockets further down in the chain will remain connected.\n", "Some Cisco manufactured WLAN access points and IP phones supported a proprietary form of PoE many years before there was an IEEE standard for delivering PoE. Cisco's original PoE implementation is not software upgradeable to the IEEE 802.3af standard. Cisco's original PoE equipment is capable of delivering up to per port. The amount of power to be delivered is negotiated between the endpoint and the Cisco switch based on a power value that was added to the Cisco proprietary Cisco Discovery Protocol (CDP). CDP is also responsible for dynamically communicating the Voice VLAN value from the Cisco switch to the Cisco IP Phone.\n", "The system is not compatible with Italian CEI plugs, nor with Europlugs. Appliances were never sold fitted with these security plugs, and the use of adaptors would defeat the safety features, so the supplied plugs had to cut off and replaced with the security connector. Even so, the \"Magic\" security system had some success at first because its enhanced safety features appealed to customers; standard connectors of the day were considered not safe enough. The decline of the system occurred when safety lids similar to the Magic type were developed for standard sockets.\n", "Unlike an analogue master socket, BT Highway required external power from a mains electric adaptor. However, in the event of a power cut, the system still allowed analogue telephone calls to be made through the first analogue socket.\n", "Due to the ubiquity of Ethernet, the ever-decreasing cost of the hardware needed to support it, and the reduced panel space needed by twisted pair Ethernet, most manufacturers now build Ethernet interfaces directly into PC motherboards, eliminating the need for installation of a separate network card.\n", "Using twisted pair cabling, in a star topology, for Ethernet addressed several weaknesses of the previous standards:\n\nBULLET::::- Twisted pair cables were already in use for telephone service and were already present in many office buildings, lowering overall cost\n\nBULLET::::- The centralized star topology already in use for telephone service and was a more common approach to cabling than the bus in earlier standards and easier to manage\n\nBULLET::::- Using point-to-point links was less prone to failure and greatly simplified troubleshooting compared to a shared bus\n", "The need for the POE lessened due to the increasing availability of Unix and Linux distributions for the PowerPC, including AIX. The PowerOpen Association, an organization formed to promote the POE and test for conformance with it, disbanded in 1995.\n\nSection::::Overview.\n\nThe POE contains API and ABI specifications. The presence of the ABI specification in the POE distinguishes it from other open systems such as POSIX and XPG4, since it allows platform-independent binary compatibility, which is otherwise typically limited to particular hardware. Derived from AIX, the POE conforms to industry open standards including POSIX, XPG4, and Motif.\n", "Power over Ethernet\n\nPower over Ethernet or PoE describes any of several standard or ad-hoc systems which pass electric power along with data on twisted pair Ethernet cabling. This allows a single cable to provide both data connection and electric power to devices such as wireless access points, IP cameras, and VoIP phones.\n", "Section::::Development.:Consolidation.\n", "Standard sockets were introduced, as part of the 'New Plan' wiring policy, to allow customers to easily purchase their own telephones, as required by Oftel, the phone regulator. Thus any phone whose plug conformed to BS 6312 and met certain other regulatory standards, such as BABT, could be connected to the network, rather than British Telecom controlling the market. The 'New Plan' was only new to the UK and was based extensively on systems which had been available elsewhere for many years, especially in the US.\n", "Tyco's Solarlok became a market leader for a period in the late 2000s, but a number of factors conspired to push it from the market. Among these was the fact that the system had two sets of cables and wires, which led to considerable annoyance in the field when equipment from different vendors could not be plugged together. By 2011, the MC4 was already in a strong leadership position, which led to the introduction of compatible products from a variety of major connector vendors. Among these are the Amphenol Helios H4 and SMK PV-03. \n\nSection::::Description.\n", "In the early 1980s ARCNET was much cheaper than Ethernet, in particular for PCs. For example, in 1985 SMC sold ARCNET cards for around whilst an Ungermann-Bass Ethernet card plus transceiver could cost .\n", "History of AC power plugs and sockets\n\nThis is a history of AC power plugs and sockets. Plugs and sockets for portable appliances started becoming available in the 1880s. A proliferation of types developed to address the issues of convenience and protection from electric shock. Today there are approximately 20 types in common use around the world (see AC power plugs and sockets), and many obsolete socket types are still found in older buildings.\n\nSection::::Development.\n\nSection::::Development.:Early history.\n", "In 1984, the NuBus architecture was developed by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) as a platform agnostic peripheral interface that fully automated device configuration. The specification was sufficiently intelligent that it could work with both big endian and little endian computer platforms that had previously been mutually incompatible. However, this agnostic approach increased interfacing complexity and required support chips on every device which in the 1980s was expensive to do, so the technology did not gain widespread support.\n\nSection::::History of device configuration.:Amiga Autoconfig and Zorro bus.\n", "Shared cable Ethernet is always hard to install in offices because its bus topology is in conflict with the star topology cable plans designed into buildings for telephony. Modifying Ethernet to conform to twisted pair telephone wiring already installed in commercial buildings provided another opportunity to lower costs, expand the installed base, and leverage building design, and, thus, twisted-pair Ethernet was the next logical development in the mid-1980s.\n", "Made by Dorman & Smith Ltd. (using patents applied for in 1943) the plugs and sockets were rated at 13 A and were one of the competing types for use on ring final circuits. They were never popular in private houses but were widely deployed in prefabricated houses, council housing and LCC schools. The BBC also used them. Some local authorities continued to use them in new installations until the late 1950s. Many D&S sockets were still in use until the early 1980s, although the difficulty in obtaining plugs for them after around 1970 often forced their users to replace them with BS 1363 sockets. The D&S plug suffered from a serious design fault: the line pin was a fuse which screwed into the plug body and tended to come unscrewed on its own in use. A fuse that worked loose could end up protruding from the socket, electrically live and posing a shock hazard, when the plug was removed.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-07817	What is it that makes one person allergic to Yellow Jackets but not Red Wasp stings or vice versa?	You are not allergic to the sting, you are having an allergic reaction to the antigenes injected into your body with the venom. Every wasp species produces slightly different toxins and therefore antigenes on these toxins that your body can have an allergic reaction to.	[ "The severity of the symptoms produced by \"WAS\" mutations correlate with their effects on WASp. Alleles that produce no or truncated protein have more severe effects than missense mutations. Although autoimmune disease and malignancy may occur with both types of mutations, patients with truncated \"WASp\" carry a higher risk. A defect in the CD43 molecule has also been found in WAS patients.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "The name \"Vespula vulgaris\" comes from the origin of the word \"vulgaris\", which means \"common\" in Latin, therefore giving the name, the common wasp. This species has many synonyms such as the \"common wasp\", \"European wasp\", \"Paravespula vulgaris\", or the \"common yellow jacket\". However, a study from 2010 revealed that \"V. vulgaris\" and the common yellow jacket are actually two different species, the latter known as \"V. alascensis\". It is closely related to another wasp species, \"V. austriaca\", and is considered a sister group.\n", "Human accidents with wasps can occur one of two ways. Either a human may receive no more than one or two stings, or a swarm may attack a human. Symptoms following the attack can range from inflammatory reactions to severe allergic reactions resulting in anaphylactic shock. In some cases, death may occur following several bites and a large amount of venom injection; however, a wasp sting typically will not produce a reaction more severe than local symptoms that affect only the skin.\n\nSection::::Human importance.:Biocontrol Agent.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Eumenes pictus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes piriformis\" +\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes pius\" +\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes placens\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes pomiformis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes pseudubius\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes punctaticlypeus\" +\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes punctatus\" +\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes quadratus\" +\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes relatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes rubrofemoratus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes rubronotatus\" +\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes rufomaculatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes sardous\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes sareptanus\" +\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes sculleni\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes separatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes septentrionalis\" +\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes signicornis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes sikkimensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes simplicilamellatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes smithii\" +\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes solidus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes subpomiformis\" +\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes tosawae\" +\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes transbaicalicus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes tricolor\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes tripunctatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes truncatus\"\n", "People might also find that cross-reactivity occurs. For example, people allergic to birch pollen may also find that they have an allergic reaction to the skin of apples or potatoes. A clear sign of this is the occurrence of an itchy throat after eating an apple or sneezing when peeling potatoes or apples. This occurs because of similarities in the proteins of the pollen and the food. There are many cross-reacting substances. Hay fever is not a true fever, meaning it does not cause a core body temperature in the fever over 37.5–38.3 °C (99.5–100.9 °F).\n\nSection::::Cause.\n", "BULLET::::6. Symptoms involve multiple-organ symptoms (runny nose, itchy eyes, headache, scratchy throat, ear ache, scalp pain, mental confusion or sleepiness, palpitations of the heart, upset stomach, nausea, diarrhea, abdominal cramping and aching joints).\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nIt has been suggested that a multidisciplinary approach be taken to treating this condition that takes into account peculiar personality traits often seen in affected individuals and physiological abnormalities in sensorary pathways and the limbic system.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Eumenes belli\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes bequaerti\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes blandus\" +\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes boettcheri\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes bollii\" +\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes buddha\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes capensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes coarctatus\" +\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes comberi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes congnatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes consobrinus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes coronatus\" +\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes coyotae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes crucifera\" +\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes cubensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes cyrenaicus\" +\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes dichrous\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes diligens\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes dorycus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes dubius\" +\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes ferrugiantennus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes filiformis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes flavitinctus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes floralis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes formosensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes fraterculus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes fraternus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes fuellebornianus\" +\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes fulvopilosellus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes gibbosus\"\n", "Allergic reaction-induced IgE-mediated anaphylaxis is commonly a result of hymenopteran stings. The composition of venom from a sting can even affect the types of treatment a patient should be given. Differences have been found between the composition of American and European \"Polistes\" venoms. Response to different epitope spectrums depends on the type of \"Polistes\" that did the stinging. \"P. gallicus\" venom was found to be a combination of four major allergens: Ag5 (antigen 5), hyaluronidase, phospholipase, and protease. This discovery has led to the addition of these allergens into a standard \"Polistes\" mix containing venom from North American species to improve diagnosis and therapy for European patients with \"Polistes\" allergies.\n", "Red wasp stingers do not remain in their victims. A red wasp sting is often painful and causes localized swelling and itchiness. In some cases, people report developing a full-body, itchy rash. Applying a cold compress or ice to the area can help relieve swelling, while application of calamine lotion or 1% hydrocortisone cream can help relieve itching and pain. If neither of these creams are available, a paste made from baking soda and water is an effective sting remedy. The paste should be thick enough to stay on the area of the sting until it dries. Some individuals are known to have severe allergic reactions, including anaphylaxis, to wasp stings, so should seek immediate medical attention if severe symptoms begin to present. In very rare cases, children may develop shock after a red wasp sting.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Eumenes glacialis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes gribodianus\" +\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes guillarmodi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes humbertianus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes improvisus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes inconspicuus\" +\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes insolens\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes interpositus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes jarkandensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes kangrae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes kiangsuensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes koriensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes labiatus\" +\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes longus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes lucasius\" +\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes macrops\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes mainpuriensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes makilingi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes mediterraneus\" +\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes micado\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes micropunctatus\" +\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes modestus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes mongolicus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes multipictus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes nigriscutatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes papillarius\" +\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes parisii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes pedunculatus\" +\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes peringeyanus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Eumenes persimilis\"\n", "People with British Gulf War syndrome who used personal organophosphate pesticides may be more likely to report the symptoms of MCS.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n\nNo characteristically unique signs, laboratory test abnormalities, tissue pathology, or course of illness have been identified, and it remains unclear whether symptoms are physiologically or psychologically generated.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:International Classification of Diseases.\n", "BULLET::::- Brulez C., Jacobs S., Jones M., Simpson E., Lecomte A., Robidel F., Bois, F., Lemazurier, E., 2006, A new in vivo model to screen both estrogenic and anti-/androgenic compounds, Epidemiology 17(6):S332-S333 Suppl. S. (non refereed)\n\nBULLET::::- Desmots S., Lecomte A., Robidel F., Dupont O., Bois F., Lemazurier E., 2006, Expression of both mrp1 and mdr1 genes, two members of the ABC transporter family, is modulated by the estrogenic environmental pesticide methoxychlor, Epidemiology 17(6):S334-S334 Suppl. S. (non refereed)\n", "The majority of individuals who receive a sting from an insect experience local reactions. It is estimated that 5-10% of individuals will experience a generalized systemic reaction that can involve symptoms ranging from hives to wheezing and even anaphylaxis. In the United States approximately 40 people die each year from anaphylaxis due to stinging insect allergy. Potentially life-threatening reactions occur in 3% of adults and 0.4–0.8% of children.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Cleonymus indicus\" Sureshan, 2015\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cleonymus kamijoi\" Sureshan & Balan, 2013\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cleonymus keralicus\" Narendran & Rajmohana, 2008\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cleonymus laticinctus\" (Girault, 1926)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cleonymus laticornis\" Walker, 1837\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cleonymus longinervus\" Kamijo, 1983\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cleonymus magnificus\" (Ashmead, 1888)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cleonymus magnus\" Boucek, 1988\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cleonymus malaicus\" Narendran & Mini, 1997\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cleonymus nigriclavus\" Girault, 1917\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cleonymus obscurus\" Walker, 1837\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cleonymus pentlandi\" (Girault, 1922)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cleonymus pini\" Yang, 1996\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cleonymus regalis\" (Dodd, 1924)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cleonymus reticulatus\" (Howard, 1897)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cleonymus rufiscapus\" (Girault, 1925)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cleonymus ryukyuensis\" Kamijo, 1996\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cleonymus serrulatus\" Kamijo, 1996\n", "Non-immunologic mechanisms involve substances that directly cause the degranulation of mast cells and basophils. These include agents such as contrast medium, opioids, temperature (hot or cold), and vibration. Sulfites may cause reactions by both immunologic and non-immunologic mechanisms.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n\nAnaphylaxis is diagnosed on the basis of a person's signs and symptoms. When any one of the following three occurs within minutes or hours of exposure to an allergen there is a high likelihood of anaphylaxis:\n\nBULLET::::1. Involvement of the skin or mucosal tissue plus either respiratory difficulty or a low blood pressure causing symptoms\n", "BULLET::::- Phenytoin: Han Chinese individuals expressing HLA-B13:01, HLA-B51:01, , HLA-Cw08:01, or HLA-DRB116:02 serotypes have higher risks of developing the syndrome in response to phenytoin.\n\nBULLET::::- Dapsone: Han Chinese individuals expressing the HLA-B13:01 serotype have a higher risk (7.8%) of developing the DRESS syndrome in response to dapsone.\n\nBULLET::::- Allopurinol: Han Chinese, Korean, Thai, and European individuals expressing the HLA-B58:01 serotype have a higher incidence of developing the syndrome in response to allopurinol.\n", "The most serious and rare form of latex allergy, Type I hypersensitivity can cause an immediate and potentially life-threatening reaction, not unlike the severe reaction some people have to bee stings. Such reactions account for a significant proportion of perioperative anaphylactic reaction, especially in children with myelomeningocele. Type I natural rubber latex allergy is an IgE (immune) mediated reaction to proteins found in the \"Hevea brasiliensis\" tree, a type of rubber tree.\n\nTesting for type I natural rubber latex allergy is through blood testing to determine if the patient is producing IgE antibodies to latex proteins.\n", "Epidemiological data from three states put the prevalence of chemical sensitivity in 1999 at 16% to 33% of the general population, 2% to 6% of whom have already been diagnosed with MCS. Women complain of MCS significantly more often than men, and most patients are 30 to 50 years old at time of diagnosis.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.:Gulf War syndrome.\n", "Common symptoms of wasp stings in humans are redness, minor swelling, and itching. In the severe allergic reaction to a sting called \"anaphylaxis,\" the body goes into shock in response to venom. This happens shortly after the sting and requires immediate emergency care. Symptoms of anaphylaxis include swelling of the face, hives, wheezing, dizziness, drop in blood pressure, etc.\n\nSection::::Human importance.:Agriculture.\n", "BULLET::::- \"A. pannonicus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"A. paraguayensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"A. pentheri\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"A. persimilis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"A. plicatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"A. possibilis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"A. problematicus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"A. procax\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"A. promontorii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"A. promotori\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"A. pronotalis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"A. punjabensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"A. quadraticollis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"A. ricae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"A. rubripes\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"A. ruficornis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"A. sanctus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"A. savignyi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"A. schinzi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"A. schulthessianus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"A. schwarzi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"A. seidenstueckeri\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"A. similis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"A. simillimus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"A. slevini\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"A. specularis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"A. stevensoni\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"A. submissus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"A. sulcatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"A. sulcifer\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"A. thymbrinus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"A. turneri\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"A. variolosus\"\n", "BULLET::::- almonds\n\nBULLET::::- wheat\n\nBULLET::::- Insect stings\n\nBULLET::::- bee sting venom\n\nBULLET::::- wasp sting venom\n\nBULLET::::- mosquito stings\n\nBULLET::::- Mold spores\n\nBULLET::::- Top 5 allergens discovered in patch tests in 2005–06:\n\nBULLET::::- nickel sulfate (19.0%)\n\nBULLET::::- Balsam of Peru (11.9%)\n\nBULLET::::- fragrance mix I (11.5%)\n\nBULLET::::- quaternium-15 (10.3%), and\n\nBULLET::::- neomycin (10.0%).\n\nBULLET::::- Metals\n\nBULLET::::- nickel\n\nBULLET::::- chromium\n\nBULLET::::- Other\n\nBULLET::::- latex\n\nBULLET::::- wood\n\nBULLET::::- Plant pollens (hay fever)\n\nBULLET::::- grass — ryegrass, timothy-grass\n\nBULLET::::- weeds — ragweed, plantago, nettle, \"Artemisia vulgaris\", \"Chenopodium album\", sorrel\n", "The diagnosis is made on the basis of clinical parameters, the peripheral blood smear, and low immunoglobulin levels. Typically, IgM levels are low, IgA levels are elevated, and IgE levels may be elevated; paraproteins are occasionally observed. Skin immunologic testing (allergy testing) may reveal hyposensitivity. Not all patients have a positive family history of the disorder; new mutations do occur. Often, leukemia may be suspected on the basis of low platelets and infections, and bone marrow biopsy may be performed. Decreased levels of WASp are typically observed. The current gold standard for diagnosis is genomic DNA sequence analysis, which can detect WAS and the related disorders XLT and XLN in the vast majority of patients and carriers. .\n", "Trees within the order Fagales possess particularly potent allergens, e.g. the prototypical Bet v 1, the major white birch (\"Betula verrucosa\") pollen antigen. Bet v 1 is the main cause of type I allergies observed in early spring. Type I, or immunoglobulin E-mediated (IgE-mediated) allergies affect 1 in 5 people in Europe and North America. Commonly observed symptoms are hay fever, dermatitis, asthma and, in severe cases, anaphylactic shock. First contact with these allergens results in sensitisation; subsequent contact produces a cross-linking reaction of IgE on mast cells and concomitant release of histamine. The inevitable symptoms of an allergic reaction ensue.\n", "Stings of wasps, including that of \"Protonectarina sylveirae\", typically result in painful inflammation at the site of the wound. This response is due to melittin peptidesPolybia-MP-I, N-2-Polybia-MP-I, Protonectarina-MP-NH2, and Protonectarina-MP-OH. These are specific to \"P. sylveirae\" and closely related wasps. 0.8-5% of humans will exhibit a generalized systemic reaction upon being stung by a wasp, including anaphylaxis, which is life-threatening.\n\nSection::::Human interaction.:Effects of pesticides.\n", "For example, the Asp816Phe and Asp816Val mutations (the aspartate normally at position 816 in the c-kit protein has been replaced with phenylalanine or valine respectively) have been associated with early manifestation of the disease (mean age of onset: 1.3 and 5.9 months respectively). \n\nThe c-kit gene is encoded on the q12 locus of chromosome 4.\n\nSection::::Cause.:Irritants.\n\nSeveral factors can worsen the symptoms of urticaria pigmentosa: \n\nBULLET::::- Emotional stress\n\nBULLET::::- Physical stimuli such as heat, friction, and excessive exercise\n\nBULLET::::- Bacterial toxins\n\nBULLET::::- Venom\n\nBULLET::::- Eye drops containing dextran\n\nBULLET::::- NSAIDs\n\nBULLET::::- Alcohol\n\nBULLET::::- Morphine\n" ]	[ "People are allergic to the stings of wasps", "Allergic reactions of insect stings differentiate between each person." ]	[ "People are allergic to the antigens present in wasp venom, and those antigens vary in each species of wasp.", "The allergy does not derive from the sting, but more so toxins that vary from the sting of the species of insect." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "People are allergic to the stings of wasps", "Allergic reactions of insect stings differentiate between each person." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "People are allergic to the antigens present in wasp venom, and those antigens vary in each species of wasp.", "The allergy does not derive from the sting, but more so toxins that vary from the sting of the species of insect." ]
2018-02998	Why are there alcohol IV bags in hospitals?	When someone gets methanol poisoning, they're actually being poisoned by the breakdown products of methanol rather than the methanol itself. Both ethanol and methanol are broken down by the same enzyme (alcohol dehydrogenase), and that enzyme preferentially acts on ethanol rather than methanol. Thus, one of the treatments for methanol poisoning is providing ethanol, which makes it so that the body stops breaking down the methanol and has a chance to eliminate the methanol and the toxic byproducts before they cause too much damage.	[ "Section::::Epidemiology.\n\nHemodialysis was one of the most common procedures performed in U.S. hospitals in 2011, occurring in 909,000 stays (a rate of 29 stays per 10,000 population). This was an increase of 68 percent from 1997, when there were 473,000 stays. It was the fifth most common procedure for patients aged 45–64 years.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "In health-care environments, the prevention of nosocomial infections involves routine and terminal cleaning. Nonflammable alcohol vapor in CO systems is used in health care environments where medical electronics would be adversely affected by aerosolized chlorine or other caustic compounds.\n", "Enema bags of the sort used medically, e.g, to remedy constipation, are also employed.\n\nSection::::Effects and dangers.\n", "In January 2018, \"The Atlantic\" also noted that the severity of the flu season in the United States may have been increased by a shortage of IV bags in hospitals. The shortage resulted from the Hurricane Maria blackout in Puerto Rico, where a great many medical supplies are manufactured. The article noted that hospitals normally go through hundreds of IV bags a day to replenish fluids and give drugs, but during the shortage, some hospitals had resorted to directly injecting drugs into the vein via an IV push.\n", "BULLET::::- ethanol - This permanent agent is very good for treating AVM. The alcohol does need some time to denature proteins of the endothelium and activate the coagulation system to cause a blood clot. Therefore, some surgeons will use a balloon occlusion catheter to stop the blood flow and allow time for ethanol to work. Ethanol is toxic to the system in large quantities and may cause compartment syndrome. In addition, the injections are painful.\n", "BULLET::::- The Soldier in White An unnamed soldier wrapped completely in bandages. He is connected to two bottles of unidentified and similar looking liquid, one of which pumps the liquid through an IV into the soldier, while the other drains the liquid from the soldier through a zinc catheter. When the bottles are respectively empty and full, they are switched around. Dunbar claims there is actually no one under the bandages. It is understood later that the men avoid this soldier because they dislike the fact that he's worse off than them. He eventually dies without anyone realizing.\n", "The ITV British police drama \"Heartbeat\" 2006 episode \"Dead Men Do Tell Tales\" is about a nurse, Carol Cassidy (played by Lisa Kay), who rushes off to treat an emergency, but absent-mindedly leaves her medical bag in her car which contains dangerous drugs; Carol has to fight for her career when local boys steal the bag.\n\nThroughout the series House M.D., each time that Dr. House had his fellows break-into a patient's home to check for environmental toxins they each brought a medical bag with them containing (in addition to medical testing supplies), breaking and entering equipment. \n", "Section::::Alternatives.\n\nTraditional glass syringes can be re-used once disinfected. Plastic body syringes have become more popular in recent years because they are disposable. Unfortunately, improper disposal methods and re-use are responsible for transferring blood borne diseases.\n\nSection::::Importance.\n", "Section::::Usage of symbol by pharmaceutical associations.\n\nThe bowl of Hygieia has been used as a symbol of the pharmacy profession at least as far back as 1796, when it was used on a coin minted for the Parisian Society of Pharmacy. It has since been adopted by many more pharmaceutical associations worldwide, such as the American Pharmacists Association, the Canadian Pharmacists Association, the Pharmaceutical Society of Australia, and the Doctor of pharmacy Association, \"Conseil de l'Ordre des Pharmaciens\" in France (where is written in law with another symbol, the green Greek cross).\n", "The latest guidelines for segregation of bio-medical waste recommend the following color coding - \n\nBULLET::::- Red Bag - Syringes (without needles), soiled gloves, catheters, IV tubes etc. should be all disposed of in a red colored bag, which will later be incinerated.\n\nBULLET::::- Yellow Bag - All dressings, bandages and cotton swabs with body fluids, blood bags, human anatomical waste, body parts are to be discarded in yellow bags.\n\nBULLET::::- Carboard box with blue marking - Glass vials, ampules, other glass ware is to be discarded in a cardboard box with a blue marking/sticker.\n", "Three bags were recovered: a black bag containing a Starline blood pressure cuff box and 3 bottles of lidocaine; a blue Costco bag (found in the closet) containing \"medical debris\" including a pulse oximeter, a lanyard, vials, an empty 20 ml propofol bottle, two bottles of midazolam, an opened IV administration set, a urinary leg bag, a wideband bag, two empty dressing bags, two empty catheter bags, opened alcohol prep pads, dressing backings, an empty syringe packet, four vial tops and a needle cap. Also the saline bag with a cut in it containing the \"more or less empty\" 100 ml propofol bottle that Alvarez recalls removing from the IV stand; and a light blue \"baby essentials\" bag, containing an array of bottles that included 100 ml propofol and 20 ml propofol bottles (filled to various levels, some opened, some closed), lorazepam, flumazenil, lidocaine, and Benoquin. Murray's business cards from his Houston practice were also found.\n", "In the United States, and many other countries, hospitals are beginning to create areas in their emergency rooms for people with minor injuries. These are commonly referred as \"Fast Track\" or \"Minor Care\" units. These units are for people with non-life-threatening injuries. The use of these units within a department have been shown to significantly improve the flow of patients through a department and to reduce waiting times. Urgent care clinics are another alternative, where patients can go to receive immediate care for non-life-threatening conditions. To reduce the strain on limited ED resources, American Medical Response created a checklist that allows EMTs to identify intoxicated individuals who can be safely sent to detoxification facilities instead.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nPrevious to sobering facilities, many municipalities internationally operated “drunk tanks”, which were unmonitored rooms or jail cells to hold persons intoxicated. Drunk tanks were found to be hazardous and inhumane, with clients at risk of suicide or other complications. Most to all traditional drunk tanks are no longer in existence.\n", "Originally, Vial of Life kits came with a plastic vial (empty pill bottle or other container). The vial would be labeled with a Vial of Life decal, and the completed medical information form would be placed inside. These plastic vials tend to get lost in the refrigerator, pushed towards the back of it over time and can prove hard to find for emergency crews. Nowadays, most programs (including the Vial of Life Project AKA Vial of Life.com) ask patients to place their completed medical form inside of a plastic Ziploc bag. This bag will go on the front of the refrigerator with a Vial of Life decal on it. While there are a few ways for this information to be kept in the home, this is the most common.\n", "Catheter access is usually used for rapid access for immediate dialysis, for tunnelled access in patients who are deemed likely to recover from acute renal failure, and for patients with end-stage renal failure who are either waiting for alternative access to mature or who are unable to have alternative access. \n\nCatheter access is often popular with patients, because attachment to the dialysis machine doesn't require needles. However, the serious risks of catheter access noted above mean that such access should be contemplated only as a long-term solution in the most desperate access situation.\n\nSection::::AV fistula.\n", "BULLET::::- The bladder is drained by applying pressure on the lower abdomen. Orifices are blocked only if leakage of body fluid is evident.\n\nBULLET::::- The body is then washed and dried, the mouth cleaned and the face shaved.\n\nBULLET::::- An identification bracelet is put on the ankle detailing: the name of the patient; date of birth; date and time of death; name of ward (if patient died in hospital); patient identification number.\n\nBULLET::::- The body is dressed in a simple garment or wrapped in a shroud. An identification label duplicating the above information is pinned to the wrap or shroud.\n", "Shafer demonstrated the set-up of an IV infusion of propofol. The IV line for propofol would need an air vent to allow air into the bottle and an infusion pump to control the dose. Without a pump, it is very hard to control the dose. He testified that he had never seen anything like the cut bag set-up and had never seen anyone do it.\n\nWalgren asked Shafer a number of questions regarding his testimony over the last few days:\n\nBULLET::::- \"You have noted seventeen egregious violation from the standard of care, four of which you found were unconscionable?\" \"Yes.\"\n", "A minimum of 10 ml of blood is taken through venipuncture and injected into two or more \"blood bottles\" with specific media for aerobic and anaerobic organisms. A common medium used for anaerobes is thioglycollate broth.\n\nThe blood is collected using aseptic technique. This requires that both the tops of the culture bottles and the venipuncture site of the patient are cleaned prior to collection by swabbing with 70% isopropyl alcohol (povidone and left to dry before venipuncture).\n", "David Kleinman, a SWAT team medic who devised a first aid kit used to treat victims of the 2011 Tucson shooting, said that \"deputies reached for the Emergency Bandage 'over and over at the scene'\" of the shooting.\n\nSection::::History of development.\n", "These mobile units were very efficient, with a large Red Cross truck manned by two men, arriving at an empty location and setting up for the first donation, which would be taken two hours later. The truck would be loaded with at least ten beds, mattresses, dozens of screens and chairs, waste receptacles, tables, stools, huge refrigerated boxes, canvas bags of ice, coffee urns, orange juice, canteen equipment, hundreds of blood bottles, boxes of sterile supplies, bottles of solution, literature and record forms, oxygen tanks, and sheets. The men would have this unloaded and set up on site in less than an hour. \n", "The same used device can't be reused for the other patient, even if the set is washed or re-sterile. As it is not a surgical instrument. It is for single use only.\n\nSection::::Using an infusion set.:Insertion devices.\n", "BULLET::::- White Puncture Proof Container (PPC) - Needles, sharps, blades are disposed of in a white translucent puncture proof container.\n\nBULLET::::- Black Bags - These are to be used for non-bio-medical waste. In a hospital setup, this includes stationary, vegetable and fruit peels, leftovers, packaging including that from medicines, disposable caps, disposable masks, disposable shoe-covers, disposable tea cups, cartons, sweeping dust, kitchen waste etc.\n\nSection::::Environmental Impacts.\n\nSection::::Environmental Impacts.:The Syringe Tide environmental disaster.\n", "Section::::General interventions.:Interventions for those hospitalized.\n\nSection::::General interventions.:Interventions for those hospitalized.:Compression devices.\n\nThe use of fitted intermittent pneumatic compression devices before, during and after procedures is another way to It consists of an air pump and inflatable auxiliary compartments that sequentially inflates and deflated to provide an external 'pump' that returns venous blood toward the heart. The use of intermittent pneumatic compression is common. These devices are also placed on a surgical patient in the operating room (the intra-surgical period) and remain on the person while recovering from the surgery.\n", "BULLET::::- Health Canada Laboratory Biosafety Guidelines\n\nBULLET::::- Provincial Legislation:\n\nBULLET::::- British Columbia\n\nBULLET::::- Alberta\n\nBULLET::::- Manitoba\n\nBULLET::::- Saskatchewan\n\nBULLET::::- Ontario\n\nBULLET::::- Nova Scotia\n\nSection::::Legislation.:Australia.\n\nBULLET::::- No nationwide legislation is in place, but suggested practices or policies have been implemented in New South Wales, Victoria, and Queensland.\n\nSection::::Legislation.:Africa.\n\nBULLET::::- The Nigerian government issued an October 1, 2012 deadline for phasing out of conventional syringes and usage of auto-disable syringes in its health institutions.\n\nSection::::Legislation.:Europe.\n\nBULLET::::- The European Union has some regulations on this subject.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Infection control\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- W.H.O. Injection Safety Toolbox\n\nBULLET::::- W.H.O. Injection Safety\n", "Elevation was commonly recommended for the control of haemorrhage. Some protocols continue to include it, but recent studies have failed to find any evidence of its effectiveness and it was removed from the PHTLS guidance in 2006.\n\nSection::::External wound management.:Direct pressure.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04562	what’s the difference between people that loose their voice and someone who’s mute?	Generally a person who has "lost their voice" is someone who overused their vocal chords and just strained them; they can still talk with effort and will regain their voice if given a bit of time to rest. A person who is mute, on the other hand, has suffered permanent damage or has other issues (genetic, etc.) that have caused them to permanently lose their ability to talk. If given time to recover they will not naturally heal and will remain mute. Side note: the word "mute" is sometimes used to just mean "silent" ("He remained mute"), but this usage is different from using it as a description of a person ("He is mute") which has the meaning listed above.	[ "Mute\n\nMute may refer to:\n\nBULLET::::- Muteness, a speech disorder in which a person lacks the ability to speak\n\nBULLET::::- Mute, a silent letter in phonology\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mute\" (2005 film), a short film by Melissa Joan Hart\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mute\" (2018 film), a science-fiction thriller directed by Duncan Jones\n\nBULLET::::- Mute (death customs), a professional mourner in Victorian and other European cultures\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mute\" (magazine), an online magazine of culture and politics\n\nBULLET::::- Mute (music), a device used to alter the sound of a musical instrument\n\nBULLET::::- Mute (food), a soup from Colombia\n", "Muteness\n\nMuteness or mutism () is an inability to speak, often caused by a speech disorder or surgery. Someone who is mute may be so due to the unwillingness to speak in certain social situations.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nThose who are physically mute may have problems with the parts of the human body required for human speech (vocal cords, lungs, trachea, esophagus, mouth, or tongue, etc.).\n\nTrauma or injury to Broca's area, located in the left inferior frontal cortex of the brain, can cause muteness.\n\nSection::::Variations.\n", "In the early 87th Precinct novels written by Ed McBain, Teddy Carella, the wife of Detective Steve Carella, was referred to as a \"deaf-mute,\" but in later books, McBain stopped using the term. In the foreword to a reprinted edition of \"The Con Man\", originally published in 1957, McBain says \"\"A reader pointed out to me two or three years ago that this expression was now considered derogatory. Out the window it went, and Teddy is now speech-and-hearing impaired.\"\"\n", "BULLET::::- In \"Hannibal Rising\" by Thomas Harris, Hannibal Lecter is mute after witnessing his sister killed and eaten.\n\nBULLET::::- In the book \"Flying Solo\", the character Rachel is mute for six months after a classmate dies.\n\nBULLET::::- In \"The Piano\", Ada is an elective mute. She chooses to learn to speak at the end of the film.\n\nBULLET::::- In the 1993 movie, \"House of Cards\", Sally Matthews chooses not to speak after her father dies.\n\nBULLET::::- In the book \"\", Lucy-B091 is mute after she is one of only two survivors from her unit of 300.\n", "Chief Bromden, in \"One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest\", is believed by all to be deaf and mute, but in fact he can hear and speak; he does not let anyone know this because, as he grew up, he was not spoken to (making him \"deaf\") and ignored (making him \"mute\").\n\nThe character Singer in the novel \"The Heart Is a Lonely Hunter\", written in 1940, is referred to as \"deaf-mute\" throughout.\n", "The following are a few references to stories including a character who does not speak despite being physically able to.\n\nBULLET::::- In the book \"Cut\" by Patricia McCormick, the main character, Callie, is an elective mute.\n\nBULLET::::- In \"The House of the Spirits\" by Isabel Allende, Clara Trueba is mute after witnessing her sisters molestation and autopsy. \"She could not move until the first lights of dawn appeared. Only then did she slip back into her bed, feeling within her the silence of the entire world. Silence filled her utterly.\"\n", "Alalia is a disorder that refers to a delay in the development of speaking abilities in children. In severe cases, some children never learn how to speak. It can be caused by illness of the child, illness in utero, mutism of the parents or guardians, the general disorders of the muscles, the shyness of the child, and certain genetic disorders, among other causes.\n\nAnarthria is a severe form of dysarthria. The coordination of movements of the mouth and tongue or the conscious coordination of the lungs are damaged.\n", "Aphasia can rob all aspects of the speech and language. It is a damage of the cerebral centres of the language.\n\nAphonia is the inability to produce any voice. In severe cases the patient loses phonation. It is caused by the injury, paralysis, and illness of the larynx.\n\nConversion disorder can cause loss of speaking ability.\n\nFeral children grow up outside of human society, and so usually struggle in learning any language.\n\nSome people with autism never learn to speak.\n", "The Ottoman Sultans used people referred to as \"congenital deaf-mutes\" (called in Turkish \"dilsiz\" or \"bizeban\", i.e. \"mute\" or \"without tongue\") in their own personal service from the 15th century to the end of the Ottoman Empire. Due to their nature, they were often entrusted with confidential and delicate missions, including executions.\n\nSection::::Deaf-muteness in art and literature.\n", "The violin mute was first described by Marin Mersenne in 1636. One of the earliest examples in the use of muted string instruments is found in Act II of Jean-Baptiste Lully's \"Armide\", when the entire string section sporadically plays with mutes. However, the use of mutes did not become widespread in classical music until the 19th century when romantic composers sought new timbres from the orchestra. By the 20th century, the use of mutes was common for bowed instruments.\n\nSection::::Strings.:Electric guitars and basses.\n\nSection::::Strings.:Electric guitars and basses.:Palm.\n", "Mute of malice\n\nA mute of malice is a defendant in a criminal case who willfully chooses not to speak, as opposed to one who does not speak because he is physically or psychologically unable to do so.\n\nIn British jurisprudence, a separate trial is held before the main trial to determine whether the defendant is mute of malice or mute due to \"visitation of God\". In the past, if he was found by the jury to be mute of malice, he would be tortured until he spoke or died (see Peine forte et dure).\n", "Section::::Percussion.\n\nPercussion instruments often require no specialist mutes. The triangle, for example, is muted by simply gripping the instrument with the hand, stopping it from vibrating so much. Cymbalists, similarly, will grip the cymbals with their hand, or simply strike crash cymbals together to stop excessive vibration\n", "Selective mutism previously known as \"elective mutism\" is an anxiety disorder very common among young children, characterized by the inability to speak in certain situations. It should not be confused with someone who is mute and cannot communicate due to physical disabilities. Selectively mute children are able to communicate in situations in which they feel comfortable. About 90% of children with this disorder have also been diagnosed with social anxiety. It is very common for symptoms to occur before the age of five and do not have a set time period. Not all children express the same symptoms. Some may stand motionless and freeze in specific social settings and have no communication.\n", "Section::::Strings.:Practice.\n\nHeavy practice mutes or \"hotel mutes\" are available for string instruments. Some are made out of heavy rubber. Some models for violin and viola are made of metal. These also fix onto the bridge of the instrument and greatly reduce its loudness, enabling string players to practice at night in a bedroom or hotel room, without disturbing others. Recently, practice mutes have been used in contemporary music for a special color, appearing in works by John Corigliano and Gérard Grisey.\n\nSection::::Strings.:Wolf.\n", "BULLET::::- In the movie \"The Prophet\" Kamila's daughter, Elmitra, is depicted as mute after the death of her father.\n\nBULLET::::- In the 2014 video game \"Watch Dogs\", Aiden Pearce's nephew, Jackson, is electively mute after the death of his sister.\n\nBULLET::::- In the book \"Fifty Shades of Grey\", Christian Grey is depicted as having been an elective mute from age 4, when he witnessed his birth mother's drug overdose and death and was with her body for days before being discovered, until he was 6 years old and he spoke his newly-adopted baby sister's name.\n", "In the classic Zorro stories, television series, etc. Zorro's aid Bernardo, a mute, pretends that he can also not hear, in order to get information to aid his master in his fight for justice.\n", "Most intellectually disabled children learn to speak, but in the severe cases they cannot learn speech (IQ 20-25). Children with Down syndrome often have impaired language and speech.\n\n\"Hearing mutism\" is an obsolete term used in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century for specific language impairment.\n\nAkinetic mutism is a state in which the individual is unable to speak or move.\n\nSection::::Management.\n\nSome mute patients have adapted to their disability by using machines that vibrate their vocal cords, allowing them to speak. Esophageal speech can give some speaking ability. Others learn sign language to communicate.\n", "Many struck idiophones, such as the claves, can be muted by varying the way the instruments are held or struck in order to reduce their resonance. Shaken idiophones, such as maracas, can often be muted by holding or squeezing the ball section in the palm of the hand instead of holding them by the handle, which can alter the tone as well as the volume for added versatility during recording sessions.\n\nTraditionally, a military band playing for a funeral would cover the drums with cloth, producing a muffled tone suitable to the solemn occasion.\n\nSection::::Piano.\n", "On string instruments of the violin family, the mute takes the form of a device attached to the bridge of the instrument, dampening vibrations and resulting in a \"softer\", darker and more somber sound. On the cello and double bass, a wolf mute is often attached to the G-string (on the cello) and on the A-string (on the bass) between the bridge and the tailpiece to eliminate the wolf tone. On the guitar, a player may palm mute their guitar. Some instruments, such as the Fender Jaguar and the Rickenbacker 4001 and 4003 electric bass guitars have built-in string mutes.\n", "Section::::Brass.:Derby (hat).\n", "Section::::Pitch.\n\nLike all the members of the cornett family, mute cornetts were generally pitched around a' = 466 Hz, the so-called Chor-ton or Kornett-ton pitch, which was about one tone higher than the common pitch of other string and wind instruments in the 17th and 18th centuries.\n\nSection::::Timbre.\n", "For the snare drum, tenor drums, or the entire drum (trap) set, drum and cymbal mute pads (such as SoundOff by Evans, Deadhead Pads by DW Drum Workshop, and Vic Firth Drum Set Mutes, and many others) are available for playing quietly while practicing. These usually consist of a piece of rubber or foam rubber that is laid on top of each drum head and cymbal. Computer mouse pads (whole or pieces) may also be placed on drum heads and cymbals to achieve a similar effect.\n", "Mutes will usually make the instrument play sharp. High quality mutes try to reduce intonation issues while maintaining the characteristic sound. Even so, it is often necessary for the musician to accommodate by adjusting the tuning slide, or their own embouchure.\n\nSection::::Brass.:Straight.\n", "The incidence of selective mutism is not certain. Due to the poor understanding of this condition by the general public, many cases are likely undiagnosed. Based on the number of reported cases, the figure is commonly estimated to be 1 in 1000, 0.1%. However, a 2002 study in \"The Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry\" estimated the incidence to be 0.71%.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Other symptoms.\n\nBesides lack of speech, other common behaviors and characteristics displayed by selectively mute people, according to Dr. Elisa Shipon-Blum's findings, include:\n", "Particularly in young children, SM can sometimes be confused with an autism spectrum disorder, especially if the child acts particularly withdrawn around his or her diagnostician, which can lead to incorrect treatment. Although autistic people may also be selectively mute, they often display other behaviors—hand flapping, repetitive behaviors, social isolation even among family members (not always answering to name, for example)—that set them apart from a child with selective mutism. Some autistic people may be selectively mute due to anxiety in social situations that they do not fully understand. If mutism is entirely due to autism spectrum disorder, it cannot be diagnosed as selective mutism as stated in the last item on the list above.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-16532	How does autorotation keep a helicopter from crashing in the event of a total engine failure?	There are two effects. One is simple, the other more complex. The simple effect is basically a parachute with more moving pieces. It's similar to a maple seed. As the helicopter falls the air makes the blades spin. It takes energy to make the blades spin, which comes from the helicopter falling. For the more complex effect we look at how a helicopter rotor works. When a helicopter wants to go up it doesn't just increase the speed of the rotor; that would be way too slow. Instead it has the ability to change the pitch of the blades. If you've held a flat hand out the window of a moving car then this should be familiar. Angle your hand up and it makes your hand try to rise. Angle it up more and it tries to rise more. Of course, the more you angle your hand up the more it gets pushed back, too. The blades if the helicopter are doing something similar, just in a circle. When the helicopter wants to land softly it can increase the pitch on the blades. They keep moving in the same direction due to their inertia, but now they're angled up and produce more lift. The helicopter can't do this for long without engine power because this upward angling makes the rotor slow down. Timed correctly it can cushion a hard landing	[ "At the instant of engine failure, the main rotor blades are producing lift and thrust from their angle of attack and velocity. By immediately lowering collective pitch, which must be done in case of an engine failure, the pilot reduces lift and drag and the helicopter begins an immediate descent, producing an upward flow of air through the rotor system. This upward flow of air through the rotor provides sufficient thrust to maintain rotor rotational speed throughout the descent. Since the tail rotor is driven by the main rotor transmission during autorotation, heading control is maintained as in normal flight.\n", "The most common use of autorotation in helicopters is to safely land the aircraft in the event of an engine failure or tail-rotor failure. It is a common emergency procedure taught to helicopter pilots as part of their training.\n", "In normal powered helicopter flight, air is drawn into the main rotor system from above and exhausted downward, but during autorotation, air moves up into the rotor system from below as the helicopter descends. Autorotation is permitted mechanically because of both a freewheeling unit, which allows the main rotor to continue turning even if the engine is not running, as well as aerodynamic forces of relative wind maintaining rotor speed. It is the means by which a helicopter can land safely in the event of complete engine failure. Consequently, all single-engine helicopters must demonstrate this capability to obtain a type certificate.\n", "In many piston engine-powered helicopters, the pilot manipulates the throttle to maintain rotor speed. Turbine engine helicopters, and some piston helicopters, use governors or other electro-mechanical control systems to maintain rotor speed and relieve the pilot of routine responsibility for that task. (There is normally also a manual reversion available in the event of a governor failure.)\n\nSection::::Flight conditions.\n\nThere are three basic flight conditions for a helicopter: hover, forward flight and autorotation.\n\nSection::::Flight conditions.:Hover.\n", "The NTSB report quotes other documents warning against the excessive application of collective pitch during autorotation, stating that it could \"result in a hard landing with corresponding damage to the helicopter\" and that it should \"never be applied to reduce rpm for extending glide distance.\"\n", "For a helicopter, \"autorotation\" refers to the descending maneuver in which the engine is disengaged from the main rotor system and the rotor blades are driven solely by the upward flow of air through the rotor. The \"freewheeling unit\" is a special clutch mechanism that disengages any time the engine rotational speed is less than the rotor rotational speed. If the engine fails, the freewheeling unit automatically disengages the engine from the main rotor allowing the main rotor to rotate freely.\n", "Several factors affect the rate of descent in autorotation: density altitude, gross weight, rotor rotational speed, and forward airspeed. The pilot's primary control of the rate of descent is airspeed. Higher or lower airspeeds are obtained with the cyclic pitch control just as in normal flight. Rate of descent is high at zero airspeed and decreases to a minimum at approximately 50 to 90 knots, depending upon the particular helicopter and the factors previously mentioned. As the airspeed increases beyond the speed that gives minimum rate of descent, the rate of descent increases again. Even at zero airspeed, the rotor is quite effective as it has nearly the drag coefficient of a parachute despite having much lower solidity.\n", "Section::::Reliability.:Rotorcraft.\n\nTurboprop-powered aircraft and turboshaft-powered helicopters are also powered by turbine engines and are subject to engine failures for many similar reasons as jet-powered aircraft. In the case of an engine failure in a helicopter, it is often possible for the pilot to enter autorotation, using the unpowered rotor to slow the aircraft's descent and provide a measure of control, usually allowing for a safe emergency landing even without engine power.\n\nSection::::Shutdowns that are not engine failures.\n", "Helicopter pilots are most commonly taught to avoid settling with power by monitoring their rates of descent at lower airspeeds. When encountering settling with power, pilots are taught to apply forward cyclic to fly out of the condition or lowering collective pitch. While transitioning to forward or lateral flight will alleviate the condition by itself, lowering the collective to reduce the power demand decreases the size of the vortices and reduces the amount of time required to be free of the condition. However, since the condition often occurs near the ground, lowering the collective may not be an option; a loss of altitude will occur proportional to the rate of descent developed before beginning the recovery. In some cases, vortex ring state is encountered and allowed to advance to the point that the pilot may lose cyclic authority due to the disrupted airflow. In these cases, the pilot's only recourse may be to enter an autorotation to break the rotor system free of its vortex ring state.\n", "Autorotation is the basis of a large sector of airborne wind energy (AWE) technology. High altitude wind power research and development centers frequently are dependent on blade autorotation: SkyMill Energy,Joby Energy,Sky Windpower, BaseLoad Energy, Magenn Power, and Makani Power are making and testing airborne wind energy conversion systems (AWECS) that employ autorotation of blades to drive the shafts of generators to make electricity at altitude and send the electricity to earth via conductive tethers.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Airborne wind turbine\n\nBULLET::::- Küssner effect\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Clancy, L.J. (1975), \"Aerodynamics\", Pitman Publishing Limited, London.\n", "In all cases, the pilot may compensate the induced roll with left or right cyclic control input (as determined by the rotation of the rotor) up to a degree. However, the rapid rate of change of blade flex and angle of attack causes uncontrolled longitudinal twist and severe vibration in later stages, resulting in total loss of cyclic control if left unchecked.\n\nAssuming no rotor damage, recovery from the condition is possible by using the procedure described below under Flight performance during a retreating blade stall.\n\nSection::::Failure.\n", "When landing from an autorotation, the kinetic energy stored in the rotating blades is used to decrease the rate of descent and make a soft landing. A greater amount of rotor energy is required to stop a helicopter with a high rate of descent than is required to stop a helicopter that is descending more slowly. Therefore, autorotative descents at very low or very high airspeeds are more critical than those performed at the minimum rate of descent airspeed.\n", "A helicopter operated with heavy loads in high density altitude or gusty wind conditions can achieve best performance from a slightly increased airspeed in the descent. At low density altitude and light loading, best performance is achieved from a slight decrease in normal airspeed. Following this general procedure of fitting airspeed to existing conditions, the pilot can achieve approximately the same glide angle in any set of circumstances and estimate the touchdown point. This optimum glide angle is usually 17–20 degrees.\n\nSection::::Descent and landing.:Autorotational regions.\n", "Helicopters which lose power do not simply fall out of the sky. In a maneuver called autorotation, the pilot configures the rotors to spin faster driven by the upward moving air, which limits the rate of descent. Very shortly before meeting the ground, the pilot changes the momentum stored in the rotor to increase lift to slow the rate of descent to a normal landing (but without extended hovering).\n\nSection::::Rapid descents.:Dives.\n", "The 480B engine is capable of producing 420 shp, but in this application it is derated to 305 shp for 5 minutes and 277 continuous shp, which is available to 13,000 MSL on a standard day. Thus hot-temperature or high-altitude operations have a considerable degree of power available. The engine drives a three-bladed rotor of 32 feet diameter and a tail rotor of 5 feet diameter. The main rotor and hubs weigh a total of 300 pounds, so there is considerable inertia in the system during a loss of power. Autorotation landings are uneventful.\n\nSection::::Variants.\n\nBULLET::::- 480\n\nBULLET::::- 480B\n", "BULLET::::- Lawnmowers and snow blowers have a hand-closed lever that must be held down at all times. If it is released, it stops the blade's or rotor's rotation. This is also a \"dead man's switch\".\n", "Section::::Pilot or operator reaction.:Tandem rotor helicopters.\n\nIn a tandem rotor helicopter, forward cyclic will not arrest the rate of descent caused by settling with power. In such a helicopter, which utilizes differential collective pitch in order to gain airspeed, lateral cyclic inputs must be made accompanied by pedal inputs in order to slide horizontally out of the vortex ring state's disturbed air.\n\nSection::::Pilot or operator reaction.:Radio control multirotors.\n", "Helicopters with teetering rotors—for example the two-blade system on the Bell, Robinson and others—must not be subjected to a low-g condition because such rotor systems do not control the fuselage attitude. This can result in the fuselage assuming an attitude controlled by momentum and tail rotor thrust that causes the tail boom to intersect the main rotor tip-path plane or result in the blade roots contacting the main rotor drive shaft, causing the blades to separate from the hub (mast bumping).\n\nSection::::Limitations and hazards.:Abrasion in sandy environments.\n", "In single rotor helicopters, the vortex ring state can be corrected by moving the cyclic control in any direction, so as to get out of the column of air created by the rotor downwash, which controls the pitch angle of the rotor blade, slightly pitching nose down, and establishing forward flight. In tandem-rotor helicopters, recovery is accomplished through lateral cyclic or pedal input. The aircraft will fly into \"clean air\", and will be able to regain lift.\n", "As the airspeed increases without an increase in height, there comes a point where the pilot's reaction time would be insufficient to initiate a flare, and prevent a high-speed ground impact. Each increase in height, increases the pilot reaction time. This is the reason the bottom right part of the H–V curve has a shallow gradient. If above ideal autorotation speed, a pilot can avoid the deadman's curve by flaring, converting airspeed into height, and increasing rotor RPM through coning.\n", "Dynamic rollover\n\nA helicopter is susceptible to a rolling tendency,\n\ncalled dynamic rollover, when close to the ground,\n\nespecially when taking off or landing.\n\nFor dynamic rollover to occur, some factor has to first\n\ncause the helicopter to roll or pivot around a skid, or\n\nlanding gear wheel, until its critical rollover angle is\n\nreached. Then, beyond this point, main rotor thrust continues\n\nthe roll and recovery is impossible. If the critical\n\nrollover angle is exceeded, the helicopter rolls on its\n\nside regardless of the cyclic control corrections made.\n\nDynamic rollover begins when the helicopter starts to\n", "Another correction, the Vuichard Recovery Technique, was developed by Claude Vuichard, a Federal Office for Civil Aviation (FOCA) inspector in Switzerland. This technique uses the assistance of tail rotor thrust: apply cyclic in the direction of tail rotor thrust, and increase the collective to climb power, coordinated with the power pedal to maintain heading (cross controls). Recovery is complete when the rotor disc reaches the upwind part of the vortex. \n\nSection::::Description.:Powering out of vortex ring state.\n", "Autorotation\n\nAutorotation is a state of flight in which the main rotor system of a helicopter or similar aircraft turns by the action of air moving up through the rotor, as with an autogyro, rather than engine power driving the rotor. The term \"autorotation\" dates to a period of early helicopter development between 1915 and 1920, and refers to the rotors turning without the engine. It is analogous to the gliding flight of a fixed-wing aircraft.\n", "tends to cause the rotor disc to pitch up. As the angle of\n\nattack increases, the center of pressure moves forward.\n\nIf it moves ahead of the pivot point, the pitch of the\n\nrotor disc decreases. Since the angle of attack of the\n\nrotor blades is constantly changing during each cycle\n\nof rotation, the blades tend to flap, feather, lead, and\n\nlag to a greater degree.\n\nSection::::Limitations and hazards.\n", "Each type of helicopter has a specific airspeed at which a power-off glide is most efficient. The best airspeed is the one that combines the greatest glide range with the slowest rate of descent. The specific airspeed is different for each type of helicopter, yet certain factors (density altitude, wind) affect all configurations in the same manner. The specific airspeed for autorotations is established for each type of helicopter on the basis of average weather and wind conditions and normal loading.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02572	Why does the mass of a particle change as it gets closer to the speed of light?	> Why does the mass of a particle change as it gets closer to the speed of light? It isn't really mass per se, it is relativistic mass which is a confusing concept which is usually no longer taught because it is more confusing than it is worth. Basically it refers to the total energy of the body and impacts the measurable inertia and gravitational attraction in a given reference frame.	[ "BULLET::::1. Relativistic mass: the mass of a particle is equal to the total energy of the particle divided by the speed of light squared. Since the total energy of a particle in relation to one system of reference differs from the total energy in relation to other systems of reference, while the speed of light remains constant in all systems, it follows that the mass of a particle has different values in different systems of reference.\n", "BULLET::::2. \"Real\" mass: the mass of a particle is equal to the \"non-kinetic\" energy of a particle divided by the speed of light squared. Since non-kinetic energy is the same in all systems of reference, and the same is true of light, it follows that the mass of a particle has the same value in all systems of reference.\n\nProjecting this distinction backwards in time onto Newtonian dynamics, we can formulate the following two hypotheses:\n\nBULLET::::- HR: the term \"mass\" in Newtonian theory denotes relativistic mass.\n\nBULLET::::- Hp: the term \"mass\" in Newtonian theory denotes \"real\" mass.\n", "BULLET::::- Imagine that we have a solid pressure vessel enclosing an ideal gas. We heat the gas up with an external source of energy, adding an amount of energy E to the system. Does the mass of our system increase by E/c? Does the mass of the gas increase by E/c?\n\nBULLET::::- The only difference between the \"hot\" and \"cold\" systems in our last question is due to the motion of the particles in the gas inside the pressure vessel. Doesn't this imply that a moving particle has \"more gravity\" than a stationary particle?\n", "In 1934, Tolman argued that the relativistic mass formula formula_38 holds for all particles, including those moving at the speed of light, while the formula formula_39 only applies to a slower-than-light particle (a particle with a nonzero rest mass). Tolman remarked on this relation that \"We have, moreover, of course the experimental verification of the expression in the case of moving electrons ... We shall hence have no hesitation in accepting the expression as correct in general for the mass of a moving particle.\"\n", "The container may even be subjected to a force which gives it an overall velocity, or else (equivalently) it may be viewed from an inertial frame in which it has an overall velocity (that is, technically, a frame in which its center of mass has a velocity). In this case, its total relativistic mass and energy increase. However, in such a situation, although the container's total relativistic energy and total momenta increase, these energy and momentum increases subtract out in the \"invariant mass\" definition, so that the moving container's invariant mass will be calculated as the same value as if it were measured at rest, on a scale.\n", "Tolman in 1912 further elaborated on this concept, and stated: “the expression m(1 - v/c) is best suited for THE mass of a moving body.”\n", "BULLET::::- Heavy ions that are spherical when at rest should assume the form of \"pancakes\" or flat disks when traveling nearly at the speed of light. And in fact, the results obtained from particle collisions can only be explained when the increased nucleon density due to length contraction is considered.\n", "Section::::Relativistic dynamics.:Rest mass and relativistic mass.\n\nThe quantity\n\nis often called the \"relativistic mass\" of the object in the given frame of reference.\n", "where the Lorentz factor is formula_3. In this expression \"m\" is the \"rest mass\", or more simply just the \"mass\" of the electron. This quantity \"m\" is frame invariant and velocity independent. However, some texts group the Lorentz factor with the mass factor to define a new quantity called the \"relativistic mass\", . This quantity is evidently velocity dependent, and from it arises the notion that \"mass increases with speed\". This construction is optional, however, and adds little insight into the dynamics of special relativity.\n\nSection::::Determination.\n", "In special relativity, an object that has nonzero rest mass cannot travel at the speed of light. As the object approaches the speed of light, the object's energy and momentum increase without bound.\n\nIn the first years after 1905, following Lorentz and Einstein, the terms longitudinal and transverse mass were still in use. However, those expressions were replaced by the concept of \"relativistic mass\", an expression which was first defined by Gilbert N. Lewis and Richard C. Tolman in 1909. They defined the total energy and mass of a body as\n\nand of a body at rest\n\nwith the ratio\n", "BULLET::::- \"c\" is the speed of propagation of gravity (which is equal to the speed of light according to general relativity) in m⋅s.\n\nSection::::Equations.:Lorentz force.\n\nFor a test particle whose mass \"m\" is \"small\", in a stationary system, the net (Lorentz) force acting on it due to a GEM field is described by the following GEM analog to the Lorentz force equation:\n\nwhere:\n\nBULLET::::- v is the velocity of the test particle;\n\nBULLET::::- \"m\" is the mass of the test particle;\n\nBULLET::::- \"q\" is the electric charge of the test particle.\n\nSection::::Equations.:Poynting vector.\n", "The term \"relativistic mass\" is also sometimes used. This is the sum total quantity of energy in a body or system (divided by \"c\"). As seen from the center of momentum frame, the relativistic mass is also the invariant mass, as discussed above (just as the relativistic energy of a single particle is the same as its rest energy, when seen from its rest frame). For other frames, the relativistic mass (of a body or system of bodies) includes a contribution from the \"net\" kinetic energy of the body (the kinetic energy of the center of mass of the body), and is larger the faster the body moves. Thus, unlike the invariant mass, the \"relativistic mass\" depends on the observer's frame of reference. However, for given single frames of reference and for isolated systems, the relativistic mass is also a conserved quantity.\n", "For many years it was conventional to enter the discussion of dynamics through derivation of the relativistic mass, that is the mass–velocity relation, and this is probably still the dominant mode in textbooks. More recently, however, it has been increasingly recognized that relativistic mass is a troublesome and dubious concept. [See, for example, Okun (1989).]... The sound and rigorous approach to relativistic dynamics is through direct development of that expression for \"momentum\" that ensures conservation of momentum in all frames:\n\nrather than through relativistic mass. \n", "Hence each of two electrons (A and C) in a head-on collision at 45 GeV in the lab frame (B) would see the other coming toward them at \"v\" ~ \"c\" and \"w\" = 88,000(1 + 1) ~ 1.55×10 lightseconds per traveler second. Thus from the target's point of view, colliders can explore collisions with much higher projectile energy and momentum per unit mass.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Proper velocity-based dispersion relations.\n", "In the case where one of the masses is much larger than the other (formula_7), one can assume that the smaller mass moves as a test particle in a gravitational field generated by the larger mass, which does not accelerate. We can define the gravitational field as\n\nwith formula_9 as the distance between the massive object and the test particle, and formula_10 is the unit vector in the direction going from the massive object to the test mass. Newton's second law of motion of the smaller mass reduces to\n", "The combined mass M is eliminated in the determination of the moment of inertia of the system since it is a point particle (making M the same size as μ, but with greater mass. Images not drawn to scale) along the axis of rotation (via the parallel axis theorem, it's contribution of MR would be zero since R=0 because M and μ are \"also\" point masses). Determining the moment of inertia of the reduced mass (μ) system is equivalent to determining the moment of inertia of the center of mass system. \n\nformula_35\n\nSection::::Applications.:Collisions of particles.\n", "Massless particles are known to experience the same gravitational acceleration as other particles (which provides empirical evidence for the equivalence principle) because they do have relativistic mass, which is what acts as the gravity charge. Thus, perpendicular components of forces acting on massless particles simply change their direction of motion, the angle change in radians being \"GM\"/\"rc\" with gravitational lensing, a result predicted by general relativity. The component of force parallel to the motion still affects the particle, but by changing the frequency rather than the speed. This is because the momentum of a massless particle depends only on frequency and direction, while the momentum of low speed massive objects depends on mass, speed, and direction. Massless particles move in straight lines in spacetime, called geodesics, and gravitational lensing relies on spacetime curvature. Gluon-gluon interaction is a little different: gluons exert forces on each other but, because the acceleration is parallel to the line connecting them (albeit not at simultaneous moments), the acceleration will be zero unless the gluons move in a direction perpendicular to the line connecting them, so that velocity is perpendicular to acceleration.\n", "If an observer runs away from a photon in the direction the photon travels from a source, and it catches up with the observer—when the photon catches up, the observer sees it as having less energy than it had at the source. The faster the observer is traveling with regard to the source when the photon catches up, the less energy the photon has. As an observer approaches the speed of light with regard to the source, the photon looks redder and redder, by relativistic Doppler effect (the Doppler shift is the relativistic formula), and the energy of a very long-wavelength photon approaches zero. This is because the photon is \"massless\"—the rest mass of a photon is zero.\n", "BULLET::::- If and \"v\" are both very small compared with the speed of light, then the product /\"c\" becomes vanishingly small, and the overall result becomes indistinguishable from the Galilean formula (Newton's formula) for the addition of velocities: \"u\" = + \"v\". The Galilean formula is a special case of the relativistic formula applicable to low velocities.\n\nBULLET::::- If is set equal to \"c\", then the formula yields \"u\" = \"c\" regardless of the starting value of \"v\". The velocity of light is the same for all observers regardless their motions relative to the emitting source.\n\nSection::::Basic mathematics of spacetime.:Time dilation and length contraction revisited.\n", "With respect to the center of mass, both velocities are reversed by the collision: a heavy particle moves slowly toward the center of mass, and bounces back with the same low speed, and a light particle moves fast toward the center of mass, and bounces back with the same high speed.\n\nThe velocity of the center of mass does not change by the collision. To see this, consider the center of mass at time formula_23 before collision and time formula_24 after collision:\n\nHence, the velocities of the center of mass before and after collision are:\n", "As shown in the figure on the right, the lab system's origin is at point \"O\", the rigid body system origin is at and the vector from \"O\" to is R. A particle (\"i\") in the rigid body is located at point P and the vector position of this particle is R in the lab frame, and at position r in the body frame. It is seen that the position of the particle can be written:\n", "Where, again, the particle momenta formula_20 are first summed as vectors, and then the square of their resulting total magnitude (Euclidean norm) is used. This results in a scalar number, which is subtracted from the scalar value of the square of the total energy.\n", "When the relative velocity is zero, formula_33 is simply equal to 1, and the relativistic mass is reduced to the rest mass as one can see in the next two equations below. As the velocity increases toward the speed of light \"c\", the denominator of the right side approaches zero, and consequently formula_33 approaches infinity.\n\nIn the formula for momentum\n\nthe mass that occurs is the relativistic mass. In other words, the relativistic mass is the proportionality constant between the velocity and the momentum.\n\nWhile Newton's second law remains valid in the form\n", "Consequently, in some old texts, γ(v)\"m\" is referred to as the \"longitudinal mass\", and γ(v)\"m\" is referred to as the \"transverse mass\", which is numerically the same as the relativistic mass. See mass in special relativity.\n\nIf one inverts this to calculate acceleration from force, one gets\n", "Section::::Theory.\n\nThe potential energy of a charged particle in an electric field is related to the charge of the particle and to the strength of the electric field:\n\nwhere \"E\" is potential energy, \"q\" is the charge of the particle, and \"U\" is the electric potential difference (also known as voltage).\n\nWhen the charged particle is accelerated into \"time-of-flight tube\" (TOF tube or flight tube) by the voltage \"U\", its potential energy is converted to kinetic energy. The kinetic energy of any mass is:\n" ]	[ "Mass changes as particles get closer to light speed.", "The mass of a particle changes as it gets closer to the speed of light." ]	[ "Mass doesn't change, the relativistic mass changes.", "The mass of the particle isn't really changed, the total energy of the body is. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Mass changes as particles get closer to light speed.", "The mass of a particle changes as it gets closer to the speed of light." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Mass doesn't change, the relativistic mass changes.", "The mass of the particle isn't really changed, the total energy of the body is. " ]
2018-00501	After you exercise (or do labor), why do you only feel sore the day after?	It is called DOMS, delayed onset muscle soreness. Basically, when you do hard exercises, your muscle cells are mines kinda damaged. This means that it releases a bunch of things, like ions, into the surrounding tissues. It is the accumulation is these stuff that give the muscle soreness. It is not lactic acid though. There's one experiment where people who are injected with lactic acid don't experience muscle soreness, and don't have decrease in performance. After a while, the muscle cells reabsorb the these stuff and the pain disappear	[ "Although there is variance among exercises and individuals, the soreness usually increases in intensity in the first 24 hours after exercise. It peaks from 24 to 72 hours, then subsides and disappears up to seven days after exercise.\n\nSection::::Cause.\n\nThe muscle soreness is caused by eccentric exercise, that is, exercise consisting of eccentric (lengthening) contractions of the muscle. Isometric (static) exercise causes much less soreness, and concentric (shortening) exercise causes none.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.\n", "Delayed onset muscle soreness is one symptom of exercise-induced muscle damage. The other is acute muscle soreness, which appears during and immediately after exercise.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nThe soreness is perceived as a dull, aching pain in the affected muscle, often combined with tenderness and stiffness. The pain is typically felt only when the muscle is stretched, contracted or put under pressure, not when it is at rest. This tenderness, a characteristic symptom of DOMS, is also referred to as \"muscular mechanical hyperalgesia\".\n", "An earlier theory posited that DOMS is connected to the build-up of lactic acid in the blood, which was thought to continue being produced following exercise. This build-up of lactic acid was thought to be a toxic metabolic waste product that caused the perception of pain at a delayed stage. This theory has been largely rejected, as concentric contractions which also produce lactic acid have been unable to cause DOMS. Additionally, lactic acid is known from multiple studies to return to normal levels within one hour of exercise, and therefore cannot cause the pain that occurs much later.\n", "Delayed onset muscle soreness\n\nDelayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) is the pain and stiffness felt in muscles several hours to days after unaccustomed or strenuous exercise.\n\nThe soreness is felt most strongly 24 to 72 hours after the exercise. It is thought to be caused by eccentric (lengthening) exercise, which causes small-scale damage (microtrauma) to the muscle fibers. After such exercise, the muscle adapts rapidly to prevent muscle damage, and thereby soreness, if the exercise is repeated.\n", "Counterintuitively, continued exercise may temporarily suppress the soreness. Exercise increases pain thresholds and pain tolerance. This effect, called exercise-induced analgesia, is known to occur in endurance training (running, cycling, swimming), but little is known about whether it also occurs in resistance training. There are claims in the literature that exercising sore muscles appears to be the best way to reduce or eliminate the soreness, but this has not yet been systematically investigated.\n", "Section::::Mechanism.:Repeated-bout effect.\n\nAfter performing an unaccustomed eccentric exercise and exhibiting severe soreness, the muscle rapidly adapts to reduce further damage from the same exercise. This is called the \"repeated-bout effect\".\n\nAs a result of this effect, not only is the soreness reduced, but other indicators of muscle damage, such as swelling, reduced strength and reduced range of motion, are also more quickly recovered from. The effect is mostly, but not wholly, specific to the exercised muscle: experiments have shown that some of the protective effect is also conferred on other muscles.\n", "Acute inflammation of the muscle cells, as understood in exercise physiology, can result after induced eccentric and concentric muscle training. Participation in eccentric training and conditioning, including resistance training and activities that emphasize eccentric lengthening of the muscle including downhill running on a moderate to high incline can result in considerable soreness within 24 to 48 hours, even though blood lactate levels, previously thought to cause muscle soreness, were much higher with level running. This delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) results from structural damage to the contractile filaments and z-disks, which has been noted especially in marathon runners whose muscle fibers revealed remarkable damage to the muscle fibers after both training and marathon competition . The onset and timing of this gradient damage to the muscle parallels the degree of muscle soreness experienced by the runners.\n", "Delayed onset muscle soreness is pain or discomfort that may be felt one to three days after exercising and generally subsides two to three days later. Once thought to be caused by lactic acid build-up, a more recent theory is that it is caused by tiny tears in the muscle fibers caused by eccentric contraction, or unaccustomed training levels. Since lactic acid disperses fairly rapidly, it could not explain pain experienced days after exercise.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Hypertrophy.\n", "Soreness might conceivably serve as a warning to reduce muscle activity to prevent injury or further injury. With delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) caused by eccentric exercise (muscle lengthening), it was observed that light concentric exercise (muscle shortening) during DOMS can cause initially more pain but was followed by a temporary alleviation of soreness – with no adverse effects on muscle function or recovery being observed. Furthermore eccentric exercise during DOMS was found to not exacerbate muscle damage, nor did it have an adverse effect on recovery – considering this, soreness is not necessarily a warning sign to reduce the usage of the affected muscle. However it was observed that a second bout of eccentric exercise within one week of the initial exercise did lead to decreased muscle function immediately afterwards.\n", "The mechanism of delayed onset muscle soreness is not completely understood, but the pain is ultimately thought to be a result of microtrauma – mechanical damage at a very small scale – to the muscles being exercised.\n", "Intensive weight training causes micro-tears to the muscles being trained; this is generally known as microtrauma. These micro-tears in the muscle contribute to the soreness felt after exercise, called delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS). It is the repair of these micro-traumas that results in muscle growth. Normally, this soreness becomes most apparent a day or two after a workout. However, as muscles become adapted to the exercises, soreness tends to decrease.\n", "Section::::Exercise-induced muscle pain.\n\nPhysical exercise may cause pain both as an immediate effect that may result from stimulation of free nerve endings by low pH, as well as a delayed onset muscle soreness. The delayed soreness is fundamentally the result of ruptures within the muscle, although apparently not involving the rupture of whole muscle fibers.\n\nMuscle pain can range from a mild soreness to a debilitating injury depending on intensity of exercise, level of training, and other factors.\n\nThere is some preliminary evidence to suggest that moderate intensity continuous training has the ability to increase someones pain threshold.\n", "Acute muscle soreness\n\nAcute muscle soreness is the pain felt in muscles during and immediately after strenuous physical exercise. The pain appears within a minute of contracting the muscle and disappears within two or three minutes or up to several hours after relaxing it.\n\nThe following causes have been proposed for acute muscle soreness:\n\nBULLET::::- Accumulation of chemical end products of exercise in muscle cells, such as H\n\nBULLET::::- Tissue edema caused by the shifting of blood plasma into the muscle tissue during contraction\n\nBULLET::::- Muscle fatigue (the muscle tires and cannot contract any more)\n", "DOMS was first described in 1902 by Theodore Hough, who concluded that this kind of soreness is \"fundamentally the result of ruptures within the muscle\". According to this \"muscle damage\" theory of DOMS, these ruptures are microscopic lesions at the Z-line of the muscle sarcomere. The soreness has been attributed to the increased tension force and muscle lengthening from eccentric exercise. This may cause the actin and myosin cross-bridges to separate prior to relaxation, ultimately causing greater tension on the remaining active motor units. This increases the risk of broadening, smearing, and damage to the sarcomere. When microtrauma occurs to these structures, nociceptors (pain receptors) within the muscle's connective tissues are stimulated and cause a sensation of pain.\n", "BULLET::::- Exercise-induced muscle soreness is not caused by lactic acid buildup. Muscular lactic acid levels during and after exercise do not correlate with soreness; exercise-induced muscle soreness is thought to be due to microtrauma from an unaccustomed or strenuous exercise, against which the body adapts with repeated bouts of the same exercise.\n\nBULLET::::- Swallowing gasoline does not generally require special emergency treatment, and inducing vomiting can make it worse.\n\nSection::::Science and technology.:Human body and health.:Senses.\n\nBULLET::::- Infants can and do feel pain.\n", "The first bout does not need to be as intense as the subsequent bouts in order to confer at least some protection against soreness. For instance, eccentric exercise performed at 40% of maximal strength has been shown to confer a protection of 20 to 60% from muscle damage incurred by a 100% strength exercise two to three weeks later. Also, the repeated-bout effect appears even after a relatively small number of contractions, possibly as few as two. In one study, a first bout of 10, 20 or 50 contractions provided equal protection for a second bout of 50 contractions three weeks later.\n", "Section::::Mechanism.:Relation to other effects.\n\nAlthough delayed onset muscle soreness is a symptom associated with muscle damage, its magnitude does not necessarily reflect the magnitude of muscle damage.\n\nSoreness is one of the temporary changes caused in muscles by unaccustomed eccentric exercise. Other such changes include decreased muscle strength, reduced range of motion, and muscle swelling. It has been shown, however, that these changes develop independently in time from one another and that the soreness is therefore not the cause of the reduction in muscle function.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.:Possible function as a warning sign.\n", "The magnitude of the effect is subject to many variations, depending for instance on the time between bouts, the number and length of eccentric contractions and the exercise mode. It also varies between people and between indicators of muscle damage. Generally, though, the protective effect lasts for at least several weeks. It seems to gradually decrease as time between bouts increases, and is undetectable after about one year.\n", "The nerve may become painful over a period of time as weight gain makes underwear, belting or the waistband of pants gradually exert higher levels of pressure. Pain may be acute and radiate into the rib cage, and into the groin, thigh, and knee. Alternately, weight loss or aging may remove protective fat layers under the skin, so the nerve can compress against underwear, outer clothing, and—most commonly— by belting. Long periods of standing or leg exercise that increases tension on the inguinal ligament may also cause pressure.\n", "Another explanation for the pain associated with DOMS is the \"enzyme efflux\" theory. Following microtrauma, calcium that is normally stored in the sarcoplasmic reticulum accumulates in the damaged muscles. Cellular respiration is inhibited and ATP needed to actively transport calcium back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum is also slowed. This accumulation of calcium may activate proteases and phospholipases which in turn break down and degenerate muscle protein. This causes inflammation, and in turn pain due to the accumulation of histamines, prostaglandins, and potassium.\n", "Delayed onset muscle soreness can be reduced or prevented by gradually increasing the intensity of a new exercise program, thereby taking advantage of the repeated-bout effect. Soreness can theoretically be avoided by limiting exercise to concentric and isometric contractions. But eccentric contractions in some muscles are normally unavoidable during exercise, especially when muscles are fatigued. Limiting the length of eccentric muscle extensions during exercise may afford some protection against soreness, but this may also not be practical depending on the mode of exercise. Static stretching or warming up the muscles before or after exercise does not prevent soreness.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "The reason for the protective effect is not yet understood. A number of possible mechanisms, which may complement one another, have been proposed. These include neural adaptations (improved use and control of the muscle by the nervous system), mechanical adaptations (increased muscle stiffness or muscle support tissue), and cellular adaptations (adaptation to inflammatory response and increased protein synthesis, among others).\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "Upon awakening from anesthesia, patients are monitored for their ability to drink fluids, produce urine, as well as their ability to walk after surgery. Most patients are then able to return home once those conditions are met. It is not uncommon for patients to experience residual soreness for a couple of days after surgery. Patients are encouraged to make strong efforts in getting up and walking around the day after surgery. Most patients can resume their normal routine of daily living within the week such as driving, showering, light lifting, as well as sexual activity. Long work absences are rarely necessary and length of sick days tend to be dictated by respective employment policies.\n", "In novice strength trainers, the muscle's ability to generate force is most strongly limited by nerve’s ability to sustain a high-frequency signal. After a period of maximum contraction, the nerve’s signal reduces in frequency and the force generated by the contraction diminishes. There is no sensation of pain or discomfort, the muscle appears to simply ‘stop listening’ and gradually cease to move, often going backwards. As there is insufficient stress on the muscles and tendons, there will often be no delayed onset muscle soreness following the workout.\n", "Discomfort can arise from other factors. Individuals who perform large numbers of repetitions, sets, and exercises for each muscle group may experience a burning sensation in their muscles. These individuals may also experience a swelling sensation in their muscles from increased blood flow also known as edema (the \"pump\"). True muscle fatigue is experienced as loss of power in muscles due to a lack of ATP, the energy used by our body, or a marked and uncontrollable loss of strength in a muscle, arising from the nervous system (motor unit) rather than from the muscle fibers themselves. Extreme neural fatigue can be experienced as temporary muscle failure. Some weight training programs, such as Metabolic Resistance Training, actively seek temporary muscle failure; evidence to support this type of training is mixed at best. Irrespective of their program, however, most athletes engaged in high-intensity weight training will experience muscle failure during their regimens.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04412	Why can't astronauts use sunlight in space to help grow vegetables/plants?	If their only mission was to grow plants, they'd be able to do so. Since they've got other concerns, it's much easier to recreate the light source than it is to constantly maneuver the ship so to have direct sunlight for 14 hours a day. You'd also need a clear bulkhead to allow the light in. It's just easier to balance all of the needs on the ISS with artificial light.	[ "A variety of technical challenges will face colonists who attempt to do off-Earth agriculture. These include the effect of reduced gravity, lighting, and pressure as well as increased radiation. Though greenhouses may solve many of the problems presented in space, their construction would come with their own set of technical challenges.\n", "The first challenge in growing plants in space is how to get plants to grow without gravity. This runs into difficulties regarding the effects of gravity on root development, providing appropriate types of lighting, and other challenges. In particular, the nutrient supply to root as well as the nutrient biogeochemical cycles, and the microbiological interactions in soil-based substrates are particularly complex, but have been shown to make possible space farming in hypo- and micro-gravity.\n", "The first challenge in growing plants in space is how to get plants to grow without gravity. This runs into difficulties regarding the effects of gravity on root development, providing appropriate types of lighting, and other challenges. In particular, the nutrient supply to root as well as the nutrient biogeochemical cycles, and the microbiological interactions in soil-based substrates are particularly complex, but have been shown to make possible space farming in hypo- and micro-gravity.\n\nNASA plans to grow plants in space to help feed astronauts, and to provide psychological benefits for long-term space flight.\n\nSection::::Extraterrestrial vegetation.\n", "On Earth, these problems may hinder the economic feasibility of aeroponics for commercial growers. However, such problems become insurmountable obstacles for using these systems on long-duration space missions because of the high cost of payload volume and mass during launch and transit.\n\nThe NASA efforts lead to developments of numerous advanced materials for aeroponics for earth and space.\n\nSection::::Benefits of aeroponics for earth and space.\n\nAeroponics possesses many characteristics that make it an effective and efficient means of growing plants.\n\nSection::::Benefits of aeroponics for earth and space.:Less nutrient solution throughout.\n", "BULLET::::- O/OREOS (orbited \"Halorubrum chaoviatoris\" and \"Bacillus subtilis\")\n\nBULLET::::- Space food\n\nBULLET::::- Terraforming\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Martian\", a 2015 American science fiction film in which potatoes are grown on Mars\n\nBULLET::::- Space food (Plant have formed a component of astronaut food as well)\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Plants in space projects\n\nBULLET::::- STS-118 Plant Growth\n\nBULLET::::- Greenhouses for Mars\n\nBULLET::::- Sunlight on Mars: Is there enough light on mars to grow tomatoes?\n\nBULLET::::- Award-winning Mars garden\n\nBULLET::::- Plant biology at low atmospheric pressures in support of Earth-orbital, lunar, or Martian plant growth facilities\n\nBULLET::::- How Plants Know Which Way Is Up\n", "BULLET::::- \"Brachypodium distachyon\"\n\nSome plants, like tobacco and morning glory, have not been directly grown in space but have been subjected to space environments and then germinated and grown on Earth.\n\nSection::::History.:Plants for life support in space.\n", "In the 2010s there was an increased desire for long-term space missions, which lead to desire for space-based plant production as food for astronauts. An example of this is vegetable production on the International Space Station in Earth orbit. By the year 2010, 20 plant growth experiments had been conducted aboard the International Space Station.\n", "In addition to varying effects of gravity, unless protected, plants grown on the surface of Mars will be exposed to much higher levels of radiation than on Earth. Exposure to high levels of radiation can damage plant DNA. This occurs as highly reactive hydroxyl radicals target DNA. DNA degradation has a direct effect on plant germination, growth and reproduction. Ionizing radiation also has an effect on PSII function and may cause a loss of function and generation of radicals responsible for photo-oxidation. The intensity of these effects vary from species to species.\n", "Plants grown inflight experience a microgravity environment, and plants grown on the surface of Mars experience approximately 1/3 the gravity that earth plants do. However, so long as plants are provided with directional light, those grown in low gravity environments still experienced normal growth. Normal growth is classified as opposite root and shoot growth direction. This being said many plants grown in a space flight environment have been significantly smaller than those grown on earth's surface and grew at a slower rate.\n", "BULLET::::- Collecting surfaces could receive much more intense sunlight, owing to the lack of obstructions such as atmospheric gasses, clouds, dust and other weather events. Consequently, the intensity in orbit is approximately 144% of the maximum attainable intensity on Earth's surface.\n", "Plants were first taken into Earth's orbit in 1960 on two separate missions, Sputnik 4 and Discoverer 17 (for a review of the first 30 years of plant growth in space, see Halstead and Scott 1990). On the former mission, wheat, pea, maize, spring onion, and Nigella damascena seeds were carried into space, and on the latter mission Chlorella pyrenoidosa cells were brought into orbit.\n", "BULLET::::- IMBP: After more than 1 year of outer space exposure, the spores of microorganisms and fungi, as well as two species of plant seeds (\"Arabidopsis thaliana\" and Tomato) were analysed for viability and the set of biological properties. The experiment provided evidence that not only bacterial and fungal spores but also seeds (dormant forms of plants) have the capability to survive a long-term exposure to outer space.\n\nSection::::EXPOSE-R2.\n", "Section::::History.:Space station era.\n\nIn 1982, the crew of the Soviet Salyut 7 space station conducted an experiment, prepared by Lithuanian scientists (Alfonsas Merkys and others), and grew some Arabidopsis using Fiton-3 experimental micro-greenhouse apparatus, thus becoming the first plants to flower and produce seeds in space. A Skylab experiment studied the effects of gravity and light on rice plants. The SVET-2 Space Greenhouse successfully achieved seed to seed plant growth in 1997 aboard space station \"Mir\". Bion 5 carried \"Daucus carota\" and Bion 7 carried maize (aka corn).\n", "Section::::Plants grown in space.\n\nPlants grown in space include:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Arabidopsis\" (Thale cress)\n\nBULLET::::- Bok choy (Tokyo Bekana) (Chinese cabbage)\n\nBULLET::::- Super dwarf wheat\n\nBULLET::::- Apogey wheat\n\nBULLET::::- \"Brassica rapa\"\n\nBULLET::::- Rice\n\nBULLET::::- Tulips\n\nBULLET::::- \"Kalanchoe\"\n\nBULLET::::- Flax\n\nBULLET::::- Onions, peas, radishes, lettuce, wheat, garlic, cucumbers, parsley, potato, and dill\n\nBULLET::::- Lettuce and Cinnamon basil\n\nBULLET::::- Cabbage\n\nBULLET::::- Zinnia hybrida (\"Profusion\" var.)\n\nBULLET::::- Mizuna lettuce\n\nBULLET::::- Red romaine lettuce (\"Outredgeous\" var.)\n\nBULLET::::- Sunflower\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ceratopteris richardii\"\n\nSection::::Experiments.\n\nSome experiments to do with plants include:\n\nBULLET::::- Advanced Plant Habitat\n\nBULLET::::- Bion satellites\n\nBULLET::::- Biomass Production System, aboard ISS\n", "Section::::History.:Plants.\n\nIn 1982, the crew of the Soviet Salyut 7 space station conducted an experiment, prepared by Lithuanian scientists (Alfonsas Merkys and others), and grew some Arabidopsis using Fiton-3 experimental micro-greenhouse apparatus, thus becoming the first plants to flower and produce seeds in space. A Skylab experiment studied the effects of gravity and light on rice plants. The SVET-2 Space Greenhouse successfully achieved seed to seed plant growth in 1997 aboard space station \"Mir\". Bion 5 carried \"Daucus carota\" and Bion 7 carried maize (aka corn).\n", "NASA plans to grow plants in space to help feed astronauts, and to provide psychological benefits for long-term space flight. In 2017, aboard ISS in one plant growth device, the 5th crop of Chinese cabbage (\"Brassica rapa\") from it included an allotment for crew consumption, while the rest was saved for study. An early discussion of plants in space, were the trees on the brick moon space station, in the 1869 short story \"The Brick Moon\".\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Tests of human-plant life support systems in space are relatively few compared to similar testing performed on Earth and micro-gravity testing on plant growth in space. The first life support systems testing performed in space included gas exchange experiments with wheat, potato, and giant duckweed (\"Spyrodela polyrhiza\"). Smaller scale projects, sometimes referred to as \"salad machines\", have been used to provide fresh produce to astronauts as a dietary supplement. Future studies have been planned to investigate the effects of keeping plants on the mental well-being of humans in confined environments.\n", "The low-pressure environment of the surface of Mars has also been a cause for concern. Hypobaric conditions can affect net photosynthesis and evapotranspiration rates. However, a 2006 study suggests maintaining elevated CO concentrations can mitigate the effects of hypobaric conditions as low as 10 kPa to achieve normal plant growth.\n", "As with all present forays into space, crews have had to store all consumables they require prior to launch. Typically, hard-food consumables were freeze dried so that the craft's weight could be reduced.\n\nOf course, in a self-sustaining ecosystem, a place for crops to grow would be set aside, allowing foods to be grown and cultivated. The larger the group of people, the more crops would have to be grown.\n", "Section::::Experiments.\n\nBULLET::::- The \"GreenHab\" at the Mars Desert Research Station in Utah contains a greenhouse which is designed to emulate some of the challenges resulting from farming on Mars.\n\nBULLET::::- The Lada experiment and the European Modular Cultivation System on the International Space Station is used to grow small amounts of fresh food.\n\nBULLET::::- In 2013, NASA funded research to develop a 3D food printer.\n\nBULLET::::- The NASA Vegetable Production System, \"Veggie\", is a deployable unit which aims to produce salad type crops aboard the International Space Station.\n", "Section::::History.:Aeroponically grown food.\n\nIn 1986, Stoner became the first person to market fresh aeroponically grown food to a national grocery chain. He was interviewed on NPR and discussed the importance of the water conservation features of aeroponics for both modern agriculture and space.\n\nSection::::Aeroponics in space.\n\nSection::::Aeroponics in space.:Space plants.\n", "In addition to maintaining a shelf-life and reducing total mass, the ability to grow food in space would help reduce the vitamin gap in astronaut's diets and provide fresh food with improved taste and texture. Currently, much of the food supplied to astronauts is heat treated or freeze dried. Both of these methods, for the most part, retain the properties of the food pre-treatment. However, vitamin degradation during storage can occur. A 2009 study noted significant decreases in vitamins A, C and K as well as folic acid and thiamin can occur in as little as one year of storage. A mission to Mars could require food storage for as long as five years, thus a new source of these vitamins would be required.\n", "BULLET::::- Inaccessibility: Maintenance of an earth-based solar panel is relatively simple, but construction and maintenance on a solar panel in space would typically be done telerobotically. In addition to cost, astronauts working in GEO (geosynchronous Earth orbit) are exposed to unacceptably high radiation dangers and risk and cost about one thousand times more than the same task done telerobotically.\n\nBULLET::::- The space environment is hostile; panels suffer about 8 times the degradation they would on Earth (except at orbits that are protected by the magnetosphere).\n", "Section::::Growing plants in space.\n\nThe study of plant response in space environments is another subject of astrobotany research. In space, plants encounter unique environmental stressors not found on Earth including microgravity, ionizing radiation, and oxidative stress. Experiments have shown that these stressors cause genetic alterations in plant metabolism pathways. Changes in genetic expression have shown that plants respond on a molecular level to a space environment. Astrobotanical research has been applied to the challenges of creating life support systems both in space and on other planets, primarily Mars.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Due to the cost of resupply and the impracticality of resupplying interplanetary missions the prospect of growing food inflight is incredibly appealing. The existence of a space farm would aid the creation of a sustainable environment, as plants can be used to recycle wastewater, generate oxygen, continuously purify the air and recycle faeces on the space station or spaceship. Just 10m² of crops produces 25% of the daily requirements of 1 person, or about 180-210grams of oxygen.Kijk magazine 9/2015 This essentially allows the space farm to turn the spaceship into an artificial ecosystem with a hydrological cycle and nutrient recycling.\n" ]	[ "Astronauts can't use sunlight to grow plants in space." ]	[ "They could if that was their main mission but it is not the mission. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Astronauts can't use sunlight to grow plants in space." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "They could if that was their main mission but it is not the mission. " ]
2018-00429	Why does ecstasy/MDMA make you feel loving and dig deep into emotions?	it floods your brain with seratonin, one of the main hormones associated with happiness and love (the other main one is dopamine). Now we understand the brain pretty well when it comes to the electro chemical aspects, but the other aspects are not well understood at all, so I don't know if there is any solid answer on why MDMA helps people who have experienced trauma, and I'm guessing if there is an answer it's probably very contraversial. But we understand some problems we have in regards to mental illness are due to some kind of imbalance in our brain chemistry, so flooding our brain with seratonin kind of flips the imbalance the other way for a period. Also sometimes we lock away trauma in our brain due to the intense distress it has caused us, but when our brain is flooded with seratonin we block the emotions and hormones associated with trauma. This isn't much of an answer because mental illness and MDMA and brain chemistry are all things that neurologists will admit they only have a limited understanding of, let alone me. I guess the real answer is that we have some understanding of what MDMA and seratonin is, but mental illness, trauma, memory, ect are still very hard to grasp for us. So if it helps, the reason why is a bit of a mystery.	[ "MDMA (ecstasy) is a drug that also alters one's state of consciousness. The state of consciousness brought about by MDMA ingestion includes a rise in positive feelings and a reduction in negative feelings (Aldridge, D., & Fachner, J. ö. 2005). Users' emotions are increased and inhibitions lowered, often accompanied by a sensation of intimacy or connection with other people.\n", "Sometimes MDMA is labelled as an \"empathogenic\" drug, because of its empathy-producing effects. Results of different studies show its effects of powerful empathy with others. When testing MDMA for medium and high dosage ranges it showed increase on hedonic as well as arousal continuum. The effect of MDMA increasing sociability is consistent, however effects on empathy have been more mixed.\n\nSection::::Use.\n\nSection::::Use.:Recreational.\n", "The experience elicited by MDMA depends on the dose, setting, and user. The variability of the induced altered state by MDMA is lower compared to other psychedelics. For example, MDMA used at parties is associated with high motor activity, reduced sense of self-identity as well as poor awareness of the background surroundings. Use of MDMA individually or in a small groups in a quiet environment and when concentrating, is associated with increased lucidity, capability of concentration, sensitivity of aesthetic aspects of the background and emotions, as well as greater capability of communication with others. In psychotherapeutic settings MDMA effects have been described by infantile ideas, alternating phases of mood, sometimes memories and moods connected with childhood experiences.\n", "MDMA is taken by users less frequently than other stimulants, typically less than once per week. Effects include \"[g]reater enjoyment of dancing\", \"[d]istortions of perceptions, particularly light, music and touch\"; and \"[a]rtificial feelings of empathy and emotional warmth\". MDMA is sometimes taken in conjunction with other psychoactive drugs, such as LSD, DMT,\n\npsilocybin mushrooms and 2C-B. Users sometimes use mentholated products while taking MDMA for its cooling sensation.\n\nSection::::Types.:Stimulants.\n", "The recreational drug MDMA (\"ecstasy\") and a variety of related drugs have been described as \"empathogen-entactogens\", or simply as \"entactogens\". These agents possess serenic and empathy-increasing properties in addition to their euphoriant effects, and have been associated with increased sociability, friendliness, and feelings of closeness to others as well as emotional empathy and prosocial behavior. The entactogenic effects of these drugs are thought to be related to their ability to temporarily increase the levels of certain brain chemicals, including serotonin, dopamine, and, particularly, oxytocin. Certain other serotonergic drugs, such as 5-HT receptor agonists, also increase oxytocin levels and may possess serenic properties as well. The phenylpiperazine mixed 5-HT and 5-HT receptor agonists eltoprazine, fluprazine, and batoprazine have been described based on animal research as serenics.\n", "Section::::Effects.\n\nIn general, MDMA users report feeling the onset of subjective effects within 30–60 minutes of MDMA consumption and reaching the peak effect at 75–120 minutes, which then plateaus for about 3.5 hours. The desired short-term psychoactive effects of MDMA have been reported to include:\n\nBULLET::::- Euphoria – a sense of general well-being and happiness\n\nBULLET::::- Increased self-confidence, sociability and feelings of communication being easy or simple\n\nBULLET::::- Entactogenic effects – increased empathy or feelings of closeness with others and oneself\n\nBULLET::::- Relaxation and reduced anxiety\n\nBULLET::::- Increased emotionality\n\nBULLET::::- A sense of inner peace\n\nBULLET::::- Mild hallucination\n", "With the hallmarks of epic film soundtracks, though completely contrasting in feel, the powerful Keep the Fire Burning is a reflection on the widespread and long-lasting impact of war, while the impossible catchy Whenever was inspired by the beats and sounds of an old 80s Casio keyboard that David once purchased on a whim.\n", "MDMA\n\n3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), commonly known as ecstasy (E), is a psychoactive drug primarily used as a recreational drug. The desired effects include altered sensations and increased energy, empathy, and pleasure. When taken by mouth, effects begin after 30–45 minutes and last 3–6 hours.\n", "Current findings regarding altered visual orientation processing from MDMA use comes from research by White, Brown and Edwards (2013). Their study sought to extend the results found in previous research, such as Maisini et al. (1990), and investigate how MDMA affects visual processing in the occipital lobe. The participants of the study were divided into three groups: Ecstasy users who were amphetamine abstinent, Ecstasy users who also used amphetamines, and drug naive control participants. Ecstasy users who additionally used amphetamine were included as results from prior studies have indicated that concurrent amphetamine use may mediate the effects of MDMA on orientation neurons.\n", "Ecstasy is the street name that refers to the popular recreational drug that contains 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). The now frequently used drug in the rave and club scene was first synthesized by Merck, a German pharmaceutical company that was investigating the development of new medications in the early 1900s. Since its development, it has undergone various phases, from controversially being used as a therapeutic aid in the 1970s, to being banned in the 1980s after the Drug Enforcement Administration concluded that it was addictive. During and following the 1970s, however, MDMA became a popular recreational drug due to it producing feelings of euphoria, empathy, social closeness, mild hallucinations and stimulation. The popularized use of the drug amongst the general public has subsequently raised concerns as animal and human studies have shown that it has the ability to cause neurotoxicity to the brain.\n", "MDMA is occasionally known for being taken in conjunction with psychedelic drugs. The more common combinations include MDMA combined with LSD, MDMA combined with DMT, MDMA with psilocybin mushrooms, and MDMA with the disassociative drug ketamine. Many users use mentholated products while taking MDMA for its cooling sensation while experiencing the drug's effects. Examples include menthol cigarettes, Vicks VapoRub, NyQuil, and lozenges.\n", "BULLET::::- MDMA: The \"euphoriant drugs such as MDMA ('ecstasy') and MDEA ('eve')\" are popular among young adults. MDMA \"users experience short-term feelings of euphoria, rushes of energy and increased tactility.\"\n\nBULLET::::- Opium: This \"drug derived from the unripe seed-pods of the opium poppy…produces drowsiness and euphoria and reduces pain. Morphine and codeine are opium derivatives.\"\n\nSection::::Types.:Hallucinogens.\n", "Section::::Biological function.:Psychological.:Drugs.\n\nBULLET::::- Drug interaction: Impact on effects of alcohol and other drugs: According to several studies in animals, oxytocin inhibits the development of tolerance to various addictive drugs (opiates, cocaine, alcohol), and reduces withdrawal symptoms. MDMA (ecstasy) may increase feelings of love, empathy, and connection to others by stimulating oxytocin activity primarily via activation of serotonin 5-HT1A receptors, if initial studies in animals apply to humans. The anxiolytic Buspar (buspirone) may produce some of its effects via 5-HT1A receptor-induced oxytocin stimulation as well.\n", "MDMA is unpredictable and produces different responses in different people. The drug causes neurotransmitter activation across the main neural pathways (including serotonin and dopamine, noradrenaline) that can result in large mood swings and changes. The memories that emerge under the influence of MDMA can evoke unwanted emotions. Side effects of MDMA use by recreational users include appetite fluctuations, food cravings, and disordered eating. \n", "The MDMA concentration in the blood stream starts to rise after about 30 minutes, and reaches its maximal concentration in the blood stream between 1.5 and 3 hours after ingestion. It is then slowly metabolized and excreted, with levels of MDMA and its metabolites decreasing to half their peak concentration over the next several hours. The duration of action of MDMA is usually four to six hours, after which serotonin levels in the brain are depleted. Serotonin levels typically return to normal within 24–48 hours.\n", "Section::::Chemistry.:Detection in body fluids.\n", "MDMA is sometimes taken in conjunction with other psychoactive drugs such as LSD, psilocybin mushrooms, and ketamine, an act called \"candy-flipping\". \n\nSection::::Use.:Medical.\n\n, MDMA has no accepted medical indications. Before it was widely banned, it saw limited use in therapy. A small number of therapists continue to use MDMA in therapy despite its illegal status.\n\nSection::::Use.:Other.\n\nSmall doses of MDMA are used as an entheogen to enhance prayer or meditation by some religious practitioners. MDMA has been used as an adjunct to New Age spiritual practices.\n\nSection::::Use.:Forms.\n", "Approximately 60% of MDMA users experience withdrawal symptoms when they stop taking MDMA. Some of these symptoms include fatigue, loss of appetite, depression, and trouble concentrating. Tolerance to some of the desired and adverse effects of MDMA is expected to occur with consistent MDMA use. A 2007 analysis estimated MDMA to have a psychological dependence and physical dependence potential roughly three fourths and four fifths that of cannabis.\n", "Shulgin first heard of the psychoactive effects of N-methylated MDA around 1975 from a young student who reported \"amphetamine-like content\". Around 30 May 1976, Shulgin again heard about the effects of N-methylated MDA, this time from a graduate student in a medicinal chemistry group he advised at San Francisco State University who directed him to the University of Michigan study. She and two close friends had consumed 100 mg of MDMA and reported positive emotional experiences. Following the self-trials of a colleague at the University of San Francisco, Shulgin synthesized MDMA and tried it himself in September and October 1976. Shulgin first reported on MDMA in a presentation at a conference in Bethesda, Maryland in December 1976. In 1978, he and David E. Nichols published a report on the drug's psychoactive effect in humans. They described MDMA as inducing \"an easily controlled altered state of consciousness with emotional and sensual overtones\" comparable \"to marijuana, to psilocybin devoid of the hallucinatory component, or to low levels of MDA\".\n", "In 2017 it was found that some pills being sold as MDMA contained pentylone, which can cause very unpleasant agitation and paranoia.\n\nAccording to David Nutt, when safrole was restricted by the United Nations in order to reduce the supply of MDMA, producers in China began using anethole instead, but this gives para-methoxyamphetamine (PMA, also known as \"Dr Death\"), which is much more toxic than MDMA and can cause overheating, muscle spasms, seizures, unconsciousness, and death. People wanting MDMA are sometimes sold PMA instead.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.:Legal status.\n", "Section::::Remixes.\n", "\"In everyday language, the word 'ecstasy' denotes an intense, euphoric experience. For obvious reasons, it is rarely used in a scientific context; it is a concept that is extremely hard to define.\"\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Entheogen\n\nBULLET::::- Flow (psychology)\n\nBULLET::::- Poem of Ecstasy\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- William James, \"Varieties of Religious Experience\", 1902.\n\nBULLET::::- Milan Kundera on ecstasy: a quote from Milan Kundera's book \"Testaments Betrayed\" (1993)\n\nBULLET::::- Marghanita Laski, \"Ecstasy. A study of some Secular and Religious Experiences\", London, Cresset Press, 1961. Review\n\nBULLET::::- Marghanita Laski, \"Everyday Ecstasy\", Thames and Hudson, 1980. .\n", "MDMA has become widely known as ecstasy (shortened \"E\", \"X\", or \"XTC\"), usually referring to its tablet form, although this term may also include the presence of possible adulterants or dilutants. The UK term \"mandy\" and the US term \"molly\" colloquially refer to MDMA in a crystalline powder form that is thought to be free of adulterants. MDMA is also sold in the form of the hydrochloride salt, either as loose crystals or in gelcaps.\n", "Despite being scheduled as a controlled substance in the mid-1980s, MDMA's popularity has been growing since that time in western Europe and in the United States.\n", "That year, various mixes of three songs from \"Concentration\" — \"Perfect Tan\", \"Butterfly Wings\", and \"Lilith/Eve\" — were featured in the horror film \"Devour\". \"Butterfly Wings\" was also featured on the television show \"Due South\", in the episodes \"Chicago Holiday\" and \"Flashback\".\n\nSection::::History.:Break up–present.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04245	why do get an electric shock as a human if you touch an object or another person? Like giving someone a hand for instance	Static electricity can build up on many things including you. When you give that electric charge the chance to ground itself is when you get that shock.	[ "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n\nThe minimum current a human can feel depends on the current type (AC or DC) as well as frequency for AC. A person can feel at least 1 mA (rms) of AC at 60 Hz, while at least 5 mA for DC. At around 10 mA, AC current passing through the arm of a human can cause powerful muscle contractions; the victim is unable to voluntarily control muscles and cannot release an electrified object. This is known as the \"let go threshold\" and is a criterion for shock hazard in electrical regulations.\n", "In any situation where energized equipment is in intimate electrical contact with a person or animal (such as swimming pools, surgery, electric milking machines, car washes, laundries, and many others), particular attention must be paid to elimination of stray voltages. Dry intact skin has a higher resistance than wet skin or a wound, so voltages that would otherwise be unnoticed become significant for a wet or surgical situation.\n", "Electrical injury is a physiological reaction caused by electric current passing through the body. Electric shock occurs upon contact of a (human) body part with any source of electricity that causes a sufficient magnitude of current to pass through the victim's flesh, viscera or hair. Physical contact with energized wiring or devices is the most common cause of an electric shock. In cases of exposure to high voltages, such as on a power transmission tower, physical contact with energized wiring or objects may not be necessary to cause electric shock, as the voltage may be sufficient to \"jump\" the air gap between the electrical device and the victim.\n", "The voltage necessary for electrocution depends on the current through the body and the duration of the current. Ohm's law states that the current drawn depends on the resistance of the body. The resistance of human skin varies from person to person and fluctuates between different times of day. The NIOSH states \"Under dry conditions, the resistance offered by the human body may be as high as 100,000 ohms. Wet or broken skin may drop the body's resistance to 1,000 ohms,\" adding that \"high-voltage electrical energy quickly breaks down human skin, reducing the human body's resistance to 500 ohms\".\n", "Section::::Medical aspects.\n\nThe health hazard of an electric current flowing through the body depends on the amount of current and the length of time for which it flows, not merely on the voltage. However, a high voltage is required to produce a high current through the body. This is due to the relatively high resistance of skin when dry, requiring a high voltage to pass through. The severity of a shock also depends on whether the path of the current includes a vital organ. \n", "BULLET::::- High voltage (over about 600 volts). In addition to greater current flow, high voltage may cause dielectric breakdown at the skin, thus lowering skin resistance and allowing further increased current flow.\n\nBULLET::::- Medical implants. Artificial cardiac pacemakers or implantable cardioverter-defibrillators (ICD) are sensitive to very small currents.\n\nBULLET::::- Pre-existing medical condition.\n\nBULLET::::- Age and sex.\n", "Body contact (electricity)\n\nA body contact or body fault is a conductive connection between body and active parts of electrical equipment resulting from a fault.\n\nA body, short or ground fault is:\n\nBULLET::::- Perfect (direct) contact\n\nIf there is no fault resistance in the circuit\n\nBULLET::::- Imperfect (indirect) contact\n\nIf a fault resistance is present in the circuit (e.g. wet branch, arc)\n\nThis can be caused by installation errors or defects, such as cable breaks.\n", "BULLET::::- Macroshock: Current across intact skin and through the body. Current from arm to arm, or between an arm and a foot, is likely to traverse the heart, therefore it is much more dangerous than current between a leg and the ground. This type of shock by definition must pass into the body through the skin.\n", "Human-body model\n\nThe human-body model (HBM) is the most commonly used model for characterizing the susceptibility of an electronic device to damage from electrostatic discharge (ESD). The model is a simulation of the discharge which might occur when a human touches an electronic device. \n\nThe HBM definition most widely used is the test model defined in the United States military standard, MIL-STD-883, Method 3015.9, Electrostatic Discharge Sensitivity Classification. This method establishes a simplified equivalent electrical circuit and the necessary test procedures required to model an HBM ESD event.\n\nAn internationally widely used standard is JEDEC standard JS-001.\n", "Electricity poses a danger to many workers. Electrical injuries can be divided into four types: fatal electrocution, electric shock, burns, and falls caused by contact with electric energy. Electrocution is one of the major hazards on construction sites. It can be fatal and can result in serious and permanent burn injuries to the skin, internal tissues and damage to the heart depending on the length and severity of the shock. When electric current flows through tissues or bone, it produces heat that causes electrical burns. Electrical burns cause tissue damage and need immediate medical attention. Electric shocks can result in the injuries like muscle spasms, palpitations, nausea, vomiting, collapse, and unconsciousness. Faulty electrical connections and damaged electrical equipment can lead to an electric shock to workers and to others at or near the workplace.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Neurological effects.\n\nElectrical current can cause interference with nervous control, especially over the heart and lungs. Repeated or severe electric shock which does not lead to death has been shown to cause neuropathy at the site where the current entered the body. The neurologic symptoms of electrical injury may occur immediately, which traditionally have a higher likelihood for healing, though they may also be delayed by days to years. The delayed neurologic consequences of electrical injury have a worse prognosis.\n", "At high voltages, it is unnecessary to come into direct contact with charged equipment to be shocked. An electric field surrounds all charged devices. Bringing a conducting object such as a human body into that field can intensify the field enough for electrical breakdown of the air and an arc to jump from the equipment to earth via that person. In the U.S., the Occupational Safety and Health Administration establishes clearance guidelines. Solid materials such as rubber, while excellent insulators at low voltages, are also subject to electrical failure if subjected to a high enough field.\n\nSection::::Background.:Avoiding loss of supply.\n", "Section::::Hazards.\n\nSection::::Hazards.:Extrinsic.\n\nSufficiently strong electromagnetic radiation (EMR) can cause electric currents in conductive materials that is strong enough to create sparks (electrical arcs) when an induced voltage exceeds the breakdown voltage of the surrounding medium (\"e.g.\" air at 3.0 MV/m). These can deliver an electric shock to persons or animals. For example, the radio emissions from transmission lines have occasionally caused shocks to construction workers from nearby equipment, causing OSHA to establish standards for proper handling.\n", "Section::::Why use transformers in power converters.\n\nTransformers are used in power converters to incorporate:\n\nBULLET::::- Electrical isolation\n\nBULLET::::- Voltage step-down or step up\n\nThe secondary circuit is floating, when you touch the secondary circuit, you merely drag its potential to your body potential or the earth potential. There will be no current flowing through your body. That's why you can use your cellphone safely when it is being charged, even if your cellphone has a metal shell and it is connected to the secondary circuit.\n", "Electrical shock is the physiological reaction, sensation, or injury caused by electric current passing through the body. It occurs upon contact of a body part with any source of electricity that causes a sufficient current through the skin, muscles, or hair.\n", "The current may, if it is high enough and is delivered at sufficient voltage, cause tissue damage or fibrillation which can cause cardiac arrest; of AC (rms, 60 Hz) or of DC at high voltage can cause fibrillation. A sustained electric shock from AC at 120 V, 60 Hz is an especially dangerous source of ventricular fibrillation because it usually exceeds the let-go threshold, while not delivering enough initial energy to propel the person away from the source. However, the potential seriousness of the shock depends on paths through the body that the currents take. If the voltage is less than 200 V, then the human skin, more precisely the stratum corneum, is the main contributor to the impedance of the body in the case of a macroshock—the passing of current between two contact points on the skin. The characteristics of the skin are non-linear however. If the voltage is above 450–600 V, then dielectric breakdown of the skin occurs. The protection offered by the skin is lowered by perspiration, and this is accelerated if electricity causes muscles to contract above the let-go threshold for a sustained period of time.\n", "There are a variety of psychiatric effects that may occur due to electrical injuries. Recent research has found that functional differences in neural activation during spatial working memory and implicit learning oculomotor tasks have been identified in electrical shock victims. Frank behavioral changes can occur as well, even if the path of electrical current did not proceed through the head. Symptoms may include:\n\nBULLET::::- Depression, including feelings of low self-esteem and guilt\n\nBULLET::::- Anxiety spectrum disorders, including posttraumatic stress disorder and fear of electricity\n\nBULLET::::- Moodiness, including a lower threshold for frustration and \"losing one's temper\"\n", "Some studies include the human skin's response to alternating current, including recently deceased bodies.\n\nSection::::Description.:Physiological basis.\n", "Section::::Lightning and Earthing protection.:Lightning protection systems.\n\nBULLET::::- lightning rod (simple rod or with triggering system)\n\nBULLET::::- lightning rod with taut wires.\n\nBULLET::::- lightning conductor with meshed cage (Faraday cage)\n\nSection::::Physiological Effects of Electricity.\n\nElectrical shocks on humans can lead to permanent disabilities or death. Size, frequency and duration of the electrical current affect the damage. The effects from electric shock can be: stopping the heart beating properly, preventing the person from breathing, causing muscle spasms. The skin features also affect the consequences of electric shock.\n", "Section::::Causes.\n\nElectrical burns can be caused by a variety of ways such as touching or grasping electrically live objects, short-circuiting, inserting fingers into electrical sockets, and falling into electrified water. Lightning strikes are also a cause of electrical burns, but this is a less common event.\n\nWith the advances in technology, electrical injuries are becoming more common and are the fourth leading cause of work-related traumatic death. One third of all electrical traumas and most high-voltage injuries are job related, and more than 50% of these injuries result from power line contact.\n", "The injury related to electric shock depends on the magnitude of the current. Very small currents may be imperceptible or produce a light tingling sensation. A shock caused by low current that would normally be harmless could startle an individual and cause injury due to suddenly jerking away from the source of electricity, resulting in one striking a stationary object, dropping an object being held or falling. Stronger currents may cause some degree of discomfort or pain, while more intense currents may induce involuntary muscle contractions, preventing the victim from breaking free of the source of electricity. Still larger currents usually result in tissue damage and may trigger fibrillation of the heart or cardiac arrest, any of which may ultimately be fatal. If death results from an electric shock the cause of death is generally referred to as electrocution. \n", "High-level EMP signals can pose a threat to human safety. In such circumstances, direct contact with a live electrical conductor should be avoided. Where this occurs, such as when touching a Van de Graaf generator or other highly-charged object, care must be taken to release the object and then discharge the body through a high resistance, in order to avoid the risk of a harmful shock pulse when stepping away.\n", "A person touching the un-earthed metal casing of an electrical device, while also in contact with a metal object connected to remote earth, is exposed to an electric shock hazard if the device has a fault. If all metal objects are connected, all the metal objects in the building will be at the same potential. It then will not be possible to get a shock by touching two 'earthed' objects at once.\n", "Accidental contact with any high voltage supplying sufficient energy may result in severe injury or death. This can occur as a person's body provides a path for current flow, causing tissue damage and heart failure. Other injuries can include burns from the arc generated by the accidental contact. These burns can be especially dangerous if the victim's airway is affected. Injuries may also be suffered as a result of the physical forces experienced by people who fall from a great height or are thrown a considerable distance.\n", "In power transmission systems, one side of the circuit, known as the neutral, is grounded to dissipate static electricity and to reduce hazardous voltages caused by insulation failure and other electrical faults. It is possible to get a shock by only touching the \"hot\" wire, due to the person's body being capacitively coupled to the ground upon which the person stands, even if the person is standing on an insulated surface.\n\nSection::::Origins.:Induced voltages.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-06887	What's the difference between copyright and trademark symbols?	The difference is the type of asset they protect. Copyright protects works, such as books, movies, or games. Trademark protects the company brand, such as name, logo, or slogan.	[ "BULLET::::- The oldest U.S. registered trademark still in use is trademark reg. no 11210, a depiction of the Biblical figure Samson wrestling a lion, registered in the United States on May 27, 1884 by the J.P. Tolman Company (now Samson Rope Technologies, Inc.), a rope-making company.\n", "Use of the trademark symbol indicates an assertion that a word, image, or other sign is a trademark; it does not indicate registration. Registered trademarks are indicated using the registered trademark symbol (®), and in some jurisdictions it is unlawful or illegal to use the registered trademark symbol with a mark that has not been registered.\n\nSection::::Trademarks versus service marks.\n", "Drawing these distinctions is necessary, but often challenging for the courts and lawyers, especially in jurisdictions where patents and copyrights pass into the public domain, depending on the jurisdiction. Unlike patents and copyrights, which in theory are granted for one-off fixed terms, trademarks remain valid as long as the owner actively uses and defends them and maintains their registrations with the competent authorities. This often involves payment of a periodic renewal fee.\n", "The symbols ™ (the trademark symbol) and ® (the registered trademark symbol) can be used to indicate trademarks; the latter is only for use by the owner of a trademark that has been registered.\n\nSection::::Usage.\n", "In Unicode it is . In HTML the code codice_1 or codice_2 can be added. LaTeX uses \\texttrademark. On Windows it may be entered by holding the while typing the numbers on the numeric keypad (it is at 0x99 or 153 in CP1252) or by pressing . On macOS, it may be entered by pressing . On Linux and some other POSIX-compatible systems the trademark symbol may be entered by keys sequence .\n\nAn equivalent \"marque de commerce\" symbol () is used in Quebec.\n\nSection::::Use.\n", "In the United States, the Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988, effective March 1, 1989, removed the requirement for the copyright symbol from U.S. copyright law, but its presence or absence is legally significant on works published prior to that date, and it continues to have effect on remedies available to a copyright holder whose work is infringed.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nPrior symbols indicating a work's copyright status are seen in Scottish almanacs of the 1670s; books included a printed copy of the local coat-of-arms to indicate their authenticity.\n", "The formulation of the 1909 Act was left unchanged when it was incorporated in 1946 as title 17 of the United States Code; when that title was amended in 1954, the symbol © was allowed as an alternative to \"Copyright\" or \"Copr.\" in all copyright notices.\n\nSection::::History.:Pre-1989 U.S. copyright notice.\n\nIn the United States, the copyright notice required prior to March 1, 1989, consists of:\n\nBULLET::::- the © symbol, or the word \"Copyright\" or abbreviation \"Copr.\";\n\nBULLET::::- the year of first publication of the copyrighted work; and\n", "Although intellectual property laws such as these are theoretically distinct, more than one type may afford protection to the same article. For example, the particular design of a bottle may qualify for copyright protection as a non-utilitarian [sculpture], or for trademark protection based on its shape, or the 'trade dress' appearance of the bottle as a whole may be protectable. Titles and character names from books or movies may also be protectable as trademarks while the works from which they are drawn may qualify for copyright protection as a whole. Trademark protection does not apply to utilitarian features of a product such as the plastic interlocking studs on Lego bricks.\n", "Logos and their design may be protected by copyright, via various intellectual property organisations worldwide which make available application procedures to register a design to give it protection at law. For example, in the UK, the Intellectual Property Office (United Kingdom) govern registered designs, patents, and trademarks. Ordinarily, the trademark registration will not 'make claim' to colors used, meaning it is the visual design that will be protected, even if it is reproduced in a variety of other colors or backgrounds.\n\nSection::::Sports.\n", "Trademarks not officially registered can instead be marked with the trademark symbol ™, while unregistered service marks are marked with the service mark symbol ℠. The proper manner to display these symbols is immediately following the mark, and is commonly in superscript style but is not legally required.\n\nIn the USA, the registered trademark symbol was originally introduced in the Trademark Act of 1946.\n", "Many trademarks are adapted from words or symbols that are common to the culture, as Apple, Inc. using a trademark that is based upon the apple. Other trademarks are invented by the mark owner (such as Kodak) and have no common use until introduced by the owner. Courts have recognized that ownership of a trademark or service mark cannot be used to prevent others from using the word or symbol in accord with its plain and ordinary meaning, such as if the trademark is a descriptive word or common symbol such as a pine tree. As a result, the less distinctive or original the trademark, the less able the trademark owner will be to control how it is used.\n", "A trademark identifies the brand owner of a particular product or service. Trademarks can be used by others under licensing agreements; for example, Bullyland obtained a license to produce Smurf figurines; the Lego Group purchased a license from Lucasfilm in order to be allowed to launch Lego Star Wars; TT Toys Toys is a manufacturer of licensed ride-on replica cars for children. The unauthorized usage of trademarks by producing and trading counterfeit consumer goods is known as brand piracy.\n", "Trademark symbol\n\nThe trademark symbol (™) is a symbol to indicate that the preceding mark is a trademark. It is usually used for unregistered trademarks, as opposed to the registered trademark symbol (®) which is reserved for trademarks registered with the appropriate government agency.\n", "Section::::Enforcing rights.:Limits and defenses to claims of infringement.\n\nTrademark is subject to various defenses, such as abandonment, limitations on geographic scope, and fair use. In the United States, the fair use defence protects many of the interests in free expression related to those protected by the First Amendment.\n", "The two symbols associated with trademarks, ™ (the trademark symbol) and ® (the registered trademark symbol), represent the status of a mark and accordingly its level of protection. While ™ can be used with any common law usage of a mark, ® may only be used by the owner of a mark following registration with the relevant national authority, such as the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO or PTO). The proper manner to display either symbol is immediately following the mark in superscript style.\n\nSection::::Terminology.\n", "Terms such as \"mark\", \"brand\" and \"logo\" are sometimes used interchangeably with \"trademark\". \"Trademark\", however, also includes any device, brand, label, name, signature, word, letter, numerical, shape of goods, packaging, colour or combination of colours, smell, sound, movement or any combination thereof which is capable of distinguishing goods and services of one business from those of others. It must be capable of graphical representation and must be applied to goods or services for which it is registered.\n", "Registered trademark symbol\n\nThe registered trademark symbol (®) is a symbol that provides notice that the preceding word or symbol is a trademark or service mark that has been registered with a national trademark office. A trademark is a symbol, word, or words legally registered or established by use as representing a company or product. In some countries it is against the law to use the registered trademark symbol for a mark that is not officially registered in any country.\n", "A trademark used in connection with services is called a service mark. Service marks are used, for example, by hotels, restaurants, airlines, tourist agencies, car-rental agencies, laundries and cleaners. All that has been said about trademarks also applies to service marks.\n\nSection::::Trademarks.:Functions of trademarks.\n\nBroadly speaking, trademarks perform four main functions:\n", "Once trademark rights are established in a particular jurisdiction, these rights are generally only enforceable in that jurisdiction, a quality which is sometimes known as \"territoriality\". However, there is a range of international trademark laws and systems which facilitate the protection of trademarks in more than one jurisdiction.\n\nSection::::Search.\n", "Section::::Symbols.\n\nU.S. Trademark rights come in two types: common law and federal registration.\n\n™ – Signifies common law trademark rights. Businesses automatically receive common law trademark rights by using a brand name or logo in the normal course of commerce.\n\n® – Signifies a registered trademark. The ® symbol may only be used on a trademark that has been examined, approved and \"registered\" with the USPTO.\n\nSection::::Acquiring trademark rights.\n\nTrademark rights are acquired through use of a mark in the normal course of commerce. For example, by using a brand name or logo on a product or its retail packaging.\n", "Although not required by law to receive trademark protection, an unregistered trademark owner can append the mark with the letters \"TM\" (visualized by the trademark symbol ™). A ™ serves as notice to the public the words or symbols are an unregistered trademark. In contrast, trademarks granted by the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) may have the ® symbol next to the trademark. U.S. Federal law prohibits a common law, unregistered trademark owner gaining any benefit from using the ® with the trademark. \n", "BULLET::::- the Celebrity Centre International logo\n\nBULLET::::- the Class III Auditor badge\n\nBULLET::::- the Class IV Auditor badge\n\nBULLET::::- the Class V Auditor badge\n\nBULLET::::- the Class V Auditor Graduate badge\n\nBULLET::::- the Class V Org corporate symbol\n\nBULLET::::- the Class VIII Auditor badge\n\nBULLET::::- the Clearsound logo\n\nBULLET::::- the CSI corporate symbol\n\nBULLET::::- the Dianetics symbol\n\nBULLET::::- the Dianetics symbol in a circle\n\nBULLET::::- the Division 6 symbol\n\nBULLET::::- Fast Flow Student symbol\n\nBULLET::::- the Flag Crew symbol\n\nBULLET::::- the Flag Service Org corporate symbol\n\nBULLET::::- the Flag Ship Service Org symbol\n\nBULLET::::- the Freewinds logo\n", "§ 8. Even though a registered trademark is liable to be confused with a sign which has an earlier right, it shall be allowed to co-exist validly with the latter, provided the application for registration was filed in good faith and the holder of the earlier right has knowingly tolerated the use of the later trademark in this country for five consecutive years from the date of registration.\n\nSection::::Overview.:Misconceptions.\n", "BULLET::::- the New World Corps logo\n\nBULLET::::- the OT symbol\n\nBULLET::::- the OT symbol in wreath\n\nBULLET::::- the OT Ambassador symbol\n\nBULLET::::- the OT Universe Corps symbol\n\nBULLET::::- the Power pin\n\nBULLET::::- the Professional TRs symbol\n\nBULLET::::- the Release pin\n\nBULLET::::- the Religious Technology Center corporate symbol\n\nBULLET::::- the Ron signature\n\nBULLET::::- the Saint Hill Special Briefing Course symbol\n\nBULLET::::- the Scientologist On-Line logo\n\nBULLET::::- the pointed Scientology cross\n\nBULLET::::- the rounded Scientology cross\n\nBULLET::::- the Scientology symbol\n\nBULLET::::- the Scientology Missions International logo\n\nBULLET::::- the Sea Horse symbol\n\nBULLET::::- the Sea Org symbol\n\nBULLET::::- the Solo Auditor symbol\n", "Collective trademarks differ from certification marks. The main difference is that collective trademarks may be used by particular members of the organization which owns them, while certification marks may be used by anybody who complies with the standards defined by the owner of the particular certification mark. \n\nSection::::Regulations on use.\n\nNational trademark laws in some countries (such as Finland, Germany, Hungary and Switzerland) provide for the filing of the regulations as an additional requirement for registration of the collective trademark.\n\nThe regulations shall normally specify: \n\nBULLET::::- the name and seat of the organization,\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-09451	How do honeycombs and beeswax form nearly perfect hexagons?	The hexagon is a very spatially efficient shape which uses less material. Try this experiment: wash your hands with soap, and spread the lather out on a flat surface. The bubbles will spontaneously acquire hexagon-like shapes and arrange themselves neatly. You see the same patterns in basalt columns and mudcracks because it fills the space using little energy.	[ "Individual cells do not show this geometric perfection: in a regular comb, deviations of a few percent from the \"perfect\" hexagonal shape occur. In transition zones between the larger cells of drone comb and the smaller cells of worker comb, or when the bees encounter obstacles, the shapes are often distorted. Cells are also angled up about 13° from horizontal to prevent honey from dripping out.\n", "At the scale of living cells, foam patterns are common; radiolarians, sponge spicules, silicoflagellate exoskeletons and the calcite skeleton of a sea urchin, \"Cidaris rugosa\", all resemble mineral casts of Plateau foam boundaries. The skeleton of the Radiolarian, \"Aulonia hexagona\", a beautiful marine form drawn by Ernst Haeckel, looks as if it is a sphere composed wholly of hexagons, but this is mathematically impossible. The Euler characteristic states that for any convex polyhedron, the number of faces plus the number of vertices (corners) equals the number of edges plus two. A result of this formula is that any closed polyhedron of hexagons has to include exactly 12 pentagons, like a soccer ball, Buckminster Fuller geodesic dome, or fullerene molecule. This can be visualised by noting that a mesh of hexagons is flat like a sheet of chicken wire, but each pentagon that is added forces the mesh to bend (there are fewer corners, so the mesh is pulled in).\n", "History The peculiar three-dimensional structure of the honey bee comb has intrigued for thousands of years. It is quite possible that some isolated construction project used a scaled-up version of this zonohedron, however a largely visible use of these shapes only appeared in the early 1980s. \n\nLes Systèmes Archimede Inc. of Tring Junction QC started to produce applying US4462191, a patent owned by J. Poirier who also co-founded the manufacturing firm with Placide Poulin .\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- High-Tech Housing, Popular Science Magazine\n\nBULLET::::- Why Rhombic Dodecahedral shells are so strong, text and illustrations by J.B. Poirier,arch.\n", "If the successive sides of a cyclic hexagon are \"a\", \"b\", \"c\", \"d\", \"e\", \"f\", then the three main diagonals intersect in a single point if and only if .\n\nIf, for each side of a cyclic hexagon, the adjacent sides are extended to their intersection, forming a triangle exterior to the given side, then the segments connecting the circumcenters of opposite triangles are concurrent.\n", "The Schläfli symbol of the hexagonal tiling honeycomb is {6,3,3}. Since that of the hexagonal tiling of the plane is {6,3}, this honeycomb has three such hexagonal tilings meeting at each edge. Since the Schläfli symbol of the tetrahedron is {3,3}, the vertex figure of this honeycomb is an tetrahedron. Thus, six hexagonal tilings meet at each vertex of this honeycomb, and four edges meet at each vertex.\n\nSection::::Images.\n", "Galileo Galilei discusses in 1638 the resistance of hollow solids: \"Art, and nature even more, makes use of these in thousands of operations in which robustness is increased without adding weight, as is seen in the bones of birds and in many stalks that are light and very resistant to bending and breaking”.\n\nRobert Hooke discovers in 1665 that the natural cellular structure of cork is similar to the hexagonal honeybee comb. and Charles Darwin states in 1859 that \"the comb of the hive-bee, as far as we can see, is absolutely perfect in economizing labour and wax”.\n", "For an infinite number of equal areas in the plane, the minimum-length set of curves separating these areas is the hexagonal tiling, familiar from its use by bees to form honeycombs. For the same problem in three dimensions, the optimal solution is not known; Lord Kelvin conjectured that it was given by a structure combinatorially equivalent to the bitruncated cubic honeycomb, but this conjecture was disproved by the discovery of the Weaire–Phelan structure, a partition of space into equal volume cells of two different shapes using a smaller average amount of surface area per cell.\n", "Section::::Solution.\n\nThe solution is given for small values of \"z\" \"z\" by\n\nwhere\n\nFor large \"z\" \"z\" the solution (in the phase where most occupied sites have type 1) is given by \n", "BULLET::::- 1665 Robert Hooke discovers that the natural cellular structure of cork is similar to the hexagonal honeybee comb.\n\nBULLET::::- 1859 Charles Darwin states that the comb of the hive-bee is absolutely perfect in economizing labour and wax.\n\nBULLET::::- 1877 F. H. Küstermann invents a honeycomb moulding process using a paper paste glue mixture.\n\nBULLET::::- 1890 Julius Steigel invents the honeycomb production process from corrugated metal sheets.\n\nBULLET::::- 1901 Hans Heilbrun invents the hexagonal paper honeycombs and the expansion production process.\n\nBULLET::::- 1914 R. Höfler and S. Renyi patent the first use of honeycomb structures for structural applications.\n", "The most common high symmetry hexadecagons are d16, a isogonal hexadecagon constructed by eight mirrors can alternate long and short edges, and p16, an isotoxal hexadecagon constructed with equal edge lengths, but vertices alternating two different internal angles. These two forms are duals of each other and have half the symmetry order of the regular hexadecagon.\n\nEach subgroup symmetry allows one or more degrees of freedom for irregular forms. Only the g16 subgroup has no degrees of freedom but can seen as directed edges.\n\nSection::::Dissection.\n", "BULLET::::- They drew a well-centered hexadecagon (or two linked by a vertex) with a network of 16 lines per vertex (with the different colors mentioned above: black, green and red)\n\nBULLET::::- They copied on top of the grid the coasts lines trying to let the 16 vertex in visible places, as shown in Vescomte's portolan picture with its rhumbline network drawing a 16 vertex regular polygon (hexadecagon) that is perfectly centered on the parchment.\n", "Section::::Regular and Laves tilings.\n\nThe 3 regular and 8 semiregular Lave tilings are shown, with yellow triangles, red quadrilaterals, cyan pentagons, and green hexagons.\n\nSection::::Regular and Laves tilings.:Insets of Dual Planigons into Higher Degree Vertices.\n\nBULLET::::- A degree-six vertex can be replaced by a center regular hexagon and six edges emanating thereof;\n\nBULLET::::- A degree-twelve vertex can be replaced by six deltoids (a center deltoidal hexagon) and twelve edges emanating thereof;\n", "The 60 vertices of degree 3 correspond to the apex vertex of each triangular pyramid of the Kleetope, or to each face of the pentakis dodecahedron. The 20 vertices of degree 12 and 12 vertices of degree 10 correspond to the vertices of the pentakis dodecahedron, and also respectively to the 20 hexagons and 12 pentagons of the truncated icosahedron, the dual solid to the pentakis dodecahedron.\n", "BULLET::::- the centers of the hexagons of a honeycomb form a hexagonal lattice, with the rows oriented the same\n\nBULLET::::- the vertices of a honeycomb, together with their centers, form a hexagonal lattice, rotated by 30° (or equivalently 90°), and scaled by a factor formula_1, relative to the other lattice\n\nThe ratio of the number of vertices and the number of hexagons is 2, so together with the centers the ratio is 3, the reciprocal of the square of the scale factor.\n", "There are 2 regular complex apeirogons, sharing the vertices of the trihexagonal tiling. Regular complex apeirogons have vertices and edges, where edges can contain 2 or more vertices. Regular apeirogons \"p\"{\"q\"}\"r\" are constrained by: 1/\"p\" + 2/\"q\" + 1/\"r\" = 1. Edges have \"p\" vertices arranged like a regular polygon, and vertex figures are \"r\"-gonal.\n\nThe first is made of triangular edges, two around every vertex, second has hexagonal edges, two around every vertex.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Percolation threshold\n\nBULLET::::- Star of David\n\nBULLET::::- Trihexagonal prismatic honeycomb\n\nBULLET::::- Cyclotruncated simplectic honeycomb\n\nBULLET::::- List of uniform tilings\n\nSection::::References.\n", "Section::::Related tilings.:Fractalizing and Dissection.\n\nEvery uniform planar tiling can be \"reduced\" to a tiling in equilateral triangles and squares by dissecting regular hexagons into six triangles and dissecting regular dodecagons into hexakis rhombitrihexagonal rotundas:\n\nNonetheless, the duals of the resulting tilings may also contain regular hexagons in addition to Cairo and prismatic pentagons.\n", "Wright's Hanna House of 1937 is a clear example of the master's facility with modern modular design in multiple dimensions. Its striking angled forms are built up from the individual hexagonal modules that define the floor plan and various vertical elements. Wright's use of the hexagon here is by no means an arbitrary aesthetic choice, but an example of how he rooted his architecture in nature by drawing from its forms and principles – the interlocking hexagonal cells of the bee's honeycomb being nature's most perfect representation of modular design. Not surprisingly, this project is sometimes referred to as the \"Honeycomb House\".\n", "There are 2 regular complex apeirogons, sharing the vertices of the hexagonal tiling. Regular complex apeirogons have vertices and edges, where edges can contain 2 or more vertices. Regular apeirogons \"p\"{\"q\"}\"r\" are constrained by: 1/\"p\" + 2/\"q\" + 1/\"r\" = 1. Edges have \"p\" vertices, and vertex figures are \"r\"-gonal.\n\nThe first is made of 2-edges, three around every vertex, second has hexagonal edges, three around every vertex. A third complex apeirogon, sharing the same vertices, is quasiregular, which alternates 2-edges and 6-edges.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Hexagonal lattice\n\nBULLET::::- Hexagonal prismatic honeycomb\n\nBULLET::::- Tilings of regular polygons\n", "As with the above, the rows of triangles run in three directions and there are 24 triangles in a T-hexagon of order 2. In general, a T-hexagon of order \"n\" has formula_10 triangles. The sum of all these numbers is given by:\n\nIf we try to construct a magic T-hexagon of side \"n\", we have to choose \"n\" to be even, because there are rows so the sum in each row must be\n", "A regular hexagon can be extended into a regular dodecagon by adding alternating squares and equilateral triangles around it. This pattern repeats within the rhombitrihexagonal tiling.\n\nThere are 6 self-crossing hexagons with the vertex arrangement of the regular hexagon:\n\nSection::::Hexagonal structures.\n\nFrom bees' honeycombs to the Giant's Causeway, hexagonal patterns are prevalent in nature due to their efficiency. In a hexagonal grid each line is as short as it can possibly be if a large area is to be filled with the fewest hexagons. This means that honeycombs require less wax to construct and gain lots of strength under compression.\n", "Polygons appear in rock formations, most commonly as the flat facets of crystals, where the angles between the sides depend on the type of mineral from which the crystal is made.\n\nRegular hexagons can occur when the cooling of lava forms areas of tightly packed columns of basalt, which may be seen at the Giant's Causeway in Northern Ireland, or at the Devil's Postpile in California.\n\nIn biology, the surface of the wax honeycomb made by bees is an array of hexagons, and the sides and base of each cell are also polygons.\n\nSection::::Computer graphics.\n", "In particular this is true for regular polygons with evenly many sides, in which case the parallelograms are all rhombi. This decomposition of a regular hexagon is based on a Petrie polygon projection of a cube, with 3 of 6 square faces. Other parallelogons and projective directions of the cube are dissected within rectangular cuboids.\n\nSection::::Related polygons and tilings.\n\nA regular hexagon has Schläfli symbol {6}. A regular hexagon is a part of the regular hexagonal tiling, {6,3}, with 3 hexagonal around each vertex.\n", "Pascal's theorem (also known as the \"Hexagrammum Mysticum Theorem\") states that if an arbitrary hexagon is inscribed in any conic section, and pairs of opposite sides are extended until they meet, the three intersection points will lie on a straight line, the \"Pascal line\" of that configuration.\n\nSection::::Hexagon inscribed in a conic section.:Cyclic hexagon.\n\nThe Lemoine hexagon is a cyclic hexagon (one inscribed in a circle) with vertices given by the six intersections of the edges of a triangle and the three lines that are parallel to the edges that pass through its symmedian point.\n", "Photos 1-6 below show the construction of a hexaflexagon made out of cardboard triangles on a backing made from a strip of cloth. It has been decorated in six colors; orange, blue, and red in figure 1 correspond to 1, 2, and 3 in the diagram above. The opposite side, figure 2, is decorated with purple, gray, and yellow. Note the different patterns used for the colors on the two sides. Figure 3 shows the first fold, and figure 4 the result of the first nine folds, which form a spiral. Figures 5-6 show the final folding of the spiral to make a hexagon; in 5, two red faces have been hidden by a valley fold, and in 6, two red faces on the bottom side have been hidden by a mountain fold. After figure 6, the final loose triangle is folded over and attached to the other end of the original strip so that one side is all blue, and the other all orange.\n", "Section::::In popular culture.\n\nThe Rhombic hexacontahedron is used within the logo for the Wolfram Alpha answer engine, and Wolfram Research, known as \"Spikey\".\n\nIn Brazilian culture, handcrafted rhombic hexecontahedra used to be made from colored fabric and cardboard, called \"giramundos\" (\"world turners\" in Portuguese) or happiness stars, sewn by mothers and given as wedding gifts to their daughters. The custom got lost with the urbanization of Brazil, though the technique for producing the handicrafts was still taught in Brazilian rural schools up until the first half of the twentieth century.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Hexecontahedron\n\nSection::::References.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-15701	if we can say that, in the 3 physical dimensions, we are always in the center of the universe, no matter where we are, the is the present time the "center" of the 4th dimension, time?	As time passes, we are always moving along the time axis. If we assume there is no beginning or end to time, that time is infinite in both directions, then you would be correct. If there is either of those, then there would be no 'center'.	[ "Professor Brian Cox explores our origins, place and destiny in the universe. He describes the initial conditions of the human psyche as one that places itself at the center of the universe, surrounded by family, environment, and events. Brian tells the story of how our innate human curiosity has led us from feeling that we are at the center of everything, to our modern understanding of our true place in space and time – that we are living 13.8 billion years from the beginning of the universe, on a mere speck of rock in a possibly infinite expanse of space.\n", "In medieval times some Christians thought of Jerusalem as the center of the world (Latin: \"umbilicus mundi\", Greek: \"Omphalos\"), and was so represented in the so-called T and O maps. Byzantine hymns speak of the Cross being \"planted in the center of the earth.\"\n\nSection::::Center of a flat Earth.\n", "The third principle (fitting neatly into the Rule-of-Three above) is the Center of All, and states that there is a center of everything—or, rather, wherever a person happens to be \"is\" the center of the multiverse... From their own perspective, at least. As most planes are functionally infinite, disproving anyone's centricity would be impossible. In \"Planescape\", this is meant philosophically just as much as it is meant in terms of multiversal geography.\n", "BULLET::::- Perpignan (France) : Salvador Dali considered its train station as the center of the Universe\n\nBULLET::::- Wolverhampton, UK : Sir Terry Wogan referred to Wolverhampton UK as the centre of the Universe because there, the bathwater goes straight down the plughole\n\nBULLET::::- Hammersmith, UK : local historian Keith Whitehouse claimed it as the centre of the universe due to its history of radical politics and invention\n\nBULLET::::- Kirmington, UK : Home of Guy Martin referred to as ‘Center of T’ Universe’\n\nSection::::Nicknames of places.:North America.\n", "\"Center\" is well-defined in a Flat Earth model. A flat Earth would have a definite geographic center. There would also be a unique point at the exact center of a spherical firmament (or a firmament that was a half-sphere).\n\nSection::::Earth as the center of the Universe.\n", "But when you look at CMB map, you also see that the structure that is observed, is in fact, in a weird way, correlated with the plane of the earth around the sun. Is this Copernicus coming back to haunt us? That's crazy. We're looking out at the whole universe. There's no way there should be a correlation of structure with our motion of the earth around the sun – the plane of the earth around the sun – the ecliptic. That would say we are truly the center of the universe.\n", "Historically, different people have suggested various locations as the center of the Universe. Many mythological cosmologies included an \"axis mundi\", the central axis of a flat Earth that connects the Earth, heavens, and other realms together. In the 4th century BCE Greece, philosophers developed the geocentric model, based on astronomical observation; this model proposed that the center of the Universe lies at the center of a spherical, stationary Earth, around which the Sun, Moon, planets, and stars rotate. With the development of the heliocentric model by Nicolaus Copernicus in the 16th century, the Sun was believed to be the center of the Universe, with the planets (including Earth) and stars orbiting it.\n", "History of the center of the Universe\n\nThe center of the Universe is a concept that lacks a coherent definition in modern astronomy; according to standard cosmological theories on the shape of the universe, it has no center.\n", "In the early-20th century, the discovery of other galaxies and the development of the Big Bang theory led to the development of cosmological models of a homogeneous, isotropic Universe, which lacks a central point and is expanding at all points.\n\nSection::::Outside astronomy.\n\nIn religion or mythology, the \"axis mundi\" (also cosmic axis, world axis, world pillar, columna cerului, center of the world) is a point described as the center of the world, the connection between it and Heaven, or both.\n", "The Copernican principle, named after Nicolaus Copernicus, states that the Earth is not in a central, specially favored position. Hermann Bondi named the principle after Copernicus in the mid-20th century, although the principle itself dates back to the 16th-17th century paradigm shift away from the geocentric Ptolemaic system.\n", "With the growing recognition in the late 20th century of the presence of dark matter in the universe, ordinary baryonic matter has come to be seen as something of a cosmic afterthought. As John D. Barrow put it, “This would be the final Copernican twist in our status in the material universe. Not only are we not at the center of the universe: we are not even made of the predominant form of matter”.\n", "List of places referred to as the Center of the Universe\n\nSeveral cities have been given the nickname \"Center (or Centre) of the Universe\". In addition, several fictional works have described a depicted location as being at the center of the universe.\n\nModern models of the Universe suggest it does not have a center, unlike previous systems which placed Earth (geocentrism) or the Sun (heliocentrism) at the center of the Universe.\n\nSection::::Nicknames of places.\n\nSection::::Nicknames of places.:Asia.\n\nBULLET::::- Wudaokou, Beijing (a nickname)\n\nSection::::Nicknames of places.:Europe.\n", "BULLET::::- Space Flight Operations Facility, the operations control center of the Deep Space Network\n\nBULLET::::- The former interpretive centre of the Dominion Astrophysical Observatory in Saanich, British Columbia, Canada was once called the Centre of the Universe.\n\nSection::::Fiction.\n\nDepictions of a \"center of the universe\" in fiction include:\n\nBULLET::::- Azathoth, \"The Blind Idiot God\", in H.P. Lovecraft's Cthulhu Mythos\n\nBULLET::::- Eternia, the planet that is home to the Masters of the Universe\n\nBULLET::::- Oa, a planet at the center of the DC Comics Universe\n\nBULLET::::- Terminus, in the Doctor Who serial \"Terminus\"\n", "BULLET::::- San Dimas, California, in \"Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure\"\n\nBULLET::::- Nibbler's home planet Eternium, in \"Futurama\"\n\nBULLET::::- Anyplace other than \"The Restaurant at the End of the Universe\" in \"The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy\" series\n\nBULLET::::- In the game \"Super Mario Galaxy\" for the Wii, Mario travels to the final area, named the Center of the Universe\n\nBULLET::::- In the game \"\" for the PS3, The Great Clock was said to be constructed at the exact center of the universe (give or take fifty feet)\n", "Center of the universe\n\nThe center of the universe may refer to:\n\nSection::::Astronomy.\n\nBULLET::::- Geocentric model, the astronomical model which places Earth at the orbital center of all celestial bodies\n\nBULLET::::- Heliocentrism, the astronomical model in which the Sun is at the orbital center of the Solar System\n\nBULLET::::- History of the center of the Universe, a discussion of the historical view that the Universe has a center\n\nSection::::Mythology and religion.\n\nBULLET::::- Axis mundi, the mythological concept of a world center\n\nBULLET::::- Modern geocentrism, the belief that Earth is the center of the universe as described by classical geocentric models\n", "European scholarship in the later medieval period actively received astronomical models developed in the Islamic world and by the 13th century was well aware of the problems of the Ptolemaic model. In the 14th century, bishop Nicole Oresme discussed the possibility that the Earth rotated on its axis, while Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa in his \"Learned Ignorance\" asked whether there was any reason to assert that the Sun (or any other point) was the center of the universe. In parallel to a mystical definition of God, Cusa wrote that \"Thus the fabric of the world (\"machina mundi\") will \"quasi\" have its center everywhere and circumference nowhere,\" recalling Hermes Trismegistus.\n", "Gurdjieff classified plants as having one brain, animals two and humans three brains. In \"Beelzebub's Tales to His Grandson\", Gurdjieff greatly expanded his idea of humans as \"three brained beings\".\n\nIn the book \"The Fourth Way\", Ouspensky refers to the \"center of gravity\" as being a center which different people primarily operate from (intellectuals, artists, and sports enthusiasts, for example, might represent each of these centers).\n\nSection::::Centers.\n\nAccording to the teaching:\n\nSection::::Centers.:Lower centers.\n", "In this framework it is possible to describe the three collective variables with 4-quantities formula_39, such that formula_40. It can be shown that they have the following expressions in terms of formula_41 (the Jacobi data at formula_42 for the canonical center of mass), formula_43 and formula_44\n\nThe locations in the privileged rest Wigner 3-space of the canonical center of mass and of the center of energy are\n\nand\n\nThe pseudo-worldline of the canonical center of mass is always nearer to the center of inertia than the center of energy.\n\nSection::::Møller world-tube of non-covariance.\n", "A manifestation of the Sacred in profane space is, by definition, an example of something breaking through from one plane of existence to another. Therefore, the initial hierophany that establishes the Center must be a point at which there is contact between different planes—this, Eliade argues, explains the frequent mythical imagery of a Cosmic Tree or Pillar joining Heaven, Earth, and the underworld.\n", "According to the logic of the eternal return, the site of each such symbolic Center will actually be the Center of the World:\n\nIt may be said, in general, that the majority of the sacred and ritual trees that we meet with in the history of religions are only replicas, imperfect copies of this exemplary archetype, the Cosmic Tree. Thus, all these sacred trees are thought of as situated at the Centre of the World, and all the ritual trees or posts [...] are, as it were, magically projected into the Centre of the World.\n", "Copernicus' \"Commentariolus\" summarized his heliocentric theory. It listed the \"assumptions\" upon which the theory was based, as follows:\n\n1. There is no one center of all the celestial circles or spheres.br\n\n2. The center of the earth is not the center of the universe, but only the center towards which heavy bodies move and the center of the lunar sphere.br\n\n3. All the spheres surround the sun as if it were in the middle of them all, and therefore the center of the universe is near the sun.br\n", "While Archimedes does not state that proposition explicitly, he makes indirect references to it, suggesting he was familiar with it. However, Jean Etienne Montucla (1725-1799), the author of the first history of mathematics (1758), declares categorically (vol. I, p. 463) that the center of gravity of solids is a subject Archimedes did not touch.\n", "BULLET::::- A site near Kamloops, British Columbia, Canada has been referred to as a spiritual \"Centre of the Universe\"\n\nBULLET::::- Teotihuacan, in modern-day Mexico was considered the center of the universe by many Mesoamerican tribes, including the Aztecs, and was a model city for the later indigenous civilizations. It was called the \"birthplace of the gods\" and heavily influenced the region despite being abandoned for centuries\n\nBULLET::::- Bon Aqua, Tennessee Hickman county referred to as the center of the universe by country singer Johnny Cash\n\nSection::::Nicknames of places.:Astronomy.\n", "Johannes Kepler published his first two laws about planetary motion in 1609, having found them by analyzing the astronomical observations of Tycho Brahe. Kepler's third law was published in 1619. The first law was \"The orbit of every planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one of the two foci.\"\n", "Since there is believed to be no \"center\" or \"edge\" of the Universe, there is no particular reference point with which to plot the overall location of the Earth in the universe. Because the observable universe is defined as that region of the Universe visible to terrestrial observers, Earth is, because of the constancy of the speed of light, the center of Earth's observable universe. Reference can be made to the Earth's position with respect to specific structures, which exist at various scales. It is still undetermined whether the Universe is infinite. There have been numerous hypotheses that the known universe may be only one such example within a higher multiverse; however, no direct evidence of any sort of multiverse has been observed, and some have argued that the hypothesis is not falsifiable. \n" ]	[ "Everything is always in the center of the universe." ]	[ "There is a possibility that there could be no center of the universe." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Everything is always in the center of the universe." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "There is a possibility that there could be no center of the universe." ]
2018-04105	why does the USA need to import 90 percent of the aluminum it consumes when there is so much aluminum recycling going on?	A lot of scrap aluminum from the U.S. is actually recycled in other countries. So it's being recycled, but in the trade statistics you'll see exports of aluminum scrap as well as imports of aluminum.	[ "The recycling of aluminium generally produces significant cost savings over the production of new aluminium, even when the cost of collection, separation and recycling are taken into account. Over the long term, even larger national savings are made when the reduction in the capital costs associated with landfills, mines, and international shipping of raw aluminium are considered.\n\nSection::::Advantages.:Energy savings.\n", "Brazil recycles 98.2% of its aluminium can production, equivalent to 14.7 billion beverage cans per year, ranking first in the world, more than Japan's 82.5% recovery rate. Brazil has topped the aluminium can recycling charts eight years in a row.\n\nSection::::Secondary aluminium recycling.\n", "Recycling aluminium saves 95% of the energy cost of processing new aluminium. This is because the temperature necessary for melting recycled, nearly pure, aluminium is 600 °C, while to extract mined aluminium from its ore requires 900 °C. To reach this higher temperature, much more energy is needed, leading to the high environmental benefits of aluminium recycling. Americans throw away enough aluminium every year to rebuild their entire commercial air fleet. Also, the energy saved by recycling one aluminium can is enough to run a television for three hours.\n\nSection::::Metals.:Copper.\n", "The United States mined production of bauxite for primary aluminum production is insignificant. In 2013, the US mined only 1.3 percent of the bauxite it used, US mined production being less than 0.1 percent of world production.\n\nSection::::International trade.\n\nThe US imported nearly all the bauxite (the only commercial aluminum ore) used in producing primary aluminum. For years, the US has produced less than 1% of the bauxite used to make aluminum.\n\nThe US also imported 33 percent of the aluminum metal that was used in 2014. Of the imported aluminum, 63% came from Canada.\n\nSection::::History of US aluminum production.\n", "The principal raw materials for aluminum production are bauxite (for primary production) and scrap (for secondary production).\n\nPrimary aluminum production consumes a great deal of electricity, which makes up about a third of the cost. Making a ton of primary aluminum consumes at least 12,500 kW-hr, and most plants consume 14,500 to 15,000 kW-hr per ton of primary aluminum.\n\nSecondary production of a given unit of aluminum requires about 10% of the electricity of primary production.\n", "While importing extrusions from China and remelting them into billet is not illegal or known to violate any law, US extruders were concerned that should parts of the stockpile make its way to the US at a cost below domestic prices, it would have a negative downward effect on domestic prices. According to various sources, in 2016 the aluminum stockpile in Mexico was worth approximately $2 billion, equal to 6% of the world's total aluminum.\n", "World production of primary aluminium is in the order of 40 million tonnes. The world’s smelters also produce about one million tonnes of toxic SPL waste. Past industry practice has been to landfill this waste. This must change if the aluminium industry wants to claim a reasonable degree of sustainability and environmentally tolerable emissions. Landfill of unreacted SPL is considered a practice of the past.\n", "The Aluminum Association's Sustainability Initiative, launched in April 2008, promotes increased recycling, energy-efficient product applications, and increased operating efficiency.\n\nAmong the projects that will form the basis of the initiative are:\n\nBULLET::::- Expanding the Curbside Value Partnership, in which the aluminum industry is partnered with the paper, glass, plastic, and steel industries to increase curbside recycling participation and collections. As of January 2011, Curbside Value Partnership became an independent 501(c)3 with a five-member Board of Directors and continues to grow.\n", "Metals can be converted in a number of ways dependently on their characteristics.\n\nAluminium can be reused for cans as well as for aeroplanes, and the processing phase can occur in diverse ways. Aluminium processing facilities are mostly domestic, but there are also exports. Vietnam represents the major importer (8% of the total collected).\n\nCans receive similar treatments, but can be either reconverted in cans ex-novo, or being adapted into construction materials.\n\nSection::::Current management system.:Recovery and reuse.:Recycling.:Construction and demolition.\n", "The vast amount of aluminium used means that even small percentage losses are large expenses, so the flow of material is well monitored and accounted for financial reasons. Efficient production and recycling benefits the environment as well.\n\nSection::::Process for beverage cans.\n\nAluminium beverage cans are usually recycled by the following method:\n\nBULLET::::1. Cans are first divided from municipal waste, usually through an eddy current separator, and cut into small, equally sized pieces to lessen the volume and make it easier for the machines that separate them.\n", "Aluminum industry in the United States\n\nThe aluminum industry in the United States in 2014 produced 1.72 million metric tons of primary aluminum, worth 3.97 billion dollars, at nine aluminum smelters. In addition, the US produced 1.70 million tons of secondary aluminum from old (post-consumer) scrap, and 1.93 million tons of aluminum from new (manufacturing) scrap. The US was the world's 6th largest producer of primary aluminum in 2014.The industry employed 29,000 people.\n\nSection::::Primary production.\n", "The US used to be a much more important factor in the world primary aluminum market. As recently as 1981, the US produced 30% of the world's primary aluminum, and for many years up through 2000, the US was the world's largest producer of primary aluminum. In 2014, by contrast, the US ranked sixth in primary aluminum production, and provided only 3.5% of world production.\n", "In 1977, the Association would move its headquarters from New York to Washington, D.C. The Government Relations Committee formed that same year.\n\nBy the end of the decade, the Association would announce that the aluminum industry had met and surpassed its energy conservation goal almost two years ahead of schedule. The industry had reduced the amount of energy required to make a pound of aluminum by 10.77 percent compared with the base year of 1972.\n", "Recovery of the metal through recycling has become an important task of the aluminium industry. Recycling was a low-profile activity until the late 1960s, when the growing use of aluminium beverage cans brought it to public awareness. Recycling involves melting the scrap, a process that requires only 5% of the energy used to produce aluminium from ore, though a significant part (up to 15% of the input material) is lost as dross (ash-like oxide). An aluminium stack melter produces significantly less dross, with values reported below 1%.\n", "In the summer of 2014, US aluminum extruders expressed concerns over a massive stockpile of aluminum extrusions amounting to 850,000 tonnes being stored at Aluminicaste facility, a $200 million factory used to melt aluminium into raw material, in San José Iturbide, Mexico, and initiated Antidumping and Countervailing Duty Administrative Reviews.\n", "Aluminium recycling is the process by which scrap aluminium can be reused in products after its initial production. The process involves simply re-melting the metal, which is far less expensive and energy-intensive than creating new aluminium through the electrolysis of aluminium oxide (), which must first be mined from bauxite ore and then refined using the Bayer process. Recycling scrap aluminium requires only 5% of the energy used to make new aluminium from the raw ore. For this reason, approximately 36% of all aluminium produced in the United States comes from old recycled scrap. Used beverage containers are the largest component of processed aluminum scrap, and most of it is manufactured back into aluminium cans.\n", "Aluminum recycling benefits current and future generations by saving energy and other natural resources. It takes up to 95% less energy to recycle aluminum than to produce primary aluminum, which also limits emissions, including greenhouse gases. This property of being infinitely recyclable means that today, about 75% of all aluminum produced in history, nearly a billion tons, is still in use.\n", "Australia is the largest producer of bauxite, followed by China. In 2017, China was the top producer of aluminium with almost half of the world's production, followed by Russia, Canada, and India. Although aluminium demand is rapidly increasing, known reserves of its bauxite ore are sufficient to meet the worldwide demands for aluminium for many centuries. Increased aluminium recycling, which has the advantage of lowering the cost in electric power in producing aluminium, will considerably extend the world's bauxite reserves.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nA common practice since the early 1900s and extensively capitalized during World War II, aluminium recycling is not new. It was, however, a low-profile activity until the late 1960s, when the exploding popularity of aluminium beverage cans finally placed recycling into the public consciousness.\n", "Section::::Foreign aid.\n", "Recycling aluminium uses about 5% of the energy required to create aluminium from bauxite; the amount of energy required to convert aluminium oxide into aluminium can be vividly seen when the process is reversed during the combustion of thermite or ammonium perchlorate composite propellant. \n\nAluminium die extrusion is a specific way of getting reusable material from aluminium scraps but does not require a large energy output of a melting process. In 2003, half of the products manufactured with aluminium were sourced from recycled aluminium material.\n\nSection::::Advantages.:Environmental savings.\n", "BULLET::::2. Pieces are cleaned chemically/mechanically and blocked to minimize oxidation losses when melted. (The surface of aluminium readily oxidizes back into aluminium oxide when exposed to oxygen.)\n\nBULLET::::3. Blocks are loaded into the furnace and heated to 750 °C ± 100 °C to produce molten aluminium.\n", "BULLET::::5. Samples are taken for spectroscopic analysis. Depending on the final product desired, high-purity aluminium, copper, zinc, manganese, silicon, and/or magnesium is added to alter the molten composition to the proper alloy specification. The top-five aluminium alloys produced are 6061, 7075, 1100, 6063, and 2024.\n", "BULLET::::- 32.5 – percentage of total waste that is recycled in the United States\n\nBULLET::::- 100 – approximate percentage of increase in total recycling in the United States during the past decade\n\nBULLET::::- 8,660 – number of curbside recycling programs in the United States in 2006\n\nBULLET::::- 8,875 – number of curbside recycling programs in the United States in 2003\n\nBULLET::::- 95 – percentage of energy saved by recycling an aluminum can, compared with manufacturing a new one\n\nBULLET::::- 4.6 – pounds of trash per person per day in the United States (most in the world)\n", "In 2014, primary aluminum, which is produced from bauxite, was produced by three companies at nine smelters. Primary aluminum is preferred for high-quality uses such as aircraft. The leader in US production was Alcoa. Also operating multiple primary plants was Century Aluminum.\n\nPrimary Aluminum Smelters in the US \n\nSection::::Secondary production.\n\nSecondary production is the recycling of metallic aluminum derived from scrap. Secondary production can be from either new scrap (from aluminum manufacturing), or from old scrap (post-consumer scrap such as recycled aluminum cans).\n\nSection::::Raw materials.\n" ]	[ "We don't need to import aluminum because we have so much recycled.", "Aluminum is recycled in the USA." ]	[ "The recycled aluminum is exported to other countries. ", "Aluminum is exported and recycled outside the USA. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "We don't need to import aluminum because we have so much recycled.", "Aluminum is recycled in the USA." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The recycled aluminum is exported to other countries. ", "Aluminum is exported and recycled outside the USA. " ]
2018-11171	Is it actually possible for a sound wave to travel around the entire world and be heard?	Yes, the explosion sound of the volcano Krakatoa went around the world more than once. URL_0	[ "Theories on the generation of these sounds may partially explain them. For example, scientists at NASA suggested that the turbulent ionized wake of a meteor interacts with Earth's magnetic field, generating pulses of radio waves. As the trail dissipates, megawatts of electromagnetic power could be released, with a peak in the power spectrum at audio frequencies. Physical vibrations induced by the electromagnetic impulses would then be heard if they are powerful enough to make grasses, plants, eyeglass frames, and other conductive materials vibrate. This proposed mechanism, although proven to be plausible by laboratory work, remains unsupported by corresponding measurements in the field. Sound recordings made under controlled conditions in Mongolia in 1998 support the contention that the sounds are real. \"(Also see Bolide.)\"\n", "Bach reported that one was located in the house of the chief of each village, and that when the device was drummed, the vibrations (travelling through the earth) could be heard (only) on the devices in other villages, up to 1.5 km away. In the late 1890s and early 1900s, several journals reported on the device, although some scholars expressed scepticism that it existed and functioned as described, as no other Europeans reported it.\n", "For the first time, I have tried out superimposing 24 layers of sound, as if I had to compose the orbits of 24 moons or 24 planets (for example, the planet Saturn has 48 moons) … If it is possible to hear everything, I do not yet know—it depends on how often one can experience an 8-channel performance. In any case, the experiment is extremely fascinating!\n", "The lower limit of audibility is defined as SPL of , but the upper limit is not as clearly defined. While ( or ) is the largest pressure variation an undistorted sound wave can have in Earth's atmosphere, larger sound waves can be present in other atmospheres or other media such as under water, or through the Earth.\n", "BULLET::::- In the course of Project MaxWave, researchers from the GKSS Research Centre, using data collected by ESA satellites, identified a large number of radar signatures that have been portrayed as evidence for rogue waves. Further research is under way to develop better methods of translating the radar echoes into sea surface elevation, but at present this technique is not proven.\n", "The sound's source was roughly triangulated to a remote point in the south Pacific Ocean west of the southern tip of South America, and the sound was detected several times by the Equatorial Pacific Ocean autonomous hydrophone array. \n", "Section::::Explanations and origins.:Natural explanations.:Sporadic meteors and meteor showers.\n", "Multiples from the bottom of a body of water (the interface of the base of water and the rock or sediment beneath it) and the air-water interface are common in marine seismic data, and are suppressed by seismic processing.\n\nSection::::Outline of the method.:Sources of noise.:Cultural noise.\n\nCultural noise includes noise from weather effects, planes, helicopters, electrical pylons, and ships (in the case of marine surveys), all of which can be detected by the receivers.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n", "Transverse waves, also known as shear waves, have the additional property, \"polarization\", and are not a characteristic of sound waves.\n\nSection::::Physics of sound.:Speed of sound.\n\nThe speed of sound depends on the medium the waves pass through, and is a fundamental property of the material. The first significant effort towards measurement of the speed of sound was made by Isaac Newton. He believed the speed of sound in a particular substance was equal to the square root of the pressure acting on it divided by its density:\n", "End-blown conch-shell trumpets are still used as sacred ritual instruments in Asia. The Indian \"śańkh\" or \"śańkham\" is blown by Brahmins in Hindu temples throughout India and South Asia, and is also used today as an instrument of folk music and dance; formerly it was employed as a heraldic instrument to declare war or celebrate victory. According to Hindu mythology the \"śankh\" will be blown by Siva at the end of the current World Age as a sort of Last Trump.\n", "The concept is also explored in Arthur C. Clarke's 1950 short story \"Silence Please\", which features a device capable of cancelling sound waves.\n", "NOAA's Christopher Fox, interviewed by David Wolman for an article in \"New Scientist\", did not believe its origin was man-made, such as a submarine or bomb, nor a familiar geological event such as a volcano or an earthquake. Fox stated that while the audio profile of Bloop does resemble that of a living creature, the source was a mystery because it would be \"far more powerful than the calls made by any animal on Earth.\" Wolman states in the article that Fox initially speculated Bloop to be ice calving in Antarctica, but later came to believe the sound to be like that of an animal in origin:\n", "Work on the SASER continues at the University of Nottingham, the \"Lashkarev Institute of Semiconductor Physics\" at the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, and Caltech.\n\nSection::::Design.\n", "Sometimes one is interested in a single specific wave, like how the Earth vibrated after the 1929 Murchison earthquake. More often, however, one needs to understand large set of possible waves; like all the ways that a drum skin can vibrate after being struck once with a drum stick, or all the possible radar echos one could get from an airplane that may be approaching an airport.\n", "Soundwave\n\nSoundwave may refer to: \n\nBULLET::::- Sound waves, invisible waves that carry sound *Sound_wave#Longitudinal_and_transverse_waves\n\nBULLET::::- Soundwave (Australian music festival), an annual music festival held in Australia\n\nBULLET::::- \"Soundwave 2008\", a 2008 album released to promote Soundwave festival in Australia\n\nBULLET::::- \"Soundwave 2009\", a 2008 album released to promote Soundwave festival in Australia\n\nBULLET::::- \"Soundwave 2010\", a 2009 album released to promote Soundwave festival in Australia\n\nBULLET::::- Soundwave Festival, an annual music festival held in the United Kingdom\n\nBULLET::::- Soundwave Festival (San Francisco), a biennial sound, art and music festival held in the United States\n", "Atmospheric noise\n\nAtmospheric noise is radio noise caused by natural atmospheric processes, primarily lightning discharges in thunderstorms. On a worldwide scale, there are about 40 lightning flashes per second – ≈3.5 million lightning discharges per day.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nIn 1925, AT&T Bell Laboratories started investigating the sources of noise in its transatlantic radio telephone service.\n", "The answer to this question depends on the definition of sound. Since sound does not exist without our hearing of it, sound does not exist if we do not hear it. However, when a tree falls, the motion disturbs the air and sends off air waves. This physical phenomena which can be measured by instruments other than our ears exists regardless of human perception (seeing or hearing ) of it. Putting together, although the tree falling on the island sends off air waves, it does not produce sound if no human is within the distance where the air waves are strong enough for a human to perceive them.\n", "When there is a civil emergency such as a ballistic missile heading towards Japan, a special air raid siren sounds across loudspeakers and on TV and radio. When the siren starts, if it ends when the square waves hit at 329 kHz and 203 kHz, that means that a civil emergency is in effect. If the square waves reach 261 kHz and 283 kHz, that means the missile has passed.\n\nSection::::Information transmission capabilities.\n\nBULLET::::- Earthquake\n\nBULLET::::- Earthquake Early Warning\n\nBULLET::::- Quick updates on hypocenter, magnitude, and precautions of possible tsunami\n\nBULLET::::- Information of hypocenter, magnitude, intensities of various areas, and the presence of tsunami\n", "Cypriot composer Yannis Kyriakides incorporated shortwave numbers station transmissions in his 1999 \"ConSPIracy cantata\".\n\nHolger Czukay, a student of Stockhausen, was one of the first to use shortwave in a rock music context. In 1975, German electronic music band Kraftwerk recorded a full length concept album around simulated radiowave and shortwave sounds, entitled \"Radio-Activity\". The The's Radio Cineola monthly broadcasts drew heavily on shortwave radio sound.\n\nSection::::Shortwave's future.\n", "Researchers who looked at the Taos Hum considered otoacoustic emissions as a possibility.\n\nSection::::Possible explanations.:Animals.\n", "The 11 November 2018 Mayotte seismic event is a seismic event of unknown origin that occurred about off the coast of Mayotte, an overseas department and region of France in the Indian Ocean. It was recorded by seismograms in many countries, including Kenya, Chile, New Zealand, Canada, and Hawaii, almost away. Despite this, no one felt it. The seismic waves lasted for over 20 minutes. Most earthquakes have P-waves and S-waves, which are later followed by long-period surface waves. The Mayotte event lacked P-waves and S-waves, but did cause a long-period surface wave travelling at around the globe. Additionally, the signal released by the earthquake was a clean \"zigzag,\" while most earthquake waves have multiple frequencies.\n", "BULLET::::- Chatham Sound, off the North Coast of British Columbia\n\nBULLET::::- Clayoquot Sound in Vancouver Island, British Columbia\n\nBULLET::::- Cumberland Sound in Baffin Island's east coast\n\nBULLET::::- Desolation Sound between the Discovery Islands and the coast of British Columbia\n\nBULLET::::- Eclipse Sound between Baffin Island and Bylot Island in Nunavut\n\nBULLET::::- Eureka Sound between Ellesmere Island and Axel Heiberg Island in Nunavut\n\nBULLET::::- Fitz Hugh Sound on the Central Coast of British Columbia\n\nBULLET::::- Hamilton Sound between Fogo Island and the Island of Newfoundland\n\nBULLET::::- Howe Sound, an inlet northwest of Vancouver, British Columbia\n", "In 1993, archeology professor Paul Åström and acoustics professor Mendel Kleiner performed similar experiments in Gothenburg, and reported that they could recover some sounds.\n\nAn episode of \"MythBusters\" explored the idea: Episode 62: Killer Cable Snaps, Pottery Record found that while \"some\" generic acoustic phenomena can be found on pottery, it is unlikely that any discernible sounds (like someone talking) could be recorded on the pots unless ancient people had the technical knowledge to deliberately put the sounds on the artifacts.\n", "Aristotle criticised the notion that celestial bodies make a sound in moving in the context of his own cosmological model:\n", "BULLET::::- On January 31, 1981, Todd Emslie, Sydney, Australia, received 41.5 MHz channel B1 television audio transmitted from Crystal Palace Transmitter by the BBC's television service, 10,560 miles (16,990 km) away. This BBC B1 reception was also recorded on to audio tape. He has also received Dubai's DCRTV 48.25 MHz video on November 23, 1991 in the same place.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-06922	If space is considered international waters, why does Space X need permission from the FCC to use their own product in space?	Space is not "international waters", space is considered space. But even so ships that are in international waters need to be registered under some country so you cannot launch a ship and operate it in international waters without the local government coming after you for not registering properly. Finally the FCC regulates the radio spectrum so even with satellites in space their communications are passing through the jurisdiction of the FCC. They are talking to someone on the ground using radio so obviously they need to follow FCC rules.	[ "Both UN General Assembly Resolution 1962 (XVIII) and the Outer Space Treaty (OST) of 1967 have established all of outer space as an international commons by describing it as the \"province of all mankind\" and, as a fundamental principle of space law, declaring that space, including Moon and other astronomical objects, is not subject to any national sovereignty claim. Article VI of the Outer Space Treaty vests the responsibility for activities in space to States Parties, regardless of whether they are carried out by governments or non-governmental entities. Article VIII stipulates that the State Party to the Treaty that launches a space object shall retain jurisdiction and control over that object.\n", "Space jurisdiction\n\nSpace jurisdiction, a field addressing what countries can enforce various laws in space, has become more important as the private sector enters the field of space tourism. Under the Outer Space Treaty of 1967, while space and celestial bodies cannot be appropriated by nations, objects launched into space and personnel on board them remain under the jurisdiction of the state of registry.\n\nSection::::International treaties.\n", "Article VI of the Outer Space Treaty deals with international responsibility, stating that \"the activities of non-governmental entities in outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, shall require authorization and continuing supervision by the appropriate State Party to the Treaty\" and that States Parties shall bear international responsibility for national space activities whether carried out by governmental or non-governmental entities.\n", "BULLET::::- International Agreements - Reimbursable or Nonreimbursable Agreements where the Agreement Partner is a foreign entity. The foreign partner may be a legal entity not established under a state or Federal law of the United States and may include a commercial or noncommercial entity or person or governmental entity of a foreign sovereign\n\nSection::::Examples of Space Act Agreements.\n\nSection::::Examples of Space Act Agreements.:Commercial Space Transportation Capabilities.\n\nAgreements of this type have been reached under the Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) and Commercial Crew Development (CCDev). They are not subject to normal Federal Acquisition Regulations.\n", "BULLET::::- UNSCRs 1874 (on the DPRK's WMD program) and 1929 (on Iran's WMD program) explicitly call on or require UN Members to take interdiction and inspection actions against WMD-related materials that are consistent with PSI's principles. Thus inspection of such vessels are international mandates rather than \"piracy,\" as accused by DPRK and Iran.\n\nBULLET::::- Article 4 of the 2005 Protocol to the Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Maritime Navigation illegalize the illicit transfer of WMD-related materials by maritime vessel.\n", "Since the advent of space technology in the latter half of the twentieth century, the ownership of property in space has been murky, with strong arguments both for and against. In particular, the making of national territorial claims in outer space and on celestial bodies has been specifically proscribed by the Outer Space Treaty, which had been, , ratified by all spacefaring nations.\n", "Civilian and scientific space policy is carried out by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA, subsequent to 29 July 1958), and military space activities (communications, reconnaissance, intelligence, mapping, and missile defense) are carried out by various agencies of the Department of Defense. The President is legally responsible for deciding which space activities fall under the civilian and military areas. In addition, the Department of Commerce's National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration operates various services with space components, such as the Landsat program.\n", "Space policy regarding a country's civilian space program, as well as its policy on both military use and commercial use of outer space, intersects with science policy, since national space programs often perform or fund research in space science, and also with defense policy, for applications such as spy satellites and anti-satellite weapons. It also encompasses government regulation of third-party activities such as commercial communications satellites and private spaceflight as well as the creation and application of space law and space advocacy organizations that exist to support the cause of space exploration.\n", "Civilian space activities have traditionally been implemented exclusively by NASA, but the nation is transitioning into a model where more activities are implemented by private companies under NASA's advisement and launch site support. In addition, the Department of Commerce's National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration operates various services with space components, such as the Landsat program.\n\nMilitary space activities are implemented by the Air Force Space Command, Naval Space Command, and Army Space and Missile Defense Command.\n\nSection::::Space policy process.:Implementation.:Licensing.\n", "Section::::National law.\n\nSpace law also encompasses national laws, and many countries have passed national space legislation in recent years. The Outer Space Treaty gives responsibility for regulating space activities, including both government and private sector, to the individual countries where the activity is taking place. If a national of, or an organization incorporated in one country launches a spacecraft in a different country, interpretations differ as to whether the home country or the launching country has jurisdiction.\n", "United States Space Command (USSPACECOM), a unified command of the United States military, was created in 1985 to help institutionalise the use of outer space by the United States Armed Forces. The Commander in Chief of U.S. Space Command (CINCUSSPACECOM), with headquarters at Peterson Air Force Base, Colorado was also the Commander in Chief of the bi-national U.S.-Canadian \"North American Aerospace Defense Command\" (CINCNORAD), and for the majority of time during USSPACECOM's existence also the Commander of the U.S. Air Force major command Air Force Space Command. Military space operations coordinated by USSPACECOM proved to be very valuable for the U.S.-led coalition in the 1991 Persian Gulf War.\n", "With the failure of the Moon Treaty of 1979 (which would have established a principle of the common heritage of mankind for celestial bodies and required establishing an international regime to supervise use), there is no clear rule regarding the development or use of resources located in space, whether by states or private parties. The United States has asserted a right for U.S. citizens to own space resources they obtain, per the U.S. Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act (H.R. 2262) § 51303:\n", "The majority of international treaties currently in existence address only specific aspects of space. No major treaties have been passed that have broad, sweeping jurisdiction in space, and it is largely unclear who would enforce such laws. The treaties currently in existence regarding space law include the following:\n\nBULLET::::- The Outer Space Treaty of 1967\n\nBULLET::::- The Rescue Agreement of 1968.\n\nBULLET::::- The Space Liability Convention of 1972.\n\nBULLET::::- The Registration Convention of 1976.\n", "In May 2015, the United States Air Force announced that the Falcon 9 v1.1 was certified for national security space launch, which allows SpaceX to contract launch services to the Air Force for any payloads classified under national security. This broke the monopoly held since 2006 by ULA over the US Air Force launches of classified payloads.\n", "BULLET::::- International commons. Territory not under the jurisdiction of any nation, but open to use by all, subject to treaty restrictions. This includes the high seas beyond coastal territorial limits, Antarctica, and Outer Space.\n\nBULLET::::- National flag vessels at sea. The vessel is considered to be part of the territory of the nation whose flag it flies, and subject to the laws of that nation. A vessel without a national flag may be considered a stateless vessel. A stateless vessel is, on the high seas, not subject to any State's exclusive jurisdiction.\n", "Any activities \"which are intended to conduct in the United States a launch of a launch vehicle, operation of a launch or re-entry site, re-entry of a re-entry vehicle\" needs a license to operate in outer space. This license needs to by applied for by \"any citizen of or entity organized under the laws of the United States, as well as other entities, as defined by space-related regulations, which are intended to conduct in the United States… should obtain a license form the Secretary of Transportation\" compliance is monitored by the FAA, FCC and the Secretary of Commerce.\n", "Christopher Newman, an expert in space law at the UK's University of Sunderland, highlights that Asgardia is trying to achieve a \"complete re-visitation of the current space-law framework,\" anticipating that the project will face significant obstacles with getting UN recognition and dealing with liability issues. The Outer Space Treaty requires the country that sends a mission into space to be responsible for the mission, including any damage it might cause.\n\nSection::::Legal status.:Data security.\n", "Nevertheless, former ICANN Chair Esther Dyson supported Name.Space's application. In her syndicated column in SFGate, an online version of the San Francisco Chronicle, she wrote:\n\n\"... the proposal of Name.Space appealed to me precisely because it was a mix of commerce and principle. If the company that wanted to offer .star and .jazz was prepared to subsidize .sucks, more power to it.\n\nName.Space exists today as a social enterprise corporation and continues to challenge status-quo entities that it views as corrupt with a current lawsuit against ICANN.\n\nSection::::From Media Artist to Internet Social Entrepreneur.:WiFi-NY.\n", "The five treaties and agreements of international space law cover \"non-appropriation of outer space by any one country, arms control, the freedom of exploration, liability for damage caused by space objects, the safety and rescue of spacecraft and astronauts, the prevention of harmful interference with space activities and the environment, the notification and registration of space activities, scientific investigation and the exploitation of natural resources in outer space and the settlement of disputes.\"\n", "BULLET::::3. The United States will seek to cooperate with other nations in the peaceful use of outer space to extend the benefits of space, enhance space exploration, and to protect and promote freedom around the world;\n\nBULLET::::4. The United States considers space systems to have the rights of passage through and operations in space without interference. Consistent with this principle, the United States will view purposeful interference with its space systems as an infringement on its rights;\n", "Florida Space Authority was created as a Florida state government space agency by Florida's Governor and Legislature in 1989. The Authority's mission (as authorized in Chapter 331, Part Two, Florida Statutes) was to retain, expand and diversify the state's space-related industry. Chapter 331 gives FSA governmental powers similar to other types of transportation authorities (airport, seaport, etc.) to support and regulate the state's space transportation industry. It was empowered to own, operate, construct, finance, acquire, extend, equip and improve spaceport infrastructure. Florida Space Authority served the state's Governor through the governor's Office of Tourism, Trade, and Economic Development. Development of the space industry. Chapter 331 of the Florida Statutes specifically states that the FSA is not to be considered an \"agency\", even though it receives funding directly from the state of Florida according to its website.\n", "\"See city of license for more information on television and radio.\"\n\nBULLET::::- Television station WPCW is licensed to Jeannette, Pennsylvania, even though it serves the city of Pittsburgh because no station allocation slots are available for the latter.\n", "China and the United States both maintain the rightfulness of their actions based on competing interpretations of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.\n", "BULLET::::- explicitly forbids any government from claiming a celestial resource such as the Moon or a planet, claiming that they are the common heritage of mankind, \"not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means\". However, the State that launches a space object retains jurisdiction and control over that object;\n\nBULLET::::- holds any State liable for damages caused by their space object;\n", "Due to Liberia's 1989 and 1999 civil wars, its registry eventually fell second to Panama's flag of convenience, but maritime funds continued to supply 70% of its total government revenue. After the civil war of 1990, Liberia joined with the Republic of the Marshall Islands to develop a new maritime and corporate program. The resulting company, International Registries, was formed as a parent company, and in 1993 was bought out by its management. After taking over the Liberian government, Americo-Liberian warlord Charles Taylor signed a new registry contract with the Liberian International Ship and Corporate Registry, commonly known as LISCR. LISCR was one of the few legal sources of income for Taylor's regime. Liberia's registry is operated from Virginia, United States.\n" ]	[ "Space is considered \"International waters\".", "Space is considered international waters." ]	[ "Space is not considered \"International waters\" space is considered space.", "Space is not considered to be international waters, it is simply considered to be space. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Space is considered \"International waters\".", "Space is considered international waters." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Space is not considered \"International waters\" space is considered space.", "Space is not considered to be international waters, it is simply considered to be space. " ]
2018-00326	Why are people dying from the flu?	I assume you're asking about why this year's flu season is particularly bad, not why flu can kill you. This year's strain is primarily H3N2. This is bad for two reasons. First, H3N2 flu just tends to be nastier than other strains. Not all flus are created equally, and this year we just drew a crappy hand in that regard. In addition to H3N2 being particularly nasty, it is also often difficult to vaccinate against for two reasons. The H3 and N2 bits of the name refer to certain surface proteins on the virus. The way we make a lot of the flu vaccines we do is by basically growing lots of viruses in chicken eggs. Chickens and humans aren't the same, and as a result, there will often be slight differences in the virus we'd like to vaccinate against, and the one we've managed to mass produce. Often this isn't a big deal, but with H3N2 strains, it tends to be a bigger deal. Second, this strain mutates quicker than many other flu strains. There can actually be rather large differences in what this virus looks like genetically from the beginning of the season to the end. This can render vaccines less effective. [EDIT: Also, not enough people get the flu shot. Seriously, just go get the shot. I'm glad you've never gotten the flu shot or the flu, but individual cases of the flu being lessened isn't the real benefit of the vaccine. In addition to it helping you if you're exposed to the virus, high vaccination rates lead to less exposure to the virus in the first place for everyone in the population (including those that are deathly allergic to the shot, for example).] So, in short, this year's flu strain is just a nasty one, and it is difficult to vaccinate against	[ "Medical conditions that compromise the immune system increase the risks from flu.\n\nSection::::Health conditions likely to cause complications.:Diabetes.\n\nMillions of people have diabetes. When blood sugars are not well controlled, diabetics can quickly develop a wide range of complications. Diabetes results in elevated blood sugars in the body, and this environment allows viruses and bacteria to thrive.\n", "According to the World Health Organization: \"Every winter, tens of millions of people get the flu. Most are only ill and out of work for a week, yet the elderly are at a higher risk of death from the illness. We know the worldwide death toll exceeds a few hundred thousand people a year, but even in developed countries the numbers are uncertain, because medical authorities don't usually verify who actually died of influenza and who died of a flu-like illness.\" Even healthy people can be affected, and serious problems from influenza can happen at any age. People over 65 years old, pregnant women, very young children and people of any age with chronic medical conditions are more likely to get complications from influenza, such as pneumonia, bronchitis, sinus, and ear infections.\n", "As of February 2008, the \"median age of patients with influenza A (H5N1) virus infection is approximately 18 years [...] The overall case fatality proportion is 61% [...] Handling of sick or dead poultry during the week before the onset of illness is the most commonly recognized risk factor [...] The primary pathologic process that causes death is fulminant viral pneumonia.\"\n", "In short, this one amino acid difference in the NS1 protein produced by the NS RNA molecule of the H5N1 virus is believed to be largely responsible for an increased pathogenicity (on top of the already increased pathogenicity of its hemagglutinin type which allows it to grow in organs other than lungs) that can manifest itself by causing a cytokine storm in a patient's body, often causing pneumonia and death.\n\nSection::::Avian flu in humans.:Treatment.\n", "This increased severity has been attributed to the circumstances of the First World War. In civilian life, natural selection favors a mild strain. Those who get very ill stay home, and those mildly ill continue with their lives, preferentially spreading the mild strain. In the trenches, natural selection was reversed. Soldiers with a mild strain stayed where they were, while the severely ill were sent on crowded trains to crowded field hospitals, spreading the deadlier virus. The second wave began and the flu quickly spread around the world again. Consequently, during modern pandemics, health officials pay attention when the virus reaches places with social upheaval (looking for deadlier strains of the virus).\n", "The flu can worsen chronic health problems. People with emphysema, chronic bronchitis or asthma may experience shortness of breath while they have the flu, and influenza may cause worsening of coronary heart disease or congestive heart failure. Smoking is another risk factor associated with more serious disease and increased mortality from influenza.\n", "Influenza's effects are much more severe and last longer than those of the common cold. Most people will recover completely in about one to two weeks, but others will develop life-threatening complications (such as pneumonia). Thus, influenza can be deadly, especially for the weak, young and old, those with compromised immune systems, or the chronically ill. People with a weak immune system, such as people with advanced HIV infection or transplant people (whose immune systems are medically suppressed to prevent transplant organ rejection), suffer from particularly severe disease. Pregnant women and young children are also at a high risk for complications.\n", "Section::::Cultural references.\n", "Influenza, commonly known as the flu, is an infectious disease of birds and mammals caused by an RNA virus of the family Orthomyxoviridae (the influenza viruses). In humans, common symptoms of influenza infection are fever, sore throat, muscle pains, severe headache, coughing, and weakness and fatigue. In more serious cases, influenza causes pneumonia, which can be fatal, particularly in young children and the elderly. While sometimes confused with the common cold, influenza is a much more severe disease and is caused by a different type of virus. Although nausea and vomiting can be produced, especially in children, these symptoms are more characteristic of the unrelated gastroenteritis, which is sometimes called \"stomach flu\" or \"24-hour flu.\"\n", "A recent study estimated that in the United States, annual inﬂuenza epidemics result in approximately 600,000 life-years lost, 3 million hospitalized days, and 30 million outpatient visits, resulting in medical costs of $10 billion annually. According to this study, lost earnings due to illness and loss of life amounted to over $15 billion annually and the total economic burden of annual inﬂuenza epidemics amounts to over $80 billion. Also, in the US the flu season usually accounts for 200,000 hospitalizations and 41,000 deaths.\n", "Because the mortality rate of the H1N1 \"swine flu\" is lower than common flu strains, this number was actually lower in 2009. According to an article in \"Clinical Infectious Diseases\", published in 2011, the estimated health burden of 2009 Pandemic Influenza A (H1N1), between April 2009 to April 2010, was \"approximately 60.8 million cases (range: 43.3–89.3 million), 274,304 hospitalizations (195,086–402,719), and 12,469 deaths (8,868–18,306)\" \"in the United States due to pH1N1.\"\n\nSection::::Notable occurrences.\n", "Section::::Cost.\n\nThe cost of a flu season in lives lost, medical expenses and economic impact can be severe. \n", "Common causes of ILI include the common cold and influenza, which tends to be less common but more severe than the common cold. Less-common causes include side effects of many drugs and manifestations of many other diseases.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nThe causes of influenza-like illness range from benign self-limited illnesses such as gastroenteritis, rhinoviral disease, and influenza, to severe, sometimes life-threatening, diseases such as meningitis, sepsis, and leukemia.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Influenza.\n", "Section::::Reception.\n\nSection::::Reception.:Ratings.\n", "There have been studies of the levels of cytokines in humans infected by the H5N1 flu virus. Of particular concern is elevated levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFα), a protein that is associated with tissue destruction at sites of infection and increased production of other cytokines. Flu virus-induced increases in the level of cytokines is also associated with flu symptoms including fever, chills, vomiting and headache. Tissue damage associated with pathogenic flu virus infection can ultimately result in death. The inflammatory cascade triggered by H5N1 has been called a 'cytokine storm' by some, because of what seems to be a positive feedback process of damage to the body resulting from immune system stimulation. H5N1 type flu virus induces higher levels of cytokines than the more common flu virus types such as H1N1 Other important mechanisms also exist \"in the acquisition of virulence in avian influenza viruses\" according to the CDC.\n", "In some cases, an autoimmune response to an influenza infection may contribute to the development of Guillain–Barré syndrome. However, as many other infections can increase the risk of this disease, influenza may only be an important cause during epidemics. This syndrome has been believed to also be a rare side effect of influenza vaccines. One review gives an incidence of about one case per million vaccinations. Getting infected by influenza itself increases both the risk of death (up to 1 in 10,000) and increases the risk of developing GBS to a much higher level than the highest level of suspected vaccine involvement (approx. 10 times higher by recent estimates).\n", "Since November 2009, 14 deaths as a result of swine flu in Northern Ireland have been reported. The majority of the victims were reported to have pre-existing health conditions which had lowered their immunity. This closely corresponds to the 19 patients who had died in the year prior due to swine flu, where 18 of the 19 were determined to have lowered immune systems. Because of this, many mothers who have just given birth are strongly encouraged to get a flu shot because their immune systems are vulnerable. Also, studies have shown that people between the ages of 15 and 44 have the highest rate of infection. Although most people now recover, having any conditions that lower one's immune system increases the risk of having the flu become potentially lethal. In Northern Ireland now, approximately 56% of all people under 65 who are entitled to the vaccine have gotten the shot, and the outbreak is said to be under control.\n", ", most people infected by this flu suffer a mild illness, but the small minority hospitalized are often severely ill. Arand Kumar, an intensive care expert at the University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada, said \"this pandemic is like two diseases; either you're off work for a few days or you go to hospital, often to the intensive-care unit (ICU). There's no middle ground.\" In the southern hemisphere 15 to 33% of hospitalized cases went to the ICU in July and August 2009. Unlike H5N1 avian flu and SARS which provoke a runaway body-wide immune response, H1N1/09 destroys the lungs' alveoli, often causing acute respiratory distress syndrome, which kills in half of all cases. Preliminary research suggests that severity is linked to a genetic variation in immune systems.\n", "The Swine Flu (also known as (H1N1) epidemic is a recent disease emerging in the early 21st century. In April 2009, during the early days of the outbreak, a molecular biologist named Dr. Henry Miller wrote in the \"Wall Street Journal\" about New York City high-school students. These students apparently brought the virus back from Mexico and infected their classmates. All six cases so far reported in Canada were connected directly or indirectly with travel to Mexico as well. Flu viruses can be directly transmitted (via droplets from sneezing or coughing) from pigs to people, and vice versa. These cross-species infections occur most commonly when people are close to large numbers of pigs, such as in barns, livestock exhibits at fairs, and slaughterhouses. The flu is transmissible from human to human, either directly or via contaminated surfaces.\"\n", "Section::::Health conditions likely to cause complications.:HIV/AIDS.\n", "This also helps explain why good hygiene is so important. Good hygiene selects against highly virulent viruses by lowering the ability of pathogens to transmit.\n\nSection::::Experiments.:Influenza.\n\nThe H5N1 virus is a particularly lethal strain of influenza. Currently, it can infect humans, but it is not contagious. Still, over 600 people have died from the H5N1 virus, and so the transmissibility of the virus is of major concern to scientists.\n", "In one case, a boy with H5N1 experienced diarrhea followed rapidly by a coma without developing respiratory or flu-like symptoms. There have been studies of the levels of cytokines in humans infected by the H5N1 flu virus. Of particular concern is elevated levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha, a protein associated with tissue destruction at sites of infection and increased production of other cytokines. Flu virus-induced increases in the level of cytokines is also associated with flu symptoms, including fever, chills, vomiting and headache. Tissue damage associated with pathogenic flu virus infection can ultimately result in death. The inflammatory cascade triggered by H5N1 has been called a 'cytokine storm' by some, because of what seems to be a positive feedback process of damage to the body resulting from immune system stimulation. H5N1 induces higher levels of cytokines than the more common flu virus types.\n", "Influenza spreads around the world in yearly outbreaks, resulting in about three to five million cases of severe illness and about 250,000 to 500,000 deaths. About 20% of unvaccinated children and 10% of unvaccinated adults are infected each year. In the northern and southern parts of the world, outbreaks occur mainly in the winter, while around the equator, outbreaks may occur at any time of the year. Death occurs mostly in the young, the old, and those with other health problems. Larger outbreaks known as pandemics are less frequent. In the 20th century, three influenza pandemics occurred: Spanish influenza in 1918 (~50million deaths), Asian influenza in 1957 (two million deaths), and Hong Kong influenza in 1968 (one million deaths). The World Health Organization declared an outbreak of a new type of influenza A/H1N1 to be a pandemic in June 2009. Influenza may also affect other animals, including pigs, horses, and birds.\n", "Due to routine use of the Hib conjugate vaccine in the U.S. since 1990, the incidence of invasive Hib disease has decreased to 1.3/100,000 in children. However, Hib remains a major cause of lower respiratory tract infections in infants and children in developing countries where the vaccine is not widely used. Unencapsulated \"H. influenzae\" strains are unaffected by the Hib vaccine and cause ear infections (otitis media), eye infections (conjunctivitis), and sinusitis in children, and are associated with pneumonia.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "Common symptoms of the flu such as fever, headaches, and fatigue are the result of the huge amounts of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines (such as interferon or tumor necrosis factor) produced from influenza-infected cells. In contrast to the rhinovirus that causes the common cold, influenza does cause tissue damage, so symptoms are not entirely due to the inflammatory response. This massive immune response might produce a life-threatening cytokine storm. This effect has been proposed to be the cause of the unusual lethality of both the H5N1 avian influenza, and the 1918 pandemic strain. However, another possibility is that these large amounts of cytokines are just a result of the massive levels of viral replication produced by these strains, and the immune response does not itself contribute to the disease. Influenza appear to trigger programmed cell death (apoptosis).\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-06585	How do credit settlement companies who claim that people who have a lot of debt don't have to pay it back work?	Broke people can't pay their bills. It's just math. So let's say you owe your credit card companies $25,623 and you don't really have any way of paying that back. You might file bankruptcy, and the credit card companies would get little or nothing. OR they could agree to take $5,000 and just give up on the rest. This is probably a better option than forcing you into bankruptcy, because $5,000 > $0. So these companies work with your credit card companies and other creditors to arrange a settlement. It usually looks like them paying $5,000 to the credit card company to wipe out the debt, and then you end up paying them $6,000 over time, so they make money too.	[ "Section::::Professional debt settlement.:Advantages.\n\nSettlement companies generally package their settlements into a larger bulk settlement with the creditor for 35% - 50% of the existing balances. The debt settlement companies typically have built up a relationship during their normal business practices with the credit card companies and can come to a settlement agreement quicker and at a more favorable rate than a debtor acting on their own. With the current economic crisis, more and more credit card companies may be willing to settle existing credit card debts rather than add to their already large written off bad debt.\n\nSection::::Do-it-yourself debt settlement.\n", "Consumers can arrange their own settlements by using advice found on web sites, hire a lawyer to act for them, or use debt settlement companies. \n", "U.S. debt settlement differs slightly. There are several indicators that few consumers actually have their debt eliminated by full and final settlement. A survey of U.S. debt settlement companies found that 34.4% of enrollees had 75 percent or more of their debt settled within three years. Data released by the Colorado Attorney General showed that only 11.35 percent of consumers who had enrolled more than three years earlier had all of their debt settled. And when asked to show that most of their customers are better off after debt settlement, industry leaders said that would be an \"unrealistic measure.\" \n", "A March 2010 CBS \"Early Show\" story on the debt settlement industry cast a harsh light on major debt settlement firm Credit Solutions of America's business practices, and provided consumer advice for debt settlement counseling.\n\nSection::::Criticism.:Better Business Bureau rating.\n", "The creditor’s primary incentive is to recover funds that would otherwise be lost if the debtor filed for bankruptcy. The other key incentive is that the creditor can often recover more funds than through other collection methods. Collection agencies and collection attorneys charge commissions as high as 40% on recovered funds. Bad debt purchasers buy portfolios of delinquent debts from creditors who give up on internal collection efforts and these bad debt purchasers pay between 1 and 12 cents on the dollar, depending on the age of the debt, with the oldest debts being the cheapest. Collection calls and lawsuits sometimes push debtors into bankruptcy, in which case the creditor often recovers no funds.\n", "Debt settlement, also known as debt arbitration, debt negotiation or credit settlement, is an approach to debt reduction in which the debtor and creditor agree on a reduced balance that will be regarded as payment in full. During a negotiation period, all payments by the debtor are made to the debt settlement company, which typically withholds payments to the creditors, even if the debtor has paid a lump sum or made payments. Once all the debtor's accounts are in default due to this non-payment, the debt settlement company has leverage to force the debtor to accept a reduced lump sum payment as settlement. The debtor's credit rating goes down significantly due to the default, especially if the debtor was not behind on payments before the negotiation period commenced. Even though the accounts are \"settled,\" the default appears on the debtor's credit record for seven years. Nevertheless, some debtors prefer this method of debt reduction over bankruptcy.\n", "Debt settlement is the process of negotiating with creditors to reduce overall debts in exchange for a lump sum payment. A successful settlement occurs when the creditor agrees to forgive a percentage of total account balance. Normally, only unsecured debts not secured by real assets like homes or autos can be settled. Unsecured debts include medical bills and Credit card debt - not public student loans, auto financing or mortgages. For the debtor, this makes obvious sense, they avoid the stigma and intrusive court-mandated controls of bankruptcy while still lowering, sometimes by more than 50%, their debt balances. Whereas, for the creditor, they regain trust that the borrower intends to pay back what he can of the loans and not file bankruptcy (in which case, the creditor risks losing all moneys owed).\n", "The third method, that of involving third party companies, is the most effective of all, when done with a well accomplished 'debt law firm'. In a New York Times article Cyndi Geerdes, an associate professor at the University of Illinois law school, states \"Done correctly, (debt settlement) can absolutely help people\". However, stopping payments to creditors as part of a debt settlement plan can reduce a consumer's credit score from 65 to 125 points, with higher impacts on those who were current on their payments prior to enrolling in the program. And missed payments can remain on a consumer's credit report for seven years even after a debt is settled.\n", "Negotiating with a collection agency or junk debt buyer is somewhat similar to negotiating with a credit card company or other original creditor. However, many collection agencies (or junk debt buyers) will agree to take less of the owed amount than the original creditor, because the junk debt buyer has purchased the debt for a fraction of the original balance. As a part of the settlement, the consumer can request that collection is removed from the credit report, which is generally not the case with the original creditor. Even if the removal of the collection account from the consumer credit report has been successfully achieved as a condition of settlement during negotiations, the negative marks from the original credit card company will still remain, according to Maxine Sweet, a spokeswoman for credit reporting agency Experian.\n", "Debt settlement is often confused with debt consolidation or debt management. In debt consolidation and debt management, the consumer makes monthly payments to the debt consolidator, who takes a fee and passes the rest on to the creditors; this way, creditors continue to receive payments each month. In debt settlement, the consumer makes monthly payments, out of which the debt settlement company takes its fees for the legal work or negotiation and payments are paid to the creditor. The debt settlement company may persuade the creditor to accept a settlement less than the amount the debtor pays, with the debt settlement company keeping the difference.\n", "Some settlement companies may charge a large fee up front, which ignores a rule from the Federal Trade Commission.\n\nOr they take a monthly fee from customer bank accounts for their service, possibly reducing the incentive to settle with creditors quickly. One expert advises consumers to look for companies that charge only after a settlement is made, and charge about 20 percent of the amount by which the outstanding balance is reduced. Other experts say debt settlement is a flawed model altogether and should be avoided.\n\nSection::::Professional debt settlement.\n", "When consumers begin to fall behind on payments, they have several options to discharge the debt, either in full or in part. The first method is declaring bankruptcy, which has the immediate effect of stopping any payments made to creditors. In the United States, the two primary avenues of bankruptcy for an individual are Chapter 13 bankruptcy and Chapter 7 bankruptcy. Another option is to consolidate these debts into a single loan, commonly known as debt consolidation. Debt relief, on an individual level, refers mainly to the negotiation for a reduction of a debt by either the consumer or a debt settlement agency. Through this arrangement, consumers agree to pay the creditor a fixed amount of money (generally a discount on their outstanding debt) either in a lump sum or under a payment plan. The debt settlement industry has had significant regulatory scrutiny since its inception with changes implemented in 2010 by the FTC. As the disposition of personal debt is a highly regulated industry, consumers are urged by the FTC and other trade organizations to do significant research and find an independent credit counselor to guide them through the process.\n", "A financial health management company uses established debt relief methods to handle each of its clients’ debt, such as debt consolidation, debt settlement, and credit counseling. Each form of debt relief has its own possible setbacks. In the case of debt settlement, enrollment in a program does not stop creditors from taking legal action. In addition, a completed debt settlement program can cause a ding on a credit history.\n", "By negotiating debts on their own, debtors are able to save in fees that would otherwise be paid to a debt settlement company or an attorney. This option also gives the debtor more control over the process which may, or may not, be a motivational factor to continue successfully completing the process.\n\nSection::::Do-it-yourself debt settlement.:Disadvantages.\n", "Potential candidates for debt settlement will typically have an overwhelming debt that they can’t afford to pay, have poor credit or don’t care about negatively impacting their bad credit, and/or don’t qualify for Chapter 7 bankruptcy.\n\nSection::::Process.:United Kingdom.\n\nIn the U.K. you can appoint an Arbiter or legal entity to negotiate with the creditors. Creditors often accept reduced balances in a final payment and this is called full and final settlement but with debt settlement the reduced amount can be spread over an agreed term.\n", "Section::::Common objections.\n\nDamages credit - Credit reports will show evidence of debt settlements and the associated FICO scores will be lowered temporarily as a result. However, if a \"paid in full\" letter is obtained from the creditor, the debtor's credit report should show no sign of a debt settlement. Additionally, as debtors settle their accounts the score starts to go back up again. Some Debt Settlement companies offer Credit Repair in their programs in order to erase some of the negative remarks on credit reports.\n", "Debtors may use debt settlement instead of conventional debt management because they are not aware of debt management.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nAs a concept, lenders have been practicing debt settlement for thousands of years. However, the business of debt settlement became prominent in America during the late 1980s and early 1990s when bank deregulation, which loosened consumer lending practices, followed by an economic recession placed consumers in financial hardships.\n", "A consumer makes monthly payments to the debt settlement company, or to the bank (or bank agent) who holds the \"trust\" account. A portion of each payment is taken as fees for the debt settlement company, and the rest is put into the trust account. The consumer is told not to pay anything to the creditors. The debt settlement company's fees are usually specified in the enrollment contract, and may range from 10% to 75% of the total amount of debt to be settled. FTC regulations effective October 27, 2010 restrict debt settlement companies from collecting any fees from a debtor client for services until settlement with the creditor has been reached and at least one payment made.\n", "It is possible for a consumer to imitate the methods of professional debt settlement companies and many people report success in negotiating a debt settlement for themselves. Initiation of negotiations can begin by calling the customer service department of the credit card company. In general, the credit card company will only deal with a consumer when the consumer is behind on payments but capable of making a lump sum payment. A payment plan is not an option; the credit card company will demand that the consumer make a lump sum payment of the settlement amount.\n\nSection::::Do-it-yourself debt settlement.:Advantages.\n", "According to the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau(CFPB) between 2009 and 2014 a debt collection agency, through its law firm, \"mass-produced\" \"hundreds of thousands of lawsuits against consumers in New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania.\" Pressler & Pressler \"used an automated claim-preparation system\", \"online database called AnyWho\" and \"non-attorney support staff\" to \"hunt for debtors\" and to \"determine which consumers to sue.\" The attorneys \"spent less than a few minutes, sometimes less than 30 seconds, reviewing each case before initiating a lawsuit.\" By 2009, in New York City alone, collection agencies that had bought the debt for \"pennies on the dollar from card issuers\", issued high volumes of lawsuits in the city's civil court, against debtors—approximately 1,000 cases a day. \n", "With the passing of Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act in 2010, debt buyer industry regulations were tightened. \"Stymied in state courts, the debt buyers\" began to file thousands of lawsuits in the same thing in \"bankruptcy courts—specifically, in cases governed by Chapter 13 of the Bankruptcy Code, which allows consumers earning regular incomes to restructure their debts and repay as many as they can over a period of several years.\"\n\nSection::::Professional associations.\n\nBULLET::::- Association of Credit and Collection Professionals, (ACA) International\n", "Depending on the country, different laws regulate professional debt settlement companies. In the United States, debt relief companies are required to provide information in advance of a consumer signing up for the services, including the cost and the terms. A legitimate company will use a Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation-insured trust account. Once enough funds are built up the negotiation process can begin with each creditor individually. Trust accounts, also known as \"special purpose accounts,\" are often held by a bank, and managed by a bank agent (who charges a monthly maintenance fee). Accounts can also be held by creditors, or may be sold to collections agency for an average of $0.15 on the dollar, in which case debt can still be negotiated.\n", "Potential for lawsuits - Though few creditors wish to push borrowers toward bankruptcy, (and the potential of governmental protection against all debts),there’s always the possibility of a lawsuit whenever debts lay unpaid. In the debt settlement process the debtor's accounts remain in default. While the debts are still in default the creditor or its assignee can still file a lawsuit against a debtor. Most creditors and debt collectors want a lump sum payment to settle for less than the full debt. Although a debtor may make monthly payments to the debt settlement company, the amount is too small to successfully negotiate a settlement until after the debtor has made several months' worth of payments.\n", "In a letter to the FTC Linderman stated in the first nine months of 2009 alone Freedom Debt Relief successfully settled approximately 40,000 accounts aggregating more than $206 million of unsecured debt with savings to consumers in excess of $120 million. On November 11, 2009, the company announced it had settled more than $500 million in consumer debt since its founding.\n", "Section::::Creditor’s incentives.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-22874	How does a circuit deal with having relatively large generation during times of low demand, such as might be in a parked electric diesel engine? Does this change for a more constant generator type such as hydroelectric?	In your example, the power on the diesel engine would just be turned down (or the engine would be turned off). The resistance of a generator is proportional to the power being drawn from it. So in a hydroelectric dam, if the power requirements are low, more water is diverted around the turbines, or they'd start speeding up.	[ "A hydroelectric plant's production may also be affected by requirements to keep the water level from getting too high or low and to provide water for fish downstream. \n\nHowever, solar, wind and hydroelectric plants do have high availability factors, so when they have fuel available, they are almost always able to produce electricity.\n\nWhen hydroelectric plants have water available, they are also useful for load following, because of their high \"dispatchability\". A typical hydroelectric plant's operators can bring it from a stopped condition to full power in just a few minutes.\n", "Geothermal plants, nuclear plants, coal-fired plants and bioenergy plants that burn solid material are almost always operated as base load plants.\n\nA plant can also have its output curtailed or intentionally left idle because the electricity is not needed or because the price of electricity is too low to make production economical.\n\nThis accounts for most of the unused capacity of peaking power plants and load following power plants.\n\nPeaking plants may operate for only a few hours per year or up to several hours per day.\n", "Baseload is the minimum load on the grid over any given period, peak demand is the maximum load. Historically, baseload was commonly met by equipment that was cheap to run, that ran continuously for weeks or months at a time, but globally this is becoming less common. The peak demand requirements are sometimes produced by peaking plants that are generators optimised to come on-line quickly.\n\nSection::::Features.:Production.\n", "However, in practice, they are never run flat out simultaneously. Typically, some generators are kept running at lower output powers (spinning reserve) to deal with failures as well as variation in demand. In addition generators can be off-line for maintenance or other reasons, such as availability of energy inputs (fuel, water, wind, sun etc.) or pollution constraints.\n\n\"Firm capacity\" is the maximum power output on a grid that is immediately available over a given time period, and is a far more useful figure.\n\nSection::::Features.:Interconnectors.\n", "Section::::Load following power plants.:Hydroelectric power plants.\n\nHydroelectric power plants can operate as base load, load following or peaking power plants. They have the ability to start within minutes, and in some cases seconds. How the plant operates depends heavily on its water supply, as many plants do not have enough water to operate near their full capacity on a continuous basis.\n", "Generators must provide the anticipated power required reliably and without damage and this is achieved by the manufacturer giving one or more ratings to a specific generator set model. A specific model of a generator operated as a standby generator may only need to operate for a few hours per year, but the same model operated as a prime power generator must operate continuously. When running, the standby generator may be operated with a specified - e.g. 10% overload that can be tolerated for the expected short running time. The same model generator will carry a higher rating for standby service than it will for continuous duty. Manufacturers give each set a \"rating\" based on internationally agreed definitions.\n", "Many other power plants operate only at certain times of the day or year because of variation in loads and electricity prices.\n\nIf a plant is only needed during the day, for example, even if it operates at full power output from 8 am to 8 pm every day (12 hours) all year long, it would only have a 50% capacity factor.\n\nDue to low capacity factors, electricity from peaking power plants is relatively expensive because the limited generation has to cover the plant fixed costs.\n", "Typical application - where the generator is the sole source of power for say a remote mining or construction site, fairground, festival etc.\n\nBase Load (Continuous) Rating based on: Applicable for supplying power continuously to a constant load up to the full output rating for unlimited hours. No sustained overload capability is available for this rating. Consult authorized distributor for rating. (Equivalent to Continuous Power in accordance with ISO8528, ISO3046, AS2789, DIN6271, and BS5514). This rating is not applicable to all generator set models\n", "The unvarying (or slowly varying over many hours) portion of the electric demand is known as the \"base load\" and is generally served by large facilities (which are more efficient due to economies of scale) with fixed costs for fuel and operation. Such facilities are nuclear, coal-fired or hydroelectric, while other energy sources such as concentrated solar thermal and geothermal power have the potential to provide base load power. Renewable energy sources, such as solar photovoltaics, wind, wave, and tidal, are, due to their intermittency, not considered as supplying \"base load\" but will still add power to the grid. The remaining or 'peak' power demand, is supplied by peaking power plants, which are typically smaller, faster-responding, and higher cost sources, such as combined cycle or combustion turbine plants fueled by natural gas.\n", "Most small generator connections require a mechanical disconnect switch, so at a minimum the utility could send a repairman to pull them all. For very large sources, one might simply install a dedicated telephone hotline that can be used to have an operator manually shut down the generator. In either case, the reaction time is likely to be on the order of minutes, or hours.\n\nSection::::Islanding detection methods.:Utility-based methods.:Automated disconnection.\n", "Vattenfall can change a gearbox in a day, and the farm has an availability of 96-97%. Two turbines are burnt out, and are uneconomic to replace with less than 10 years left.\n", "Where hydroelectric dams or associated reservoirs exist, these can often be backed up, reserving the hydro draw for a peak time. This introduces ecological and mechanical stress, so is practiced less today than previously. Lakes and man-made reservoirs used for hydropower come in all sizes, holding enough water for as little as a one-day supply (a diurnal peak variance), or as much as a year's supply (allowing for seasonal peak variance). A plant with a reservoir that holds less than the annual river flow may change its operating style depending on the season of the year. For example, the plant may operate as a peaking plant during the dry season, as a base load plant during the wet season and as a load following plant between seasons. A plant with a large reservoir may operate independently of wet and dry seasons, such as operating at maximum capacity during peak heating or cooling seasons.\n", "BULLET::::- generation is distributed across a vast geographical area (e.g., a country), and therefore the response of the electrical grid, itself a highly complex system, has to be taken into account: even if the production levels of all units are known, checking whether the load can be sustained and what the losses are requires highly complex power flow computations.\n", "BULLET::::1. Unused electrical production facilities represent a less efficient use of capital (little revenue is earned when not operating).\n\nBULLET::::2. Electric systems and grids typically scale total potential production to meet projected peak demand (with sufficient spare capacity to deal with unanticipated events).\n\nBULLET::::3. By \"smoothing\" demand to reduce peaks, less investment in operational reserve will be required, and existing facilities will operate more frequently.\n\nIn addition, significant peaks may only occur rarely, such as two or three times per year, requiring significant capital investments to meet infrequent events.\n\nSection::::US Energy Policy Act regarding demand response.\n", "Privately owned generators are especially popular in areas where grid power is undependable or unavailable. Trailer-mounted generators can be towed to disaster areas where grid power has been temporarily disrupted.\n\nSection::::Safety.\n\nEvery year, incorrectly used portable generators result in deaths from carbon monoxide poisoning. A 5.5 kW portable generator will generate the same amount of carbon monoxide as six cars, which can quickly build up to fatal levels if the generator has been placed indoors. Using portable generators in garages, or near open windows or air conditioning vents can also result in carbon monoxide poisoning.\n", "Hydropower is a flexible source of electricity since stations can be ramped up and down very quickly to adapt to changing energy demands. Hydro turbines have a start-up time of the order of a few minutes. It takes around 60 to 90 seconds to bring a unit from cold start-up to full load; this is much shorter than for gas turbines or steam plants. Power generation can also be decreased quickly when there is a surplus power generation. Hence the limited capacity of hydropower units is not generally used to produce base power except for vacating the flood pool or meeting downstream needs. Instead, it can serve as backup for non-hydro generators.\n", "Section::::Cost of generating electricity.\n\nSection::::Cost of generating electricity.:Typical operating costs.\n\nFuel consumption is the major portion of diesel plant owning and operating cost for power applications, whereas capital cost is the primary concern for backup generators. Specific consumption varies, but a modern diesel plant will at its near-optimal 65-70% loading, generate at least 3 kWh per litre (ca. 30% fuel efficiency ratio).\n\nSection::::Generator sizing and rating.\n\nSection::::Generator sizing and rating.:Rating.\n", "This spinning reserve is a significant expense to the power utilities as often fuel must be burned or potential power sales lost to maintain it. The kind of generation used for fast response is usually fossil fuel powered which produces emissions of between 0.48 and 1.3 tonnes of CO equivalent for every megawatt hour (MWh) generated. Thus a significant environmental burden, in the form of increased greenhouse gas emissions, is associated with this imbalance.\n\nSection::::Local load control.\n", "Emergency standby diesel generators, such as those used in hospitals and water plants, are, as a secondary function, widely used in the US and, in the recent past, in Great Britain to support the respective national grids at times for a variety of reasons. In the UK the tenders known as the Short Term Operating Reserve have exhibited quite variable prices, and from 2012 the volume of demand-side participation, which mainly entails the use of on-site diesels, has dropped as the tendered prices fell. Some 0.5 GWe of diesels have at times been used to support the National Grid, whose peak load is about 60 GW. These are sets in the size range 200 kW to 2 MW. This usually occurs during, for example, the sudden loss of a large conventional 660 MW plant, or a sudden unexpected rise in power demand eroding the normal spinning reserve available.\n", "Typical application - a generator running a continuous unvarying load, or paralleled with the mains and continuously feeding power at the maximum permissible level 8,760 hours per year. This also applies to sets used for peak shaving /grid support even though this may only occur for say 200 hours per year.\n\nAs an example if in a particular set the Standby Rating were 1000 kW, then a Prime Power rating might be 850 kW, and the Continuous Rating 800 kW. However these ratings vary according to manufacturer and should be taken from the manufacturer's data sheet.\n", "BULLET::::- Renewable generation units, such as wind farms, solar plants, run-of-river hydro units (without a dedicated reservoir, and therefore whose production is dictated by the flowing water), and geothermal units. Most of these cannot be \"modulated\", and several are also \"intermittent\", i.e., their production is difficult to accurately forecast well in advance. In UC, these units do not really correspond to decisions, since they cannot be influenced. Rather, their production is considered fixed and added to that of the other sources. The substantial increase of intermittent renewable generation in recent years has significantly increased uncertainty in the \"net load\" (demand minus production that cannot be modulated), which has challenged the traditional view that the forecasted load in UC is accurate enough.\n", "Demand for electricity from the world's various grids varies over the course of the day and from season to season. For the most part, variation in electric demand is met by varying the amount of electrical energy supplied from primary sources. Increasingly, however, operators are storing lower-cost energy produced at night, then releasing it to the grid during the peak periods of the day when it is more valuable. In areas where hydroelectric dams exist, release can be delayed until demand is greater; this form of storage is common and can make use of existing reservoirs. This is not storing \"surplus\" energy produced elsewhere, but the net effect is the same – although without the efficiency losses. Renewable supplies with variable production, like wind and solar power, tend to increase the net variation in electric load, increasing the opportunity for grid energy storage.\n", "Section::::Generator size.\n\nGenerating sets are selected based on the electrical load they are intended to supply, the electrical load's characteristics such as kW, kVA, var, harmonic content, surge currents (e.g., motor starting current) and non-linear loads. The expected duty (such as emergency, prime or continuous power) as well as environmental conditions (such as altitude, temperature and exhaust emissions regulations) must also be considered.\n\nMost of the larger generator set manufacturers offer software that will perform the complicated sizing calculations by simply inputting site conditions and connected electrical load characteristics.\n\nSection::::Power plants – electrical \"island\" mode.\n", "Another vital balancing service is ‘fast reserve’ which is the use of standby plant to replace possible lost generation (e.g. due to a failed power generator or lost power line). By shedding load quickly while the running generators spin up, then switching back in to bring the frequency back to standard, dynamic controllers could spare the high cost of fast reserve generators. Also the fast response speed of this method would avoid possible brownouts occurring.\n", "Such generator sets were also used in industrial complexes and public buildings- anywhere where electricity was required but mains electricity was not available. \n\nMost countries in the Western world completed large-scale rural electrification in the years following World War II, making individual generating plants obsolete for front-line use. However, even in countries with a reliable mains supply, many buildings are still fitted with modern diesel generators for emergency use, such as hospitals and pumping stations. This network of generators often forms a crucial part of the national electricity system's strategy for coping with periods of high demand.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Pumping stations.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-23417	Why do certain shower curtains always seem to consistently push into or touch you as you shower?	The movement of the water causes a low pressure area which pulls air from the other side of the curtain, making the curtain float towards you	[ "Section::::Structure and design.:Shower and bathtub curtains.\n\nCurtains can be used in shower or bathtub enclosures with two main purposes: to provide privacy and to prevent water from flooding or spraying outside the shower or bathtub area. Shower and bathtub curtains usually surround the bath inside the tub or shower area and are held up with railings or curtain rods high on the wall or ceiling. To accommodate the different types of bathtub shapes, railings can come in different sizes and are flexible in their design. \n", "Section::::Hypotheses.:Horizontal vortex hypothesis.\n\nA computer simulation of a typical bathroom found that none of the above theories pan out in their analysis, but instead found that the spray from the shower-head drives a horizontal vortex. This vortex has a low-pressure zone in the centre, which sucks the curtain.\n", "It's possible to use a telescopic shower curtain rod to block the curtain on its lower part and to prevent it from sucking inside.\n\nHanging the curtain rod higher or lower, or especially further away from the shower head, can reduce the effect. A (convex) curved shower rod can also be used to hold the curtain against the inside wall of a tub.\n", "It is also important to note that each fluid has its own minimum flow rate. The minimum flow rate is the smallest amount of dye at a given moment to keep the curtain flowing continuously. The minimum flow rate is directly proportional to the surface tension while viscosity is inversely proportional.\n", "Colder dense air outside and hot less dense air inside causes higher air pressure on the outside to force the shower curtain inwards to equalise the air pressure, this can be observed simply when the bathroom door is open allowing cold air into the bathroom.\n\nSection::::Solutions.\n\nMany shower curtains come with features to reduce the shower-curtain effect. They may have adhesive suction cups on the bottom edges of the curtain, which are then pushed onto the sides of the shower when in use. Others may have magnets at the bottom, though these are not effective on acrylic or fiberglass tubs.\n", "David Schmidt of University of Massachusetts was awarded the 2001 Ig Nobel Prize in Physics for his partial solution to the question of why shower curtains billow inwards. He used a computational fluid dynamics code to achieve the results. Professor Schmidt is adamant that this was done \"for fun\" in his own free time without the use of grants.\n\nSection::::Hypotheses.:The Coandă effect.\n\nThe Coandă effect, also known as \"boundary layer attachment\", is the tendency of a moving fluid to adhere to an adjacent wall.\n\nSection::::Hypotheses.:Condensation.\n", "Also called Chimney effect or Stack effect, observes that warm air (from the hot shower) rises out over the shower curtain as cooler air (near the floor) pushes in under the curtain to replace the rising air. By pushing the curtain in towards the shower, the (short range) vortex and Coandă effects become more significant. However, the shower-curtain effect persists when cold water is used, implying that this cannot be the only mechanism at work.\n\nSee also Cooling tower.\n\nSection::::Hypotheses.:Bernoulli effect hypothesis.\n", "A weight can be attached to a long string and the string attached to the curtain rod in the middle of the curtain (on the inside). Hanging the weight low against the curtain just above the rim of the shower pan or tub makes it an effective billowing deterrent without allowing the weight to hit the pan or tub and damage it.\n\nThere are a few alternative solutions that either attach to the shower curtain directly, attach to the shower rod or attach to the wall.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Scientific American: Why does the shower curtain move toward the water?\n", "A hot shower will produce steam that condenses on the shower side of the curtain; lowering the pressure there. In a steady state the steam will be replaced by new steam delivered by the shower but in reality the water temperature will fluctuate and lead to times when the net steam production is negative.\n\nSection::::Hypotheses.:Air pressure.\n", "BULLET::::- Why does the shower curtain blow up and in instead of down and out?\n\nBULLET::::- Video demonstration of how this phenomenon could be solved.\n\nBULLET::::- The Straight Dope: Why does the shower curtain blow in despite the water pushing it out (revisited)?\n\nBULLET::::- 2001 Ig Nobel Prize Winners\n\nBULLET::::- Fluent NEWS: Shower Curtain Grabs Scientist – But He Lives to Tell Why\n\nBULLET::::- Arggh, Why Does the Shower Curtain Attack Me? by Joe Palca. \"All Things Considered\", National Public Radio. November 4, 2006. (audio)\n", "The most popular explanation given for the shower-curtain effect is Bernoulli's principle. Bernoulli's principle states that an increase in velocity results in a decrease in pressure. This theory presumes that the water flowing out of a shower head causes the air through which the water moves to start flowing in the same direction as the water. This movement would be parallel to the plane of the shower curtain. If air is moving across the inside surface of the shower curtain, Bernoulli's principle says the air pressure there will drop. This would result in a pressure differential between the inside and outside, causing the curtain to move inward. It would be strongest when the gap between the bather and the curtain is smallest - resulting in the curtain attaching to the bather.\n", "Domestic showers are most commonly stall showers or showers over a bathtub. A stall shower is a dedicated shower area which uses a door or curtain to contain water spray. The shower over a bathtub saves bathroom space and enables the area to be used for either a bath or a shower and commonly uses a sliding shower curtain to contain the water spray. Showers may also be in a wet room, in which there is no contained shower area, or in a dedicated shower room, which does not require containment of water spray. Most domestic showers have a single overhead shower head, which may be adjustable.\n", "Commercial sized curtains are commonly used in restaurants, cinemas, and theatre stages.\n\nThe now well known shower curtain was once called the bath curtain, and were once made of cloth, proving difficult to soak up the water.\n\nSection::::Styles.\n\nCurtains can be used to give a room a focal point. There are at least twenty different styles of curtains and draperies which can be used in window treatment.\n", "Shower or bathtub doors are doors (also called screens) used in bathrooms that help keep water inside a shower or bathtub and are alternatives to shower curtains. They are available in many different styles such as framed or frameless, sliding or swing. They are usually constructed of aluminium, clear glass, plexi-glass or tempered glass. Shower doors can come in many different hardware finishes and glass patterns that can match other bathroom hardware such as faucets and shower heads. There are also shower doors that are in a neo angle design for use on shower pans that have the neo design as well. The design of the shower pan is extremely important as the shower door must be the type required for the pan in order to work. A shower door requires plastic lining along the edges of the door to protect against water leaking out.\n", "Shower or bathtub curtains are more commonly installed because of their very low cost and ease of installation, requiring only a rod, which may be removable, that spans between the end walls of the open side of the bathtub, and rings or hooks for attaching the curtain. The waterproof curtain or liner is placed inside the bathtub during and after shower use to contain water spray and splashes within the bathtub for proper drainage while drying. However, they are not highly effective: if the curtain is not very carefully arranged, then water escapes and puddles on the floor, near the wall at the end of the shower curtain, particularly at the end where the shower head was located.\n", "Often, air showers are equipped with air ionizers to reduce static electricity, as large volumes of high-velocity air create electric charges. Since laboratory equipment, electronic measuring instruments and many hi-tech manufactured goods can often be damaged by electrostatic discharge, ionizers are essential in rendering material surfaces electrically neutral prior to entering the cleanroom.\n\nSection::::Safety.\n", "Section::::Design concerns.:Deflection.\n", "Section::::Types.:Venetian.\n\nThe Venetian curtain, also known as a \"profile\" or \"contour\" curtain, has multiple vertical lines distributed across the length of the single panel of fabric, which is usually made with as much as 200% fullness and must be thin and soft so it gathers well. The curtain is opened by pulling on the lines. Each line is independently operated, making it possible to control the shape and height of curtain openings. This type of curtain is typically the most difficult type to operate because of the many independent lines.\n\nSection::::Types.:Wipe.\n", "Some people use two shower curtains: one that is inside the tub, which is mainly functional or decorative as well, and an outer shower curtain, which is purely decorative. The bottom portion of the inner curtain often comes with magnetic discs or suction cups which adhere to the bathtub itself.\n\nThese curtains are usually made from vinyl, cloth or plastic.\n\nSection::::Structure and design.:Shower and bathtub doors.\n", "Curtain coating is one of the technologies used in the converting industry to modify the properties of substrates.\n\nSection::::Edging.\n\nTo be certain the flow of the liquid is disrupted, an edging along both sides of the slit is required. This is to prohibit the surface tension from causing the coating to taper in; sometimes edging alone is not enough and a surfactant must be added to lower the surface tension.\n\nSection::::Flow rate.\n", "Section::::Production.\n", "Shower-curtain effect\n\nThe shower-curtain effect in physics describes the phenomenon of how a shower curtain gets blown inward with a running shower. The problem of identifying the cause of this effect has been featured in \"Scientific American\" magazine, with several theories given to explain the phenomenon but no definite conclusion.\n\nThe shower-curtain effect may also be used to describe the observation how nearby phase front distortions of an optical wave are more severe than remote distortions of the same amplitude.\n\nSection::::Hypotheses.\n\nSection::::Hypotheses.:Buoyancy hypothesis.\n", "In its most-basic form, a drape or curtain bind often consists of a ring and a pin: the curtain is \"bound\" inside the ring by the placement of the pin behind it, holding the curtain in the center of the window rather than along its edge as with most tie-backs. Alternatively, a double-slotted piece of wood or plastic resembling a figure-8 can be used to the same effect. This arrangement is only possible with very brief or sheer curtains.\n\nSection::::Window hardware.:Knob.\n", "Section::::Description.\n", "An olio requires a sturdy roll tube to prevent sagging. The larger the tube diameter, the more readily it will descend when the ropes are loosened.\n\nSection::::Types.:Traveler.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-12326	What happens to an asteroids material when it burns up in the atmosphere?	First off, because a lot of people don't realize it, I want to point out that typically this is not much material. The majority of shooting stars one sees are probably about the size of a grain of sand. As far as what happens to the material, it turns into gasses or melted particles. Beyond that, all they are is dust on the wind.	[ "For volatile materials in extinct comets, heat can be used to melt and vaporize the matrix.\n\nSection::::Extraction techniques.:Extraction using the Mond process.\n", "One proposed method of purifying asteroid materials is through the use of carbon monoxide (CO). Heating the material to 500 °F (260 °C) and exposing it to CO causes the metals to form gaseous carbonyls. This vapor can then be distilled to separate out the metal components, and the CO can then be recovered by another heating cycle. Thus an automated ship can scrape up loose surface materials\n", "Section::::Research and study.\n\nScientists suspect that some asteroids were once comets. A comet loses part of its mass with each passage around the Sun. It would appear that some would eventually use all of their volatiles, or perhaps cover these under a blanket of dust after repeated passages around the Sun. Such an object might then have an asteroid appearance.\n", "Asteroids with a high metal content may be covered in loose grains that can be gathered by means of a magnet.\n\nSection::::Extraction techniques.:Heating.\n", "The nickel and iron of an iron rich asteroid could be extracted by the Mond process. This involves passing carbon monoxide over the asteroid at a temperature between 50 and 60 °C for nickel, higher for iron, and with high pressures and enclosed in materials that are resistant to the corrosive carbonyls. This forms the gases nickel tetracarbonyl and iron pentacarbonyl - then nickel and iron can be removed from the gas again at higher temperatures, perhaps in an attached printer, and platinum, gold etc. left as a residue.\n\nSection::::Extraction techniques.:Self-replicating machines.\n", "BULLET::::3. Material on the surface of the asteroid begins to sublimate (the rock and/or metal transitions from solid to gas) and ejects away from the asteroid.\n\nBULLET::::4. Newton's third law states that for any action there is an equal and opposite reaction. As the material becomes a gas it is pushed away from the asteroid and by Newton's third law, it also pushes back on the asteroid with an equal force, called a thrust.\n", "Due to the near lack of a coma and tail, an extinct or dormant comet may resemble an asteroid rather than a comet and blur the distinction between these two classes of small Solar System bodies. When volatile materials such as nitrogen, water, carbon dioxide, ammonia, hydrogen and methane in the comet nucleus have evaporated away, all that remains is an inert rock or rubble pile. A comet may go through a transition phase as it comes close to extinction.\n\nSection::::Nature of extinct comets.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Live Free or Die\" (2010), novel by John Ringo. Asteroids are melted by sunlight concentrated by a distributed network of orbital mirrors, allowing the centripetal force of the asteroid's own rotation to separate it into concentric layers of its component materials, which are then peeled off one-by-one. One asteroid, known as Troy, is drilled into, stuffed with ice, and then melted, inflating it into a hollow metal shell nine miles in diameter and over a mile thick, which is then developed into a space station used to defend the solar system from invading aliens.\n\nSection::::Common themes.:Navigational hazard.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Let Us Save the Universe (An Open Letter from Ijon Tichy)\" (1971), a short satirical story by Stanisław Lem, published usually within The Star Diaries collection. A letter purportedly written by Ijon Tichy criticizing widespread vandalism done by space tourists describes Eros as one of the most vandalized asteroids, being strewn with graffiti, such as initials of loving couples, petty poetry, hearts pierced by arrows etc.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Asteroid\" (1997), NBC's two-part miniseries features a series of asteroids heading towards Earth. Eros, the larger of the two asteroids, is shattered into small fragments by the Air Force's ABL in an attempt to divert it from a certain impact on Earth. Eros still proceeds to rain over Dallas, Texas.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Justice League of America\" #26 (February 1999) by DC Comics. The JLA uses Eros as an inescapable prison for their unkillable foe, The General. He is simply deposited on the asteroid's flatter end. He later escapes with the aid of alien forces.\n", "Extinct comets are those that have expelled most of their volatile ice and have little left to form a tail or coma. Over time, most of the volatile material contained in a comet nucleus evaporates away, and the comet becomes a small, dark, inert lump of rock or rubble that can resemble an asteroid. \n", "Asteroids vary greatly in their composition and shape. An asteroid's composition can range from entirely metallic, to entirely rocky, to a mix of rock and metals. The composition must be taken into account since each material behaves differently when ablated. Initial trials at the University of Strathclyde have shown that laser ablation could be more effective on dense metallic asteroids, because of the shape made by the ejecting material.\n\nSection::::Important factors.:Asteroid shape.\n", "In 2006, the Keck Observatory announced that the binary Jupiter trojan 617 Patroclus, and possibly large numbers of other Jupiter trojans, are likely extinct comets and consist largely of water ice. Similarly, Jupiter-family comets, and possibly near-Earth asteroids that are extinct comets, might also provide water. The process of in-situ resource utilization—using materials native to space for propellant, thermal management, tankage, radiation shielding, and other high-mass components of space infrastructure—could lead to radical reductions in its cost. Although whether these cost reductions could be achieved, and if achieved would offset the enormous infrastructure investment required, is unknown.\n", "Spectroscopic observers found that ammonia and carbon disulfide persisted in the atmosphere for at least fourteen months after the collisions, with a considerable amount of ammonia being present in the stratosphere as opposed to its normal location in the troposphere.\n", "Analysis of the essential nutrients (C, N, P, K) in meteorites yielded information for calculating the amount of biomass that can be constructed from asteroid resources. For example, carbonaceous asteroids are estimated to contain about 10 kg potential resource materials, and laboratory results suggest that they could yield a biomass on the order of 6·10 kg, about 100,000 times more than biological matter presently on Earth.\n\nSection::::Cultures on simulated asteroid/meteorite materials.\n", "A small number of NEAs are extinct comets that have lost their volatile surface materials, although having a faint or intermittent comet-like tail does not necessarily result in a classification as a near-Earth comet, making the boundaries somewhat fuzzy. The rest of the near-Earth asteroids are driven out of the asteroid belt by gravitational interactions with Jupiter.\n", "Microorganisms or capsules captured in the accretion disc can be captured along with the dust into asteroids. During aqueous alteration the asteroids contain water, inorganic salts and organics, and astroecology experiments with meteorites showed that algae, bacteria, fungi and plant cultures can grow in the asteroids in these media. \n\nMicroorganisms can then spread in the accreting solar nebula, and will be delivered to planets in comets and in asteroids. The microorganisms can grow on nutrients in the carrier comets and asteroids in the aqueous planetary environments, until they adapt to the local environments and nutrients on the planets.\n", "Extinct comet\n\nAn extinct comet is a comet that has expelled most of its volatile ice and has little left to form a tail and coma. In a dormant comet, rather than being depleted, any remaining volatile components have been sealed beneath an inactive surface layer. \n", "Roughly six percent of the near-Earth asteroids are thought to be extinct nuclei of comets which no longer experience outgassing.\n\nSection::::Extinct comets.\n\nSuspected or theorized extinct comets include:\n\nBULLET::::- 14827 Hypnos\n\nBULLET::::- 2101 Adonis\n\nBULLET::::- 2015 TB145\n\nBULLET::::- 3200 Phaethon\n\nBULLET::::- 3552 Don Quixote\n\nBULLET::::- P/2007 R5 (SOHO 1)\n\nBULLET::::- 1996 PW possibly an extinct long-period comet\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Centaur (minor planet)\n\nBULLET::::- Damocloid asteroid\n\nBULLET::::- List of minor planets and comets visited by spacecraft\n\nBULLET::::- Lost comet\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Low Albedos Among Extinct Comet Candidates\", 2001\n", "Roughly six percent of the near-Earth asteroids are thought to be extinct nuclei of comets that no longer experience outgassing, including 14827 Hypnos and 3552 Don Quixote.\n", "Jupiter-family comets and long-period comets appear to follow very different fading laws. The JFCs are active over a lifetime of about 10,000 years or ~1,000 orbits whereas long-period comets fade much faster. Only 10% of the long-period comets survive more than 50 passages to small perihelion and only 1% of them survive more than 2,000 passages. Eventually most of the volatile material contained in a comet nucleus evaporates, and the comet becomes a small, dark, inert lump of rock or rubble that can resemble an asteroid. Some asteroids in elliptical orbits are now identified as extinct comets. Roughly six percent of the near-Earth asteroids are thought to be extinct comet nuclei.\n", "Throughout recorded history, hundreds of Earth impacts (and exploding bolides) have been reported, with some small fraction causing deaths, injuries, property damage, or other significant localised consequences. Stony asteroids with a diameter of enter Earth's atmosphere approximately once per year. Asteroids with a diameter of 7 meters enter the atmosphere about every 5 years, with as much kinetic energy as the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima (approximately 16 kilotons of TNT), of which their air burst represents about one third or 5 kilotons. These relatively small asteroids ordinarily explode in the upper atmosphere and most or all of the solids are vaporized. Asteroids with a diameter of strike Earth approximately twice every century.\n", "BULLET::::- In the novel \"Spider-Man: The Revenge of the Sinister Six\", by Adam-Troy Castro, a veiled reference is made to Moriarty and his \"Dynamics\". Here the work is said to still be the authority on orbital bombardment.\n\nSection::::Discussion of possible book contents.:Related references in media.\n\nBULLET::::- In \"His Last Vow\", the final episode of series 3 of the BBC television series \"Sherlock\", Sherlock's mother, M.L. Holmes, is shown to have written a lengthy textbook with the title \"The Dynamics of Combustion\", a reference to this book.\n", "BULLET::::- Once combustion of the carbonaceous residue is complete, a powdery or solid mineral residue (ash) is often left behind, consisting of inorganic oxidized materials of high melting point. Some of the ash may have left during combustion, entrained by the gases as fly ash or particulate emissions. Metals present in the original matter usually remain in the ash as oxides or carbonates, such as potash. Phosphorus, from materials such as bone, phospholipids, and nucleic acids, usually remains as phosphates.\n\nSection::::Occurrence and uses.\n\nSection::::Occurrence and uses.:Cooking.\n", "For the Solar System from its origins to the present, the current 10 kg biomass over the past four billion years gives a time-integrated biomass (\"BIOTA\") of 4·10 kg-years. In comparison, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and water in the 10 kg asteroids allows 6·10 kg biomass that can be sustained with energy for the 5 billion future years of the Sun, giving a \"BIOTA\" of 3·10 kg-years in the Solar System and 3·10 kg-years about 10 stars in the galaxy. Materials in comets could give biomass and time-integrated \"BIOTA\" a hundred times larger. \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04919	How did English become the most commonly spoken language in the world when the population density of other races far exceeded those of European/Caucasian descent?	The British Empire. It doesn't matter how many people live in the countries where they originated now. It matters how many people were forced or incentivised to learn the language some centuries ago, and the British Empire covered nearly a quarter of the world's population at its greatest extent.	[ "English-speaking world\n\nOver 2 billion people speak English, making English the largest language by number of speakers, and the third largest language by number of native speakers. With 300 million native speakers, the United States of America is the largest English speaking country. As pictured in the pie graph below, most native speakers of English are Americans.\n\nAdditionally, there are 60 million native speakers in the United Kingdom, 29 million in Canada, 25.1 million in Australia, 4.7 million in the Republic of Ireland, and 4.9 million in New Zealand. \n", "Estimates of the numbers of second language and foreign-language English speakers vary greatly from 470 million to more than 1 billion, depending on how proficiency is defined. Linguist David Crystal estimates that non-native speakers now outnumber native speakers by a ratio of 3 to 1. In Kachru's three-circles model, the \"outer circle\" countries are countries such as the Philippines, Jamaica, India, Pakistan, Singapore, and Nigeria with a much smaller proportion of native speakers of English but much use of English as a second language for education, government, or domestic business, and its routine use for school instruction and official interactions with the government.\n", "In the European Union, English is one of 24 official languages and is widely used by institutions, and by a majority of the population as the native language in the United Kingdom and Ireland and as a second language in other member states.\n\nEstimates that include second language speakers vary greatly, from 470 million to more than 2 billion. David Crystal calculates that, as of 2003, non-native speakers outnumbered native speakers by a ratio of 3 to 1. When combining native and non-native speakers, English is the most widely spoken language worldwide.\n", "Section::::Geographical distribution.\n\n, 400 million people spoke English as their first language, and 1.1 billion spoke it as a secondary language. English is the largest language by number of speakers. English is spoken by communities on every continent and on islands in all the major oceans.\n", "Another substantial community of native speakers is found in South Africa (4.8 million).\n\nSection::::Countries where English is an official language.\n", "British Asians speak dozens of different languages, and it is difficult to determine how many people speak each language alongside English. The largest subgroup of British Asians are those of Punjabi origin (representing approximately two thirds of direct migrants from South Asia to the UK), from both India and Pakistan, they number over 2 million in the UK and are the largest Punjabi community outside of South Asia. The Punjabi language is currently the third most spoken language in the UK. Many Black Britons speak English as their first language. Their ancestors mostly came from the West Indies, particularly Jamaica, and generally also spoke English-based creole languages, hence there are significant numbers of Caribbean creole speakers (see below for Ethnologue figures). With over 300,000 French-born people in the UK, plus the general popularity of the language, French is understood by 23% of the country's population. A large proportion of the Black British population, especially African-born immigrants speak French as a first or second language.\n", "There are six large countries with a majority of native English speakers that are sometimes grouped under the term Anglosphere. In numbers of English speakers they are: the United States of America (at least 231 million), the United Kingdom (in England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland) (60 million), Canada (at least 20 million), Australia (at least 17 million), Republic of Ireland (4.8 million) and New Zealand (4.8 million).\n", "Geographical distribution of English speakers\n\nThe article provides details and data regarding the geographical distribution of all English speakers, regardless of the legislative status of the countries where it's spoken. The English language is one of the most widely spoken languages of the world, and it's widely used in the international communication as lingua franca. Many international organizations use English as their official language.\n\nSection::::Statistics.\n\nSection::::Statistics.:Native speakers.\n", "BULLET::::- When taken from this list and added together, the total number of English speakers in the world adds up to around 1,200,000,000. Likewise, the total number of native English speakers adds up to around 350,000,000. This implies that there are approximately 850,000,000 people who speak English as an additional language.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- English medium education\n\nBULLET::::- English-speaking world\n\nBULLET::::- List of countries where English is an official language\n\nBULLET::::- World Englishes\n\nNon-English speaking populations:\n\nBULLET::::- Arabophone\n\nBULLET::::- Francophone\n\nBULLET::::- Hispanophone\n\nBULLET::::- Iberophone\n\nBULLET::::- Indosphere\n\nBULLET::::- Lusophone\n\nBULLET::::- Russophone\n\nBULLET::::- Sinophone\n\nSection::::References.\n\nSection::::References.:Bibliography.\n", "The second diaspora was the result of the colonization of Asia and Africa, which led to the development of 'New Englishes', the second-language varieties of English. In colonial Africa, the history of English is distinct between West and East Africa. English in West Africa began with trade. particularly the slave trade. English soon gained official status in what are today Gambia, Sierra Leone, Ghana, Nigeria and Cameroon, and some of the pidgin and creoles which developed from English contact, including Krio (Sierra Leone) and Cameroon Pidgin, have large numbers of speakers now.\n", "By the late 18th century, the British Empire had spread English through its colonies and geopolitical dominance. Commerce, science and technology, diplomacy, art, and formal education all contributed to English becoming the first truly global language. English also facilitated worldwide international communication. England continued to form new colonies, and these later developed their own norms for speech and writing. English was adopted in parts of North America, parts of Africa, Australasia, and many other regions. When they obtained political independence, some of the newly independent nations that had multiple indigenous languages opted to continue using English as the official language to avoid the political and other difficulties inherent in promoting any one indigenous language above the others. In the 20th century the growing economic and cultural influence of the United States and its status as a superpower following the Second World War has, along with worldwide broadcasting in English by the BBC and other broadcasters, caused the language to spread across the planet much faster. In the 21st century, English is more widely spoken and written than any language has ever been.\n", "English is often considered to be the lingua franca of the world today due to the diversity of countries and communities that have adopted English as a national, commercial, or social form of communication. Globalization, colonialism, and the capitalist system have all helped promote English as the world's dominant language, supplemented by years of British and American hegemony on the world stage. Today, nearly 1.39 billion people speak English according to the World Economic Forum, with its prominence over other languages highlighted through the geographic diversity of where it is spoken. According to Arwen Armbrecht, Mandarin Chinese is the most spoken first language in the world, however its influence lags behind English due to its limited use outside of Mandarin-speaking nations. As a result, the linguistic capital of Mandarin Chinese cannot be fully compared to that of English, which allows English to have such an important role around the globe.\n", "Besides the major varieties of English, such as British English, American English, Canadian English, Australian English, Irish English, New Zealand English and their sub-varieties, countries such as South Africa, India, the Philippines, Jamaica and Nigeria also have millions of native speakers of dialect continua ranging from English-based creole languages to Standard English. Other countries such as Ghana and Uganda also use English as their primary official languages.\n", "India now claims to be the world's second-largest English-speaking country. The most reliable estimate is around 10% of its population or 125 million people, second only to the US and expected to quadruple in the next decade from 2012.\n\nSection::::Majority English-speaking countries.\n", "According to the Ethnologue, there are almost 1 billion speakers of English as a first or second language. English is spoken as a first or a second language in a large number of countries, with the largest number of native speakers being in the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, New Zealand and Ireland; there are also large populations in India, Pakistan, the Philippines and Southern Africa. It \"has more non-native speakers than any other language, is more widely dispersed around the world and is used for more purposes than any other language\". Its large number of speakers, plus its worldwide presence, have made English a common language (\"lingua franca\") \"of the airlines, of the sea and shipping, of computer technology, of science and indeed of (global) communication generally\".\n", "Countries with large communities of native speakers of English (the inner circle) include Britain, the United States, Australia, Canada, Ireland, and New Zealand, where the majority speaks English, and South Africa, where a significant minority speaks English. The countries with the most native English speakers are, in descending order, the United States (at least 231 million), the United Kingdom (60 million), Canada (19 million), Australia (at least 17 million), South Africa (4.8 million), Ireland (4.2 million), and New Zealand (3.7 million). In these countries, children of native speakers learn English from their parents, and local people who speak other languages and new immigrants learn English to communicate in their neighbourhoods and workplaces. The inner-circle countries provide the base from which English spreads to other countries in the world.\n", "As for East Africa, extensive British settlements were established in what are now Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe, where English became a crucial language of the government, education and the law. From the early 1960s, the six countries achieved independence in succession; but English remained the official language and had large numbers of second language speakers in Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Malawi (along with Chewa).\n", "By the 19th century, the expansion of the British Empire, as well as global trade, had led to the spread of English around the world. The rising importance of some of England's larger colonies and former colonies, such as the rapidly developing United States, enhanced the value of the English varieties spoken in these regions, encouraging the belief, among the local populations, that their distinct varieties of English should be granted equal standing with the standard of Great Britain.\n\nSection::::Historical context.:Global spread of English.\n\nSection::::Historical context.:Global spread of English.:First dispersal: English is transported to the 'new world'.\n", "Section::::Immigrant languages.:Most common immigrant languages.\n\nAccording to the 2011 census, English or Welsh was the main language of 92.3% of the residents of England and Wales. Among other languages, the most common were as follows.\n\nBULLET::::1. Polish 546,000 or 1.0%\n\nBULLET::::2. Punjabi 273,000 or 0.5%\n\nBULLET::::3. Urdu 269,000 or 0.5%\n\nBULLET::::4. Bengali (with Sylheti and Chittagonian) 221,000 or 0.4%\n\nBULLET::::5. Gujarati 213,000 or 0.4%\n\nBULLET::::6. Arabic 159,000 or 0.3%\n\nBULLET::::7. French 147,000 or 0.3%\n\nBULLET::::8. Chinese 141,000 or 0.3%\n\nBULLET::::9. Portuguese 133,000 or 0.2%\n\nBULLET::::10. Spanish 120,000 or 0.2%\n\nBULLET::::11. Tamil 101,000 or 0.2%\n\nBULLET::::12. Turkish 99,000 or 0.2%\n", "BULLET::::- Attempts have been made to regulate English to an inclination of a class or to a specific style of a community by John Dryden and others. Auspiciously, English as a lingua franca is not racialized and has no proscribing organization that controls any prestige dialect for the language – unlike the French \"Academie de la langue française\", Spain's \"Real Academia Española\", or Esperanto's \"Akademio\".\n", "Although falling short of official status, English is also an important language in several former colonies and protectorates of the United Kingdom, such as Bahrain, Bangladesh, Brunei, Cyprus and the United Arab Emirates.\n\nSection::::English as a global language.\n", "Worldwide, English is used widely as a lingua franca and can be seen to be the dominant language at this time. The world's largest language by native speakers is Mandarin Chinese which is a first language of around 960 million people, or 12.44% of the population, predominantly in Greater China. Spanish is spoken by around 330 to 400 million people, predominantly in the Americas and Spain. Arabic is spoken by around 280 million people. Bengali is spoken by around 250 to 300 million people worldwide, predominantly in Bangladesh and India. Hindi is spoken by about 200 million speakers, mostly in India. Portuguese is spoken by about 230 million speakers in Portugal, Brazil, East Timor, and Southern Africa.\n", "As decolonisation proceeded throughout the British Empire in the 1950s and 1960s, former colonies often did not reject English but rather continued to use it as independent countries setting their own language policies. For example, the view of the English language among many Indians has gone from associating it with colonialism to associating it with economic progress, and English continues to be an official language of India. English is also widely used in media and literature, and the number of English language books published annually in India is the third largest in the world after the US and UK. However English is rarely spoken as a first language, numbering only around a couple hundred-thousand people, and less than 5% of the population speak fluent English in India. David Crystal claimed in 2004 that, combining native and non-native speakers, India now has more people who speak or understand English than any other country in the world, but the number of English speakers in India is very uncertain, with most scholars concluding that the United States still has more speakers of English than India.\n", "Decades, and in some cases centuries, of British rule and emigration have left their mark on the independent nations that arose from the British Empire. The empire established the use of English in regions around the world. Today it is the primary language of up to 460 million people and is spoken by about one and a half billion as a first, second or foreign language.\n", "Next comes the outer circle, which includes countries where English is not the native tongue, but is important for historical reasons and plays a part in the nation's institutions, either as an official language or otherwise. This circle includes India, Nigeria, the Philippines, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Malaysia, Tanzania, Kenya, non-Anglophone South Africa and Canada, etc. The total number of English speakers in the outer circle is estimated to range from 150 million to 300 million.\n" ]	[ "The most commonly spoken language is the one from the country with the highest population density." ]	[ "People were forced or incentivised to learn English in the British Empire." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The most commonly spoken language is the one from the country with the highest population density." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "People were forced or incentivised to learn English in the British Empire." ]
2018-09554	Why do movie, TV, and video ratings differ? Why aren't they all just the same depending on the content?	The ratings system in the US was put in by private business, and the agreement was that they'd put ratings out so that the government wouldn't censor films. This continued on to TV and video games. So each of the ratings systems are separate private entities owned by different people. MPAA for films, NAB + MPAA for TV, and the ESRB (owned by ESA) for video games	[ "The ratings are generally applied to most television series, television films and edited broadcast or basic cable versions of theatrically released films; premium channels also assign ratings from the TV parental guidelines on broadcasts of some films that have been released theatrically or on home video, either if the Motion Picture Association of America did not assign a rating for the film or if the channel airs the unrated version of the film.\n", "The MTRCB has implemented a television content rating system since November 1, 1995. Historically, there were only two television ratings used (see the table below). These ratings consisted of a plain text digital on-screen graphic (or pictogram) appearing on the corner of the screen during a program's run time:\n\nHowever, on October 6, 2011, in order to encourage parents to supervise and be responsible with their children in watching television, the rating system was reformatted, with one additional rating added.\n", "The ratings were designed to be used with the V-chip, which was mandated to be built into all television sets manufactured since 2000 (and the vast majority of cable/satellite set-top boxes), but the guidelines themselves have no legal force, and are not used on sports or news programs or during commercial advertisements. Many online television services, such as Hulu, Amazon Video and Netflix also use the guidelines system, along with digital video vendors such as the iTunes Store and Google Play and digital media players, including the Amazon Fire TV, Apple TV, Android TV and Roku platforms.\n", "Section::::Use.:Australia.:Standard ratings.:Consumer advice.\n", "This timeline shows when did the networks first used the system (this pertains only to the G and PG ratings, the SPG rating has been adopted simultaneously by almost all of the networks).\n\nBULLET::::- ABS-CBN, S+A (formerly Studio 23) and PTV on October 6, 2011\n\nBULLET::::- UNTV on October 7, 2011\n\nBULLET::::- Shop TV on October 8, 2011\n\nBULLET::::- GMA and GMA News TV on October 10, 2011\n\nBULLET::::- 5 (formerly TV5), IBC and 5 Plus (formerly AksyonTV), on October 11, 2011\n\nBULLET::::- Net 25 on October 12, 2011\n\nBULLET::::- Light Network on October 14, 2011\n", "Section::::Use.:Slovakia.\n\nSlovakian government accepted a law in 2001, in which television stations are required to display one of the following icons:\n\nSection::::Use.:Slovenia.\n\nSlovenian government accepted a law in 2004, in which television stations are required to play a warning before a program and display one of the following icons:\n\nSection::::Use.:South Africa.\n\nSouth African ratings are issued and certified by the Film and Publication Board, whilst the National Broadcasting Commission regulates the various films and programs. All television stations, cinemas and distributors of DVD, video and computer games must display the following signage:\n", "Section::::Criticisms.:Accusation of \"ratings creep\".\n", "In Latvia it is the duty of the producer of a film or distributor to assign a rating according to a pre-determined set of criteria. All publicly exhibited films, visual recordings and films broadcast over television and electronic networks must be classified.\n\nBULLET::::- U (universal audience) – Suitable for persons of all age groups.\n\nBULLET::::- 7+: Suitable for a person who has reached at least 7 years of age.\n\nBULLET::::- 12+: Suitable for a person who has reached at least 12 years of age.\n\nBULLET::::- 16+: Suitable for a person who has reached at least 16 years of age.\n", "Film ratings in Canada are a provincial responsibility, and each province has its own legislation, rules and regulations regarding rating, exhibition and admission. Ratings are required for theatrical exhibition, but not all provinces require classification for home video. In the past there was a wide range of rating categories and practices in the various provinces; however, the seven rating systems—with the exception of Quebec—now all use categories and logos derived from the Canadian Home Video Rating System (CHVRS).\n\nSection::::Canada.:Classifications used outside Quebec.\n", "BULLET::::- Visual warning labels should be displayed before certain programs rated PGR or higher. More than one can be used and the labels are:\n\nBULLET::::- C: Content may offend\n\nBULLET::::- L: Language may offend\n\nBULLET::::- V: Contains Violence\n\nBULLET::::- S: Sexual Content may offend\n\nSection::::Use.:Norway.\n", "Anywhere between one and five content ratings can be assigned to a program, in order to give viewers an outline of the mature content that may be included, providing specificity for parents to determine if the program is appropriate for viewing by children depending on age group. A key example is with the 2010 comedy \"Get Him to the Greek\", which made its premium cable debut on HBO and Cinemax in 2011; the film (originally rated \"R\" for its theatrical release, but assigned a \"TV-MA-L,S,V\" rating by HBO and Cinemax, due to its broadcast of the unrated version of the film was tagged for adult content (due to its pervasive sexual dialogue, drug references, moderate alcohol and drug use, and crude humor, including two scenes involving vomiting), strong sexual content (due to two scenes in which Jonah Hill's character Aaron Green is seen having intercourse with two different women on two separate occasions, neither of which included any nudity, although one featured Green getting a dildo inserted in his mouth and rubbed on his face), graphic language (due to the inclusion of over 100 expletives in the film) and nudity (because of two scenes involving topless women, and one scene including partially exposed male buttocks).\n", "In the Philippines, the Movie and Television Review and Classification Board, commonly known as MTRCB, implements and regulates local television content rating systems. In November 1995, the MTRCB has implemented only two television ratings: \"General Patronage\" and \"Parental Guidance\", in which these advisories are simply written on the upper left side or at the lower right side of the television screen.\n\nOn 6 October 2011, in order to encourage parents to supervise and be responsible with their children in watching television, the MTRCB revamped its rating system, implementing a three-tiered system:\n", "Section::::Colombia.\n\nAs of June 22, 2005, the Ministry of Culture issued its new rating system. The classifications are:\n\nBULLET::::- T: For general audiences.\n\nBULLET::::- 7: Advisory.\n\nBULLET::::- 12: Advisory.\n\nBULLET::::- 15: Restricted.\n\nBULLET::::- 18: Restricted.\n\nBULLET::::- X: Pornographic content.\n\nBULLET::::- Prohibited: Contains elements that incite or advocate crime.\n\nSection::::Denmark.\n", "BULLET::::- B – designed for ages 12 and older, may contain some sexual situations, mild violence, and mild language (allowed only between 16:00 and 05:59);\n\nBULLET::::- B-15 – designed for ages 15 and up, slightly more intensive than the 'A' and 'B' ratings (allowed only between 19:00 and 05:59);\n\nBULLET::::- C – designed to be viewed by adults aged 18 or older, generally more intensive content (allowed only between 21:00 and 05:59);\n\nBULLET::::- D – designed to be viewed only by adults aged 18 or older, contains extreme content matter (allowed only between midnight and 05:00);\n\nSection::::Use.:Netherlands.\n", "Other factors may or may not influence the classification process, such as being set within a non-fictional historical context, whether the film glorifies violence or drug use, whether said violence or drug use is carried out by the protagonist, with whom the viewer should empathize, or by the antagonist. In Germany, for example, films depicting explicit war violence in a real war context (such as the Second World War) are handled more leniently than films with purely fictional settings.\n", "Of the four levels, Levels I, II, and II are unrestricted. Only Level III is a restricted category and regulated by the government.\n\nSection::::Hungary.\n\nHungarian ratings are decided by the National Media and Infocommunications Authority (NMHH):\n\nBULLET::::- KN \"(korhatár nélkül)\" – Unrestricted or exempt.\n\nBULLET::::- 6 – Not recommended below age of 6.\n\nBULLET::::- 12 – Not recommended below age of 12.\n\nBULLET::::- 16 – Not recommended below age of 16.\n\nBULLET::::- 18 – Not recommended below age of 18.\n\nBULLET::::- X – Restricted below 18, for adults only.\n", "The FSK rating also limits the time of the day in which the movie may be aired on free-to-air TV stations to a time frame between 22:00 (FSK 16) or 23:00 (FSK 18) and 6:00. Stations are permitted to broadcast films not approved for audiences under 12 at their own discretion.\n\nSection::::Greece.\n\nAll publicly released films must be submitted to the Youth Committee for classification. There are four categories:\n\nBULLET::::- Unrestricted – No restrictions (The film does not contain violence, drug abuse, or sexual content).\n", "BULLET::::- 16: Potentially harmful to (and not allowed for) children under 16 years; broadcasting is not allowed before 10:00 pm.\n\nMostly, these icons are used along with other symbols, displaying if a movie contains violence, sexual content, frightening scenes, drug or alcohol abuse, discrimination, or coarse language. These symbols are also used for TV-programs in the Netherlands.\n\nSection::::New Zealand.\n", "BULLET::::- CAT.2: (Kinderen Niet Toegelaten [KNT]; Enfants Non Admis [ENA]) – Prohibited for people younger than 16.\n\nSection::::Brazil.\n", "BULLET::::- Red label – Only for adults.\n\nAlmost always, the Mediaset programs with a permanent red label can be blocked by activating the locking device of the television set, commonly referred to as \"Parental control\". \n", "The influence of specific factors in deciding a rating varies from country to country. In countries such as the United States, films with strong sexual content tend to be restricted to older viewers, though those same films are very often considered suitable for all ages in countries such as France and Germany. In contrast, films with violent content which would be rated leniently in the United States and Australia are often subject to high ratings and sometimes even censorship in countries such as Germany and Finland.\n", "Section::::Criticisms.\n\nSection::::Criticisms.:Emphasis on sex and language versus violence.\n", "Section::::Comparison table.\n\nA comparison of current television content rating systems, showing age on the horizontal axis. Note however that the specific criteria used in assigning a classification can vary widely from one country to another. Thus a color code or age range cannot be directly compared from one country to another.\n\n\"Key:\"\n\nBULLET::::- White – \"No restrictions: Suitable for all ages / Aimed at young audiences / Exempt / Not rated / No applicable rating.\"\n\nBULLET::::- Yellow – \"No restrictions: Parental guidance is suggested for designated age range.\"\n", "The General Directorate of Radio, Television and Cinematography (in Spanish, \"Dirección General de Radio, Televisión y Cinematografía\") is the issuer of ratings for motion pictures. The RTC is an agency of the Department of State (\"Secretaría de Gobernación\"). It has its own classification system, as follows:\n\nBULLET::::- AA Informative-only rating: Understandable for children under 7 years.\n\nBULLET::::- A Information-only rating: For all age groups.\n\nBULLET::::- B Information-only rating: For adolescents 12 years and older.\n\nBULLET::::- B-15 Information-only rating: Not recommended for children under 15.\n\nBULLET::::- C Restrictive rating: For adults 18 and older.\n", "Section::::Criticisms.:Call for publicizing the standards.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02928	Why does everyone in Reddit use Imgur so much to post images?	Before Reddit had its own image upload feature, a user created Imgur specifically for redditors to use. [Here's an AMA with the creator]( URL_0 ) [Here's the thread where it was introduced]( URL_1 )	[ "Section::::Sharing methods.:Link aggregation sites.\n\nImage sharing on social news and image aggregation sites such as Reddit, Imgur, 4chan, Pinterest and Tumblr allow users to share images with a large community of users. Images are the most liked content of the aggregation and media sharing site Reddit; and according to data analyst Randy Olson as of August 2014, nearly 2/3 of all successful posts on the site were links to an image hosted on Imgur.\n\nSection::::Sharing methods.:Mobile.\n", "Section::::Popularity.\n\nIn 2013 Imgur overtook other image hosts in interest, such as Photobucket, ImageShack, and TinyPic, according to Google Trends. , it was ranked 16th among Alexa's Top Sites in the United States.\n\nIn its first month Imgur had 93,000 page views. According to EdgeCast in 2012, Imgur's former content delivery network (CDN), Imgur served more images in 10 minutes than there are in the entire Library of Congress. In 2012 there were 300 million images uploaded, 364 billion image views counted and 42 petabytes of data transferred.\n\nSection::::Features.\n\nSection::::Features.:Albums.\n", "Section::::Features.:GIFV.\n\nSince October 2014, Imgur had automatically converted uploaded animated GIF files into WebM and MP4 video files, which are much smaller.\n\nSection::::Features.:Video to GIF.\n\nIn January 2015, Imgur allowed users to link video URLs to create GIFs directly through the website. This was geared towards allowing its users to create GIFs regardless of image editing knowledge.\n\nSection::::Features.:Topics.\n\nIn February 2015 Imgur announced \"Topics\" which was a quick way for users to sort and view specific images that belonged to a specific group determined by tags such as science, earth, or cats.\n\nSection::::Features.:Mobile apps.\n", "Section::::Features.:Images.\n\nImgur used to have a policy to keep images unless they went three months without receiving any views, at which point (unless they were Pro account images) they might be removed in response to space needs. In early 2015 it was announced all images will be kept forever (even if not added from a Pro account) and only removed if deletion is requested.\n\nSection::::Features.:Meme Generator.\n\nSince June 26, 2013, Imgur has provided a \"Meme Generator\" service that allows users to create image macros with custom text using a wide variety of images.\n\nSection::::Features.:Gallery.\n", "Albums were introduced on October 11, 2010. Album layouts are customizable and embeddable.\n\nSection::::Features.:Accounts.\n", "The public Imgur gallery is a collection of the most viral images from around the web based on an algorithm that computes views, shares and votes based on time. As opposed to private account uploads, images added to the gallery are publicly searchable by title. Members of the Imgur community, self-proclaimed \"Imgurians,\" can vote and comment on the images, earning reputation points and trophies. Images from the gallery are often later posted to social news sites such as Huffington Post. Random mode was released on July 30, 2012 and allows users to browse the entire history of the public gallery randomly.\n", "Sharing images via mobile phones has become popular. Several networks and applications have sprung up offering capabilities to share captured photos directly from mobile phones to social networks. The most prominent of these is Instagram, which has quickly become the dominant image sharing-centric social network with over 500 million members. Other applications and networks offering similar service and growing in popularity include Streamzoo, Path, PicsArt and Starmatic.\n\nSection::::Sharing methods.:Apps.\n\nInstagram, Snapchat and, in China, Nice (mobile app) are photo sharing apps with millions of users.\n\nSection::::Technologies.\n\nSection::::Technologies.:Web photo album generators.\n", "On January 9, 2010, Alan Schaaf introduced Imgur accounts, which allowed users to create custom image galleries and manage their images. Accounts gave full image management including editing, deletion, album creation and embedding, and the ability to comment on viral images and submit to the public gallery. Gallery profiles gave the user the ability to view their past public activity. According to the help section on imgur, there is no image upload limit per account, but there is an upload limit of 50 images per IP address per hour. Paid pro accounts were created in 2010 to remove these limitations and allow infinite image storage, as well as increased upload limits.\n", "In 2015, Reddit enabled embedding, so users could share Reddit content on other sites. In 2016, Reddit began hosting images using a new image uploading tool, a move that shifted away from the uploading service Imgur that had been the de facto service. Users still can upload images to Reddit using Imgur. Reddit's in-house video uploading service for desktop and mobile launched in 2017. Previously, users had to use third-party video uploading services, which Reddit acknowledged was time consuming for users.\n", "With the emergence of social networks, image sharing has now become a common online activity. For example, in Great Britain, 70% of online users engaged in image sharing in 2013; 64% of British users shared their photos through a social network. Facebook stated in 2015 that there were approximately two billion images uploaded to its service daily. In terms of image sharing, Facebook is the largest social networking service. On Facebook, people can upload and share their photo albums individually, and collaboratively with shared albums. This feature allows multiple users to upload pictures to the same album, and the album's creator has the ability to add or delete contributors. Twitter collaborated with Photobucket in developing a new photo sharing service so users can attach a picture to a tweet without depending on another application such as TwitPic or Yfrog. As of June 2016, there were more than 500 million monthly active Instagram users.\n", "BULLET::::- Some - IPTC headers are read but information added via the web interface is not saved back to the IPTC header; or, IPTC headers are lost on resizing\n\nBULLET::::- Tags/keywords: the ability to add to and search by tags or keywords\n\nBULLET::::- Comments: the ability of users to leave comments on the photo\n\nBULLET::::- Yes - full control over who can leave comments (friends, registered users, non-registered users)\n\nBULLET::::- Some - users must register with the website to leave comments\n\nBULLET::::- Rating:\n", "List of image-sharing websites\n\nThis is a non-exhaustive list of notable image-sharing websites.\n\nSection::::Comparison of photo-sharing websites.\n\nLegend:\n\nBULLET::::- File formats: the image or video formats allowed for uploading\n\nBULLET::::- IPTC support: support for the IPTC image header\n\nBULLET::::- Yes - IPTC headers are read upon upload and exposed via the web interface; properties such as captions and keywords are written back to the IPTC header and saved along with the photo when downloading or e-mailing it\n", "In March and June 2015 Imgur introduced official mobile apps for iOS and Android, respectively.\n\nSection::::Features.:Trophies.\n\nIn order to reward users for their interactions, Imgur provides a series of Trophies for achievements including being a member of the community for 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6 years, \"Best Post of the Day\", \"Best Post of the Month\", \"Best Post of the Year\", \"Top Comment of The Day\", \"Top Comment of The Month\", and \"Top Comment of The Year\".\n\nSection::::Community.\n", "Section::::Technologies.:Geotagging.\n", "Anyone could upload and remain fully anonymous, making it harder to track down which user uploaded a certain image. It had been criticised for the 'unnecessary' use of JavaScript to load images.\n\nWe do not censor [the images]. We believe in freedom of speech, it's of utter importance to us. As long as your pictures are legal they will be hosted here, but we reserve the right to remove images due to technical reasons though.\n", "Imgur\n\nImgur ( , stylized as imgur) is an online image sharing community and image host founded by Alan Schaaf in 2009.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Some extensions of social photography include geotagging and online mapping, while online social networking destinations like Facebook have led to an increase in the popularity of technology employing the real-time transfer of images. Where Facebook allows for users to instantly upload a picture from their mobile phone to their profile, there have recently been a number of services sprouting up that allows users to create real time photo streams. \n", "VP9 only supports alpha compositing with 4:2:0 chroma subsampling in the YUVA420 pixel format, which may be unsuitable for GIFs that combine transparency with rasterised vector graphics with fine color details.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n\nIn April 2014, 4chan added support for silent WebM videos that are under 3 MB in size and 2 min in length, and in October 2014, Imgur started converting any GIF files uploaded to the site to video and giving the link to the HTML player the appearance of an actual file with a codice_1 extension.\n", "The Web has been a popular medium for storing and sharing photos ever since the first photograph was published on the web by Tim Berners-Lee in 1992 (an image of the CERN house band Les Horribles Cernettes). Today popular sites such as Flickr, PhotoBucket and 500px are used by millions of people to share their pictures.\n\nSection::::Preservation.\n\nSection::::Preservation.:Paper folders.\n", "From 2009 to 2011, the company's visitor traffic increased from 9 million per month to 21 million per month.\n\nSection::::Business.\n", "Section::::Current usage.\n", "The website is in direct competition with Flickr and is therefore readily compared with it. However, it stands out due to a slightly larger range of functions. According to the portal trusted.de, ipernity's service is among the seven best photo sharing services.\n\nSection::::Origins.\n", "Section::::Reasons Some Users Prefer ArcView 3.x.\n\nMany GIS professionals and users still use ArcView 3 even though it has been discontinued and replaced by a new product line. Some users with access to ArcGIS 9.x or 10.x may still install and use ArcView 3.x.\n", "Imgland allows the uploading and hosting of JPEG (jpg), png and gif images. Images that are larger than 1600 pixels (either in width or height) are automatically resized to the largest acceptable size while maintaining their original aspect ratio. Images are hosted in Norway on servers provided by Dell.\n\nSection::::Security and privacy.\n\nWhen one submits an image, your IP will be logged. Uploading using a proxy is not legal and not secure. If uploading with a proxy, one may risk that one's images are removed.\n", "BULLET::::- Images – Photo and image sharing is another example of digital content. Popular sites used for this type of digital content includes Imgur, where people share self-created pictures, Flickr, where people share their photo albums, and DeviantArt, where people share their artwork. Popular apps that are used for images include Instagram and Snapchat.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-02054	Why are the words "Yeah" and "Oh" always in pop songs and said for so long?	They are used as filler where the tune requires a note, but the singer doesn't have anything more to say. An excellent lyricist will try to adjust the wording so that not too many of these are needed.	[ "There are several different types of formulaic language. One type is relatively universal, often transcending differences in language and to some degree culture. Simple fillers like \"Uhm\", \"Uh\", or \"Er\" are used by many different people in many different settings. For the most part, these types of fillers are considered innocuous, and are often overlooked by listeners, as long as they are not utilized so often that they overshadow the remainder of the conversation.\n", "Section::::Composition.\n\n\"Uh-Oh\" is composed in the key of B minor, with a tempo of 92 BPM. The song was written by member Soyeon, who co-produced the song with June and MooF (153/Joombas). The song is described as a \"Boom bap\" style. \"Boom bap\" is a music production style that was prominent in East Coast hip hop music during the 1990s. The term \"boom bap\" represents the sounds used for the bass and snare drum.\n\nSection::::Commercial performance.\n", "A study conducted by Clark and Foxtree (2002) mentioned that parts of formulaic language, such as fillers, serve a communicative function and are considered integral to the information the speaker tries to convey, although they do not add to the propositional content or the primary message. Instead, they are considered part of a collateral message where the speaker is commenting on her performance. Speakers produce filled pauses (e.g. \"Uh\" or \"Um\") for a variety of reasons, including the intention to discourage interruptions or to gain additional time to plan utterances.\n", "But the song was written by Diet Pepsi creative director Alfred Merrin and jingle writer Peter Cofield, who tried to tailor the catchphrase \"the right one\" to Ray Charles' delivery and consequently added \"baby\".\n\nCharles' backing singers The Raelettes then added \"Uh huh\" after playing around with other two-syllable alternatives, such as \"doo-woo\".\n\nSection::::Version.\n", "Oh! What It Seemed to Be\n\n\"Oh! What it Seemed to Be\" is a song composed by Bennie Benjamin, George Weiss and Frankie Carle. The song was most popular in 1946, and was taken to number 1 that year by both Frank Sinatra and the Frankie Carle orchestra, the latter with Marjorie Hughes on vocals.\n\nSection::::Composition.\n\nThe song was first published in 1945\n", "\"Hey-Hey-Hey-Hey\" was recorded six months after the second version of \"Kansas City\", incorporating the same refrain. However, as \"Hey-Hey-Hey-Hey\" was released in 1958—with the writing credited solely to Richard Wayne Penniman (Little Richard)—the public perceived it as an earlier recording than \"Kansas City\".\n", "The song's impact was not immediately seen in the U.S.; it was particularly popular in Europe. Paul McCartney was immediately struck by the song and knew when he heard it that he wanted to be involved in making music. George Harrison remembered an all-night party he attended in 1959 where the song was played for eight hours non-stop: \"It was one of the best records I ever heard.\" While the Beatles were developing their sound in Hamburg, they played \"What'd I Say\" at every show, trying to see how long they could make the song last and using the audience in the call and response, with which they found immense popularity. The opening electric piano in the song was the first John Lennon had ever heard, and he tried to replicate it with his guitar. Lennon later credited Charles' opening of \"What'd I Say\" to the birth of songs dominated by guitar riffs. \n", "BULLET::::- Frankie Goes To Hollywood performed one of the many 1984 performances of their hit \"Two Tribes\" with bassist Mark O'Toole playing drums whilst drummer Ped Gill played bass.\n\nBULLET::::- In the midst of a 1986 performance of their hit \"Don't Leave Me This Way\", The Communards\" vocalists Jimmy Somerville and Sarah Jane Morris began to sing each other's vocals, an especially ironic change given that Somerville's part was much higher than that of Morris.\n", "Platters bass singer Herb Reed later recalled how the group hit upon its successful version: \"We tried it so many times, and it was terrible. One time we were rehearsing in the car ... and the car jerked. Tony went 'O-oHHHH-nly you.' We laughed at first, but when he sang that song—that was the sign we had hit on something.\" According to Buck Ram, Tony Williams' voice \"broke\" in rehearsal, but they decided to keep this effect in the recording. This was the only Platters recording on which songwriter and manager Ram played the piano.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Yeah Yeah Yeah\", a song by Big Al Downing 1967\n\nBULLET::::- \"Yeah Yeah Yeah\", a song by Ernie Newton And The Spielers Quality Canada 1960\n\nBULLET::::- \"Yeah Yeah Yeah\", a song by Judson Spence 1988\n\nBULLET::::- \"Yeah Yeah Yeah\", a song by Uncle Kracker 2001\n\nBULLET::::- \"Yeah Yeah Yeah\", a song by Jackie Wilson Bobby Adams 1963\n\nBULLET::::- \"She Loves You\", a 1963 song by The Beatles that frequently uses the phrase \"Yeah, Yeah, Yeah!\"\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Yeah Yeah Yeah Yeah\", the Bikini Kill side of a 1993 split album with Huggy Bear\n", "\"My favorite thing that we ever recorded, ever—or wrote—is 'Oh Father'... because we knew when we did it, that there was something about this that was in a way kind of the most real thing. [For] that song, the 'record' button was only pressed three times. That's it. So it's real. It's something that I really wanted to do and she was kind enough to say 'let's try this,' and it was not easy.\"\n\nSection::::Critical reception.\n", "BULLET::::- In 1977, Australian punk band the Saints appeared when their minor hit \"This Perfect Day\" made the lower reaches of the chart. Singer Chris Bailey deliberately mimed the lyrics out of time before continuing to sing after allowing the microphone to fall out of his hand. Meanwhile, guitarist Ed Kuepper stood stock still, staring blankly away from the camera whilst strumming intermittently at a fraction of the fast pace of the guitar on the record.\n\nBULLET::::- During their performance of \"Tom Hark\" in 1980, the drummer for the Piranhas used plastic fish instead of drum sticks.\n", "Paul Stanley, the sole writer of the song, said about it: \"It was a song I knew was going to be great... I knew what this song was and its turned out exactly the way I had hoped, and really better. The band has four great voices so when we do a chorus together it sounds like the world singing.\" The song is about how we shouldn't be wasting time and over-thinking things.\n", "Section::::Commercial performance.\n", "The dialogue of British actress Papillon Soo Soo saying \"Me so horny\" is sampled from the 1987 film \"Full Metal Jacket\" to complete Sir Mix-a-Lot's lyric, \"that butt you got makes...\" It is one of two popular rap songs of the era (with 2 Live Crew's \"Me So Horny\") in which her dialogue from the film is featured.\n\nSection::::Chart performance and awards.\n", "BULLET::::- The chorus of the Las Ketchup song \"Aserejé\" is an Andalusian Spanish phonetic rendering of the English-language song \"Rapper's Delight\" by The Sugarhill Gang.\n\nBULLET::::- In 80s Hungary, the chorus of the Opus song \"Live is Life\" (\"La ba dab dab dab life\") was often misheard for (literally meaning \"I have received a letter, Life\").\n", "BULLET::::- \"Yeah 3x\" (pronounced \"Yeah Yeah Yeah\"), a 2010 song by Chris Brown\n\nBULLET::::- \"Yeah Yeah Yeah\" (New Politics song)\|, a song by New Politics from their eponymous album\n\nBULLET::::- \"Yeah Yeah Yeah\", a song by The Sounds from \"Something to Die For\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Yeah Yeah Yeah\", a song by Uncle Kracker from \"Double Wide\" (album)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Yeah Yeah Yeah\", a song by Alice Cooper, written Cooper, Bruce from \"Be My Lover\" 1972\n\nBULLET::::- \"Yeah Yeah Yeah\" (Louis Prima song), 1950\n\nBULLET::::- \"Yeah Yeah Yeah\", a song by Satellite (US band) Mark Stevenson 1996\n", "The main appeal of \"Hey! Baby\" is probably the sustained first note, with a rhythmic pattern in the background. This device was used in 1962 for the successful song \"Sherry\" (1962) by the Four Seasons and again on the Beatles' \"I Should Have Known Better\" (on the album \"A Hard Day's Night\"), in 1964.\n", "The lyrics to the song are in call and response and typically sung to the tune of \"Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star\". The original and most well-known version of the song is:\n\nSection::::Music videos.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Uh-Oh\" (David Byrne album)\n\nSection::::Music.:Songs.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Uh-Ohhh!\", a song by Ja Rule featuring Lil Wayne\n\nBULLET::::- \"Uh-Oh\" ((G)I-dle song)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Uh Oh\", song by Kelly Osbourne from her 2005 album \"Sleeping in the Nothing\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Uh Oh\", song by Taken by Cars\n\nBULLET::::- \"Uh Oh\", song by TQ\n\nBULLET::::- \"Uh Oh… No Breaks!\", an album by The Slickee Boys\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mama Do (Uh Oh, Uh Oh)\", a song by Pixie Lott\n\nBULLET::::- \"Never Leave You (Uh Oooh, Uh Oooh)\", a song by Lumidee\n\nBULLET::::- \"Uh Oh\", a song by Junior Doctor\n", "Why Don't We Do This More Often?\n\n\"Why Don't We Do This More Often?\" is a popular song with music was written by Allie Wrubel and lyrics by Charles Newman, published in 1941. The song is considered a standard, having been recorded by many artists. In the Warner Brothers cartoon \"Bugs Bunny Gets the Boid\", Bugs Bunny and Beaky Buzzard say the first two lines of the song.\n", "In 1965, the Supremes recorded the song for their album, \"There's a Place for Us\", though it went unreleased until 2004. They also used it for their debut appearance at the Copacabana nightclub in New York City and it eventually became a fixture of their nightclub acts. They also sang the song on \"The Ed Sullivan Show\" and \"The Hollywood Palace\". In contrast to the original melody, a special dramatic monologue was incorporated, which was frequently changed in conjunction with changes in the group as well as the country's turmoil in the late 1960s.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Can't Do Sixty No More\", written and performed by The Dominoes, was a response to their own hit song from four years earlier (1951), \"Sixty Minute Man\".\n\nBULLET::::- \"I Shot Mr. Lee\" (1958) was The Bobbettes' response to their own 1957 hit, \"Mr. Lee\".\n\nBULLET::::- \"That Makes It\" was Jayne Mansfield's response to The Big Bopper's \"Chantilly Lace\" (1958), suggesting what the girl may have been saying at the other end of the line.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Oh Neil!\" was Carole King's response to Neil Sedaka's \"Oh! Carol\" (1959).\n", "Section::::Live performances.\n", "The song was heard in the short-lived US TV show \"Surviving Jack\" in episode six, \"She Drives Me Crazy\", as well as in the British television series \"\".\n\nThe British girl group Stooshe covered the song and released it in 2013 as a B-side to their single \"Black Heart\", under the title \"Things That Make You Go Mmm\". The single reached number three in the UK and number four in Scotland.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01258	What makes gasoline so special that it can power engines and why is it so difficult to find an alternative fuel source?	it's flammable, high energy output, easy to transport, and stays liquid in decently wide variety of temperatures. lots of things can power an internal combustion engine. diesel, peanut oil, alcohol to name a few.	[ "Petroleum-based vehicle fuels can be replaced by either alternative fuels, or other methods of propulsion such as electric or nuclear.\n\nAlternative fuel vehicles refers to both:\n\nBULLET::::- Vehicles that use alternative fuels used in standard or modified internal combustion engines such as natural gas vehicles, neat ethanol vehicles, flexible-fuel vehicles, biodiesel-powered vehicles, propane autogas, and hydrogen vehicles.\n\nBULLET::::- Vehicles with advanced propulsion systems that reduce or substitute petroleum use such as battery electric vehicles, plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles, and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.\n\nSection::::Alternatives.:Industrial oils.\n\nBiological feedstocks do exist for industrial uses such as Bioplastic production.\n\nSection::::Alternatives.:Electricity.\n", "Today, about 90% of vehicular fuel needs are met by oil. Petroleum also makes up 40% of total energy consumption in the United States, but is responsible for only 2% of electricity generation. Petroleum's worth as a portable, dense energy source powering the vast majority of vehicles and as the base of many industrial chemicals makes it one of the world's most important commodities.\n", "While new sources of energy are only rarely discovered or made possible by new technology, distribution technology continually evolves. The use of fuel cells in cars, for example, is an anticipated delivery technology. This section presents the various delivery technologies that have been important to historic energy development. They all rely in way on the energy sources listed in the previous section.\n\nSection::::Transmission.:Shipping and pipelines.\n", "Demand for substitutional fuel is also dependent on the availability of alternative energy vehicles, since 29% of energy consumption in the U.S. is from transportation. In 2017, biofuels composed about 5% of transportation fuels.Biofuels are currently a leading substitutional fuel. The U.S. Energy Information Administration forecasts a stable biofuel market through 2020. Due to relatively stable domestic motor gasoline consumption in recent years, the industry is not likely to see large growth in the near future without government support.\n", "Section::::Alcohol fuels.\n\nMethanol and ethanol fuel are primary sources of energy; they are convenient fuels for storing and transporting energy. These alcohols can be used in internal combustion engines as alternative fuels. Butane has another advantage: it is the only alcohol-based motor fuel that can be transported readily by existing petroleum-product pipeline networks, instead of only by tanker trucks and railroad cars.\n\nSection::::Ammonia.\n\nAmmonia (NH) can be used as fuel. Benefits of ammonia include no need for oil, zero emissions, low cost, and distributed production reducing transport and related pollution.\n\nSection::::Carbon-neutral and negative fuels.\n", "The main purpose of fuel is to store energy, which should be in a stable form and can be easily transported to the place of use.\n\nAlmost all fuels are chemical fuels. The user employs this fuel to generate heat or perform mechanical work, such as powering an engine. It may also be used to generate electricity, which is then used for heating, lighting, or other purposes.\n\nSection::::Bio-fuel.\n", "Section::::Liquid fuels for transportation.\n\nMost transportation fuels are liquids, because vehicles usually require high energy density. This occurs naturally in liquids and solids. High energy density can also be provided by an internal combustion engine. These engines require clean-burning fuels. The fuels that are easiest to burn cleanly are typically liquids and gases. Thus, liquids meet the requirements of being both energy-dense and clean-burning. In addition, liquids (and gases) can be pumped, which means handling is easily mechanized, and thus less laborious.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Alcohol fuel\n\nBULLET::::- Alternative fuels\n\nBULLET::::- Ammonia\n\nBULLET::::- Battery (electricity)\n\nBULLET::::- Bitumen-based fuel\n\nBULLET::::- Biofuels\n", "Today, about 90 percent of vehicular fuel needs are met by oil. Petroleum also makes up 40 percent of total energy consumption in the United States, but is responsible for only 1 percent of electricity generation. Petroleum's worth as a portable, dense energy source powering the vast majority of vehicles and as the base of many industrial chemicals makes it one of the world's most important commodities. Viability of the oil commodity is controlled by several key parameters: number of vehicles in the world competing for fuel; quantity of oil exported to the world market (Export Land Model); net energy gain (economically useful energy provided minus energy consumed); political stability of oil exporting nations; and ability to defend oil supply lines.\n", "In the United States, initial support to develop alternative fuels by the government was also a response to the 1973 oil crisis, and later on, as a goal to improve air quality. Also, liquid fuels were preferred over gaseous fuels not only because they have a better volumetric energy density but also because they were the most compatible fuels with existing distribution systems and engines, thus avoiding a big departure from the existing technologies and taking advantage of the vehicle and the refueling infrastructure. California led the search of sustainable alternatives with interest in methanol.\n", "Section::::Olefins.\n\nThe following is a partial list of the major commercial petrochemicals and their derivatives:\n\nBULLET::::- ethylene – the simplest olefin; used as a chemical feedstock and ripening stimulant\n\nBULLET::::- polyethylene – polymerized ethylene; LDPE, HDPE, LLDPE\n\nBULLET::::- ethanol – via ethylene hydration (chemical reaction adding water) of ethylene\n\nBULLET::::- ethylene oxide – via ethylene oxidation\n\nBULLET::::- ethylene glycol – via ethylene oxide hydration\n\nBULLET::::- engine coolant – ethylene glycol, water and inhibitor mixture\n\nBULLET::::- polyesters – any of several polymers with ester linkages in the main chain\n\nBULLET::::- glycol ethers – via glycol condescension\n\nBULLET::::- ethoxylates\n\nBULLET::::- vinyl acetate\n", "In order to be economically viable, projects must do much better than just being competitive head-to-head with oil. They must also generate a sufficient return on investment to justify the capital investment in the project.\n\nSection::::Economics.:CTL/CBTL/BTL economics.\n", "Motor fuel\n\nA motor fuel is a fuel that is used to provide power to motor vehicles.\n\nCurrently, the majority of motor vehicles worldwide are powered by gasoline or diesel. Other energy sources include ethanol, biodiesel, propane, compressed natural gas (CNG), electric batteries charged from an external source, and hydrogen. The use of alternative fuels is increasing, especially in Europe. Before deciding on a particular fuel type, some factors should be considered:\n\nBULLET::::- The profitability of a solution.\n", "Fossil fuels are of great importance because they can be burned (oxidized to carbon dioxide and water), producing significant amounts of energy per unit mass. The use of coal as a fuel predates recorded history. Coal was used to run furnaces for the melting of metal ore. Semi-solid hydrocarbons from seeps were also burned in ancient times, but these materials were mostly used for waterproofing and embalming.\n\nCommercial exploitation of petroleum began in the 19th century, largely to replace oils from animal sources (notably whale oil) for use in oil lamps.\n", "Greasestock is an event held yearly in Yorktown Heights, New York, and is one of the largest showcases of vehicles using waste oil as a biofuel in the United States.\n\nSection::::Single fuel source.:Biofuels.:Biogas.\n\nCompressed Biogas may be used for Internal Combustion Engines after purification of the raw gas. The removal of H2O, H2S and particles can be seen as standard producing a gas which has the same quality as Compressed Natural Gas. The use of biogas is particularly interesting for climates where the waste heat of a biogas powered power plant cannot be used during the summer.\n\nSection::::Single fuel source.:Charcoal.\n", "Terrestrial plants, on the other hand, tended to form coal and methane. Many of the coal fields date to the Carboniferous period of Earth's history. Terrestrial plants also form type III kerogen, a source of natural gas.\n\nThere is a wide range of organic, or hydrocarbon, compounds in any given fuel mixture. The specific mixture of hydrocarbons gives a fuel its characteristic properties, such as boiling point, melting point, density, viscosity, etc. Some fuels like natural gas, for instance, contain only very low boiling, gaseous components. Others such as gasoline or diesel contain much higher boiling components.\n\nSection::::Importance.\n", "Gasoline is the most widely used liquid fuel. Gasoline, as it is known in United States and Canada, or petrol virtually everywhere else, is made of hydrocarbon molecules (compounds that contain hydrogen and carbon only) forming aliphatic compounds, or chains of carbons with hydrogen atoms attached. However, many aromatic compounds (carbon chains forming rings) such as benzene are found naturally in gasoline and cause the health risks associated with prolonged exposure to the fuel.\n", "Alternative fuel vehicle\n\nAn alternative fuel vehicle is a vehicle that runs on a fuel other than traditional petroleum fuels (petrol or Diesel fuel); and also refers to any technology of powering an engine that does not involve solely petroleum (e.g. electric car, hybrid electric vehicles, solar powered). Because of a combination of factors, such as environmental concerns, high oil prices and the potential for peak oil, development of cleaner alternative fuels and advanced power systems for vehicles has become a high priority for many governments and vehicle manufacturers around the world.\n", "While there are different types of fuel that may power cars, most rely on gasoline or diesel. The United States Environmental Protection Agency states that the average vehicle emits 8,887 grams of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide () per gallon of gasoline. The average vehicle running on diesel fuel will emit 10,180 grams of carbon dioxide. Many governments are using fiscal policies (such as road tax or the US gas guzzler tax) to influence vehicle purchase decisions, with a low figure often resulting in reduced taxation. Fuel taxes may act as an incentive for the production of more efficient, hence less polluting, car designs (e.g. hybrid vehicles) and the development of alternative fuels. High fuel taxes may provide a strong incentive for consumers to purchase lighter, smaller, more fuel-efficient cars, or to not drive. On average, today's cars are about 75 percent recyclable, and using recycled steel helps reduce energy use and pollution. In the United States Congress, federally mandated fuel efficiency standards have been debated regularly, and though passenger car standards did not rise above the standard set in 1985 for many years, they increased in 2011 as a result of passage of the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007. Many cities in Europe, have banned older fossil fuel cars and all fossil fuel vehicles will be banned in Amsterdam from 2030. Many Chinese cities limit licensing of fossil fuel cars.\n", "Autogas, or auto propane as it is more commonly referred to in Canada, is the most popular alternative fuel in the country. It is primarily used by high consumption public and private fleets (taxis, couriers, school buses and transit vehicles).\n", "There are several challenges which must be met in order to economically produce the desired alkanes such as gasoline. This will only be briefly covered in this article at this time, as it has only just begun.\n\nSection::::Challenges.:Suitable strain.\n", "BULLET::::1. Harvesting the sugar from sorghum and processing it into farnesene, which is an additive in diesel fuels.\n\nBULLET::::2. Designing carbon fixation pathways to produce pyruvic acid.\n\nBULLET::::3. Manipulating the oil producing plant Camelina so that it is drought and cold resistant, making it possible to grow in harsh environments.\n\nBULLET::::4. Making photosynthesis more effective by changing chemical pathways.\n\nBULLET::::5. Turning sugarcane and sorghum into an oil-producing crop.\n\nBULLET::::6. Engineering Camelina so that the topmost leaves reflect light onto the lower part of the plant, thereby increasing the overall efficiency of the plant.\n", "BULLET::::- In 1921, leaded gasoline is developed at the General Motors research laboratories in Dayton, Ohio. GM researcher Thomas Midgley, Jr. still maintains: \"The most direct route which we now know for converting energy from its source, the sun, into a material that is suitable for use in an internal combustion motor is through vegetation to alcohol… It now appears that alcohol is the only liquid from a direct vegetable source that combines relative cheapness with suitability (although other sources might be found)… Alcohol will stand very high initial compressions without knocking, and at high compressions is smooth and highly satisfactory.\".\n", "Other challenges include: relatively price and environmentally insensitive but convenience seeking private individuals; good profits and taxes extractable from small batch sales of value-added, branded petrol and diesel fuels via established trade channels and oil refiners; resistance and safety concerns to increasing gas inventories in urban areas; dual-use of utility distribution networks originally built for home gas supply and allocation of network expansion costs; reluctance, effort and costs associated with switching; prestige and nostalgia associated with petroleum vehicles; fear of redundancy and disruption. A particular challenge may be the fact that refiners are currently set up to produce a certain fuels mix from crude oil. Aviation fuel is likely to remain the fuel of choice for aircraft due to their weight sensitivity for the foreseeable future.\n", "Section::::Environmental effects.:Whales.\n\nJames S. Robbins has argued that the advent of petroleum-refined kerosene saved some species of great whales from extinction by providing an inexpensive substitute for whale oil, thus eliminating the economic imperative for open-boat whaling.\n\nSection::::Alternatives.\n\nIn the United States in 2007 about 70 percent of petroleum was used for transportation (e.g. gasoline, diesel, jet fuel), 24 percent by industry (e.g. production of plastics), 5 percent for residential and commercial uses, and 2 percent for electricity production. Outside of the US, a higher proportion of petroleum tends to be used for electricity.\n\nSection::::Alternatives.:Vehicle fuels.\n", "Prior to the latter half of the 18th century, windmills and watermills provided the energy needed for industry such as milling flour, sawing wood or pumping water, and burning wood or peat provided domestic heat. The widescale use of fossil fuels, coal at first and petroleum later, to fire steam engines enabled the Industrial Revolution. At the same time, gas lights using natural gas or coal gas were coming into wide use. The invention of the internal combustion engine and its use in automobiles and trucks greatly increased the demand for gasoline and diesel oil, both made from fossil fuels. Other forms of transportation, railways and aircraft, also required fossil fuels. The other major use for fossil fuels is in generating electricity and as feedstock for the petrochemical industry. Tar, a leftover of petroleum extraction, is used in construction of roads.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01165	Why do lines appear in the picture when you photograph a computer screen?	[Relevent XKCD.]( URL_0 ) Your computer's made of a bunch of little squares that all work together to show you a single image, called pixels. These pixels are arranged in a grid of rows and columns to display images on our screens. Now, your phone or camera also has a pixel grid, but unless you have a really specific device, chances are it's gonna have a different size pixel grid than your computer. Since these grids are different sizes, they don't play nice with each other, and that's why the computer grid is visible in photos, because the camera's grid won't sit neatly on top of the computer grid, "hiding" it from view.	[ "Photographs of a TV screen taken with a digital camera often exhibit moiré patterns. Since both the TV screen and the digital camera use a scanning technique to produce or to capture pictures with horizontal scan lines, the conflicting sets of lines cause the moiré patterns. To avoid the effect, the digital camera can be aimed at an angle of 30 degrees to the TV screen.\n\nSection::::Implications and applications.:Marine navigation.\n", "In addition, jaggies often occur when a bit mapped image is converted to a different resolution. They can occur for variety of reasons, the most common being that the output device (display monitor or printer) does not have enough resolution to portray a smooth line.\n", "Most screens are ready for re-coating at this stage, but sometimes screens will have to undergo a further step in the reclaiming process called dehazing. This additional step removes haze or \"ghost images\" left behind in the screen once the emulsion has been removed. Ghost images tend to faintly outline the open areas of previous stencils, hence the name. They are the result of ink residue trapped in the mesh, often in the knuckles of the mesh (the points where threads cross).\n", "Chewing something crunchy such as tortilla chips or granola can induce flicker perception due to the vibrations from chewing synchronizing with the flicker rate of the display.\n\nSection::::Software artifacts.\n\nSoftware can cause flicker effects by directly displaying an unintended intermediate image for a short time. For example, drawing a page of text by blanking the area to white first in the frame buffer, then drawing 'on top' of it, makes it possible for the blank region to appear momentarily onscreen. Usually this is much faster and easier to program than to directly set each pixel to its final value.\n", "Moiré patterns appear in many different situations. In printing, the printed pattern of dots can interfere with the image. In television and digital photography, a pattern on an object being photographed can interfere with the shape of the light sensors to generate unwanted artifacts. They are also sometimes created deliberately – in micrometers they are used to amplify the effects of very small movements.\n\nIn physics, its manifestation is the beat phenomenon that occurs in many wave interference conditions.\n\nSection::::Etymology.\n", "On Windows systems, screenshots of games and media players sometimes fail, resulting in a blank rectangle. The reason for this is that the graphics are bypassing the normal screen and going to a high-speed graphics processor on the graphics card by using a method called hardware overlay. Generally, there is no way to extract a computed image back out of the graphics card, though software may exist for special cases or specific video cards.\n", "Section::::Pattern formation.:Line moiré.\n\nLine moiré is one type of moiré pattern; a pattern that appears when superposing two transparent layers containing correlated opaque patterns. Line moiré is the case when the superposed patterns comprise straight or curved lines. When moving the layer patterns, the moiré patterns transform or move at a faster speed. This effect is called optical moiré speedup.\n\nMore complex line moiré patterns are created if the lines are curved or not exactly parallel.\n\nSection::::Pattern formation.:Shape moiré.\n", "Some LCDs compensate the inter-pixel color mix effect by having borders between pixels slightly larger than borders between subpixels. Then, in the example above, a viewer of such an LCD would see a blue line appearing adjacent to a red line instead of a single magenta line.\n\nSection::::PenTile.:Example with - alternated stripes layout.\n", "The standard NTSC video image contains some lines (lines 1–21 of each field) that are not visible (this is known as the Vertical Blanking Interval, or VBI); all are beyond the edge of the viewable image, but only lines 1–9 are used for the vertical-sync and equalizing pulses. The remaining lines were deliberately blanked in the original NTSC specification to provide time for the electron beam in CRT-based screens to return to the top of the display.\n", "BULLET::::- A joint line pair has a joint line between the stamps, deriving from the seam in the cylindrical plate used to print the stamps. These lines are somewhat smeared in appearance.\n\nSection::::In image processing.\n\nA line pair in image processing is this: on a test pattern consisting of closely spaced black parallel lines on a white background, a line pair is one black line together with the white space on one side of it. When photographers say \"lines of resolution\", they mean line pairs. In television and video, one line pair equals two TV lines or pixels, of resolution.\n", "Section::::Implications and applications.:Television screens and photographs.\n\nMoiré patterns are commonly seen on television screens when a person is wearing a shirt or jacket of a particular weave or pattern, such as a houndstooth jacket. This is due to interlaced scanning in televisions and non-film cameras, referred to as interline twitter. As the person moves about, the moiré pattern is quite noticeable. Because of this, newscasters and other professionals who appear on TV regularly are instructed to avoid clothing which could cause the effect.\n", "Display motion blur\n\nDisplay motion blur, also called \"HDTV blur\" and \"LCD motion blur\", refers to several visual artifacts (anomalies or unintended effects affecting still or moving images) that are frequently found on modern consumer high-definition television sets and flat panel displays for computers.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "To create the illusion of movement, an image is displayed on the computer screen then quickly replaced by a new image that is similar to the previous image, but shifted slightly. This technique is identical to the illusion of movement in television and motion pictures.\n\nSection::::Concepts and principles.\n\nImages are typically created by devices such as cameras, mirrors, lenses, telescopes, microscopes, etc.\n\nDigital images include both vector images and raster images, but raster images are more commonly used.\n\nSection::::Concepts and principles.:Pixel.\n", "In graphic arts and prepress, the usual technology for printing full-color images involves the superimposition of halftone screens. These are regular rectangular dot patterns—often four of them, printed in cyan, yellow, magenta, and black. Some kind of moiré pattern is inevitable, but in favorable circumstances the pattern is \"tight\"; that is, the spatial frequency of the moiré is so high that it is not noticeable. In the graphic arts, the term \"moiré\" means an \"excessively visible\" moiré pattern. Part of the prepress art consists of selecting screen angles and halftone frequencies which minimize moiré. The visibility of moiré is not entirely predictable. The same set of screens may produce good results with some images, but visible moiré with others.\n", "Some image scanner driver programs provide an optional filter, called a \"descreen\" filter, to remove Moiré-pattern artifacts which would otherwise be produced when scanning printed halftone images to produce digital images.\n\nSection::::Implications and applications.:Banknotes.\n\nMany banknotes exploit the tendency of digital scanners to produce moiré patterns by including fine circular or wavy designs that are likely to exhibit a moiré pattern when scanned and printed.\n\nSection::::Implications and applications.:Microscopy.\n\nIn super-resolution microscopy, the moiré pattern can be used to obtain images with a resolution higher than the diffraction limit, using a technique known as structured illumination microscopy.\n", "Conversely, extra motion blur can unavoidably occur on displays when it is not desired. This occurs with some video displays (especially LCD) that exhibits motion blur during fast motion. This can lead to more perceived motion blurring above and beyond the preexisting motion blur in the video material. See display motion blur.\n\nSometimes, motion blur can be removed from images with the help of deconvolution.\n", "Another limit is that a shadow of an image may be visible after refreshing parts of the screen. Such shadows are termed \"ghost images\", and the effect is termed \"ghosting\". This effect is reminiscent of screen burn-in but, unlike screen burn-in, is solved after the screen is refreshed several times. Turning every pixel white, then black, then white, helps normalize the contrast of the pixels. This is why several devices with this technology \"flash\" the entire screen white and black when loading a new image.\n", "BULLET::::- LCD screens typically use a staggered grid, where the red, green, and blue components are sampled at slightly different locations. Subpixel rendering is a technology which takes advantage of these differences to improve the rendering of text on LCD screens.\n\nBULLET::::- The vast majority of color digital cameras use a Bayer filter, resulting in a regular grid of pixels where the \"color\" of each pixel depends on its position on the grid.\n\nBULLET::::- A clipmap uses a hierarchical sampling pattern, where the size of the support of each pixel depends on its location within the hierarchy.\n", "Section::::Variations.:Tape automated bonding (TAB) faults.:Cold start.\n", "Zebra patterning\n\nZebra patterning (or zebra stripes) is a feature found on some prosumer and most professional video cameras to aid in correct exposure. When enabled, areas of the image over a certain threshold are filled with a striped or cross-hatch pattern to dramatically highlight areas where too much light is falling on the image sensor.\n", "The cause of this tendency is unclear. It might be due to accumulation of ionic impurities inside the LCD, electric charge building up near the electrodes, parasitic capacitance, or \"a DC voltage component that occurs unavoidably in some display pixels owing to anisotropy in the dielectric constant of the liquid crystal\".\n\nSection::::Prevention/Treatment.\n\nAccording to an instruction manual of an LCD monitor by NEC Display Solutions, \n", "Flatscreen Plasma displays have a similar effect. The plasma pixels fade in brightness between refreshes.\n", "BULLET::::- For 525-line 60 Hz video (usually, and correctly, called \"NTSC\"), the active line duration is 52.856 µs, giving ≈713.5 pixels per line.\n\nIn order to accommodate both formats within the same line length, and to avoid cutting off parts of the active picture if the timing of the analogue video was at or beyond the tolerances set in the relevant standards, a total digital line length of 720 pixels was chosen. Hence the picture will have thin black bars down each side.\n", "Section::::Types.:Salt-and-pepper noise.\n\nFat-tail distributed or \"impulsive\" noise is sometimes called salt-and-pepper noise or spike noise. An image containing salt-and-pepper noise will have dark pixels in bright regions and bright pixels in dark regions. This type of noise can be caused by analog-to-digital converter errors, bit errors in transmission, etc. It can be mostly eliminated by using dark frame subtraction, median filtering, combined median and mean filtering and interpolating around dark/bright pixels.\n\nDead pixels in an LCD monitor produce a similar, but non-random, display.\n\nSection::::Types.:Shot noise.\n", "Section::::Dynamic contrast.\n\nThis is a technique for expanding the contrast of LCD-screens.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]

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