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2018-03379	Why do Internet sites/Internet based apps become extremely successful, then damage their success with unwanted changes?	A lot of times after startups attain a certain level of success, they get pressured to start being profitable. This leads to the company changing things it shouldn't change. The culture evolves. Talent leaves. The product suffers. It's a circle.	[ "Clients may not know exactly what their requirements are before they see working software and so change their requirements, leading to redesign, redevelopment, and retesting, and increased costs.\n\nDesigners may not be aware of future difficulties when designing a new software product or feature, in which case it is better to revise the design than persist in a design that does not account for any newly discovered constraints, requirements, or problems.\n", "Amazon Alexa, Airbnb are some other examples of disruption.\n", "BULLET::::- Jean-Marie Dru, Disruption : Overturning Conventions and Shaking Up the Marketplace, John Wiley & Sons, 1996\n\nBULLET::::- Joseph L. Bower et Clayton M. Christensen, « Disruptive Technologies: Catching the Wave », Harvard Business Review, 1997\n\nBULLET::::- Clayton M. Christensen, The Innovator's Dilemma : When New Technologies Cause Great Firms to Fail, Harvard Business School Press, 1997\n\nBULLET::::- Jean-Marie Dru, Beyond Disruption: Changing the Rules in the Marketplace, John Wiley & Sons, 2002\n\nBULLET::::- Jean-Marie Dru, The Ways to New: 15 Paths to Disruptive Innovation, John Wiley & Sons, 2017\n", "The book is split into four parts: \"The Good Old Days\", \"Things Fall Apart\", \"Digital Takes Over\", and \"The Future of Advertising\". The first part takes on a nostalgic tone and describes how chief executive officers and creative directors created their first websites in the 1990s. The second part focuses on work processes, advances and changes in the advertising industry, and how to \"reboot\" the agency process. The third gives advice on how to be successful in a digital world. The fourth part says that the current model is detrimental to the industry and recommends alternatives.\n", "Eric von Hippel and others observed that many products and services are actually developed or at least refined, by users, at the site of implementation and use. These ideas are then moved back into the supply network. This is because products are developed to meet the widest possible need; when individual users face problems that the majority of consumers do not, they have no choice but to develop their own modifications to existing products, or entirely new products, to solve their issues. Often, user innovators will share their ideas with manufacturers in hopes of having them produce the product, a process called free revealing.\n", "\"On the other hand, an online-only service can remain a best-in-class operation because its executives focus on just the online business.\" It has been argued that a bricks and clicks business model is more difficult to implement than an online only model. In the future, the bricks and clicks model may be more successful, but in 2010 some online only businesses grew at a staggering 30%, while some bricks and clicks businesses grew at a paltry 3%. The key factor for a bricks and clicks business model to be successful \"will, to a large extent, be determined by a company’s ability to manage the trade-offs between separation and integration\" of their retail and online businesses.\n", "A key business concern must then be how to attract users prior to reaching critical mass. One way is to rely on extrinsic motivation, such as a payment, a fee waiver, or a request for friends to sign up. A more natural strategy is to build a system that has enough value \"without\" network effects, at least to early adopters. Then, as the number of users increases, the system becomes even more valuable and is able to attract a wider user base.\n", "User advocacy also helps make the effects of design decisions easier to measure because the traits and characteristics of user personas often consist of crowdsourced suggestions from actual users. Suggestions for improvement are generalized and prioritized according to frequency, severity, or an alignment with corporate initiatives. As a result, design decisions become less about a designer and more about fulfilling the needs of users, as the suggestions for improvement are typically provided directly by the users themselves.\n", "As new media power takes on new dimension in the digital realm, some scholars begin to focus on defending the democratic potentialities of the Internet on the perspective of corporate impermeability. Today, corporate encroachment in cyberspace is changing the balance of power in the new media ecology, which \"portends a new set of social relationships based on commercial exploitation\". Many social network websites inject customized advertisements into the steady stream of personal communication. It is called commercial incursion which converts user-generated content into fodder for marketers and advertisers. So the control rests with the owners rather than the participants. It is necessary for online participants to be prepared to act consciously to resist the enclosure of digital commons.\n", "Recent advances in the software product line field have demonstrated that narrow and strategic application of these concepts can yield order of magnitude improvements in software engineering capability. The result is often a discontinuous jump in competitive business advantage, similar to that seen when manufacturers adopt mass production and mass customization paradigms.\n\nSection::::Development.\n", "Social media has also empowered and emboldened users to become contributors and critics of technological developments.\n\nThe open-source model allows users to participate directly in development of software, rather than indirect participation, through contributing opinions. By being shaped by the user, development is directly responsive to user demand and can be obtained for free or at a low cost. In a comparable trend, arduino and littleBits have made electronics more accessible to users of all backgrounds and ages. The development of 3D printers has the potential to increasingly democratize production.\n\nSection::::Cultural impact.\n", "In the follow-up book \"Rise and Resurrection of the American Programmer\", published in 1996, Yourdon reversed some of his original predictions based upon changes in the state of the software industry.\n\nSection::::Chapter outline.\n\nBULLET::::- 1. Introduction\n\nBULLET::::- 2. The Lure of the Silver Bullet\n\nBULLET::::- 3. Peopleware\n\nBULLET::::- 4. Software Processes\n\nBULLET::::- 5. Software Methodologies\n\nBULLET::::- 6. CASE\n\nBULLET::::- 7. Software Metrics\n\nBULLET::::- 8. Software Quality Assurance\n\nBULLET::::- 9. Software Reusability\n\nBULLET::::- 10. Software Re-Engineering\n\nBULLET::::- 11. Future Trends\n\nBULLET::::- A. Software Technology in India\n\nBULLET::::- B. The Programmer's Bookshelf\n\nSection::::Release details.\n\nBULLET::::- Prentice Hall, , 1992; hardback\n", "These first-party leads and the pursuit of them have very much changed the marketplace surrounding website owners and their internet marketing efforts. Providers of technologies offering services to better harness the value of this type of contact have popped up from a variety of differing perspectives. These technologies, systems, and or simple changes in practice and policy include teaching website owners the value of conversion tactics to improve conversion rates, improve their own website return on investment, and increase revenue from e-commerce, both from automated or self driven sales to providing a mechanism that inspires a face to face interaction between an in-the-market consumer and a sales person or expert in that field.\n", "Section::::User retention.\n\nPreventing customers from abandoning software after the initial exposure is a goal of good FTUE design. The following are examples of efforts in user retention.\n", "Technology implementation is often an important way to drive relative advantage over competitors, even among small businesses.\n\nSection::::Business strategy.:Social media.\n\nSocial networks such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and LinkedIn are effective tools. Adopting an effective social media strategy can rapidly improve a company’s branding and visibility by facilitating the interaction with its customers. Social media sends direct messages and can attract many people to the company's website as long as its design and content are compatible with the quality of the strategy; otherwise, it will be difficult to retain the new public.\n\nSection::::Business strategy.:New technologies.\n", "As social media has become a vehicle for self-branding, these moguls have begun to situate the maintenance of their online brand as a job, which brings about new ways to think about work and labor The logic of online sites and the presence of feedback means that one's online presence is viewed by others using the same rubric to judge brands: evaluation, ranking, and judgment. Thus, social media network sites serve as complex, technologically mediated venues for the branding of the self.\n\nSection::::Criticisms.\n", "Section::::Other uses.:Family businesses.\n\nAntheaume and Barbelivien described the creeping normality that destroys businesses, causing them to not see the subtle, negative shifts in the community around them. The authors state that owners of family businesses are more likely to notice the small changes than a large corporation, however \"detecting a problem is no guarantee of the ability to solve it\".\n\nSection::::Other uses.:Cybercrime.\n\nIn his thesis, Chon states that the increase in cybercrime fits the pattern for creeping normality. The number of websites involved in \"hacking and cybercrime activities\" has increased at a slow and steady pace, mostly below society's awareness.\n", "Additionally, aside from typical ad display and various advertising generated revenue, some webmasters or site owners utilize Lead Generation to monetize Internet traffic to a website by creating leads or inquiries from submission forms or phone calls from interested consumers and then delivering those leads to a business seeking that type of inquiry. \n\nSection::::Pay per click advertising.\n", "In a \"ComputerWorld\" interview Espuelas said, \"What we have to do is remain absolutely focused on giving our users the best possible experience, and giving our partners and advertisers a mutually profitable relationship. We're really looking forward, not backwards. All of this competition has stimulated the market in a very dramatic fashion, in terms of marketing, in terms of growing the market, in terms of the attention of advertisers, partners and Wall Street. So we see it very positively. We just need to make sure we're never satisfied with ourselves, and we're not. We can always be better and faster and more efficient.\"\n", "The lead user method integrates the trend leading user into product developments, but its limitations become obvious in the context of increasingly complex products. Lead users need to understand the complex context of the development to realise why something is possible or not. Furthermore, the great organisational effort and the processing of such huge amounts of information delay the product launch. It can also result in concentrating on niche solutions that are not suitable for the masses or a compulsive need to differentiate from competitors by using all kind of parameters, such as function, design or business models.\n", "As information supply increases, the average time spent evaluating individual content has to decrease. Eventually, much communication is summarily ignored - based on very arbitrary and rapid heuristics that will filter out the information for example by category. Bad information crowds out the good - much the way SPAM often crowds out potentially useful unsolicited communications.\n\nSection::::Criticism.:Cyberbullying.\n", "At some point, the cost of maintaining a particular subset of features might become prohibitive, and pruning can be used. A new product version could simply omit the extra features, or perhaps a transition period would be used, where old features were deprecated before eventual removal from the system. If there are multiple variations of products, then some of them might be phased out of use.\n\nSection::::Consequences.\n\nSection::::Consequences.:Expansion of scope.\n", "Network effects were used as justification for some of the dot-com business models in the late 1990s. These firms operated under the belief that when a new market comes into being which contains strong network effects, firms should care more about growing their market share than about becoming profitable. This was believed because market share will determine which firm can set technical and marketing standards and thus determine the basis of future competition.\n\nSocial networking websites are good examples. The more people register onto a social networking website, the more useful the website is to its registrants.\n", "The term “disruptive innovation” is misleading when it is used to refer to a product or service at one fixed point, rather than to the evolution of that product or service over time.\n", "BULLET::::- Disrupting the outside world: For product innovation to occur, the business will have to change the way it runs, and this could lead to the breaking down of relationships between the business and its customers, suppliers and business partners. In addition, changing too much of a business's product could lead to the business gaining a less reputable image due to a loss of credibility and consistency.\n\nSection::::Theories of product innovation.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04734	Do stop lights at an intersection actually have sensors if so how do they work?	Many though not all do. Generally it is a metal or mass detector embedded in the pavement. Often these aren’t sensitive enough to be triggered by motorcycles or bikes. That can be very annoying. Usually you can tell when they have sensors by looking at the pavement. They will have cuts in the pavement the shape of a rectangle whose corners have been clipped off.	[ "In some cities in the US, other methods of pedestrian detection are being or have been tested, including infrared and microwave technology, as well as weight sensors built in at curbside. A 2000 study of these detectors in Los Angeles, Phoenix, and Rochester found that the infrared and microwave technologies both helped reduce conflicts between pedestrians and turning vehicles, as well as pedestrians starting during the \"don't walk\" phase. Subsequent studies found that the efficacy of these sensors varied based on pedestrian traffic at the location where they were installed.\n", "Cameras are another electronic safety device used for press brake safety. The camera can detect an intrusion between the upper and lower dies. If an intrusion is detected, a signal will stop the downward movement of the ram. A camera safety system uses a linear scale to calculate the upper beam's position, velocity, and the stopping distance.\n\nSection::::Proper installation.\n", "CITE comprises District 7 of the Institute of Transportation Engineers, which consists of transportation professionals in more than 70 countries who are responsible for the safe and efficient movement of people and goods on streets, highways and transit systems.\n\nSection::::Software Tools.\n", "Some electro-mechanical controllers are still in use (New York City still had 4,800 as of 1998, though the number is lower now due to the prevalence of the signal controller boxes). However, modern traffic controllers are solid state. The cabinet typically contains a power panel, to distribute electrical power in the cabinet; a detector interface panel, to connect to loop detectors and other detectors; detector amplifiers; the controller itself; a conflict monitor unit; flash transfer relays; a police panel, to allow the police to disable the signal; and other components.\n", "In North European countries, the tram signals feature white lights of different forms: \"S\" for \"stop\", \"—\" for \"caution\" and arrows to permit passage in a given direction.\n", "In October 2013, in Melbourne (Australia), Melbourne Airport introduced seven Automatic Number Plate Recognition (ANPR) cameras in their bus forecourt to monitor bus lanes and provide charging points based on vehicle type and the dwell time of each vehicle. Entry and Exit cameras determine the length of stay and provide alerts for unregistered or vehicles of concern via onscreen, email or SMS based alerts. This system was the first of several Sensor Dynamics based ANPR solutions.\n\nSection::::Types.:Red light enforcement.\n", "Such systems are expected to be mandatory on new cars sold in the EU from May 2022.\n\nSection::::Working.\n\nSection::::Working.:How does a traffic-sign recognition system work?\n", "If the vehicle is fitted with low frequency (LF) transmitters near each wheel, the vehicle may use these to force the sensors to transmit. In this case, the TPM may not transmit on its own, but the vehicle will periodically command the sensors to send their information.\n", "This year has seen a small trial of Audible Bus Stops role out on the First Leicester Route 16. With 3 signs as part of this trial, one in Charlse Street, One outside St Peters Health Centre and the final outside the vista centre on Gedding Road.\n\nThese use a Fob that is passive and when a user with a fob pass the sign then the sign tells the user what stop they are passing. If a key is then pressed on the fob, the sign announces the time of the next bus.\n", "Developed with an embedded pavement flashing-light system, the LightGuard system includes flashing lights and other visual cues to influence driver behavior near pedestrian crossings. Systems may be manually operated or activated automatically through electronic sensors.\n\nLightGuard’s Smart Crosswalk and other Embedded pavement flashing-light systems can be powered from the electrical grid or by on-site solar power sources.\n\nSection::::Safety.\n", "Street lights can be made intelligent by placing cameras or other sensors on them, which enables them to detect movement (e.g. Sensity's Light Sensory Network, GE's \"Currents\"). Additional technology enables the street lights to communicate with one another. Different companies have different variations to this technology. \n\nWhen a passer-by is detected by a camera or sensor, it will communicate this to neighboring street lights, which will brighten so that people are always surrounded by a safe circle of light.\n", "- Keys and Switches.\n\n- Video-Security.\n\nSection::::The Intelligent Street’s Habilitating Elements.:Voluntary Identification.\n\nThe machine codes in our mobile phones, or a simple ZigBee bracelet ZigBee can serve as both pagers and master keys with which to obtain services from the Intelligent Street.\n\nNevertheless, in the future it might be possible to use identification techniques based on biometric characteristics, or on individual behaviour patterns, so that the service obtained will be personalised.\n\nSection::::The Intelligent Street’s Habilitating Elements.:Personalisation of services.\n", "Other methods of severe-braking indication have also been implemented; some Volvo models make the stop lamps brighter, and some BMWs have \"Adaptive Brake Lights\" that effectively increase the size of the stop lights under severe braking by illuminating the tail lamps at brighter-than-normal intensity. As long as the brighter-than-normal stop lamps are within the regulated maximum intensity for stop lamps in general, this kind of implementation does not require specific regulatory approval since the stop lamps are under all conditions operating in accord with the general regulations on stop lamps.\n", "With an open bus system the users can send invoices based on goods delivered with exact location, time and date data where if connected to scale, RFID or barcode readers, can make a fairly good automated system to avoid human errors.\n\nIn countries with high prices on gasoline external fuel sensors are used to prevent cases of fuel theft.\n\nSection::::Types of systems.:Logbook functions.\n", "The main stumbling block to the widespread introduction of such systems is the fact that most vehicles on the road are unable to communicate with the computer systems that town and city authorities use to control traffic lights. However, the trial in Harris County, Texas, referred to above, uses a simple system based on signals received from drivers' cell phones and it has found that even if only a few drivers have their phone switched on, the system is still able to produce reliable data on traffic density. \n", "Such programs are also used to provide customers with real-time information as to the waiting time until arrival of the next bus or tram/streetcar at a given stop, based on the nearest vehicles' actual progress at the time, rather than merely giving information as to the \"scheduled\" time of the next arrival. Transit systems providing this kind of information assign a unique number to each stop, and waiting passengers can obtain information by entering the stop number into an automated telephone system or an application on the transit system's website.\n", "Section::::Street light control systems.\n\nA number of street light control systems have been developed to control and reduce energy consumption of a town's public lighting system. These range from controlling a circuit of street lights and/or individual lights with specific ballasts and network operating protocols. These may include sending and receiving instructions via separate data networks, at high frequency over the top of the low voltage supply or wireless.\n", "Section::::Real time traffic control.\n\nSeveral systems are capable of monitoring the traffic arrivals and adjusting timings based on the detected inputs. Traffic Detectors may range from Metal Detectors to Detectors that use Image Detection. Metal detectors are the most popular in use. Image detection devices exhibit numerous problems including degradation during bad weather and lighting.\n\nTraffic actuated signal systems use detectors to adjust timing for:\n\nBULLET::::1. Only the main street - semi-actuated system\n\nBULLET::::2. Both main and cross streets - fully actuated system.\n", "Some intelligent street light controllers also come with Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM), Radio frequency (RF) or General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) communication, user adjusted according to latitude and longitude(low cost type), for better street light management and maintenance. Many street light controllers also come with traffic sensors to manage the lux level of the lamp according to the traffic and to save energy by decreasing lux when there is no traffic. America, Canada, India and many other countries have started introducing street light controllers to their road lighting for energy conservation, street light management and maintenance purpose.\n", "A technology for smart traffic signals has been developed at Carnegie Mellon University and is being used in a pilot project in Pittsburgh in an effort to reduce vehicle emissions in the city. Unlike other dynamic control signals that adjust the timing and phasing of lights according to limits that are set in controller programming, this system combines existing technology with artificial intelligence.\n", "More sophisticated controllers can control more units and/or incorporate timers that perform preprogrammed functions at specific times each day. Units are also available that use passive infrared motion detectors or photocells to turn lights on and off based on external conditions.\n", "Section::::Functions.\n\nUnder certain conditions, if the PCAM systems determine that the possibility of a frontal crash with a pedestrian or bicyclist is high, it prompts the driver to take evasive action and brake by using an audio and visual alert. If the driver notices the hazard and brakes, the system may use some sort of brake assist to provide additional braking force.\n", "Section::::Traffic counter devices.:Bicycle and pedestrian traffic counting devices.\n\nTechnologies for counting bicycles on roads, or bicycles and pedestrians along sidewalks or shared-use paths have progressed with the increased emphasis on the economic, environmental and social benefits of multi-modal traffic networks. Non-motorized modes of traffic are often surveyed using the same types of sensors used for motorized vehicles; in some cases tuned to be more sensitive to actuation (e.g. Pneumatic tubes, Piezoelectric, inductive loop detectors, Passive and Active Infrared, Video, Magnetometers, et al.).\n", "Some transit buses, such as those in New York, have had, since at least the 1950s, turn signals activated by floor-mounted momentary-contact footswitches on the floor near the driver's left foot (on left-hand drive buses). The foot-activated signals allow bus drivers to keep both hands on the steering wheel while watching the road and scanning for passengers as they approach a bus stop. New York City Transit bus drivers, among others, are trained to step continuously on the right directional switch while servicing a bus stop, to signal other road users they are intentionally dwelling at the stop, allowing following buses to skip that stop. This method of signalling requires no special arrangements for self-cancellation or passing.\n", "Some regions have signals that are interruptible, giving priority to special traffic usually emergency vehicles such as fire apparatus, ambulances, and police squad cars. Most of the systems operate with small transmitters that send radio waves, infrared signals, or strobe light signals that are received by a sensor on or near the traffic lights. Some systems use audio detection, where a certain type of siren must be used and detected by a receiver on the traffic light structure.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-14263	How are TV shows/movies that were originally released in 4:3 aspect ratio remastered to 16:9 ratios?	In most cases, yes, they were originally shot on wide-screen format and then cropped to fit 4:3. In many cases there are actually parts of the shot that weren't supposed to be visible but ended up in the frame when it was recut for wide-screen.	[ "While the CGI shots were mastered in a 16:9 aspect ratio for future applications, they were initially broadcast in the U.S. and Canada – along with the live-action footage – in a 4:3 aspect ratio to respect the show's original composition. If the producers were to choose to reformat the entire show for the 16:9 ratio, live-action footage would be cropped, significantly reducing the height of the original image.\n", "A more unusual use of the technique is present in the 17 original Dragon Ball Z movies, released from 1986 to 1996. The films were displayed in 16:9 during their theatrical release, but this was in fact cut down from 4:3 animation- a choice made so that the VHS releases would be uncropped.\n\nSection::::Techniques.:Adjusting cinematography to account for aspect ratios.\n", "A common compromise is to shoot or create material at an aspect ratio of 14:9, and to lose some image at each side for 4:3 presentation, and some image at top and bottom for 16:9 presentation. In recent years, the cinematographic process known as Super 35 (championed by James Cameron) has been used to film a number of major movies such as \"Titanic\", \"Legally Blonde\", \"Austin Powers\", and \"Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon\". This process results in a camera-negative which can then be used to create both wide-screen theatrical prints, and standard \"full screen\" releases for television/VHS/DVD which avoid the need for either \"letterboxing\" or the severe loss of information caused by conventional \"pan-and-scan\" cropping.\n", "From studio to studio, the common attempt to reduce the image back to a 1.33:1 ratio by decreasing the projector aperture in-house met with conflicting results. Each movie theater chain, furthermore, had its own designated house ratio. The first standards set for the new sound-on-film motion pictures were accepted in November 1929, when all major US studios agreed to compose for the Society of Motion Picture Engineers' (SMPE) designated size of returning to the aspect ratio of 1.3:1.\n", "Super 16 mm film was frequently used for television production due to its lower cost, lack of need for soundtrack space on the film itself (as it is not projected but rather transferred to video), and aspect ratio similar to 16:9 (the native ratio of Super 16 mm is 15:9). It also can be blown up to 35 mm for theatrical release and therefore is sometimes used for feature films.\n\nSection::::Current video standards.\n\nSection::::Current video standards.:1:1 (Square).\n", "Section::::Production.:Filming.\n\nDirector of photography John Kenway used Super 16mm film, which has a slightly smaller widescreen aspect ratio than , but the series was originally broadcast pan and scan.\n", "Some film directors and enthusiasts disapprove of pan and scan cropping, because it can remove up to 45% of the original image on 2.35:1 films or up to 53% on earlier 2.55:1 presentations, changing the director or cinematographer's original vision and intentions. The most extreme examples remove up to 75% of the original picture on such aspect ratios as 2.76:1 in epics such as \"Ben-Hur\" and \"It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World\". \"Lawrence of Arabia\" is an exception to the 75% rule, because its aspect ratio is 2.20:1.\n", "There were various extended TV versions each broadcast in various countries. Most of these are in pan and scan, as they were made in the 1980s, when films were not letterboxed to preserve the theatrical aspect ratio on old TVs.\n", "DVD producers can also choose to show even wider ratios such as 1.85:1 and 2.39:1 within the 16:9 DVD frame by hard matting or adding black bars within the image itself. Some films which were made in a 1.85:1 aspect ratio, such as the U.S.-Italian co-production \"Man of La Mancha\" and Kenneth Branagh's \"Much Ado About Nothing\", fit quite comfortably onto a 1.7:1 HDTV screen and have been issued as an enhanced version on DVD without the black bars. Many digital video cameras have the capability to record in 16:9.\n", "4:3 (1.:1) (generally read as \"\"Four-Three\"\", \"\"Four-by-Three\"\", or \"\"Four-to-Three\"\") for standard television has been in use since the invention of moving picture cameras and many computer monitors used to employ the same aspect ratio. 4:3 was the aspect ratio used for 35 mm films in the silent era. It is also very close to the 1.375:1 Academy ratio, defined by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences as a standard after the advent of optical sound-on-film. By having TV match this aspect ratio, movies originally photographed on 35 mm film could be satisfactorily viewed on TV in the early days of the medium (i.e. the 1940s and the 1950s). \n", "Other films that were reframed to the Univisium aspect ratio on DVD include the 1998 DVD release of \"Top Gun\" (1986), the 1999 & 2004 DVDs of \"\" (1991), and the original DVD release of \"\" (1997).\n\nMany trailers of upcoming films from \"20th Century Fox\" that are shot in the 2.39:1 aspect ratio are cropped to this format when they play ahead of any movies that were shot in 1.85:1.\n\nAccording to IMDB technical specification statistics, there are over 700 titles with 2:1 aspect ratios, and the number has been growing in recent years.\n", "The Academy Award winning \"Leaving Las Vegas\" (1995) was shot on 16 mm.\n\nThe first two seasons of \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\" were shot on 16 mm and was switched to 35 mm for its later seasons.\n\nThe first season of the popular series \"Sex and the City\" was shot on 16 mm. Later seasons were shot on 35 mm. All three seasons of \"Veronica Mars\" were shot on 16 mm and aired in HD. \"This Is Spinal Tap\", and Christopher Guest's subsequent mockumentary films, are shot in Super 16 mm.\n", "While the series was in pre-production, studios were looking at ways for their existing shows to make the transition from the then-standard to the widescreen formats that would accompany the next generation of televisions. After visiting Warner Bros., who were stretching the horizontal interval for an episode of \"\", producer John Copeland convinced them to allow \"Babylon 5\" to be shot on Super 35mm film stock. \"The idea being that we would telecine to 4:3 for the original broadcast of the series. But what it also gave us was a negative that had been shot for the new 16×9 widescreen-format televisions that we knew were on the horizon.\"\n", "Section::::Techniques.:Shoot and protect.\n\nAs television screenings of feature films became more common and more financially important, cinematographers began to work for compositions that would keep the vital information within the \"TV safe area\" of the frame. For example, the BBC suggested programme makers who were recording in 16:9 frame their shots in a aspect ratio which was then broadcast on analogue services with small black bars at the top and bottom of the picture, while owners of widescreen TV sets receiving digital broadcasts would see the full 16:9 picture (this is known as Shoot and protect).\n\nSection::::Techniques.:Reframing.\n", "As a response, Paramount Pictures devised their own system the following month to augment their 3-D process known as Paravision. This process utilized a screen size that yielded an aspect ratio of 5 units wide by 3 units high, or 1.66:1. By using a different sized aperture plate and wider lens, a normal Academy ratio film could be soft matted to this or any other aspect ratio. Shortly thereafter, it was announced that all of their productions would be shot in this ratio.\n", "The rise new film exhibition technologies in 1950s like Cinerama, and anamorphic lenses, shooting wide aspect ratios for theatrical films. This coincided with the rise of television and home media with a much different, narrow aspect ratio of 4:3. To avoid letterboxing for broadcast releases, films were therefore reframed and cropped shot by shot to fit appropriately, and full screen with the 4:3 aspect, with a process called Pan and Scan. Hence, only a cropped small portion of the theatrical frame was broadcast.\n\nSection::::Difference between Open Matte and Pan and Scan.\n", "Section::::Current video standards.:1.85:1.\n\nWhen cinema attendance dropped, Hollywood created widescreen aspect ratios in order to differentiate the film industry from TV, with one of the most common being the 1.85:1 ratio.\n\nSection::::Current video standards.:2:1.\n\nThe 2:1 aspect ratio was first used in the 1950s for the RKO Superscope format.\n", "Other studios followed suit with aspect ratios of 1.75:1 up to 2:1. For a time, these various ratios were used by different studios in different productions, but by 1956, the aspect ratio of 1.85:1 became the \"standard\" US format. These \"flat\" films are photographed with the full Academy frame, but are matted (most often with a mask in the theater projector, not in the camera) to obtain the \"wide\" aspect ratio. The standard, in some European countries, became 1.66:1 instead of 1.85:1, although some productions with pre-determined American distributors composed for the latter to appeal to US markets.\n", "With television, DVD and Blu-ray Disc, converting formats of unequal ratios is achieved by enlarging the original image to fill the receiving format's display area and cutting off any excess picture information (zooming and cropping), by adding horizontal mattes (letterboxing) or vertical mattes (pillarboxing) to retain the original format's aspect ratio, by stretching (hence distorting) the image to fill the receiving format's ratio, or by scaling by different factors in both directions, possibly scaling by a different factor in the center and at the edges (as in \"Wide Zoom mode\").\n\nSection::::Practical limitations.\n", "In 1932, in refining this ratio, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences expanded upon this 1930 standard. The camera aperture became , and the projected image would use an aperture plate size of , yielding an aspect ratio of 1.375:1. This became known as the \"Academy\" ratio, named so after them. Since the 1950s the aspect ratio of some theatrically released motion picture films has been 1.85:1 (1.66:1 in Europe) or 2.35:1 (2.40:1 after 1970). The image area for \"TV transmission\" is slightly smaller than the full \"Academy\" ratio at , an aspect ratio of 1.33:1. Hence when the \"Academy\" ratio is referred to as having an aspect ratio of 1.33:1, it is done so mistakenly.\n", "Aware of Fox's upcoming CinemaScope productions, Paramount introduced this technique in March's release of \"Shane\" with the 1.66:1 aspect ratio, although the film was not shot with this ratio originally in mind. Universal-International followed suit in May with a 1.85:1 aspect ratio for \"Thunder Bay\". By summer of 1953, Paramount, Universal, MGM, Columbia, and even Fox's B-unit contractors, under the banner of \"Panoramic Productions\" had switched from filming flat shows in a 1.37:1 format, and used variable flat wide-screen aspect ratios in their filming, which would become the standard of that time.\n", "The scenes containing live action ready to be composited with matte paintings, CG animation, etc., were delivered on tape already telecined to the 4:3 aspect-ratio, and contained a high level of grain, which resulted in further image noise being present when enlarged and stretched for widescreen. For the purely live-action scenes, rather than using the film negatives, \"Warners had even forgotten that they had those. They used PAL versions and converted them to NTSC for the US market. They actually didn't go back and retransfer the shows.\"\n", "However, films shot at aspect ratios of 2.20:1, 2.35:1, 2.39:1, 2.55:1, and especially 2.76:1 (\"Ben-Hur\" for example) might still be problematic when displayed on televisions of any type. But when the DVD is \"anamorphically enhanced for widescreen\", or the film is telecast on a high-definition channel seen on a widescreen TV, the black spaces are smaller, and the effect is still much like watching a film on a theatrical wide screen. Though 16:9 (and occasionally 16:10, mostly for computers and tablets) remain standard as of 2018, wider-screen consumer TVs in 21:9 have been released to the market by multiple brands.\n", "In the 1990s (before Blu-ray Disc or HDTV), when so-called televisions offered a wider 16:9 aspect ratio (1.78 times the height instead of 1.33), they allowed films made at 1.66:1 and 1.85:1 to fill most or all of the screen, with only small letterboxing or cropping required. DVD packaging began to use the expression, \"16:9 – Enhanced for Widescreen TVs.\"\n", "A Chilean film, \"Post Mortem\", used anamorphic lenses with 16mm film, to be projected at an ultra-widescreen 2.66:1 for a unique look.\n\nSuper gauges – The full negative frame, including the area traditionally reserved for the sound track, is filmed using a wider gate. The print is then shrunk and/or cropped in order to fit it back onto release prints. The aspect ratio for Super 35, for example, can be set to virtually any projection standard.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03027	What are people actually dying from when they "die from the flu"?	They can die from a variety of things. It is a common misconception that the flu alone cannot kill you if you are young and healthy but this is not true. The 5 year old answer is that the flu can make you stop breathing and you can die. The more detailed response is that even in healthy people the bodies own response to the virus can lead to a condition called ARDS (adult respiratory distress syndrome). The lungs are damaged by the immune response to the virus and are flooded with immune cells and cells that make scar tissue. Many young healthy people die from this way from the flu and even sometimes other cold viruses such as coronavirus and RSV. It is also true that the flu also kills in other people by triggering heart attacks, asthma attacks, heart failure, and other problems in those already suffering from pre-existing conditions.	[ "As of February 2008, the \"median age of patients with influenza A (H5N1) virus infection is approximately 18 years [...] The overall case fatality proportion is 61% [...] Handling of sick or dead poultry during the week before the onset of illness is the most commonly recognized risk factor [...] The primary pathologic process that causes death is fulminant viral pneumonia.\"\n", "Since November 2009, 14 deaths as a result of swine flu in Northern Ireland have been reported. The majority of the victims were reported to have pre-existing health conditions which had lowered their immunity. This closely corresponds to the 19 patients who had died in the year prior due to swine flu, where 18 of the 19 were determined to have lowered immune systems. Because of this, many mothers who have just given birth are strongly encouraged to get a flu shot because their immune systems are vulnerable. Also, studies have shown that people between the ages of 15 and 44 have the highest rate of infection. Although most people now recover, having any conditions that lower one's immune system increases the risk of having the flu become potentially lethal. In Northern Ireland now, approximately 56% of all people under 65 who are entitled to the vaccine have gotten the shot, and the outbreak is said to be under control.\n", "Influenza, commonly known as the flu, is an infectious disease caused by an influenza virus. Symptoms can be mild to severe. The most common symptoms include: high fever, runny nose, sore throat, muscle pains, headache, coughing, sneezing, and feeling tired. These symptoms typically begin two days after exposure to the virus and most last less than a week. The cough, however, may last for more than two weeks. In children, there may be diarrhea and vomiting, but these are not common in adults. Diarrhea and vomiting occur more commonly in gastroenteritis, which is an unrelated disease and sometimes inaccurately referred to as \"stomach flu\" or the \"24-hour flu\". Complications of influenza may include viral pneumonia, secondary bacterial pneumonia, sinus infections, and worsening of previous health problems such as asthma or heart failure.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Severe cases.\n\nThe World Health Organization reports that the clinical picture in severe cases is strikingly different from the disease pattern seen during epidemics of seasonal influenza. While people with certain underlying medical conditions are known to be at increased risk, many severe cases occur in previously healthy people. In severe cases, patients generally begin to deteriorate around three to five days after symptom onset. Deterioration is rapid, with many patients progressing to respiratory failure within 24 hours, requiring immediate admission to an intensive care unit. Upon admission, most patients need immediate respiratory support with mechanical ventilation.\n", "It can be difficult to distinguish between the common cold and influenza in the early stages of these infections. Influenza symptoms are a mixture of symptoms of common cold and pneumonia, body ache, headache, and fatigue. Diarrhea is not usually a symptom of influenza in adults, although it has been seen in some human cases of the H5N1 \"bird flu\" and can be a symptom in children. The symptoms most reliably seen in influenza are shown in the adjacent table.\n", "Influenza's effects are much more severe and last longer than those of the common cold. Most people will recover completely in about one to two weeks, but others will develop life-threatening complications (such as pneumonia). Thus, influenza can be deadly, especially for the weak, young and old, those with compromised immune systems, or the chronically ill. People with a weak immune system, such as people with advanced HIV infection or transplant people (whose immune systems are medically suppressed to prevent transplant organ rejection), suffer from particularly severe disease. Pregnant women and young children are also at a high risk for complications.\n", "According to the World Health Organization: \"Every winter, tens of millions of people get the flu. Most are only ill and out of work for a week, yet the elderly are at a higher risk of death from the illness. We know the worldwide death toll exceeds a few hundred thousand people a year, but even in developed countries the numbers are uncertain, because medical authorities don't usually verify who actually died of influenza and who died of a flu-like illness.\" Even healthy people can be affected, and serious problems from influenza can happen at any age. People over 65 years old, pregnant women, very young children and people of any age with chronic medical conditions are more likely to get complications from influenza, such as pneumonia, bronchitis, sinus, and ear infections.\n", "The United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) maintains an up-to-date summary of available laboratory tests. According to the CDC, rapid diagnostic tests have a sensitivity of 50–75% and specificity of 90–95% when compared with viral culture.\n\nOccasionally, influenza can cause severe illness including primary viral pneumonia or secondary bacterial pneumonia. The obvious symptom is trouble breathing. In addition, if a child (or presumably an adult) seems to be getting better and then relapses with a high fever, that is a danger sign since this relapse can be bacterial pneumonia.\n", "BULLET::::- Kodi Smit-McPhee as Toby Connelly\n\nBULLET::::- John yates as doctor 1\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", ", most people infected by this flu suffer a mild illness, but the small minority hospitalized are often severely ill. Arand Kumar, an intensive care expert at the University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada, said \"this pandemic is like two diseases; either you're off work for a few days or you go to hospital, often to the intensive-care unit (ICU). There's no middle ground.\" In the southern hemisphere 15 to 33% of hospitalized cases went to the ICU in July and August 2009. Unlike H5N1 avian flu and SARS which provoke a runaway body-wide immune response, H1N1/09 destroys the lungs' alveoli, often causing acute respiratory distress syndrome, which kills in half of all cases. Preliminary research suggests that severity is linked to a genetic variation in immune systems.\n", "In one case, a boy with H5N1 experienced diarrhea followed rapidly by a coma without developing respiratory or flu-like symptoms. There have been studies of the levels of cytokines in humans infected by the H5N1 flu virus. Of particular concern is elevated levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha, a protein associated with tissue destruction at sites of infection and increased production of other cytokines. Flu virus-induced increases in the level of cytokines is also associated with flu symptoms, including fever, chills, vomiting and headache. Tissue damage associated with pathogenic flu virus infection can ultimately result in death. The inflammatory cascade triggered by H5N1 has been called a 'cytokine storm' by some, because of what seems to be a positive feedback process of damage to the body resulting from immune system stimulation. H5N1 induces higher levels of cytokines than the more common flu virus types.\n", "All hospitals were informed to remain vigilant, and to notify Singapore's Ministry of Health (MOH) immediately of any suspected cases of avian influenza in individuals who have recently returned from affected areas in China. MOH advised returning travellers from affected areas in China (Shanghai, Anhui, Jiangsu, and Zhejiang) to look out for signs and symptoms of respiratory illness, such as fever and cough, and seek early medical attention if they are ill with such symptoms. MOH also advised individuals to inform their doctors of their travel history, should they develop these symptoms after returning to Singapore.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "The flu can worsen chronic health problems. People with emphysema, chronic bronchitis or asthma may experience shortness of breath while they have the flu, and influenza may cause worsening of coronary heart disease or congestive heart failure. Smoking is another risk factor associated with more serious disease and increased mortality from influenza.\n", "A United Kingdom investigation of risk factors for hospitalisation and poor outcome with pandemic A/H1N1 influenza looked at 631 patients from 55 hospitals admitted with confirmed infection from May through September 2009. 13% were admitted to a high dependency or intensive care unit and 5% died; 36% were aged <16 years and 5% were aged ≥65 years. Non-white and pregnant patients were over-represented. 45% of patients had at least one underlying condition, mainly asthma, and 13% received antiviral drugs before admission. Of 349 with documented chest x-rays on admission, 29% had evidence of pneumonia, but bacterial co-infection was uncommon. Multivariate analyses showed that physician-recorded obesity on admission and pulmonary conditions other than asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) were associated with a severe outcome, as were radiologically confirmed pneumonia and a raised C-reactive protein (CRP) level (≥. 59% of all in-hospital deaths occurred in previously healthy people.\n", "Section::::Cost.\n\nThe cost of a flu season in lives lost, medical expenses and economic impact can be severe. \n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nIn general, humans who catch a humanized influenza A virus (a human flu virus of type A) usually have symptoms that include fever, cough, sore throat, muscle aches, conjunctivitis, and, in severe cases, breathing problems and pneumonia that may be fatal. The severity of the infection depends in large part on the state of the infected persons' immune systems and whether they had been exposed to the strain before (in which case they would be partially immune). No one knows if these or other symptoms will be the symptoms of a humanized H5N1 flu.\n", "Influenza-like illness\n\nInfluenza-like illness (ILI), also known as flu-like syndrome/symptoms, is a medical diagnosis of \"possible\" influenza or other illness causing a set of common symptoms.\n\nSymptoms commonly include fever, shivering, chills, malaise, dry cough, loss of appetite, body aches, and nausea, typically in connection with a sudden onset of illness. In most cases, the symptoms are caused by cytokines released by immune system activation, and are thus relatively non-specific.\n", "Human flu symptoms usually include fever, cough, sore throat, muscle aches, conjunctivitis and, in severe cases, severe breathing problems and pneumonia that may be fatal. The severity of the infection will depend in large part on the state of the infected person's immune system and if the victim has been exposed to the strain before, and is therefore partially immune. Recent follow up studies on the impact of statins on influenza virus replication show that pre-treatment of cells with atorvastatin suppresses virus growth in culture. \n", "Sometimes, influenza may have abnormal presentations, like confusion in the elderly and a sepsis-like syndrome in the young.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Emergency warning signs.\n\nBULLET::::- Shortness of breath\n\nBULLET::::- Chest pain\n\nBULLET::::- Dizziness\n\nBULLET::::- Confusion\n\nBULLET::::- Extreme vomiting\n\nBULLET::::- Flu symptoms that improve but then relapse with a high fever and severe cough (can be bacterial pneumonia)\n\nBULLET::::- Cyanosis\n\nBULLET::::- High fever and a rash.\n\nBULLET::::- Inability to drink fluids\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Emergency warning signs.:Signs of dehydration.\n\nBULLET::::- (in infants) Far fewer wet diapers than usual\n\nBULLET::::- Cannot keep down fluids\n\nBULLET::::- (in infants) No tears when crying.\n\nSection::::Virology.\n", "Influenza, commonly known as the flu, is an infectious disease of birds and mammals caused by an RNA virus of the family Orthomyxoviridae (the influenza viruses). In humans, common symptoms of influenza infection are fever, sore throat, muscle pains, severe headache, coughing, and weakness and fatigue. In more serious cases, influenza causes pneumonia, which can be fatal, particularly in young children and the elderly. While sometimes confused with the common cold, influenza is a much more severe disease and is caused by a different type of virus. Although nausea and vomiting can be produced, especially in children, these symptoms are more characteristic of the unrelated gastroenteritis, which is sometimes called \"stomach flu\" or \"24-hour flu.\"\n", "According to the World Health Organization, symptoms include fever, cough, and shortness of breath, which may progress to severe pneumonia. The virus can also overload the immune system, causing what is known as a cytokine storm. Blood poisoning and organ failure are also possible. In an article in the \"New England Journal of Medicine\", doctors reported that most of the patients with confirmed cases of H7N9 virus infection were critically ill and that approximately 20% had died of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) or multiorgan failure.\n", "If blood sugars are poorly controlled, a mild flu can quickly turn severe, leading to hospitalization and even death. Uncontrolled blood sugars suppresses the immune systems and generally lead to more severe cases of the common cold or influenza. Thus, it has been recommended that diabetics be vaccinated against flu, before the start of the flu season.\n\nSection::::Health conditions likely to cause complications.:Asthma/COPD.\n", "Medical conditions that compromise the immune system increase the risks from flu.\n\nSection::::Health conditions likely to cause complications.:Diabetes.\n\nMillions of people have diabetes. When blood sugars are not well controlled, diabetics can quickly develop a wide range of complications. Diabetes results in elevated blood sugars in the body, and this environment allows viruses and bacteria to thrive.\n", "A recent study estimated that in the United States, annual inﬂuenza epidemics result in approximately 600,000 life-years lost, 3 million hospitalized days, and 30 million outpatient visits, resulting in medical costs of $10 billion annually. According to this study, lost earnings due to illness and loss of life amounted to over $15 billion annually and the total economic burden of annual inﬂuenza epidemics amounts to over $80 billion. Also, in the US the flu season usually accounts for 200,000 hospitalizations and 41,000 deaths.\n", "The symptoms of H1N1 flu are similar to those of other influenzas, and may include fever, cough (typically a \"dry cough\"), headache, muscle or joint pain, sore throat, chills, fatigue, and runny nose. Diarrhea, vomiting, and neurological problems have also been reported in some cases. People at higher risk of serious complications include those aged over 65, children younger than 5, children with neurodevelopmental conditions, pregnant women (especially during the third trimester), and those of any age with underlying medical conditions, such as asthma, diabetes, obesity, heart disease, or a weakened immune system (e.g., taking immunosuppressive medications or infected with HIV). More than 70% of hospitalizations in the U.S. have been people with such underlying conditions, according to the CDC.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-19337	Why aren't books on formal logic (e.g. Principia Mathematica) taught to little kids?	There's no good reason not to. Studies show formal philosophy training (including logic, I'm sure) [improves everything]( URL_0 ) all the way down to base numeracy and literacy. Why isn't philosophy taught? Probably because it's the art of critical thinking, and as much as schools are ostensibly about education, critical thinking can be more harm than good to entrenched authorities and institutions... Hopefully this will change. There's currently a lot of lip service to such changes in schools trying to be '21st Century' friendly, but not a lot of systemic change. More practically it also requires teacher training, and philosophy hasn't been a part of most undergraduate teacher programs. So you've got staff who don't know how to do it and don't believe it's in their remit, and others coming through the pipeline learning how to teach (and even what to value) from those who are entrenched in the system.	[ "In the past few years there has been considerable effort expended to see if the Progymnasmata could be adapted for use in elementary, middle and high school education. One of the leaders in this effort is James Selby, the author of the Classical Composition series, who has reduced the composition curriculum used by Quintilian and Cicero, to a level that can be effectively used by fourth through twelfth grade students.\n", "This third aim motivated the adoption of the theory of types in \"PM\". The theory of types adopts grammatical restrictions on formulas that rules out the unrestricted comprehension of classes, properties, and functions. The effect of this is that formulas such as would allow the comprehension of objects like the Russell set turn out to be ill-formed: they violate the grammatical restrictions of the system of \"PM\".\n", "\"The proof you sent me I like very well. I designed the whole to consist of three books; the second was finished last summer being short, and only wants transcribing, and drawing the cuts fairly. Some new propositions I have since thought on, which I can as well let alone. The third wants the theory of comets. In autumn last I spent two months in calculations to no purpose for want of a good method, which made me afterwards return to the first book, and enlarge it with diverse propositions some relating to comets others to other things, found out last winter. The third I now design to suppress. Philosophy is such an impertinently litigious lady, that a man has as good be engaged in lawsuits, as have to do, with her. I found it so formerly, and now I am no sooner come near her again, but she gives me warning. The two first books, without the third, will not so well bear the title of \"Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica\"; and therefore I had altered it to this, \"De Motu Corporum libri duo\". \n", "In 1930, Gödel's completeness theorem showed that first-order predicate logic itself was complete in a much weaker sense—that is, any sentence that is unprovable from a given set of axioms must actually be false in some model of the axioms. However, this is not the stronger sense of completeness desired for Principia Mathematica, since a given system of axioms (such as those of Principia Mathematica) may have many models, in some of which a given statement is true and in others of which that statement is false, so that the statement is left undecided by the axioms.\n", "As noted in the criticism of the theory by Kurt Gödel (below), unlike a formalist theory, the \"logicistic\" theory of \"PM\" has no \"precise statement of the syntax of the formalism\". Another observation is that almost immediately in the theory, \"interpretations\" (in the sense of model theory) are presented in terms of \"truth-values\" for the behaviour of the symbols \"⊢\" (assertion of truth), \"~\" (logical not), and \"V\" (logical inclusive OR).\n", "Section::::Theoretical basis.:Contemporary construction of a formal theory.\n\nThe following formalist theory is offered as contrast to the logicistic theory of \"PM\". A contemporary formal system would be constructed as follows:\n", "Propositional logic itself was known to be consistent, but the same had not been established for \"Principia\"'s axioms of set theory. (See Hilbert's second problem.) Russell and Whitehead suspected that the system in PM is incomplete: for example, they pointed out that it does not seem powerful enough to show that the cardinal ℵ exists. However, one can ask if some recursively axiomatizable extension of it is complete and consistent.\n\nSection::::Consistency and criticisms.:Gödel 1930, 1931.\n", "The \"Principia\" covered only set theory, cardinal numbers, ordinal numbers, and real numbers. Deeper theorems from real analysis were not included, but by the end of the third volume it was clear to experts that a large amount of known mathematics could \"in principle\" be developed in the adopted formalism. It was also clear how lengthy such a development would be.\n\nA fourth volume on the foundations of geometry had been planned, but the authors admitted to intellectual exhaustion upon completion of the third.\n\nSection::::Theoretical basis.\n", "Sir, I must now again beg you, not to let your resentments run so high, as to deprive us of your third book, wherein the application of your mathematical doctrine to the theory of comets and several curious experiments, which, as I guess by what you write, ought to compose it, will undoubtedly render it acceptable to those, who will call themselves Philosophers without Mathematics, which are much the greater number. Now you approve of the character and paper, I will push on the edition vigorously. I have sometimes had thoughts of having the cuts neatly done in wood, so as to stand in the page with the demonstrations. It will be more convenient, and not much more charge. If it please you to have it so, I will try how well it can be done; otherwise I will have them in somewhat a larger size than those you have sent up. \n", "\"PM\", according to its introduction, had three aims: (1) to analyze to the greatest possible extent the ideas and methods of mathematical logic and to minimize the number of primitive notions and axioms, and inference rules; (2) to precisely express mathematical propositions in symbolic logic using the most convenient notation that precise expression allows; (3) to solve the paradoxes that plagued logic and set theory at the turn of the 20th-century, like Russell's paradox.\n", "Beyond the status of the axioms as logical truths, one can ask the following questions about any system such as PM:\n\nBULLET::::- whether a contradiction could be derived from the axioms (the question of inconsistency), and\n\nBULLET::::- whether there exists a mathematical statement which could neither be proven nor disproven in the system (the question of completeness).\n", "\"But I found that they were all of opinion that nothing thereof appearing in print, nor on the books of the Society, you ought to be considered as the inventor. And if in truth he knew it before you, he ought not to blame any but himself for having taken no more care to secure a discovery, which he puts so much value on. What application he has made in private, I know not; but I am sure that the Society have a very great satisfaction, in the honour you do them, by the dedication of so worthy a treatise. \n", "For all that, \"PM\" is not widely used today: probably the foremost reason for this is its reputation for typographical complexity. Somewhat infamously, several hundred pages of \n\n\"PM\" precede the proof of the validity of the proposition 1+1=2. Contemporary mathematicians tend to use a modernized form of the system of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory. Nonetheless, the scholarly, historical, and philosophical interest in \"PM\" is great and ongoing: for example, the Modern Library placed it 23rd in a list of the top 100 English-language nonfiction books of the twentieth century.\n\nSection::::Scope of foundations laid.\n", "In 1986, the Jesuit Society released \"The Characteristics of Jesuit Education\". This document set forth a concept for modern Jesuit education, which was reiterated in greater detail with the 1993 document \"Ignatian Pedagogy: A Practical Approach\". These two documents, detailing the values of education and how to approach them in a classroom setting, set the stage for contemporary Jesuit education.\n\nSection::::Education.\n\nSection::::Education.:Jesuit Rhetoric.\n", "Section::::Education.:Ignation Pedagogy.\n\nThe Eloquentia-based Ignation Pedagogy is aimed at educating the whole person. They integrate eloquence and critical thinking with moral discernment. Teaching methods and content that is being put out should be modeled on the institutional embeddedness of the first Jesuit ministries which were created post Vatican II with their emphasis on verbal dialogue and written conversation. Schools should strive to encompass what makes Jesuit education distinctive and incorporate rhetoric tradition in all historically rich aspects. True eloquence was thought to only exist when one was the perfect orator as the good person speaking well. \n", "These constructions in what Gödel 1944 would call \"nominalistic constructivism . . . which might better be called fictionalism\" derived from Russell's \"more radical idea, the no-class theory\" (p. 125):\n\nSee more in the Criticism sections, below.\n\nSection::::An example of a logicist construction of the natural numbers: Russell's construction in the \"Principia\".\n", "There is no doubt that \"PM\" is of great importance in the history of mathematics and philosophy: as Irvine has noted, it sparked interest in symbolic logic and advanced the subject by popularizing it; it showcased the powers and capacities of symbolic logic; and it showed how advances in philosophy of mathematics and symbolic logic could go hand-in-hand with tremendous fruitfulness. Indeed, \"PM\" was in part brought about by an interest in logicism, the view on which all mathematical truths are logical truths. It was in part thanks to the advances made in \"PM\" that, despite its defects, numerous advances in meta-logic were made, including Gödel's incompleteness theorems.\n", "One author observes that \"The notation in that work has been superseded by the subsequent development of logic during the 20th century, to the extent that the beginner has trouble reading PM at all\"; while much of the symbolic content can be converted to modern notation, the original notation itself is \"a subject of scholarly dispute\", and some notation \"embodies substantive logical doctrines so that it cannot simply be replaced by contemporary symbolism\".\n\nKurt Gödel was harshly critical of the notation:\n", "History: Gödel 1944 summarized the historical background from Leibniz's in \"Characteristica universalis\", through Frege and Peano to Russell: \"Frege was chiefly interested in the analysis of thought and used his calculus in the first place for deriving arithmetic from pure logic\", whereas Peano \"was more interested in its applications within mathematics\". But \"It was only [Russell's] \"Principia Mathematica\" that full use was made of the new method for actually deriving large parts of mathematics from a very few logical concepts and axioms. In addition, the young science was enriched by a new instrument, the abstract theory of relations\" (p. 120-121).\n", "The core curriculum at Fordham University now incorporates four Eloquentia Perfecta seminars, differing from other classes in their direct focus on written and oral skills of communication. Fordham is not the only Jesuit institution to begin experimenting ways to incorporate this concept into modern academics. Clarke notes that such institutions are doing so since \"every 10 years or so most institutions take a hard look at the structure and emphasis of their core curriculum to see whether adjustments or even major restructuring is in order.\" Thus, eloquentia perfecta has been researched and incorporated much more recently, not that has been absent in Jesuit education completely, but the key term and attention to it has. In a sense, Jesuit institutions are beginning to explicitly teach Eloquentia Perfecta rather than implicitly. However, this concept will only continue to progress and change with the digital age, as students and the population as a whole have so many means of communication. It is the responsibility of the Jesuit institutions to uphold the concept and teachings of Eloquentia Perfecta, one that may even affirm the Jesuit identity among these institutions. Although Jesuit rhetoric promotes the study of Eloquentia Perfecta, by 20th midcentury in the United States, Jesuit rhetorical studies differed little in comparison to rhetorical studies in non-Jesuit Schools. This is due to the similarity of the fundamental study of Aristotle, Cicero, and Quintilian. \n", "This section compares the system in PM with the usual mathematical foundations of ZFC. The system of PM is roughly comparable in strength with Zermelo set theory (or more precisely a version of it where the axiom of separation has all quantifiers bounded).\n\nBULLET::::- The system of propositional logic and predicate calculus in PM is essentially the same as that used now, except that the notation and terminology has changed.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Axiomatic Method: An Introduction to Mathematical Logic\" (Prentice Hall, 1964). This introductory textbook is divided into two parts, one providing an informal introduction to Boolean logic and the second using formal methods to prove the consistency and completeness of the predicate calculus. It is aimed at students who already have some familiarity with abstract algebra, and one of its themes is an algebraic view of mathematical proofs in logic.\n", "In order to sustain its deductive integrity, a \"deductive apparatus\" must be definable without reference to any intended interpretation of the language. The aim is to ensure that each line of a derivation is merely a syntactic consequence of the lines that precede it. There should be no element of any interpretation of the language that gets involved with the deductive nature of the system.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The translation Gödel favored was that by Jean van Heijenoort ... In the preface to the volume van Heijenoort noted that Gödel was one of four authors who had personally read and approved the translations of his works.\n", "While keeping these traditions in mind, the question of whether or not there is any grounds for conflict between the formal and informal approaches is far from being decided. Some theorists, like Paul Grice, have been skeptical of any claims that there is a substantial conflict between logic and natural language.\n\nSection::::Problems in the philosophy of language.:Problem of universals and composition.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00731	How can a person who's married to an American citizen be deported?	If the spouse is a legal resident, it's simple, register with the government and change their status. If the spouse is undocumented, any attempt to change the status will likely result in deportation proceedings. There is no simple way to change from undocumented to legal status without the spouse leaving the country and applying for entry as a fiancée, which can take a very long time and will be rejected if there is any record of them being in the US illegally.	[ "Justice Stephen Breyer wrote a dissent in which he argued that consular officials had denied Din due process by preventing her from living with her husband. He wrote that the Supreme Court \"has long recognized, the institution of marriage, which encompasses the right of spouses to live together and to raise a family, is central to human life, requires and enjoys community support, and plays a central role in most individuals’ 'orderly pursuit of happiness.'\" Additionally, Justice Breyer argued that the notice provided to Berashk was inadequate, and was the equivalent of \"telling a criminal defendant only that he is accused of 'breaking the law.'\"\n", "The punishment for fraud is a large monetary penalty and the possibility of never becoming a permanent resident of the United States. According to the statute, \"Any individual who knowingly enters into a marriage for the purpose of evading any provision of the immigration laws shall be imprisoned for not more than 5 years, or fined not more than $250,000, or both\" (I.N.A. § 275(c); 8 U.S.C. § 1325(c)). The U.S. citizen or resident spouse could also face criminal prosecution, including fines or imprisonment. They could be prosecuted for either criminal conspiracy (see \"U.S. v. Vickerage\", 921 F.2d 143 (8th Cir. 1990)) or for establishing a \"commercial enterprise\" to fraudulently acquire green cards for immigrants (see I.N.A. § 275(d); 8 U.S.C. § 1325(d)).\n", "BULLET::::- The Department of Homeland Security treats same-sex spouses equally for the purposes of obtaining a green card if the spouse is a foreign national.\n", "Berashk used the approved Form I-130 to apply for a visa to enter the United States. However, in June 2009, he was informed that his visa was denied; the stated reason for the denial was that he had provided material support to a terrorist but no further details were provided. Din filed suit in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California arguing that the government denied her due process of law by depriving her of her \"constitutional right to live in the United States with her spouse.\" The District Court rejected her argument, but the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals reversed. The United States appealed the reversal in the Supreme Court. Per the \"Mandel\" test, there were two questions at hand:\n", "Since the start of the We are Jose campaign there have been several milestones that provided momentum in the effort to achieving the objective to overturn the deportation order. Also there have been several decisions made by Canadian government officials, which included a decision by a delegate from the Minister of Immigration, on March 27, 2013, to enforce refuse a humanitarian grounds application which had been filed on June 25, 2002 and approved in principle on July 12, 2004. The minister's delegate also decided to allowed Mrs.Figueroa to remain in Canada so that she could care for the couple's three Canadian born children. The minister's delegate argued that Mr. Figueroa would still be able to provide moral support to his family via the modern way of communication, presumably via SKYPE.\n", "On January 5, 2014, the USCIS approved Adams' immigrant visa petition filed in 1975 on behalf of his husband. Sullivan received his green card in April 2016.\n\nSection::::\"United States v Windsor\".\n", "There are different procedures based on whether the applicant is already a U.S. citizen or if the applicant is an immigrant. The marriage must also be legal in, if appropriate, the emigrant's country.\n\nSection::::Marriage and immigration.:Immigration Marriage Fraud Amendments of 1986.\n", "On the day \"Windsor\" was decided, a judge suspended deportation proceedings in the case of the Colombian husband of an American man. Two days later, a Florida man learned that his application for a green card for his Bulgarian husband had been approved.\n", "Public Law 99-639 (Act of 11/10/86) was passed to deter marriage fraud among immigrants. The United States Citizenship and Immigration Services summarizes the law and its implications: \"Its major provision stipulates that aliens deriving their immigrant status based on a marriage of less than two years are conditional immigrants. To remove their conditional status the immigrants must apply at a U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services office during the 90-day period before their second-year anniversary of receiving conditional status. If the aliens cannot show that the marriage through which the status was obtained was and is a valid one, their conditional immigrant status may be terminated and they may become deportable.\"\n", "There are times when individuals who are married to U.S. citizens are allowed into the U.S. on tourist visas or visa waivers. Such applicants for entry must demonstrate to the satisfaction of the consular or port official that their trip is temporary. That is, that they are likely to return to their country of citizenship, because they have no interest in immigrating for the purposes of the entry in question. \n\nMost visas, including B-1/B-2 visas and visa waivers, do not allow dual intent.\n", "On December 11, 2012, more than 50 LGBT advocacy groups and immigration rights groups asked President Obama to put a hold on immigration cases involving Americans seeking legal residency visas for foreign-born spouses of the same sex, pending Supreme Court action in \"United States v. Windsor\", a case which challenges the constitutionality of DOMA section 3.\n", "Section::::Major Cases.:United States vs. Devyani Khobragade.\n\nIn 2013, Arshack represented Indian diplomat Devyani Khobragade, then the Deputy Consul General in New York, who was arrested on charges of illegally obtaining a work visa for her children’s nanny and paying her far less than the minimum wage. The case received considerable press and comment from the US State Department. Arshack advised Khobragade against leaving the country without a judge’s permission amidst the media storm. Ultimately all charges against Khobragade were dismissed.\n\nSection::::Major Cases.:United States vs. Chetan Kapur.\n", "Because Berashk was an unadmitted, non-resident alien, he had no right of entry into the United States and could not challenge his denial of his visa application. Consequently, Din filed suit in United States District Court, where she claimed the government denied her due process of law by depriving her of her \"constitutional right to live in the United States with her spouse\" and for denying her husband's visa application without adequate explanation. The District Court rejected Din's claims, but the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals reversed, concluding that Din had \"a protected liberty interest in marriage that entitled [her] to review of the denial of [her] spouse’s visa.\" The United States appealed, and the Supreme Court granted certiorari on October 2, 2014.\n", "On June 28, 2013, the USCIS notified U.S. citizen Julian Marsh that it had approved the green card petition for his Bulgarian husband Traian Popov. Both are residents of Florida. On July 3, the USCIS office in Centennial, Colorado, granted Cathy Davis, a citizen of Ireland, a green card based on her marriage to U.S. citizen Catriona Dowling.\n\nSection::::Challenges to Section 3 in Federal court.:Other cases.:Tribunals.\n", "The decision of the U.S. Supreme Court in \"United States v. Windsor\" in June 2013 established that the federal government treats the term \"spouse\" as gender-neutral. On July 1, 2013, Janet Napolitano, director of the Department of Homeland Security directed the U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services to \"review immigration visa petitions filed on behalf of a same-sex spouse in the same manner as those filed on behalf of an opposite-sex spouse.\"\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Adams v. Howerton\", U.S. District Court, February 25, 1980, accessed March 26, 2015\n", "On September 28, 2011, in \"Lui v. Holder\", U.S. District Court Judge Stephen V. Wilson rejected a challenge to DOMA, citing \"Adams v. Howerton\" (1982). The plaintiffs in that case had unsuccessfully challenged the denial of immediate relative status to the same-sex spouse of an American citizen. Early in 2012, two bi-national same-sex couples were granted \"deferred action\" status, suspending deportation proceedings against the non-U.S. citizen for a year. A similar Texas couple had a deportation case dismissed in March 2012, leaving the non-citizen spouse unable to work legally in the United States but no longer subject to the threat of deportation.\n", "There have been reported instances in which foreign spouses have abandoned their Canadian sponsors upon arrival in Canada or soon thereafter, often collecting welfare, which the sponsor is obligated to repay. In some of the cases, federal immigration authorities have made no attempt to revoke fraudulently-obtained landed immigrant status or deport the claimants, treating cases where one spouse is duped by the other as low-priority and difficult to prove.\n\nA two-year conditional residence requirement (like that in force in Australia and the United States) was proposed in 2011 and is now applied to new arrivals.\n\nSection::::Country-specific information.:China.\n", "Section::::Background.:Married women.\n\nSection 3 provided for loss of citizenship by American women who married aliens. The Act states that an American woman who marries an alien would lose her citizenship and take on her husband’s nationality. In actuality, whether or not she could do this was dependent on the laws of the country to which her husband belonged. If there was no similar law granting derivative citizenship to a married woman, she would then become stateless. \n", "Fauzia Din arrived to the United States from Afghanistan as a refugee in the year 2000, and she became a naturalized citizen in 2007. In 2006, she married Kanishka Berashk, who was a former civil servant in Afghanistan during the Taliban regime. Din filed paperwork to classify Berashk as an \"immediate relative,\" and Berashk filed a visa application to gain entry to the United States. The United States Embassy in Islamabad, Pakistan reviewed Berashk's application and conducted an interview but ultimately denied his visa application. A consular official informed Berashk he was ineligible for entry under the portion of the Immigration and Nationality Act that precludes admission for individuals with connections to terrorist organizations, but the official provided no further explanation for this determination.\n", "The marriage penalty can be even worse in cases where one spouse is not a citizen or resident of the United States . Although that spouse cannot be required by US law to pay US taxes, since the US person is still required by law to file taxes on worldwide income, two choices are left. The US person may either file as 'Married Filing Separately' (or 'Head of Household' if they have at least one qualifying person who is not their spouse) or try to convince their spouse to voluntarily pay US income taxes on their income by filing a joint return. The former requires using the 'Married Filing Separately' or 'Head of Household' tax brackets, which are less beneficial than 'Married Filing Jointly'. The latter allows that person to use the more favorable 'Married Filing Jointly' tax brackets but requires paying tax on the non-US person's income, which would not be required for two otherwise identical single people.\n", "The INA normally requires a U.S. citizen to have been married to a non-U.S. person for two years before they can be granted U.S. citizenship. However, section 423 of the Patriot Act waived the two year criteria for those who were spouses or children of a citizen who was killed in the 9/11 terrorist attacks. The spouse or children must have made a petition to the U.S. Attorney General within 2 years of the attacks — therefore this provision has well and truly passed.\n\nSection::::References & notes.\n\nBULLET::::- Notes\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "The conditional immigration status can be terminated for several causes, including divorce, invalid marriage, and failure to petition Immigration Services to remove the classification of conditional residency. If Immigration Services suspects that an alien has created a fraudulent marriage the immigrant is subject to removal from the United States. The marriage must be fraudulent at its inception, as can be determined by several factors. The factors include the conduct of parties before and after the marriage, and the bride and groom's intention of establishing a life together. The validity must be proved by the couple by showing insurance policies, property, leases, income tax, bank accounts, etc. Cases are decided by determining whether the sole purpose of the marriage was to gain benefits for the immigrant.\n", "A conditional residence green card is given to applicants who are being processed for permanent residence in the United States because they are married to a U.S. citizen. It is valid for two years. At the end of this time period if the card holder does not change the status of their residency they will be put on \"out of status\". Legal action by the government may follow.\n", "Under DOMA, persons in same-sex marriages were not considered married for immigration purposes. U.S. citizens and permanent residents in same-sex marriages could not petition for their spouses, nor could they be accompanied by their spouses into the U.S. on the basis of a family or employment-based visa. A non-citizen in such a marriage could not use it as the basis for obtaining a waiver or relief from removal from the U.S.\n", "The USCIS requires that the application for the removal of conditions provide both general and specific supporting evidence that the basis on which the applicant obtained conditional permanent residence was not fraudulent. For an application based on marriage, birth certificates of children, joint financial statements, and letters from employers, friends and relatives are some types of evidence that may be accepted. That is to ensure that the marriage was in good faith and not a fraudulent marriage of convenience with a sole intention of obtaining a green card. A follow-up interview with an immigration officer is sometimes required but may be waived if the submitted evidence is sufficient. Both the spouses must usually attend the interview.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-22352	Why do low quality videos look worse in darker scenes and better in brighter scenes?	This is a camera artifact, and really doesn't have much to do with low resolution video, just cheap and/or small cameras in generally. In full sun cameras work well, the aperture (hole in the lens that determines how much light gets in, it also affects focus) can be any size and the shutter speed required will still be quick and result in utilizing the entire brightness range of the sensor. Using the entire range of the sensor is important because all sensors have noise, that is they randomly detect light when it's not there, and this generally results in a very dim static getting applied over the entire picture. In low light though there is barely enough light for the sensor to operate, so you open up the aperture to let in more light (which will make things in the background blurry generally), you slow down the shutter (which will make moving things blurry, including the camera moving), and then after doing this you end up with a picture that is too dim for the sensor and doesn't use it's available range of brightness. Typical cell phone cameras and such then take this and brighten it way up, but this has the effect of brightening up the normal background static as well. So many cameras will then additionally apply an anti-static filter which is basically a blur function to try and make the static less visible. All of this extra stuff to try and brighten up the dark picture is what makes it look like crap. In general, the root cause is not enough light hitting the sensor, and the only real fix is a physically bigger lens (so those big pro cameras will always have much better low light performance than an iPhone). Older phones had particularly poor low light performance so it was even worse on those phones.	[ "Sources should be of pristine quality. There should be no visible coding artifacts or other properties that would lower the quality of the original sequence.\n\nSection::::Measurement.:Settings.\n\nThe design of the HRCs depends on the system under study. Typically, multiple independent variables are introduced at this stage, and they are varied with a number of levels. For example, to test the quality of a video codec, independent variables may be the video encoding software, a target bitrate, and the target resolution of the processed sequence.\n", "However, most recommendations for the number of subjects have been designed for measuring video quality encountered by a home television or PC user, where the range and diversity of distortions tend to be limited (e.g., to encoding artifacts only). Given the large ranges and diversity of impairments that may occur on videos captured with mobile devices and/or transmitted over wireless networks, generally, a larger number of human subjects may be required.\n", "Video quality\n\nVideo quality is a characteristic of a video passed through a video transmission/processing system, a formal or informal measure of perceived video degradation (typically, compared to the original video). Video processing systems may introduce some amount of distortion or artifacts in the video signal, which negatively impacts the user's perception of a system. For many stakeholders such as content providers, service providers, and network operators, the assurance of video quality is an important task.\n", "Matting also has some other fundamental limitations. The process cannot reconstruct parts of the background that are occluded by the foreground, and any sort of approximation will be limited. Additionally, the foreground and background of an image still have an effect on each other due to shadows being cast and light being reflected between them. When compositing an image or video from mattes of different origin, missing or extra shadows and other details of light can ruin the impact of the new image. \n", "Section::::Measurement.:Analysis of results.:Subject screening.:Advanced models.\n", "BULLET::::- Color moiré is artificial color banding that can appear in images with repetitive patterns of high spatial frequencies, like fabrics or picket fences. It is affected by lens sharpness, the anti-aliasing (lowpass) filter (which softens the image), and demosaicing software. It tends to be worst with the sharpest lenses.\n\nBULLET::::- Artifacts – software (especially operations performed during RAW conversion) can cause significant visual artifacts, including data compression and transmission losses (e.g. Low quality JPEG), oversharpening \"halos\" and loss of fine, low-contrast detail.\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "BULLET::::- ACR (Absolute Category Rating): each sequence is rated individually on the \"ACR scale\". The labels on the scale are \"bad\", \"poor\", \"fair\", \"good\", and \"excellent\", and they are translated to the values 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 when calculating the MOS.\n", "Subjective quality tests can be done in any environment. However, due to possible influence factors from heterogenous contexts, it is typically advised to perform tests in a neutral environment, such as a dedicated laboratory room. Such a room may be sound-proofed, with walls painted in neutral grey, and using properly calibrated light sources. Several recommendations specify these conditions. Controlled environments have been shown to result in lower variability in the obtained scores.\n\nSection::::Measurement.:Test environment.:Crowdsourcing.\n", "Section::::Standardized testing methods.\n\nThere are many ways to select proper sequences, system settings, and test methodologies. A few of them have been standardized. They are thoroughly described in several ITU-R and ITU-T recommendations, among those ITU-R BT.500 and ITU-T P.910. While there is an overlap in certain aspects, the BT.500 recommendation has its roots in broadcasting, whereas P.910 focuses on multimedia content.\n\nA standardized testing method usually describes the following aspects:\n\nBULLET::::- how long an experiment session lasts\n\nBULLET::::- where the experiment takes place\n\nBULLET::::- how many times and in which order each PVS should be viewed\n", "BULLET::::- Color accuracy is an important but ambiguous image quality factor. Many viewers prefer enhanced color saturation; the most accurate color isn't necessarily the most pleasing. Nevertheless, it is important to measure a camera's color response: its color shifts, saturation, and the effectiveness of its white balance algorithms.\n", "There is an ongoing discussion in the QoE community as to whether a viewer's cultural, social, or economic background has a significant impact on the obtained subjective video quality results. A systematic study involving six laboratories in four countries found no statistically significant impact of subject's language and culture / country of origin on video quality ratings.\n\nSection::::Measurement.:Test environment.\n", "An objective model should only be used in the context that it was developed for. For example, a model that was developed using a particular video codec is not guaranteed to be accurate for another video codec. Similarly, a model trained on tests performed on a large TV screen should not be used for evaluating the quality of a video watched on a mobile phone.\n\nSection::::Objective video quality.:Other approaches.\n", "Highlight headroom\n\nHighlight headroom is the measure of how much additional capacity a given photographic medium (such as film or digital image sensors) has in order to record the detail within the brightest parts of a scene.\n\nAs an example, consider a photograph of a white wedding dress against a white background. With limited highlight headroom, it will be hard to appreciate the intricate details within the fabric of the dress. The higher the available headroom, the more subtle shades of white will be captured.\n", "BULLET::::- Motion estimation (ME) search strategy can also cause different visual quality for the same PSNR. So-called \"true motion\" search commonly will not reach minimum sum of absolute differences (SAD) values in codec ME, but may result in better visual quality. Such methods also require more compression time.\n\nBULLET::::- Rate control strategy. VBR commonly cause better visual quality marks than CBR for the same average PSNR values for sequences.\n", "If the chosen bitrate is low, on the other hand, the video quality will be lower – thereby reducing the customer’s quality of experience.\n\nThere are a number of ways of dealing with these challenges. One way is to take the YouTube approach. YouTube uses HTTP progressive download, and makes multiple versions of the video available at different resolutions and bitrates. Users themselves can then select the quality / bitrate that works best for them. If stalling or rebuffering occur, then can select the next lower resolution and continue viewing the video.\n", "BULLET::::- Reduced Reference Methods (RR): RR models extract some features of both videos and compare them to give a quality score. They are used when all the original video is not available, or when it would be practically impossible to do so, e.g. in a transmission with a limited bandwidth. This makes them more efficient than FR models at the expense of lower accuracy.\n", "BULLET::::- Noise is a random variation of image density, visible as grain in film and pixel level variations in digital images. It arises from the effects of basic physics— the photon nature of light and the thermal energy of heat— inside image sensors. Typical noise reduction (NR) software reduces the visibility of noise by smoothing the image, excluding areas near contrast boundaries. This technique works well, but it can obscure fine, low contrast detail.\n", "Although a higher PSNR generally indicates that the reconstruction is of higher quality, in some cases it may not. One has to be extremely careful with the range of validity of this metric; it is only conclusively valid when it is used to compare results from the same codec (or codec type) and same content.\n\nGenerally, PSNR has been shown to perform poorly compared to other quality metrics when it comes to estimating the quality of images and particularly videos as perceived by humans.\n\nSection::::Variants.\n", "BULLET::::- Hybrid Methods (Hybrid NR-P-B): Hybrid models combine parameters extracted from the bitstream with a decoded video signal. They are therefore a mix between NR-P and NR-B models.\n\nSection::::Objective video quality.:Use of picture quality models for video quality estimation.\n", "Any form of rate-shaping or downsampling is inherently intrusive, in that the source bitstream is altered significantly, often due to a full re-compression process. Distortion (caused by the operator) is characterized by reduced sharpness, reduced detail, excessive compression artifacts (mosquito noise and blocking), and in some cases, alteration of the color-palette. The reduced video quality is assumed to be introduced by the sat/cable operator's handling of the source video (recompression.)\n", "Image quality can be assessed using objective or subjective methods. In the objective method, image quality assessments are performed by different algorithms that analyze the distortions and degradations introduced in an image. Subjective image quality assessments are a method based on the way in which humans experience or perceive image quality. Objective and subjective methods of quality assessment don't necessarily correlate with each other. An algorithm might have a similar value for an image and its altered or degraded versions, while a subjective method might perceive a stark contrast in quality for the same image and its versions.\n\nSection::::Subjective methods.\n", "In composite video, the signals co-exist on different frequencies. To achieve this, the luminance signal must be low-pass filtered, dulling the image. As S-Video maintains the two as separate signals, such detrimental low-pass filtering for luminance is unnecessary, although the chrominance signal still has limited bandwidth relative to component video.\n", "The colour scape was designed to have a minimum of contrast, which the director believed would create more intensity. Lighting was arranged to leave no shadows: \"I want light where people can’t hide in – light without mercy.\" Andersson is famous for his many takes of each scene, although this time he claimed it went smoother than usual: \"max. 40–50 takes and sometimes under ten!\"\n\nSection::::Soundtrack.\n", "The main idea of measuring subjective video quality is similar to the Mean Opinion Score (MOS) evaluation for audio. To evaluate the subjective video quality of a video processing system, the following steps are typically taken:\n\nBULLET::::- Choose original, unimpaired video sequences for testing\n\nBULLET::::- Choose settings of the system that should be evaluated\n\nBULLET::::- Apply settings to the SRC, which results in the test sequences\n\nBULLET::::- Choose a test method, describing how sequences are presented to viewers and how their opinion is collected\n\nBULLET::::- Invite a panel of viewers\n", "Smacker video supports 256 colors, and includes transparency support. While being a palette-based format, which is inherently limited to having not more than 256 colors in each frame, Smacker videos may still contain more colors in total due to \"palette rotation\", whereby the palette is updated on a per-frame basis. This usually results in SMK files that look better if the source video has more than 256 colors. The compression rate of Smacker can reach 1:12, but at the loss of quality (pixelation).\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-13129	How come in the US, Chinese food is synonymous with takeout/fast food, while Japanese food is relatively up-scale?	In many (or most) parts of the US, Chinese-American fast food is the only available "Chinese food". It is generally not very good. In places with larger Chinese populations, there are more traditional Chinese restaurants, often focused on a regional cuisine, some of which are up-scale. Some up-scale Chinese restaurants are modern/innovative takes on the traditional cuisine. In such places (I'm blessed to live near one of them), Chinese food is not synonymous with takeout/fast food.	[ "Section::::Chinese fast-food restaurants vs American fast food.\n", "Section::::Supporting characters.:Totsuki 92nd Generation students.:Subaru Mimasaka.\n", "BULLET::::- China Coast – Closed in 1995; owned by General Mills Corporation, formerly 52 locations throughout the United States\n\nBULLET::::- Chinese Gourmet Express – throughout the United States\n\nBULLET::::- Leeann Chin – Minnesota and North Dakota; owned at one time by General Mills Corp.\n\nBULLET::::- Manchu Wok – Throughout the United States and Canada, as well as Guam, Korea and Japan\n\nBULLET::::- Panda Express – Throughout the United States, with some locations in Mexico\n\nBULLET::::- Pei Wei Asian Diner – Throughout the United States; a subsidiary of P.F. Chang's\n", "BULLET::::- Burgers have various variations in Japan. MOS Burger developed \"Teriyaki Burgers\" and \"kinpira rice burger\"\n\nBULLET::::- Korean cuisine\n\nBULLET::::- Kimchi - from Korea is often served with Japanese Chinese cuisine, though the local variant may use thinner cabbage.\n\nBULLET::::- Japanese Chinese cuisine\n\nBULLET::::- Ramen and related dishes such as champon and yaki soba\n\nBULLET::::- Mābō Dōfu tends to be thinner than Chinese Mapo doufu.\n\nBULLET::::- Japanese-only \"Chinese dishes\" like Ebi Chili (shrimp in a tangy and slightly spicy sauce)\n\nBULLET::::- Nikuman, anman, butaman and the obscure negi-man are all varieties of mantou with fillings.\n", "BULLET::::- Okonomi-mura – a Hiroshima-style okonomiyaki food theme park located at 5-13 Shintenchi in Naka-ku, Hiroshima, Japan.\n\nBULLET::::- Sakae Sushi – a restaurant chain based in Singapore serving Japanese cuisine, and is the flagship brand of Apex-Pal International Ltd\n\nBULLET::::- Sasabune – is a Japanese sushi restaurant located on the Upper East Side of Manhattan, in New York City.\n\nBULLET::::- Standing Sushi Bar – a Japanese-food restaurant chain in Singapore and Indonesia\n\nBULLET::::- Sticks'n'Sushi – a Copenhagen-based restaurant and take-away chain specializing in sushi and yakitori sticks\n", "BULLET::::- Hokka Hokka Tei – a bento take-out chain with over 2,000 franchises and company-owned branches throughout Japan\n\nBULLET::::- Ichibanya – owns the top curry rice restaurant chain in Japan, Curry House CoCo Ichibanya\n\nBULLET::::- Italian Tomato – a Japanese Italian restaurant and bakery chain\n\nBULLET::::- Itsu – a British chain of Asian-inspired fast food shops and restaurants, and a grocery company\n\nBULLET::::- Ivan Ramen – a ramen noodle restaurant with two locations in New York City\n\nBULLET::::- Jinya Ramen Bar – a chain of restaurants based in Los Angeles, California, specializing in ramen noodle dishes\n", "BULLET::::- Pizza - The popular American pizza companies Domino's, Pizza Hut and Shakey's all operate in Japan, but Japanese brands such as Aoki's and Pizza-La are higher-grossing and famous for catering to Japanese taste. Many pizza chains offer seasonal toppings. Japanese versions include:\n\nBULLET::::- with corn\n\nBULLET::::- with shrimp, squid, or other seafood\n\nBULLET::::- with mayonnaise, white sauce or Pesto basil sauce\n\nBULLET::::- with potato or eggplant\n\nBULLET::::- with Galbi beef or teriyaki chicken\n\nBULLET::::- with hard-boiled eggs\n\nBULLET::::- with macaroni, wieners or other prepared foods\n\nSection::::Imported and adapted foods.:Other homegrown cuisine of foreign origin.\n\nBULLET::::- Japanese American cuisine\n", "The final phase of the spread of fast food in China occurred when McDonald's and KFC stopped targeting universities and urban hot-spots and began expanding outward and focusing on residential areas. McDonald's and KFC also incorporated more Chinese flavors into their food and reduced American symbolism in their restaurants, making their restaurants seem even less foreign to Chinese locals. With this, eating at American fast food restaurants ceased being something Chinese families did on special occasions and became routine for them.\n\nSection::::Health impacts.\n\nSection::::Health impacts.:2000s.\n", "Section::::Outside Japan.:Canada.\n\nIn Canada, Japanese cuisine has become quite popular. Sushi, sashimi, and instant ramen are highly popular at opposite ends of the income scale, with instant ramen being a common low-budget meal. Sushi and sashimi takeout began in Vancouver and Toronto, and is now common throughout Canada. The largest supermarket chains all carry basic sushi and sashimi, and Japanese ingredients and instant ramen are readily available in most supermarkets. Most mid-sized mall food courts feature fast-food teppan cooking. Izakaya restaurants have surged in popularity.\n\nSection::::Outside Japan.:United States.\n", "Section::::Economy.:Famous Foods.\n", "BULLET::::- : beef and potato stew, flavored with sweet soy.\n\nBULLET::::- : fish poached in sweet soy (often on the menu as ).\n\nBULLET::::- : Okinawan dish of pork stewed with bone.\n\nSection::::Common Japanese main and side dishes (okazu, ).:Itamemono (stir-fried dishes, ).\n\nStir-frying () is not a native method of cooking in Japan, however mock-Chinese stir fries such as yasai itame (stir fried vegetables, ) have been a staple in homes and canteens across Japan since the 1950s. Home grown stir fries include:\n", "The fast food industry in China has made many changes to help them adapt to the new market. Flavors and menus are very different compared to those in the U.S. Companies also have new marketing strategies directed toward Chinese customers.\n", "Section::::Supporting characters.:Totsuki 92nd Generation students.:Alice Nakiri.\n", "Egg fried rice in American Chinese cuisine is also prepared differently, with more soy sauce added for more flavor whereas the traditional egg fried rice uses less soy sauce. Some food styles, such as dim sum, were also modified to fit American palates, such as added batter for fried dishes and extra soy sauce.\n\nSalads containing raw or uncooked ingredients are rare in traditional Chinese cuisine, as are Japanese style sushi or sashimi. However, an increasing number of American Chinese restaurants, including some upscale establishments, have started to offer these items in response to customer demand.\n", "Japanese regional cuisine\n\nJapanese cuisine has a vast array of regional specialities known as \"kyōdo ryōri\" (郷土料理) in Japanese, many of them originating from dishes prepared using local ingredients and traditional recipes.\n\nWhile \"local\" ingredients are now available nationwide, and some originally regional dishes such as okonomiyaki and Edo-style sushi have spread throughout Japan and is no longer considered as such, many regional specialities survive to this day, with some new ones still being created.\n", "Hamburger chains include McDonald's, Burger King, First Kitchen, Lotteria and MOS Burger. Many chains developed uniquely Japanese versions of American fast food such as the teriyaki burger, kinpira (sauté) rice burger, fried shrimp burgers, and green tea milkshakes.\n\nSection::::Imported and adapted foods.:Italian.\n", "Section::::Supporting characters.:Totsuki 92nd Generation students.:Takumi Aldini.\n", "Where there are historical immigrant Chinese populations, the style of food has evolved and been adapted to local tastes and ingredients, and modified by the local cuisine, to greater or lesser extents. This has resulted in a deep Chinese influence on other national cuisines such as Cambodian cuisine, Filipino cuisine, Thai cuisine and Vietnamese cuisine. There are also a large number of forms of fusion cuisine, often popular in the country in question. Some, such as ramen (Japanese Chinese cuisine) have become popular internationally.\n", "Gourmet-poy was hesitant about what to do, because it didn't look like A-class food but was so delicious. Meanwhile, his parents came. His father said, \"It's such a dirty food. I don't think I will eat one. Please don't disappoint me anymore!\"\n\nGourmet-poy doesn't eat yakisoba and ran away.\n\nThe carnival had shops selling different types of food. Bunta sold okonomiyaki, Minami sold takoyaki, Okyou sold motsu-curry, Masa sold kushikatsu, etc.\n\nBut just then, the Masked Sushi Couple and steak Rider defeated the B-class gourmet members, Downtown's Korokke-don, Chicken Motsu-curry's Okyou and others. They demolished their shops too.\n", "Asian cuisine is quite popular in the West due to Asian immigration and subsequent interest from non-Asians into Asian ingredients and food. Even small towns in Britain, Canada, Scandinavia, or the United States generally have at least one Indian or Chinese restaurant. Restaurants serving pan-Asian and Asian-inspired cuisine have also opened across North America, Australia and other parts of the world. P.F. Chang's China Bistro and Pei Wei Asian Diner which serve Asian and Asian-inspired food is found across the United States and in regards for the former, in other parts of the world as well. Asian-inspired food products have also been launched including from noodle brand, Maggi. In Australia, New Zealand, Ireland and the UK an Asian-inspired range of noodles known as \"Maggi Fusian\" and a long running range in Germany and Austria known as, \"Maggi Magic Asia\" includes a range of noodles inspired by food dishes found in China, Japan, Korea, India, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia and Thailand.\n", "BULLET::::- Yoshinoya – a Japanese fast food restaurant chain, it is the largest chain of \"gyūdon\" (beef bowl) restaurants\n\nBULLET::::- Yoshi's – a jazz club of the San Francisco Bay Area, it started as a Japanese restaurant in Berkeley\n\nBULLET::::- Zuma – founded by chef Rainer Becker, inspired by informal izakaya-style Japanese dining in which dishes are brought to the table continuously throughout the meal\n\nSection::::Japanese restaurants.:Types of restaurants.\n", "Japanese Chinese cuisine or Chūka is a style of Japanese cuisine served by \"nominally\" Chinese restaurants popularized in Japan in the late 19th century and more recent times. There is much confusion as both Japanese and Chinese reject that this food is the pure form of their own cuisine, however, it is clear this food is found primarily in Japan, though now it is re-popularized throughout Asia from Japan as \"Japanese cuisine\". This style of food is again different from modern Chinatown Chinese food in Japan, e.g. Yokohama Chinatown. The Shippoku style of cooking displays heavy influence from Chinese cuisine.\n", "Despite sourcing from many multiple nations, items stocked are very different depending on their target ethnic market. For example, in Chinese and Vietnamese supermarkets it is common for dead animals to be hung on hooks for display; in Japanese supermarkets this would be completely taboo. Chinese supermarkets may carry Japanese products but the range of selection would be very limited as compared to a Japanese supermarket. For example, for green tea, in a Japanese market, an entire aisle may be dedicated to it, stocking a wide variety and grades of regional loose-leaf teas, whereas the Chinese market may simply carry a few brands of Japanese tea bags and bottled teas.\n", "Section::::Supporting characters.:Totsuki 92nd Generation students.:Ryo Kurokiba.\n", "BULLET::::- Hot and sour soup\n\nSection::::Chinese and other Asian styles.:Japanese cuisine.\n\nSushi is the most common association made to Japanese cuisine in Hong Kong. From small café shops to conveyor belt sushi restaurants to restaurants specialising in teppanyaki, Japanese-style cooking is fairly popular. Depending on the locale, many sushi-centric restaurants are designed to mirror close to those in Japan.\n\n\"Includes:\"\n\nBULLET::::- Sushi with wasabi\n\nBULLET::::- Okinawa soba\n\nSection::::Chinese and other Asian styles.:Indian and Pakistani cuisine.\n" ]	[ "In the US, Chinese food is considered to be takeout/fast food." ]	[ "There are more upscale Chinese food restaurants in US regions with larger Chinese populations." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "In the US, Chinese food is considered to be takeout/fast food.", "In the US, Chinese food is considered to be takeout/fast food." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "There are more upscale Chinese food restaurants in US regions with larger Chinese populations.", "There are more upscale Chinese food restaurants in US regions with larger Chinese populations." ]
2018-16432	Are buildings (especially skyscrapers) always designed to fall "straight down" to minimize collateral damage, or does it depend on what type of damage it receives??	No it's not an intentional safety feature. The twin towers used a non conventional load bearing system to open up the floor plans of each floor. They transferred the bulk of the weight to be carried by the out side walls and not a conventional internal frame work of columns. This allowed the company's to do more and remodel each floor to their choosing. The straight down collapse is called a pancake collapse. What made the towers continue their straight down path was that principal. And once the steel at the top failed it was only a matter of dominos falling over from the prior as each floor above hit the next floor down it exceed the working load of the floor below it. Since the collapse started at the top and not the bottom the pancake collapse was much more likely to take place over any other type of collapse. There is alot more about shear forces and beam strength under load and building floor load types. But this is the basics.	[ "BULLET::::- All buildings to which the public are admitted and which contain floor areas exceeding 2000 m² but not exceeding 5000 m² at each storey.\n\nBULLET::::- Car parking not exceeding 6 storeys.\n\nConsequence class 3, high consequences of failure:\n\nBULLET::::- All buildings defined above as Class 2 Lower and Upper Consequences Class that exceed the limits on area and number of storeys.\n\nBULLET::::- All buildings to which members of the public are admitted in significant numbers.\n\nBULLET::::- Stadia accommodating more than 5000 spectators.\n\nBULLET::::- Buildings containing hazardous substances and / or processes.\n", "BULLET::::- 2 Adelaide St (multi-purpose building with Bank of Ireland as anchor tenant), Belfast, Northern Ireland\n\nBULLET::::- The Albert Memorial Clock in Belfast, Northern Ireland\n\nBULLET::::- Bateman's Tower in Brightlingsea, Essex, England\n\nBULLET::::- The great tower of Bridgnorth Castle, in the town of Bridgnorth, Shropshire\n\nBULLET::::- The southeast tower of Caerphilly Castle, Wales\n\nBULLET::::- The spire of the Church of St Mary and All Saints, Chesterfield\n\nBULLET::::- Elizabeth Tower, London\n\nBULLET::::- The Greyfriars Tower – the remains of a Franciscan monastery in King's Lynn, England\n\nBULLET::::- The tower and spire of St Laurence's Church, Surfleet, Lincolnshire, England\n", "BULLET::::- Single storey educational buildings.\n\nBULLET::::- All buildings not exceeding two storeys to which the public are admitted and which contain floor areas not exceeding 2000 m² at each storey.\n\nConsequence class 2b, upper risk group - medium consequences of failure: \n\nBULLET::::- Hotels, flats, apartments and other residential buildings greater than 4 storeys but not exceeding 15 storeys.\n\nBULLET::::- Educational buildings greater than single storey but not exceeding 15 storeys.\n\nBULLET::::- Retail premises greater than 3 storeys but not exceeding 15 storeys.\n\nBULLET::::- Hospitals not exceeding 3 storeys.\n\nBULLET::::- Offices greater than 4 storeys but not exceeding 15 storeys.\n", "BULLET::::- The Leaning Tower of Niles, in Niles, Illinois; a replica of the Leaning Tower of Pisa\n\nBULLET::::- The \"Leaning Tower of Patchogue,\" a nickname given to the former PD Tower at the LIRR station in Patchogue, New York; it was demolished in 2006\n\nBULLET::::- The Leaning Water Tower, in Groom, Texas\n\nBULLET::::- The Millennium Tower in San Francisco; an examination in 2016 showed the building had sunk 16 inches, with a two-inch tilt towards the north west\n\nBULLET::::- The Ocean Tower, in South Padre Island, Texas (demolished)\n", "BULLET::::- The \"Neuer Zollhof\" in Düsseldorf\n\nBULLET::::- The \"Reichenturm\" in Bautzen\n\nBULLET::::- The Leaning Tower of Suurhusen (\"Schiefer Turm von Suurhusen\") (according to Guinness World Records the most tilted tower in the world that is unintentionally tilted)\n\nBULLET::::- The Leaning Tower of Dausenau (\"Schiefer Turm von Dausenau\") (slightly further leaning than the Tower of Suurhusen, disqualified by Guinness World Records for being a ruin instead of a tower)\n\nBULLET::::- The 14th-century bell tower of the Church of Our Dear Lady in Bad Frankenhausen\n\nSection::::Europe.:Hungary.\n\nBULLET::::- Szécsény Firewatch Tower, leaning 3 degrees\n\nSection::::Europe.:Ireland.\n", "BULLET::::- Northern Ireland\n", "BULLET::::- U.S. Bank Tower (Los Angeles 1990) - the first building destroyed by the alien ships in the film \"Independence Day\" (1996); in \"The Day After Tomorrow\" by a Category F-5 Tornado (2004) and in \"2012\" (2009) the city including the U.S. Bank Tower gets destroyed due to Magnitude 10+ earthquakes.\n\nBULLET::::- Rialto Tower (Melbourne 1986) - featured in \"Ghost Rider\" (2007). The Ghost Rider is seen riding vertically up the tower to elude the authorities.\n", "BULLET::::- Buildings into which people rarely go, provided no part of the building is closer to another building, or area where people do go, than a distance of 1.5 times the building height.\n\nConsequence class 2a, lower risk group - medium consequences of failure: \n\nBULLET::::- 5 storey single occupancy houses.\n\nBULLET::::- Hotels not exceeding 4 storeys.\n\nBULLET::::- Flats, apartments and other residential buildings not exceeding 4 storeys.\n\nBULLET::::- Offices not exceeding 4 storeys.\n\nBULLET::::- Industrial buildings not exceeding 3 storeys.\n\nBULLET::::- Retail premises not exceeding 3 storeys of less than 1000 m² floor area in each storey.\n", "BULLET::::- There are a small number of locations where cement rendered surfaces are deteriorating and coming away;\n\nBULLET::::- Two steel framed windows in the tower at level 11 are corroding;\n\nBULLET::::- Staining has taken place on facade paintwork and on the reconstructed stone surfaces;\n\nBULLET::::- Fittings and mechanisms on the original windows at the lower levels of the building are broken or ineffective in operation. Several of the windows do not seal properly when closed;\n\nBULLET::::- Areas of dampness are evident in basement levels due to water penetration through perimeter walls, particularly in the northwestern and south western corners.\n", "BULLET::::- Cracking has occurred in the roof parapet at the southern end of level 11 and the top of the plant room wall at the southern end of the building above level 11, on its eastern and western sides;\n\nBULLET::::- The metal plant room roof has been damaged by pedestrian traffic across it, and screws fixing the roof sheeting have corroded, as have gutters associated with the roof. There has been some water penetration through the roof or from the guttering;\n\nBULLET::::- Some of the hold-down bolts of the handrails around the level 10 and 11 roofs have corroded;\n", "BULLET::::- Sydney Tower (Sydney 1981) - destroyed by the monster Zilla in the Japanese film \"\". Also destroyed by meteors in the Hallmark film \"Supernova\", which was released in 2005. Featured as the Angel Grove Observatory in 1995's \"\".\n", "BULLET::::- Sharps Island Light, 3 miles off the southern end of Tilghman Island, in Maryland's Chesapeake Bay, has been leaning 15° since it was damaged by an ice floe in 1977\n\nBULLET::::- The Veer Towers at CityCenter, on the Las Vegas Strip in Paradise, Nevada\n\nSection::::Oceania.\n\nSection::::Oceania.:Australia.\n\nBULLET::::- The Leaning Tower of Gingin at the Gravity Discovery Centre\n\nBULLET::::- Marina Tower Melbourne\n\nSection::::Oceania.:New Zealand.\n\nBULLET::::- The Hotel Grand Chancellor, Christchurch (demolished in 2012 after the 2011 Christchurch Earthquake)\n\nBULLET::::- The Leaning Tower of Wanaka in Puzzling World\n\nBULLET::::- Wellington Airport air traffic control tower, dubbed the 'leaning tower of Rongotai'\n", "BULLET::::- Hydraulic excavators may be used to topple one- or two-story buildings by an undermining process. The strategy is to undermine the building while controlling the manner and direction in which it falls.\n\nBULLET::::- The demolition project manager/supervisor will determine where undermining is necessary so that a building is pulled in the desired manner and direction.\n\nBULLET::::- The walls are typically undermined at a building's base, but this is not always the case if the building design dictates otherwise. Safety and cleanup considerations are also taken into account in determining how the building is undermined and ultimately demolished.\n", "BULLET::::- On April 23, 1987, the 16 story L'Ambiance Plaza in Bridgeport, Connecticut, collapsed during its construction phase due to various instances of inadequate shoring that were in use throughout the construction site. 28 people were killed. The building was a lift-slab design.\n\nBULLET::::- On March 17, 1989, the 255 foot Pavia Civic Tower in Pavia, Italy collapsed due to 800 years of stress-redistribution on the structure, primarily from drying-induced shrinkage on the wooden support beams, the bells themselves swaying back and forth, and creep. 4 people were killed and 15 others were injured. The tower was a stonemasonry design.\n", "BULLET::::- On May 16, 1968, the 22 story Ronan Point apartment tower in West Ham, London suffered a fatal collapse of one of its corners due to a natural gas explosion, which destroyed a load-bearing wall. 4 people were killed and 17 others were injured. The building was a large-panel system building.\n\nBULLET::::- On March 2, 1973, the 26 story Skyline Towers Building in Fairfax County, Virginia, collapsed as a result of wooden shoring being removed too soon from an upper-story floor during construction. 14 people were killed and 34 others were injured. The tower was a steel-reinforced concrete design.\n", "BULLET::::- The tower of St Martin's Church at Cwmyoy, Monmouthshire, Wales.\n\nBULLET::::- The tower of Temple Church in Bristol, England\n\nSection::::North America.\n\nSection::::North America.:Canada.\n\nBULLET::::- The Olympic Stadium Tower, Montréal, Québec\n\nBULLET::::- The Saint-Léonard Tower (and associated public market), Saint-Léonard, Québec (demolished)\n\nBULLET::::- Vancouver House, formerly called Beach and Howe, design by BIG to be cut to avoid a freeway, that gives the appearance of leaning.\n\nSection::::North America.:Mexico.\n\nBULLET::::- Puerto Morelos Lighthouse of 1946 on Riviera Maya in the state of Quintana Roo, leaning since 1967\n\nSection::::North America.:United States.\n", "BULLET::::- On February 12, 2005, the 28 story Windsor Tower in Madrid, Spain suffered the collapse of the upper 11 floors of the building. The tower had a reinforced concrete inner-core surrounded by a traditional webbed steel-frame outer-perimeter. Between floors 16 and 17 was a 7-foot thick, reinforced concrete transfer floor, designed to act as a bulkhead and to support the steel framework of the upper 11 stories. An office fire began on the 21st floor and after 5 hours, the concrete inner-core could no longer support the buckling steel outer-framework. The upper 11 stories collapsed down to street level with remnants of the upper 3 floors collapsing down on to the transfer floor. No one was killed. The building was a composite steel-frame and steel-reinforced concrete design.\n", "BULLET::::- The Two Towers, Bologna (Asinelli and Garisenda towers]] in Bologna)\n\nSection::::Europe.:Netherlands.\n\nBULLET::::- The tower of the St. Walfriduskerk in Bedum\n\nBULLET::::- The tower of the Oude Kerk in Delft\n\nBULLET::::- The tower of the Central Church of Dordrecht\n\nBULLET::::- The Oldehove in Leeuwarden\n\nBULLET::::- The tower in Miedum\n\nBULLET::::- The Martinitoren in Groningen\n\nBULLET::::- The tower of the Catharinakerk in Acquoy\n\nBULLET::::- The tower of the Domkerk in De Lier\n\nBULLET::::- The tower of the church in Loenen aan de Vecht\n\nSection::::Europe.:Poland.\n\nBULLET::::- The Krzywa Wieża (Leaning Tower) in Toruń\n\nBULLET::::- The Krzywa Wieża (Leaning Tower) in Ząbkowice Śląskie\n", "Much more rarely and interesting under constructive details are partially guyed towers at which at least one basement of the guy anchors is on the ground. At such structures, the guyed mast on the top is in opposite to guyed towers with anchor basements on the top of free-standing tower much taller (in most cases taller than the basement tower) and it must be considered at its construction and maintenance, that the basement of the guyed mast is situated much more elevated than that of the anchor basements.\n", "BULLET::::- Tower Sky, a fictional 448m, 108-story high twin tower complex in Seoul, South Korea, in the 2012 disaster film \"The Tower\". As stated in the film, tower A was called \"Riverview\", and tower B was called \"Cityview\", with over 5700 residents, it was South Korea's biggest residential complex. In the film, the owner of the complex decided to hold a Christmas party and had 10 helicopters circling above the building, despite the warnings of the owner's employees. On the Christmas Eve, one of the helicopters crashed into tower A. The crash also damaged the structure of the bridge connecting the twin tower, making the characters unable to escape to tower B.\n", "The collapse of the World Trade Center has been called \"the most infamous paradigm\" of progressive collapse. Structural systems respond very differently to static and dynamic loads and, while the buildings were designed to support enormous weight under normal conditions, they provided little resistance to the moving mass of the section above the damaged floors. The collapses began with the drop of the upper section through the height of at least one story (roughly three meters or ten feet) and a fall of only half a meter (about 20 inches) would have released the necessary energy to begin an unstoppable collapse.\n", "BULLET::::- In the 2001 movie \"Swordfish\", the escape bus is deposited on top of the building by the Skyhook helicopter. Note that while the helipad is rated for 12 tons, a loaded bus can weigh upwards of 16.\n\nBULLET::::- In the 2004 movie \"The Day After Tomorrow\", the U.S. Bank Tower is severely damaged by the super tornado, but ultimately still standing.\n\nBULLET::::- The 2007 film \"Dragon Wars\" features a giant monster dragon that first destroys and rampages through the city and then climbs the tower.\n", "Buildings in consequence class 2b (in addition to what is recommended for consequence class 1 and 2a) should be provided with effective vertical ties in all supporting columns and walls, or alternatively the building should be checked to ensure that upon the notional removal of each supporting column and each beam supporting a column, or any nominal section of load-bearing wall (one at a time in each storey of the building) the building remains stable and the local damage does not exceed a certain limit. Where the removal of such columns and sections of walls would result in an extent of damage in excess of the agreed limit, such elements should be designed as a key element.\n", "BULLET::::- One of the promotional posters for the 2008 film \"The Dark Knight\" shows the building with an explosion the shape of the Batman emblem on its upper floors.\n\nBULLET::::- The building is shown as one of the skyscrapers still standing in the movie \"A.I. Artificial Intelligence\".\n\nBULLET::::- It was also used as one of the New York City filming locations for the non-narrative film \"Baraka\".\n", "BULLET::::- Inadequate beams of 750mm by 225mm (should have been 900mm by 300mm)\n\nBULLET::::- Inadequately reinforced columns (should have been reinforced with 12 x Y25 bars or 20 x Y20mm bars. Instead they used 10 x Y20 bars (as seen in the video released by SCOAN).\n\nBULLET::::- Inadequate bearing pressure for the central column due to the 2m x 2m x 0.9m foundations.\n\nBULLET::::- Failure to introduce rigid zones for bracing the structure and did not design the frames as an unbraced structure.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Buildings are always designed to collapse straight down." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Buildings are not designed intentionally to collapse straight down." ]
2018-01654	why is the us goverment shutting down?	U.S. laws requires Congress to approve a budget by X date. Without an approved budget, the vast majority of our government is forbidden from spending money (special exception is made for "essential services"). Currently our Congress and President are bickering, and thus they haven't approved a budget. So our government has effectively "Shut Down". This is somewhat common, and happens every few years. The current record for length of shutdown is like 21 days.	[ "The shutdown of January 2018 was the first to occur during the Presidential term of Donald Trump and was centered around a disagreement on the issue of immigration. By the start of October 2017, Congress had failed to approve an appropriation bill to fund the US government in 2018, and instead passed three CRs to keep federal agencies open until 19 January 2018. The failure to establish a permanent spending bill was due to Democrat senators insisting that any proposed House bill needed to include funding for the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) immigration policy and assurances against deportation for immigrants that fell under the DREAM Act. Republicans refused to pass such bills, citing that discussions on immigration and those individuals under DACA would not be held until mid-March of the following year. A senate vote to extend the 2018 Continuing Appropriations Resolution on 19 January 2018, which had passed a congressional vote the previous day, failed to achieve a majority, after Democrat senators led a filibuster aimed at forcing Republicans to invoke a shorter duration of CR and thus invoke negotiations that could lead to extensions of the DACA policy. but failed to achieve a majority, as Democrats sought a shorter duration of CAR to force negotiations\n", "The Smithsonian Institution shortened to two days and downscaled its scheduled ten-day 2019 Folklife Festival on the National Mall because of the shutdown's effects. Sabrina Motley, the director of the festival, said that initially, crucial funding for the June—July event arrived later than expected, slowing preparations. Motley stated: \"The government opened back up, but it took a while for systems to come back online. ... We looked at our production schedule, and it became clear we would need more time than we had.”\n\nSection::::Reactions.\n\nSection::::Reactions.:Protests and lawsuits.\n", "On February 15, 2019, Donald Trump declared a national emergency in order to bypass the United States Congress, after being unsatisfied with a bipartisan border bill that had passed the House of Representatives and the Senate a day before.\n\nSection::::Background.\n", "The shutdown began on 22 December 2018, after Democrats refused to support a new CR in the Senate that included approximately $5 billion for the new border wall, and continued to block further attempts upon taking control of Congress on 3 January 2019 following the 2018 mid-term elections. Although he had support from several Republicans, including Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell, Trump faced stiff opposition to border wall funding from House Speaker Nancy Pelosi and Senate Minority Leader Chuck Schumer, with neither party able to break the political impasse through negotiations, rallying public support through televised addresses, offering proposals on alternative border security funding measures, or making concessions for a proposed appropriation bill with regards to the DACA policy. The deadlock eventually ended on 25 January 2019, when both chambers of the House approved a plan to reopen the US government for 3 weeks, in order to facilitate a period of negotiations to determine a suitable appropriation bill that both parties could agree upon, with Trump endorsing the deal amidst rising security and safety concerns.\n", "Similar protests took place in Philadelphia and St. Louis, among other cities. On January 15, representatives for Veterans of Foreign Wars, Disabled American Veterans, and Vietnam Veterans of America along with others called for an end to shutdown, but avoided placing any blame on political parties.\n", "History repeated for the United States in 2013. It again occurred with a Democratic President, Barack Obama. The Republican-controlled House of Representatives boycotted the budget to protest the Affordable Care Act. The failure of the House to pass a continuing budget resolution forced a closure of most non-essential United States government offices for several weeks in October 2013.\n\nSection::::Uses in popular culture.\n", "On February 6, 2018, as Congress continued to prepare another continuing resolution for a temporary budget, President Trump declared that if American immigration laws were not tightened, \"We'll do a shutdown and it's worth it for our country. I'd love to see a shutdown if we don't get this stuff taken care of.\"\n\nSection::::Reactions.:Social media.\n", "Before Trump declared the national emergency, the United States had experienced a federal government shutdown, which ran from midnight EST on December 22, 2018, until January 25, 2019 (35 days). It was the longest U.S. government shutdown in history. It occurred when the United States Congress and President could not agree on an appropriations bill to fund the operations of the federal government for the 2019 fiscal year. The shutdown affected about one-fourth of government activities. It caused around 800,000 employees and 1 million federal contractors to be furloughed or obligated to work without pay. The shutdown was estimated by the Congressional Budget Office to cost the United States economy at least $11 billion.\n", "Section::::Effects.:National parks and capital museums.\n", "The shutdown of 2013 occurred during the Presidential term of Barack Obama, focusing on a disagreement between Republican-led House of Representatives and the Democratic-led Senate towards the contents of the 2014 Continuing Appropriations Resolution bill, alongside other political issues. Congressional Republicans, encouraged by conservative senators such as Ted Cruz, and conservative groups such as Heritage Action, sought to include several measures to the bill in late 2013 that could delay funding for the 2013 Affordable Care Act (ACA) and thus allow time for changes to be made to the act. However, both Obama and Democrat senators refused to agree to these measure, seeking instead for the bill to maintain government funding at then-current sequestration levels with no additional conditions.\n", "Slaughter said, \"Oh, mercy. It gets deeper and deeper\".\n", "Shutdowns have also affected the Washington, D.C. municipal government, closing schools and suspending utilities such as garbage collection, though not for all major political impasses and deadlocks - during the 2013 shutdown, the city remained open because mayor Vincent C. Gray declared the entire municipal government to be essential.\n\nSection::::Federal government.:Arguments for and against.\n\nDuring the 2013 shutdown, the moral philosopher Peter Singer argued in \"Slate\", that shutdowns were evidence that the U.S. Constitution's separation of powers constituted \"a fundamental flaw.\"\n", "The United States federal government shutdown of January 2018 began at midnight EST on Saturday, January 20, 2018, and ended on the evening of Monday, January 22. The shutdown began after a failure to pass legislation to fund government operations and agencies. This stemmed from disputes over the extension of status of persons affected by the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) immigration policy, and therefore whether those covered under the program should face deportation. There was also a dispute over whether funding should be allocated towards building a Mexico–United States border wall, a keystone policy during Donald Trump's presidential campaign. According to estimates by the New York Times, 692,900 workers were furloughed during the shutdown.\n", "In a video message to staff, FBI director Christopher Wray stated, “Making some people stay home when they don’t want to, and making others show up without pay, it’s mind-boggling, it’s shortsighted and it’s unfair. It takes a lot to get me angry, but I’m about as angry as I’ve been in a long, long time.”\n", "Section::::Legislative history.\n", "Section::::Shutdown.:Related disputes.\n\nSection::::Shutdown.:Related disputes.:Trump's threat to declare national emergency.\n", "In a speech to US servicemembers at a military facility near the Jordan–Syria border, Vice President Mike Pence said that immigration talks between lawmakers and the White House couldn't proceed until the government reopens. Republican Senator Lindsey Graham criticized White House policy advisor Stephen Miller, saying negotiations were going nowhere as long as he was in charge of negotiating immigration.\n", "Jobs affected included staff throughout the United States, not just DC area employees. FBI agents, federal corrections officers, FDA food inspectors, NASA employees, TSA staff, Border Patrol staff and CBP officers, census staff, National Park Service staff, members of the Coast Guard and Federal Aviation Administration air traffic controllers either worked without pay or were furloughed, with increasing numbers of unpaid essential employees failing to show up for work.\n", "BULLET::::- The United States government enters a second government shutdown, arising over a dispute over funding for the U.S.–Mexico border wall. The shutdown, which lasted until January 25, 2019, is the longest government shutdown in U.S. history.\n\nBULLET::::- December 24 – Burundi moves its capital from Bujumbura to Gitega.\n\nBULLET::::- December 26 – After weeks of losses the Dow Jones Industrial Average posts its largest ever one-day point gain: 1,086 points.\n", "The shutdown of December 2018–January 2019 was the second to occur during the Presidential term of Donald Trump, and centered around a disagreement on border security between Republicans and Democrats. Trump sought to have the appropriation bill for 2019 include a funding measure on border security, providing $5.7 billion toward construction of a new wall extending the barrier along the Mexican border. Democrats refused to support the bill, citing that the funding would be a waste of \"taxpayer money\" and questioned the effectiveness the new wall would have, opting to propose bills that would include funding for border security, but towards improving pre-existing security measures. Trump initially backed down on demands for border wall funding, but reversed this decision on 20 December 2018 over pressure from supporters, refusing to sign any CRs that did not include it.\n", "House minority leader Nancy Pelosi referred to the event as the \"Tea Party Shutdown\". Pelosi used the term \"legislative arsonists\" to refer to House Republican legislators who passed a bill linking the new budget with defunding the Affordable Care Act. Senate minority leader Mitch McConnell called the shutdown the prize of the Democratic leaders in Congress.\n", "Section::::Reactions.:Public opinion.\n", "Section::::Effects.:On the military.\n", "Section::::Effects.:Domestic effects.:Effect on shelters for domestic violence victims.\n", "Section::::Effects.:Domestic effects.:Effect on the District of Columbia.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-02091	Why some computer programs output text like "1 connection(s)" even though they clearly know the count?	Partly it's laziness on the part of the developer, but it's also because getting plurals correct internationally is a lot of work. Let's say your program needs to be translated into 20 languages. In English we have one form for one item (singular) and another form for zero, two or more (plural). But other languages don't always work that way! Some languages have different forms for zero or two, or other complicated rules. So, software that puts a lot of effort into being very user-friendly and customized for every language will go to the effort to do it right. Software that just needs to work will skip that extra effort and do it the simple way. It's uglier but it's clear.	[ "Troubleshooting at the unit, network, or Super Network level is enabled by the reporting of monitoring and statistical data. Each unit's SNC also validates all message data sent to it by the DLP before processing the message, and reports success or failure of each message back to the DLP. If the validation fails, the SNC also provides details of why the message failed validation.\n\nSection::::Guidebook Chapter 1 : Link 22 Overview.:Section B : Features.:Congestion management.\n", "BULLET::::- codice_45: a special state that can be assigned by the administrator to bypass connection tracking for a particular packet (see raw table, above).\n\nA normal example would be that the first packet the conntrack subsystem sees will be classified \"new\", the reply would be classified \"established\" and an ICMP error would be \"related\". An ICMP error packet which did not match any known connection would be \"invalid\".\n\nSection::::Connection tracking.:Connection tracking helpers.\n", "Every unit in the Link 22 Super Network uses the same Fundamental Link 22 Parameters to perform initialization. These parameters are specified in the OLM. This significantly reduces the volume of configuration data that needs to be distributed by the system. In fact, Link 22 can be initialized and can transmit tactical messages on a NILE network at the instant the network is to start, with no prior communications on the network required.\n\nInitialization consists of the following two parts.\n\nBULLET::::- NILE Unit Initialization\n\nBULLET::::- Network Initialization\n", "A typical SOCKS4 connection request looks like this:\n\nSOCKS client to SOCKS server:\n\nBULLET::::- field 1: SOCKS version number, 1 byte, must be 0x04 for this version\n\nBULLET::::- field 2: command code, 1 byte:\n\nBULLET::::- 0x01 = establish a TCP/IP stream connection\n\nBULLET::::- 0x02 = establish a TCP/IP port binding\n\nBULLET::::- field 3: port number, 2 bytes (in network byte order)\n\nBULLET::::- field 4: IP address, 4 bytes (in network byte order)\n\nBULLET::::- field 5: the user ID string, variable length, terminated with a null (0x00)\n\nSOCKS server to SOCKS client:\n\nBULLET::::- field 1: null byte\n", "BULLET::::- The parameter \"txqueuelen\" is measured in number of Ethernet frames and is the size of the buffer that is being managed by the network scheduler.\n\nSection::::Usage.:Media access control functions.\n\ncodice_1 is also commonly used to change the media access control (MAC) address of an interface. In this process, the network interface is first disabled (set \"down\") with the codice_1 command, followed by a MAC change command:\n\nSection::::Release status.\n", "The first , in codice_17, means connections can come from any IP address, and the second , in codice_17, means the connection can originate from any port on the remote machine.\n\nSection::::Caveats.\n\nSome versions of codice_1 lack explicit field delimiters in their printf-generated output, leading to numeric fields running together and thus corrupting the output data.\n\nSection::::Platform specific remarks.\n\nUnder Linux, raw data can often be obtained from the /proc/net/dev to work around the printf output corruption arising in netstat's network interface statistics summary, codice_6, until such time as the problem is corrected.\n", "The algorithm iterates over the collection of link-state advertisements; for each one, it makes links on the map of the network, from the node which sent that message, to all the nodes which that message indicates are neighbors of the sending node.\n\nNo link is considered to have been correctly reported unless the two ends agree; i.e., if one node reports that it is connected to another, but the other node does not report that it is connected to the first, there is a problem, and the link is not included on the map.\n\nSection::::Distributing maps.:Notes about this stage.\n", "A \"terminal list\", specified by the codice_3 macro, identifies the terminals attached to the line. This macro specifies the line characteristics—start-stop, bisync, point-to-point, multipoint, leased line or dial — and the type of \"polling\" required— wrap around or open. The polling characters or telephone number used to identify each specific remote device on the line are coded. The codice_4 macro can be used to modify information for a specific device in the list during execution. A wrap-around polling list will cause each device in the list to be polled sequentially by the channel until a response was received, This reduces the load on the CPU for continuous polling.\n", "Biff (Unix)\n\nSection::::Usage.\n\nWhen a new mail message is delivered, the program alerts the recipient so they can read it immediately. The alert is sent to the tty where the recipient is logged in, and contains the \"Subject\", \"From\" line, and first few lines of the body of the new message. The alert also includes terminal beeps to guarantee quick attention.\n\nNotification is enabled by the command\n\nand disabled by\n\nSection::::Replacements.\n", "Link 22 has automated Network Management functions that require a minimum of operator interaction, if any. These functions are controlled by the transmission of Network Management messages. Each unit can define whether or not to automatically respond to, and whether or not to automatically perform, each of the Network Management functions.\n", "Section::::Acknowledgement characters.\n\nWhen the ASCII code is used to communicate between computer terminals, each terminal can send an enquiry character to request the condition of the other. The receiver of this character can respond with ACK (0000110 or 6) to indicate that it is operating normally, or NAK (0010101 or 15) to indicate an error condition. Unicode provides visible symbols for these characters, U+2406 (␆) and U+2415 (␕).\n\nSection::::Protocol usage.\n", "Tactical Messages within Link 22 are handled as sealed envelopes and the system works without access to the tactical data contents. This provides the possibility to encrypt the tactical data at the top level and still be able to transmit it. This additional level of security cannot be provided by Link 16 as the terminal must retain access to the tactical data being transmitted.\n\nSection::::Guidebook Chapter 1 : Link 22 Overview.:Section B : Features.:Tactical message transmission.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Type 5\" – External LSA – these LSAs contain information imported into OSPF from other routing processes. They are flooded to all areas unchanged (except stub and NSSA areas). For \"External Metric Type 1\" LSAs routing decisions are made using the Type 1 metric cost sent, as the total cost to get to the external destination and includes the cost to the ASBR; while for \"External Type 2\" LSAs the metric sent is the cost from the ASBR to the External destination network and must be added to the OSPF cost to the ASBR advertising the Type 5. The link-state ID of the type 5 LSA is the external network number.\n", "Deliberate traffic shaping is deployed on the Plusnet network in order to ensure Quality of Service. Mistakes when this system was first implemented resulted in misclassification of some protocols, which made certain applications unusable at peak times. This was improved when the classification of unidentified traffic was raised in priority. Non-standard applications still remain susceptible to misclassification (e.g. running SSH on a non standard port other than 4500 or 10000 which are set aside by Plusnet for this purpose).\n", "BULLET::::- e, if set, indicates an expedited transfer, i.e. all data exchanged are contained within the message. If this bit is cleared then the message is a segmented transfer where the data does not fit into one message and multiple messages are used.\n\nBULLET::::- s, if set, indicates that the data size is specified in n (if e is set) or in the data part of the message\n\nBULLET::::- index is the object dictionary index of the data to be accessed\n\nBULLET::::- subindex is the subindex of the object dictionary variable\n", "BBN developed a program to test the performance of the communication circuits. According to a report filed by Heart, a preliminary test in late 1969 based on a 27-hour period of activity on the UCSB-SRI line found \"approximately one packet per 20,000 in error;\" subsequent tests \"uncovered a 100% variation in this number - apparently due to many unusually long periods of time (on the order of hours) with no detected errors.\"\n", "Link 22 messages are called F-Series messages and are part of the J-Family of messages. The F-Series consists of two types of messages, the Unique F messages and the FJ messages. The Unique F-Series messages are more compact versions of Link 16's messages, or messages that do not exist in Link 16. The FJ messages encapsulate Link 16 J-Series messages within Link 22 messages, enabling Link 16 tactical messages to be transmitted without modification within Link 22.\n", "On some systems (little endian architectures in particular) this can result in the overwriting of the least significant byte of the frame pointer. This can cause an exploitable condition where an attacker can hijack the local variables for the calling routine.\n", "A simple example of how this works using metadata is transmitting the word \"HELLO\", by encoding each letter as its position in the alphabet. Thus, the letter \"A\" is coded as 1, \"B\" as 2, and so on as shown in the table on the right. Adding up the resulting numbers yields 8 + 5 + 12 + 12 + 15 = 52, and 5 + 2 = 7 calculates the metadata. Finally, the \"8 5 12 12 15 7\" numbers sequence is transmitted, which the receiver will see on its end if there are no transmission errors. The receiver knows that the last number received is the error-detecting metadata and that all data before is the message, so the receiver can recalculate the above math and if the metadata matches it can be concluded that the data has been received error-free. Though, if the receiver sees something like a \"7 5 12 12 15 7\" sequence (first element altered by some error), it can run the check by calculating 7 + 5 + 12 + 12 + 15 = 51 and 5 + 1 = 6, and discard the received data as defective since 6 does not equal 7.\n", "If text typed on the sending host (type something and hit enter) is displayed also on the listening host, then the UDP port 4172 is open. If it is not open, you will get an error such as \"Connection refused\".\n", "BULLET::::- Submit stores the message text after doing any necessary header rewriting, determines what channel(s) will be used to deliver the message, and injects the message into the queues for those channels.\n\nBULLET::::- Depending on configuration, submit may then call \"deliver\", or deliver may run later as part of periodic processing. Deliver does no direct processing of messages; instead it invokes outbound (delivery) channels, tells them which messages to process, and gives them a list of recipient addresses for each message.\n", "Link 16 information is primarily coded in J.-series messages which are binary data words with well-defined meanings. These data words are grouped in \"functional areas\", and allocated to \"network participation groups\" (NPG) (virtual networks), most importantly:\n\nBULLET::::- \"PPLI\", or Precise Participant Location and Identification (network participation groups 5 and 6),\n\nBULLET::::- \"Surveillance\" (network participation group 7),\n\nBULLET::::- \"Command (Mission Management/Weapons Coordination)\" (network participation group 8),\n\nBULLET::::- \"(Aircraft) Control\" (network participation group 9),\n\nBULLET::::- \"Electronic Warfare & Coordination\" (network participation group 10).\n\nSection::::Platforms.\n\nSome examples of platforms currently using the Link 16 capability are:\n\nSection::::Platforms.:Aircraft.\n\nBULLET::::- AH-64E Guardian\n\nBULLET::::- P-3C Orion\n", "Some SNMP values (especially tabular values) require specific knowledge of table indexing schemes, and these index values are not necessarily consistent across platforms. This can cause correlation issues when fetching information from multiple devices that may not employ the same table indexing scheme (for example fetching disk utilization metrics, where a specific disk identifier is different across platforms.)\n\nSection::::Resource indexing.\n", "In the simplest case, an ESMTP server declares a maximum codice_16 immediately after receiving an codice_13. According to , however, the numeric parameter to the codice_16 extension in the codice_13 response is optional. Clients may instead, when issuing a codice_2 command, include a numeric estimate of the size of the message they are transferring, so that the server can refuse receipt of overly-large messages.\n\nSection::::Extended Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.:Binary data transfer.\n", "The lead-in serves the same purpose as the \"header\" in most protocols, indicating that the data following is a B Plus packet. The sequence number is a simple way of making sure packets are received in the correct order on reception. The small number range used does not present a problem because packets even \"one out of order\" will trigger a re-send or abort, so there is no possibility of the \"wrong 0x30\" being received, ten packets later.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-16957	How do snakes breathe when consuming a large meal?	Snakes contract muscles between their ribs in order to inhale and exhalation is passive. Basically they can reduce pressure within their body cavity by flexing their ribs, and the rear of their right lung (the left is typically vestigial) is mostly just an air sack to regulate pressure within their abdomen.	[ "In some sea snakes, cutaneous respiration can account for up to 30 percent of total oxygen uptake, and is important when diving, during which blood is shunted away the lungs and towards capillaries in the skin, in some cases causing the skin to turn pink. \n\nSection::::Taxonomic diversity.:Mammals.\n", "One of the primary defensive behaviors of \"G. canum\" is to make a popping noise with its cloaca, i.e., farting. According to an article in the August, 2000 issue of Discover magazine, during a laboratory experiment carried out by Bruce Young, a morphologist at Lafayette College, the snakes only farted when they felt threatened, and some farted so energetically that they lifted themselves off the ground.\n\nSection::::Speed.\n\n\"Gyalopion canum\" is quick in short bursts or spurts.\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "Recent studies (2013 and 2014) on the lung anatomy of the savannah monitor and green iguana found them to have a unidirectional airflow system, which involves the air moving in a loop through the lungs when breathing. This was previously thought to only exist in the archosaurs (crocodilians and birds). This may be evidence that unidirectional airflow is an ancestral trait in diapsids.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Reproduction and lifecycle.\n", "The diet consists of mainly reptiles, including snakes, but they will eat mammals if available. Because black-headed pythons live in the desert, they heat up quicker and stay warmer for longer. This means they can eat more because they digest food quicker in warmer conditions. When ingesting large prey, this species positions one or two coils just ahead of its distended mouth and by constriction makes the task of swallowing easier.\n\nSection::::Reproduction.\n", "In fish, the tongue is largely bony and much less mobile and getting the food to the back of the pharynx is helped by pumping water in its mouth and out of its gills.\n\nIn snakes, the work of swallowing is done by raking with the lower jaw until the prey is far enough back to be helped down by body undulations.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Dysphagia\n\nBULLET::::- Occlusion\n\nBULLET::::- Speech and language pathology\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Overview at nature.com\n\nBULLET::::- Anatomy and physiology of swallowing at dysphagia.com\n\nBULLET::::- Swallowing animation (flash) at hopkins-gi.org\n", "Section::::Reptiles.\n\nThe anatomical structure of the lungs is less complex in reptiles than in mammals, with reptiles lacking the very extensive airway tree structure found in mammalian lungs. Gas exchange in reptiles still occurs in alveoli however. Reptiles do not possess a diaphragm. Thus, breathing occurs via a change in the volume of the body cavity which is controlled by contraction of intercostal muscles in all reptiles except turtles. In turtles, contraction of specific pairs of flank muscles governs inhalation and exhalation.\n\nSection::::Amphibians.\n", "Snakes use smell to track their prey. They smell by using their forked tongues to collect airborne particles, then passing them to the vomeronasal organ or \"Jacobson's organ\" in the mouth for examination. The fork in the tongue gives snakes a sort of directional sense of smell and taste simultaneously. They keep their tongues constantly in motion, sampling particles from the air, ground, and water, analyzing the chemicals found, and determining the presence of prey or predators in the local environment. In water-dwelling snakes, such as the anaconda, the tongue functions efficiently underwater.\n", "Like other arachnids, spiders are unable to chew their food, so they have a mouth part shaped like a short drinking straw that they use to suck up the liquefied insides of their prey. However, they are able to eat their own silk to recycle proteins needed in the production of new spider webs. Some spiders, such as the dewdrop spiders (\"Argyrodes\"), even eat the silk of other spider species.\n\nSection::::External anatomy.:Cephalothorax.:Appendages.\n", "Although it is more common that it will flatten its head, some individuals may puff up, filling the throat with air. This is more common with adolescent males.\n\nSection::::Ecology.:Diet.\n", "In all snakes of the genus \"Pituophis\", the epiglottis is peculiarly modified so that it is thin, erect and flexible. When a stream of air is forced from the trachea, the epiglottis vibrates, thereby producing the peculiarly loud, hoarse hissing for which bullsnakes, gopher snakes and pine snakes are well known.\n\nSection::::Species and subspecies.\n\nBULLET::::- \"P. catenifer\" – gopher snake\n\nBULLET::::- \"P. c. affinis\" – Sonoran gopher snake\n\nBULLET::::- \"P. c. annectens\" – San Diego gopher snake\n\nBULLET::::- \"P. c. bimaris\" – central Baja California gopher snake\n\nBULLET::::- \"P. c. catenifer\" – Pacific gopher snake\n", "Being constrictors, \"Elaphe\" spp. kill the prey by creating enormous pressure on the prey's chest. As they continue to coil more tightly, the pressure on the chest prevents the blood from circulating into the heart, which eventually leads to heart failure.\n\nThey usually bite the prey first to maintain their grip on the prey before they start this deadly mechanism. In addition, they do not chew their food, but swallow it whole.\n\nSection::::Habitat and distribution.\n", "Section::::Diet.:Digestion.\n\nThe digestive response of Burmese pythons to such large prey has made them a model species for digestive physiology. A fasting python has a reduced stomach volume and acidity, reduced intestinal mass, and a 'normal' heart volume. After ingesting prey, the entire digestive system undergoes a massive remodelling, with rapid hypertrophy of the intestines, production of stomach acid, and a 40% increase in mass of the ventricle of the heart to fuel the digestive process.\n\nSection::::Conservation.\n", "All aquatic reptiles breathe air into lungs. The anatomical structure of the lungs is less complex in reptiles than in mammals, with reptiles lacking the very extensive airway tree structure found in mammalian lungs. Gas exchange in reptiles still occurs in alveoli however, reptiles do not possess a diaphragm. Thus, breathing occurs via a change in the volume of the body cavity which is controlled by contraction of intercostal muscles in all reptiles except turtles. In turtles, contraction of specific pairs of flank muscles governs inspiration or expiration.\n", "The proboscis of the class Anopla (\"unarmed\") exits from an orifice which is separate from the mouth, coils around the prey and immobilizes it by sticky, toxic secretions. The Anopla can attack as soon as they move into the range of the proboscis. Some Anopla have branched proboscises which can be described as \"a mass of sticky spaghetti\". The animal then draws its prey into its mouth.\n", "Because snakes digest nearly all of their prey, they do not require additional sources of vitamins or minerals. Moreover, at this time, there exist no data to suggest otherwise.\n\nSection::::Captivity.:Heat, lighting and substrate.\n", "Tawny frogmouths do not consume prey collected on the ground or in flight on the spot unless it is very small. The captured prey is held in the tip of the beak and taken to a nearby branch, where it is then processed. Insects are generally pulped at the rim of the beak before being swallowed, and larger prey such as lizards or mice are generally killed before consumption by being bashed against a branch with great force.\n\nSection::::Behaviour and ecology.:Bonding and breeding.\n", "The tree pangolin eats insects such as ants and termites from their nests, or the armies of insects moving on the trees. It relies on its thick skin for protection, and digs into burrows with its long, clawed forefeet. It eats between 5 and 7 ounces (150 to 200 g) of insects a day. The pangolin uses its 10- to 27-in (250- to 700-mm) tongue which is coated with gummy mucus to funnel the insects into its mouth. The tongue is actually sheathed in the chest cavity all the way to the pelvic area.\n\nSection::::Reproduction.\n", "Section::::Feeding.\n", "After eating, snakes become dormant while the process of digestion takes place. Digestion is an intense activity, especially after consumption of large prey. In species that feed only sporadically, the entire intestine enters a reduced state between meals to conserve energy. The digestive system is then 'up-regulated' to full capacity within 48 hours of prey consumption. Being ectothermic (\"cold-blooded\"), the surrounding temperature plays a large role in snake digestion. The ideal temperature for snakes to digest is . So much metabolic energy is involved in a snake's digestion that in the Mexican rattlesnake (\"Crotalus durissus\"), surface body temperature increases by as much as during the digestive process. Because of this, a snake disturbed after having eaten recently will often regurgitate its prey to be able to escape the perceived threat. When undisturbed, the digestive process is highly efficient, with the snake's digestive enzymes dissolving and absorbing everything but the prey's hair (or feathers) and claws, which are excreted along with waste.\n", "Section::::Description.:Proboscis and feeding.\n\nThe proboscis is an infolding of the body wall, and sits in the rhynchocoel when inactive. When muscles in the wall of the rhynchocoel compress the fluid in the rhynchocoel, the pressure makes the proboscis jump inside-out to attack the animal's prey along a canal called the rhynchodeum and through an orifice, the proboscis pore. The proboscis has a muscle which attaches to the back of the rhynchocoel, and which can stretch up to 30 times its inactive length and then retract the proboscis.\n", "The Komodo dragon drinks by sucking water into its mouth via buccal pumping (a process also used for respiration), lifting its head, and letting the water run down its throat.\n\nSection::::Behaviour and ecology.:Saliva.\n", "Spiders have developed several different respiratory anatomies, based either on book lungs or on tracheae. Mesothele and mygalomorph spiders have two pairs of book lungs filled with haemolymph, where openings on the ventral surface of the abdomen allow air to enter and oxygen to diffuse in and carbon dioxide to diffuse out. This is also the case for some basal araneomorph spiders like the family Hypochilidae, but the remaining members of this group have just the anterior pair of book lungs intact while the posterior pair of breathing organs are partly or fully modified into tracheae, through which oxygen is diffused into the haemolymph or directly to the tissue and organs. This system has most likely evolved in small ancestors to help resist desiccation. The trachea were originally connected to the surroundings through a pair of spiracles, but in the majority of spiders this pair of spiracles has fused into a single one in the middle, and migrated posterior close to the spinnerets.\n", "Larger specimens usually eat animals about the size of a house cat, but larger food items are known; some large Asian species have been known to take down adult deer, and the African rock python, \"Python sebae\", has been known to eat antelope. In 2017, there was a recorded case of a human devoured by a python in Sulawesi, Indonesia. All prey is swallowed whole, and may take several days or even weeks to fully digest.\n", "Considerable research has confirmed that chimpanzees self-medicate with \"A. aequinoctiale\" by swallowing the leaves whole. Not normally a part of the chimpanzee's diet, this behaviour is most often witnessed during rainy seasons, when the animals are most likely to be afflicted with the parasitic nematodes \"Oesophagostomum stephanostomum\" and other species of parasitic worms. Examination of the faecal matter of chimpanzees shows that the whole-swallowed leaves remain intact, along with multiple expelled worms. In one dung sample, as many as 20 worms were found, along with 50 undigested leaves. The mechanism through which \"A. aequinoctiale\" causes these worms to be expelled from the primates is not yet fully established, though a common factor in the chimpanzee's whole-leaf swallowing of \"A. aequinoctiale\" and other plants is the presence of trichomes on the leaves. Trichomes not being easily digestible, the un-chewed and rough surfaces of the leaves are thought to help physically extract the worms from the intestines.\n", "The tree pangolin can walk on all fours or on its hind legs using its prehensile tail for balance. It can climb up trees in the absence of branches. When walking on all fours, it walks on its front knuckles with its claws tucked underneath to protect them from wearing down. Its anal scent glands disperse a foul secretion much like a skunk when threatened. It has a well-developed sense of smell, but as a nocturnal animal, it has poor eyesight. Instead of teeth, it has a gizzard-like stomach full of stones and sand it ingests. The tree pangolin in Africa fills its stomach with air before entering water to aid in buoyancy for well-developed swimming.\n" ]	[ "Snakes cannot breathe when their airway is blocked while eating food." ]	[ "Snakes contract muscles between their ribs in order to breathe." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Snakes cannot breathe when their airway is blocked while eating food.", "Snakes cannot breathe when their airway is blocked while eating food." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Snakes contract muscles between their ribs in order to breathe.", "Snakes contract muscles between their ribs in order to breathe." ]
2018-02689	How come whenever I'm exposed to the cold my hands always get slow and sluggish?	In response to cold, your body will prioritize keeping your core warm as that's where all your important organs are. Because of this the circulation to your hands and feet are reduced, especially if they aren't doing any work that needs extra oxygen. This results in cold sluggish hands. It's also why clapping your hands can warm them up briefly, the pain causes your body to send more blood to your hands to deal with possible injury. But the best way to deal with your hands in the cold is to get active. One time during a rather strenuous hike i needed to stick my hands in the snow to cool them down (helped keep me from sweating)	[ "Vasoconstriction occurs first to reduce heat loss, but also results in strong cooling of the extremities. Approximately five to ten minutes after the start of cold exposure, the blood vessels in the extremities will suddenly vasodilate. This is probably caused by a sudden decrease in the release of neurotransmitters from the sympathetic nerves to the muscular coat of the arteriovenous anastomoses due to local cold. This cold-induced vasodilation increases blood flow and subsequently the temperature of the fingers. A new phase of vasoconstriction follows the vasodilation, after which the process repeats itself.\n", "When the fingers are exposed to cold, vasoconstriction occurs first to reduce heat loss, resulting in strong cooling of the fingers. Approximately five to ten minutes after the start of the cold exposure of the hand, the blood vessels in the finger tips will suddenly vasodilate. This is probably caused by a sudden decrease in the release of neurotransmitters from the sympathetic nerves to the muscular coat of the arteriovenous anastomoses due to local cold. The CIVD increases blood flow and subsequently the temperature of the fingers. This can be painful and is sometimes known as the 'hot aches' which can be painful enough to bring on vomiting.\n", "BULLET::::- Fingers change colour (blood vessels affected): With continued exposure the person may suffer periodic attacks in which the fingers change colour when exposed to the cold. Initially the fingers rapidly become pale and feeling is lost. This phase is followed by an intense red flush (sometimes preceded by a dusky bluish phase) signalling the return of blood circulation to the fingers and is usually accompanied by uncomfortable throbbing.\n", "Hunting reaction\n\nThe hunting reaction or hunting response is a process of alternating vasoconstriction and vasodilation in extremities exposed to cold. The term Lewis reaction is used too, named after Thomas Lewis, who first described the effect in 1930.\n", "The hunting reaction is one out of four possible responses to immersion of the finger in cold water. The other responses observed in the fingers after immersion in cold water are a continuous state of vasoconstriction, slow steady and continuous rewarming and a proportional control form in which the blood vessel diameter remains constant after an initial phase of vasoconstriction. However, the vast majority of the vascular responses to immersion of the finger in cold water can be classified as the hunting reaction.\n", "BULLET::::- Numbness or tingling in the fingers and toes happens to nearly everyone having oxaliplatin and is usually worse if you are cold. You may have trouble with fiddly tasks such as doing up buttons. This can start a few days or weeks after treatment and usually goes away within a few months of the treatment finishing\n", "It is often asymptomatic in the early stages of blood vessel disorder. When the disease develops, a variety of signs can be observed in different body parts. For instance, patients may have pale skin, cold hands and feet, and numb fingertips. These are mainly due to the reduction in blood flow to the limbs, resulting in a decrease in heat distribution to these areas. Ulcers and wounds would also take a much longer time to heal because of the impairment in blood clot formation process. Muscle weakness and cramping may occur as well, especially in the legs, because of the insufficient oxygen supply to muscle cells for metabolism.\n", "Vasospasm in the hands and fingers due to prolonged exposure to vibration (30 - 300 Mhz) and triggered by cold can lead to Hand-arm vibration syndrome in which feeling and manual dexterity are lost. \n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "Peripheral nerve studies have shown that even a 0.5 °C increase in body temperature can slow or block the conduction of nerve impulses in demyelinated nerves. With greater levels of demyelination, a smaller increase in temperature is needed to slow down the nerve impulse conduction. Exercising and performing activities of daily living can cause a significant increase in body temperature in individuals with MS, especially if their mechanical efficiency is poor due to the use of mobility aids, ataxia, weakness, and spasticity. However, exercise has been shown to be helpful in managing MS symptoms, reducing the risk of comorbidities, and promoting overall wellness. \n", "In addition, temperatures usually fluctuate greatly in springtime. When temperatures rise, a person's blood pressure drops, since the blood vessels expand. The expansion of blood vessels is called vasodilation. Food also plays a role. In winter one tends to consume more calories, fat and carbohydrates than in summer. But during the hormone adjustment period the body requires more vitamins and proteins instead.\n", "Blood circulation transports heat throughout the body, and adjustments to this flow are an important part of thermoregulation. Increasing blood flow to the surface (e.g., during warm weather or strenuous exercise) causes warmer skin, resulting in faster heat loss. In contrast, when the external temperature is low, blood flow to the extremities and surface of the skin is reduced and to prevent heat loss and is circulated to the important organs of the body, preferentially.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Rate of blood flow.\n", "Section::::Research.:Studies.\n\nBULLET::::- Bennett et al. produced an artificial peripheral mononeuropathy in rats by surgically constricting the sciatic nerve. These rats showed an increased response to noxious radiant heat, were nocifensive when placed on a cold metal floor, protected their hind paws, and had suppressed appetite. Additionally, the paws of many of these rats were inappropriately warm or cool to the touch, and many of the rats overgrew claws on the affected paws as well. These results indicate that the rats exhibited hyperalgesia, allodynia, and dysesthesia.\n", "A new phase of vasoconstriction follows the vasodilation, after which the process repeats itself. This is called the Hunting reaction. Experiments have shown that three other vascular responses to immersion of the finger in cold water are possible: a continuous state of vasoconstriction; slow, steady, and continuous rewarming; and a proportional control form in which the blood vessel diameter remains constant after an initial phase of vasoconstriction. However, the vast majority of responses can be classified as the Hunting reaction.\n\nSection::::Examples and individual mechanisms.:Other mechanisms of vasodilation.\n\nOther suggested vasodilators or vasodilating factors include:\n", "When cold, the body attempts to capture heat in the blood by constricting the smooth muscle cells around the microvasculature. The muscle cells are constricted by an increase in calcium. The decreased cross-sectional area for flow increases the vascular resistance and lowers the flow to extremities. This mechanism allows the body to concentrate the heat around the vital organs for survival.\n\nThe formula for calculating the systemic vascular resistance is:\n\nformula_3\n\nBULLET::::- SVR as the systemic vascular resistance\n\nBULLET::::- MAP as the mean arterial pressure\n\nBULLET::::- MRAP as the mean right arterial pressure\n", "In order to minimise the confounding influence of external factors, patients undergoing infrared thermographic testing must conform to special restrictions regarding the use of certain vasoconstrictors (namely, nicotine and caffeine), skin lotions, physical therapy, and other diagnostic procedures in the days prior to testing. Patients may also be required to discontinue certain pain medications and sympathetic blockers. After a patient arrives at a thermographic laboratory, he or she is allowed to reach thermal equilibrium in a 16–20 °C, draft-free, steady-state room wearing a loose fitting cotton hospital gown for approximately twenty minutes. A technician then takes infrared images of both the patient's affected and unaffected limbs, as well as reference images of other parts of the patient's body, including his or her face, upper back, and lower back. After capturing a set of baseline images, some labs further require the patient to undergo cold-water autonomic-functional-stress-testing to evaluate the function of his or her autonomic nervous system's peripheral vasoconstrictor reflex. This is performed by placing a patient's unaffected limb in a cold water bath (approximately 20 °C) for five minutes while collecting images. In a normal, intact, functioning autonomic nervous system, a patient's affected extremity will become colder. Conversely, warming of an affected extremity may indicate a disruption of the body's normal thermoregulatory vasoconstrictor function, which may sometimes indicate underlying CRPS.\n", "All individuals have circulating antibodies directed against red blood cells, but their concentrations are often too low to trigger disease (titers under 64 at 4 °C). In individuals with cold agglutinin disease, these antibodies are in much higher concentrations (titers over 1000 at 4 °C).\n", "Many people with CAD also experience pain and bluish coloring of the hands and feet (acrocyanosis) or Raynaud's disease. These symptoms result from slow or poor circulation and can range from mild to disabling.\n\nOther signs and symptoms of CAD may include enlargement of the spleen (splenomegaly) and mottled discoloration of the skin (livedo reticularis).\n", "People often complain that the stiffness and pain worsen at night. Pain due to frozen shoulder is usually dull or aching. It can be worsened with attempted motion, or if bumped. A physical therapist, osteopath or chiropractor, physician, athletic trainer, physician assistant, or nurse practitioner may suspect the patient has a frozen shoulder if a physical examination reveals limited shoulder movement. Frozen shoulder can be diagnosed if limits to the active range of motion (range of motion from active use of muscles) are the same or almost the same as the limits to the passive range of motion (range of motion from a person manipulating the arm and shoulder). An arthrogram or an MRI scan may confirm the diagnosis, though in practice this is rarely required.\n", "BULLET::::1. Muscular relaxation by repetition of a verbal formula, \"My right arm is heavy\", emphasizing heaviness. During the initial stages of the training, the feeling of heaviness in the trained arm is more expressed and occurs more rapidly. The same feeling can be experienced in the other extremities at the same time in the other arm. Within a week, a short concentration can trigger the sensation of heaviness in a trainee's arms and legs.\n\nBULLET::::2. Passive concentration focuses on feeling warm, initiated by the instruction \"My right arm is warm\".\n", "Freedman and colleagues (1991) demonstrated that hand-warming and hand-cooling are produced by different mechanisms. The primary hand-warming mechanism is beta-adrenergic (hormonal), while the main hand-cooling mechanism is alpha-adrenergic and involves sympathetic C-fibers. This contradicts the traditional view that finger blood flow is controlled exclusively by sympathetic C-fibers. The traditional model asserts that, when firing is slow, hands warm; when firing is rapid, hands cool. Freedman and colleagues' studies support the view that hand-warming and hand-cooling represent entirely different skills.\n", "Patients report that myotonia congenita may present itself in the following ways (this is from first hand experience). If the person is sedentary and then decides to walk up a set of stairs, by the third or fourth step their leg muscles begin to stiffen significantly, requiring them to slow down almost to a complete stop. But as the muscles loosen up, a few steps later, they can once again begin to climb the steps at a normal pace. If this person plays any kind of a sport, a good warm-up is mandatory. Otherwise if they need to quickly and intensively use their muscles, such as in a sprint race or a basketball game, their muscles will freeze up, causing them to slow down or almost come to a complete stop. But once the muscles are warmed up, they can once again function normally. This can happen in various muscles, even in muscles such as the tongue. For example, if a person has not spoken for awhile and then wants to speak, their tongue may be stiff at first causing the words to come out a little garbled, but after a few seconds of trying to speak, the tongue muscle will loosen up and then they can speak normally for the remainder of the time that they are conversing.\n", "In cases of emotional distress, this system may activate, resulting in fainting due to decreased blood pressure from vasodilation, which is referred to as vasovagal syncope.\n\nSection::::Examples and individual mechanisms.:Cold-induced vasodilation.\n\nCold-induced vasodilation (CIVD) occurs after cold exposure, possibly to reduce the risk of injury. It can take place in several locations in the human body but is observed most often in the extremities. The fingers are especially common because they are exposed most often.\n", "Situational heat stroke occurs in the absence of exertion. It mostly affects the young and elderly. In the elderly in particular, it can be precipitated by medications that reduce vasodilation and sweating, such as anticholinergic drugs, antihistamines, and diuretics. In this situation, the body's tolerance for high environmental temperature may be insufficient, even at rest.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Alternating movements\": Patient is told e.g. to pronate and supinate his hands in rapid succession, holding forearms vertically. In cerebellar diseases, the movements are irregular and inaccurate; in case of the pyramidal tract lesion the motion may be slowed or incomplete.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Stewart-Holmes rebound sign\": Patient tries to flex the elbow against applied resistance. When physician's grip is suddenly released, the patient should be able to deter it from rebounding. With cerebellar disease, the forearm may sway in several cycles. The patient may even strike himself if not guarded.\n", "In these ways, winter swimmers can survive both the initial shock and prolonged exposure. Nevertheless, the human organism is not suited to freezing water: the struggle to maintain blood temperature (by swimming or conditioned metabolic response) produces great fatigue after thirty minutes or less.\n\nSection::::Cold shock response in bacteria.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04830	How does regenerative braking work on electric/hybrid cars?	Spinning a magnet in a coil (or vice versa) creates electricity, it also creates resistence. Doing it while the car is moving would be a great idea except it slows down the car (more than the energy it generates speeds it up). So instead they work that system into the breaks, so while its braking it also generates electric power for the battery.	[ "An AC/DC rectifier and a very large capacitor may be used to store the regenerated energy, rather than a battery. The use of a capacitor allows much more rapid peak storage of energy, and at higher voltages. Mazda uses this system in some current (2018) road cars, where it is branded i-ELOOP.\n\nSection::::Conversion to electric energy: the motor as a generator.:Electric railway vehicle operation.\n\nIn 1886 the Sprague Electric Railway & Motor Company, founded by Frank J. Sprague, introduced two important inventions: a constant-speed, non-sparking motor with fixed brushes, and regenerative braking.\n", "Section::::History.:Predecessors of present technology.\n\nThe regenerative braking system, a core design concept of most modern production HEVs, was developed in 1967 for the American Motors Amitron and called Energy Regeneration Brake by AMC. This completely battery powered urban concept car was recharged by braking, thus increasing the range of the automobile. The AMC Amitron was first use of regenerative braking technology in the U.S.\n", "Automakers including Honda have been testing KERS systems. At the 2008 1,000 km of Silverstone, Peugeot Sport unveiled the Peugeot 908 HY, a hybrid electric variant of the diesel 908, with KERS. Peugeot planned to campaign the car in the 2009 Le Mans Series season, although it was not capable of scoring championship points. Peugeot plans also a compressed air regenerative braking powertrain called Hybrid Air.\n", "Toyota has used a supercapacitor for regeneration on Supra HV-R hybrid race car that won the 24 Hours of Tokachi race in July 2007.\n\nBMW has used regenerative braking on their E90 3 Series as well as in current models like F25 5 Series under the EfficientDynamics moniker. Volkswagen have regenerative braking technologies under the BlueMotion brand in such models as the MK7 Golf and MK7 Golf Estate / Wagon models, other VW group brands like SEAT, Skoda and Audi.\n\nSection::::Use in motor sport.:Motorcycles.\n", "BULLET::::- The regenerative braking effect drops off at lower speeds, and cannot bring a vehicle to a complete halt reasonably quickly with current technology, although some cars like the Chevrolet Bolt can bring the vehicle to a complete stop on even surfaces when the driver knows the vehicle's regenerative braking distance. This is referred to as One Pedal Driving.\n\nBULLET::::- Current regenerative brakes do not immobilize a stationary vehicle; physical locking is required, for example to prevent vehicles from rolling down hills.\n", "A form of what can be described as regenerative braking is used on some parts of the London Underground, achieved by having small slopes leading up and down from stations. The train is slowed by the climb, and then leaves down a slope, so kinetic energy is converted to gravitational potential energy in the station. This is normally found on the deep tunnel sections of the network and not generally above ground or on the cut and cover sections of the Metropolitan and District Lines.\n\nSection::::Conversion to electric energy: the motor as a generator.:Comparison of dynamic and regenerative brakes.\n", "Regenerative and friction braking must both be used, creating the need to control them to produce the required total braking. The GM EV-1 was the first commercial car to do this. In 1997 and 1998 engineers Abraham Farag and Loren Majersik were issued two patents for this \"brake-by-wire\" technology.\n", "Improvements in electronics allowed this process to be fully automated, starting with 1967's AMC Amitron experimental electric car. Designed by Gulton Industries the motor controller automatically began battery charging when the brake pedal was applied. Many modern hybrid and electric vehicles use this technique to extend the range of the battery pack, especially those using an AC drive train (most earlier designs used DC power).\n", "In electrified systems the process of regenerative braking is employed whereby the current produced during braking is fed back into the power supply system for use by other traction units, instead of being wasted as heat. It is normal practice to incorporate both regenerative and rheostatic braking in electrified systems. If the power supply system is not \"\"receptive\"\", i.e. incapable of absorbing the current, the system will default to rheostatic mode in order to provide the braking effect.\n", "BULLET::::- Variable regenerative braking\n\nThe Outlander PHEV features regenerative braking during normal deceleration (braking or coasting), with the front and rear electric motors working as generators so that electricity can be generated and fed back into the main battery pack. In addition, the plug-in hybrid has a set-up that allows the driver to control the strength of the engine braking with paddles behind the steering wheel. The driver switches on regenerative braking either by sliding the central selector to the \"B\" position, or by operating the paddles.\n", "Electricity generated by regenerative braking may be fed back into the traction power supply; either offset against other electrical demand on the network at that instant, used for head end power loads, or stored in lineside storage systems for later use.\n", "The most common form of regenerative brake involves an electric motor as an electric generator. In electric railways the electricity generated is fed back into the supply system. In battery electric and hybrid electric vehicles, the energy is stored chemically in a battery, electrically in a bank of capacitors, or mechanically in a rotating flywheel. Hydraulic hybrid vehicles use hydraulic motors to store energy in the form of compressed air. In a fuel cell powered vehicle, the electric energy generated by the motor is used to break waste water down into oxygen, and hydrogen which goes back into the fuel cell for later reuse.\n", "Instead of just using a normal braking system, the h-tron quattro uses a system adopted by various other electric/hybrid vehicles - regenerative braking. Regenerative braking uses the motors to convert the motion of the vehicle (in the form of kinetic energy) back into electricity to be stored in the batteries.\n\nSection::::Life with the A7 h-tron quattro.\n", "BULLET::::- Engine braking: The HSD system has a special transmission setting labelled 'B' (for Brake), that takes the place of a conventional automatic transmission's 'L' setting, providing engine braking on hills. This can be manually selected in place of regenerative braking. During braking, when the battery is approaching potentially damaging high charge levels, the electronic control system automatically switches to conventional engine braking, drawing power from MG2 and shunting it to MG1, speeding the engine with throttle closed to absorb energy and decelerate the vehicle.\n", "BULLET::::- Regenerative braking: By drawing power from MG2 and depositing it into the battery pack, the HSD can simulate the deceleration of normal engine braking while saving the power for future boost. The regenerative brakes in an HSD system absorb a significant amount of the normal braking load, so the conventional brakes on HSD vehicles are undersized compared to brakes on a conventional car of similar mass.\n", "Section::::Thermodynamics.:Regenerative brakes.\n\nRegenerative braking has a similar energy equation to the equation for the mechanical flywheel. Regenerative braking is a two-step process involving the motor/generator and the battery. The initial kinetic energy is transformed into electrical energy by the generator and is then converted into chemical energy by the battery. This process is less efficient than the flywheel. The efficiency of the generator can be represented by:\n\nWhere:\n", "Electric motors, when used in reverse function as generators, convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. Vehicles propelled by electric motors use them as generators when using regenerative braking, braking by transferring mechanical energy from the wheels to an electrical load.\n\nEarly examples of this system were the front-wheel drive conversions of horse-drawn cabs by Louis Antoine Krieger in Paris in the 1890s. The Krieger electric landaulet had a drive motor in each front wheel with a second set of parallel windings (bifilar coil) for regenerative braking.\n", "Formula One have stated that they support responsible solutions to the world's environmental challenges, and the FIA allowed the use of KERS in the regulations for the 2009 Formula One season. Teams began testing systems in 2008: energy can either be stored as mechanical energy (as in a flywheel) or as electrical energy (as in a battery or supercapacitor).\n", "Section::::General.\n", "Surplus energy from the power source, or energy derived from regenerative braking, charges the storage system. During acceleration, stored energy is directed to the transmission system, boosting that available from the main power source. In existing designs, the storage system can be electric traction batteries, or a flywheel. The energy source is diesel, liquefied petroleum gas, or hydrogen (for fuel cells) and transmission is direct mechanical, electric or \n", "The regenerative brake concept was further developed in the early 1980s by David Arthurs, an electrical engineer, using off-the shelf components, military surplus, and an Opel GT. The voltage controller to link the batteries, motor (a jet-engine starter motor), and DC generator was Arthurs'. The vehicle exhibited fuel efficiency, and plans for it were marketed by Mother Earth News.\n", "When an internal combustion vehicle's accelerator is released, it may slow by engine braking depending on the type of transmission, and mode. An EV would coast when the accelerator is similarly released, if it was not for regenerative braking which mimics the familiar response, and recharges the battery to an extent. Regenerative brakings also reduces the use of the conventional brakes just as engine braking would in an internal combustion vehicle, reducing brake wear and maintenance costs.\n\nSection::::Batteries.\n", "Two minor incidents were reported during testing of KERS systems in . The first occurred when the Red Bull Racing team tested their KERS battery for the first time in July: it malfunctioned and caused a fire scare that led to the team's factory being evacuated. The second was less than a week later when a BMW Sauber mechanic was given an electric shock when he touched Christian Klien's KERS-equipped car during a test at the Jerez circuit.\n", "BULLET::::- i-ELOOP is a unique regenerative engine braking system that uses the free wheeling alternator to capture energy when coasting.\n", "Early applications commonly suffered from a serious safety hazard: in many early electric vehicles with regenerative braking, the same controller positions were used to apply power and to apply the regenerative brake, with the functions being swapped by a separate manual switch. This led to a number of serious accidents when drivers accidentally accelerated when intending to brake, such as the runaway train accident in Wädenswil, Switzerland in 1948, which killed twenty-one people.\n\nSection::::Conversion to electric energy: the motor as a generator.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-11964	Why does black absorb more heat than white?	"Black" is the name for the color of things that don't have light coming off of them, even when light is shining onto them. All the energy in the light that's shining on black things has to go somewhere.	[ "Absorption of light is contrasted by transmission, reflection and diffusion, where the light is only redirected, causing objects to appear transparent, reflective or white respectively. A material is said to be black if most incoming light is absorbed equally in the material. Light (electromagnetic radiation in the visible spectrum) interacts with the atoms and molecules, which causes the energy of the light to be converted into other forms of energy, usually heat. This means that black surfaces can act as thermal collectors, absorbing light and generating heat (see Solar thermal collector). \n\nSection::::Science.:Chemistry.\n\nSection::::Science.:Chemistry.:Pigments.\n", "Like hot black oxide, mid-temperature black oxide converts the surface of the metal to magnetite (FeO). However, mid-temperature black oxide blackens at a temperature of , significantly less than hot black oxide. This is advantageous because it is below the solution's boiling point, meaning there are no caustic fumes produced.\n\nSince mid-temperature black oxide is most comparable to hot black oxide, it also can meet the military specification MIL-DTL-13924, as well as AMS 2485.\n\nSection::::Ferrous materials.:Cold black oxide.\n", "The total surface area of an adult is about 2 m, and the mid- and far-infrared emissivity of skin and most clothing is near unity, as it is for most nonmetallic surfaces. Skin temperature is about 33 °C, but clothing reduces the surface temperature to about 28 °C when the ambient temperature is 20 °C. Hence, the net radiative heat loss is about\n", "A black body radiates energy at all frequencies, but its intensity rapidly tends to zero at high frequencies (short wavelengths). For example, a black body at room temperature () with one square meter of surface area will emit a photon in the visible range (390–750 nm) at an average rate of one photon every 41 seconds, meaning that for most practical purposes, such a black body does not emit in the visible range.\n\nSection::::Explanation of black-body radiation.\n", "Section::::Black bodies.:Near-black materials.\n\nIt has long been known that a lamp-black coating will make a body nearly black. Some other materials are nearly black in particular wavelength bands. Such materials do not survive all the very high temperatures that are of interest.\n\nAn improvement on lamp-black is found in manufactured carbon nanotubes. Nano-porous materials can achieve refractive indices nearly that of vacuum, in one case obtaining average reflectance of 0.045%.\n\nSection::::Black bodies.:Opaque bodies.\n", "Heating it further causes the color to change from red to yellow, white, and blue, as it emits light at increasingly shorter wavelengths (higher frequencies). A perfect emitter is also a perfect absorber: when it is cold, such an object looks perfectly black, because it absorbs all the light that falls on it and emits none. Consequently, an ideal thermal emitter is known as a black body, and the radiation it emits is called black-body radiation. \n", "Section::::Radiative cooling.\n\nThe integration of Planck's law over all frequencies provides the total energy per unit of time per unit of surface area radiated by a black body maintained at a temperature \"T\", and is known as the Stefan–Boltzmann law:\n\nwhere \"σ\" is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant, To remain in thermal equilibrium at constant temperature \"T\", the black body must absorb or internally generate this amount of power P over the given area A.\n", "Because of its high temperature, the Sun emits to a large extent in the ultraviolet and visible (UV-Vis) frequency range. In this frequency range, the planet reflects a fraction formula_35 of this energy where formula_35 is the albedo or reflectance of the planet in the UV-Vis range. In other words, the planet absorbs a fraction formula_37 of the Sun's light, and reflects the rest. The power absorbed by the planet and its atmosphere is then:\n", "A black body at room temperature appears black, as most of the energy it radiates is in the infrared spectrum and cannot be perceived by the human eye. Since, by definition, the human eye cannot perceive light waves below the visible frequency, a black body, viewed in the dark at the lowest just faintly visible temperature, subjectively appears grey, even though its objective physical spectrum peak is in the infrared range. When it becomes a little hotter, it appears dull red. As its temperature increases further it becomes yellow, white, and ultimately blue-white.\n", "In physics, a black body is a perfect absorber of light, but, by a thermodynamic rule, it is also the best emitter. Thus, the best radiative cooling, out of sunlight, is by using black paint, though it is important that it be black (a nearly perfect absorber) in the infrared as well. In elementary science, far ultraviolet light is called \"black light\" because, while itself unseen, it causes many minerals and other substances to fluoresce.\n", "Black-body radiation has a characteristic, continuous frequency spectrum that depends only on the body's temperature, called the Planck spectrum or Planck's law. The spectrum is peaked at a characteristic frequency that shifts to higher frequencies with increasing temperature, and at room temperature most of the emission is in the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum. As the temperature increases past about 500 degrees Celsius, black bodies start to emit significant amounts of visible light. Viewed in the dark by the human eye, the first faint glow appears as a \"ghostly\" grey (the visible light is actually red, but low intensity light activates only the eye's grey-level sensors). With rising temperature, the glow becomes visible even when there is some background surrounding light: first as a dull red, then yellow, and eventually a \"dazzling bluish-white\" as the temperature rises. When the body appears white, it is emitting a substantial fraction of its energy as ultraviolet radiation. The Sun, with an effective temperature of approximately 5800 K, is an approximate black body with an emission spectrum peaked in the central, yellow-green part of the visible spectrum, but with significant power in the ultraviolet as well.\n", "Notice that a gray (flat spectrum) ball where formula_48 comes to the same temperature as a black body no matter how dark or light gray .\n\nSection::::Temperature relation between a planet and its star.:Effective temperature of Earth.\n\nSubstituting the measured values for the Sun and Earth yields:\n\nWith the average emissivity formula_53 set to unity, the effective temperature of the Earth is:\n\nor −18.8 °C.\n", "Snow/ice albedo effect When deposited on high albedo surfaces like ice and snow, black carbon particles reduce the total surface albedo available to reflect solar energy back into space. Small initial snow albedo reduction may have a large forcing because of a positive feedback: Reduced snow albedo would increase surface temperature. The increased surface temperature would decrease the snow cover and further decrease surface albedo.\n", "Section::::Radiative power.:Variables.\n\nDefinitions of variables, with example values:\n\nSection::::Radiative heat transfer.\n\nThe \"net\" radiative heat transfer from one surface to another is the radiation leaving the first surface for the other minus that arriving from the second surface.\n\nBULLET::::- For black bodies, the rate of energy transfer from surface 1 to surface 2 is:\n\nwhere formula_15 is surface area, formula_23 is energy flux (the rate of emission per unit surface area) and formula_24 is the view factor from surface 1 to surface 2. Applying both the reciprocity rule for view factors, formula_25, and the Stefan–Boltzmann law, formula_26, yields:\n", "In climatology, black carbon is a climate forcing agent. Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing sunlight and heating the atmosphere and by reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice (direct effects) and indirectly by interaction with clouds, with the total forcing of 1.1 W/m. Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks, whereas carbon dioxide () has an atmospheric lifetime of more than 100 years.\n", "If objects appear white (reflective in the visual spectrum), they are not necessarily equally reflective (and thus non-emissive) in the thermal infrared – see the diagram at the left. Most household radiators are painted white, which is sensible given that they are not hot enough to radiate any significant amount of heat, and are not designed as thermal radiators at all – instead, they are actually convectors, and painting them matt black would make little difference to their efficacy. Acrylic and urethane based white paints have 93% blackbody radiation efficiency at room temperature (meaning the term \"black body\" does not always correspond to the visually perceived color of an object). These materials that do not follow the \"black color = high emissivity/absorptivity\" caveat will most likely have functional spectral emissivity/absorptivity dependence.\n", "Albedo works on a smaller scale, too. In sunlight, dark clothes absorb more heat and light-coloured clothes reflect it better, thus allowing some control over body temperature by exploiting the albedo effect of the colour of external clothing.\n\nSection::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Solar photovoltaic effects.\n", "With non-black surfaces, the deviations from ideal black-body behavior are determined by both the surface structure, such as roughness or granularity, and the chemical composition. On a \"per wavelength\" basis, real objects in states of local thermodynamic equilibrium still follow Kirchhoff's Law: emissivity equals absorptivity, so that an object that does not absorb all incident light will also emit less radiation than an ideal black body; the incomplete absorption can be due to some of the incident light being transmitted through the body or to some of it being reflected at the surface of the body.\n", "For surfaces which are not black bodies, one has to consider the (generally frequency dependent) emissivity factor formula_18. This factor has to be multiplied with the radiation spectrum formula before integration. If it is taken as a constant, the resulting formula for the power output can be written in a way that contains formula_19 as a factor:\n", "BULLET::::2. It is a diffuse emitter: the energy is radiated isotropically, independent of direction.\n\nAn approximate realization of a black surface is a hole in the wall of a large insulated enclosure (an oven, for example). Any light entering the hole is reflected or absorbed at the internal surfaces of the body and is unlikely to re-emerge, making the hole a nearly perfect absorber. When the radiation confined in such an enclosure is in thermal equilibrium, the radiation emitted from the hole will be as great as from any body at that equilibrium temperature.\n", "Direct effect Black carbon particles directly absorb sunlight and reduce the planetary albedo when suspended in the atmosphere.\n\nSemi-direct effect Black carbon absorb incoming solar radiation, perturb the temperature structure of the atmosphere, and influence cloud cover. They may either increase or decrease cloud cover under different conditions.\n", "On the surface of Earth, at far lower temperatures than the surface of the Sun, some thermal radiation consists of infrared in the mid-infrared region, much longer than in sunlight. However, black body or thermal radiation is continuous: it gives off radiation at all wavelengths. Of these natural thermal radiation processes, only lightning and natural fires are hot enough to produce much visible energy, and fires produce far more infrared than visible-light energy.\n\nSection::::Regions within the infrared.\n", "In general, aerosol particles can affect the radiation balance leading to a cooling or heating effect with the magnitude and sign of the temperature change largely dependent on aerosol optical properties, aerosol concentrations, and the albedo of the underlying surface. A purely scattering aerosol will reflect energy that would normally be absorbed by the earth-atmosphere system back to space and leads to a cooling effect. As one adds an absorbing component to the aerosol, it can lead to a heating of the earth-atmosphere system if the reflectivity of the underlying surface is sufficiently high.\n", "When the body is black, the absorption is obvious: the amount of light absorbed is all the light that hits the surface. For a black body much bigger than the wavelength, the light energy absorbed at any wavelength \"λ\" per unit time is strictly proportional to the black-body curve. This means that the black-body curve is the amount of light energy emitted by a black body, which justifies the name. This is the condition for the applicability of Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation: the black-body curve is characteristic of thermal light, which depends only on the temperature of the walls of the cavity, provided that the walls of the cavity are completely opaque and are not very reflective, and that the cavity is in thermodynamic equilibrium. When the black body is small, so that its size is comparable to the wavelength of light, the absorption is modified, because a small object is not an efficient absorber of light of long wavelength, but the principle of strict equality of emission and absorption is always upheld in a condition of thermodynamic equilibrium.\n", "Low temperature oxide, also described below, is not a conversion coating—the low-temperature process does not oxidize the iron, but deposits a copper selenium compound. \n\nSection::::Ferrous materials.:Hot black oxide.\n\nHot baths of sodium hydroxide, nitrates, and nitrites at are used to convert the surface of the material into magnetite (FeO). Water must be periodically added to the bath, with proper controls to prevent a steam explosion.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-17691	How was the flute discovered?	I doubt anyone knows exactly, since its that long ago. I would imagine a range of things happened including things like: - Working with bones/wood/bamboo etc. to make weapons or jewellery, and someone noticed that the hollow tube made noises at the far end while working at the near end. - Children playing with decorative jewellery and blowing through it like we all do with pen lids. - Wind blowing across tubes left out hanging to dry. - Listening to shells at the beach. We are naturally very inquisitive creatures, and despite what free market nutjobs want you to believe, we invent and innovate just for the joy of what we can accomplish. Having noticed that the effect occurs in a pipe, it doesn't take a huge amount of tinkering to place a few holes - I've done it with a fast food straw.	[ "Flutes are also mentioned in a recently translated tablet of the Epic of Gilgamesh, an epic poem whose development spanned the period of approximately 2100–600 BCE. Additionally, a set of cuneiform tablets knows as the \"\"musical texts\"\" provide precise tuning instructions for seven scale of a stringed instrument (assumed to be a Babylonian lyre). One of those scales is named embūbum, which is an Akkadian word for \"\"flute\"\".\n", "A three-holed flute, 18.7 cm long, made from a mammoth tusk (from the Geißenklösterle cave, near Ulm, in the southern German Swabian Alb and dated to 30,000 to 37,000 years ago) was discovered in 2004, and two flutes made from swan bones excavated a decade earlier (from the same cave in Germany, dated to circa 36,000 years ago) are among the oldest known musical instruments.\n", "The Bible, in Genesis 4:21, cites Jubal as being the \"father of all those who play the \"ugab\" and the \"kinnor\"\". The former Hebrew term is believed by some to refer to some wind instrument, or wind instruments in general, the latter to a stringed instrument, or stringed instruments in general. As such, Jubal is regarded in the Judeo-Christian tradition as the inventor of the flute (a word used in some translations of this biblical passage). Elsewhere in the Bible, the flute is referred to as \"\"chalil\"\" (from the root word for \"hollow\"), in particular in 1 Samuel 10:5, 1 Kings 1:40, Isaiah 5:12 and 30:29, and Jeremiah 48:36. Archeological digs in the Holy Land have discovered flutes from both the Bronze Age (c. 4000-1200 BCE) and the Iron Age (1200-586 BCE), the latter era \"witness[ing] the creation of the Israelite kingdom and its separation into the two kingdoms of Israel and Judea.\"\n", "Section::::Development.\n\nIn the nineteenth century Theobald Boehm began to make flutes. Keys were added to the flute, and the taper was changed to strengthen its lower register.\n\nWith the ability to record sound (beginning in the 1890s), flutes began to regain a popularity not seen since the classical era. Recordings of flute music became increasingly common, with professional flautists spending a great deal of time recording music. The 20th century brought the first recordings of Baroque music on modern flutes.\n\nSection::::Development.:Boehm flute.\n", "According to Ardal Powell, the flute is a simple instrument found in numerous ancient cultures. There are three legendary and archeologically verifiable birthplace sites of flutes: Egypt, Greece and India. Of these, the transverse flute (side blown) appeared only in ancient India, while the fipple flutes are found in all three. It is likely, states Powell, that the modern Indian \"bansuri\" has not changed much since the early medieval era.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "The flute is perhaps the oldest musical instrument, other than the human voice itself. There are very many flutes, both traversely blown and end-blown \"fipple\" flutes, currently produced which are not built on the Boehm model.\n", "Some early flutes were made out of tibias (shin bones). The flute has also always been an essential part of Indian culture and mythology, and the cross flute believed by several accounts to originate in India as Indian literature from 1500 BCE has made vague references to the cross flute.\n\nSection::::Acoustics.\n", "Anasazi flute\n\nThe Anasazi flute is the name of a prehistoric end-blown flute replicated today from findings at a massive cave in Prayer Rock Valley in Arizona, United States by an archaeological expedition led by Earl H. Morris in 1931. The team excavated 15 caves and the largest among them had 16 dwellings and many artifacts including several wooden flutes, which gave the site its name, the Broken Flute Cave.\n", "The earliest extant Chinese transverse flute is a \"chi\" (篪) flute discovered in the Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng at the Suizhou site, Hubei province, China. It dates from 433 BC, of the later Zhou Dynasty. It is fashioned of lacquered bamboo with closed ends and has five stops that are at the flute's side instead of the top. Chi flutes are mentioned in \"Shi Jing\", compiled and edited by Confucius, according to tradition.\n\nThe earliest written reference to a flute is from a Sumerian-language cuneiform tablet dated to c. 2600–2700 BCE.\n", "The flute is one of the oldest and most widely used wind instruments. The precursors of the modern concert flute were keyless wooden transverse flutes similar to modern fifes. These were later modified to include between one and eight keys for chromatic notes.\n\n\"Six-finger\" D is the most common pitch for keyless wooden transverse flutes, which continue to be used today, particularly in Irish traditional music and historically informed performances of early music, including Baroque. During the Baroque era the traditional transverse flute was redesigned and eventually developed as the modern \"traverso\".\n\nSection::::Predecessors.:Medieval flutes (1000–1400).\n", "Section::::Predecessors.:Renaissance to 17th century.\n\nBeginning in the 1470s, a military revival in Europe led to a revival in the flute. The Swiss army used flutes for signalling, and this helped the flute spread to all of Europe. In the late 16th century, flutes began to appear in court and theatre music (predecessors of the orchestra), and the first flute solos.\n", "At some point during this trip, Beltrami collected two indigenous flutes, which he later sent back to Italy along with his collection of Native American artifacts. One of these flutes provides us with the oldest extant Native American flute, and is now in the collection of the Museo Civico di Scienze Naturali in Bergamo, Italy.\n", "In the Baroque era, flutes become used in the scores of opera, ballet and chamber music. With this, composers wrote music for the flute. These included Praetorius, Schütz, Rebillé and Descoteaux, Quantz, Bach, Telemann, Blavet, Vivaldi, Handel and Frederick The Great. In 1707, Jacques Martin Hotteterre wrote the first method book on playing the flute: \"Principes de la flûte traversière\". The 1730s brought an increase in operatic and chamber music feature of flutes. The end of this era found the publication of \"Essay of a Method of Playing the Transverse Flute\" by Quantz.\n", "A flute is a type of aerophone, as is the Eunuch flute, also referred to as a mirliton. A flute is an aerophone or reedless wind instrument that produces its sound from the flow of air across an opening. According to the instrument classification of Hornbostel–Sachs, flutes are categorized as edge-blown aerophones. Aside from the voice, flutes are the earliest known musical instruments. A number of flutes dating to about 43,000 to 35,000 years ago have been found in the Swabian Alb region of Germany. These flutes demonstrate that a developed musical tradition existed from the earliest period of modern human presence in Europe.\n", "In 2008, archaeologists discovered a bone flute in the Hohle Fels cave near Ulm, Germany. The five-holed flute has a V-shaped mouthpiece and is made from a vulture wing bone. The researchers involved in the discovery officially published their findings in the journal \"Nature\" in June 2009. It is one of several similar instruments found in the area, which date to at least 35,000 years ago, making this one of the oldest confirmed find of any musical instruments in history. The Hohle Fels flute was found next to the Venus of Hohle Fels and a short distance from the oldest known human carving. On announcing the discovery, scientists suggested that the \"finds demonstrate the presence of a well-established musical tradition at the time when modern humans colonized Europe\". Scientists have also suggested that the discovery of the flute may help to explain why early humans survived, while Neanderthals became extinct.\n", "The sodina is an end-blown flute found throughout the island state of Madagascar, located in the Indian Ocean off southeastern Africa. One of the oldest instruments on the island, it bears close resemblance to end-blown flutes found in Southeast Asia and particularly Indonesia, where it is known as the \"suling\", suggesting the predecessor to the sodina was carried to Madagascar in outrigger canoes by the island's original settlers emigrating from Borneo. An image of the most celebrated contemporary sodina flutist, Rakoto Frah (d. 2001), was featured on the local currency.\n\nSection::::Categories.:Sring.\n", "In 1737, Vaucanson built \"The Flute Player\", a life-size figure of a shepherd that played the tabor and the pipe and had a repertoire of twelve songs. The figure's fingers were not pliable enough to play the flute correctly, so Vaucanson had to glove the creation in skin. The following year, in early 1738, he presented his creation to the Académie des Sciences.\n", "Goulet once owned a flute that had been passed down from generation to generation. A brief history of the flute was written about in an article in . The last person to have possession of the flute was Robert Leon Goulet (1890-1955). It is not known what happened to the flute after Robert died. In June 2015, descendants of Jacques Goulet's, including the great grandson of Robert Leon Goulet, attempted to locate the flute, but was unsuccessful. In an attempt to locate the flute, the descendants of Goulet have created FindTheFlute.com.\n\nSection::::Notable descendants.\n\nBULLET::::- Métis Leader Elzéar Goulet\n", "Starting from 1860, at the end of each year students took part in a flute performance competition known as the Concours Pieces (Concours meaning 'contest'). A piece of flute music was commissioned by Paul Taffanel to be performed at the Concours Pieces each year. Students would play this piece of repertoire before a panel of experts. This is why a dedication to Paul Taffanel appears on many of the following pieces of sheet music:\n\nBULLET::::- 1824 B. Berbiguier - 5th Concertino\n\nBULLET::::- 1832 Tulou - Solo\n\nBULLET::::- 1835 Tulou - Solo\n\nBULLET::::- 1837 Tulou - Solo\n", "In 1979, the neo-traditional art music composer and founder of the Pan African Orchestra of Ghana, Nana Danso Abiam (b. 1953) introduced chromaticism and atonality in atenteben music with a new fingering mechanism that he had developed at the Institute of African Studies, University of Ghana, Legon. This playing mechanism employed for the first time, cross-fingerings and halving-fingerings among other over-blowing techniques that produced the entire range of chromatic and harmonic sounds of the flute.\n", "The flute, one of several found, was found in the Hohle Fels cavern next to the Venus of Hohle Fels and a short distance from the oldest known human carving. On announcing the discovery, scientists suggested that the \"finds demonstrate the presence of a well-established musical tradition at the time when modern humans colonized Europe\". Scientists have also suggested that the discovery of the flute may help to explain \"the probable behavioural and cognitive gulf between\" Neanderthals and early modern human.\n", "According to Ardal Powell, flute is a simple instrument found in numerous ancient cultures. According to legends the three birthplaces of flutes are Egypt, Greece, and India. Of these, the transverse flute (side blown) appeared only in ancient India, while the fipple flutes are found in all three. It is likely, states Powell, that the modern Indian \"bansuri\" has not changed much since the early medieval era. However, a flute of a somewhat different design is evidenced in ancient China (\"dizi\") which Powell, quoting Curt Sachs' \"The History of Musical Instruments\", suggests may not have originated in China but evolved from a more ancient Central Asian flute design. It is, however, not clear whether there was any connection between the Indian and Chinese varieties.\n", "Flutes are the earliest extant musical instruments, as paleolithic instruments with hand-bored holes have been found. A number of flutes dating to about 43,000 to 35,000 years ago have been found in the Swabian Jura region of present-day Germany. These flutes demonstrate that a developed musical tradition existed from the earliest period of modern human presence in Europe.\n\nSection::::Etymology and terminology.\n", "In addition to performance and teaching, Hotteterre continued his family's tradition of wind instrument making. It may have been Hotteterre who made a number of changes in the design of the transverse flute, though there is little concrete evidence for this. Most notably, the flute, which had previously been made in one cylindrical piece, was cut in three pieces: the head (with the mouthpiece), the body (with most of the holes), and the foot (with one, keyed hole for the low E).\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-23649	What causes people to become less flexible?	Flexibility comes from our ligaments and tendons, the fibers that hold our muscles together and anchor them to our bones. Over time, they start to harden. Your genes only care about you as long as you can reproduce. There's no incentive to maintain the body past a reproductive age, so we start to deteriorate. Presbyopia is a really interesting example of this exact pattern.	[ "Each individual is born with a particular range of motion for each joint in their body. In the book Finding Balance by Gigi Berardi, the author mentions three limiting factors: Occupational demands, movement demands and training oversights.\n\nSection::::Limits of Flexibility.:Internal Factors of Flexibility.\n", ". Increasing muscular elasticity of the joint's range of mobility increases flexibility.\n\nSection::::Anatomical Elements of Flexibility.:Ligaments.\n\nLigaments are composed of two different tissues: white and yellow. The white fibrous tissues are not stretchy, but are extremely strong so that even if the bone were fractured the tissue would remain in place. The white tissue allows subjective freedom of movement. The yellow elastic tissue can be stretched considerably while returning to its original length.\n\nSection::::Anatomical Elements of Flexibility.:Tendons.\n", "Movement demands include strength, endurance and range of motion. Training oversights occurs when the body is overused. Internally, the joints, muscles, tendons, and ligaments can affect one's flexibility. As previously mentioned, each part of the body has its own limitations and combined, the range of motion can be affected. The mental attitude of the performer during the state of motion can also affect their range.\n\nSection::::Limits of Flexibility.:External Factors of Flexibility.\n", "Quality of life is enhanced by improving and maintaining a good range of motion in the joints. Overall flexibility should be developed with specific joint range of motion needs in mind as the individual joints vary from one to another. Loss of flexibility can be a predisposing factor for physical issues such as pain syndromes or balance disorders.\n\nSex, age, and genetics are important for range of motion. Exercise including stretching and yoga often improves flexibility.\n", "Externally, anything from the weather outside to the age of the performer can affect flexibility. General tissues and collagen change with age influencing the individual.As one ages, performing activities of daily living without pain becomes much harder. By stretching often, one can maintain a level of musculoskeletal fitness that will keep them feeling well. \n\nSection::::Limits of Flexibility.:Signs of Injury.\n", "Flexibility (disambiguation)\n\nFlexibility may refer to:\n\nBULLET::::- Flexibility, the ability of a material to deform elastically and return to its original shape when the applied stress is removed\n\nBULLET::::- Flexibility (anatomy), the distance of motion of a joint, which may be increased by stretching\n\nBULLET::::- Flexibility (engineering), in the field of engineering systems design, designs that can adapt when external changes occur\n\nBULLET::::- Flexibility (personality), the range of different appropriate behavioural responses a person can make in situations that they face.\n", "Ligaments are viscoelastic. They gradually strain when under tension and return to their original shape when the tension is removed. However, they cannot retain their original shape when extended past a certain point or for a prolonged period of time. This is one reason why dislocated joints must be set as quickly as possible: if the ligaments lengthen too much, then the joint will be weakened, becoming prone to future dislocations. Athletes, gymnasts, dancers, and martial artists perform stretching exercises to lengthen their ligaments, making their joints more supple.\n", "Section::::Impacts on life.:Health.\n", "A general worldwide increase since the 1970s in RSIs of the arms, hands, neck, and shoulder has been attributed to the widespread use in the workplace of keyboard entry devices, such as typewriters and computers, which require long periods of repetitive motions in a fixed posture. Extreme temperatures have also been reported as risk factor for RSI.\n\nSection::::Risk factors.\n\nSection::::Risk factors.:Occupational risk factors.\n", "Many factors are taken into account when establishing personal flexibility: joint structure, ligaments, tendons, muscles, skin, tissue injury, fat (or adipose) tissue, body temperature, activity level, age and sex all influence an individual's range of motion about a joint.\n\nIndividual body flexibility level is measured and calculated by performing a sit and reach test, where the result is defined as personal flexibility score.\n\nSection::::Anatomical Elements of Flexibility.\n\nSection::::Anatomical Elements of Flexibility.:Joints.\n\nThe joints in a human body are surrounded by synovial membranes and articular cartilage which cover, cushion and nourish the joint and surfaces of each \n", "Section::::The different muscles.:Joints, ligaments and bursae.:Ligaments.\n\nA ligament is a small band of dense, white, fibrous elastic tissue. Ligaments connect the ends of bones together in order to form a joint. Most ligaments limit dislocation, or prevent certain movements that may cause breaks. Since they are only elastic they increasingly lengthen when under pressure. When this occurs the ligament may be susceptible to break resulting in an unstable joint.\n\nLigaments may also restrict some actions: movements such as hyper extension and hyper flexion are restricted by ligaments to an extent. Also ligaments prevent certain directional movement.\n", "BULLET::::- Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA)\n\nBULLET::::- Arthrogryposis\n\nBULLET::::- Muscular dystrophy (MD)\n\nBULLET::::- Parkinson’s disease\n\nBULLET::::- Hypertonic muscle spasm\n\nBULLET::::- Pierre Robin malformation\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Types of splints.\n\nThere are more than eighty Dynasplint Systems that stretch in extension and flexion of the elbow, wrist, hand, finger, knee, and toes, as well as dorsiflexion and plantarflexion of the foot and ankle, supination and pronation of the forearm, internal rotation and external rotation of the shoulder, as well as abduction and adduction of the fingers and toes. Sizes are available from infant to extra large adult and are individually fit by consultants.\n", "BULLET::::- Ultimate Frisbee (especially during impact from laying out)\n\nBULLET::::- Ballet\n\nBULLET::::- Muay Thai\n\nAlthough this condition can be caused by repetitive trauma to the lumbar spine in strenuous sports, other risk factors can also predispose individuals to spondylolsis. Males are more commonly affected by spondylolysis than females. In one study looking at youth athletes, it was found that the mean age of individuals with spondylolisthesis was 20 years of age. Spondylolysis also runs in families suggesting a hereditary component such as a predisposition to weaker vertebrae.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "Section::::Structure.:Flexibility.\n\nFlexibility can be simply defined as the available range of motion (ROM) provided by a specific joint or group of joints. For the most part, exercises that increase flexibility are performed with intentions to boost overall muscle length, reduce the risks of injury and to potentially improve muscular performance in physical activity. Stretching muscles after engagement in any physical activity can improve muscular strength, increase flexibility, and reduce muscle soreness. If limited movement is present within a joint, the “insufficient extensibility” of the muscle, or muscle group, could be restricting the activity of the affected joint.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Flexibility.:Stretching.\n", "Flexibility (anatomy)\n\nFlexibility or limberness refers to the range of movement in a joint or series of joints, and length in muscles that cross the joints to induce a bending movement or motion. Flexibility varies between individuals, particularly in terms of differences in muscle length of multi-joint muscles. Flexibility in some joints can be increased to a certain degree by exercise, with stretching a common exercise component to maintain or improve flexibility.\n", "For four decades, academic papers have contributed to the increased knowledge and interest in flexible working. A descriptive background of the evolution of the concept of flexibility as well as highlighting the main factors contributed to its growth were the main focus of academic studies. Also, they deliver evidence of the significant amount and the ongoing increase in the use of flexible working in many countries. \n", "An example of a tool that changes the impact would be speech recognition. Speech recognition replaces keyboard (and sometimes mouse) input with vocal input. This type of solution can be very helpful at reducing some types of strain, but it's important to recognize that another significant strain may be created.\n\nAn example of a tool that reduces the impact would be a hotkey tool or automatic clicking tool. These tools ideally reduce the number of keystrokes and mouse clicks that a user need do to accomplish a particular task.\n\nYou can find a list of software names in the .\n", "Some people get injuries while doing yoga and aerobics so one needs to be careful while doing it. While most stretching does not cause injury, it is said that quick, ballistic stretching can if it is done incorrectly. If a bone, muscle or any other part is stretched more than its capacity it may lead to dislocation, muscle pulls, etc. or something even more severe too.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Dance\n\nBULLET::::- Physical Exercise\n\nSection::::See also.:Bibliography.\n\nBULLET::::- Arnheim, Daniel D. \"Dance Injuries: Their Prevention And Care.\" 3rd ed. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Book Company, 1991. Print.\n", "\"I’m not double-jointed at all. The only place where I am double-jointed in my thumbs, which doesn’t even matter. I would say I’m probably a little more flexible than most people in certain areas, mainly my shoulders and my ankles, but I wasn’t born that way. Those areas became flexible because of years of practicing.\"\n", "The pathogenesis underlying the development of costochondritis remains unclear. Proposed mechanisms of injury include neurogenic inflammation, muscular imbalance, increased muscular pull on the rib, mechanical dysfunction at the costotransverse joint of the rib, or a derangement of the mechanical structure of the costochondral junction. A commonly held view in New Zealand and Australian manual physiotherapy regards hypomobility at the costovertebral and costotransverse joints as the driver of compensatory excessive movement at the more structurally delicate sternocostal joints, leading to strain and localised inflammatory response. This mechanism is biologically plausible and would account for the extreme specificity of the symptoms at the sternocostal joints, which a systemic mechanism does not.\n", "The annular snap-fit utilizes hoop-strain to hold into place. Hoop-strain is the expansion of the circumference of the more elastic piece as it is pushed onto the more rigid piece. In most cases the design is circular. Some popular examples are pen caps, ball and socket joints, Snap fasteners, and some water bottle caps. This kind of snap-fit can be used multiple times. However, permanent strain may develop, loosening the joint when it is used too often.\n\nSection::::Design.:Cantilever.\n", "Section::::Impacts on life.:Work environment.\n", "Section::::Stretching.:Static-Active.\n\nStatic-active stretching includes holding an extended position with just the strength of the muscles such as holding the leg in front, side or behind. Static-active flexibility requires a great deal of strength, making it the hardest to develop.\n\nSection::::Stretching.:Ballistic.\n\nBallistic stretching is separate from all other forms of stretching. It does not include stretching, but rather a bouncing motion. The actual performance of ballistic movements prevents lengthening of tissues. These movements should only be performed when the body is very warm; otherwise they can lead to injury.\n\nSection::::Limits of Flexibility.\n", "Section::::Pathogenesis.\n\nThe iHunch is a multi-factorial problem.\n\nBULLET::::- Thoracic hunching requires flexing of the thoracic facet joints. After sufficient time and load, they can freeze and lock in this position. The collagen of the surrounding ligaments, fascia and joint capsules will shorten down around the immobile joints, reinforcing the hunched hypomobile section of spine.\n\nBULLET::::- The middle back support muscles (erector spinae, rhomboids, middle and lower trapezius fibres, etc.) become stretched out and weak.\n", "Tendons are not elastic and are even less stretchy. Tendons are categorized as a connective tissue. Connective tissue supports, surrounds, and binds the muscle fibres. They contain both elastic and non-elastic tissue.\n\nSection::::Anatomical Elements of Flexibility.:Areolar Tissue.\n\nThe areolar tissue is permeable and is extensively distributed throughout the body. This tissue acts as a general binder for all other tissues.\n\nSection::::Anatomical Elements of Flexibility.:Muscle Tissue.\n\nMuscle tissue is made of a stretchy material. It is arranged in bundles of parallel fibres.\n\nSection::::Anatomical Elements of Flexibility.:Stretch Receptors.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02653	Why does foamy water appear to be white or cloudy?	It doesnt change the colour of the water it just scatters the light. Take glass - it is transparent - light goes through without bending. Ground up the glass to make sand -it is now white. Whenever light gets to an interface (water-air, glass-air etc) it bends. Have enough small interfaces and the light bends all over the place, some will go this way and some that way. Same thing happens in clouds, frosted glass.	[ "Section::::Characteristics.\n", "Cheerios effect\n\nIn fluid mechanics, the Cheerios effect is the phenomenon that occurs when floating objects that don't normally float attract one another. Wetting, an example of the \"Cheerios effect,\" is when breakfast cereal clumps together or clings to the sides of a bowl of milk. It is named after the common breakfast cereal Cheerios and is due to surface tension. The same effect governs the behavior of bubbles on the surface of soft drinks.\n\nSection::::Description.\n", "Tap water can sometimes appear cloudy, often mistaken for mineral impurities in the water. It is usually caused by air bubbles coming out of solution due to change in temperature or pressure. Because cold water holds more air than warm water, small bubbles will appear in water. It has a high dissolved gas content that is heated or depressurized, which reduces how much dissolved gas the water can hold. The harmless cloudiness of the water disappears quickly as the gas is released from the water.\n\nSection::::Hot water supply.\n", "Note that white caps on waves look white (and have high albedo) because the water is foamed up, so there are many superimposed bubble surfaces which reflect, adding up their reflectivities. Fresh 'black' ice exhibits Fresnel reflection.\n\nSnow on top of this sea ice increases the albedo to 0.9.\n\nSection::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Clouds.\n", "Surface tension is visible in other common phenomena, especially when surfactants are used to decrease it:\n\nBULLET::::- Soap bubbles have very large surface areas with very little mass. Bubbles in pure water are unstable. The addition of surfactants, however, can have a stabilizing effect on the bubbles (see Marangoni effect). Note that surfactants actually reduce the surface tension of water by a factor of three or more.\n", "Section::::Defoaming.\n", "Falling rain drops on the sea surface can also contribute to sea foam formation and destruction. There have been some non-mechanistic studies demonstrating increased sea foam formation due to high rainfall events. Turbulence in the surface mixed layer can affect the concentration of dissolved organic matter and aids in the formation of nutrient-dense foam.\n\nSection::::Composition.\n", "Section::::Foam.\n", "Relatively small amounts of regular ice appear white because plenty of air bubbles are present, and also because small quantities of water appear to be colorless. In glaciers, on the other hand, the pressure causes the air bubbles, trapped in the accumulated snow, to be squeezed out increasing the density of the created ice. Large quantities of water appear blue, therefore a large piece of compressed ice, or a glacier, would also appear blue.\n\nSection::::Color of water samples.\n", "When light hits the blue oceans or seas, some of it bounces back and enables the observer to physically see the water. However, some of the light also is reflected back up on to the bottoms of low-lying clouds and causes a dark spot to appear underneath some clouds. These clouds may be visible when the seas are not and can show alert and knowledgeable travelers the general direction of water. The dark clouds over open water have long been used by polar explorers and scientists to navigate in sea ice. For example, Arctic explorer Fridtjof Nansen and his assistant Hjalmar Johansen used the phenomenon to find lanes of water in their failed expedition to the North Pole, as did Louis Bernacchi and Douglas Mawson in Antarctica.\n", "Most foam is very light, white to start with, often turning brown after a period of time if sediment builds up and forms discernible lines as individual mats accumulate. Foam lines are usually non-toxic. Natural foam may have an earthy or fishy smell and is white, off-white, becoming brownish; characteristically it breaks apart with comparative ease when disturbed.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Ice pancakes.\n", "When light shines onto a bubble it appears to change colour. Unlike those seen in a rainbow, which arise from differential refraction, the colours seen in a soap bubble arise from interference of light reflecting off the front and back surfaces of the thin soap film. Depending on the thickness of the film, different colours interfere constructively and destructively.\n\nSection::::Mathematics.\n", "The above explanation only holds for bubbles of one medium submerged in another medium (e.g. bubbles of gas in a soft drink); the volume of a membrane bubble (e.g. soap bubble) will not distort light very much, and one can only see a membrane bubble due to thin-film diffraction and reflection.\n\nSection::::Physics and chemistry.:Applications.\n\nNucleation can be intentionally induced, for example to create a bubblegram in a solid.\n\nIn medical ultrasound imaging, small encapsulated bubbles called contrast agent are used to enhance the contrast.\n", "Emulsions contain both a dispersed and a continuous phase, with the boundary between the phases called the \"interface\". Emulsions tend to have a cloudy appearance because the many phase interfaces scatter light as it passes through the emulsion. Emulsions appear white when all light is scattered equally. If the emulsion is dilute enough, higher-frequency (low-wavelength) light will be scattered more, and the emulsion will appear bluer – this is called the \"Tyndall effect\". If the emulsion is concentrated enough, the color will be distorted toward comparatively longer wavelengths, and will appear more yellow. This phenomenon is easily observable when comparing skimmed milk, which contains little fat, to cream, which contains a much higher concentration of milk fat. One example would be a mixture of water and oil.\n", "Clouds are white for the same reason as ice. They are composed of water droplets or ice crystals mixed with air, very little light that strikes them is absorbed, and most of the light is scattered, appearing to the eye as white. Shadows of other clouds above can make clouds look gray, and some clouds have their own shadow on the bottom of the cloud.\n", "For the Marangoni effect to occur, the foam must be indented as shown in the first picture. This indentation increases local surface area. Surfactants have a larger diffusion time than the bulk of the solution—so the surfactants are less concentrated in the indentation.\n", "Section::::Composition.\n", "Waterlogging commonly occurs over a long period of time in polystyrene foams that are constantly exposed to high humidity or are continuously immersed in water, such as in hot tub covers, in floating docks, as supplemental flotation under boat seats, and for below-grade exterior building insulation constantly exposed to groundwater. Typically an exterior vapor barrier such as impermeable plastic sheeting or a sprayed-on coating is necessary to prevent saturation.\n\nSection::::Forms produced.:Copolymers.\n", "BULLET::::- Evaporation: This can be slowed down by blowing bubbles in a wet atmosphere, or by adding some sugar to the water.\n\nBULLET::::- Dirt and fat: When the bubble touches the ground, a wall, or our skin, it usually ruptures the soap film. This can be prevented by wetting these surfaces with water (preferably containing some soap).\n\nSection::::Physics.:Wetting.\n", "At lower scale than the bubble is the thickness of the film for metastable foams, which can be considered a network of interconnected films called lamellae. Ideally, the lamellae connect in triads and radiate 120° outward from the connection points, known as Plateau borders.\n\nAn even lower scale is the liquid–air interface at the surface of the film. Most of the time this interface is stabilized by a layer of amphiphilic structure, often made of surfactants, particles (Pickering emulsion), or more complex associations.\n\nSection::::Formation.\n", "Section::::Types of pattern.:Bubbles, foam.\n\nA soap bubble forms a sphere, a surface with minimal area — the smallest possible surface area for the volume enclosed. Two bubbles together form a more complex shape: the outer surfaces of both bubbles are spherical; these surfaces are joined by a third spherical surface as the smaller bubble bulges slightly into the larger one.\n", "Dissolved gas flotation\n\nDissolved gas flotation (DGF) systems are used for a variety of applications throughout the world. The process floats solids, oils and other contaminants to the surface of liquids. Once on the surface these contaminants are skimmed off and removed from the liquids. Oil and gas production facilities have used flotation systems to remove oil and solids from their produced and processed water (wastewater) for many years.The relative density of candle wax is 0.93, hence objects made of wax float on water.\n\nSection::::Process description.\n", "Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) compounds include natural organic surfactants which reduce the surface tension of water and permit the formation of foam bubbles. DOCs derived from decomposing algae and other plants in water courses are one important source, however DOCs derived from bogs and wetlands are very important. Brown-water streams with brown water contain high levels of DOC and much of the foam forms after snowmelt, after prolonged heavy rains and in autumn. The foam decreases quickly when water flow reduces.\n\nBULLET::::- Natural pollution\n", "Less-toxic modern imitations of bubble lights are made from acrylic or other clear plastic rods, with permanent bubbles deliberately manufactured into them, lit with fixed-color or color-changing LEDs. Other bubbling lights are much larger and sit on a table or floor, occasionally with fake fish which \"swim\" up and down as they change buoyancy. These tubes are usually filled with distilled water, and have one or more airstones at the bottom, and normally a light, along with an air pump.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "On the surface of lakes, or other bodies of still freshwater, \"congelation ice\" is often called \"black Ice\". This ice has frozen without many air bubbles trapped inside, making it transparent. Its transparency reveals the colour, usually black, of the water beneath it, hence the name. This is in contrast to \"snow ice\", sometimes called \"slush ice\", which is formed when slush (water saturated snow) refreezes. Snow ice is white due to the presence of air bubbles.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-12738	If I am not supposed to clean my ears deep with a q-tip, why does it feel so good and sometimes clear my sinuses?	There are lots of things that feel good that carry some kind of risk. Doing meth feels good, but is probably a bad idea if you value your long term health. The reason people advise against using Q-tips in your eats is two-fold. For one, sticking it in your ear canal too aggressively can damage or rupture your ear drum. For two, it can push bits of wax down into your ear canal that get so compacted your body's natural processes can't remove it. Do that enough and it'll start to affect your hearing and require a professional cleaning. The reason it can sometimes cause sinus relief is because your nose, eyes, ears, and throat are all connected together. If you create pressure or suction in one place you can feel it elsewhere. It's the same thing as when you plug your nose and blow to pop your ears. EDIT: Autocorrect	[ "Section::::Personal hygiene.:Excessive body hygiene.:Excessive body hygiene of internal ear canals.\n", "Gurah has been studied by an ENT specialist from Gadjah Mada University, who said that \"a patient with sinusitis will feel relief as the mucus can easily flow through the dilated blood vessels after application of the extract\", noting that the practitioner requires the patient to consume water before and after the treatment, due to the large amount of fluid loss through mucus produced. The study showed that the treatment reduced symptoms such as congestion, sneezing and runny noses of chronic sinusitis. However, full medical testing has not been conducted.\n", "Common home remedy treatment options include household ingredients such as isopropyl alcohol, acetic acid (vinegar), boric acid, tea tree oil, coconut oil, and many other plant based extracts, in varying proportions.\n", "A 2007 paper in the journal \"Canadian Family Physician\" concludes:\n\nA 2007 paper in \"American Family Physician\" said:\n\nThe Spokane Ear, Nose, and Throat Clinic conducted a research study in 1996 which concluded that ear candling does not produce negative pressure and was ineffective in removing wax from the ear canal. Several studies have shown that ear candles produce the same residue when burnt without ear insertion and that the residue is simply candle wax and soot.\n", "Patients generally prefer the irrigation solution to be warmed to body temperature, as dizziness is a common side effect of ear washing or syringing with fluids that are colder or warmer than body temperature.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Curette and cotton swabs.\n", "Section::::Precautions.:Decongestants.\n\nNasal congestion may affect the sinus openings and the eustachian tubes and may lead to difficulty or inability to clear the ears.\n\nTo prevent congestion, allergies can be treated by the use of antihistamines, decongestants and nasal sprays, and allergy desensitization. Recently developed antihistamines do not cross the blood-brain barrier and do not produce drowsiness, but may only be available by prescription.\n", "Schulze prepared 300 minutes of music and scheduled 6 days with Gerrard for her to come to Hambühren: as Gerrard explained, \"The important thing for me when I work with someone is that I go and listen to his music. All I did was go and improvise.\" The whole recording was actually done in two afternoons (on day 2 and 3) and half of the material was selected for the album. Schulze concluded, \"Many people think good music has something to do with sweat and hard work, and it needs to last for months. However, my opinion is that if this is the case, the music is bad. Because if you are on the ball then you're just playing your best stuff.\"\n", "Section::::Reception.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "Section::::Development.\n", "In a paper published by Edzard Ernst in \"Journal of Laryngology & Otology\", the cost of practicing ear candling according to the recommended frequency of use is estimated. As each candles costs $3.15 USD (adjusted for inflation), the annual cost of the treatment would amount to $982.00 USD (also adjusted for inflation). The author calls the continued practice of the treatment \"a triumph of ignorance over science ... or perhaps a triumph of commercial interests over medical reasoning.\"\n\nSection::::Origin.\n", "Spa owners sometimes attribute detoxifying properties and a wide range of health benefits to halotherapy. However, medical health experts have concluded that halotherapy is an unproven treatment that lacks scientific credibility. Methodological limitations call into question studies that showed improvement in symptoms of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease following halotherapy. Salt's well known drying effect may also help to clean up bronchial secretions. Beyond short-term relief associated with dry environment for those trying to excrete sputum, Norman Edelman of the American Lung Association suspects reported improvement in the health condition of patients might simply be due to the placebo effect.\n", "Section::::Treatment.\n\nRespiratory stimulants such as nikethamide were traditionally used to counteract respiratory depression from CNS depressant overdose, but offered limited effectiveness. A new respiratory stimulant drug called BIMU8 is being investigated which seems to be significantly more effective and may be useful for counteracting the respiratory depression produced by opiates and similar drugs without offsetting their therapeutic effects.\n", "In a statement Way said, “I had really been wanting a song that featured the flute prominently for quite some time. It sits in there perfectly, like it was made to pay the song a visit. The whole song reminds me of wiggling squiggling wormy germs. It’s a very calm affair that shows a peek into where I may be heading musically.”\n", "BULLET::::- Cerumenex (triethanolamine, polypeptides and oleate-condensate)\n\nBULLET::::- Docusate, an emulsifying agent, an active ingredient found in laxatives\n\nBULLET::::- Mineral Oil\n\nA cerumenolytic should be used 2–3 times daily for 3–5 days prior to the cerumen extraction.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Ear irrigation.\n", "Section::::Clinical significance.:Treatment of resistant hypertension.\n\nStimulation of baroreceptors at the carotid sinus can be used to treat resistant hypertension via activation of the baroreflex. A pacemaker-like device can be implanted to electrically stimulate the receptors chronically, which is found to lower blood pressure by 15-25 mmHg.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Massage.\n", "Section::::Central projections of nociceptors and nociceptive spinal circuitry.\n", "For chronic or recurring sinusitis, referral to an otolaryngologist may be indicated, and treatment options may include nasal surgery. Surgery should only be considered for those people who do not benefit with medication. It is unclear how benefits of surgery compare to medical treatments in those with nasal polyps as this has been poorly studied.\n\nMaxillary antral washout involves puncturing the sinus and flushing with saline to clear the mucus. A 1996 study of patients with chronic sinusitis found that washout confers no additional benefits over antibiotics alone.\n", "Home \"ear vacs\" were ineffective at removing ear-wax, especially when compared to a Jobson-Horne probe.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Potential complications.\n\nA postal survey of British general practitioners found that only 19% always performed cerumen removal themselves. It is problematic as the removal of cerumen is not without risk, and physicians and nurses often have inadequate training for removal. Irrigation can be performed at home with proper equipment as long as the person is careful not to irrigate too hard. All other methods should be carried out only by individuals who have been sufficiently trained in the procedure.\n", "In December 2013, Earworm created the music used in the 2013 YouTube Rewind video. He returned again for the 2014 edition. In May 2014, Earworm released \"Mash Up for What\" featuring Jason Derulo's \"Talk Dirty to Me\", Ariana Grande's \"Problem\", and DJ Snake and Lil Jon's, \"Turn Down for What\". Also in May 2014, in conjunction with an American Heart Association's CPR campaign, Earworm released \"Hands-Only CPR Mash-up\", designed to run at 100 beats per minute, the rate at which chest compressions in hands–only CPR should be performed.\n\nSection::::Collaborations.\n", "Section::::Songs.\n", "\"Amplified\" debuted at number 28 on the \"Billboard\" 200, selling over 90,000 copies in its first week. On January 5, 2000, it was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America, for shipments of 500,000 copies in the United States. As of July 2008, \"Amplified\" has sold 675,000 copies in the US.\n", "The album debuted at number 28 on the \"Billboard\" 200, and on January 5, 2000, it was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America, for shipments of 500,000 copies in the United States. As of July 2008, \"Amplified\" has sold 675,000 copies in the US. It received generally positive reviews from music critics.\n\nSection::::Background.\n", "Section::::Preparation techniques.:Ferrule effect.\n", "Section::::Use in herbal medicine.\n\n\"Chaerophyllum temulum\" has been used in folk medicine, in small doses, to treat arthritis, dropsy, and chronic skin complaints, and as a spring tonic. The early modern physician Boerhaave (1668–1738) once successfully used a decoction of the herb combined with Sarsaparilla to treat a woman suffering from leprosy – in the course of which treatment temporary blindness was a severe side effect following each dose.\n" ]	[ "Cleaning ears with a q-tip is not harmful to a person because the cleaning feels good. " ]	[ "Cleaning ears with a q-tip is bad for a persons health even though the cleaning feels good. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Cleaning ears with a q-tip is not harmful to a person because the cleaning feels good. ", "Cleaning ears with a q-tip is not harmful to a person because the cleaning feels good. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Cleaning ears with a q-tip is bad for a persons health even though the cleaning feels good. ", "Cleaning ears with a q-tip is bad for a persons health even though the cleaning feels good. " ]
2018-02584	Why does, with age, the hairline always recede from the top of the head, and not from back, or from sides?	To start I should mention that it doesn't always start from the top. However, you're correct in the assumption that it usually does. Typically the start of receding hair lines begins at the above the temples - the front 'corner' - though it often begins at the crown for people as well. As for why it typically happens here specifically, I'm uncertain. Hair loss is typically due to damage to hair follicles over time. Most often it is associated with male-pattern baldness, which is usually linked to genetics. As genetic issues like this tend to present similarly most cases, it would make sense if this were part or all of why it happens this way.	[ "Classic male-pattern hair loss begins above the temples and vertex (calvaria) of the scalp. As it progresses, a rim of hair at the sides and rear of the head remains. This has been referred to as a 'Hippocratic wreath', and rarely progresses to complete baldness. Pattern hair loss is classified as a form of non-scarring hair loss. The Hamilton–Norwood scale has been developed to grade androgenic alopecia in males.\n", "During the Gay Nineties, the regular haircut gradually replaced the longer hair and muttonchop sideburns fashionable since the 1840s until, by 1910, it had become the norm for professional men. An extreme version known as the undercut was regulation for British and German soldiers during World War I and World War II. The regular haircut remained fashionable in America throughout the 1950s and 1960s due to its association with the upper class Ivy League fashion, and underwent a second revival among the early 1980s preppy subculture in reaction to the androgynous shag and mod haircuts of the 1970s. In the present day, the short back and sides continues to be worn by many professional men, while the related undercut has been appropriated by the hipster subculture.\n", "While many variations of the style exist, the one common feature is that all of the hair on the sides and back of the head is clipped very close, usually inch (1.5 mm) or shorter, up to a point above the temples, referring to the \"high\" part of its name. A sharp line delineates the boundary between the close-cut sides and back and the longer top portion, referring to the \"tight\" part of its name. The crown of the head is spared the closest shaving to safely accommodate the weight of a combat helmet. The length of the top portion may vary, usually being 5–10 mm ( to inch), but sometimes left long enough to comb. Sometimes the back and sides of the head are shaved completely with a razor.\n", "Structural follicular dysplasia varies by breed but all involve weakened hairs that break easily. Hair loss is originally seen in areas of repeated grooming or trauma, for instance the neck because of contact with a collar. Hair regrowth may occur, but the hair will be even weaker and the pattern will repeat. The dogs are affected between the ages of two to four years, and it is most commonly seen on the back towards the tail. Progression of the hair loss to cover the trunk can occur.\n\nSection::::Structural follicular dysplasia.:Commonly affected breeds.\n\nBULLET::::- Irish Water Spaniel\n\nBULLET::::- Portuguese Water Dog\n", "Sikh men are also susceptible to traction alopecia if the hair under the turban is tied too tightly for many years.\n\nOther causes include:\n\nBULLET::::- Hairstyle. Although the aforementioned style is one of the culprits, hairstyles such as dreadlocks and single (extension) braids can also have the same effect. Men and women who have suffered from traction alopecia have found that the hair loss occurs most at the hair line—primarily around the temples and the sides of their heads.\n", "Hair loss can occur over time where the scalp thickens, though hair within any furrows remains normal. Thus far, due to the (apparent) rarity of the condition, limited research exists and causes are as yet undetermined. What is known, is that the condition is not exclusively congenital.\n", "A tapered back and sides generally contours to the head shape; the hair progressively graduates in length from longer hair at the upper portions of the head to shorter hair at the lower edge of hair growth on the back and sides. There are a variety of tapers possible from short to extra long. Medium and longer tapers can be referred to as trims; however, the word trim is commonly used to request that the hair is trimmed back to the last haircut regardless of the style of taper. The sideburns and the shape and height of the neck edge are important design elements that can affect the appearance of the face, neck, chin, ears, profile and overall style.\n", "Section::::Revival.\n\nBeginning in the late 1980s, centrally parted undercuts derived from the bowl cut made a comeback among fans of new wave, synthpop, and electronic music as an alternative to the mullets and backcombed hair of glam metal bands. A collar-length version of the haircut, known as curtained hair, went mainstream in the early 1990s and was worn by many celebrities, most notably Tom Cruise. Another variant, with a floppy permed fringe, was known as the \"meet me at McDonald's haircut\" due to its popularity among fast food workers during the 1980s.\n", "The flattop has maintained a contingent of dedicated wearers since it was introduced. It was very popular in the 1950s, but faded in popularity with the emergence of longer hair styles in the late 1960s and 1970s. It had a brief reappearance in the 1980s and early 1990s, before dropping off again.\n\nSection::::Haircutting methods.\n", "Shaving does not cause terminal hair to grow back thicker, coarser or darker. This belief arose because hair that has never been cut has a naturally tapered end, as it emerges from the skin's hair follicle, whereas, after cutting, there is no taper. The cut hair may thus appear to be thicker, and feel coarser as a result of the sharp edges on each cut strand. The fact that shorter hairs are \"harder\" (less flexible) than longer hairs also contributes to this effect. Hair can also appear darker after it grows back because hair that has never been cut is often lighter from sun exposure. In addition, as humans grow older hair tends to grow coarser and in more places on the face and body. For example, teenagers may start shaving their face or legs at around 16, but as they age hair will start to grow more abundantly and thicker, leading some to believe this was due to the shaving, but in reality is just part of the maturation process.\n", "A crew cut is a type of haircut in which the upright hair on the top of the head is cut relatively short, graduated in length from the longest hair that forms a short pomp (pompadour) at the front hairline to the shortest at the back of the crown so that in side profile, the outline of the top hair approaches the horizontal. Relative to the front view, and to varying degrees, the outline of the top hair can be arched or flattened at the short pomp front and rounded or flattened over the rest of the top to complement the front hairline, head shape, face shape and facial features. The hair on the sides and back of the head is usually tapered short, semi-short, or medium.\n", "The resultant scar from hairline advancement is typically hidden by regrowth of hair, in some cases with cowlicks, the scar can be seen. In such cases hair transplants can totally disguise the scar. In males with progressive baldness, the surgical scar may become more visible as balding advances. Hair thinning from “shock loss” can occur and is usually temporary. Infections are rare. Follicular unit hair transplants can be done as an alternative treatment although the results take up to 2 years to get enough hair length and density to compare with the near instantaneous results of the hairline lowering operation.\n", "Although baldness is not as common in women as in men, the psychological effects of hair loss tend to be much greater. Typically, the frontal hairline is preserved, but the density of hair is decreased on all areas of the scalp. Previously, it was believed to be caused by testosterone just as in male baldness, but most women who lose hair have normal testosterone levels.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n", "Female-pattern hair loss more often causes diffuse thinning without hairline recession; similar to its male counterpart, female androgenic alopecia rarely leads to total hair loss. The Ludwig scale grades severity of female-pattern hair loss.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Hormones.\n", "Transgenic studies have shown that growth and dormancy of hair follicles are related to the activity of insulin-like growth factor (IGF) at the dermal papillae, which is affected by DHT. Androgens are important in male sexual development around birth and at puberty. They regulate sebaceous glands, apocrine hair growth, and libido. With increasing age, androgens stimulate hair growth on the face, but can suppress it at the temples and scalp vertex, a condition that has been referred to as the 'androgen paradox'.\n", "The genetic determination of presence or absence of hair on the dorsal aspect of the middle phalanx was first suggested by Danforth (1921). From a study of 80 families with a total of 178 children, he suggested that 'a phylogenetically progressive loss of hair is brought about through the action of one or more recessive genes, or of one primary recessive gene with several modifying factors that regulate the distribution of hair when it is present.' Stated conversely, 'despite the fact that in evolutionary progress hair is disappearing from the mid-digital region, its presence...may be regarded as the manifestation of a dominant trait.'\n", "Undercut (hairstyle)\n\nThe undercut is a hairstyle that was fashionable from the 1910s to the 1940s, predominantly among men, and saw a steadily growing revival in the 1980s before becoming fully fashionable again in the 2010s. Typically, the hair on the top of the head is long and parted on either the side or center, while the back and sides are buzzed very short. It is closely related to the curtained hair of the mid-to-late 1990s, although those with undercuts during the 2010s tend to slick back the bangs away from the face.\n\nSection::::Origins.\n", "In most instances, a shorter neck or chin suits a somewhat higher neck edge; a longer neck or chin suits a somewhat lower neck edge. An extra wide neck suits a somewhat narrower neck edge while a thinner neck or protruding ears suit a wider neck edge. When slightly longer sideburns are worn than are appropriate for a style, it can shorten the appearance of the face; when slightly shorter sideburns are worn than are appropriate, it can lengthen the appearance of the face; therefore, the appearance of a face that is shorter or longer than average, in particular when due to the length of the chin or lower face, can be normalized by altering the length of the sideburns.\n", "The catagen phase, also known as the transitional phase, allows the follicle to, in a sense, renew itself. During this time, which lasts about two weeks, the hair follicle shrinks due to disintegration and the papilla detaches and \"rests,\" cutting the hair strand off from its nourishing blood supply. Signals sent out by the body (that only selectively affect 1 percent of all hair of one's body at any given time) determine when the anagen phase ends and the catagen phase begins. The first sign of catagen is the cessation of melanin production in the hair bulb and apoptosis of follicular melanocytes. Ultimately, the follicle is 1/6 its original length, causing the hair shaft to be pushed upward. While hair is not growing during this phase, the length of the terminal fibers increase when the follicle pushes them upward.\n", "Hair on the top of the head was raised by backcombing or \"teasing\" it with a comb to create a pile of tangled, loosely knotted hair on the top and upper sides of the head. Then, unteased hair from the front of the head was lightly combed over the pile to give a smooth, sleek look, and the ends of the outer hair may be combed, cut, curled, or flipped in many distinctive ways. \n", "Section::::Society and culture.:Names.\n\nMale pattern hair loss is also known as androgenic alopecia, androgenetic alopecia (AGA), alopecia androgenetica, and male pattern baldness (MPB).\n\nSection::::Other animals.\n\nAnimal models of androgenic alopecia occur naturally and have been developed in transgenic mice; chimpanzees (\"Pan troglodytes\"); bald uakaris (\"Cacajao rubicundus\"); and stump-tailed macaques (\"Macaca speciosa\" and \"M. arctoides\"). Of these, macaques have demonstrated the greatest incidence and most prominent degrees of hair loss.\n", "Symptoms of hair loss include hair loss in patches usually in circular patterns, dandruff, skin lesions, and scarring. Alopecia areata (mild – medium level) usually shows in unusual hair loss areas, e.g., eyebrows, backside of the head or above the ears, areas the male pattern baldness usually does not affect. In male-pattern hair loss, loss and thinning begin at the temples and the crown and hair either thins out or falls out. Female-pattern hair loss occurs at the frontal and parietal.\n", "The wide hairstyles of the previous decade gave way to fashions which kept the hair closer to the head, and the high bun or knot on the crown descended to the back of the head. Hair was still generally parted in the center. Isolated long curls dangling down towards the front (sometimes called \"spaniel curls\") were worn, often without much relationship to the way that the rest of the hair was styled. Alternately the side hair could be smoothed back over the ears or looped and braided, with the ends tucked into the bun at the back.\n", "CCCA tends to present itself in the 20s and progresses over 20–30 years. One should consider this diagnosis in African Americans with what appears to be a female-pattern hair loss.\n\nSection::::Terminology.\n\nThe terminology of CCCA has been a source of regular confusion. Recent clarifications have been made, with the term \"central centrifugal cicatritial alopecia\" adopted as a diagnostic category by the North American Hair Research Society. It has also been referred to as:\n\nBULLET::::- Hot comb alopecia\n\nBULLET::::- Follicular degeneration syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Pseudopelade in African Americans\n\nBULLET::::- Central elliptical pseudopelade in Caucasians\n", "Totally shaved heads gained popularity among men. The sideburns of the 1960s and 1970s saw a massive decline in fashion in late 1970s. Big and eccentric hair styles were popularized by film and music stars, in particular amongst teenagers. Although straight hair was the norm at the beginning of the decade, as many late 1970s styles were still relevant, by around 1982 the perm had come into fashion. This was in large part due to many movies released at the time, as well as possibly being a rebellious movement against the 1970s. In 1984, sideburns made a comeback but were slightly thinner and shorter, and better groomed than those of the 1970s, lasting until the end of 1986. These sideburns were usually (but not always) used as an add-on to the Mullet haircut. Spiked hair, teased hair, brightly colored hair, and shaved hair sections were popularized in the 1980s by the punk movement, as were the Mohawk and its twisted variant, Liberty spikes.\n" ]	[ "Hairline always recedes from the top.", "With age, the hairline always recedes from the top of the head and never on the sides or the back." ]	[ "Hairline doesn't always start by receding from the top, that is just a common spot for it to start from. It can also start from the front corner of the head. ", "Receding hairlines don't always start at the top of the head." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Hairline always recedes from the top.", "With age, the hairline always recedes from the top of the head and never on the sides or the back." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Hairline doesn't always start by receding from the top, that is just a common spot for it to start from. It can also start from the front corner of the head. ", "Receding hairlines don't always start at the top of the head." ]
2018-12060	What is the difference between toilets where you press a button and it flushes automatically, and toilets that draw water only as long as you keep the button pressed?	Usually, the flapper has a void area that traps air so that it stays afloat by buoyancy until the weight of the incoming water used to fill the tank overcomes the buoyancy of the flapper. [ URL_2 ]( URL_2 ) Usually, the "non-automatic" flappers do not have this feature. [ URL_0 ]( URL_1 )	[ "Automatic flush compensates for users who do not bother to flush. Also, since the fixtures are always flushed, there is no need for a urinal cake, or other odor reduction. Sensor-operated toilets also have automatic flush. Sensor-operated faucets and showers save water. For example, while a user is lathering up with soap, the fixture shuts off and then resumes when the user needs it to. Sensor-operated soap and shampoo dispensers reduce waste and spills that might otherwise represent a slippage hazard.\n", "Dual flush toilet\n\nA dual-flush toilet is a variation of the flush toilet that uses two buttons or a handle mechanism to flush different amounts of water.\n", "The amount of water used by conventional flush toilets usually makes up a significant portion of personal daily water usage. However, modern low flush toilet designs allow the use of much less water per flush. Dual flush toilets allow the user to select between a flush for urine or feces, saving a significant amount of water over conventional units. The flush handle on these toilets is pushed up for one kind of flush and down for the other. Another design is to have two buttons, one for urination and the other for defecation. In some places, users are encouraged not to flush after urination. Flushing toilets can be plumbed to use greywater (previously used for washing dishes, laundry, and bathing) rather than potable water (drinking water). Some modern toilets pressurize the water in the tank, which initiates flushing action with less water usage.\n", "Because it is a development of the traditional Australian flushing toilet, the push-button dual-flush toilet differs from siphon-flush toilets in that it relies on gravity to remove waste from the toilet. In addition to its dual-flush feature, the lack of siphoning also means that the toilet requires less water to operate. The lack of siphoning means that the waterline is considerably lower than that in siphon-flush toilets. The main feature of the toilet is the two buttons on the cistern, which release different volumes of water: one button delivers 3 litres and the other 6 litres. The lesser quantity is designed to flush liquid waste and the larger is designed to flush solid waste. It also uses a larger 10 cm trapway in the bowl, allowing for water to come out faster and clear the bowl efficiently.\n", "A \"true siphonic toilet\" can be easily identified by the noise it makes. If it can be heard to suck air down the drain at the end of a flush, then it is a true siphonic toilet. If not, then it is either a double trap siphonic or a non-siphonic toilet.\n\nIf water is poured slowly into the bowl it simply flows over the rim of the waterway and pours slowly down the drain—thus the toilet does not flush properly.\n", "The water may be discharged through a \"toilet flapper valve\" (not to be confused with a type of check valve), or through a siphon. A float usually commands the refilling device.\n\nSection::::Operation.:Mechanical flush from a high pressure water supply.\n\nToilets without cisterns are often flushed through a simple flush valve or \"Flushometer\" connected directly to the water supply. These are designed to rapidly discharge a limited volume of water when the lever or button is pressed then released.\n\nSection::::Operation.:Manual flush (pour flush).\n", "BULLET::::2. Low-flush toilets and composting toilets. These have a dramatic impact in the developed world, as conventional Western toilets use large volumes of water\n\nBULLET::::3. Dual flush toilets created by Caroma includes two buttons or handles to flush different levels of water. Dual flush toilets use up to 67% less water than conventional toilets\n\nBULLET::::4. Faucet aerators, which break water flow into fine droplets to maintain \"wetting effectiveness\" while using less water. An additional benefit is that they reduce splashing while washing hands and dishes\n\nBULLET::::5. Raw water flushing where toilets use sea water or non-purified water\n", "Some users do not flush their toilets after urination, in order to save water.\n\nDual flush toilets allow the user to select between a flush for urine or feces, saving a significant amount of water over conventional units. Dual flush may be accomplished by pushing the flush handle up or down, or a two-segment flush pushbutton may be used whereby pressing the smaller section releases less water.\n\nSection::::Water usage.:Flushing with non-potable water sources.\n", "Some newer toilets use similar pressure-assist technology along with a bowl and trapway designed to enhance the siphon effect; they use only per flush, or / for dual flush models. This design is also much quieter than other pressure-assist or flushometer toilets.\n", "During flushing, the user activates the valve via a button or lever, which releases the pressurized water into the bowl at a flow rate much higher than a conventional gravity-flow toilet. An advantage includes lower water consumption than a gravity-flow toilet, or more effectiveness with a similar amount of water. As a result, the toilet doesn't clog easily.\n", "The double trap siphonic toilet is a less common type that is exceptionally quiet when flushed. There is a device known as an aspirator which uses the flow of water on a flush to suck air from the cavity between the two traps, reducing the air pressure there to create the siphon which sucks water and waste from the toilet bowl. Towards the end of the flush the aspirator ceases being covered in water, thus allowing air into the cavity between traps to break the siphon without the noise while the final flush water fills the pan.\n\nSection::::Bowl design.:Non-siphonic bowls.\n", "Some flushometer models require the user to either depress a lever or press a button, which in turn opens a flush valve allowing mains-pressure water to flow directly into the toilet bowl or urinal. Other flushometer models are electronically triggered, using an infrared sensor to initiate the flushing process. Typically, on electronically triggered models, an override button is provided in case the user wishes to manually trigger flushing earlier. Some electronically triggered models also incorporate a true mechanical manual override which can be used in the event of the failure of the electronic system. In retrofit installations, a self-contained battery-powered or hard-wired unit can be added to an existing manual flushometer to flush automatically when a user departs.\n", "Since 1994, there is a significant move towards using less water for flushing toilets. This has resulted in the emergence of low flush toilet designs and local or national standards on water consumption for flushing. As an alternative some people modify an existing high flush toilet to use less water by placing a brick or water bottle into the toilet's water tank. Other modifications are often done on the water system itself (such as by using greywater), or a system that pollutes the water less, for more efficient water use.\n", "Section::::Operation.:Mechanical flush from a cistern.\n\nA typical toilet has a tank fixed above the bowl which contains a fixed volume of water, and two devices. The first device allows part of the contents of the tank (usually in the 3-6 liters range) to be discharged rapidly into the toilet bowl, causing the contents of the bowl to be swept or sucked out of the toilet and into the drain, when the user operates the flush. The second device automatically allows water to enter the tank until the water level is appropriate for a flush.\n", "Some urinals are equipped with water-saving \"dual-flush\" handles, which use half as much water when pushed upwards, and operate a standard full flush when pressed downwards. The handles are often color-coded green to alert users to this feature.\n\nSection::::Urinals with flushing.:Timed flush.\n", "Low-flush toilet\n\nA low-flush toilet (or low-flow toilet or high-efficiency toilet) is a flush toilet that uses significantly less water than a full-flush toilet. Low-flush toilets use or less per flush, as opposed to or more. They came into use in the United States in the 1990s, in response to water conservation concerns. Low-flush toilets include single-flush models and dual-flush toilets, which typically use 1.6 USgpf for the full flush and 1.28 US for a reduced flush.\n\nSection::::Water savings.\n", "The lower water level in a dual-flush toilet bowl may be slightly off-putting to visitors to Australia from countries where toilets with a full tank and one lever/button are the norm. However, the lower water level in the bowl was a standard feature of Australian toilets before the introduction of the dual-flush feature, and was not affected by the new type of cistern.\n", "After flushing, the flapper valve in the water tank closes or the flush valve shuts; water lines and valves connected to the water supply refill the toilet tank and bowl. Then the toilet is again ready for use.\n\nSection::::Bowl design.:Siphonic bowls.:Double trap siphonic toilet.\n", "A two-piece attaching seat and toilet bowl lid are typically mounted over the bowl to allow covering the toilet when it is not in use and to provide seating comfort. The seat may be installed at the factory, or the parts may be sold separately and assembled by a plumbing distributor or the installer.\n\nSection::::Water usage.\n\nThe amount of water used by conventional flush toilets is usually a significant portion of personal daily water usage: for example, five 10-liter flushes per day use .\n\nModern low-flush toilet designs allow the use of much less water per flush, per flush.\n", "In some countries, clogging has become more frequent due to regulations that require the use of small-tanked low-flush toilets in attempt to conserve water. Sometimes, three to four flushes periodically during the use of a low-flush toilet may be required to prevent clogging, thus using more water than larger-tanked toilets. Designs which increase the velocity of flushed water or improve the travel path can improve low-flow reliability.\n", "In public facilities, the trend is toward sensor-operated (automatic) fixtures that improve hygiene and save money. For example, sensor operated automatic-flush urinals have fewer moving parts, reduce wear, and tend to last longer than manual-flush valves. Also they ensure fixtures are flushed only once per use. Some contain intelligence that flushes them at different amounts of water flow depending on traffic patterns: \"e.g.,\" the fixture can detect a lineup of users and only give a full flush after the last person has used the urinal. For the same purpose, dual-flush toilets are also becoming more popular. A combination of both technologies can allow for saved power and water.\n", "Urine diversion flush toilets, which were developed in Sweden, save water by using less water, or even no water, for the urine flush compared to about six litres for the feces flush.\n\nSection::::Low-flow and high-efficiency flush toilets.:US standards for new toilets.\n", "Once a flushometer valve has been flushed, and after a preset interval, the flushometer mechanism closes the valve and stops the flow. The flushometer system requires no storage tank, but uses a high rate of water flow for a very short time. Thus a inch (22 mm) pipe at minimum, or preferably a 1-inch (29 mm) pipe, must be used. Water main pressures must be above . The higher water pressure employed by a flushometer valve scours the bowl more efficiently than a gravity-driven system, and fewer blockages typically occur as a result of this higher water pressure. Flushometer systems require approximately the same amount of water as a gravity system to operate (1.6 gpf).\n", "A typical flush toilet is a fixed, vitreous ceramic bowl (also known as a pan) which is connected to a drain. After use, the bowl is emptied and cleaned by the rapid flow of water into the bowl. This flush may flow from a dedicated tank (cistern), a high-pressure water pipe controlled by a flush valve, or by manually pouring water into the bowl. Tanks and valves are normally operated by the user, by pressing a button, pushing down on a handle, pulling a lever or pulling a chain. The water is directed around the bowl by a molded flushing rim around the top of the bowl or by one or more jets, so that the entire internal surface of the bowl is rinsed with water.\n", "Dry toilets use no water for flushing. They also do not produce wastewater. Some of these devices are high-tech but many are quite basic.\n\nSection::::Without water as an odor seal.:Pit latrine with direct drop.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-22207	Why are deer stunned or startled by vehicle headlights?	I saw a random red light hovering in the fast lane one night....the light kept getting closer and I couldn’t figure out what it was until I realized it was a truck on its side with one taillight out but the other one still on....at the same time I noticed a guy who I’m assuming was drunk standing in between the fast lane and the two lane....I barely had time to swerve from the 1 to the 3.... I would assume the deer have no clue wtf it is and are scared as well..... I’ve had headlights peep out of the fog headed towards us driving the wrong way on the freeway, luckily my friend who was driving did not have the “deer in the headlights” reaction	[ "BULLET::::- If deer could hear ultrasound, it is unknown if it would alarm them or induce a flight response.\n\nIn addition to the Georgia and Wisconsin studies, a study by the Ohio State Police Department indicated the whistles are ineffective. \n", "Spotlighting or lamping (also jacklighting and pit-lamping) is a method of hunting nocturnal animals using off-road vehicles and high-powered lights, spotlights, lamps or flashlights, that makes special use of the eyeshine revealed by many animal species. A further important aspect is that many animals (e.g. foxes and rabbits) often remain to continually stare at the light and do not appear to see the light as a threat as they normally would view a human. It is possible to carefully approach animals on foot to a short distance if the bright light is continuously maintained on the animal to greatly improve chances of successful killing. Spotlighting may also be used as a method of surveying nocturnal fauna. Repeated, frequent spotlighting may have a detrimental effect on animals and is discouraged. \n", "Pueo are strongly affected by light pollution. They are often killed in vehicular accidents in which they dive toward the headlights of cars, possibly in an attempt to hunt. Many such collisions have been reported on Interstate H-3 and other newly built roadways in areas which once held high populations of pueo.\n", "Hikers are commonly advised to avoid direct eye contact if they have surprised a bear, since the bear may interpret the eye contact as a threat, although some sources suggest maintaining eye contact.\n", "Night time drivers should reduce speed and use high beam headlights when possible to give themselves maximum time to avoid a collision. However, when headlights approach a nocturnal animal, it is hard for the creature to see the approaching car (nocturnal animals see better in low than in bright light). Furthermore, the glare of oncoming vehicle headlights can dazzle some species, such as rabbits; they will freeze in the road rather than flee. It may be better to flash the headlights on and off, rather than leaving them on continuously while approaching an animal.\n", "Section::::Vigilance Level.\n\nIf elk are not alert, they cannot determine the current level of risk. It has been found that vigilance of an animal will increase as the risk of predation increases (Lung and Childress, 2006). Elk seem to be able to sense their predators up to three kilometers away, with the herbivores becoming most alert when their predators are within one kilometer or less of the herd.\n", "Section::::Technique.\n\nThe spotting and shooting often take place from the moving vehicle. Experienced drivers on familiar territory (such as farmers in their own paddocks) may turn off the vehicle headlights to minimize the distractions.\n", "Spotlighting can be conducted by two persons where the driver operates the spotlight or alone where the driver spotlights using a remote mounted spotlight or automotive lighting and shoots from the driver's seat of the vehicle.\n\nSection::::Legality.\n\nSection::::Legality.:Australia.\n\nVarious rules govern nocturnal hunting and hunting from motor vehicles, but typically the use of illumination devices is prohibited for deer hunting. Commercial hunters are normally exempt from such regulations where the emphasis is upon population control. \n\nSection::::Legality.:New Zealand.\n\nSpotlighting on New Zealand Department of Conservation land is prohibited by law.\n\nSection::::Legality.:North America.\n", "Safety reflectors are based from the way raccoons eyes work when light such as from a headlight hits their eyes and reflect back.\n", "The bear follows and climbs on top of the Jeep, smashing up the car and eventually overturning it before leaving as the sun sets. Sean wakes up and tells them about the hunting paraphernalia, crying about wanting to go home before he dies. Wes and Lauren turn the Jeep right side up, load him back in the car, then push the Jeep down the hilly road as a thunderstorm hits. Using the downward momentum and occasionally pushing, they arrive near the buildings. While Lauren is exploring the building with the trap, the bear swings at her through a window sending her back against the trap, which impales her back. She returns to the vehicle where the bear rips off the tailgate and drags away Sean's body.\n", "The main contributing factor of a deer-vehicle collision has been contested among studies and statistics. Many factors are yet to be identified or understood. At this point, a main factor in all deer-vehicle collisions has not been concluded, but the most argued is the proximity of roadways to deer-populated forestry. Significant factors also include: urban population and deer density. Also, studies have shown that, nationally, most deer vehicle collisions occur between May and November because of deer mating season and foraging before the winter months.\n\nSection::::Contributing factors.:Habitat fragmentation.\n", "Although \"Navahoceros\" entered the scene based on a very weak analysis which is impossible to verify, the best current evidence based on an extensive comparative study shows that \"Navahoceros\" was an invalid construct and pertains to \"Odocoileus lucasi\" Hay 1927. Subsequent publications referring to Kurten's \"Navahoceros\" simply cited his interpretations without questioning its validity. It is recommended that any future discussion, or reference to \"Navahoceros\", be done explicitly in relation to the known information on \"Odocoileus lucasi\".\n", "Motor vehicle collisions with deer are a serious problem in many parts of the animal's range, especially at night and during rutting season, causing injuries and fatalities among both deer and humans. Vehicular damage can be substantial in some cases. In the United States, such collisions increased from 200,000 in 1980 to 500,000 in 1991. By 2009, the insurance industry estimated 2.4 million deer–vehicle collisions had occurred over the past two years, estimating damage cost to be over 7 billion dollars and 300 human deaths. Despite the alarming high rate of these accidents, the effect on deer density is still quite low. Vehicle collisions of deer were monitored for two years in Virginia, and the collective annual mortality did not surpass 20% of the estimated deer population.\n", "Bears' senses are likely similar to those of dogs, animals that at times have much the same build and dietary habits of bears.\n", "In Germany over 220,000 traffic collisions occur annually involving deer, over 1000 of which lead to human injuries and around 20 to human fatalities.\n\nSection::::History of the deer.\n", "The expansion and technological advances of roadways in the US have increased the number of deer-vehicle collisions. The increased amount of habitat fragmentation, due to expanding technology, has increased the likelihood of a deer-vehicle collision.\n\nIn the United States, the state with the highest number of deer-vehicle collisions is Pennsylvania, with an estimated 115,000 collisions in 2013 causing $400 million in damage. West Virginia is the state with the highest risk that a motorist will hit a deer whilst driving.\n\nSection::::Contributing factors.\n", "In the US, an estimated 1.25 million insurance claims are filed annually due to collisions with deer, elk, or moose, amounting to 1 out of 169 collision damage claims.\n\nCollisions with large animals with antlers (such as deer) are particularly dangerous, but any large, long-legged animal (e.g. horses, larger cattle, camels) can pose a similar cabin incursion hazard. Injury to humans due to driver failure to maintain control of a vehicle either while avoiding, or during and immediately after an animal impact, is also common. Dusk and dawn are times of highest collision risk.\n", "Little is known about a bear's hearing, but scientists concluded that it is at least as good as a human's. Some scientists believe that bears may even be able to detect ultrasonic sounds as well.\n", "Reproductive cows often show more alertness than bulls. For the first six months of their newborn calf’s life, the mother spends at least 25% of their time scanning their surroundings compared to bulls who spend less than 10% of their time alert for predators. Come fall, the yearling is old enough to look out for itself and the vigilance of its mother decreases slightly since she no longer has to keep an eye out for predators for two bodies and can focus solely on her own protection (Lung and Childress, 2006).\n\nSection::::Health.\n", "Natural observers believe that most bear species are near-sighted, which allows bears to forage for small objects such as berries. However, bears are also capable of discerning faraway movements, helping them hunt prey. The Kodiak bear, when compared to other species, appears to have vision comparable to a human (not near-sighted). Experiments show that black bears can see color, unlike many mammals. With scientists still working to determine exactly how perceptive bear eyes are, it is difficult to compare bear eyesight with human eyesight.\n\nSection::::Causes of bear attacks.\n", "Deer–vehicle collisions\n\nA deer-vehicle collision occurs when one or more deer and a human-operated vehicle collide on a roadway. It can result in deer fatality, property damage, and human injury or death. The number of accidents, injuries, and fatalities varies from year to year and region. In the United States an estimated 1.23 million deer related accidents occurred in a one-year period ending June 2012 (a 7.7 percent increase from the previous year), resulting in $3,305 in average property damage. The largest proportion of such accidents occur in November.\n", "Section::::Human interaction.:Heraldry.\n", "This method of hunting is also used for cougar and black bear. The dogs are trained to bay, not directly attack the quarry; however, it is not unheard of for the quarry to kill some of the dogs or for the dogs to kill the quarry. Usually the quarry will climb a tree to escape the dogs after a period of chase and harassment. Blackmouth Cur use this method. Traditionally the dogs were followed on foot by hunters listening to their barks, although some hunters now use radio direction finding equipment to follow the pack.\n", "Conflicts with humans, however, appear to be the most common cause of poaching in large portions of its distribution. Andean Bears are often suspected of attacking cattle and raiding crops, and are killed for retaliation or in order to avoid further damages. It has been argued that attacks to cattle attributed to Andean bear are partly due to other predators. Raiding of crops can be frequent in areas with diminishing natural resources and extensive crops in former bear habitat, or when problematic individuals get used to human environments.\n", "Section::::Prevention.:Night driving.\n\nAlthough strikes can happen at any time of day, deer tend to move at dusk and dawn, and are particularly active during the October–December mating season as well as late March and early April in the Northern Hemisphere. Driving at night presents its own challenges: nocturnal species are active, and visibility, particularly side visibility, is reduced. Penguins, for example, are common roadkill traffic victims in Wellington, New Zealand, due to their skin color and the fact that they come ashore at dusk and leave again around dawn.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-06371	How did musical notes get their names?	It was somewhat arbitrary, letters (A through G not F) are a functional and easy to use labeling system. One of the notes has to be "first" (A), it was likely picked as it was the first note used by a particular instrument, scale, etc. It may not be universally significant as the "first" note in other contexts, but it's easier for everybody to use the same names than to rename notes based on which comes first in your song or whatever. Chords are sets of notes spaced a certain distance apart. The note the chord is named after is one of the notes in it. It is often the most emphasized or clearly audible note in the chord... but that depends on the instrument and context as well. Naming chords is again done consistently, just for consistency's sake. Not because the name of the chord "perfectly" represents the whole combination of notes in it.	[ "The introduction of these new notes was principally a product of polyphony, which required the placing of a perfect fifth not only above the old note B, but also below its newly created variant, this entailing, as a result of the ‘original sin‘ committed by the well-meant innovation B, the introduction of the still newer respective notes F and E, with as consequences of these last C and A, and so on. The new notes, being outside the gamut of those ordinarily available, had to be \"imagined\", or \"feigned\" (it was long forbidden to write them), and for this reason music containing them was called \"musica ficta\" or \"musica falsa\".\n", "to signify the notes of the two-octave range that was in use at the time and in modern scientific pitch notation are represented as\n", "Today, the term is often loosely applied to all unnotated inflections (whether they are actually \"recta\" or \"ficta\" notes; see below) that must be inferred from the musical context and added either by an editor or by performers themselves . However, some of the words used in modern reference books to represent \"musica ficta\", such as \"inflection\", \"alteration\", and \"added accidentals\" lie outside the way many Medieval and Renaissance theorists described the term .\n\nSection::::Historical sense and relation to hexachords.\n", "In everyday language, these notes are located between two semitones and they are essentially heard in Arab and Greek music throughout Europe and Eastern countries, in Turkey, Persia, as well as in Africa and in Asia. They were also used in tempered scales by certain European microtonal composers during the 19th century.\n", "Scientific pitch (q.v.) is an absolute pitch \"standard\", first proposed in 1713 by French physicist Joseph Sauveur. It was defined so that all Cs are integer powers of 2, with middle C (C) at 256 hertz. As already noted, it is not dependent upon, nor a part of scientific pitch \"notation\" described here. To avoid the confusion in names, scientific pitch is sometimes also called \"Verdi tuning\" or \"philosophical pitch\".\n", "Solfège is a way of assigning syllables to names of the musical scale. In order, they are today: \"Do Re Mi Fa Sol La Ti Do\" (for the octave). The classic variation is: \"Do Re Mi Fa Sol La Si Do\". The first Western system of functional names for the musical notes was introduced by Guido of Arezzo (c. 991 – after 1033), using the beginning syllables of the first six musical lines of the Latin hymn Ut queant laxis. The original sequence was \"Ut Re Mi Fa Sol La\", where each verse started a scale note higher. \"Ut\" later became \"Do\". The equivalent syllables used in Indian music are: \"Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni\". See also: solfège, sargam, Kodály hand signs.\n", "Around 1600 the modern notational system was generally adopted, along with barlines and the practice of writing multipart music in scores rather than only individual parts. In the 17th century, however, old usages came up occasionally. \n\nSection::::Origins of the names.\n", "Musica ficta\n\nMusica ficta (from Latin, \"false\", \"feigned\", or \"fictitious\" music) was a term used in European music theory from the late 12th century to about 1600 to describe pitches, whether notated or added at the time of performance, that lie outside the system of \"musica recta\" or \"musica vera\" (\"correct\" or \"true\" music) as defined by the hexachord system of Guido of Arezzo .\n\nSection::::Modern use.\n", "Guido used the first syllable of each line, Ut, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, and Si, to read notated music in terms of hexachords; they were not note names, and each could, depending on context, be applied to any note. In the 17th century, Ut was changed in most countries except France to the easily singable, \"open\" syllable Do, said to have been taken from the name of the Italian theorist Giovanni Battista Doni,\n\nbut rather Do have been taken from the word \"Dominus\" in Latin with the meaning \"the Lord\". \n", "In a newly developed system, primarily in use in the United States, notes of scales become independent of music notation. In this system the natural symbols C–D–E–F–G–A–B refer to the absolute notes, while the names Do–Re–Mi–Fa–So–La–Ti are relativized and show only the relationship between pitches, where Do is the name of the base pitch of the scale, Re is the name of the second pitch, etc. The idea of so-called movable Do, originally suggested by John Curwen in the 19th century, was fully developed and involved into a whole educational system by Zoltán Kodály in the middle of the 20th century, which system is known as the Kodály method or Kodály concept.\n", "Another style of notation, rarely used in English, uses the suffix \"is\" to indicate a sharp and \"es\" (only \"s\" after A and E) for a flat, e.g., Fis for F, Ges for G, Es for E. This system first arose in Germany and is used in almost all European countries whose main language is not English, Greek, or a Romance language (French, Portuguese, Spanish, Italian, Romanian)\n", "In traditional music theory, most countries in the world use the solfège naming convention Do–Re–Mi–Fa–Sol–La–Si, including for instance Italy, Portugal, Spain, France, Poland, Romania, most Latin American countries, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Russia, and all the Arabic-speaking or Persian-speaking countries. However, in English- and Dutch-speaking regions, pitch classes are typically represented by the first seven letters of the Latin alphabet (A, B, C, D, E, F and G). A few European countries, including Germany, adopt an almost identical notation, in which H substitutes for B (see below for details). In Indian music the Sanskrit names Sa–Re–Ga–Ma–Pa–Dha–Ni (सा-रे-गा-मा-पा-धा-नि) are used, as in Telugu Sa–Ri–Ga–Ma–Pa–Da–Ni (స–రి–గ–మ–ప–ద–ని), and in Tamil (ச–ரி–க–ம–ப–த–நி). Byzantium used the names Pa–Vu–Ga–Di–Ke–Zo–Ni (πΑ—Βου—Γα—Δι—κΕ—Ζω—νΗ). \n", "In Restoration England, in the French modelled, Lullist influenced works of Henry Purcell, William Croft, Jeremiah Clarke and their contemporaries, the short–long slurred pairs of \"notes inégales\" can be found throughout the musical literature, and often variant sources \"write out\" the short–long \"snapped\" \"notes inégales\" rhythms explicitly.\n\nSection::::History.:Imitation of the French style outside France.\n", "The modern word \"guitar,\" and its antecedents, has been applied to a wide variety of chordophones since classical times and as such causes confusion. The English word \"guitar,\" the German \",\" and the French ' were all adopted from the Spanish ', which comes from the Andalusian Arabic (') and the Latin ', which in turn came from the Ancient Greek . Kithara appears in the Bible four times (1 Cor. 14:7, Rev. 5:8, 14:2 and 15:2), and is usually translated into English as \"harp\".\n", "In chant theory beginning in the 9th century, the \"New Exposition\" of the composite treatise called \"Alia musica\" developed an eightfold modal system from the seven diatonic octave species of ancient Greek theory, transmitted to the West through the Latin writings of Martianus Capella, Cassiodorus, Isidore of Seville, and, most importantly, Boethius. Together with the species of fourth and fifth, the octave species remained in use as a basis of the theory of modes, in combination with other elements, particularly the system of octoechos borrowed from the Eastern Orthodox Church .\n", "Section::::History.\n\nNoteheads ultimately derive from the neumes used to notate Gregorian chant. The punctum, seen at right, is the simplest of the shapes and most clearly anticipates the modern notehead. When placed on a clef, the position of a notehead indicates the relative pitch of a note. The development of different colors of noteheads, and the use of it to indicate rhythmic values, was the use of white mensural notation, adopted around 1450.\n", "In a score, each note is assigned a specific vertical position on a staff position (a line or space) on the staff, as determined by the clef. Each line or space is assigned a note name. These names are memorized by musicians and allow them to know at a glance the proper pitch to play on their instruments.\n\nscore vorbis=\"true\"\n\n\\relative c' {\n\nc1 d1 e1 f1 g1 a1 b1 c1 b1 a1 g1 f1 e1 d1 c1\n\n\\layout {\n\n\\midi {\n\n/score\n", "The term \"note\" can be used in both generic and specific senses: one might say either \"the piece 'Happy Birthday to You' begins with two notes having the same pitch\", or \"the piece begins with two repetitions of the same note\". In the former case, one uses \"note\" to refer to a specific musical event; in the latter, one uses the term to refer to a class of events sharing the same pitch. (See also: Key signature names and translations.)\n", "One of the best sources for understanding the situation of \"notes inégales\" in France is the notation of music by composers from other European countries who wrote imitations of it. Music from Italy, Germany and England all borrowed this feature of French music, with the difference that the inequality of note values was often notated, since not all performers could be expected to add the \"notes inégales\" themselves (though evidence from Georg Muffat and Telemann strongly suggests that German performers would certainly be familiar with them).\n\nSection::::History.:Prevalence outside France.\n", "There are only a few language families as of now such as the Solresol language family, Moss language family, and Nibuzigu language family. \n\nThe Solresol family is a family of a posteriori languages (usually English) where a sequence of 7 notes of the western C-Major scale or the 12 tone chromatic scale are used as phonemes.\n\nBULLET::::- Domila\n\nBULLET::::- Eaiea\n\nBULLET::::- Sarus\n\nBULLET::::- Solresol\n\nBULLET::::- Moss (language) is a pidgin built out of melodic shapes.\n\nThe Nibuzigu family\n\nBULLET::::- Nibuzigu\n", "Note names are also used for specifying the natural scale of a transposing instrument such as a clarinet, trumpet, or saxophone. The note names used are conventional, for example a clarinet is said to be in B, E, or A (the three most common registers), never in A, and D, and B (double-flat), while an alto flute is in G.\n\nSection::::Octaves.\n\nNote names can also be qualified to indicate the octave in which they are sounded. There are several schemes for this, the most common being scientific pitch notation.\n", "BULLET::::- 1025 - Musical notes were invented by Guido of Arezzo, named UT, RE, MI, FA, SO and LA. Later in the 16th century UT was changed to DO and TI was added. Lines/staves to space printed notes were added then too.\n\nBULLET::::- 1250 - Rounds, songs sung in harmony, were invented; the first known example is the song \"Sumer is icumen in\".\n\nBULLET::::- 1607 - A tonal system that gave the recitative a more flexible accompaniment was invented, revolutionizing music in the first opera masterpiece, \"Orfeo\", by Claudio Monteverdi, a composer, musician and singer.\n", "In the early 15th century, Jean de Gerson listed the lituus among those string instruments that were sounded by beating or striking, either with the fingernails, a plectrum, or a stick. Other instruments Gerson names in this category are the \"cythara\", \"guiterna\", \"psalterium\", \"timpanum\", and \"campanula\".\n\nSection::::Music instrument.:Modern era.\n", "BULLET::::- In India, the origin of solmization was to be found in Vedic texts like the Upanishads, which discuss a musical system of seven notes, realized ultimately in what is known as sargam. In Indian classical music, the notes in order are: sa, re, ga, ma, pa, dha, and ni.\n\nBULLET::::- Byzantine music also uses syllables derived from a hymn to name notes: starting with A, the notes are pa, vu, ga, di, ke, zo, ni.\n\nBULLET::::- In Japan, the Iroha, an ancient poem, is sometimes used as solfège (i, chi, yo, ra, ya, a, we).\n", "Section::::Modern use.:Fixed do solfège.\n\nIn \"Fixed do\", each syllable corresponds to the name of a note. This is analogous to the Romance system naming pitches after the solfège syllables, and is used in Romance and Slavic countries, among others, including Spanish-speaking countries.\n\nIn the major Romance and Slavic languages, the syllables Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, and\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-10397	Why aren't patients, especially children, given something to numb the surface skin before getting a shot?	Because it would slow down the process significantly, as well as adding cost and more time for the kid to think about how he/she is totally about to get a shot, instead of just getting it over with. Since the areas we get shots are typically not especially sensitive to the pain, it is a very minor inconvenience and much of the discomfort is psychological rather than physical.	[ "BULLET::::- Lidocaine/tetracaine patch. A self-heating patch containing a eutectic mixture of lidocaine and tetracaine is available in several countries, and has been specifically approved by government agencies for use in needle procedures. The patch is sold under the trade name \"Synera\" in the United States and \"Rapydan\" in European Union. Each patch is packaged in an air-tight pouch. It begins to heat up slightly when the patch is removed from the packaging and exposed to the air. The patch requires 20 to 30 minutes to achieve full anesthetic effect. The Synera patch was approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration on 23 June 2005.\n", "BULLET::::- The most common adverse effect of this injection is accidental self-inflicted trauma after the procedure, either by biting the lip or tongue or by thermal burn caused by inadvertent drinking of fluid that is too hot. This classically occurs in children or those with learning disability.\n\nBULLET::::- A blood vessel may be punctured accidentally and a hematoma or \"blood blister\" may occur that will heal over time.\n", "Use of lidocaine iontophoresis is effective for reducing pain and alleviating distress during venipuncture in pediatric patients. A needle-free powder lignocaine delivery system has been shown to decrease the pain of venipuncture in children. Rapid dermal anesthesia can be achieved by local anesthetic infiltration, but it may evoke anxiety in children frightened by needles or distort the skin, making vascular access more difficult and increasing the risk of needle exposure to health care workers. Dermal anesthesia can also be achieved without needles by the topical application of local anesthetics or by lidocaine iontophoresis. By contrast, noninvasive dermal anesthesia can be established in 5–15 min without distorting underlying tissues by lidocaine iontophoresis, where a direct electric current facilitates dermal penetration of positively charged lidocaine molecules when placed under the positive electrode.\n", "BULLET::::- EMLA. EMLA is a topical anesthetic cream that is a eutectic mixture of lidocaine and prilocaine. It is a prescription cream in the United States, and is available without prescription in some other countries. Although not as effective as iontophoresis, since EMLA does not penetrate as deeply as iontophoresis-driven anesthetics, EMLA provides a simpler application than iontophoresis. EMLA penetrates much more deeply than ordinary topical anesthetics, and it works adequately for many individuals.\n\nBULLET::::- Ametop. Ametop gel appears to be more effective than EMLA for eliminating pain during venepuncture.\n", "BULLET::::- Nitrous Oxide (Laughing Gas). This will provide sedation and reduce anxiety for the patient, along with some mild analgesic effects.\n\nBULLET::::- Inhalation General Anesthesia. This will eliminate all pain and also all memory of any needle procedure. However, it is often regarded as a very extreme solution. It is not covered by insurance in most cases, and most physicians will not order it. It can be risky and expensive and may require a hospital stay.\n", "SIRVA has been described as under-reported and preventable, and \"caused by incorrect technique or landmarking for intramuscular deltoid injections\". Because the injury is a result of the injection technique rather than the substance injected, SIRVA can occur irrespective of the vaccine being administered. Although the injury is typically associated with vaccination, it can also occur as the result of any other kind of injection into the shoulder area. However, examination of injury reports suggests that this type of injury is of increased severity when administration of a vaccine is involved, which \"may be due either to the antigenic or nonantigenic components of the vaccine\". In order to avoid this type of injury, injection administrators are advised to avoid injecting the patient too high, too low, or too far to the side, and to avoid using needles that fail to penetrate deeply into the muscle, or that penetrate too deeply and contact the bone.\n", "BULLET::::- Surgery is expected to be limited to a region between the midpoint of the shoulder and the fingers\n\nBULLET::::- There are no contraindications to a block such as infection at the intended injection site, significant bleeding disorder, anxiety, allergy or hypersensitivity to local anesthetics\n\nBULLET::::- There will not be a need to perform an examination of the function of the blocked nerves immediately following the surgical procedure\n\nBULLET::::- The patient prefers this technique over other available and reasonable approaches\n\nSection::::Anatomy.\n", "Section::::Phobia.\n\nIt is estimated that anywhere from nearly 3.5 to 10% of the world’s population may have a phobia of needles (trypanophobia), and it is much more common in children, ages 5–17. Topical anesthetics can be used to desensitize the area where the injection will take place to reduce pain and discomfort. For children and teenagers various techniques may be effective at reducing distress or pain related to needles. Techniques include: distraction, hypnosis, combined cognitive behavioral therapy, and breathing techniques.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Cannula\n\nBULLET::::- Catheter\n\nBULLET::::- Intravenous therapy\n\nBULLET::::- Nanoneedle\n\nBULLET::::- Needle biopsy\n\nBULLET::::- Needle gauge comparison chart\n", "BULLET::::- The sphenomandibular ligament may act as a barrier to the agent if the injection is given too shallow and the lingual nerve is only anesthetized.\n\nBULLET::::- This injection can rarely cause needle tract infections of the pterygomandibular space. This is because the mouth contains many types of bacteria which are normally harmless by virtue of the physical barrier that the mucosa presents. However, if they are inoculated into the tissues during an injection, they can become pathogenic (disease causing).\n", "Another large group at risk are nurses but their frequency of exposure is much less than in surgeons. Their main risk comes from the use and disposal of injection syringes. The same prevention approaches can be implemented here. There are many so-called safety engineered devices such as retractable needles, needle shields/sheaths, needle-less IV kits, and blunt or valved ends on IV connectors. The use of extra gloves is less common among nurses.\n", "Section::::Adverse effects.\n\nBULLET::::- The most common local adverse reactions in ≥20% of patients were pain, redness, and swelling at the injection site.\n\nBULLET::::- The most common general adverse events in ≥20% of subjects were fatigue, headache, muscle pain (myalgia), gastrointestinal symptoms, and joint pain (arthralgia).\n\nIn common with some other prefilled syringe vaccination products, the tip cap and the rubber plunger of the needleless prefilled syringes contain dry natural latex rubber that may cause allergic reactions in latex sensitive individuals. The vial stopper does not contain latex.\n\nSection::::Ingredients.\n\nThe active components of the vaccine are:\n", "To make the procedure more tolerable for children, medical staff may apply a topical local anaesthetic (such as EMLA or Ametop) to the skin of the chosen venipuncture area about 45 minutes beforehand.\n", "BULLET::::- If dural puncture is not recognised, large doses of anaesthetic may be delivered directly into the cerebrospinal fluid. This may result in a high block, or, more rarely, a \"total spinal\", where anaesthetic is delivered directly to the brainstem, causing unconsciousness and sometimes seizures.\n\nBULLET::::- Neurological injury lasting less than 1 year (rare, about 1 in 6,700).\n\nBULLET::::- Epidural abscess formation (very rare, about 1 in 145,000). Infection risk increases with the duration catheters are left in place, although infection was still uncommon after an average of 3 to 5 days' duration.\n", "BULLET::::- Serious adverse drug reaction to lidocaine or amide local anesthetics\n\nBULLET::::- Hypersensitivity to corn and corn-related products (corn-derived dextrose is used in the mixed injections)\n\nBULLET::::- Concurrent treatment with quinidine, flecainide, disopyramide, procainamide (class I antiarrhythmic agents)\n\nBULLET::::- Prior use of amiodarone hydrochloride\n\nBULLET::::- Adams-Stokes syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Lidocaine viscous is not recommended by the FDA to treat teething pain in children and infants.\n\nExercise caution in patients with any of these:\n\nBULLET::::- Hypotension not due to arrhythmia\n\nBULLET::::- Bradycardia\n\nBULLET::::- Accelerated idioventricular rhythm\n\nBULLET::::- Elderly patients\n\nBULLET::::- Pseudocholinesterase deficiency\n", "BULLET::::- Using age-appropriate anatomical terms and other vocabulary.\n\nSection::::Management.:Non-pharmacological.\n\nDepending on the source of pain, there are many non-pharmacological options to be considered. Also, depending on the age of the child, different approaches may be more suitable.\n\nNon-pharmacological methods to manage discomfort during immunizations include putting sugar on a pacifier, comforting the child during and after the injection, chest-to-chest hugging, and letting the child choose the injection site. Other non-pharmacological treatments that have been found to be effective include:\n\nBULLET::::- Carefully explaining a procedure with pictures or other visual aids\n\nBULLET::::- Allowing the child to ask questions of medical staff\n", "In cases where the infant is in obvious pain, some doctors recommend the use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or child-safe pain-relief treatments containing benzocaine, lidocaine, or choline salicylate. Benzocaine must be used cautiously because it can cause methemoglobinemia; choline salicylate is related to aspirin and \"may cause Reye's syndrome in susceptible children, especially those with or recovering from viral infections, or when used in combination with other NSAIDs\". 5% lidocaine gel produces anaesthesia (numbing) within 2–5 minutes, lasting for 10–20 minutes. However, one author concludes that, \"Overall, the risks and adverse effects from inappropriate or prolonged use of pharmacological agents outweigh their potential benefits.\" She points out that \"the psychological trauma involved in administering medications or applying topical preparations to infants must be considered\", and argues that \"the placebo effect must not be overlooked. For example, applying a gel of 20% benzocaine in polyethylene glycol may give only a modest benefit over applying the placebo, which gives an efficacy of 60% compared with 90% for the active preparation.\"\n", "One study concluded that the iontophoretic administration of lidocaine was safe and effective in providing dermal anesthesia for venipuncture in children 6–17 years old. This technique may not be applicable to all children. Future studies may provide information on the minimum effective iontophoretic dose for dermal anesthesia in children and the comparison of the anesthetic efficacy and satisfaction of lidocaine iontophoresis with topical anesthetic creams and subcutaneous infiltration.\n", "BULLET::::- redness, warmth or swelling at the injection site\n\nBULLET::::- fever\n\nThese problems are uncommon, and if they occur, usually begin soon after the injection and last only 2 to 3 days. More serious complications may include a brief fainting spell or, very rarely, temporary severe shoulder pain and limited range of motion of the arm may happen after the injection.\n\nSection::::Haemophilus Influenza Type B.:Transmission.\n", "Hyperalgesic fear of needles is another form that does not have as much to do with fear of the actual needle. Patients with this form have an inherited hypersensitivity to pain, or hyperalgesia. To them, the pain of an injection is unbearably great and many cannot understand how anyone can tolerate such procedures.\n", "Local infiltration anaesthesia, the infiltration of anaesthetic agent directly into the skin and subcutaneous tissue where the painful procedure is to be undertaken, may be effectively used to reduce pain after a procedure under general anaesthesia. To reduce the pain of the initial injection, a topical anaesthetic ointment may be applied. Examples of these local anaesthetics that are used on neonates are ropivacane and bupivacane. Neonates are able to safely get these injections because they are born with enzymes that are able to thoroughly digest these chemicals without it damaging their liver too much.\n", "BULLET::::- Jet injectors. Jet injectors work by introducing substances into the body through a jet of high pressure gas as opposed to by a needle. Though these eliminate the needle, some people report that they cause more pain. Also, they are only helpful in a very limited number of situations involving needles; for example, insulin and inoculations.\n\nBULLET::::- Iontophoresis. Iontophoresis drives anesthetic through the skin by using an electric current. It provides effective anesthesia, but is generally unavailable to consumers on the commercial market and some regard it as inconvenient to use.\n", "Proper needle technique and hygiene is important to avoid skin irritation and injection-site infections. A new, sterile needle should be used each time, as needles get duller and more damaged with each use and reusing needles increases risk of infection. Needles should not be shared between people, as this increases risk of transmitting blood-borne pathogens. This can lead to infections and even lifelong disease.\n\nNeedles should be disposed of in sharps containers. This reduces the risk of accidental needle sticks and exposure to other people.\n\nSection::::Injection safety.\n", "BULLET::::- Percutaneous techniques which all involve a needle or catheter entering the face up to the origin where the nerve splits into three divisions and then damaging this area, purposely, to produce numbness but also stop pain signals. These techniques are proven effective especially in those where other interventions have failed or in those who are medically unfit for surgery such as the elderly.\n\nBULLET::::- Balloon compression - inflation of a balloon at this point causing damage and stopping pain signals.\n", "While the pain of a procedure may or may not be affected, the fear is visibly reduced. This works to ameliorate the negative effects of fear in health care situations. It is, therefore, considered good practice to involve parents or care-givers directly, having them present and in contact with the baby whenever possible before a minor painful procedure, such as the drawing of blood, or prior to giving a local anaesthetic injection.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Measures not involving medication.:Oral stimulation.\n", "There are a number of techniques that are commonly used to achieve inferior alveolar nerve anesthesia. The most commonly used techniques involve an attempted block of an entire portion of the inferior alveolar nerve:\n\nBULLET::::- Inferior alveolar nerve block or IANB - The nerve is approached from the opposite side of the mouth over the contralateral premolars. After piercing the mandibular tissue on the medial border of the mandibular ramus within the pterygomandibular space and then contacting medial surface of the alveolar bone as well as being lateral to the pterygomandibular fold and the sphenomandibular ligament, the injection is given.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-11035	How does stuff from in the ground become oil in sunflowers and other plants?	Oils are made of big molecules that contain three atoms: carbon (C), oxygen (O) and hydrogen (H). These atoms are present all around us in the form of smaller molecules. Two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen can make a water molecule (H2O). Water is present in the ground where the plant grows. One carbon and two oxygen atoms can make carbon dioxide (CO2), which is part of the air that the plant breathes. The cells of the plant are able to perform complicated chemistry that shuffles the atoms of water and carbon dioxide around and recombines them into bigger molecules like sugars and oils. For example, one of the oil molecules that makes up sunflower oil is called 'oleic acid', and it contains 18 carbon, 34 hydrogen, and 2 oxygen atoms. This process, of building big molecules out of smaller ones, requires energy that the plants get from sunlight. The plant makes these molecules as a way of storing energy for later. It uses the energy from the sunlight to make the bonds that are necessary to hold these big molecules together. Later, the plant can destroy these bonds again, releasing the energy and making it available to do things with (e.g. to build materials to allow the plant to grow). Or, we can eat the plant instead, and then we get to use the energy in its sugars and oils. So plants make oil by rearranging the atoms of water and carbon dioxide into larger molecules. And note that the carbon dioxide doesn't actually come from the ground, it comes from the air. So if you see a bottle of sunflower oil, it's interesting to think that a lot of that stuff actually came out of the air, just like the air that you breathe.	[ "Section::::Production.:Solvent extraction.\n\nThe processing of vegetable oil in commercial applications is commonly done by chemical extraction, using solvent extracts, which produces higher yields and is quicker and less expensive. The most common solvent is petroleum-derived hexane. This technique is used for most of the \"newer\" industrial oils such as soybean and corn oils. After extraction, the solvent is evaporated out by heating the mixture to about .\n\nSupercritical carbon dioxide can be used as a non-toxic alternative to other solvents.\n\nSection::::Production.:Hydrogenation.\n", "Crude oil is found in all oil reservoirs formed in the Earth's crust from the remains of once-living things. Evidence indicates that millions of years of heat and pressure changed the remains of microscopic plant and animal into oil and natural gas.\n\nRoy Nurmi, an interpretation adviser for Schlumberger oil field services company, described the process as follows:\n", "The production process of vegetable oil involves the removal of oil from plant components, typically seeds. This can be done via mechanical extraction using an oil mill or chemical extraction using a solvent. The extracted oil can then be purified and, if required, refined or chemically altered.\n\nSection::::Production.:Mechanical extraction.\n", "Sunflower oil can be extracted using chemical solvents (e.g., hexane), or expeller pressing (i.e., squeezed directly from sunflower seeds by crushing them). \"Cold-pressing\" (or expeller pressing) sunflower seeds under low-temperature conditions is a method that does not use chemical solvents to derive sunflower seed oil.\n\nSection::::Preparation and storage.:Refined versus unrefined.\n", "Some species of vascular plants also contain intracellular structures called oil bodies. Vascular plant oil bodies consist mainly of triacylglycerols surrounded by a layer consisting of phospholipids and the protein oleosin. These oil bodies occur largely in seeds but also occur in other plant parts, including leaves.\n\nSection::::Oil Bodies in Seeds.\n", "Different oilseed species possess unique fatty acid profiles. This same principle applies to the oil contents of various oilseeds as well. For example, while canola typically exhibits an oil content of around 40-45 %, soybeans consist of about 20% oil. Despite these specifics, it is important to note that the amount of oil extracted depends on the efficiency of the extraction process (Lardy, 2008). Decreased oil yield is detrimental in the perspective of oil production, yet is potentially beneficial for livestock producers since the leftover cake’s nutritive value is augmented.\n\nSection::::Oil extraction process.\n", "In modern vegetable oil production, oils are usually extracted chemically, using a solvent such as hexane. Chemical extraction is cheaper and more efficient than mechanical extraction, at a large scale, leaving only 0.5–0.7% of the oil in the plant solids, as compared to 6–14% for mechanical extraction.\n\nSection::::Macerated oils.\n\nMacerated or infused oils are oils to which other matter has been added, such as herbs or flowers. Typically, the oil used is a food-grade fat-type oil.\n\nSection::::Essential oils.\n", "Tar pits are composed of heavy oil fractions called gilsonite, which seeped from the Earth as oil. In Hancock Park, crude oil seeps up along the 6th Street Fault from the Salt Lake Oil Field, which underlies much of the Fairfax District north of the park. The oil reaches the surface and forms pools at several locations in the park, becoming asphalt as the lighter fractions of the petroleum biodegrade or evaporate.\n", "Tall oil rosin is produced during the distillation of crude tall oil, a by-product of the kraft paper making process.\n\nWhen pine trees are harvested \"the resinous portions of fallen or felled trees like longleaf and slash pines, when allowed to remain upon the ground, resist decay indefinitely.\" This \"stump waste\", through the use of destructive distillation or solvent processes, can be used to make products including rosin. This type of rosin is typically called wood rosin.\n", "Section::::Vegetable fats and oils.\n", "Also there is other approach of biotransformation called enzymatic biotransformation.\n\nSection::::Oil biodegradation.\n", "Experiments conducted in France showed that after spreading oil-based mud cuttings on farmland, followed by plowing, tilling, and fertilizing, approximately 10% of the initial quantity of the oil remained in the soil. Phytotoxic effects on seed germination and sprouting were not observed, but corn and wheat crop yields decreased by 10%. Yields of other crops were not affected. The percentage of hydrocarbon reduction and crop yield performance will vary from site to site depending on many factors (e.g., length of time after application, type of hydrocarbon, soil chemistry, temperature).\n", "Section::::Chemical ecology of plants.:Interactions with microorganisms.\n\nPlants interact also with micro-organisms. For this to become possible the microbes have to establish an interface between them and the plant, by growing into the plant through its surface. To do so, the microbes need to break the protective hydrophobic waxy layer on the plant’s surface. To do this, the micro-organisms secrete special fluids which break down the fats from the cuticle.\n\nSection::::Chemical ecology of plants.:Growth in plants.\n", "To produce soybean oil, the soybeans are cracked, adjusted for moisture content, heated to between 60 and 88 °C (140–190 °F), rolled into flakes, and solvent-extracted with hexanes. The oil is then refined, blended for different applications, and sometimes hydrogenated. Soybean oils, both liquid and partially hydrogenated are sold as \"vegetable oil,\" or are ingredients in a wide variety of processed foods. Most of the remaining residue (soybean meal) is used as animal feed.\n", "The original sunflower oil (linoleic sunflower oil) is high in polyunsaturated fatty acids (about 68% linoleic acid) and low in saturated fats, such as palmitic acid and stearic acid. However, various hybrids have been developed to alter the fatty acid profile of the crop for various purposes.\n\nSection::::Hulls.\n", "Section::::Reservoirs.:Unconventional oil reservoirs.\n\nOil-eating bacteria biodegrade oil that has escaped to the surface. Oil sands are reservoirs of partially biodegraded oil still in the process of escaping and being biodegraded, but they contain so much migrating oil that, although most of it has escaped, vast amounts are still present—more than can be found in conventional oil reservoirs. The lighter fractions of the crude oil are destroyed first, resulting in reservoirs containing an extremely heavy form of crude oil, called crude bitumen in Canada, or extra-heavy crude oil in Venezuela. These two countries have the world's largest deposits of oil sands.\n", "Edible oils may be extracted for culinary purposes. Non-edible oils can be used in the manufacture of soaps, paints and varnishes, or as fuel for oil lamps. Important feed stocks include soybeans, rapeseed (canola), sunflower seeds, cottonseed, and maize (corn), as well as peanuts, olives, various nuts, sesame seeds, safflower, grape seeds and flaxseed (linseed). Palm oil is extracted from the pulp of the oil palm fruit, palm kernel oil from the kernel of the oil palm, and coconut oil from the kernel of the coconut. \n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Olive oil extraction\n\nSection::::References.\n", "By the process of biological decomposition by microfauna, bacteria, and fungi, CO and HO, nutrient elements, and a decomposition-resistant organic substance called humus are released. Humus composes the bulk of organic matter in the lower soil profile.\n", "In an analysis of the sunflower genome to reveal plant metabolism producing its oil, phytosterols were identified, as confirmed in another analysis of sunflower oil components, including polyphenols, squalene, and terpenoids.\n\nSection::::Production and trade.\n\nIn 2014, world production of sunflower oil was 15.8 million tonnes, led by Ukraine (4.4 million tonnes), Russia (4.1 million tonnes), Argentina (0.9 million tonnes), Bulgaria (0.8 million tonnes) and Turkey (0.7 million tonnes).\n\nSection::::Nutrition.\n", "Soybean seed contains 18–19% oil. To extract soybean oil from seed, the soybeans are cracked, adjusted for moisture content, rolled into flakes and solvent-extracted with commercial hexane. The oil is then refined, blended for different applications, and sometimes hydrogenated. Soybean oils, both liquid and partially hydrogenated, are exported abroad, sold as \"vegetable oil\", or end up in a wide variety of processed foods.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Soybean meal.\n", "If the feedstock is plant matter which fixed atmospheric carbon dioxide, and part of its carbon becomes fertiliser which will not be burnt to re-release the carbon into the atmosphere, the net result is a reduction in atmospheric carbon, \"i.e.\". an overall carbon-negative process.\n\nOil and Gas Assets \n\nPetroSun wholly owned company M&M Production and Operation, Inc asset base includes the following:\n\n61 producing oil and/or gas wells\n\n9,480.85 acres of leasehold consisting of Federal, State of New Mexico, Jicarilla Tribal and Navajo Nation\n", "In plants, the solid long-chain alkanes are found in the plant cuticle and epicuticular wax of many species, but are only rarely major constituents. They protect the plant against water loss, prevent the leaching of important minerals by the rain, and protect against bacteria, fungi, and harmful insects. The carbon chains in plant alkanes are usually odd-numbered, between 27 and 33 carbon atoms in length and are made by the plants by decarboxylation of even-numbered fatty acids. The exact composition of the layer of wax is not only species-dependent but changes also with the season and such environmental factors as lighting conditions, temperature or humidity.\n", "Kerogen is insoluble in normal organic solvents in part because of its high molecular weight of its component compounds. The soluble portion is known as bitumen. When heated to the right temperatures in the earth's crust, (\"oil window\" c. 50–150 °C, \"gas window\" c. 150–200 °C, both depending on how quickly the source rock is heated) some types of kerogen release crude oil or natural gas, collectively known as hydrocarbons (fossil fuels). When such kerogens are present in high concentration in rocks such as organic-rich mudrocks shale, they form possible source rocks. Shales that are rich in kerogen but have not been heated to required temperature to generate hydrocarbons instead may form oil shale deposits.\n", "Section::::TILLING centers.\n\nSeveral TILLING centers exist over the world that focus on agriculturally important species:\n\nBULLET::::- Rice – UC Davis (USA)\n\nBULLET::::- Maize – Purdue University (USA)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Brassica napus\" – University of British Columbia (CA)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Brassica rapa\" – John Innes Centre (UK)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Arabidopsis\" – Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research\n\nBULLET::::- Soybean – Southern Illinois University (USA)\n\nBULLET::::- Lotus and Medicago – John Innes Centre (UK)\n\nBULLET::::- Wheat – UC Davis (USA)\n\nBULLET::::- Pea, Tomato - INRA (France)\n\nBULLET::::- Tomato - RTGR, University of Hyderabad (India)\n\nSection::::Scientific Literature.\n", "Section::::Proposed causes.:Biofuel from food byproducts and coproducts.\n\nBiofuels can also be produced from the waste byproducts of food-based agriculture (such as citrus peels or used vegetable oil) to manufacture an environmentally sustainable fuel supply, and reduce waste disposal cost.\n\nA growing percentage of U.S. biodiesel production is made from waste vegetable oil (recycled restaurant oils) and greases.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Materials in the ground are used to produce the oil in sunflowers and other plants." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Most of the materials that are used to produce the oil in sunflowers and other plants come out of the air." ]
2018-03219	Whatever happened to all those 1-900 psychic / astrology lines from the 1990's and early 2000's? Why isn't that a thing anymore?	They moved online, hotline number s like that just changed with the time as More people got intratnet.	[ "On July 18, 2012, the Las Vegas Sun reported that The Psychic Friends Network was back, saying while \"the company went bankrupt in the late '90s, founder Mike Lasky kept it on life support. The company relaunched this summer with a new web platform full of social media, e-alerts and instant messaging, so you can connect with Zelda, Destiny and Midnight Magical Spirit through video, voice or text for 24/7 tarot, astrology, numerology, dream interpretation and other 'peeks.' Calls are still $3.99 a minute ... At that price, it better be really [expletive] entertaining.\"\n", "According to the \"Slate\" article \"What Psychic Friends Failed to Foresee\", \"Psychic Friends infomercials had been among the most popular in history. Between 1993 and 1994, they aired more than 12,000 times, and at one point Inphomation was shelling out half a million dollars a week to buy air time on cable stations. It was money well spent: At its peak, Psychic Friends was bringing in as much as $125 million a year, most of it through infomercials.\" Slate reported that \"the psychic business has tried to focus on establishing continuing relationships between individual psychics and their customers. ('I don't want just any psychic! I want to speak to Clarissa!')\"\n", "During some shows, callers gave tips to the telecenter. When the show was in active production, the number was displayed on the bottom of the screen at the end of each segment. When the show left active production following Stack's death and went into reruns, the number was removed and replaced with a P.O. box address.\n\nSection::::Broadcast history.:Spike TV (2008–10).\n", "One of Tom Meier's earliest lines was the \"Fantasy Line\", which included about two dozen figures in late 1976. Meier's \"ES18 Adventuress\" is credited as being the first female character for role-playing games. The fantasy line was renamed \"ES/01-xxx Personalities and Things that Go Bump in the Night\" in 1978, and Meier augmented the line throughout the 1980s.\n", "The \"Psychic Friends Network\" was launched in 1991. It relied on infomercials to attract clients, and used a call distributing system to forward calls to a network of \"psychics\" working in shifts from their homes. This technology allowed the customers to build personal relationships with individual \"psychics\".\n", "With the cancellation of \"Crusade\" in 1999, Netter Digital lost its only client. They subsequently worked on the \"\", \"Max Steel\", and \"Robotech 3000\" animated television series, but this was not enough to prevent them going out of business in 2000. They were replaced on \"\" and \"Max Steel\" by Foundation Imaging.\n", "Psychic Friends Network\n\nThe Psychic Friends Network (PFN) was a telephone psychic service operating in the United States in the 1990s. The company's infomercials were aired frequently on late night television at that time. In 2012, the business began to migrate to online services.\n\nMark Edward, who worked as a telephone \"psychic\" for the network, has become a vocal critic of the PFN, and all psychics, saying that\n\n\"the psychic business is built on lies\". His book Psychic Blues details what it was like to work for PFN.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Infomercial/telephone network business model.\n", "The Psychic Readers Network is said to have coined the title \"Miss Cleo\" and sent unsolicited emails, some of which stated, \"[Miss Cleo has] been authorized to issue you a Special Tarot Reading!... it is vital that you call immediately!\" Charges of deceptive advertising and of fraud on the part of the Psychic Readers Network began to surface around this time. Among the complaints were allegations that calls to Miss Cleo were answered by her \"associates\" who were actors reading from scripts, and that calls promoted as \"free\" were in fact charged for.\n", "In 1992, 1994 and 2008, a magazine by the name of \"Wall Street Forecaster\" was named as one of the top forecasters on Wall Street, as the superstition was being leaned on for luck. It was also rated the second best performing forecaster in 2002. It was reported that some clients asked for their copies to be delivered in 'brown paper' to avoid mockery . As of 2001 the Astro fund trading company, which handled $3.5-5 million worth of investor assets, claimed 10-15% of fund managers were using their service or a similar company. The majority of the market demand for this service has come from the US and Japan respectively. In 2000, Bloomberg News was host to a weekly show dedicated to financial astrology. The 2000 financial crash led to a surge in companies and investment bankers using the services of financial astrologers.\n", "In 2001, Access Resource Services doing business as Psychic Readers Network was sued in various lawsuits brought by (among others) Arkansas, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Missouri, New York, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, Florida, and the Federal Communications Commission, although a later report from Consumer Affairs said that \"many customers were satisfied with the service.\" The report did not cite its source.\n", "Daily features included viewers' riddles with Cassius Cuckoo, during \"Cassius Cuckoo's Corn Corner\", and limericks with Leonardo de Funbird. These characters were wood and felt bird puppets (created by Axel Axelrad; voiced by Colin McEwan). Cassius inhabited a longcase cuckoo clock next to Mother Hubbard's cupboard in The Magic Cottage, and Leonardo lived inside the IKAN (Instantaneous Knowledge Accumulation Network) computer (voice of Fred Tupper). The IKAN educational segment was eventually dropped, and Leonardo would present his limerick segment from a tree stump in the Magic Forest.\n", "In November 1981, Rosemary claims to have had a vision at night, after which she felt open to the possibility of a spirit world. The same year, struggling to make ends meet and take care of her daughter, she began charging £3.50 per session for psychic reading and adopted the name Rosemary Altea.\n", "Potential TOPY members were encouraged to make magical sigils of a certain proscribed nature. These acts were to be performed on the 23rd hour (11:00pm) of the 23rd day of each month. If an individual chose to do so, they were invited to mail their sigils to a central location where the magical energy in them could be used to enhance others.\n", "In 2009, \"The Pat & Brian Show\" was \"syndicated\" on the Haunted Voices Radio Network and has been rebroadcast on Sirius Satellite Radio.\n\nSection::::Ghost Fest Expo.\n", "From November 1976 to July 1977, DC had its own toll-free phone number called the Direct Currents Hot-Line, where fans could hear pre-recorded messages from DC staff about upcoming titles. The phone number was so popular (it was receiving an average of 100,000 calls a week toward its end) that it had to be shut down due to strain on the telephone system.\n\nBeginning in 1978 and lasting a little more than a year, \"Direct Currents\" was the name for a one-page newsletter. The newsletter, which was available by subscription, featured a 13\" by 18\" poster cover.\n", "Early paranormal radio shows focused on recounting local ghost stories, but with the rise of such concepts as reality television and internet radio, modern paranormal radio tends to focus on paranormal investigators usa paranormal radio by host Debbie Perkins is a great example of professional paranormal host a researcher and host she is a 4 time international award winning show hosted a variety of guests from spirituals to crypt to movie stars and haunted locations/ and their research \n", "Tarot cards have been greatly popularized, but can be often regarded solely as entertainment. Traditional decks are available in chain bookstores. New decks also frequently appear in New Age bookstores. Though not requiring psychic abilities, Tarot cards can be used as a psychic or cold reading tool and Tarot readings are common at psychic fairs.\n\nSection::::Challenges.\n", "As part of her work as a professional astrologer, Barclay taught horary astrology, and she founded the Qualified Horary Practitioner (\"QHP\") correspondence course. This consisted of twelve lessons, the last of which required students to make a successful prediction using horary astrology. Several graduates of her course went on to make prominent careers for themselves in the field.\n", "In 2006, Beyond Investigation partnered with executive producers Jack Rourke and Erika Frost in conjunction with the to create the first Ghost Fest Expo. The Ghost Fest Expo featured numerous seminars and guest speakers on a range of subjects. Guest speakers have included George Noory, Dr. Andrew Nichols, Jeff Belanger, Loyd Auerbach, and a variety psychics, mediums, authors, and debunkers. The expo also features special tours and investigations of the ship, and a showroom for the sales of paranormal products and services.\n", "In 1974, Pyramid Books began reprinting early Shadow stories. The series, which consisted of 23 volumes, lasted through 1978. None of the reprints followed the original sequence of the pulp series.\n\nIn 1975, two Shadow stories were published in a facsimile magazine published by Dover.\n\nEight Shadow stories were reissued in hardcover anthologies by the Doubleday Crime Club in the 1970s. These reprints give sole credit to Walter Gibson as the author, rather than using the Maxwell Grant pseudonym on the cover.\n", "From 1999 to 2005, the BBC ran a popular subsite called \"Cult TV\". This subsite had news, star interviews, trivia, and other content popular with fans of the cult TV shows they covered. Examples of covered TV shows include \"The X-Files\", \"Doctor Who\", \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\", \"Farscape\" and \"The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy\".\n", "\"The Shallow Sky Bulletin\" (ISSN 0897-2532) was published by Stephen M. Smith from 1986 through 2000. Mr. Smith operated The Comet Rapid Announcement Service (CRAS) to disseminate notices about newly discovered bright comets, news about comets and daily positions (ephemerides) for observable comets. The common practice for publishing comet tables was to display positions at 10-day intervals. All of the comet position tables published in \"SSB\" were at 1-day intervals. During the 14-year run of \"SSB\", CRAS subscribers were informed about all observable comets.\n", "In March 2017, medium Thomas John was targeted in a sting operation and caught doing a hot reading. The sting was planned and implemented by skeptical activist Susan Gerbic and mentalist Mark Edward. The unmarried couple attended John's show using aliases, and were \"read\" as a married couple Susanna and Mark Wilson by John. During the entire reading, John failed to determine the actual identities of Gerbic and Edward, or that they were being deceptive during his reading. All personal information he gave them matched what was on their falsified Facebook accounts, rather than being about their actual lives, and John pretended he was getting this information from Gerbic and Edward's supposedly dead—but actually nonexistent—relatives.\n", "Section::::History.:Film and television.\n\nIn the 1970s, there were a number of attempts at occult detective television series. While not overtly occult detectives, the heroes and heroine of the ‘60s British cult sci-fi thriller series, \"The Champions\" inherited occult powers from a Tibetan lama and used these powers to investigate crime. \n", "In the 1950s and 1960s, with the rise of the neopagan religion of Wicca, several articles about Wicca and witchcraft were published in the magazine, including \"Genuine Witchcraft Is Defended\" by Robert Cochrane. From that time forward the newspaper dealt with other paranormal, supernatural and New Age topics in addition to spiritualism.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n\nThe newspaper has been criticized for biased reporting and endorsing fraudulent mediums and psychics as genuine. Early articles by \"Psychic News\" had supported the fraudulent materialization medium Helen Duncan.\n" ]	[ "Physic hotlines don't exist anymore." ]	[ "They do exist they are just on the internet instead." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Physic hotlines don't exist anymore." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "They do exist they are just on the internet instead." ]
2018-00899	How is Putin so rich and why is no one suspicious?	1. Corruption and he's ex-KGB, he knows where the bodies are buried and isn't afraid to add to them. 2. See #1.	[ "The report describes the alleged enrichment of Vladimir Putin and his friends, including the 26 palaces and five yachts used by Putin and Medvedev. Table of contents:\n\nBULLET::::- Introduction\n\nBULLET::::- The Enrichment of the Members of the Ozero Dacha Condominium\n\nBULLET::::- Putin and his Billionaire Friends\n\nBULLET::::- Two Slaves on a Gilded Galley\n\nBULLET::::- Yachts\n\nBULLET::::- Villas and Palaces\n\nBULLET::::- Watches\n\nBULLET::::- Homes and Cars\n\nBULLET::::- Conclusion\n\nSection::::Publication.\n", "Donald Trump has pursued business deals in Russia since 1987, and has sometimes traveled there to explore potential business opportunities. In 1996, Trump trademark applications were submitted for potential Russian real estate development deals. Trump's partners and children have repeatedly visited Moscow, connecting with developers and government officials to explore joint venture opportunities. Trump was never able to successfully conclude any real estate deals in Russia. However, individual Russians have invested heavily in Trump properties, and following Trump's bankruptcies in the 1990s he borrowed money from Russian sources. In 2008 his son Donald Trump Jr. said that Russia was an important source of money for the Trump businesses.\n", "Section::::The property.\n\nLoktionov bought real estate in Russia and abroad. To the list of acquired property include:\n\nBULLET::::- the palace in the village of Nikolino, the total cost of $100 million;\n\nBULLET::::- 4 apartments in the center of Moscow in the amount of more than $70 million;\n\nBULLET::::- 2 country houses and nine land plots in the Moscow region;\n\nBULLET::::- a house on the outskirts of Geneva Vandover on the Route de la Capit;\n\nBULLET::::- a house in France at Cape Martin for 200 million euros;\n\nBULLET::::- real estate in England and Monaco.\n", "In 2006, Trump's children Donald Jr. and Ivanka, traveling with Sater, stayed in the Hotel National, Moscow for several days, across from the Kremlin, to see promising partners, with the intent of doing real estate development deals.\n", "In a 2015 interview, Trump said that his repeated attempts to launch business deals with Russians resulted in contacts with \"…the top-level people, both oligarchs and generals, and top of the government people. I can't go further than that, but I will tell you that I met the top people, and the relationship was extraordinary.\"\n", "Such views were shared by politologist Julie Anderson who said the same person can be a Russian intelligence officer, an organized criminal and a businessman, who quoted the former CIA Director James Woolsey as saying: \"I have been particularly concerned for some years, beginning during my tenure, with the interpenetration of Russian organized crime, Russian intelligence and law enforcement, and Russian business. I have often illustrated this point with the following hypothetical: If you should chance to strike up a conversation with an articulate, English-speaking Russian in, say, the restaurant of one of the luxury hotels along Lake Geneva, and he is wearing a $3,000 suit and a pair of Gucci loafers, and he tells you that he is an executive of a Russian trading company and wants to talk to you about a joint venture, then there are four possibilities. He may be what he says he is. He may be a Russian intelligence officer working under commercial cover. He may be part of a Russian organized crime group. But the really interesting possibility is that he may be all three and that none of those three institutions have any problem with the arrangement\".\n", "The Panama Papers revealed a network of secret offshore deals and vast loans worth $2bn (£1.4bn) that seem to lay a trail to Russia’s President Vladimir Putin. The transactions include fake share deals; multimillion-dollar charges for vague \"consultancy\" services; and repeated payments of large sums in \"compensation\" for allegedly cancelled share deals and a $200m loan for $1. Though his name does not appear in any of the records, the data shows how deals that seemingly could not have been secured without his patronage made members of his close circle fabulously wealthy.\n\nSection::::Ideology.\n", "\"When a president talks about his business elite as chickens sitting on eggs... what is the nature of the understanding that they have? … Where is the rule of law in Russia? … the rule of law for Russia is in London. Why is it that $150 billion left the country last year? Because they believe that their wealth can only be secured in the long term outside their own country. So if you don't have the ability to secure your rights, then I don't think there's any political theory that would say that you have a social contract; not even Russian political theory.\"\n", "Ruble has published in the opinion pages of Newsweek, The Asian Wall Street Journal, The Baltimore Sun, The New York Times, The Washington Post, The Washington Afro-American, and USA Today. His media appearances include ABC News, BBC News International, , CBS Evening News, NBC's The Today Show, The Kojo Nnamdi Show, The Charlie Rose (TV series), Russian NTV Russia News Magazine Itogi, Japanese NHK Morning News on television, as well as The Larry King Show Radio, and several Voice of America broadcasts.\n", "On May 9, White House Press Secretary Sean Spicer said, \"He [Trump] has no business in Russia. He has no connections to Russia.\"\n", "However, Putin stipulated that 35% of the funds should be held in offshore accounts rather than spent on the projects for which they were ostensibly intended. The source of these funds was invisible, because Petromed negotiated discounts from its suppliers (including Siemens) which it did not pass on, claiming that it had paid more than it actually had. Thus, according to Kolesnikov, Petromed claimed to have spent Abramovich's $203 million, but in fact spent $130 million. The remaining $70 million was deposited in Switzerland, under Shamalov's control. Kolesnikov estimates that by 2007 $500 million had accumulated in Switzerland. In 2005, when around $200 million had been reached, Rosinvest, a subsidiary of the Swiss registered company Lirus Management, was established to invest the money in Russia.\n", "BULLET::::- 2009 – $9.6 bn\n\nBULLET::::- 2010 – $17.8 bn\n\nBULLET::::- 2011 – $25.6 bn\n\nBULLET::::- 2012 – $17.8 bn\n\nBULLET::::- 2013 – $18.3 bn\n\n\"Forbes\" The World's Billionaires rating:\n\nBULLET::::- 2006 – No. 451 with a net worth of $1.7 bil\n\nBULLET::::- 2007 – No. 214 with $4.0 bn\n\nBULLET::::- 2008 – No. 127 with $7.3 bn\n\nBULLET::::- 2009 – No. 397 with $1.8 bn\n\nBULLET::::- 2010 – No. 148 with $5.2 bn\n\nBULLET::::- 2011 – No. 39 with $16 bn.\n\nBULLET::::- 2012 – No. 39 with $16 bn.\n\nBULLET::::- 2013 – No. 47 with $15.4 bn.\n", "The approximate value of foreign property is estimated at approximately $173 million. According to the tax authorities of the Russian Federation, the income of Anatoly Loktionov is 396 million rubles, which is equivalent to about 8.8 million pounds sterling – 13 times less than the value of the real estate purchased by him.\n\nBefore returning to Russia, Loktionov lives in the most prestigious area of Knightsbridge – the \"golden mile\" of London, next to Arab sheikhs and representatives of the Chinese business elite.\n", "Section::::Purported eccentricities.\n", "Section::::Special positions and awards.\n", "In 2011 Turkish president Abdullah Gül was received as a guest participant by the Russian authorities.\n", "BULLET::::- Chairman of Supervisory board, “Spread Your Wings” Children's Fund, which was established in 2007 to provide financial aid for orphans, children in state care, disabled children, and seriously ill children. His company sponsors the fund’s projects, including social adaptation programs for children in state care and those with disabilities, as well as adoption support.\n\nSection::::Sanctions.\n", "BULLET::::- In a last-minute reversal from their January 29 position, the Trump administration releases an updated list of Russian politicians and business figures in an attempt to increase pressure on Putin. The list includes 114 individuals the Treasury Department deems to be senior Russian political figures. It also includes 96 people deemed to be \"oligarchs.\" The Treasury says each has an estimated net worth of $1 billion or more.\n", "BULLET::::- Driving a race car – Putin tested a Formula 1 car on 7 November 2010 in Saint Petersburg, reaching a maximum speed of 240 km per hour.\n", "Official figures released during the legislative election of 2007 put Putin's wealth at approximately 3.7 million rubles (US$150,000) in bank accounts, a private apartment in Saint Petersburg, and miscellaneous other assets. Putin's reported 2006 income totaled 2 million rubles (approximately $80,000). In 2012, Putin reported an income of 3.6 million rubles ($113,000).\n\nPutin has been photographed wearing a number of expensive wristwatches, collectively valued at $700,000, nearly six times his annual salary. Putin has been known on occasion to give watches valued at thousands of dollars as gifts to peasants and factory workers.\n", "Section::::Trump administration members.:Wilbur Ross.\n\nAs reported in the Paradise Papers, Secretary of Commerce Wilbur Ross has shares in Navigator, a publicly traded shipping company that has contracts with The Russian gas company Sibur, held in off-shore accounts. Co-owners of Sibur have ties to Vladimir Putin and are under U.S. sanctions.\n\nSection::::Trump administration members.:Anthony Scaramucci.\n", "In 1987, Trump visited Russia to investigate developing a hotel, invited by Ambassador Yuri Dubinin whom he had met in New York the year before. British journalist Luke Harding alleged in 2017 that this trip likely began a long-term cultivation operation typical of the KGB's Political Intelligence Department, under written directives initiated by First Chief Directorate head Vladimir Kryuchkov, to recruit politically ambitious Westerners susceptible to flattery, egotism and greed.\n", "Efforts to build a Trump building in Moscow continued into June 2016, during which Trump was securing the Republican nomination for the presidential election.\n", "Herman Gref, who runs Sberbank of Russia, Agalarov and his father hosted a dinner for Trump on the night of the pageant. While in Moscow, Phil Ruffin, who is a partner in Trump International Hotel Las Vegas, and Trump met with Agalarov and his father at the Ritz-Carlton.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Shearing a piglet\" (\"Стричь поросенка\") – On 25 June 2013, Vladimir Putin revealed the surveillance whistleblower Edward Snowden was indeed in a Moscow airport, ending a global guessing game over the US fugitive's whereabouts. Putin lashed out at US accusations that Russia was harbouring a fugitive, saying \"I'd rather not deal with such questions, because anyway it's like shearing a piglet—a lot of squealing but little wool\".\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "No one is suspicious of Putin's finances" ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "People may be suspicious but are concerned about being killed." ]
2018-03778	Why are things sticky on my fingers but not inside my mouth? (Ie: Candy)	In general you mouth has a very good lubricant(saliva) that lines it causing most things to slip by it without attaching to it. Your teeth don’t and thus candy can stick to them, especially if your teeth are unsmooth or have crevices and that is why you can get candy stuck in your teeth and why it can stick to your hands.	[ "Section::::Saliva.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Information can be sticky for a number of reasons. Much information that humans have is tacit, and therefore is difficult to communicate when sharing information. Additionally, some technical information is composed of a very large number of parts. Sometimes it is difficult to communicate all of these especially when some operating procedures or techniques are so routine, a regular practitioner may forget to include such details.\n", "Sixty new genera have been identified from the salivary glands. A total of 101 different genera were identified in the salivary glands. Out of these, 39 genera are not found in the oral microbiome. It is not known whether the resident species remain constant or change.\n", "Section::::Bacterial growth.\n", "The sugar concentration in salivary secretions can vary. Blood sugar levels are reflected in salivary gland secretions. High salivary glucose (HSG) levels are a glucose concentration ≥ 1.0 mg/d, n = 175) and those with low salivary glucose (LSG) levels are 0.1 mg/dL n = 2,537). Salivary gland secretions containing high levels of sugar change the oral microbiome and contributes to an environment that is conductive to the formation of dental caries and gingivitis.\n\nSection::::Salivary glands.\n", "In addition to the alimentary canal, insects also have paired salivary glands and salivary reservoirs. These structures usually reside in the thorax (adjacent to the fore-gut). The salivary glands (30) produce saliva; the salivary ducts lead from the glands to the reservoirs and then forward through the head to an opening called the salivarium behind the hypopharynx; which movements of the mouthparts help mix saliva with food in the buccal cavity. Saliva mixes with food, which travels through salivary tubes into the mouth, beginning the process of breaking it down.\n", "Because of the amount of bacteria in each person's mouth, there is a transfer of bacteria through saliva when lip balm, drinks, toothbrushes, or anything else is shared. Some of these viruses that result are relatively inconsequential while others could potentially have a serious impact on one's life. Some examples of the milder diseases passed through saliva include herpes simple virus (cold sores or canker sores), flu virus, cold virus, and various bacteria that cause periodontal disease (inflammation or infection of gum tissue), venereal diseases, and candida albicans (fungus).\n", "Mononucleosis (mono), known among teenagers as the “kissing disease”, is another prominent condition that can come from saliva exchange. It is a contagious viral disease in the herpes virus family. In addition to kissing, however, mono can also “be spread when a person coughs, sneezes, or shares objects such as drinking glass or water bottles.” There are only certain stages when it is contagious, mostly during the fever stage, but during those times it is transferrable through saliva exchange.\n\nSection::::Diseases.:Diseases related to oral hygiene.\n", "Chewy and sticky foods (such as candy, cookies, potato chips, and crackers) tend to adhere to teeth longer. However, dried fruits such as raisins and fresh fruit such as apples and bananas disappear from the mouth quickly, and do not appear to be a risk factor. Consumers are not good at guessing which foods stick around in the mouth.\n", "Section::::Structure.:Von Ebner's glands.\n\nVon Ebner's glands are glands found in a trough circling the circumvallate papillae on the dorsal surface of the tongue near the terminal sulcus. They secrete a purely serous fluid that begins lipid hydrolysis. They also facilitate the perception of taste through secretion of digestive enzymes and proteins.\n\nThe arrangement of these glands around the circumvallate papillae provides a continuous flow of fluid over the great number of taste buds lining the sides of the papillae, and is important for dissolving the food particles to be tasted.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Nerve supply.\n", "Organisms of the salivary microbiome reside in the three major salivary glands: parotid, submandibular, and sublingual. These glands secrete electrolytes, proteins, genetic material, polysaccharides, and other molecules. Most of these substances enter the salivary gland acinus and duct system from surrounding capillaries via the intervening tissue fluid, although some substances are produced within the glands themselves. The level of each salivary component varies considerably depending on the health status of the individual and the presence of pathogenic and commensal organisms.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Human microbiome\n\nBULLET::::- Human microbiome project\n\nBULLET::::- Human virome\n\nBULLET::::- List of bacterial vaginosis microbiota\n", "Section::::Work of Parry and successors.\n", "Section::::Higher brain function.:Long-term associative memory.:Memory storage.\n", "Section::::Food and drink.:Harmful foods.\n\nSugars are commonly associated with dental cavities. Other carbohydrates, especially cooked starches, e.g. crisps/potato chips, may also damage teeth, although to a lesser degree (and indirectly) since starch has to be converted to glucose by salivary amylase (an enzyme in the saliva) first. Sugars that are higher in the stickiness index, such as toffee, are likely to cause more damage to teeth than those that are lower in the stickiness index, such as certain forms of chocolate or most fruits.\n", "Section::::Intercellular Communication.\n", "The principal nucleus contains a touch-position sensory map of the face and mouth, just as the spinal trigeminal nucleus contains a complete pain-temperature map. This nucleus is analogous to the dorsal column nuclei (the gracile and cuneate nuclei) of the spinal cord, which contain a touch-position map of the rest of the body.\n\nFrom the principal nucleus, secondary fibers cross the midline and ascend in the ventral trigeminothalamic tract to the contralateral thalamus. The ventral trigeminothalamic tract runs parallel to the medial lemniscus, which carries touch-position information from the rest of the body to the thalamus.\n", "Bacteria accumulate on both the hard and soft oral tissues in biofilm allowing them to adhere and strive in the oral environment while protected from the environmental factors and antimicrobial agents. Saliva plays a key biofilm homeostatic role allowing recolonization of bacteria for formation and controlling growth by detaching biofilm buildup. It also provides a means of nutrients and temperature regulation. The location of the biofilm determines the type of exposed nutrients it receives.\n", "Section::::Structure.:Sublingual glands.\n\nThe sublingual glands are a pair of major salivary glands located inferior to the tongue, anterior to the submandibular glands. The secretion produced is mainly mucous in nature; however, it is categorized as a mixed gland. Unlike the other two major glands, the ductal system of the sublingual glands does not have intercalated ducts and usually does not have striated ducts either, so saliva exits directly from 8-20 excretory ducts known as the Rivinus ducts. Approximately 5% of saliva entering the oral cavity comes from these glands.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Minor salivary glands.\n", "Activities such as biting, chewing and swallowing require symmetrical, simultaneous coordination of both sides of the body. They are automatic activities, requiring little conscious attention and involving a sensory component (feedback about touch-position) processed at the unconscious level in the mesencephalic nucleus.\n\nSection::::Trigeminal nucleus.:Pathways to the thalamus and cortex.\n\nSensation has been defined as the conscious perception of touch-position and pain-temperature information. With the exception of smell, all sensory input (touch-position, pain-temperature, sight, taste, hearing and balance) is sent to the thalamus and then the cortex. The thalamus is anatomically subdivided into nuclei.\n\nSection::::Trigeminal nucleus.:Touch-position sensation.\n", "The main function of saliva is to flush out all of the micro-organisms that could potentially threaten our health. The flow of saliva constantly bathes the mouth and detaches all micro-organisms that are not already firmly attached to a surface. This makes it difficult for bacteria to adhere to surfaces to even begin to form biofilms. Many harmful micro-organisms, therefore, are unable to attach quick enough to a surface before they are caught in saliva and swallowed. Although saliva does a lot to keep our bodies healthy, it cannot completely keep all bacteria from adhering to tooth, tongue or gum surfaces.\n", "Salivary glands are innervated, either directly or indirectly, by the parasympathetic and sympathetic arms of the autonomic nervous system. Parasympathetic stimulation evokes a copious flow of saliva. \n\nBULLET::::- \"Parasympathetic\" innervation to the salivary glands is carried via cranial nerves. The parotid gland receives its parasympathetic input from the glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX) via the otic ganglion, while the submandibular and sublingual glands receive their parasympathetic input from the facial nerve (CN VII) via the submandibular ganglion. These nerves release acetylcholine and substance P, which activate the IP3 and DAG pathways respectively.\n", "Some sensory information from the teeth and jaws is sent from the principal nucleus to the ipsilateral thalamus via the small dorsal trigeminal tract. Touch-position information from the teeth and jaws of one side of the face is represented bilaterally in the thalamus and cortex.\n\nSection::::Trigeminal nucleus.:Mesencephalic nucleus.\n", "Saliva contributes to the digestion of food and to the maintenance of oral hygiene. Without normal salivary function the frequency of dental caries, gum disease (gingivitis and periodontitis), and other oral problems increases significantly.\n\nSection::::Functions.:Lubricant.\n\nSaliva coats the oral mucosa mechanically protecting it from trauma during eating, swallowing, and speaking. Mouth soreness is very common in people with reduced saliva (xerostomia) and food (especially dry food) sticks to the inside of the mouth.\n\nSection::::Functions.:Digestion.\n", "On March 4, 2008, it was revealed that Theresa is alive and wasn't eaten alive by sharks. She was saved by DEA agents presumably looking to prosecute Juanita and was placed into protective custody; however, Theresa quickly escaped and met up with a Mexican woman with a plan to enter the United States illegally via a freight train, eventually returning to Harmony. She then infiltrated the Crane mansion disguised as a frumpy nanny named Gertrude. Little Ethan and Pilar realized that Gertrude was really Theresa, but were persuaded to keep quiet for the sake of the family's staying below Juanita's radar. While in disguise, Theresa drugged Ethan and made love with him, narrowly escaping being caught by Gwen.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01485	Why Do Old CRT TVs Make A High Pitched Hissing Noise?	The noise was usually attributed to the fly back transformer that was used to generate high voltages for the crt tube. Transformers generate an alternating magnetic flux that would separate the laminations in to core and cause them to vibrate with the alternating current.	[ "“I brought it back to the lab, and I thought it might possibly make a good mid-range if I coated it,” Hecht recalls. “So I coated it with a thin rubber coating and put noise through it with a signal generator. To my absolute surprise, it went beyond 12K; that was quite a shock.” \n", "Section::::New development.\n\nSection::::New development.:Screen improvements.\n", "There are many sources of electromagnetic noise which cause the characteristic display patterns of static. Atmospheric sources of noise are the most ubiquitous, and include electromagnetic signals prompted by cosmic microwave background radiation, or more localized radio wave noise from nearby electronic devices.\n\nThe display device itself is also a source of noise, due in part to thermal noise produced by the inner electronics. Most of this noise comes from the first transistor the antenna is attached to.\n", "Thyristor and TRIAC regulators without proper chokes are a common source of EMI as well. It is likely that a thyristor (SCR) power controller using the variable phase angle method will generate harmonics of the mains supply, while the spark at a contact will be a very wide band source whose frequency is not related to the power supply frequency. In Thyristor control systems the potential for EMI problems can be minimised by using zero crossing switching where the thyristor is switched on at the moment of time when the AC voltage changes from one direction to the other.\n", "This is a common artifact in sets that use a cathode ray tube. While all CRT-based television systems produce such a noise, the higher number of lines per second in later standards produces frequencies (PAL's 15,625 Hz and NTSC's 15,734 Hz) that are at the upper end of the audible spectrum, which not all people are able to hear. Modern sets using plasma, LCD or OLED display technology are completely free of this effect as they are composed of a million or more individually controllable elements, rather than using a single magnetically deflected beam, so there is no requirement to generate the scanning signal.\n", "In vacuum tube equipment, one potential source of hum is current leakage between the heaters and cathodes of the tubes. Another source is direct emission of electrons from the heater, or magnetic fields produced by the heater. Tubes for critical applications may have the heater circuit powered by direct current to prevent this source of hum.\n\nLeakage of analogue video signals can give rise to hum sounding very similar to mains hum.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "Soft dome tweeter\n\nThe soft dome tweeter is a particular type of tweeter invented and patented in 1967 by Bill Hecht, a renowned pioneer in the early days of audio engineering and the founder of Phase Technology. \n\nHecht states that he was confronted with what seemed a mundane problem: When showing speakers at various audio shows, onlookers often poked at the two-inch dome tweeters of the display models, sometimes cracking them. He set out to make a soft, mock tweeter that wouldn’t crack when prodded. \n", "The introduction of negative modulation in later systems simplified the problem because peak carrier power represented sync pulses (which were always guaranteed to be present). A simple peak-detector AGC circuit would detect the amplitude of only the sync pulses, thus measuring the strength of the received signal.\n\nSection::::Comparison with later standards.:Whistle due to line output transformer magnetostriction.\n\nThe 405-line system produced a noticeable 10,125 Hz whistle in many sets, equal to the number of lines per second. This high-pitched whistle was caused by magnetostriction in the line output transformer.\n", "Many televisions and monitors automatically degauss their picture tube when switched on, before an image is displayed. The high current surge that takes place during this automatic degauss is the cause of an audible \"thunk\" or loud hum, which can be heard (and felt) when televisions and CRT computer monitors are switched on. Visually, this causes the image to shake dramatically for a short period of time. A degauss option is also usually available for manual selection in the operations menu in such appliances.\n", "Section::::Veggie-Oil Powered Tour Van.\n", "Section::::New development.:Mechanical part modifications.\n", "The oscillator amplifier is sorted into two categories. The vertical amplifier directly drives the yoke. There is not much to the this. It is similar to audio amplifier. The horizontal oscillator is a different situation. The oscillator must supply the high voltage and the yoke power. This requires a high power flyback transformer, and a high powered tube or transistor. This is a problematic section for CRT televisions because it has to handle high power.\n\nSection::::Other technical information.:Sync separator.\n", "Section::::History of transmission line loudspeakers.:\"Classic\" era transmission line loudspeakers.\n", "In certain vacuum-tube radio receivers, a winding on the dynamic speaker field coil was connected in series with the power supply to help cancel any residual hum.\n\nSome other common applications of this process are:\n\nBULLET::::- Humbucking transformers or coils used in video systems.\n\nBULLET::::- Telephone (and other audio) system and computer communications wiring.\n\nSection::::Tone.\n", "The temporal gaps translate into a comb-like frequency spectrum for the signal, where the teeth are spaced at line frequency and concentrate most of the energy; the space between the teeth can be used to insert a color subcarrier.\n\nSection::::Analog television systems.:Hidden signaling.\n\nBroadcasters later developed mechanisms to transmit digital information on the phantom lines, used mostly for teletext and closed captioning:\n\nBULLET::::- PALplus uses a hidden signaling scheme to indicate if it exists, and if so what operational mode it is in.\n", "Section::::Types.\n\nBULLET::::- 7586 - First one released, medium mu triode\n\nBULLET::::- 7587 - Sharp cutoff tetrode\n\nBULLET::::- 8056 - triode for low plate voltages\n\nBULLET::::- 8058 - triode, with plate cap & grid on shell, for UHF performance\n\nBULLET::::- 7895 - 7586 with higher mu\n\nBULLET::::- 2CW4 - Same as type 6CW4, but with a 2.1 volt / 450 milliampere heater. Used in television receivers with series heater strings\n\nBULLET::::- 6CW4 - high mu triode, most common one in consumer electronics\n\nBULLET::::- 6DS4 - remote cutoff 6CW4\n\nBULLET::::- 6DV4 - medium mu, intended as UHF oscillator, shell sometimes gold plated\n", "Early units have a very audible \"buzzing\" from the built-in speaker that reacts to the graphics generated on screen. This is due to improper production grounding of signal lines of the low-level audio circuitry, and was eventually resolved in later production models. A \"ground loop\" had been created by a grounding strap added in production to meet U.S. Federal Communications Commission signal radiation requirements. This idiosyncrasy has become a familiar characteristic of the machine.\n\nSection::::Peripherals.\n", "Section::::Reduction of electromagnetic noise and vibrations.:Reduction of \"coil noise\".\n\nCoil noise mitigation actions include:\n\nBULLET::::- add some glue (e.g. a layer of glue is often added on the top of television coils ; over the years, this glue degrades and the sound level increases)\n\nBULLET::::- change the shape of the coil (e.g. change coil shape to a figure eight rather than a traditional coil shape)\n\nBULLET::::- isolate the coil from the rest of the device to minimize structure-borne noise\n\nBULLET::::- increase damping\n\nSection::::Experimental illustrations.\n", "Section::::Mechanical.\n", "Section::::Background and recording.:Writing.\n", "Section::::Description.\n", "In his first cabinet session, the Master refers to the reconstruction of the Cabinet Rooms and Downing Street, which were destroyed at the climax of \"World War Three\".\n\nMartha's television is branded Magpie Electricals—this company originally rented and sold televisions manufactured by other companies in the 1950s, as seen in \"The Idiot's Lantern\".\n", "Section::::Health concerns.:High-frequency audible noise.\n\n50 Hz/60 Hz CRTs used for television operate with horizontal scanning frequencies of 15,750 Hz (for NTSC systems) or 15,625 Hz (for PAL systems). These frequencies are at the upper range of human hearing and are inaudible to many people; however, some people (especially children) will perceive a high-pitched tone near an operating television CRT. The sound is due to magnetostriction in the magnetic core and periodic movement of windings of the flyback transformer.\n", "Console noise comes from magnetic components on or within the console. These include ferrite in cores in inductors and transformers, steel frames around LCDs, legs on IC chips and steel cases in disposable batteries. Some popular MIL spec connectors also have steel springs.\n", "Section::::Variations.\n\nEarly variations included transmitting tubes such as the 807 (1937) with 6.3V heater, plate (anode) connected to a top cap, and equivalent 12.6V 1625, the smaller 6V6 (1936), the many KT versions marketed in Europe, and a subsequent vast array of audio and RF power tubes. One of the largest-volume post-WWII applications was in the basic design of television sweep power tubes, starting with the 6BG6G (1946), a modified 807. TV designs rarely used transistors in place of sweep tubes—a challenging high-power and high-speed application—until the 1970s.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00947	Why does gum become harder to chew after drinking water with it in your mouth?	The gum base is very sensitive to temperature changes. When you drink water (Particularly cold water), the elasticity of the gum base goes down and it becomes stiff and hard to chew. The temperature range of gum base is very narrow.	[ "While hydrophobic polymers beneficially repel water and contribute to chewiness, they also detrimentally attract oil. The stickiness of gum results from this hydrophobic nature, as gum can form bonds and stick when it makes contact with oily surfaces such as sidewalks, skin, hair, or the sole of one's shoe. To make matters worse, unsticking the gum is a challenge because the long polymers of the gum base stretch, rather than break. The sticky characteristic of gum may be problematic during processing if the gum sticks to any machinery or packaging materials during processing, impeding the flow of product. Aside from ensuring that the machinery is free from lipid-based residues, this issue can be combatted by the conditioning and coating of gum toward the end of the process. By adding either a powder or a coating to the exterior of the gum product, the hydrophobic gum base binds to the added substance instead of various surfaces with which it may come in contact.\n", "Gum bases with higher molecular weights are typically used in gums intended to meet bubble-forming expectations. Higher molecular weight gum bases include longer polymers that are able to stretch further, and thus are able to form larger bubbles that retain their shape for a longer time.\n\nSection::::Physical and chemical characteristics.:Flavor release.\n", "Section::::Uses.:Amounts used.\n\nThe greater the ratio of xanthan gum added to a liquid, the thicker the liquid will become. An emulsion can be formed with as little as 0.1% (by weight). Increasing the amount of gum gives a thicker, more stable emulsion up to 1% xanthan gum. A teaspoon of xanthan gum weighs about 2.5 grams and brings one cup (250 ml) of water to a 1% concentration.\n", "The polymers that make up the main component of chewing gum base are hydrophobic. This property is essential because it allows for retention of physical properties throughout the mastication process. Because the polymers of gum repel water, the water-based saliva system in a consumer's mouth will dissolve the sugars and flavorings in chewing gum, but not the gum base itself. This allows for gum to be chewed for a long period of time without breaking down in the mouth like conventional foods. Chewing gum can be classified as a product containing a liquid phase and a crystalline phase, providing gum with its characteristic balance of plastic and elastic properties.\n", "Chewing gum is rather shelf stable because of its non-reactive nature and low moisture content. The water activity of chewing gum ranges from 0.40 to 0.65. The moisture content of chewing gum ranges from three to six percent. In fact, chewing gum retains its quality for so long that, in most countries, it is not required by law to be labeled with an expiration date. If chewing gum remains in a stable environment, over time the gum may become brittle or lose some of its flavor, but it will never be unsafe to eat. If chewing gum is exposed to moisture, over time water migration may occur, making the gum soggy. In lollipops with a gum center, water migration can lead to the end of the product's shelf life, causing the exterior hard candy shell to soften and the interior gum center to harden.\n", "Studies have shown that gum flavor is perceived better in the presence of sweetener. Companies have started to create chemical systems in gum so that the sweetener and flavor release together in a controlled manner during chewing.\n\nSection::::Physical and chemical characteristics.:Cooling sensation.\n", "Gums contain galactose in form of galacturonic acid this sugar is part of lactose which is milk sugar, so consumption of gums in early mamalls or their precursors might be a cause for development of mammary gland in mammals along with maternal instincts to feed their offspring and increased body lipids in females of early mammals.\n\nSection::::Shelter effects.\n", "Bazooka Joe gum was lampooned on \"30 Rock\", with Alec Baldwin's character telling a fictional story of the founder inheriting a \"useless pink rock quarry\" and turning it into gum by baking it. Later, a \"softer version of their gum was used to make armor-piercing bullets.\" A fictional advertisement for the gum, starring Stacy Keach, encouraged viewers to chew Bazooka Joe gum \"because life is hard,\" and \"it's like chewing a mountain that someone shot a freeze ray into.\" \n", "A cooling sensation is achieved through the chemical phenomenon of the negative enthalpy of dissolution that occurs with bulk sweeteners, such as the sugar alcohols. The enthalpy of dissolution refers to the overall amount of heat that is absorbed or released in the dissolving process. Because the bulk sweeteners absorb heat as they dissolve and have a negative enthalpy, they yield a cooling sensation as they are dissolved in a consumer's saliva.\n\nSection::::Health effects.\n\nSection::::Health effects.:Brain function.\n", "The viscosity of xanthan gum solutions decreases with higher shear rates; this is called shear thinning or pseudoplasticity. This means that a product subjected to shear, whether from mixing, shaking or even chewing, will thin out, but, once the shear forces are removed, the food will thicken back up. In salad dressing, for example, the addition of xanthan gum makes it thick enough at rest in the bottle to keep the mixture fairly homogeneous, but the shear forces generated by shaking and pouring thins it, so it can be easily poured. When it exits the bottle, the shear forces are removed and it thickens again, so it clings to the salad.\n", "BULLET::::- Dentirol chewing gum (xylitol): A study by Risheim in 1993 showed that when subjects had 2 sticks of gum up to 5 x daily, the gum gave subjective dry mouth symptom relief in approximately 1/3 of participants but no change in SWS (stimulated whole saliva).\n\nBULLET::::- Profylin lozenge (xylitol/sorbitol):A study by Risheim in 1993 showed that when subjects had 1 lozenge 4 to 8 x daily, profylin lozenges gave subjective dry mouth symptom relief in approximately 1/3 of participants but no change in SWS (stimulated whole saliva).\n", "BULLET::::- Finite elasticity and conservatively learnable implies the existence of a mind change bound. \n\nBULLET::::- Finite elasticity and M-finite thickness implies the existence of a mind change bound. However, M-finite thickness alone does not imply the existence of a mind change bound; neither does the existence of a mind change bound imply M-finite thickness. \n\nBULLET::::- Existence of a mind change bound implies learnability; the converse is not true.\n\nBULLET::::- If we allow for noncomputable learners, then finite elasticity implies the existence of a mind change bound; the converse is not true.\n", "Although the term \"Mullins effect\" is commonly applied to stress softening in filled rubbers, the phenomenon is common to all rubbers, including \"gums\" (rubber lacking filler). As first shown by Mullins and coworkers, the retraction stresses of an elastomer are independent of carbon black when the stress at the maximum strain is constant. Mullins softening is a viscoelastic effect, although in filled rubber there can be additional contributions to the mechanical hysteresis from filler particles debonding from each other or from the polymer chains.\n", "Gum arabic is used in the food industry as a stabilizer, emulsifier and thickening agent in icing, fillings, soft candy, chewing gum and other confectionery and to bind the sweeteners and flavorings in soft drinks. A solution of sugar and gum arabic in water, gomme syrup, is sometimes used in cocktails to prevent the sugar from crystallizing and provide a smooth texture.\n", "Radiofrequency alternating current is used to heat the gingival tissues. The rapid alternating polarity in electrosurgery (300 kHz to 4 mHz) causes oscillation of the ions within the gingival cells resulting in friction being generated, which in turn converts electrical energy to thermal energy. As the temperature is increased above 60 degrees C, the processes of protein coagulation and desiccation occur in which the water content of the cells is driven out. Desiccation coagulation is essential in order to achieve haemostasis and is continued until all the water is dissipated or until the temperature reaches 100 degrees C, whereby vaporisation of the cells occurs. \n", "Section::::Physical and chemical characteristics.:Bubble-blowing capability.\n", "Flavor delivery is extended throughout the mastication process by timed release of different flavor components due to the physical-chemical properties of many of chewing gum's ingredients. Entropy is a key player in the process of flavor delivery; because some gum components are more soluble in saliva than gum base and because over time flavor components desire to increase their entropy by becoming dispersed in the less ordered system of the mouth than in the more ordered system of the gum bolus, flavor delivery occurs. During the first three to four minutes of the chew, bulking agents such as sugar or sorbitol and maltitol have the highest solubility and, therefore, are chewed out first. As these components dissolve in the consumers’ saliva and slide down the esophagus, they are no longer retained in the gum base or perceived by the chewer. During the next phase of the chew in the four to six minute range, intense sweeteners and some acids are dissolved and chewed out. These components last slightly longer than the bulking agents because they have a slightly lower solubility. Next, encapsulated flavors are released during either 10-15 minute into the chew or after 30–45 minutes. Encapsulated flavors remain incorporated in the gum base longer because the molecules that they are encapsulated in are more easily held within the gum matrix. Finally, during the last phase of the chew, softeners such as corn syrup and glycerin and other textural modifiers are dissolved, resulting in a firming up of the gum and the end of the chew.\n", "Food and sucrose have a demineralizing effect upon enamel that has been reduced by adding calcium lactate to food. Calcium lactate added to toothpaste has reduced calculus formation. One study has shown that calcium lactate enhances enamel remineralization when added to xylitol-containing gum, but another study showed no additional remineralization benefit from calcium lactate or other calcium compounds in chewing-gum.\n", "\"Does Your Chewing Gum...\" has been a popular song on the Dr. Demento Show, appearing 54 times between the show's premiere and 2006 and selected for the \"Dr. Demento 20th Anniversary Collection\" double CD.\n\nIn Ken Kesey's novel \"One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest\", the character Randle Patrick McMurphy also sings a few lines of this song when he realizes the Chief is storing used gum under his bed.\n", "BULLET::::- Gabriella \"Gabby\" Gomez / Gum Girl is a young girl who loves to chew gum, but her parents and teachers warned her against it, but she accidentally transforms herself into the sticky, stretchy superhero, Gum Girl. She usually wears a pink dress, a pink bow, and black mary-janes. When she is a superhero, her entire body was made up of chewing gum which gives her extreme “stretchability.”\n\nBULLET::::- Rico Gomez is Gabby's brother. He usually wears a shirt and the vest. He is the fan of Gum Girl and Ninja-Rina.\n", "Typical flow plasticity theories (for small deformation perfect plasticity or hardening plasticity) are developed on the basis on the following requirements:\n\nBULLET::::1. The rock has a linear elastic range.\n\nBULLET::::2. The rock has an elastic limit defined as the stress at which plastic deformation first takes place, i.e., formula_42.\n\nBULLET::::3. Beyond the elastic limit the stress state always remains on the yield surface, i.e., formula_43.\n", "Section::::In popular culture.\n\nBazooka Joe was referenced in the \"Seinfeld\" episode \"The Cafe.\"\n\nBazooka Joe was referenced in the \"King of Queens\" episode \"Thanks Man.\"\n", "BULLET::::- The Gum (Seinfeld), episode of the comedy television show\n\nBULLET::::- \"Glasgow University Magazine\", in Scotland\n\nBULLET::::- Mr. Gum, the central character in a series of novels for children by Andy Stanton\n\nBULLET::::- Gum, a character from the \"Jet Set Radio\" video game series\n\nBULLET::::- Gum, a character in the British comic \"Monster Fun\"\n\nBULLET::::- Great Uncle Matthew, a character in the novel \"Ballet Shoes\" by Noel Streatfeild\n\nBULLET::::- Gum, a character from the 2016 adult animated film \"Sausage Party\"\n\nBULLET::::- The Gumball Rally (1976 American comedy film)\n\nSection::::Other uses.\n\nBULLET::::- GUM (department store), in Moscow, Russia\n", "Gum should not be used less than 15 minutes after eating or drinking as doing so will reduce absorption. Users are directed to chew the gum until it softens and produces a tingling sensation or \"peppery\" taste. The gum is then \"parked,\" or tucked, in between the cheek and gums. When the tingling ends the gum is chewed again until it returns, and is then re-parked in a new location. These steps are repeated until the gum is depleted of nicotine (about 30 minutes) or the craving dissipates. Dosage suggested by the Dental-professional.com website is: weeks 1-6: 1 piece every 1 to 2 hours; weeks 7-9: 1 piece every 2 to 4 hours; weeks 10-12: 1 piece every 4–8 hours; no more than 24 pieces per day. Do not use for longer than 12 weeks. Pregnant women should neither smoke nor use NRT. Light smokers should use the 2 mg and heavy smokers the 4 mg; size of gum is the same for both doses.\n", "Since its creation, Big Red's \"Kiss a Little Longer\" campaign targeted teens and young adults. This age group consumed half the chewing gum in the United States at the time. Big Red's other major target had been consumers of competitor cinnamon gums, especially Dentyne.\n\nSection::::Marketing Strategy.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-20327	What the effects would be if humidity went above 100% and went to let's say, 200%.	Humidity is how much water is in the air, as a measure of the total capacity it can store before rain happens. Once it gets to 100%, it should start raining. (there are some odd incidents that it doesn't happen quite when our instruments read 100%, but what's really happening is our instruments are not precise, and we're at like 99% humidity). This is kind of like asking "what effects would happen if I put 2 gallons of water in a 1 gallon jug?"; You just can't actually do that. The water will fall out way before you get there.	[ "The basic principles for buildings, above, also apply to vehicles. In addition, there may be safety considerations. For instance, high humidity inside a vehicle can lead to problems of condensation, such as misting of windshields and shorting of electrical components. In vehicles and pressure vessels such as pressurized airliners, submersibles and spacecraft, these considerations may be critical to safety, and complex environmental control systems including equipment to maintain pressure are needed.\n\nSection::::Significance.:Aviation.\n", "When the temperature is low and the relative humidity is high, evaporation of water is slow. When relative humidity approaches 100 percent, condensation can occur on surfaces, leading to problems with mold, corrosion, decay, and other moisture-related deterioration. Condensation can pose a safety risk as it can promote the growth of mold and wood rot as well as possibly freezing emergency exits shut.\n\nCertain production and technical processes and treatments in factories, laboratories, hospitals, and other facilities require specific relative humidity levels to be maintained using humidifiers, dehumidifiers and associated control systems.\n\nSection::::Significance.:Vehicles.\n", "Section::::Effects.:Industry.\n\nHigh humidity can often have a negative effect on the capacity of chemical plants and refineries that use furnaces as part of a certain processes (e.g., steam reforming, wet sulfuric acid processes). For example, because humidity reduces ambient oxygen concentrations (dry air is typically 20.9% oxygen, but at 100% relative humidity the air is 20.4% oxygen), flue gas fans must intake air at a higher rate than would otherwise be required to maintain the same firing rate .\n\nSection::::Effects.:Baking.\n", "Humidity should be kept between the range of 40 to 60 percent. Failure to provide suitable levels can result in pulmonary infections or death.\n", "In general, higher temperatures will require lower relative humidities to achieve thermal comfort compared to lower temperatures, with all other factors held constant. For example, with clothing level = 1, Metabolic rate = 1.1, and air speed 0.1 m/s, a change in air temperature and mean radiant temperature from 20 degrees C to 24 degrees C would lower the maximum acceptable relative humidity from 100% to 65% to maintain thermal comfort conditions. The CBE Thermal Comfort Tool can be used to demonstrate the effect of relative humidity for specific thermal comfort conditions and it can be used to demonstrate compliance with ASHRAE Standard 55-2017.\n", "“The RH in most sealed packaging is near the saturation level. Therefore, even very small fluctuations in temperature during storage or shipment may result in water condensation on the surface of both film and produce. Condensed water on the produce surface may adversely affect the gas exchange, leading to an unfavorable internal atmosphere.” Even more detrimental may be the enhancement of produce decay, and physiological processes such as regrowth. In addition, certain human pathogens may proliferate when in-pack atmosphere contains high humidity and low .\n\nSection::::Hazards associated with MAP.\n", "Relative humidity is an important metric used in weather forecasts and reports, as it is an indicator of the likelihood of precipitation, dew, or fog. In hot summer weather, a rise in relative humidity increases the apparent temperature to humans (and other animals) by hindering the evaporation of perspiration from the skin. For example, according to the Heat Index, a relative humidity of 75% at air temperature of 80.0 °F (26.7 °C) would feel like 83.6 °F ±1.3 °F (28.7 °C ±0.7 °C).\n\nSection::::Types.:Specific humidity.\n", "In contrast, a very low humidity level favors the build-up of static electricity, which may result in spontaneous shutdown of computers when discharges occur. Apart from spurious erratic function, electrostatic discharges can cause dielectric breakdown in solid state devices, resulting in irreversible damage. Data centers often monitor relative humidity levels for these reasons.\n\nSection::::Effects.:Building construction.\n", "GCM cloud parameterizations account for at least two cloud types: convective clouds and large-scale supersaturation clouds. \"Large-scale supersaturation clouds occur when the relative humidity in a grid box at some model level exceeds a critical value\". One way of accounting for large-scale supersaturation clouds is by setting the critical relative humidity value to 80%, assigning grid boxes with relative humidity values at or above 80% as cloud covered. Another way to account for large-scale supersaturation clouds is to benchmark clouds via temperature variability, in that wherever the temperature \"causes the relative humidity to reach 100% is cloud covered\".\n", "The relative humidity formula_1 or formula_2 of an air–water mixture is defined as the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapor formula_3 in the mixture to the equilibrium vapor pressure of water formula_4 over a flat surface of pure water at a given temperature:\n\nRelative humidity is normally expressed as a percentage; a higher percentage means that the air–water mixture is more humid. At 100% relative humidity, the air is saturated and is at its dewpoint.\n\nSection::::Significance.\n\nSection::::Significance.:Climate control.\n", "The full standard can be downloaded from JEDEC.\n\nSection::::Maximum Irreversible Humidity Indicator Cards.\n", "Section::::Effects.\n\nSection::::Effects.:Animal and plant life.\n\nHumidity is one of the fundamental abiotic factors that defines any habitat (the tundra, wetlands, and the desert are a few examples), and is a determinant of which animals and plants can thrive in a given environment.\n", "BULLET::::2. ”Bioelectric Plasma” – 7:33\n\nBULLET::::3. ”Demilitarized Zone” – 14:16\n\nBULLET::::4. ”Synergistic Perceptions” – 10:52\n\nBULLET::::5. ”Ceramic Tincture” – 6:28\n\nBULLET::::6. ”Submission to Pele” – 7:22\n\nBULLET::::7. ”Humidity Toward the Troposphere” – 14:25\n\nSection::::Track listing.:Disc two.\n\nBULLET::::1. ”Beyond Part 1” – 16:26\n\nBULLET::::2. ”Beyond Part 2” – 6:43\n\nBULLET::::3. ”Beyond Part 3” – 6:52\n\nBULLET::::4. ”Beyond Part 4” – 6:13\n\nBULLET::::5. ”Beyond Part 5” – 3:51\n\nBULLET::::6. ”Beyond Part 6” – 7:14\n\nSection::::Track listing.:Disc three.\n\nBULLET::::1. ”Steel Harmonics” – 7:45\n\nBULLET::::2. ”Nada” – 6:05\n\nBULLET::::3. ”Cloud Relapse” – 7:04\n\nBULLET::::4. ”Nightsky Reprise” – 16:56\n\nBULLET::::5. ”Hidden Refuge” – 9:02\n", "Humidity plays an important role for surface life. For animal life dependent on perspiration (sweating) to regulate internal body temperature, high humidity impairs heat exchange efficiency by reducing the rate of moisture evaporation from skin surfaces. This effect can be calculated using a heat index table, also known as a humidex.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nSection::::Types.:Absolute humidity.\n", "Precipitable water values of greater than favor the development of organized thunderstorm complexes. Those with heavy rainfall normally have precipitable water values greater than . normally greater than , Upstream values of CAPE of greater than 800 J/kg are usually required for the development of organized convection.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nSection::::Types.:Mesoscale Convective Complex.\n", "Buck has reported that, at sea level, the vapor pressure of water in saturated moist air amounts to an increase of approximately 0.5% over the equilibrium vapor pressure of pure water.\n\nSection::::Related concepts.\n\nThe term relative humidity is reserved for systems of water vapor in air. The term \"relative saturation\" is used to describe the analogous property for systems consisting of a condensable phase other than water in a non-condensable phase other than air.\n\nSection::::Other important facts.\n", "One Percent More Humid\n\nOne Percent More Humid is a 2017 American drama film written and directed by Liz W. Garcia. The film stars Juno Temple, Julia Garner, Alessandro Nivola, Maggie Siff, Olivia Luccardi and Philip Ettinger.\n\nSection::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Juno Temple as Iris\n\nBULLET::::- Julia Garner as Catherine\n\nBULLET::::- Alessandro Nivola as Gerald\n\nBULLET::::- Maggie Siff as Lisette\n\nBULLET::::- Olivia Luccardi as Mae\n\nBULLET::::- Philip Ettinger as Billy\n\nBULLET::::- Mamoudou Athie as Jack\n\nBULLET::::- Liz Larsen as Catherine's mother\n\nBULLET::::- Jack DiFalco as Reynolds\n\nBULLET::::- Ricky Goldman as Alex\n\nSection::::Release.\n", "Climate control refers to the control of temperature and relative humidity in buildings, vehicles and other enclosed spaces for the purpose of providing for human comfort, health and safety, and of meeting environmental requirements of machines, sensitive materials (for example, historic) and technical processes.\n\nSection::::Significance.:Relative humidity and thermal comfort.\n", "The formation of large-scale (stratus-type) clouds is more physically based: they form when the relative humidity reaches some prescribed value. Still, sub grid scale processes need to be taken into account. Rather than assuming that clouds form at 100% relative humidity, the cloud fraction can be related to a critical relative humidity of 70% for stratus-type clouds, and at or above 80% for cumuliform clouds, reflecting the sub grid scale variation that would occur in the real world. Portions of the precipitation parameterization include the condensation rate, energy exchanges dealing with the change of state from water vapor into liquid drops, and the microphysical component which controls the rate of change from water vapor to water droplets.\n", "BULLET::::2. Humidity, Precipitation, and Wind. The max, min, and mean figures for each month are entered into this table, and the conditions for each month classified into a \"humidity group\".\n\nBULLET::::3. Comparison of Comfort Conditions and Climate. The desired max/min temperatures are entered, and compared to the climatic values from table 1. A note is made if the conditions create \"heat stress\" or \"cold stress\" (i.e. the building will be too hot or cold).\n", "A mesoscale convective complex has either an area of cloud top of 100,000 km or greater with temperature less than or equal to -32 °C, or an area of cloud top of 50,000 km with temperature less than or equal to -52 °C. Size definitions must be met for 6 hours or greater. Its maximum extent is defined as when cloud shield reaches maximum area. Its eccentricity (minor axis/major axis) is greater than or equal to 0.7 at maximum extent.\n\nSection::::Development.\n", "Maintaining high relative humidity (RH) in modified atmosphere packaging is important because it “results in reduced transpiration of water from the produce, thereby reducing wilting, shriveling, and loss of firmness. The accumulation of vapor in the packaging depends on the rate of water loss from the product, its surface area, the water vapor transmission rate (WVTR) of the film, and the external environment temperature.”\n", "The higher the flow, the more important proper humidification and conditioning of the flow becomes. Without humidity, the oxygenation and ventilation effects of high-flow therapy would be quickly overcome by the negative impact that dry air has on lung tissue.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The ISA models a hypothetical standard day to allow a reproducible engineering reference for calculation and testing of engine and vehicle performance at various altitudes. It \"does not\" provide a rigorous meteorological model of actual atmospheric conditions (for example, changes in barometric pressure due to wind conditions). Neither does it account for humidity effects; air is assumed to be dry and clean and of constant composition. Humidity effects are accounted for in vehicle or engine analysis by adding water vapor to the thermodynamic state of the air after obtaining the pressure and density from the standard atmosphere model.\n", "Section::::Architectural Impacts.\n" ]	[ "Humidity can go above 100%, and can go to let's say, 200%.", "Humidty can raise to 200%." ]	[ "Once humidity reaches 100%, it starts raining; humidity cannot go over 100%.", "Humidty is a measure of the total water possible so it cannot go above 100%. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Humidity can go above 100%, and can go to let's say, 200%.", "Humidty can raise to 200%." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Once humidity reaches 100%, it starts raining; humidity cannot go over 100%.", "Humidty is a measure of the total water possible so it cannot go above 100%. " ]
2018-22749	Can water freeze while there's an electrical current going through it?	Yes, though it really depends on how large of an electric current. If it's a tiny amount, there will be no issue. If it is large enough to keep the water warm, then it will not freeze.	[ "The compressed ice was then transported to the University of Rochester where it was blasted by a pulse of laser light. The reaction created conditions like those inside of ice giants such as Uranus and Neptune by heating up the ice thousands of degrees under a pressure a million times greater than the earth's atmosphere in only ten to 20 billionths of a second. The experiment concluded that the current in the conductive water was indeed carried by ions rather than electrons and thus pointed to the water being superionic. More recent experiments from the same LLNL/Rochester team used x-ray crystallography on laser-shocked water droplets to determine that the oxygen ions enter a face-centered-cubic phase, which was dubbed ice XVIII and reported in the journal \"Nature\" in May 2019.\n", "Section::::Mechanical.\n\nConceptually, mechanical freeze stats are constructed with a diaphragm, a capillary tube and bulb, and an electric switch. The capillary tube allows gas movement to and from the capillary bulb and the diaphragm with a fall or rise in temperature, respectively. When the temperature reaches a specific setpoint, the pressure in the diaphragm will trip a switch which typically shuts down the flow of outside air while the capillary bulb's temperature is at or below the setpoint. Mechanical freeze stats can have more than one set of contacts, and the contacts can be NO or NC.\n\nDisadvantages\n", "Freezing water is a central issue for climate, geology and life. On earth, ice and snow cover 10% of the land and up to 50% of the Northern Hemisphere in winter. Polar ice caps reflect up to 90% of the sun's incoming radiation. The science of freezing water depends on multiple factors, including how water droplets freeze, how much water is in the atmosphere, if water is in a liquid or crystal state, at what temperature it freezes, and whether it crystallizes from within or from the surface.\n", "The freezing of nanoscale water or silicon liquid drops is initiated at a number of different distances from the centre of the droplet, providing new insights on a long-standing dispute in the field of material and chemical physics.\n\nWhen water is in a conventional freezer, a dynamic phase transition is triggered. The resulting ice depends on how quickly the system is cooled: If the water is cooled below its freezing point slowly, an ice crystal will result, rather than the poly-crystalline solid that flash freezing produces.\n\nSection::::Applications and techniques.\n", "Flash freezing refers to the process whereby objects are frozen in just a few hours by subjecting them to cryogenic temperatures, or through direct contact with liquid nitrogen at .\n\nWhen water is supercooled to temperatures below , it must freeze.\n", "There are phenomena like supercooling, in which the water is cooled below its freezing point, but the water remains liquid, if there are too few defects to seed crystallization. One can therefore observe a delay until the water adjusts to the new, below-freezing temperature. Supercooled liquid water must become ice at minus 48 C (minus 55 F) not just because of the extreme cold, but because the molecular structure of water changes physically to form tetrahedron shapes, with each water molecule loosely bonded to four others. This suggests the structural change from liquid to \"intermediate ice\". The crystallization of ice from supercooled water is generally initiated by a process called nucleation. Because of the speed and size of nucleation, which occurs within nanoseconds and nanometers.\n", "Section::::How water freezes.\n", "Water does not always freeze at . Water that persists in liquid state below this temperature is said to be supercooled, and supercooled water droplets cause icing on aircraft. Below , icing is rare because clouds at these temperatures usually consist of ice particles rather than supercooled water droplets. Below , supercooled water cannot exist, therefore icing is impossible.\n", "A second stage freeze is also likely to happen with the valve open, causing a free flow, which may precipitate a first stage freeze if not immediately stopped. If the flow through the frozen second stage can be stopped before the first stage freezes, the process can be halted. This may be possible if the second stage is fitted with a shutoff valve, but if this is done, the first stage must be fitted with an overpressure valve, as closing the supply to the second stage disables its secondary function as an overpressure valve.\n", "A third type of freeze protection is freeze-tolerance, where low pressure water pipes made of silicone rubber simply expand on freezing. One such collector now has European Solar Keymark accreditation.\n\nSection::::Design requirements.:Overheat protection.\n\nWhen no hot water has been used for a day or two, the fluid in the collectors and storage can reach high temperatures in all non-drainback systems. When the storage tank in a drainback system reaches its desired temperature, the pumps stop, ending the heating process and thus preventing the storage tank from overheating.\n", "An optical source sets ice alert by using un-collimated light to monitor the opacity and optical index-of-refraction of whatever substance is on the probe. Desensitized to ignore a film of water, it has no moving parts, and is completely solid. The wavelength of the transducer's excitation light is not visible to the human eye so as not to be mistaken for any kind of navigational running light.\n", "The most basic solar thermal models are the direct-gain type, in which the potable water is directly sent into the collector. Many such systems are said to use \"integrated collector storage\" (ICS), as direct-gain systems typically have storage integrated within the collector. Heating water directly is inherently more efficient than heating it indirectly via heat exchangers, but such systems offer very limited freeze protection (if any), can easily heat water to temperatures unsafe for domestic use, and ICS systems suffer from severe heat loss on cold nights and cold, cloudy days.\n", "Ski resorts have a strong interest in producing snow, even when the ambient temperature is as high as 20 °C. The dimensions and power expenditure of known snow-production equipment depend on humidity and wind conditions. This snow-making equipment is based on the freezing of water droplets which are sprayed into air before they reach the ground surface, and requires an ambient temperature lower than −4 °C.\n", "Freeze protection measures prevent damage to the system due to the expansion of freezing transfer fluid. Drainback systems drain the transfer fluid from the system when the pump stops. Many indirect systems use antifreeze (e.g., propylene glycol) in the heat transfer fluid.\n\nIn some direct systems, collectors can be manually drained when freezing is expected. This approach is common in climates where freezing temperatures do not occur often, but can be less reliable than an automatic system as it relies on an operator.\n", "Pure water is supercooled in a chiller to −2°C and released through a nozzle into a storage tank. On release it undergoes a phase transition forming small ice particles within 2.5% ice fraction. In the storage tank it is separated by the difference in density between ice and water. The cold water is supercooled and released again increasing the ice fraction in the storage tank.\n\nHowever a small crystal in the supercooled water or a nucleation cell on the surface may act as a seed for ice crystals and block the generator.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Cold chain\n\nBULLET::::- Fishing industry\n", "BULLET::::- 1986 – John H. Rand and Ben Hanamoto for developing a system for controlling ice on Army Corps of Engineers navigation locks.\n", "The REAL ICE Isolator is an optional add-on to the REAL ICE, that enables connectivity to AC and High-voltage applications not referenced to ground. Control signals are magnetically or optically isolated providing up to 2.5 kV equivalent isolation protection. The isolator acts as an isolated bridge, where signals are passed through with complete transparency to the MPLAB REAL ICE or MPLAB IDE.\n\nSection::::MPLAB ICE2000.\n\nThe MPLAB ICE2000 is a discontinued in-circuit emulator for PIC and dsPIC devices. It has been superseded by the REAL ICE.\n", "If the water in direct contact with the pressure transfer mechanism (diaphragm or piston and the spring balancing the internal pressure) of the regulator freezes, the mechanism will be locked in the position at which the freezing takes place, as the ice will prevent the movement required to close. Since the cooling takes place during flow through the regulator, it is common for the freezing to occur when the first stage valve is open, and this will freeze the valve open, allowing a continuous flow through the first stage. This will cause the inter-stage pressure to rise until the second stage opens to relieve the excess pressure, the pressure relief valve on the first stage opens, or a low pressure hose or fitting bursts. All of these effects will allow the flow through the first stage to continue, so the cooling will continue, and this will keep the ice causing the problem frozen. To break the cycle it is necessary to stop the gas flow or expose the ice to a heat source capable of melting it. While underwater, it is unlikely to find a heat source to thaw the ice and stopping the flow is only option. Clearly the flow will stop when the pressure in the cylinder drops to ambient, but this is undesirable as it means total loss of the breathing gas. The other option is to close the cylinder valve, shutting off the pressure at the source. Once this is done, the ice will normally melt as heat from the surrounding water is absorbed by the slightly colder ice, and once the ice has melted, the regulator will function again.\n", "This is a rate of homogeneous nucleation estimated for a model of water, not real water — in experiments one cannot grow nuclei of water and so cannot directly determine the values of the barrier formula_5, or the dynamic parameters such as formula_10, for real water. However, it may be that indeed the homogeneous nucleation of ice at temperatures near -20 °C and above is \"extremely\" slow and so that whenever water freezes at temperatures of -20 °C and above this is due to heterogeneous nucleation, i.e., the ice nucleates in contact with a surface.\n\nSection::::Description.:Homogeneous nucleation.\n", "Water will freeze at different temperatures depending upon the type of ice nuclei present. Ice nuclei cause water to freeze at higher temperatures than it would spontaneously. For pure water to freeze spontaneously, called homogeneous nucleation, cloud temperatures would have to be . Here are some examples of ice nuclei:\n\nSection::::Ice multiplication.\n", "Nicholas F. Maxemchuk\n\nNicholas F. Maxemchuk is an American electrical engineer.\n\nSection::::Biography.\n\nMaxemchuk graduated from the City College of New York in 1968 with a Bachelor of Engineering (Electrical), he received his master's degree in 1970 from the Moore School of Electrical Engineering at the University of Pennsylvania, and obtained his Doctor of Philosophy in Systems Engineering from the University of Pennsylvania in 1975.\n", "Section::::Controlling The Heating Process.\n\nET-DSP utilizes a system of Time-Distributed Control (TDC) and Inter-Phase Synchronization (IPS) to control the power to the electrodes. This process controls the amount and timing of power sent to individual electrodes. If electrodes are in electrically resistive zones resulting in cold spots, the power to the electrodes can be increased in these areas to uniformly heat the formation. TDC and IPS controls the electrical sine wave of three-phase power to the millisecond such that each phase can be individually manipulated.\n\nSection::::Numerical Modeling and Analysis.\n", "The bridge as observed in a typical configuration has a diameter of 1–3 mm so the bridge remains intact when pulled as far as , and remains stable up to 45 minutes. The surface temperature also rises from an initial surface temperature of up to before breakdown.\n\nSection::::Experiment.\n", "BULLET::::- The IceTop array is a series of Cherenkov detectors on the surface of the glacier, with two detectors approximately above each IceCube string. IceTop is used as a cosmic ray shower detector, for cosmic ray composition studies and coincident event tests: if a muon is observed going through IceTop, it cannot be from a neutrino interacting in the ice.\n", "I jumped into a seal hole, pushing the ice away as I entered, and they handed me my camera. Surprisingly, I wasn't too cold, except around where my mouth held on to my regulator, and that instantly froze and became numb. Suddenly everything was quiet and I found myself looking at easily one of the most extraordinary scenes I had ever, ever experienced. When I dropped down through a hole in the ice, I was completely surrounded by ice: a tunnel maybe twenty feet across. Everything above me on the land was roaring with wind and down there, there was absolutely no sound except for the distant trills of Weddell seals.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02203	What is that weird thing that you see in your eyes after looking at a bright light?	A couple things actually... "Floaters" are the shadows cast by bits of debris and protein clumps floating around between the retina and the center of the eye. These are completely harmless and you can see them fumbling around your eyes from time to time. In your eyes you also have capillaries(very thin blood vessels,) and through these, red and white blood cells are carried. Because white blood cells are larger and of more abnormal shape, they tend to not get filtered by your brain when processing what your eyes are seeing, they just look like white specks following a track. Finally, when you rub your eyes, you're physically altering pressure in your eyes and stimulating photo-receptors and releasing chemicals called phosphenes in your brain. These cause the pretty colors and weird shapes much like applying pressure to an LCD screen. "Picture burn" which is what I believe you're referring to is simply the heavy intake of a bright source of light(i.e. the sun) and having the image retained in the form of a black splotch. This is what I believe to be the work of your brain filtering that area of your vision in order to preserve the eye(which is ironic because it only allows you to look at the sun for longer-causing more damage) [A video by Tom Scott]( URL_0 ) explains this well.	[ "BULLET::::- The inner-ear condition Ménière's disease can be aggravated by flicker. Sufferers of vertigo are recommended to not use fluorescent lights.\n\nBULLET::::- Polymorphous light eruption is a condition affecting the skin thought to be caused by an adverse reaction to ultraviolet light. Its prevalence across Europe is 10-20% of the population. Artificial light sources may provoke the condition, and compact fluorescent light have been shown to produce an eruption.\n", "BULLET::::1. Reflection of star lights\n\nBULLET::::2. Luminous jellyfish\n\nBULLET::::3. Fire from undersea active volcano\n\nBULLET::::4. Light of fishing boats\n", "Section::::Releases.\n", "BULLET::::- Seborrhoeic dermatitis\n\nBULLET::::- Autoimmune bullous diseases (immunobullous diseases)\n\nBULLET::::- Mycosis fungoides\n\nBULLET::::- Smith–Lemli–Opitz syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Porphyria cutanea tarda\n\nAlso, many conditions are aggravated by strong light, including:\n\nBULLET::::- Systemic lupus erythematosus\n\nBULLET::::- Sjögren’s syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Sinear Usher syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Rosacea\n\nBULLET::::- Dermatomyositis\n\nBULLET::::- Darier’s disease\n\nBULLET::::- Kindler-Weary syndrome\n\nSection::::Fluorescent lamps.\n\nThe Scientific Committee on Emerging and Newly Identified Health Risks (SCENIHR) in 2008 reviewed the connections between light from fluorescent lamps, especially from compact fluorescent lamp, and numerous human diseases, with results including:\n", "Section::::Effects.\n\nSevere or chronic photophobia, such as in migraine or seizure disorder, may result in a person not feeling well with eye ache, headache and/or neck ache. These symptoms may persist for days even after the person is no longer exposed to the offensive light source. Further, once the eyes have become sensitized to the offensive light source (which can occur even in short duration exposures), they may become even more photosensitive with extreme pain occurring upon exposure to light.\n", "Flash blindness may also occur in everyday life. For example, the subject of a flash photograph can be temporarily flash blinded. This phenomenon is leveraged in non-lethal weapons such as flash grenades and laser dazzlers.\n\nSection::::Cause.\n\nFlash blindness is caused by bleaching (oversaturation) of the retinal pigment. As the pigment returns to normal, so too does sight. In daylight the eye's pupil constricts, thus reducing the amount of light entering after a flash. At night, the dark-adapted pupil is wide open so flash blindness has a greater effect and lasts longer.\n\nSection::::Temporary vs. permanent.\n\nIs flash blindness temporary or permanent?\n", "Patients may develop photophobia as a result of several different medical conditions, related to the eye, the nervous system, genetic, or other causes. Photophobia may manifest itself in an increased response to light starting at any step in the visual system, such as:\n\nBULLET::::- Too much light entering the eye. Too much light can enter the eye if it is damaged, such as with corneal abrasion and retinal damage, or if its pupil(s) is unable to normally constrict (seen with damage to the oculomotor nerve).\n", "Some phenomena are yet to be conclusively explained and may possibly be some form of optical phenomena. Some consider many of these \"mysteries\" to simply be local tourist attractions that are not worthy of thorough investigation.\n\nBULLET::::- Hessdalen lights\n\nBULLET::::- Min Min lights\n\nBULLET::::- Light of Saratoga\n\nBULLET::::- Naga fireballs\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Thomas D. Rossing and Christopher J. Chiaverina, Light Science: Physics and the Visual Arts, Springer, New York, 1999, hardback,\n\nBULLET::::- Robert Greenler, Rainbows, Halos, and Glories, Elton-Wolf Publishing, 1999, hardback,\n", "BULLET::::- One cause of cataracts is exposure to ultraviolet light. Provided the level of UV emission from lamps is within safe limits, and the lamp a sufficient distance away from the individual, there should be no increased risk of developing cataracts.\n\nBULLET::::- Photophobia is a symptom of excessive sensitivity to light which affects 5 to 20% of the population. No studies have been conducted into the effect of compact fluorescent light on sufferers of photophobia but there is the possibility for compact fluorescent light to affect sufferers.\n", "The effect was rediscovered again by Thomas Edison on February 13, 1880, while he was trying to discover the reason for breakage of lamp filaments and uneven blackening (darkest near the positive terminal of the filament) of the bulbs in his incandescent lamps.\n", "Patients who suffer from nutritional optic neuropathy may notice that colors are not as vivid or bright as before and that the color red is washed out. This normally occurs in both eyes at the same time and is not associated with any eye pain. They might initially notice a blur or fog, followed by a drop in vision. While vision loss may be rapid, progression to blindness is unusual. These patients tend to have blind spots in the center of their vision with preserved peripheral vision. In most cases, the pupils continue to respond normally to light.\n", "BULLET::::- Photoporation (or any derivations of [laser-] or [optical-] or [opto-] or [photo-] AND [ poration] or [-permeabilisation] or [-puncture] or [-perforation]): The generation of a transient hole or holes on the plasma membrane (or cell wall) of a cell usually for the purpose of optical injection. See possible exception: Optoporation\n", "The optical breakdown is a very \"violent\" phenomenon and changes drastically the structure of the surrounding medium. To the naked eye, optical breakdown looks like a spark and if the event happens in air or some other fluid, it is even possible to hear a short noise (burst) caused by the explosive plasma expansion.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nPatients with ARN typically present\n\nBULLET::::- floaters\n\nBULLET::::- redness of the eye\n\nBULLET::::- flashes\n\nBULLET::::- decreased sharpness of vision\n\nBULLET::::- photophobia.\n", "I learned more within the few seconds that illumination lasted than in all my previous years of study and I learned much that no study could ever have taught.\n\nHe later described the characteristics and effects of the faculty of experiencing this type of consciousness as:\n\nBULLET::::- its sudden appearance\n\nBULLET::::- a subjective experience of light (\"inner light\")\n\nBULLET::::- moral elevation\n\nBULLET::::- intellectual illumination\n\nBULLET::::- a sense of immortality\n\nBULLET::::- loss of a fear of death\n\nBULLET::::- loss of a sense of sin\n", "In another experiment, Tobias \"et al.\" (1971) exposed two people to a beam composed of neutrons ranging from 20 to 640 MeV after they were fully dark-adapted. One observer, who was given four exposures ranging in duration from one to 3.5 seconds, observed \"pinpoint\" flashes. The observer described them as being similar to \"luminous balls seen in fireworks, with initial tails fuzzy and heads like tiny stars\". The other observer who was given one exposure lasting three seconds long, reported seeing 25 to 50 \"bright discrete light, he described as stars, blue-white in color, coming towards him\".\n", "Image burn-in occurs when very bright objects lie in one's field of vision, and should not be confused with closed-eye hallucinations. Visual burn-in from bright lights is visible for a few minutes after closing the eyes, or by blinking repeatedly, but the burn-in effect slowly fades away as the retina recovers, whereas the waking-consciousness CEV noise will not disappear if observed continuously over a period of time.\n\nSection::::What is not a CEV.:Corneal liquid.\n", "Section::::Mechanism.\n\nA cataract is an opacity that develops in the crystalline lens of the eye. The word cataract literally means, \"curtain of water\" or \"waterfall\" as rapidly running water turns white, so the term may have been used metaphorically to describe the similar appearance between mature ocular opacities and water fall. The mechanism by which galactosemia causes cataract is not well understood, but the topic has been approached by researchers for decades, notably by the ophthalmologists, Jonas S. Friedenwald and Jin H. Kinoshita. Through this collective effort, a general mechanism for galactosemia's causation of presenile cataract has come into form.\n", "BULLET::::- Some sources such as NATO and the U.S. Department of Defense state that \"flash blindness\" can be temporary or permanent.\n\nBULLET::::- Other sources restrict the use of the word to temporary, reversible vision loss: \"...These are, in order of increasing brightness: dazzle, after image formation, flash blindness, and irreversible damage.\" The United States Federal Aviation Administration in Order JO 7400.2 defines flash blindness as \"Generally, a temporary visual interference effect that persists after the source of the illumination has ceased.\"\n", "Occasionally, uveitis is not associated with a systemic condition: the inflammation is confined to the eye and has unknown cause. In some of these cases, the presentation in the eye is characteristic of a described syndrome, which are called white dot syndromes, and include the following diagnoses:\n\nBULLET::::- acute posterior multifocal placoid pigment epitheliopathy\n\nBULLET::::- birdshot chorioretinopathy\n\nBULLET::::- multifocal choroiditis and panuveitis\n\nBULLET::::- multiple evanescent white dot syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- punctate inner choroiditis\n\nBULLET::::- serpiginous choroiditis\n\nBULLET::::- acute zonal occult outer retinopathy\n\nSection::::Causes.:Masquerade syndromes.\n", "BULLET::::- Rapid flickers in intensity of light may trigger or aggravate photosensitive epilepsy, epileptic seizure, or migraine headaches.\n\nConditions that may include sensitivity to light include vertigo and chronic fatigue syndrome.\n\nControlled application of artificial light can be used in a program of light therapy to treat some disorders.\n\nSection::::Sunlight.\n\nSunlight, especially its ultraviolet radiation component, can cause increased or additional types of damage in predisposed individuals, such as those taking certain phototoxic drugs, or those with certain conditions associated with photosensitivity, including:\n\nBULLET::::- Psoriasis\n\nBULLET::::- Atopic eczema\n\nMastocytosis \n\nMast cell activation syndrome\n\nHistamine intolerance\n\nBULLET::::- Erythema multiforme\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "Such internal scattering is also present in the human eye, and manifests in an unwanted veiling glare most obvious when viewing very bright lights or highly reflective surfaces. In some situations, eyelashes can also create flare-like irregularities, although these are technically diffraction artifacts.\n", "In a male child, from 2 months upwards, an aversion to light and nystagmus may lead to the suspicion of a case of blue cone monochromacy, but it does not provide sufficient indications to establish the form of the condition. To identify a case of BCM, it is necessary to reconstruct the family history, with the condition linked to the transmission of the X chromosome if there are other cases in the family.\n\nThe electroretinogram (ERG), can demonstrate the loss of cone function with retained rod function.\n", "BULLET::::- Due to albinism, the lack of pigment in the colored part of the eyes (irises) makes them somewhat translucent. This means that the irises can't completely block light from entering the eye.\n\nBULLET::::- Overstimulation of the photoreceptors in the retina\n\nBULLET::::- Excessive electric impulses to the optic nerve\n\nBULLET::::- Excessive response in the central nervous system\n\nBULLET::::- Elevated trigeminal nerve tone (as it is sensory nerve to eye, elevated tone makes it over reactive). Elevated trigeminal tone causes elevated substance P which causes hypersensitivity. Often due to jaw misalignment.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03661	How does economics remain reliable even though it was founded on the principle of the rational consumer?	The axioms that constitute rationality: * given a choice between A and B, a person can say which they prefer or if they are indifferent * if they prefer A to B and B to C, they prefer A to C Are not actually all that demanding. They are fulfilled in the vast majority of decision making contexts or are close enough to fulfilled that it doesn't matter. If you want to poke a bigger hole in the conclusions of most economic models, ask their authors' about how realistic their assumptions about information are. That said, an imperfect model is vastly preferable to no model. Economic models have been vastly important in correctly justifying countless policies.	[ "BULLET::::- Modern economic models incorporate the reaction of the public and market to the policy maker's actions (through game theory), and this feedback is included in modern models (following the rational expectations revolution and Robert Lucas, Jr.'s Lucas critique of non-microfounded) models. If the response to the decision maker's actions (and their credibility) must be included in the model then it becomes much harder to influence some of the variables simulated.\n\nSection::::Tests of macroeconomic predictions.:Comparison with models in other sciences.\n", "Consumer economics concludes the family-unit economists were strongly influenced by the most recent \"consumer era\"; which was the \"Modern Consumer Movement\" of the 1970s. The connection between Consumer Economics and consumer-related politics has been overt, although the strength of the connection varies between Universities and individuals.\n\nMany facets of consumer economics are measured regularly by the Federal Reserve System and the Bureau of Economic Analysis and are available for the public. A number of indicators are published regularly from these and other academic sources, such as personal income, total household debt, and the Consumer Leverage Ratio.\n", "Without the market process to fulfill such comparisons, critics of non-market socialism say that it lacks any way to compare different goods and services and would have to rely on calculation in kind. The resulting decisions, it is claimed, would therefore be made without sufficient knowledge to be considered rational.\n\nSection::::Theory.:Relating utility to capital and consumption goods.\n", "\"The textbook model is definitely broken. In it, economic actors are amoral and self-interested, perfectly competitive market prices equate supply to demand implementing “optimal” outcomes, while environmental degradation, instability, and inequality are afterthoughts at best … Yet it continues as the backbone of much undergraduate teaching. However remote from what economists really do and the way we think, this is the “economics” imprinted on the public’s mind.\"\n", "Econocracy undermines participatory and deliberative democracy because it delegates decision-making to economic experts and because public discourse is jargon-heavy and expert-led. For example, in the UK, only 12% of respondents in a YouGov poll believe that politicians and the media talk about economics in a way that is accessible. In another poll, less than 40% of respondents could correctly identify the definitions of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and of quantitative easing, given a list of possible answers.\n", "Section::::Empirical objections.\n\nEmpirical research, from the 1970s onwards (research that eventually established the field of behavioral economics), showed that the Totrep model of rationality cannot be safely considered as representative of real-life human affairs.\n", "Rationality plays a key role in economics and there are several strands to this. Firstly, there is the concept of instrumentality—basically the idea that people and organisations are instrumentally rational—that is, adopt the best actions to achieve their goals. Secondly, there is an axiomatic concept that rationality is a matter of being logically consistent within your preferences and beliefs. Thirdly, people have focused on accuracy of beliefs and full use of information—in this view a person who is not rational has beliefs that don't fully use the information they have.\n", "When economic concerns are predominant, the recipient will likely use heuristic processing to form a judgment about the persuasive argument. Conversely, when reliability concerns are predominant (i.e., recipients perceive significant importance in accurately judging an argument), they will likely use a systematic processing strategy. Reliability concerns are influenced by the level of the recipient's issue-involvement or response-involvement. When the recipient views their judgment as being less consequential, they will likely place greater value on economic concerns than reliability concerns.\n\nSection::::Practical application.\n", "Notwithstanding, economics legitimately has a role in informing government policy. It is, indeed, in some ways an outgrowth of the older field of political economy. Some academic economic journals have increased their efforts to gauge the consensus of economists regarding certain policy issues in hopes of effecting a more informed political environment. Often there exists a low approval rate from professional economists regarding many public policies. Policy issues featured in one survey of American Economic Association economists include trade restrictions, social insurance for those put out of work by international competition, genetically modified foods, curbside recycling, health insurance (several questions), medical malpractice, barriers to entering the medical profession, organ donations, unhealthy foods, mortgage deductions, taxing internet sales, Wal-Mart, casinos, ethanol subsidies, and inflation targeting.\n", "A comprehensive reading of Verri's economic and philosophical writings suggests a new perspective in the analysis of the interplay between moral sense theory, legislation and the competitive framework of a market economy which is not irrelevant to the understanding of the same relationship in other eighteenth-century writers, including Adam Smith. For Verri's Meditazioni are explicitly rooted in a 'historical' investigation of moral sentiments, and of the way in which these may influence the pursuit of private or public interest, and the characteristics of legislation.\n", "Even if consumers are approached traditionally, they are largely sovereign under the assumption that in the role of producers, people maximize their income. This hypothesis has been discussed by economists often and is also addressed as consumer sovereignty.\n", "Section::::Consumer sovereignty in welfare.:Empirical evidence.\n\nA possible way to test the consumer sovereignty assumption is to compare consumers' valuations to items they purchase on their own, to their valuations to items they receive as gifts from friends and family. In one such experiment, done during a holiday season, it was found that consumers value their own purchases about 18% more than the gifts they receive. This supports the consumer sovereignty assumption.\n", "If money is also spent on capital goods and labor, then it is possible to make comparisons between capital goods and consumer goods. The exchange of consumer and capital/labor goods does not imply that capital goods are valued accurately, only that it is possible for the valuations of capital goods to be made. These first elements of the calculation critique of socialism are the most basic element, namely economic calculation requires the use of money across all goods. This is a necessary, but not a sufficient condition for successful economic calculation. Without a price mechanism, Mises argues, socialism lacks the means to relate consumer satisfaction to economic activity. The incentive function of prices allows diffuse interests, like the interests of every household in cheap, high quality shoes to compete with the concentrated interests of the cobblers in expensive, poor quality shoes. Without it, a panel of experts set up to \"rationalise production\", likely closely linked to the cobblers for expertise, would tend to support the cobblers interests in a \"conspiracy against the public\". However, if this happens to all industries, everyone would be worse off than if they had been subject to the rigours of market competition.\n", "Consumer information is the most important element for consumer protection and policy decisions. It is the solution to issues ranging from online transactional threats, behavioural targeting, loss of privacy and other problems.\n\nA consumer must treat every purchase as an important Investment. Making an uninformed investment in the stock market can result in huge financial losses to consumer, the similar rule applies to daily purchases. Being an informed consumer is advantageous to the economy, market and consumers .\n", "According to the European Union, \"Information is a deciding factor for consumers when making their choices and affects both consumer interests and their confidence in the products and services circulating within the market.\"\n\nSection::::Consumer expectation.\n\nThe consumers expect to get fair treatment in the market place and avoid unscrupulous or sharp business dealings. They envisage a fair market environment that facilitates and supports several consumer rights:\n\nBULLET::::- The consumer must get a fair chance of choosing from the range of goods and services available in the market place.\n", "An informed consumer is capable of making sensible decisions, gains an insight about a product prior to its purchase. This insight equips the consumer with the data to arrive at an evidence based conclusion.\n\nSection::::Importance.:Higher-quality investments.\n\nBULLET::::- With almost every purchase, comes a variety of other options to choose from. This is where the information plays an important role. Information enables the customers to differentiate the quality products from non- quality ones and purchase durable goods that sustains for a longer period.\n\nSection::::Importance.:Safe investments.\n", "Economic theory faces the problem of constantly dealing with two contradictory concepts of information at the same time. If efficiency is the dominant aspect of analyses, it is likely that commodification is considered to be harmful. If incentive for creation is the dominant aspect of analyses, the protection of the creator is then likely to be dominant.\n\nSection::::Market failure.\n", "Nobel laureate Herbert A. Simon sees economic decision-making as a vain attempt to be rational. He claims (in 1947 and 1957) that if a complete analysis is to be done, a decision will be immensely complex. He also says that peoples' information processing ability is limited. The assumption of a perfectly rational economic actor is unrealistic. Consumers are influenced by emotional and nonrational considerations making attempts to be rational only partially successful.\n\nSection::::Stages.\n", "The study of consumer behaviour is concerned with all aspects of purchasing behaviour – from pre-purchase activities through to post-purchase consumption, evaluation and disposal activities. It is also concerned with all persons involved, either directly or indirectly, in purchasing decisions and consumption activities including brand-influencers and opinion leaders. Research has shown that consumer behaviour is difficult to predict, even for experts in the field. However, new research methods such as ethnography and consumer neuroscience are shedding new light on how consumers make decisions.\n", "To gain insights into consumer behaviour, researchers uses the standard battery of market research methods such as surveys, depth interviews and focus groups. Increasingly, researchers are turning to newer methodologies and technologies in an effort to seek deeper understandings of why consumers behave in certain ways. These newer methods include \"ethnographic research\" (also known as participant observation) and \"neuroscience\" as well as experimental lab designs. In addition, researchers often turn to separate disciplines for insights with potential to inform the study of consumer behaviour. For instance, behavioural economics is adding fresh, new insights into certain aspects of consumer behaviour.\n", "The establishment of Consumers Union, directly resulting from the staff dismissals and walkouts from Consumers' Research, was one of the major events influencing the consumer movement after World War I. Other important organizations formed in the same era were the New Deal programs aimed at promoting economic recovery after the Great Depression by increasing consumer representation in the market, with the Consumer Advisory Board within the National Recovery Administration and the Consumers' Counsel within the United States Department of Agriculture being notable among them.\n\nSection::::Consumers' Research Today.\n", "Conventional macroeconomic models assume that all agents in an economy are fully rational. A rational agent has clear preferences, models uncertainty via expected values of variables or functions of variables, and always chooses to perform the action with the optimal expected outcome for itself among all feasible actions – they maximize their utility. Monetary policy analysis and decisions hence traditionally rely on this New Classical approach.\n", "She showed that the rates of PTP and risk aversion in the Stern Review are consistent with saving rates of 25–32% rather than 97.5% when a macroeconomic model with the production function actually used by Stern and Nordhaus is used.\n", "A basic Post Keynesian presumption, which Modern Monetary Theory proponents share, and which is central to Keynesian analysis, is that the future is unknowable and so, at best, we can make guesses about it that would be based broadly on habit, custom, gut-feeling, etc. In DSGE modeling, the central equation for consumption supposedly provides a way in which the consumer links decisions to consume \"now\" with decisions to consume \"later\" and thus achieves maximum utility in each period. Our marginal Utility from consumption today must equal our marginal utility from consumption in the future, with a weighting parameter that refers to the valuation that we place on the future relative to today. And since the consumer is supposed to always the equation for consumption, this means that all of us do it individually, if this approach is to reflect the DSGE microfoundational notions of consumption. However, post-Keynesians state that: no consumer is the same with another in terms of random shocks and uncertainty of income (since some consumers spend will every cent of any extra income they receive while others, typically higher-income earners, spend comparatively little of any extra income); no consumer is the same with another in terms of access to credit; not every consumer really considers what they will be doing at the end of their life in any coherent way, so there is no concept of a \"permanent lifetime income,\", which is central to DSGE models; and, therefore, trying to \"aggregate\" all these differences into one, single \"representative agent\" is impossible. These assumptions are similar to the assumptions made in the so-called Ricardian equivalence, whereby consumers are assumed to be forward looking and to internalize the government's budget constraints when making consumption decisions, and therefore taking decisions on the basis of practically perfect evaluations of available information.\n", "Section::::Assumptions.\n\nThe behavioral assumption of the consumer theory proposed herein is that all consumers seek to maximize utility. In the mainstream economics tradition, this activity of maximizing utility has been deemed as the \"rational\" behavior of decision makers. More specifically, in the eyes of economists, all consumers seek to maximize a utility function subject to a budgetary constraint. In other words, economists assume that consumers will always choose the \"best\" bundle of goods they can afford. Consumer theory is therefore based on generating refutable hypotheses about the nature of consumer demand from this behavioral postulate.\n" ]	[ "Economics can only remain reliable if the consumer is rational." ]	[ "Economics can remain reliable when those axioms are mostly fulfilled most of the time which they are. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Economics can only remain reliable if the consumer is rational." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Economics can remain reliable when those axioms are mostly fulfilled most of the time which they are. " ]
2018-12227	Does the a large store need the same amount of employees as multiple smaller stores to sell the same amount of product?	No. This would fall under the economic theory of Economies of scale. There would be a need for more than 1 employee if one large store replaced 20 small stores, but not 20 employees. One location would be able to more efficiently, utilize the time of employees, so even if there were just as many customers they could specialize in tasks... say a couple working registers, a couple working the floor, a couple restocking inventory. Each could do so more efficiently than one person having to constantly juggle each of those tasks. it would also reduce downtime, as you need somebody in each store 100% of the time, even if there are no customers, while a single big store you can adjust staffing to better meet needs and/or have people working at full capacity.	[ "While a single, large, centrally-controlled firm may have higher ability to innovate and develop or market new products more effectively than when its resources are divided, it may lack the flexibility to offer individual customizations. Allowing the different retail locations to make decisions independent of the central management may allow them to meet local consumers' demands more efficiently.\n\nIn addition, if the employees own a portion of the local business, employees will also have more vested interest in its success.\n", "Assuming a tool-set a company produces is only distributed in the second smaller-store chain, it is obviously represented in half the store locations (50%). However, all stores are not created equal; based on the above numbers, the tool-set would only be selling in a quarter of the total market ACV (25%).\n\nIn the converse scenario of distribution within only the big-box retailer, the tool-set would similarly be distributed in half the stores, but those stores would represent 75% total market ACV.\n", "A key step in defining a microservice architecture is figuring out how big an individual microservice has to be. There is no consensus or litmus test for this, as the right answer depends on the business and organizational context. Amazon's policy is that the team implementing a microservice should be small enough that they can be fed by two pizzas. Many organizations choose smaller \"squads\" - typically 6 to 8 developers. But the key decision hinges around how \"clean\" the service boundary can be.\n", "Retail concentration\n\nRetail concentration refers to the market-share generally belonging to the top 4 or 5 mass distribution firms present in a regional market, as a percentage of the total.\n\nRetail concentration is not simply a concentration ratio as is emerging in the food sector. This is due to two factors: the particular relevance retail is gaining on a global scale, and the particular shape of the food supply chain.\n", "For instance, the local management may decide on the following factors instead of relying on the central management:\n\nBULLET::::1. Employee decisions such as hiring, firing, promotions and wage scales, where the local management is directly involved and likely to have better understanding of each employee. For instance, employers may choose to offer higher wages and charge higher prices if they are in an affluent area.\n\nBULLET::::2. Purchasing decisions, with each location allowed to choose its own suppliers, which may or may not be owned by the corporation (wherever they find the best quality and prices).\n", "Capacity planning is quite different between manufacturing and services given that service cannot be stored or shipped to another location. As a result, location of services is very dispersed to be near the customer. Customers are only willing to travel short distances to receive most services. Exceptions are health care when the illness requires a specialist, airline transportation when the service is to move the customer, and other services where local expertise is not available. Aside from these exceptions, location analysis depends on the \"drawing power\" based on the distance a customer is willing to travel to a service site relative to competitive offerings and locations. The drawing power of a site for a particular customer is high if the site is close by and provides the required service. High drawing power is related to high sales and profits. This is much different than manufacturing locations which depend on the cost of building a factory plus the cost of transporting the goods to the customers. Manufacturing plants are located on the basis of low costs rather than high revenues and profits for services.\n", "BULLET::::- Data from Best Buy show that stores where employee engagement increased by a tenth of a point (on a five-point scale) experienced a $100,000 increase in annual sales. (CFO magazine, ‘Measuring Up,’ )\n\nBULLET::::- JC Penney has found that store with top-quartile engagement scores generate roughly 10% more in sales per square foot than average and 36% more operating income than similar-sized stores in the lowest quartile. (JC Penney 8-K SEC Filing, )\n", "Historically, retailers and manufacturers have grouped stores based on top-down constraints such as store size, total store sales volume, retail banner or supply chain requirements to ensure the chain is operating efficiently. In other cases, a strategy to group stores into common demographic or geographic clusters is followed. The major benefit to using a top-down traditional approach is that, by using averages to group stores, it ensures the chain is operating at maximum efficiency. The risk when using this approach is in not meeting localized demand on a store-by-store basis, resulting in a potential loss in sales.\n", "\"3.- 12 people are done shopping in a supermarket where 4 cashiers are working at the moment. In how many different ways can they be distributed into the checkouts?\"\n", "However, there is often substantial variance in the performance of firms within the same industry. For example, both Wal-Mart and Kmart operate in the discount retail industry, and yet Wal-Mart became one of the largest firms in the world, while at the same time, Kmart struggled with bankruptcy. A theory that used the structure of competition in an industry—such as Professor Porter's theory—had little to say about such intra-industry variation in firm performance. Resource-based theory is designed to address this problem.\n", "Staff planning: Retailers can use the different business metrics in order to determine their staffing allocation. Accurate visitor counting is also useful for optimizing staff shifts. Staff requirements are often directly related to the density of visitor traffic, and services such as cleaning and maintenance are typically undertaken when traffic is at its lowest.\n\nSection::::Use cases.:Shopping malls.\n", "Section::::Traditional versus behavioral clustering.:Behavioral clustering.\n\nWhen performing behavioral clustering, store clusters are formed based on analyzing the actual performance (e.g. sales dollars, units sold) of items, categories or departments, in every store within a network. This approach enables store groups to be created based on actual consumer buying behaviors.\n", "For supporters, retail concentration means more chances for consumers, lower prices, better quality. For opponents, by the contrary, the disappearing of traditional shops, of food culture, of neighborhood life in general. Furthermore, too much concentration means squeezing the price of industry and of agriculture, which can lead to outsourcing food from anywhere it can cost less, without a truly long term impact assessment.\n", "While these retailers and fast-food chains are profitable, their profit \"margins\" are not large, which limits their ability to follow the lead of successful companies in high-growth industries that pay relatively generous salaries, such as Apple Inc.The combined profits of all the major retailers, restaurant chains, and supermarkets in the Fortune 500 are smaller than the profits of Apple alone. Yet Apple employs just 76,000 people, while the retailers, supermarkets, and restaurant chains employ 5.6 million.\n", "For the element of distribution, we can know how the volume will move by changing distribution efforts or, in other words, by each percentage shift in the width or the depth of distribution. This can be identified specifically for each channel and even for each kind of outlet for off-take sales. In view of these insights, the distribution efforts can be prioritized for each channel or store-type to get the maximum out of the same. A recent study of a laundry brand showed that the incremental volume through 1% more presence in a neighborhood Kirana store is 180% greater than that through 1% more presence in a supermarket. Based upon the cost of such efforts, managers identified the right channel to invest more for distribution.\n", "The Nielsen definition, published in 1992, was a little ahead of its time in that customising product offerings on a store by store basis is logistically difficult and is now not considered a necessary part of category management; it is a concept now referred to as micromarketing. Nevertheless, most grocery retailers will segment stores at least by size, and select product assortments accordingly. Wal*Mart's Store of the Community, implemented in North America, is one of the few examples of where product offerings are tailored right down to the specific store.\n\nSection::::Rationale for category management.\n", "To ensure that staff are placed properly within a small business, they must create a detailed job description. For a small business it is crucial that they hire the right number of people. This is because, if they hire too many people it could lead to money being wasted on staff income (wages are the highest costs to business). As well as other issues, as the saying goes: “too many cooks spoil the broth”! On the other hand, if they hire too few people, it could lead to inefficiencies and large costs for the small business in the long run.\n", "Section::::Examples in the United States and Canada.\n\nTraditional warehouse store chains include:\n\nBULLET::::1. Cub Foods, affiliated with SuperValu\n\nBULLET::::2. Food 4 Less, affiliated with Kroger (and Nugget Markets in Northern California/Oregon)\n\nBULLET::::3. Food Basics (Canada), affiliated with Metro Inc.\n\nBULLET::::4. Food Basics (United States), affiliated with A&P\n\nBULLET::::5. Food Maxx, affiliated with Save Mart\n\nBULLET::::6. Foods Co., affiliated with Kroger\n\nBULLET::::7. Food Source, affiliated with Raley's Supermarkets\n\nBULLET::::8. Superior Grocers, an independently owned southern California chain\n\nBULLET::::9. Super 1 Foods, based in east Texas, Arkansas and Louisiana; owned by Brookshire Grocery Company\n", "One example of a \"same for less\" alternative is when a manufacturing company reduces its total personnel (and thereby personnel cost) while still producing the same volume of goods. This can e.g. be achieved through centralization, automation or optimization of working processes.\n", "Big-box development has at times been opposed by labor unions because the employees of such stores are usually not unionized. Unions such as the United Food and Commercial Workers Local 770 and the Joint Labor Management Committee of the Retail Food Industry have expressed concern about the grocery market because stores such as Kmart, Target, and Walmart now sell groceries. Unions and cities are attempting to use land-use ordinances to restrict these businesses.\n\nSection::::Criticism.:Urban planning.\n", "The most direct benefit is the reduced inventory that used to sustain the system. Many organizations target cut their inventories to zero by the replacement of merge points, whereby they no longer require warehouses to store inventory. For example, Micron technology does not store monitors or printers in their own warehouse.\n\nCurtail transportation and administration costs\n", "In the US, there are many larger chain stores, but there are also many small chains and independent grocery stores. About 11% of groceries is sold by a grocery store that is either independent or in a chain of just one, two, or three stores, making the independent stores, taken collectively, bigger than the biggest chains. \n\nMost food in the US is bought at traditional brick-and-mortar grocery stores. As of 2019, about 3% of food was bought from an online retailer such as Amazon.com. \n\nThe economic trends affecting grocery stores include:\n", "Typically a low-order shop (such as a grocer or newsagent) may require only 800 or so customers, whereas a higher-order store such as Marks and Spencer or Waitrose may need a threshold of 70,000 to be profitable, and a university may need 350,000 to be viable.\n\nThresholds may also be linked to the spending power of customers; this is most obvious in periodic markets in poor countries, where wages are so low that people can buy the goods or services only once in a while.\n", "Whole Foods Market consists of twelve geographic regions, each with its own president, regional administrative team, store-level leadership, and store-level team members. A 4-tier hierarchy of employment exists within the Whole Foods Company: Store Employment, Facilities Employment, Regional Offices, and Global Headquarters.\n\nSection::::Management system.:Employee benefits and incentives.\n", "A key drawback to supplier convergence is that one of the main concepts of it is to force smaller companies into mergers or out of business by replacing or threatening to replace them with one large company offering different products or services. Wal-Mart and Borders, two of the superstores cited above, have received criticism for forcing local, independent stores out of business by offering convenience and prices that smaller retail stores would not be able to match. For many, this is a concerning trend, as it means local retail outlets will continue to be replaced with large, multinational firms.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02854	what would happen if the USA stopped asking for people's race on forms?	Racial data is collected because it's required by the government (if you decline to select a race when applying than your broker is required to choose one to the best of their abilities). The government collects this data, both to study, and to allow enforcement of equal opportunity acts (say if a broker has too few clients from protected classes, the government may investigate why that is the case).	[ "Section::::Background.:2020 Census.\n\nWilbur Ross, the United States Secretary of Commerce within the Trump administration following the 2016 presidential election, stated that the Bureau intended to add the question related to citizenship back to the \"short form\" sent to all households for the 2020 United States Census. Ross cited the need to add the question to prevent voter discrimination under the Voting Rights Act of 1965 as determined by the Commerce Department, and he approved the addition of the question.\n", "The Second Circuit rejected the Title VII claims for the same reasons as the equal protection challenges. \"The legislative history of the statute . . . confirms that it intended to prohibit 'race norming' and other methods of using different cut-offs for different races or altering scores based on race. In the case before us, the 1994 exam was scored in the same manner for all applicants; no differential cutoffs were employed. Thus, appellants fail to adequately allege a claim under § [703(l)].\"\n", "On July 2, 2019, the Justice Department announced that the citizenship question would not be included in the census, and the Commerce Department began printing census forms without a citizenship question. However, the next day, Trump insisted that his administration was \"absolutely moving forward\" with the citizenship question, and the Justice Department confirmed in court that it had been instructed to find a legal way to include it in the census.\n", "During the Fox News Republican presidential candidate debates in 2011, NumbersUSA ran an ad which included some of their activists and stated that \"The immigration debate should not be about the color of people's skin, or their country of origin, or their religion, or where their grandparents were born, The debate should be about the numbers.\"\n", "The 2020 United States Census might allow Middle Easterners and North Africans to write in their ethnicity/race instead of merely marking them as White. Right now, and in the past, Arabs have been marked in the U.S. Census as White. This began in the early twentieth century when Arabs coming to the United States successfully petitioned to be marked as White in order to avoid entry quotas and have a greater chance of achieving success and avoiding discrimination.\n", "In many countries, such as France, the state is legally banned from maintaining data based on race, which often makes the police issue wanted notices to the public that include labels like \"dark skin complexion\", etc.\n", "Furthermore, by the second part of the 19th century, most Hispanic countries had abolished even these surviving categories of distinction among their citizens, and so the racial heritage of a person was no longer compiled by the state as part of the individual's civil record, whether to legally hinder or privilege him in matters of civil life. Some countries, however, have recently reintroduced voluntary and anonymous declarations of race (or race mixture) in recent population censuses for statistical purposes, with no legal consequence to the individual.\n", "Section::::New Zealand.\n\nNew Zealand enumerated people by ethnicity from 1858 to the present day. People were enumerated by tribal affiliation in 1901 and again from 1991 to the present day.\n\nSection::::Niger.\n\nNiger enumerated people by ethnicity in 1959/1960.\n\nSection::::Nigeria.\n\nNigeria enumerated people by ethnicity in 1963. In addition, Nigeria has announced plans to enumerate its population by ethnicity in its 2016 census.\n\nSection::::Norway.\n", "A person's skin color or physical appearance can also be grounds for a case of racial discrimination. Discrimination based on national origin can be grounds for a case on discrimination as well.\n\nSection::::Investigative compliance policy.\n\nEEOC applies an investigative compliance policy when respondents are uncooperative in providing information during an investigation of a charge. If a respondent fails to turn over requested information, field offices are to subpoena the information, file a direct suit on the merits of a charge, or use the legal principle of adverse inference, which assumes the withheld information is against the respondent.\n", "The decision left the matter of whether the citizenship question would be included on the 2020 census unresolved. Whether it would ultimately be included depended on if the Department of Commerce can present a \"non-pretextual\" rationale for the question's inclusion to the District Court before the printing deadline. On July 2, 2019, the Trump administration stated that it will go ahead and print the census forms without the citizenship question. However, the next day, President Trump countered this, stating that the administration was still exploring options to include the question, which was later confirmed by the Justice Department. Under demand of Judge Hazel from the Maryland District Court, the Department affirmed July 5 that it still intended to add the question, requesting Judges Hazel and Furman to begin scheduling of discovery hearings to the two District cases, with Hazel refusing to delay this phase further at the Department's request. On July 7 the DOJ announced that it was replacing its entire legal team dealing with that question, but on July 9 Furman rejected the DOJ action, saying that reasons must be given for the withdrawal of each attorney, and pointing out that the administration had been insisting for months that the question needed to be settled by July 1.\n", "The printing company Cenveo won the $61 million contract in October 2017 to produce census forms and reminders, but went bankrupt less than four months later. The Inspector General of the U.S. Government Publishing Office said the agency failed to check the company's financial status, and improperly allowed the company to lower its bid after other bids were unsealed.\n\nSection::::Citizenship question debate.\n", "The new Hofeller evidence was presented to Hazel as the case was being heard on appeal during June 2019 at Fourth Circuit. Hazel stated that the new evidence \"raises a substantial issue\" On June 25, 2019, the Fourth Circuit remanded the case back to Hazel's District Court with the newly provided evidence, and to review if the additional evidence showed discriminatory intent. Should Hazel find such intent, it would be possible for him to place an injunction on the addition of the census question during a new discovery phase, regardless of the Supreme Court decision in \"Department of Commerce v. New York\". This action would effectively render the question moot since the Census forms would need to be published at this point without the citizenship question to meet the mailing deadlines.\n", "Results of AIMs are extremely sensitive to where this bar is set. Given that many genetic traits are found very similar amid many different populations, the rate of frequency which is taken to be enough for being part of a reference population is very important. This can also lead to mistakes, given that many populations may share the same patterns, if not exactly the same genes. \"This means that someone from Bulgaria whose ancestors go back to the fifteenth century could (and sometime does) map as partly ‘Native American’\". This happens because AIMs rely on a '100% purity' assumption of reference populations. That is, they assume that a pattern of traits would ideally be necessary and sufficient condition for assigning an individual to an ancestral reference populations.\n", "Prerequisite cases were cases based on racial restrictions on naturalization. The first reported prerequisite case was handed down in 1878. From 1878 until the end of racial restrictions on naturalization in 1952, fifty-one more prerequisite cases were decided in jurisdictions around the country, all the way from California to Washington D.C. All of these had to do with applicants from a variety of countries including, Canada, Mexico, Japan, the Philippines, India and Syria. Almost all of these cases were instances where the applicants presented claims of white racial identity.\n", "The U.S. decennial census is used to determine federal funds, grants and support to states. The Census Bureau had included a citizenship question until 1950 when it was removed, though it continued to include a question asking about place of birth. In a January 2018 memo, an initial evaluation by Census Bureau officials advised against such a question, saying that compiling citizenship data from existing administrative records is more accurate and far less expensive. However, Wilbur Ross, secretary of the United States Department of Commerce which oversees the Census Bureau, decided the administrative approach alone would not be sufficient. The Census Bureau announced in March 2018 its plan to add a question related to citizenship for the 2020 census: \"Is this person a citizen of the United States?\". For the 2020 Census, Ross stated to Congress that the citizenship numbers were necessary to enforce the Voting Rights Act's protection against voting discrimination. Ross stated to Congress that the citizenship question was requested by the Justice Department and approved by him.\n", "In 1997, the Office of Management and Budget gave a Federal Register Notice, the \"Revisions to the Standards for the Classification of Federal Data on Race and Ethnicity,\" which defined new racial and ethnic definitions. As of September 30, 2007, the EEOC's EEO-1 report must use the new racial and ethnic definitions in establishing grounds for racial or ethnic discrimination. If an employee identifies their ethnicity as \"Hispanic or Latino\" as well as a race, the race is not reported in EEO-1, but it is kept as part of the employment record.\n", "The UNESCO later published other similar statements on racism. In 1978, the \"UNESCO Declaration on Race and Racial Prejudice\" stated that \"All peoples of the world possess equal faculties for attaining the highest level in intellectual, technical, social, economic, cultural and political development\" and \"The differences between the achievements of the different peoples are entirely attributable to geographical, historical, political, economic, social and cultural factors.\" It also argued for implementing a number of policies in order to combat racism and inequalities, and stated that \"Population groups of foreign origin, particularly migrant workers and their families who contribute to the development of the host country, should benefit from appropriate measures designed to afford them security and respect for their dignity and cultural values and to facilitate their adaptation to the host environment and their professional advancement with a view to their subsequent reintegration in their country of origin and their contribution to its development; steps should be taken to make it possible for their children to be taught their mother tongue.\"\n", "The court also rejected the plaintiffs' argument that they were discriminated against because they would have received higher scores if certain sections had not been removed from the test, pointing out that even without these sections the plaintiffs still scored higher, on average, than the black applicants who were presumed to have benefited from the revised exam. The Second Circuit stated that \"where an exam that discriminates against a group or groups of persons is reviewed, studied and changed in order to eliminate, or at the very least, alleviate such discrimination, there is a complete absence of intentional discrimination.\" \"[E]ven in the absence of specific and identified discrimination, nothing in our jurisprudence precludes the use of race-neutral means to improve racial and gender representation. . . . . [T]he intent to remedy the disparate impact of the prior exams is not equivalent to an intent to discriminate against non-minority applicants.'\"\n", "A draft of the statement was prepared by the Director-General and \"eminent specialists in human rights\". It was discussed at a meeting by government representatives from over 100 member states. It was recommended that the representatives should include among them \"social scientists and other persons particularly qualified to in the social, political, economic, cultural, and scientific aspects of the problem\". A number of non-governmental and inter-governmental organizations sent observers. A final text of was adopted by the meeting of government representatives \"by consensus, without opposition or vote\" and later by the UNESCO General Conference, Twentieth Session.\n", "A language teacher from Hong Kong had done a two-year training course at home. She came to the UK where the requirement was for three year qualifications. She did a further one-year training course. The Secretary of State refused to recognise her qualification as comparable, because her three years was not consecutive. She argued this was race discrimination. However, the Secretary of State argued it fell within the exception under the Race Relations Act 1976 section 41 (acts done under statutory authority).\n\nSection::::Judgment.\n", "As stated above, approximately 300 students are to be selected for second stage. If this does not happen according to MAS, then after selection as per merit, the shortfall from 300 students will be selected based purely on merit without further consideration to proportional representation and minimum representation clauses. In the event of a tie at the last position in the list all students with the same marks at this position will qualify to appear for the Stage II examination.\n\nSection::::Fee.\n", "The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) was established November 16, 1945, in the wake of the genocide of Nazism. The UNESCO 1945 constitution declared that, \"The great and terrible war which now has ended was made possible by the denial of the democratic principles of the dignity, equality and mutual respect of men, and by the propagation, in their place, through ignorance and prejudice, of the doctrine of the inequality of men and races.\" Between 1950 and 1978 the UNESCO issued five statements on the issue of race.\n", "Section::::Qualifying for the Second Stage.:Minimum Representation Clause.\n\nNotwithstanding the proportional representation clause the number of students selected for IJSO from each State and UT must be at least one, provided that the eligibility clause is satisfied.\n\nSection::::Qualifying for the Second Stage.:Merit Clause.\n", "The second suit over the census question came in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California under Judge Richard Seeborg, raised by the state of California and several cities within it. In March 2019, Seeborg similarly found as Furman had in New York that the addition of the census question was unconstitutional and issued an injunction to block its use. The government has appealed to the Ninth Circuit, which is expected to be heard on July 10, 2019.\n\nSection::::Citizenship question debate.:Maryland District Court case.\n", "The Supreme Court issued its decision on June 27, 2019, rejecting the Trump administration's stated rationale for including the question. While the Court majority agreed that the question was allowable under the Enumeration Act, they also agreed with the ability of the District Court to ask Commerce for further explanation for the question under the Administrative Procedures Act (APA), and that they agreed with the District Court that the answers Commerce had provided at the time appeared to be \"contrived\" and pretextual, leaving open the possibility that Commerce could offer a better rationale. The case was remanded back to the District Court, to give Commerce the opportunity to provide better explanation for the rationale of the question to the District Court, who would deem if that was sufficient before allowing the question on the census. The question would be allowed on the census only if these steps can be completed before the self-imposed form printing deadline. On July 7 the DOJ announced that it was replacing its entire legal team dealing with that question, but on July 9 Furman rejected the DOJ action, saying that reasons must be given for the withdrawal of each attorney and pointing out that the administration had been insisting for months that the question needed to be settled by July 1.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01466	When a person passes from an illness or disease, is the body still carrying said illness or disease?	Yes. There is a reason disposal of corpses is invaluable during epidemics. The disease remains until the body can no longer sustain it as a host.	[ "Section::::Types of asymptomatic carriers.\n\nAsymptomatic carriers can be categorized by their current disease state. When an individual transmits pathogens immediately following infection but prior to developing symptoms, they are known as an incubatory carrier. Humans are also capable of spreading disease following a period of illness. Typically thinking themselves cured of the disease, these individuals are known as convalescent carriers. Viral diseases such as hepatitis and poliomyelitis are frequently transmitted in this manner. Considered to be the classic asymptomatic carriers, \"healthy carriers\" never exhibit signs or symptoms of the disease, yet are capable of infecting others.\n\nSection::::Significance in disease transmission.\n", "Although unaffected by the pathogen, carriers can transmit it to others or develop symptoms in later stages of the disease. Asymptomatic carriers play a critical role in the transmission of common infectious diseases such as typhoid, \"C. difficile\", influenzas, and HIV. While the mechanism of disease-carrying is still unknown, researchers have made progress towards understanding how certain pathogens can remain dormant in a human for a period of time. A better understanding of asymptomatic disease carriers is crucial to the fields of medicine and public health as they work towards mitigating the spread of common infectious diseases.\n", "Inter vivos\n\nInter vivos (Latin, \"between the living\") is a legal term referring to a transfer or gift made during one's lifetime, as opposed to a testamentary transfer (a gift that takes effect on death) under the subject of trust. \n", "Asymptomatic\n\nIn medicine, a disease is considered asymptomatic if a patient is a carrier for a disease or infection but experiences no symptoms. A condition might be asymptomatic if it fails to show the noticeable symptoms with which it is usually associated. Asymptomatic infections are also called subclinical infections. Other diseases (such as mental illnesses) might be considered subclinical if they present some but not all of the symptoms required for a clinical diagnosis. The term clinically silent is also used.\n\nKnowing that a condition is asymptomatic is important because:\n", "Many carriers are infected with persistent viruses such as Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV), a member of the herpes virus family. Studies show that about 95% of adults have antibodies against EBV, which means they were infected with the virus at some point in their life.\n\nSection::::Infectious diseases.:Clostridium difficile.\n\nClostridium difficile has also been shown to be spread by asymptomatic carriers, and poses significant problems in home-care settings. Reports indicating that over 50% of long-term patients present with fecal contamination despite a lack of symptoms have led many hospitals to extend the period of contact precautions until discharge.\n\nSection::::Infectious diseases.:Chlamydia.\n", "Asymptomatic carrier\n\nAn asymptomatic carrier (healthy carrier or just carrier) is a person or other organism that has become infected with a pathogen, but that displays no signs or symptoms.\n", "Asymptomatic conditions may not be discovered until the patient undergoes medical tests (X-rays or other investigations). Some people may remain asymptomatic for a remarkably long period of time; such as people with some forms of cancer. If a patient is asymptomatic, precautionary steps must be taken.\n\nA patient's individual genetic makeup may delay or prevent the onset of symptoms.\n\nSome diseases are defined only clinically, like AIDS being opposed to HIV infection. Therefore, it makes no sense to speak about \"asymptomatic AIDS\". This concept of clinically defined diseases is related in some way to the concept of syndrome.\n\nSection::::List.\n", "Other diseases symptoms that may occur, and may be mitigable to some extent, include cough, fatigue, fever, and in some cases bleeding.\n\nSection::::Medical professionals and end-of-life care.\n", "Catholic canon law indicates who may receive the sacrament: \"The anointing of the sick can be administered to a member of the faithful who, having reached the use of reason, begins to be in danger due to sickness or old age.\" If a new illness develops or the first illness relapses or worsens, the patient may receive the sacrament a further time. A priest may, on the basis of his pastoral judgment, administer the sacrament numerous times in cases of old age or chronic illness. Like any sacrament, anointing of the sick can be given only to someone who is alive; however, as the precise moment of death is not known or defined with precision, someone may be anointed conditionally (\"if you are alive\" prefixed to the sacramental formula) during a brief period after being declared clinically dead.\n", "This list may not be a comprehensive picture of medical practice in all jurisdictions or conditions. For example, it may not represent the standard of care for patients with terminal diseases such as advanced cancer. In addition, jurisdictions such as Texas permit withdrawal of medical care from patients who are deemed unlikely to recover. \n\nRegardless of the patient, a pronouncement of death must always be made with absolute certainty and only after it has been determined that the patient is not a candidate for resuscitation. This type of decision is rather sensitive and can be difficult to make.\n", "BULLET::::13. Patient death or serious disability associated with the use or function of a device in patient care, in which the device is used or functions other than as intended\n\nBULLET::::14. Patient death or serious disability associated with intravascular air embolism that occurs while being cared for in a healthcare facility\n\nBULLET::::15. Infant discharged to the wrong person\n\nBULLET::::16. Patient suicide, or attempted suicide resulting in serious disability, while being cared for in a healthcare facility\n\nBULLET::::17. Maternal death or serious disability associated with labor or delivery in a low-risk pregnancy while being cared for in a health care facility\n", "Prior to the designation of immunity, from the etymological root \"immunis\", which is Latin for \"exempt\", early physicians characterized organs that would later be proven as essential components of the immune system. The important lymphoid organs of the immune system are the thymus, bone marrow, and chief lymphatic tissues such as spleen, tonsils, lymph vessels, lymph nodes, adenoids, and liver. When health conditions worsen to emergency status, portions of immune system organs, including the thymus, spleen, bone marrow, lymph nodes, and other lymphatic tissues, can be surgically excised for examination while patients are still alive.\n", "In certain cases, infectious diseases may be asymptomatic for much or even all of their course in a given host. In the latter case, the disease may only be defined as a \"disease\" (which by definition means an illness) in hosts who secondarily become ill after contact with an asymptomatic carrier. An infection is not synonymous with an infectious disease, as some infections do not cause illness in a host.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Bacterial or viral.\n", "The term inter vivos is also used to describe living organ donation, in which one patient donates an organ to another while both are alive. Generally, the organs transplanted are either non-vital organs such as corneas or redundant vital organs such as one of the two kidneys or part of a liver.\n", "The term \"retrospective diagnosis\" is also sometimes used by a clinical pathologist to describe a medical diagnosis in a person made some time after the original illness has resolved or after death. In such cases, analysis of a physical specimen may yield a confident medical diagnosis. The search for the origin of AIDS has involved posthumous diagnosis of AIDS in people who died decades before the disease was first identified. Another example is where analysis of preserved umbilical cord tissue enables the diagnosis of congenital cytomegalovirus infection in a patient who had later developed a central nervous system disorder.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n", "Some viruses can cause lifelong or chronic infections, where the viruses continue to replicate in the body despite the host's defence mechanisms. This is common in hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C virus infections. People chronically infected are known as carriers, as they serve as reservoirs of infectious virus. In populations with a high proportion of carriers, the disease is said to be endemic.\n\nSection::::Role in human disease.:Epidemiology.\n", "BULLET::::18. Patient death or serious disability associated with hypoglycemia, the onset of which occurs while the patient is being cared for in a healthcare facility\n\nBULLET::::19. Death or serious disability (kernicterus) associated with failure to identify and treat hyperbilirubinemia in neonates\n\nBULLET::::20. Stage 3 or 4 pressure ulcers acquired after admission to a healthcare facility\n\nBULLET::::21. Patient death or serious disability due to spinal manipulative therapy\n\nBULLET::::22. Any incident in which a line designated for oxygen or other gas to be delivered to a patient contains the wrong gas or is contaminated by toxic substances\n", "There is no generally agreed upon diagnostic criteria for POIS. One group has developed five preliminary criteria for diagnosing POIS. These are:\n\npoem\n\nBULLET::::1. one or more of the following symptoms: sensation of a flu-like state, extreme fatigue or exhaustion, weakness of musculature, experiences of feverishness or perspiration, mood disturbances and / or irritability, memory difficulties, concentration problems, incoherent speech, congestion of nose or watery nose, itching eyes;\n", "\"Viatical settlement\" typically is the term used for a settlement involving an insured who is terminally or chronically ill. A person generally is chronically ill if the person (1) is unable to perform at least two activities of daily living, such as eating, using the toilet, bathing oneself, or dressing oneself; (2) requires substantial supervision to protect himself or herself from threats to health and safety due to severe cognitive impairment; or (3) has a level of disability similar to that described in (1) as determined by the U.S. Secretary of Health and Human Services. A person generally is terminally ill if the person has an illness or sickness that can reasonably be expected to result in death within two years.\n", "The limited information on the prevalence of asymptomatic carriers creates a considerable difficulty when planning public health initiatives. Given that disease surveillance is dependent on estimates for both the asymptomatic rates and symptomatic rates of disease, the lack of information on the prevalence of carriers can lead to insufficient initiatives for the mitigation of common public health concerns such as \"C. Difficile\" or influenza.\n", "BULLET::::- Anamnestic signs (from \"anamnēstikós\", ἀναμνηστικός, \"able to recall to mind\"): signs that (taking into account the current state of a patient's body), indicate the past existence of a certain disease or condition. Anamnestic signs always point to the \"past\". (As King (1982) explains, whenever we see a man walking with a particular gait, with one arm paralysed in a particular way, we say \"This man has had a stroke\"; and, if we see a woman in her late 50s with one arm distorted in a particular way, we say \"She had polio as a child\".)\n", "Typical care plans, such as those based on the Liverpool Care Pathway for dying patients, pre-authorise staff to address such diseases symptoms as soon as they are needed, without needing to take time to seek further authorisation. Subcutaneous injections are one preferred means of delivery when it has become difficult for patients to swallow or to take pills orally; and if repeated medication is needed, a syringe driver (called an infusion pump in the US) is often likely to be used, to deliver a steady low dose of medication.\n", "If a person with Ebola disease dies, direct contact with the body should be avoided. Certain burial rituals, which may have included making various direct contacts with a dead body, require reformulation so that they consistently maintain a proper protective barrier between the dead body and the living. Social anthropologists may help find alternatives to traditional rules for burials.\n", "A patient with conditions such as: measles, chicken-pox, hepatitis A, leprosy, typhoid fever, and whooping cough, can return to work immediately after their healing phase or medical tests. Almost always the patient may only be allowed to return to work upon submission of a medical certificate.\n\nSection::::Eligibility.\n", "When this disease leaves me, God will have taken it away and he will not want me to have it anymore. I do not want anything but what God wills. Once I was free from this in Bismarck. Thinking that I had not carried my illness the way God wanted me to, I went into the chapel and told Our Lord that if he wanted me to have it all over again, I would carry it as he would want me to. It came back with double force. No, if it leaves me, He will have taken it.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03938	Why do people yawn when they’re bored?	There's an argument to say it's a natural reaction from evolution. To show the person's boredom. It's a social cue as much as smiling is a social cue. We smile when happy to display such to others. Yawning is another example to display our mood to others without the need for verbal communication.	[ "Another notion states that yawning is the body's way of controlling brain temperature. In 2007, researchers, including a professor of psychology from the University of Albany, proposed yawning may be a means to keep the brain cool. Mammalian brains operate best within a narrow temperature range. In two experiments, subjects with cold packs attached to their foreheads and subjects asked to breathe strictly-nasally exhibited reduced contagious-yawning when watching videos of people yawning. \n", "One study states that yawning occurs when one's blood contains increased amounts of carbon dioxide and therefore becomes in need of the influx of oxygen (or expulsion of carbon dioxide) that a yawn can provide. Yawning may, in fact, reduce oxygen intake compared to normal respiration. However, neither providing more oxygen nor reducing carbon dioxide in air decreased yawning.\n", "Another proposal points out that animals subject to predation or other dangers must be ready to physically exert themselves at any given moment. At least one study suggests that yawning, especially psychological \"contagious\" yawning, may have developed as a way of keeping a group of animals alert. If an animal is drowsy or bored, it may not be as alert as it should be - to spring into action. Therefore, the \"contagious\" yawn could be an instinctual reaction to a signal from one member of the group reminding the others to stay alert.\n", "Yawning behavior may be altered as a result of medical issues such as diabetes, stroke, or adrenal conditions.\n\nSection::::Social function.\n\nTo look at the issue in terms of a possible evolutionary advantage, yawning might be a herd instinct. For example, theories suggest that the yawn serves to synchronize mood in gregarious animals, similar to the howling of the wolf pack. It signals tiredness to other members of the group in order to synchronize sleeping patterns and periods.\n", "Yawning (\"oscitation\") most often occurs in adults immediately before and after sleep, during tedious activities and as a result of its contagious quality. It is commonly associated with tiredness, stress, sleepiness, or even boredom and hunger. In humans, yawning is often triggered by others yawning (e.g. seeing a person yawning, talking to someone on the phone who is yawning) and is a typical example of positive feedback. This \"contagious\" yawning has also been observed in chimpanzees, dogs, cats, and reptiles (including birds), and can occur across species. Approximately 20 psychological reasons for yawning have been proposed by scholars, but there is little agreement on the primacy of any one.\n", "There are a number of theories that attempt to explain why humans and other animals yawn. It is likely that there are a number of triggers for the behavior. However, there are comparatively few theories that attempt to explain the primary evolutionary reason for the yawn.\n", "Nervousness has also been suggested as a possible reason. Nervousness often indicates the perception of an impending need for action. Anecdotal evidence suggests that yawning helps increase the state of alertness of a person. Paratroopers have been noted to yawn in the moments before they exit the aircraft.\n", "A similar hypothesis suggests yawning is used for regulation of body temperature. Similarly, Guttmann and Dopart (2011) found, that, when a subject wearing earplugs yawned, a breeze is heard, caused by the flux of the air moving between the subject's ear and the environment. Guttmann and Dopart determined that a yawn causes one of three possible situations to occur: the brain cools down due to an influx or outflux of oxygen, the pressure in the brain is reduced by an outflux of oxygen, or the pressure of the brain is increased by an influx of air caused by increased cranial space.\n", "found also with \"-n-\" suffix in Greek χαίνω \"to yawn\", and without the \"-n-\" in English \"gap\" (compare the \"figura etymologica\" in Norse \"ginnunga-gap\"), \"gum\" \"palate\" and \"gasp\" (via Old Norse), Latin \"hiō, hiatus\", and Greek \"chasm, chaos\".\n\nThe Latin term used in medicine is \"oscitatio\" (anglicized as \"oscitation\"), from the verb \"oscito\" \"to open the mouth\". \n\n\"Pandiculation\" is the act of yawning and stretching simultaneously.\n\nSection::::Proposed causes.\n", "Section::::Culture.\n", "The dog may yawn when someone bends over him, when you sound angry, when there is yelling and quarreling in the family, when the dog is at the vet's office, when someone is walking directly at the dog, when the dog is excited with happiness and anticipation – for instance by the door when you are about to go for a walk, when you ask the dog to do something he doesn´t feel like doing, when your training sessions are too long and the dog gets tired, when you have said NO for doing something you disapprove of, and in many other situations.\n", "Two classes of yawning have been observed among primates. In some cases, the yawn is used as a threat gesture as a way of maintaining order in the primates' social structure. Specific studies were conducted on chimpanzees and stumptail macaques. A group of these animals was shown a video of other members of their own species yawning; both species yawned as well. This helps to partly confirm a yawn's \"contagiousness\".\n", "Yogic, and Neo-pagan related to Hindu Yogic guided visualization, is the breathing into the solar plexus, holding our breath and focusing our intent, this is to hold our energy and infuse it with our intent, imagining the build up of moving substance through our nose, into a channel down into the solar plexus, then exhaling is moving the energy out into the world. \n", "In animals, yawning can serve as a warning signal. For example, Charles Darwin, in his book \"The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals\", mentioned that baboons yawn to threaten their enemies, possibly by displaying large canine teeth. Similarly, Siamese fighting fish yawn only when they see a conspecific (same species) or their own mirror-image, and their yawn often accompanies aggressive attack. Guinea pigs also yawn in a display of dominance or anger, displaying their impressive incisor teeth. This is often accompanied by teeth chattering, purring and scent marking. Adelie penguins employ yawning as part of their courtship ritual. Penguin couples face off and the males engage in what is described as an \"ecstatic display\", opening their beaks and pointing their faces skyward. This trait has also been seen among emperor penguins. Researchers have been attempting to discover why these two different species share this trait, despite not sharing a habitat. Snakes yawn, both to realign their jaws after a meal and for respiratory reasons, as their trachea can be seen to expand when they do this. Dogs, and occasionally cats, often yawn after seeing people yawn and when they feel uncertain. Dogs demonstrate contagious yawning when exposed to human yawning. Dogs are very adept at reading human communication actions, so it is unclear if this phenomenon is rooted in evolutionary history or a result of domestication. Fish can also yawn, and they increase this behavior due to lack of oxygen.\n", "Yawning is often perceived as implying boredom, and yawning conspicuously in another's presence has historically been a faux pas. In 1663 Francis Hawkins advised, \"In yawning howl not, and thou shouldst abstain as much as thou can to yawn, especially when thou speakest\". George Washington said, \"If You Cough, Sneeze, Sigh, or Yawn, do it not Loud but Privately; and Speak not in your Yawning, but put Your handkerchief or Hand before your face and turn aside.\" These customary beliefs persist in the modern age. One of Mason Cooley's aphorisms is \"A yawn is more disconcerting than a contradiction.\" A loud yawn may even lead to penalties for contempt of court.\n", "In August 2014, Yawning Man returned to Europe with Arce, Mario Lalli and Stinson for a tour that ran from August 29 to September 7, after which they undertook the Legends of the Desert Tour with Fatso Jetson from February 2 to 28, 2015.\n", "Yawning is considered a non-respiratory gas movement. A non-respiratory gas movement is another process that moves air in and out of the lungs that don't include breathing. Yawning is a reflex that tends to disrupt the normal breathing rhythm and is believed to be contagious as well. The reason why we yawn is unknown, but some think we yawn as a way to regulate the body’s levels of O and CO. Studies done in a controlled environment with different levels of O and CO have disproved that hypothesis. Although there isn’t a concrete explanation as to why we yawn, others think people exhale as a cooling mechanism for our brains. Studies on animals have supported this idea and it is possible humans could be linked to it as well. What is known is that yawning does ventilate all the alveoli in the lungs.\n", "In a study involving gelada baboons, yawning was contagious between individuals, especially those that were socially close. This suggests that emotional proximity rather than spatial proximity is an indicator of yawn contagion.\n", "There is still substantial disagreement in the existing literature about whether or not yawn contagion is related to empathy at all. Empathy is a notoriously difficult trait to measure, and the literature on the subject is confused, with the same species sometimes displaying a connection between contagious yawning and social closeness, and sometimes not. Different experimenters typically use slightly different measures of empathy, making comparisons between studies difficult, and there may be a publication bias, where studies which find a significant correlation between the two tested variables are more likely to be published than studies which do not.\n\nSection::::Animal yawning.\n", "Graham Greene was a member and told his mother that once a term the club had a \"backwards day\". He reported that after finishing with porridge \"we then returned backwards to Balliol... This morning started with bridge in dinner jackets\". Evelyn Waugh, who had been at another college from 1922 to 1924, similarly recalled in \"A Little Learning\" that members \"put themselves to great discomfort by living a day in reverse\".\n", "\"Could Eat, Would Sleep\" was released on April 20, 2018, and is listed on music journalist Jim Testa's Top New Jersey EPs of 2018. Yawn Mower performed at the North Jersey Indie Rock Festival on October 6, 2018.\n", "A study by the University of London has suggested that the \"contagiousness\" of yawns by a human will pass to dogs. The study observed that 21 of 29 dogs yawned when a stranger yawned in front of them, but did not yawn when the stranger only opened his mouth. \n", "Still another hypothesis suggests yawns are caused by the same chemicals (neurotransmitters) in the brain that affect emotions, mood, appetite, and other phenomena. These chemicals include serotonin, dopamine, glutamic acid, and nitric oxide. As more (or fewer) of these compounds are activated in the brain, the frequency of yawning increases. Conversely, a greater presence in the brain of opioid neurotransmitters, such as endorphins, reduces the frequency of yawning. Individuals in opioid withdrawal exhibit a greatly increased frequency of yawning. Patients taking the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) Paxil (paroxetine HCl) or Celexa (citalopram) have been observed yawning more often. Excessive yawning is more common during the first three months of taking the SSRIs. Anecdotal reports by users of psilocybin mushrooms often describe a marked stimulation of yawning while inebriated, often associated with excess lacrimation (eyes producing tears) and nasal mucosal stimulation, especially while \"peaking\" (undergoing the most intense portion of the psilocybin experience). While opioids have been demonstrated to reduce this yawning and lacrimation provoked by psilocybin, it is not clear that the same pathways that induce yawning as a symptom of opioid abstinence in habituated users are the mode of action in yawning in mushroom users. While, even, opioid-dependent users of psilocybin on stable opioid therapy often report yawning and excess lacrimation while undergoing this entheogenic mushroom experience, there are no reports on mushrooms in the literature regarding habituated users experiencing other typical opioid withdrawal symptoms, such as cramping, physical pain, anxiety, gooseflesh, etc.\n", "A 2007 study found that young children with autism spectrum disorders do not increase their yawning frequency after seeing videos of other people yawning, in contrast to typically developing children. In fact, the autistic children actually yawned less during the videos of yawning than during the control videos. This supports the claim that contagious yawning is related to empathic capacity.\n", "The oxygen for this in low oxygen conditions comes from gulping air at the water surface.\n\nSection::::Unique brain percentage of body energy consumption.:Large brains.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-15134	How exactly did humans across different cultures figure out the recipe for making bread?	It's a fairly easy accidental discovery. If you leave flour in a bowl and it gets wet, and you ignore it for a week, it turns into bread dough. (You don't even need to add yeast; with enough time yeast from the air or from the original grain surface will grow.) Now you just need to cook it and you get bread.	[ "Since grains have been a staple food for millennia, the activity of baking is a very old one. Control of yeast, however, is relatively recent. By the fifth and sixth centuries BCE, the ancient Greeks used enclosed ovens heated by wood fires; communities usually baked bread in a large communal oven. Greeks baked dozens and possibly hundreds of types of bread; Athenaeus described seventy-two varieties.\n", "Even in antiquity there was a wide variety of breads. In ancient times the Greek bread was barley bread: Solon declared that wheaten bread might only be baked for feast days. By the 5th century BC bread could be purchased in Athens from a baker's shop, and in Rome, Greek bakers appeared in the 2nd century BC, as Hellenized Asia Minor was added to Roman dominion as the province of Asia; the foreign bakers of bread were permitted to form a \"collegium\". In the \"Deipnosophistae\", the author Athenaeus (c.A.D.170 – c. 230) describes some of the bread, cakes, and pastries available in the Classical world. Among the breads mentioned are griddle cakes, honey-and-oil bread, mushroom-shaped loaves covered in poppy seeds, and the military specialty of rolls baked on a spit. The type and quality of flours used to produce bread could also vary, as noted by Diphilus when he declared \"bread made of wheat, as compared with that made of barley, is more nourishing, more digestible, and in every way superior.\" In order of merit, the bread made from refined [thoroughly sieved] flour comes first, after that bread from ordinary wheat, and then the unbolted, made of flour that has not been sifted.\" The essentiality of bread in the diet was reflected in the name for the rest of the meal: \"ópson\", \"condiment\", i.e. bread's accompaniment, whatever it might be.\n", "Culinary historians credit the Greeks for developing bread baking significantly. Front-loaded bread ovens were developed in ancient Greece. The Greeks created a wide variety of doughs, loaf shapes, and styles of serving bread with other foods. Baking developed as a trade and profession as bread increasingly was prepared outside of the family home by specially trained workers to be sold to the public.\n", "Bread is one of the oldest prepared foods. Evidence from 30,000 years ago in Europe revealed starch residue on rocks used for pounding plants. It is possible that during this time, starch extract from the roots of plants, such as cattails and ferns, was spread on a flat rock, placed over a fire and cooked into a primitive form of flatbread. The world's oldest evidence of bread-making has been found in a 14,500 year old Natufian site in Jordan's northeastern desert. Around 10,000 BC, with the dawn of the Neolithic age and the spread of agriculture, grains became the mainstay of making bread. Yeast spores are ubiquitous, including on the surface of cereal grains, so any dough left to rest leavens naturally.\n", "So if a kid from Nebraska could see how being on this side of the baker’s window, if he could see what goes on here and how we make the bread, and what temperature we cook the bread at, they would be psyched. I just started coming up with ideas of what we could do.\n", "The first evidence of baking occurred when humans took wild grass grains, soaked them in water, and mixed everything together, mashing it into a kind of broth-like paste. The paste was cooked by pouring it onto a flat, hot rock, resulting in a bread-like substance. Later, when humans mastered fire, the paste was roasted on hot embers, which made bread-making easier, as it could now be made any time fire was created. The world's oldest oven was discovered in Croatia in 2014 dating back 6500 years ago. The Ancient Egyptians baked bread using yeast, which they had previously been using to brew beer. Bread baking began in Ancient Greece around 600 BC, leading to the invention of enclosed ovens. \"Ovens and worktables have been discovered in archaeological digs from Turkey (Hacilar) to Palestine (Jericho (Tell es-Sultan)) and date back to 5600 BC.\"\n", "History of bread\n\nBread was central to the formation of early human societies. From the Fertile Crescent, where wheat was domesticated, cultivation spread north and west, to Europe and North Africa, and east towards East Asia. This in turn led to the formation of towns, as opposed to the nomadic lifestyle, and gave rise to more and more sophisticated forms of societal organization. Similar developments occurred in the Americas with maize.\n\nSection::::Antiquity.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Deir el-Medina bread leavening\" (google > google books) (using Delwen Samuel) Stefano Padulosi Hulled Wheats: Proceedings of the First International Workshop on Hulled Wheats, 21-22 July 1995, Castelvecchio Pascoli, Tuscany, Italy p.78 Bioversity International, 1996 (nul)\n\nBULLET::::- \"tomb loaves before 3100BC Egypt discovery of leavening\" (google 1st page) (criteria using Stefano Padulosi p.77) Michael Chazan and Mark Lehner An Ancient Analogy : Pot baked bread in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, Paléorient Volume 16, No. 2 (1990), pp. 21-35, Published by Paleorient and CNRS Editions\n", "Section::::Subsistence.:Development of agriculture.\n\nA pita-like bread has been found from 12,500 BC attributed to Natufians. This bread is made of wild cereal seeds and papyrus cousin tubers, ground into flour.\n", "There is extensive evidence of breadmaking in Ancient Egypt in the form of artistic depictions, remains of structures and items used in bread making, and remains of the dough and bread itself.\n", "The most common source of leavening in antiquity was to retain a piece of dough (with sugar and water in) from the previous day to utilize as a form of sourdough starter. Pliny the Elder reported that the Gauls and Iberians used the foam skimmed from beer to produce \"a lighter kind of bread than other peoples.\" Parts of the ancient world that drank wine instead of beer used a paste composed of grape must and flour that was allowed to begin fermenting, or wheat bran steeped in wine, as a source for yeast.\n", "\"Bread is head for everything\" is a saying of Russians and Selkups. It symbolizes hospitality of the house. Bread of Selkup is mentioned from the 8th-9th centuries. The bread is baked not in an oven as Russians do although the initial stages are the same. Flour is mixed with water and salt. Soda is used instead of yeast to raise the dough and it is baked in very hot sand on the fire.\n\nSection::::Hot smoked fish.\n", "The oldest known find of bread, by archaeologists in Northern Jordan, dates back 14,000 years. It was a sort of unleavened flatbread made with several types of wild cereals.\n\nAs a result of the economic sanctions imposed on Iraq in the 1990s there was an increase in the making of khubz in the traditional way in a clay oven.\n\nSection::::Name.\n\nIn Arabic, the names are simply 'khubz, bread', () 'Arab bread' or ' bread'.\n\nIn Egyptian Arabic, it is called () or (). means life in Arabic, highlighting the importance of pita bread in Egyptian culture.\n\nSection::::Culinary use.\n", "Charred crumbs of a flatbread made by Natufian hunter-gatherers from wild wheat, wild barley and plant roots between 14,600 and 11,600 years ago have been found at the archaeological site of Shubayqa 1 in the Black Desert in Jordan, predating the earliest known making of bread from cultivated wheat by thousands of years.\n\nBread is otherwise strongly associated with agriculture. Wheat was domesticated in the Fertile Crescent. Bread is found in Neolithic sites in Turkey and Europe from around 9,100 years ago.\n", "Women had expert knowledge of how to \"de-toxify\" certain plant foods. The seeds of the cycad palm, \"Cycas media\", are highly carcinogenic when raw, and require elaborate treatment including shelling, crushing, leaching in running water for up to five days, then cooking. After this they are made into small loaves, which can keep for a number of weeks.\n\nIn Queensland, the people of the Mount Tamborine area used the bunya pine cone (bunya nut), endemic to the area, to make bread in this way.\n\nSection::::Burke and Wills.\n", "From evidence at Epipaleo sites in present-day Jordan, dating to before the discovery of agriculture, archeologists have recently found that the Natufian culture baked mixed-flour flat breads carefully made from wild einkorn wheat, wild rye, wild oats, lentils and club-rush tubers in tandoor-like stone ovens as well as on flat stones. Besides bread, these wild flours were made into porridge.\n", "Crithomancy\n\nCrithomancy (also known as critomancy) is a form of divination by the study of barley cakes in hope of drawing omens from them. The paste of cakes which are offered in sacrifice is closely examined, and the sought-for answers are drawn from the flour which is spread upon them.\n\nIt was in use among the aboriginees that lived in the Americas. The native tribes in what is now Arizona would have used a mixture of powdered grains as ritual sacrifice every morning and carried it around with them as well.\n", "The dough could also be eaten raw. Cooking was a good way to prepare the bread if the group was about to travel for some time.\n\nSection::::Bread-making from other plant products.\n\nBread could also be made from roots and corms of plants. In the Top End of Australia, people such as the Yolngu used the lotus root and wild taro. These were ground, then mixed to a paste to make bread.\n", "Bread was primarily made from barley flour during the Iron Age (, ), as barley was more widely and easily grown, and was thus more available, cheaper, and could be made into bread without a leavening agent even though wheat flour was regarded as superior. It was presumably made from dough that was a simple mixture of barley flour and water, divided into small pieces, formed by hand into round shapes and then baked.\n", "In the 1680s, French explorer Henri Joutel traveled with the La Salle expedition, to Cahinnio territory. He wrote that they presented his expedition with two loaves of corn bread, describing it as \"the finest and the best we had so far seen; they seemed to have been baked in an oven, and yet we not noticed any among them.\" Joutel noted that corn was an important food staple among the Cahinnio, as were beans and sunflower seeds. Additionally he recorded that the Cahinnio used deer hide for pouches and bearskins for rugs.\n", "Wheat products, such as breads and starches, have a long, extensive ancestry, and had been described in human-like terms. For example, physicians believed that wheat was the most esteemed grain, due to the warm and moist temperament, not unlike the human body. This similarity to the human body was believed to add nutritional value. Wheat had been used in attempt to alter personality traits as well. Wheat flour could be blended together with water in order to create a drink called Sawiq. This beverage was considered to be cooling and refreshing, therefore perfect for hot-tempered people, especially throughout the warm summer months of the year.\n", "Another grain preparation known as \"menedach\" was made by kneading grains and butter together into a type of paste and was known for its medicinal qualities, especially for monks on strict penitential diets. It may have been an early form of roux or perhaps a type of polenta. It could be spread on bread. It is described in the 12th century Icelandic saga Landnamabok in which Irish slaves prepare the food claiming that it will cure thirst. \"\"The Irish thralls found the expedient of kneading meal and butter and said it would quench the thirst. They called it minapak\".\"\n", "Bread was sometimes enriched by the addition of flour from legumes (). The Mishna (Hallah 2:2) mentions bread dough made with fruit juice instead of water. The sugar in the juice, interacting with the flour and water, provided some leavening and sweetened the bread. The Israelites also sometimes added fennel and cumin to bread dough for flavor, and dipped their bread in vinegar, () olive or sesame oil for extra flavor.\n\nSection::::Foods.:Legumes.\n", "In Spain, bread is called \"pan\". The traditional Spanish \"pan\" is a long loaf of bread, similar to the French baguette but wider. One can buy it freshly made every morning in the traditional bakeries, where there is a large assortment of bread. A smaller version is known as bocadillo, an iconic piece of the Hispanic cuisine. In Spain, especially in the Mediterranean area, there have been guilds of bakers for over 750 years. The bakers guild in Barcelona was founded in 1200 AD. There is a region called Tierra del Pan (\"Land of the Bread\"), located in the province of Zamora, where economy was in the past joined to this activity.\n", "Pita bread has roots in the prehistoric flatbreads of the Middle East. There is evidence from about 14,500 years ago, during the Stone Age, that the Natufian people in what is now Jordan made a kind of flatbread from wild cereal grains. Ancient wheat and barley were among the earliest domesticated crops in the Neolithic period of about 10,000 years ago, in the Fertile Crescent. By 4,000 years ago, bread was of central importance in societies such as the Babylonian culture of Mesopotamia, where the earliest-known written records and recipes of bread-making originate, and where pita-like flatbreads cooked in a \"tinûru\" (\"tannur\" or \"tandoor\") were a basic element of the diet, and much the same as today's tandoor bread or taboon bread. However, there is no record of the steam-puffed, two-layer \"pocket pita\" in the ancient texts, or in any of the medieval Arab cookbooks, and according to food historians such as Charles Perry and Gil Marks it was likely a later development.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03115	Why do some viruses live longer on inanimate surfaces than others?	Viruses are basically just a strand of RNA, covered by a capsule of proteins that has the ability to force that RNA into specific kinds of living cells. Where they are able to survive and for how long, depends on how the virus's exterior is build up and what environmental condition it's exposed to. Like, are there chemicals involved that damage the virus's hull or it's RNA? Or radiation (UV, perhaps?) that does so instead? It's a little bit like letting a car just stand in a forest for 30 years. How quickly it rusts and how long it 'survives' is dependent on how it is built and what environmental conditions the car is exposed to in said forest.	[ "The cell from which the virus itself buds will often die or be weakened and shed more viral particles for an extended period. The lipid bilayer envelope of these viruses is relatively sensitive to desiccation, heat, and detergents, therefore these viruses are easier to sterilize than non-enveloped viruses, have limited survival outside host environments, and typically must transfer directly from host to host. Enveloped viruses possess great adaptability and can change in a short time in order to evade the immune system. Enveloped viruses can cause persistent infections.\n\nSection::::Enveloped examples.\n\nClasses of enveloped viruses that contain human pathogens:\n", "Their surface carries specific tools designed to cross the barriers of their host cells. The size and shape of viruses, and the number and nature of the functional groups on their surface, is precisely defined. As such, viruses are commonly used in materials science as scaffolds for covalently linked surface modifications. A particular quality of viruses is that they can be tailored by directed evolution. The powerful techniques developed by life sciences are becoming the basis of engineering approaches towards nanomaterials, opening a wide range of applications far beyond biology and medicine.\n", "Next, a virus must take control of the host cell's replication mechanisms. It is at this stage a distinction between susceptibility and permissibility of a host cell is made. Permissibility determines the outcome of the infection. After control is established and the environment is set for the virus to begin making copies of itself, replication occurs quickly by the millions.\n\nSection::::Life cycle process.:Viral shedding.\n", "As the influenza virus can persist outside of the body, it can also be transmitted by contaminated surfaces such as banknotes, doorknobs, light switches and other household items. The length of time the virus will persist on a surface varies, with the virus surviving for one to two days on hard, non-porous surfaces such as plastic or metal, for about fifteen minutes from dry paper tissues, and only five minutes on skin. However, if the virus is present in mucus, this can protect it for longer periods (up to 17days on banknotes). Avian influenza viruses can survive indefinitely when frozen. They are inactivated by heating to 56°C (133°F) for a minimum of 60 minutes, as well as by acids (at pH 2).\n", "Influenza viruses are mainly spread from person to person through airborne droplets produced while coughing or sneezing. However, the viruses can also be transmitted when a person touches respiratory droplets settled on an object or surface. It is during this stage that an antiviral surface could play the biggest role in cutting down on the spread of a virus. Glass slides painted with the hydrophobic long-chained polycation N,N dodecyl,methyl-polyethylenimine (N,N-dodecyl,methyl-PEI) are highly lethal to waterborne influenza A viruses, including not only wild-type human and avian strains but also their neuraminidase mutants resistant to anti-influenza drugs.\n", "The lifespan of microbes in the home varies similarly. Generally bacteria and viruses require a wet environment with a humidity of over 10 percent. \"E. coli\" can survive for a few hours to a day. Bacteria which form spores can survive longer, with \"Staphylococcus aureus\" surviving potentially for weeks or, in the case of \"Bacillus anthracis\", years.\n\nIn the home, pets can be carriers of bacteria; for example, reptiles are commonly carriers of salmonella.\n", "Section::::Microbiology.:Dormant and latent infections.\n\nSome viruses cause no apparent changes to the infected cell. Cells in which the virus is latent and inactive show few signs of infection and often function normally. This causes persistent infections and the virus is often dormant for many months or years. This is often the case with herpes viruses.\n\nSection::::Microbiology.:Host range.\n", "As the influenza virus can persist outside of the body, it can also be transmitted by contaminated surfaces such as banknotes, doorknobs, light switches and other household items. The length of time the virus will persist on a surface varies, with the virus surviving for one to two days on hard, non-porous surfaces such as plastic or metal, for about fifteen minutes from dry paper tissues, and only five minutes on skin. However, if the virus is present in mucus, this can protect it for longer periods. Avian influenza viruses can survive indefinitely when frozen. They are inactivated by heating to 56 °C (133 °F) for a minimum of 60 minutes, as well as by acids (at pH 2).\n", "The mechanisms for infection, proliferation, and persistence of a virus in cells of the host are crucial for its survival. For example, some diseases such as measles employ a strategy whereby it must spread to a series of hosts. In these forms of viral infection, the illness is often treated by the body's own immune response, and therefore the virus is required to disperse to new hosts before it is destroyed by immunological resistance or host death. In contrast, some infectious agents such as the Feline leukemia virus, are able to withstand immune responses and are capable of achieving long-term residence within an individual host, whilst also retaining the ability to spread into successive hosts.\n", "CPEs are important aspects of a viral infection in diagnostics. Many CPEs can be seen in unfixed, unstained cells under the low power of an optical microscope, with the condenser down and the iris diaphragm partly closed. However, with some CPEs, namely inclusion bodies, the cells must be fixed and stained then viewed under light microscopy. Some viruses' CPEs are characteristic and therefore can be an important tool for virologists in diagnosing an infected animal or human. The rate of CPE appearance is also an important characteristic that virologists may use to identify virus type. If CPE appears after 4 to 5 days in vitro at low multiplicity of infection, then the virus is considered slow. If the CPE appears after 1 to 2 days in vitro at low multiplicity of infection, then the virus is thought to be rapid. Inoculations always occur at low multiplicity of infection because at high multiplicity of infection, all CPEs occur rapidly.\n", "Section::::Viability and disinfection.\n\nMammalian influenza viruses tend to be labile, but can survive several hours in mucus. Avian influenza virus can survive for 100 days in distilled water at room temperature, and 200 days at . The avian virus is inactivated more quickly in manure, but can survive for up to 2 weeks in feces on cages. Avian influenza viruses can survive indefinitely when frozen. Influenza viruses are susceptible to bleach, 70% ethanol, aldehydes, oxidizing agents, and quaternary ammonium compounds. They are inactivated by heat of for minimum of 60 minutes, as well as by low pH 2.\n", "The range of structural and biochemical effects that viruses have on the host cell is extensive. These are called \"cytopathic effects\". Most virus infections eventually result in the death of the host cell. The causes of death include cell lysis (bursting), alterations to the cell's surface membrane and apoptosis (cell \"suicide\"). Often cell death is caused by cessation of its normal activity due to proteins produced by the virus, not all of which are components of the virus particle.\n", "Parainfluenza viruses last only a few hours in the environment and are inactivated by soap and water. Furthermore, the virus can also be easily destroyed using common hygiene techniques and detergents, disinfectants and antiseptics.\n\nEnvironmental factors which are important for HPIV survival are pH, humidity, temperature and the medium within which the virus is found. The optimal pH is around the physiologic pH values (7.4 to 8.0), whilst at high temperatures (above 37 °C) and low humidity, infectivity reduces.\n", "Section::::Replication cycle.\n\nTypically, influenza is transmitted from infected mammals through the air by coughs or sneezes, creating aerosols containing the virus, and from infected birds through their droppings. Influenza can also be transmitted by saliva, nasal secretions, feces and blood. Infections occur through contact with these bodily fluids or with contaminated surfaces. Out of a host, flu viruses can remain infectious for about one week at human body temperature, over 30 days at , and indefinitely at very low temperatures (such as lakes in northeast Siberia). They can be inactivated easily by disinfectants and detergents.\n", "Section::::Common types.\n\nSection::::Common types.:Total destruction.\n\nTotal destruction of the host cell monolayer is the most severe type of CPE. To observe this process, cells are seeded on a glass surface and a confluent monolayer of host cell is formed. Then, the viral infection is introduced. All cells in the monolayer shrink rapidly, become dense in a process known as pyknosis, and detach from the glass within three days. This form of CPE is typically seen with enteroviruses.\n\nSection::::Common types.:Subtotal destruction.\n", "One small study used wet cytobrushes, rather than wet the skin. It found a higher proportion of men to be HPV-positive when the skin was rubbed with a 600 grit emery paper before being swabbed with the brush, rather than swabbed with no preparation. It's unclear whether the emery paper collected the virions or simply loosened them for the swab to collect.\n", "Viruses display a wide diversity of shapes and sizes, called \"morphologies\". In general, viruses are much smaller than bacteria. Most viruses that have been studied have a diameter between 20 and 300 nanometres. Some filoviruses have a total length of up to 1400 nm; their diameters are only about 80 nm. Most viruses cannot be seen with an optical microscope, so scanning and transmission electron microscopes are used to visualise them. To increase the contrast between viruses and the background, electron-dense \"stains\" are used. These are solutions of salts of heavy metals, such as tungsten, that scatter the electrons from regions covered with the stain. When virions are coated with stain (positive staining), fine detail is obscured. Negative staining overcomes this problem by staining the background only.\n", "Subtotal destruction of the host cell monolayer is less severe than total destruction. Similarly to total destruction, this CPE is observed by seeding a confluent monolayer of host cell on a glass surface then introducing a viral infection. Subtotal destruction characteristically shows detachment of some but not all the cells in the monolayer. It is commonly observed with some togaviruses, some picornaviruses, and some types of paramyxoviruses.\n\nSection::::Common types.:Focal degeneration.\n", "Some viruses cause no apparent changes to the infected cell. Cells in which the virus is latent and inactive show few signs of infection and often function normally. This causes persistent infections and the virus is often dormant for many months or years. This is often the case with herpes viruses.\n\nSome viruses, such as Epstein-Barr virus, often cause cells to proliferate without causing malignancy; but some other viruses, such as papillomavirus, are an established cause of cancer.\n", "The range of structural and biochemical effects that viruses have on the host cell is extensive. These are called \"cytopathic effects\". Most virus infections eventually result in the death of the host cell. The causes of death include cell lysis, alterations to the cell's surface membrane and apoptosis. Often cell death is caused by cessation of its normal activities because of suppression by virus-specific proteins, not all of which are components of the virus particle. The distinction between cytopathic and harmless is gradual. Some viruses, such as Epstein–Barr virus, can cause cells to proliferate without causing malignancy, while others, such as papillomaviruses, are established causes of cancer.\n", "BULLET::::- Persistent infection: There is a delicate balance between the host and the virus in this pattern. The virus adjusts its replication and pathogenecitiy levels to keep the host alive for its own benefit. While it is possible for the virus to live and replicate inside the host for its entire lifetime, oftentimes the host eventually eliminates the virus.\n", "CPEs and other changes in cell morphology are only a few of the many effects by cytocidal viruses. When a cytocidal virus infects a permissive cell, the viruses kill the host cell through changes in cell morphology, in cell physiology, and the biosynthetic events that follow. These changes are necessary for efficient virus replication but at the expense of the host cell.\n\nSection::::Diagnostics.\n", "Viral life cycle\n\nViruses are only able to replicate themselves by commandeering the reproductive apparatus of cells and making them reproduce the virus's genetic structure instead. Thus, a virus cannot function or reproduce outside a cell, thereby being totally dependent on a host cell in order to survive. Most viruses are species specific, and related viruses typically only infect a narrow range of plants, animals, bacteria, or fungi.\n\nSection::::Life cycle process.\n\nSection::::Life cycle process.:Viral entry.\n", "Some viruses can \"hide\" within a cell, either to evade the host cell defenses or immune system, or simply because it is not in the best interest of the virus to continually replicate. This hiding is deemed latency. During this time, the virus does not produce any progeny, it remains inactive until external stimuli—such as light or stress—prompts it to activate.\n", "Within the host, pathogens can do a variety of things to cause disease and trigger the immune response. Microbes and fungi cause symptoms due to their high rate of reproduction and tissue invasion. This causes an immune response, resulting in common symptoms as phagocytes break down the bacteria within the host. Some bacteria, such as \"H. pylori\", can secrete toxins into the surrounding tissues, resulting in cell death or inhibition of normal tissue function. Viruses, however, use a completely different mechanism to cause disease. Upon entry into the host, they can do one of two things. Many times, viral pathogens enter the lytic cycle; this is when the virus inserts its DNA or RNA into the host cell, replicates, and eventually causes the cell to lyse, releasing more viruses into the environment. The lysogenic cycle, however, is when the viral DNA is incorporated into the host genome, allowing it to go unnoticed by the immune system. Eventually, it gets reactivated and enters the lytic cycle, giving it an indefinite “shelf life” so to speak.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-15280	Why do electrics showers always have bad thermostats?	Electric showers don't have thermostats. Temperature rise depends on the selected heater power and the flow rate. Flow rate is set by the flow restrictor valve, which is the main control. Outlet temperature depends on inlet temperature and temperature rise.	[ "There is a wide range of electric showers, with various types of heating controls. The heating element of an electric shower is immersed in the water stream, using a nichrome resistance element which is sheathed and electrically isolated, like the ones used in oil heaters, radiators or clothes irons, providing safety. Due to electrical safety standards, modern electric showers are made of plastic instead of using metallic casings like in the past. As an electrical appliance that uses more electric current than a washer or a dryer, an electric shower installation requires careful planning, and generally is intended to be wired directly from the electrical distribution box with a dedicated circuit breaker and ground system. A poorly installed system with old aluminum wires or bad connections may be dangerous, as the wires can overheat or electric current may leak via the water stream through the body of the user to earth.\n", "Invented in Brazil in the 1930s and used frequently since the 1940s, the electric shower is a home appliance often seen in South American countries due to the higher costs of gas distribution. Earlier models were made of chromed copper or brass, which were expensive, but since 1970, units made of injected plastics are popular due to low prices similar to that of a hair dryer. Electric showers have a simple electric system, working like a coffee maker, but with a larger water flow. A flow switch turns on the device when water flows through it. Once the water is stopped, the device turns off automatically. An ordinary electric shower often has three heat settings: high (5.5 kW), low (2.5 kW), or cold (0 W) to use when a central heater system is available or in hot seasons.\n", "BULLET::::- Many users may not fully understand the controls. A common error is leaving the output (or boost) control open at night, so that the heaters dissipate heat when they should be storing it, with a consequent increase in electricity consumption and cost. Alternatively they may set the input control to minimum at night instead of the output, which can mean there is no heat at all for the next day.\n", "The power consumption of electric showers in the maximum heating setting is about 5.5 kW for 120 V and 7.5 kW for 220 V. The lower costs with electric showers compared to the higher costs with boilers is due to the time of use: an electric shower uses energy only while the water flows, while a boiler works many times a day to keep a quantity of standing water hot for use throughout the day and night. Moreover, the transfer of electric energy to the water in an electric shower head is very efficient, approaching 100%. Electric showers may save energy compared to electric tank heaters, which lose some standby heat.\n", "Electric shower and tankless heaters also use an immersion heater (shielded or naked) that is turned on with the flow of water. A group of separate heaters can be switched to offer different heating levels. Electric showers and tankless heaters usually use from 3 to 10.5 kilowatts.\n", "BULLET::::- The storage heater can only heat with the energy stored the night before. Thus if the system was switched off or if the charge control was set too low, there may not be sufficient energy to heat the rooms, and this can only be corrected for the next day. This is a problem for example when the weather turns cold unexpectedly, or when returning from a vacation late at night, or users simply not thinking to change the settings because they are at a comfortable temperature. Some heaters alleviate this problem by also allowing heating during the day, but this is typically expensive (because the electricity is charged at full rate). Even under the best of circumstances it can be difficult to accurately judge how to set the thermostats as setting them too low overnight can cause the heater to be having no perceived effect while setting them at maximum will increase the cost of running them. Similarly in systems where every heater must be set individually, incorrectly setting one room's heater can make the whole house feel too cold.\n", "Some programmable thermostats - those that offer simple \"millivolt\" or \"two-wire\" modes - will control these systems.\n\nSection::::Electrical and analog electronic thermostats.:Simple two wire thermostats.:24 volt thermostats.\n", "Cold water pitting of copper tube\n\nCold water pitting of copper tube occurs in only a minority of installations. Copper water tubes are usually guaranteed by the manufacturer against manufacturing defects for a period of 50 years. The vast majority of copper systems far exceed this time period but a small minority may fail after a comparatively short time.\n", "Even some resistive loads provide only short-term benefits. A phenomenon known as load diversity plays a role in voltage reduction and can counteract its effects on occasion. The concept of load diversity can most easily be explained with an example. In your neighborhood, it is unlikely that all of the homes' water heaters are on at the same time. Particularly during non-hot water usage hours (morning and evening showers), when your hot water heater is on, your neighbor's may be off. Due to the distributed and noncoincident nature of these loads, the aggregate peak can remain relatively constant. However, if the voltage is reduced to all of the resistive elements in the water heaters, the elements will not be able to heat the water as quickly. While an immediate reduction in the power demand will be recognized upon initiating voltage reduction, over time water heaters will need to be on longer to achieve the thermostat-set water temperature. Thus, more water heaters will be on at the same time. This will cause the aggregate peak to increase substantially. Therefore, with respect to thermostat-controlled resistive loads, the benefits of voltage reduction can be short lived, and may occasionally end up increasing the aggregate load demand.\n", "IEE recommends these current demands and diversity factors for various loads to determine the load current and rating of overcurrent protective device.\n\nSection::::Residential wiring.:Special locations.\n\nSection::::Residential wiring.:Special locations.:Bathrooms.\n\nThe installation of electrical devices in bathrooms and shower rooms is regulated in Section 701 of BS 7671:2018, and Part P of the Building Regulations in England and Wales. For such rooms, four special zones are defined, in which additional protection is required for electrical facilities:\n\nBULLET::::- Zone 0 is the smallest cuboid volume that contains the bath, shower basin, etc.\n", "Inside the Number One Electronic Switching System (1ESS) crossbar switch and certain other high-reliability designs, the reed switches are always switched \"dry\" (without load) to avoid that problem, leading to much longer contact life.\n", "An electric shower head has an electric heating element which heats water as it passes through. These self-heating shower heads are specialized point-of-use (POU) tankless water heaters, and are widely used in some countries.\n", "For example, an extension wire may be in a different form, such as highly flexible with stranded construction and plastic insulation, or be part of a multi-wire cable for carrying many thermocouple circuits.\n\nWith expensive noble metal thermocouples, the extension wires may even be made of a completely different, cheaper material that mimics the standard type over a reduced temperature range.\n\nSection::::Practical concerns.:Aging of thermocouples.\n", "BULLET::::- Digital shower, a shower system that works in a similar way to mixer or power showers, but provides more control over the temperature of the water with the use of a digital control panel.\n\nBULLET::::- Eco shower, a shower system that comes in mixer or electric variations, but also features a regulator to regulate the flow of water with a view to saving water.\n\nBULLET::::- Electric shower, a shower stall device to locally heat shower water with electrical power.\n", "Usually washing machines thermostats have fewer fixed temperature detection points than the number of wash temperatures used. For intermediate temperatures, the cam mechanism uses the stop and wait method to heat to the nearest temp below the one desired, then uses only fixed timing of the heating element to increase the water to the desired temperature.\n", "Numerous items of electric equipment will operate quite well on modified sine wave power inverter devices, especially loads that are resistive in nature such as traditional incandescent light bulbs. Items with a switch-mode power supply operate almost entirely without problems, but if the item has a mains transformer, this can overheat depending on how marginally it is rated.\n", "Note: It is a sure sign that you have a faulty thermostat if you find that you continually have to turn the set temperature up by hand to get the system to start warming-up and then always have to turn that stat down again to stop the house getting too hot! You will be amazed how comfortable your home will be if you get that faulty thermostat replaced!\n\nSection::::The reason for balancing the system and some basic information on how to do it.:Problems caused by improper balance.\n", "With existing units that are still functional and well-maintained, when the time value of money is considered, retaining existing units rather than proactively replacing them may be the most cost effective. However, the efficiency of air conditioners can degrade significantly over time.\n", "When a UPS system is placed outdoors, it should have some specific features that guarantee that it can tolerate weather without any effects on performance. Factors such as temperature, humidity, rain, and snow among others should be considered by the manufacturer when designing an outdoor UPS system. Operating temperature ranges for outdoor UPS systems could be around −40 °C to +55 °C.\n", "A common arrangement where hot-water space heating is employed is for a boiler also to heat potable water, providing a continuous supply of hot water without extra equipment. Appliances that can supply both space-heating and domestic hot water are called \"combination\" (or \"combi\") boilers. Though on-demand heaters provide a continuous supply of domestic hot water, the rate at which they can produce it is limited by the thermodynamics of heating water from the available fuel supplies.\n\nSection::::Types of water heating appliances.:Electric shower heads.\n", "Certain panels use seemingly interchangeable breakers. However, a given manufacturer will specifically mention exactly which devices may be installed in their equipment. These assemblies have been tested and approved for use by a recognized authority. Replacing or adding equipment which \"just happens to fit\" can result in unexpected or even dangerous conditions. Such installations should not be done without first consulting knowledgeable sources, including manufacturers.\n\nSection::::Location and designation.\n", "Section::::Types of water heating appliances.:Electric shower heads.:Energy usage.\n", "There are other factors that cause discrepancies even between studies that all look at actual data. Most studies compare total energy consumption of a house from year to year to determine energy savings, as opposed to looking at just the energy that is used for heating and cooling. Due to this, there could be other factors that change the energy consumption of a house, and it might be incorrect to state that the thermostat is responsible for all energy savings in a house. For example, it is possible that other new energy efficient practices/appliances are partially responsible for the savings in addition to the thermostat. \n", "The night storage heaters and hot water boilers are generally on a separate circuit which is only switched on when the night rate is activated, although any electrical appliance on an ordinary circuit during this period also runs at the lower rate of billing, such as a dishwasher or washing machine set to start using a timing device. Some such machines have timers built-in partly for this purpose.\n", "BULLET::::- Possibility of the potable water or collector fluid overheating or freezing\n\nThe minimum requirements of the system are typically determined by the amount or temperature of hot water required during winter, when a system's output and incoming water temperature are typically at their lowest. The maximum output of the system is determined by the need to prevent the water in the system from becoming too hot.\n\nSection::::Design requirements.:Freeze protection.\n" ]	[ "Electric showers have thermostats.", "Electric showers have bad thermostats. " ]	[ "Electric showers do not have thermostats.", "Electric showers don't have thermostats at all. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Electric showers have thermostats.", "Electric showers have bad thermostats. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Electric showers do not have thermostats.", "Electric showers don't have thermostats at all. " ]
2018-03324	Why does one first see improvement the next day (or after a longer break) in any kind of sports, games, education etc. and not meanwhile?	This is because “information” and the like takes time to encode, which the brain does a heck of a lot of when you sleep. That is, it trims away memories/information of the day that it deems unnecessary (what you had for dinner, what socks you wore) and “saves” memories/information that you or your brain deem important and worth keeping. It writes these into your brain/HDD for easier access later. Things like spray patterns on the AK and your muscle memory in how to control it are learned in the waking moment, but only when your brain has had time to encode it does it become natural/learned. Recall is quicker and your brain has context, whereas when you’re learning it it’s all new and your brain is like “oh jeez what’s all this stuff okay neat what”	[ "These people tend to become very absorbed in their work. This is why they require recognition when a task is completed.\n", "Progress Testing fosters knowledge retention: the repeated testing of the same comprehensive domain of knowledge means that there is no point testing facts that could be remembered if studied the night before. Long term knowledge and knowledge retention is fostered because item content remains relevant long after the knowledge has been learned. Progress Testing removes the need for resit examinations: every new test occasion is a renewed opportunity to demonstrate growth of knowledge.\n", "In the book \"Moonwalking with Einstein\" by Joshua Foer, a theory called \"deliberate practice\" is brought up. The theorist that came up with this theory was K. Anders Ericsson who said: “Our civilization has always recognized exceptional individuals, whose performance in sports, the arts, and science is vastly superior to that of the rest of the population.” This quote coincides with the three stages because these would be the main topics or ideas that would come in mind to reach the plateau effect in many of people. When these conditions are met, practice improves accuracy and speed of performance on cognitive, perceptual, and motor tasks. \n", "There is extensive evidence of \"Interpersonal Expectation Effects\", where the seemingly private expectations of individuals can predict the outcome of the world around them. The mechanisms by which this occurs are also reasonably well understood: it is simply that our own expectations change our behaviour in ways we may not notice and correct. In the case of the \"Interpersonal Expectation Effects\", others pick up on non-verbal behaviour, which affects their attitudes. A famous example includes a study where teachers were told arbitrarily that random students were \"going to blossom\". Oddly, those random students actually ended the year with significantly greater improvements.\n", "Another example of scaffolding is learning to drive. Parents and driving instructors guide driving students along the way by showing them the mechanics of how the car operates, the correct hand positions on the steering wheel, the technique of scanning the roadway, etc. As the student progresses, less and less instruction is needed, until they are ready to drive on their own.\n", "Section::::Sports.\n\nIn physical sports, humans need several years of practice before reaching the highest competitive level. To date, no single professional football or basketball player has been able to play in the best leagues after starting practice at age 20. The same applies to mental sports like chess, where no player has arrived to the top 100 after starting practice at age 20. In general, to reach the highest level in sport, the sooner a person start to train, the best.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Behavioral cusp\n\nBULLET::::- Child development\n\nBULLET::::- Critical period hypothesis\n\nBULLET::::- Developmental psychology\n\nBULLET::::- Malleable intelligence\n", "I had decided by August 1989, in my 48th year, that I had already had the best day of my life. ... Then we went to Rwanda to see the mountain gorillas, Dian Fossey's gorillas in the mist. ... After two and a half hours ... there they were: two baby gorillas frolicking like any four-year-olds. We snapped and stared. We were right there, \"in\" their lives, in the middle of their open-air house. And then the silverback, the patriarch, seemed to welcome us, as three females kept grooming him. ... We spent one hour in their world, watching them tumble and wrestle, nurse their babies, swing in the trees, forage for food—vines, leaves, berries— ... so close that a female reached out to touch me. When I went to reciprocate, the guide hit my arm with a stick. \"\"Non, madame. C'est inderdit.\"\" ... What I decided that day with the gorillas in Rwanda was that the best day of your life may not have happened yet. No matter what you think.\n", "A key part of the continual improvement process is a study of the reasons why tasks promised in the WWP are delivered late. The following chart shows typical reasons:\n\nFigure 5: example of a reasons Pareto chart\n\nRecording the reasons in a Pareto chart like the one above makes it easy to see where attention is most likely to yield the most results. Using tools like 5 Why analysis and cause-effect diagrams will help the team understand how they can improve the clarity of information and ensure that there are sufficient operatives.\n", "BULLET::::- Foresight is often made at particular moments in time, which may help to converge the general attitude of the network. According to Ziegler (as cited in van der Helm, 2007), long-term vision is developed at critical historical moments (the year 2000, the ecological crisis, the re-organization of a business, etc.). Obviously, these are not very likely to be formalized.\n", "Section::::Risk and disaster communication amongst the youths.\n", "From the original applications, as people in the business world have been introduced to HR or the \"Three Principles\" (as the core understanding is known), they have started to bring these ideas into the business world they have come from. The approach has been introduced to people in medicine, law, investment and financial services, technology, marketing, manufacturing, publishing, and a variety of other commercial and financial roles. It has been reported anecdotally to have had significant impact in the areas of individual performance and development, teamwork, leadership, change and diversity. According to HR/Three Principles adherents, these results flow naturally as the individuals exposed to the ideas learn how their thoughts have been creating barriers to others and barriers to their own innate creativity, common sense, and well being. As people learn how to access their full potential more consistently, HR adherents say, they get better results with less effort and less stress in less time.\n", "Development is a human process, in the sense that human beings, not material factors, drive development. The energy and aspiration of people who seek development form the motive force that drives development. People's awareness may decide the direction of development. Their efficiency, productivity, creativity, and organizational capacities determine the level of people’s accomplishment and enjoyment. Development is the outer realization of latent inner potentials. The level of people's education, intensity of their aspiration and energies, quality of their attitudes and values, skills and information all affect the extent and pace of development. These factors come into play whether it is the development of the individual, family, community, nation, or the whole world.\n", "\"Never sacrifice a present good to a future good. Enjoy the moment; don't get into anything which doesn't satisfy your passions right away. Why should you work today for jam tomorrow, since you will be loaded down with it anyway, & in fact in the new order you will only have one problem, namely how to find enough time to get through all the pleasures in store for you.\" \n\nAnd Fredy Perlman's - The Reproduction of Everyday Life: \n", "Furthermore, with an increase in technology people who have been to an assessment day of a company write about their experiences and nature of exercises involved on social websites and student forums which in result give all the answers to future candidates and they prepare themselves in advance which is sometimes not fair for selection process.\n", "This can be seen as a negative emotional reaction, however in turn, as we learned from David McClelland, the need for achievement will take its course in different ways. A person will either take small easy tasks that they know they can accomplish and be congratulated for, or they will accept extremely challenging tasks for they fear not risk of embarrassment in failure due to the high demand of the procured undertaking. It has been found that employees motivated by the need for achievement are typically more of the risk takers in the organization. They are also the employees that want to constantly be challenged to learn new things.\n", "Human development normally proceeds from experience to comprehension. As society develops over centuries, it accumulates the experience of countless pioneers. The essence of that experience becomes the formula for accomplishment and success. The fact that experience precedes knowledge can be taken to mean that development is an unconscious process that gets carried out first, while knowledge becomes conscious later on only. \"Unconscious\" refers to activities that people carry out without knowing what the end results will be, or where their actions will lead. They carry out the acts without knowing the conditions required for success.\n", "An analyst might notice that when Country X's command post with call sign ABC sent out a message on frequency 1 between Thursday and Saturday, an air unit will move to a training range within one week. The acknowledgement will take one day, so the analyst should recommend intensified COMINT monitoring of the appropriate frequencies between Friday and Sunday. Another kind of causality could come from interviews, in which soldiers might describe the things that warn them of an impending attack, or how the ground might look when an improvised explosive device has been emplaced.\n", "Individual scientific inventions do not spring out of the blue. They build on past accomplishments in an incremental manner, and give a conscious form to the unconscious knowledge that society gathers over time. As pioneers are more conscious than the surrounding community, their inventions normally meet with initial resistance, which recedes over time as their inventions gain wider acceptance. If opposition is stronger than the pioneer, then the introduction of an invention gets delayed.\n", "It's June and Chauncey Nelson [Deance Wyatt] has just graduated from high school. Where most kids his age will spend their summer getting ready for college, Chauncey's got other plans: kick it with his boy Diego, win a youth boxing tournament and buy an Impala. Of course we all know what happens to even the best laid plans; Chauncey and Diego hang and get hung up in small-time hustles that go sour and the boxing tournament KOs any chance of Chauncey sporting golden gloves. Just as his dream car is about to ride off into the sunset, Chauncey gets it, there's a big difference between having a dream and working hard to make a dream come true.\n", "something that develops over time they view challenging work as an opportunity\n\nto learn and grow. These students value effort and realize that “even geniuses\n\nhave to work hard to develop their abilities and make their contributions” (p.\n\n16). Students with this type of attitude are able to respond to obstacles, try\n\nnew strategies and continue to learn and grow in many situations, which leads\n\nto higher achievement.\n\nHow to foster to a growth mindset in students\n\nIn order to foster a growth mindset, teachers need to encourage\n", "There is a greater scope of opportunities as the industry changes. It trains managers to look beyond their current business activities and think \"outside the box\". George Steiner (1979) is one of many in a long line of admirers who cite Levitt's famous example on transportation. If a buggy whip manufacturer in 1910 defined its business as the \"transportation starter business,\" they might have been able to make the creative leap necessary to move into the automobile business when technological change demanded it.\n", "Section::::Key studies.:Deci (1971): External rewards on intrinsic motivation.:Experiment II.\n\nThe second experiment was a field experiment, similar to laboratory Experiment I, but was conducted in a natural setting.\n\nEight student workers were observed at a college biweekly newspaper. Four of the students served as a control group and worked on Friday. The experimental group worked on Tuesdays.\n\nThe control and experimental group students were not aware that they were being observed. The 10-week observation was divided into three time periods. The task in this study required the students to write headlines for the newspaper.\n", "\"“Development generally begins with a realization of current or future need and the motivation to do something about it. This might come from feedback, a mistake, watching other people’s reactions, failing or not being up to a task – in other words, from experience. The odds are that development will be about 70% from on-the-job experiences - working on tasks and problems; about 20% from feedback and working around good and bad examples of the need; and 10% from courses and reading.”\"\n\nSection::::Criticisms.\n\nCriticisms of the hypothesis include:\n\nBULLET::::- A lack of empirical supporting data\n", "BULLET::::- Experiencing the new–learners are immersed in new situations or information, observing or taking part in something that is new or unfamiliar, but within the zone of intelligibility and close to their own life-worlds. For example, teachers introduce something new but which makes sense by immersion in experiments, field trips and investigations in projects (Cope & Kalantzis, 2015).\n", "The achievement of complete development at the end of adolescence was suggested by Freud, Piaget, and Binet among others. Research in positive adult development questions not only that development ceases after adolescence, but also the notion of decline after late adolescence postulated by many gerontologists. Positive development does occur during adulthood. Recent studies indicate that such development is useful in predicting things such as an individual's health, life satisfaction, and degree of contribution to the society.\n\nSection::::Development of the field.\n\nSection::::Development of the field.:Origins of the field.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02352	How can there be a maximum compatible memory in a camera, when the memory cards are all the same physical size?	Although cards has same physical size, they need different "software" to access the data. There are [three types of micro SD cards]( URL_0 ): SD, SDHC, and SDXC. The 32 GB card is a SDHC card and the 64 GB is a SDXC. If the dash cam only supports up to SDHC, then it can only take cards up to 32 GB. ELI5 what are the differences: There are 99 boxes with number 1-99 assigned to them. In order to get/store things in a box, you need to say the its corresponding number. If you can only say one number, you can only get/store things in boxes 1-9. But if you can say two numbers, you get to access all 1-99 storage boxes. The dash cam can only get/store 32 GB because it only know how to say the storage locations within 32 GB limit.	[ "Capacities above 4 GB can only be achieved by following version 2.0 or later versions. In addition, capacities equal to 4 GB must also do so to guarantee compatibility.\n\nSection::::Openness of specification.\n\nLike most memory card formats, SD is covered by numerous patents and trademarks. Excluding SDIO cards, royalties for SD card licenses are imposed for manufacture and sale of memory cards and host adapters (US$1,000/year plus membership at US$1,500/year)\n", "Many camera phones and most stand alone digital cameras store image data in flash memory cards or other removable media. Most stand-alone cameras use SD format, while a few use CompactFlash or other types. In January 2012, a faster XQD card format was announced. In early 2014, some high end cameras have two hot-swapable memory slots. Photographers can swap one of the memory card with camera-on. Each memory slot can accept either Compact Flash or SD Card. All new Sony cameras also have two memory slots, one for its Memory Stick and one for SD Card, but not hot-swapable.\n", "BULLET::::- JVC GY-HM750 can be set to standard definition mode and in this case will record '.AVI or .MOV SD legacy format' video onto SDHC cards. \"For clarity - and contrary to what has previously been written\", the camera \"does not\" natively support SxS memory cards, has no slots for them and requires an optional add-on recorder (or 'adapter' as JVC call it) to achieve this - basically this camera is an 'XDCAM EX' High definition unit and the add-on SxS recorder was only made available to achieve better compatibility in facilities which were Sony based.\n", "The proprietary nature of the complete SD specification affects embedded systems, laptop computers, and some desktop computers; many desktop computers do not have card slots, instead using USB-based card readers if necessary. These card readers present a standard USB mass storage interface to memory cards, thus separating the operating system from the details of the underlying SD interface. However, embedded systems (such as portable music players) usually gain direct access to SD cards and thus need complete programming information. Desktop card readers are themselves embedded systems; their manufacturers have usually paid the SDA for complete access to the SD specifications. Many notebook computers now include SD card readers not based on USB; device drivers for these essentially gain direct access to the SD card, as do embedded systems.\n", "In March 2014, Sony launched the consumer video camera, FDR-AX100, which uses XAVC S. It provides a maximum resolution of 3840 x 2160 with a 60 Mbit/s bit rate. It provides 12X optical zoom and records to a SDXC memory card.\n\nIn February 2015, Sony launched the consumer video camera, FDR-AX33, which uses XAVC S. It provides a maximum resolution of 3840 x 2160 and increased the bit rate to 100 Mbit/s. It provides 10X optical zoom and records to a SDXC memory card.\n", "BULLET::::- The standard defines a MakerNote tag, which allows camera manufacturers to place any custom format metadata in the file. This is used increasingly by camera manufacturers to store camera settings not listed in the Exif standard, such as shooting modes, post-processing settings, serial number, focusing modes, etc. As the tag contents are proprietary and manufacturer-specific, it can be difficult to retrieve this information from an image or to properly preserve it when rewriting an image. Manufacturers can encrypt portions of the information; for example, some Nikon cameras encrypt the detailed lens data in the MakerNote data.\n", "The standard is free to use and free to download but the user must register to EMVA to have the right to use the \"EMVA1288 compliant\" logo on their publications or products.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nWork on the 1288 standard started in 2004. Release 1 for monochrome cameras was released in August 2005. In Release A2.01, issued in August 2007 included an additional linearity module. With Release 3, published on November 2010 the first version was available that covered monochrome and color cameras as well as area and line cameras together with a characterization of defect pixels.\n", "BULLET::::- Lens mounts of competing camera manufacturers are almost always incompatible. Therefore, a photographer with a set of lens mounts of a certain manufacturer will prefer not to buy a camera from another manufacturer.\n\nBULLET::::- Nvidia, as of 2018, still only supports a proprietary Nvidia G-Sync despite the availability of the open Video Electronics Standards Association (VESA) standard Adaptive Sync technology (FreeSync). In January 2019, Nvidia announced that it will advance compatibility of its video cards with FreeSync-compatible monitors.\n", "Images on digital cameras are generally stored as files on a mass storage device, such as a memory card, which is formatted with a file system, most commonly FAT12, FAT16 or FAT32, which may be laid out as per the Design rule for Camera File system (DCF) specification. But none of these are required as PTP abstracts from the underlying representation.\n\nBy contrast, if a camera is mounted via USB MSC, the physical file system and layout are exposed to the user.\n\nSection::::Device control.\n", "MMCs are available in sizes up to and including 512 GB. They are used in almost every context in which memory cards are used, like cellular phones, digital audio players, digital cameras and PDAs. Since the introduction of SD cards, few companies build MMC slots into their devices (an exception is some mobile devices like the Nokia 9300 communicator in 2004, where the smaller size of the MMC is a benefit), but the slightly thinner, pin-compatible MMCs can be used in almost any device that can use SD cards if the software/firmware on the device is capable.\n", "In the ADP-MAA adapter, pins 2 and 3 (\"ID2\" and \"ID1\") are directly connected to GND, whereas pin 1 (\"ID3\") is pulled low via a 470 kΩ resistor.\n\nThe first cameras to use the Multi Interface Shoe are the SLT-A99, NEX-6, NEX-VG900, NEX-VG30, DSC-RX1 and DSC-HX50. It is also used on all newer cameras including the ILCA-series and ILCE-series. In 2014, the Hasselblad HV has become the first third-party camera to support the Multi Interface Shoe as well.\n", "In 2008, the SDA specified Embedded SD, \"leverag[ing] well-known SD standards\" to enable non-removable SD-style devices on printed circuit boards. However this standard was not adopted by the market while the MMC standard became the de facto standard for embedded systems. SanDisk provides such embedded memory components under the iNAND brand.\n", "Many camera phones and most digital cameras use memory cards having flash memory to store image data. The majority of cards for separate cameras are Secure Digital (SD) format; many are CompactFlash (CF) and the other formats are rare. XQD card format was the last new form of card, targeted at high-definition camcorders and high-resolution digital photo cameras. Most modern digital cameras also use internal memory for a limited capacity for pictures that can be transferred to or from the card or through the camera's connections; even without a memory card inserted into the camera.\n", "In addition, the maximum signal-to-noise ratio and the dynamic range can be read from the graph. The total SNR is plotted as a dashed line. It includes both the variances from the temporal noise and the nonuniformities. If this line lies recognizably below the solid line of the SNR curve, nonuniformities significantly reduce the performance of the camera.\n\nSection::::Summary data sheet.:EMVA 1288 Performance Parameters.\n\nThis column lists all EMVA 1288 performance parameters.\n\nSection::::EMVA1288 Compliance.\n", "Host devices that comply with newer versions of the specification provide backward compatibility and accept older SD cards. For example, SDXC host devices accept all previous families of SD memory cards, and SDHC host devices also accept standard SD cards.\n\nOlder host devices generally do not support newer card formats, and even when they might support the bus interface used by the card, there are several factors that arise:\n\nBULLET::::- A newer card may offer greater capacity than the host device can handle (over 4 GB for SDHC, over 32 GB for SDXC).\n", "By the time the version 2.0 (SDHC) specification was completed in June 2006, vendors had already devised 2 GB and 4 GB SD cards, either as specified in Version 1.01, or by creatively reading Version 1.00. The resulting cards do not work correctly in some host devices.\n\nSection::::Storage capacity and compatibilities.:SDSC cards above 1 GB.\n", "CompactFlash cards for use in consumer devices are typically formatted as FAT12 (for media up to 16 MB), FAT16 (for media up to 2 GB, sometimes up to 4 GB) and FAT32 (for media larger than 2 GB). This lets the devices be read by personal computers but also suits the limited processing ability of some consumer devices such as cameras.\n", "There are varying levels of compatibility among FAT32-compatible cameras, MP3 players, PDAs, and other devices. While any device that claims FAT32-capability should read and write to a FAT32-formatted card without problems, some devices are tripped up by cards larger than 2 GB that are completely unformatted, while others may take longer to apply a FAT32 format.\n", "Section::::Cables and connectors.\n\nThe standard prescribes 26-pin Miniature Delta Ribbon connectors (MDR-26) for use with Camera Link; the shrunk variant SDR-26 is allowed since standard version 1.2. The connector pin assignments are shown in the large figure in the previous section. The connector pinout is the following:\n\nMatching differential pairs are deliberately located at opposite sides of the connector, and at different connector sides at the different ends of the cable. This prevents skew due to the connector being mounted perpendicularly on a PCB.\n", "Some prosumer and professional digital cameras continued to offer CompactFlash (CF), either on a second card slot or as the only storage, as CF supports much higher maximum capacities and historically was cheaper for the same capacity.\n\nSecure Digital memory cards can be used in Sony XDCAM EX camcorders with an adapter and in Panasonic P2 card equipment with a MicroP2 adapter.\n\nSection::::Markets.:Personal computers.\n", "The SD Association sets industry standards for SD memory cards that define the next generation of memory cards that allow product-makers to develop new products. This strategy has made the SD memory card the most widely used removable memory card form factor in the industry.\n\nSection::::SD standards.\n", "BULLET::::- Panasonic AM13L-STK2 : MN101LR05D 8-bit MCU with built in ReRAM for evaluation, USB 2.0 connector\n\nSection::::Future applications.\n", "BULLET::::- SDHC cards are restricted to reporting a capacity not over 32 GB.\n\nBULLET::::- SDXC cards are allowed to use all 22 bits of the C_SIZE field. An SDHC card that did so (reported C_SIZE 65375 to indicate a capacity of over 32 GB) would violate the specification. A host device that relied on C_SIZE rather than the specification to determine the card's maximum capacity might support such a card, but the card might fail in other SDHC-compatible host devices.\n\nCapacity is calculated thus:\n", "SD cards are not the most economical solution in devices that need only a small amount of non-volatile memory, such as station presets in small radios. They may also not present the best choice for applications that require higher storage capacities or speeds as provided by other flash card standards such as CompactFlash. These limitations may be addressed by evolving memory technologies, such as the new SD 7.0 specifications which allow storage capabilities of up to 128 TB.\n", "As a result of the limited 32 MB ROM memory, the last two need a memory card to install, merging the phone memory with the memory card and thus making the external VGA camera unusable when using these updates, since the camera connects via the SD slot. Because of how the camera connects, there is much debate if the slot supports SDIO. It is generally believed that it has some kind of hardware support for IO devices but the lack of drivers for the MPx200 does not permit the use of this function for other possible addons. \n" ]	[ "Because memory cards are the same size, they shouldn't be able to carry more memory than another." ]	[ "Different softwares are implemented into each card that allows it to access more memory than the other." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Because memory cards are the same size, they shouldn't be able to carry more memory than another.", "Because memory cards are the same size, they shouldn't be able to carry more memory than another." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Different softwares are implemented into each card that allows it to access more memory than the other.", "Different softwares are implemented into each card that allows it to access more memory than the other." ]
2018-02914	Why does putting salt on a slug kill it?	> I'm comfortable with the idea of diffusion (by which I understand that, due to the continued random movement of particles, a given substance will spread out in a fluid until there is no concentration gradient in the container). This is the key to understanding osmosis, along with the idea that water is no exception to this rule. The salt ions will try to move from one side of the slug's skin to the other until they're evenly distributed ... but they can't, because the slug's skin doesn't allow salt to cross. But the skin doesn't block the movement of water molecules, and they behave just like the salt: they move from one side of the slug's skin to the other until they're equal in concentration. The salty slime on the skin has a lower concentration of water than the inside of the slug, so water moves outward to make the concentrations equal.	[ "At a business lunch that day in the City Hotel, David Watson tries to secure a new contract with Edward Canning and Kenneth Riggs. David is overcome by a terrible headache until finally blood gushes from one of his nostrils and a long white worm slithers out of it. David falls onto a table dying as another slug bursts out of one of his eyes. A waiter from the restaurant calls the Local Health Inspector.\n", "Brady goes to see if the poison has done its job, but although some of the pellets have gone, the slugs are still there.\n\nComputer firm rep David Watson and his wife Maureen sit down to Sunday lunch. David eats half a slug which was hidden in some lettuce. He goes to bed that night with a terrible stomach ache and awakes with a very bad headache.\n", "Brady goes to a garden centre and buys a bottle of slug poison and some slug pellets. He puts them down in his garden.\n", "Death by Salt\n\nDeath By Salt is SLUG Magazine's signature local music compilation series. Its name refers to the vulnerability of slugs to salt.\n", "\"G. atlanticus\" is able to feed on the Portuguese man o' war due to its immunity to the venomous nematocysts. The slug consumes the entire organism and appears to select and store the most venomous nematocysts for its own use. The nematocysts are collected in specialized sacs (cnidosacs) at the tip of the animal's cerata, the thin feather-like \"fingers\" on its body. Because \"Glaucus\" concentrates the venom, it can produce a more powerful and deadly sting than the Man o' War on which it feeds.\n", "BULLET::::- Xbitter - Ghouled Xmitter. Creates an electro magnetic wave that frazzles an opponents blaster for a long period of time. Element: Metal\n\nSection::::Artificial.\n\nIn the Episode Roboslugs, Quentin, a brilliant scientist, developed a serious case of Molluscophobia, an extreme fear of Slugs when he was a kid. This fear turned into hatred which drove Quentin to create Artificial Slugs, which he used to enforce his rule of Futuria Cavern.\n", "Mike Brady and his wife Kim are doing some gardening when Brady is attacked by slugs who try to bite his hand. He manages to put three of the slugs into a jar. Mike and Kim take the captured slugs to Merton Museum for advice. Museum curator John Foley examines the slugs but tells them he is no expert. Brady asks Foley if he thinks slugs could kill a man. He puts a pond snail in a tray with a slug and the slug immediately eats the snail.\n", "Mecha Beasts are infused with Slug-energy, which unfortunately means that they can by Ghouled by applying Dark Water to their cores. A Ghouled Mecha will start to behave erratically and its eyes will glow red. It will eventually stop obeying orders, turn on its rider, and then explode. It can be cured by healing Slugs.\n\nSection::::Mecha Beasts.:Modification.\n", "BULLET::::- Digestive system replaced by a hollow cavity that houses a pair of semi-sentient slugs called Eany and Meany who bore their way out of his torso and then use powerful enzymes to process and digest any solid objects in their path at super speeds, transmitting food energy back to their host to supercharge his physical size, strength, stamina, and sturdiness while turning his skin blue and his eyes red, but the slugs must re-enter through his belly and release their storage internally to feed his body properly.\n", "The multimedia campaign, including advertising hoardings, television commercials and Internet coverage, was based on the premise that salt kills slugs, and can harm humans too. The Salt Manufacturers' Association filed a complaint to the Advertising Standards Authority, their complaint being that the information presented was misleading. The Advertising Standards Authority did not uphold the SMA complaint in its adjudication.\n\nThe ASA had to deal with another complaint from a member of the public, that the use of the name \"Sid\" was offensive; this was also rejected, with the ASA instead arguing that most people would find it \"humorous\".\n", "Bert Crossley, a butcher on the new housing estate enjoys a lunch time drink with friends Danny and Tony. On arriving back at his shop afterwards, he discovers the meat he had left in cabinets has vanished, only a few scraps and dark patches of blood remain.\n", "BULLET::::- InfernoSlam: \"Infurnus\"+\"Rammstone\" – Once launched, the Slugs will spin around each other, leading to a Rammstone with blazing horns. Used to destroy the containment tube the Game Master used to collect the slugs used by his contestants out at Lands End Cavern.\n\nBULLET::::- ElectroSpear: \"Tazerling\"+\"Dirt Urchin\" – Once the Slug starts spinning, electrified needles are then shot out. Used to defeat the first Lightwell guardian.\n", "BULLET::::- Salt Manufacturers' Association press release Sid the Slug slips up 18 October 2004\n\nBULLET::::- BBC Salt firms complain over campaign 20 September 2004\n\nBULLET::::- BBC Sid says salt stinks. Salt says same of Sid 23 September 2004\n\nBULLET::::- \"Daily Telegraph\" (Dr James Le Fanu) In sickness and in health: take Sid the Slug's warning with a pinch of salt\n\nBULLET::::- News-Medical.Net article on the SMA's complaint Salt Association hits back at 'Sid the Slug' campaign\n\nBULLET::::- FSA ASA throws out complaint against Agency 12 October 2004\n", "BULLET::::- The Santa Cruz aquatic garter snake eats preferentially minute fish and amphibian larvae.\n\nSection::::DNA analysis.\n", "BULLET::::- Quentin (voiced by Andy Toth): A mad scientist who wanted to get rid of Slugs and replace them with roboslugs. His goggles scan Slugs and program counter measures. During a field trip, Quentin fell into a room with Slugs and was trapped inside. After being found 2 days later, he developed Molluscophobia (Phobia of Slugs) and became obsessed with ridding Slugterra of slugs. He gave up and was arrested peacefully, but soon after, Dr. Blakk arrived and offered him a job. After a long absence he returns in the episodes \"Upgrade\". He follows the Shane gang who are trying to get the recently captured Dr. Blakk to a high security prison, using a large battle tank, dubbed the Titan.\n", "Slugs (novel)\n\nSlugs is a 1982 UK horror novel written by Shaun Hutson. In 1988, it was adapted as an American horror/spanish film of the same name. In this book, carnivorous slugs go on a rampage.\n\nSection::::Synopsis.\n\nSlugs in the cellar of an old house feed on scraps of rotten meat someone is unknowingly throwing down to them.\n\nA very drunk Ron Bell stumbles home, passes out in his front room and wakes to find himself being eaten alive by slugs that have come through the floor. The slugs then retreat back down the cellar.\n", "Brady returns home and tells Kim about the days events at the City Hotel. He explains what Foley told him, adding that he thinks slugs killed Ron Bell. Kim goes into the kitchen to find six slugs which have crawled out of a tap. Brady kills them all but realises the slugs are in the water supply and will be all over Merton.\n\nGravedigger Charlie Barnes digs up a grave during the night to rob the occupants valuables, but is eaten alive by slugs when he falls in.\n", "Harold Morris, keen gardener, puts on a garden glove that has slugs in some of the fingers. They eat most of his hand by the time Harold, assisted by his wife Jean manage to cut it off with shears and a trowel.\n", "As would be expected of a mouse native to salt marshes, this species is a competent swimmer and is tolerant of salt in its diet and water supply. It eats seeds and plants, especially pickleweed and glasswort, one of the most common salt marsh plant species.\n", "\"Bolitoglossa rostrata\" and \"B. subpalmata\" are two rare examples of poisonous salamanders within their genus. The poison is secreted through their skin as an antipredator mechanism. It is particularly toxic to certain snake species, rendering them immobile and unresponsive to external stimuli upon initial contact. The common defense tactic of these two species is to remain still in the presence of the snake until it makes initial contact (usually by the flickering of its tongue), and then run away as the paralytic poison begins to take effect in the snake.\n\nSection::::Evolution.\n\nSection::::Evolution.:Natural selection.\n", "When a rural town becomes prey to a strain of black slugs spawned from the disposal of toxic waste, it is up to the local health inspector to stop them. People die mysteriously and gruesomely, and only a health worker going by the name of Mike Brady has a possible solution, but his theory of killer slugs is ridiculed by the authorities. Only when the body count begins to rise and a slug expert begins investigating the town does it begin to appear as though Brady's theory may be right.\n\nSection::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Michael Garfield - Mike Brady\n", "BULLET::::- A nervous system centered around the paired cerebral, pedal, and pleural sets of ganglia. These ganglia create a ring around the limpet's esophagus called a circumesophageal nerve ring or nerve collar. Other nerves in the head/ snout are the optic nerves which connect to the two eye spots located at the base of the cerebral tentacles (these eyespots, when present, are only able to sense light and darkness and do not provide any imagery), as well as the labial and buccal ganglia which are associated with feeding and controlling the animal's odontophore, the muscular cushion used to support the limpet's radula (a kind of tongue) that scrapes algae off the surrounding rock for nutrition. Behind these ganglia lie the pedal nerve cords which control the movement of the foot, and the visceral ganglion which in limpets has been torted during the course of evolution. This means, among other things, that the limpet's left osphradium and oshradial ganglion (an organ believed used to sense the time to produce gametes) is controlled by its right pleural ganglion and vice versa.\n", "Kath Green leaves her two-year-old daughter Amanda playing with her dolls in her conservatory to buy the little girl an ice cream. In her mother's absence, Amanda finds a slime trail, puts her hand in it and licks it off. Later that night, Kath rushes into Amanda's bedroom to find her convulsing on the bed. In a wild frenzy, Amanda bites her Mum's neck who then falls downstairs bleeding to death. Ray Green returns home from work to find both his wife and daughter dead.\n", "\"P. hermaphrodita\" was isolated here and developed as a biological control agent (Nemaslug®) for minimising agriculture damage from slugs and snails in 1994.\n\nSection::::Anatomy.\n", "Section::::Guns for use with slugs.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-21489	Why do voter registration deadlines exist?	I suspect it's to allow for the preparation of voter rolls and such. For example, when I go to my polling place they have a book with the name of everyone registered in that area. When you come in to vote, they find your name in the book and you sign next to it so they know you've voted. That book takes time to lay out, print, and ship; so they would have to stop taking new registrations far enough in advance that they could get it done and out to the polling station. I imagine there are a number of other similar preparations that might likewise affect the timeline.	[ "In a 1980 landmark study, Raymond E. Wolfinger and Steven J. Rosenstone came to the conclusion that less restrictive registration requirements would substantially increase the electoral turnout. According to their probit analysis, if all states adopted the procedures of the most permissive state regulations, which would mean:\n\nBULLET::::1. eliminating the closing date\n\nBULLET::::2. opening registration offices during the forty-hour work week\n\nBULLET::::3. opening registration offices in the evening or on Saturday\n\nBULLET::::4. permitting absentee registration for the sick, disabled and absent\n", "Section::::Same-day voter registration or Election Day registration.\n\nIn the United States, states generally require voter registration. Some U.S. states do not require advance registration, instead allowing voters to register when they arrive at the polls, in what is called \"same day registration\" or \"election day registration\". North Dakota is the only state which has no registration requirement.\n\nSame-day registration (SDR) has been linked to higher voter turn-out, with SDR states reporting average turn-out of 71% in the 2012 United States Presidential election, well above the average voter turn-out rate of 59% for non-SDR states.\n\nSection::::Effects and controversy.\n", "Section::::Forms of facilitation.:Election Day / same-day.\n\nThe majority of states require voters to register two to four weeks before an election, with cutoff dates varying from 30 to 15 days.\n\nSome states allow Election Day voter registration (also known as EDR) which enables eligible citizens to register to vote or update their registration when they arrive to vote. Some states call the procedure same-day registration (SDR) because voters can register and vote during an earlier voting period before Election Day.\n", "The elimination of registration as a separate bureaucratic step can result in higher voter turnout. This is reflected in statistics from the United States Bureau of Census, 1982–1983. States that have same day registration, or no registration requirements, have a higher voter turnout than the national average. At the time of that report, the four states that allowed election day registration were Minnesota, Wisconsin, Maine, and Oregon. Since then, Idaho and Maine have changed to allow same day registration. North Dakota is the only state that requires no registration.\n\nSection::::International differences.:Institutional factors.:Compulsory voting.\n", "The state used to allow Election Day voter registration up until 1984, but a 1986 ballot measure in response to Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh's attempt to take over Wasco, County in 1984 by bringing homeless people to their ranch to register them to vote days before an election passed and amended the state constitution to restrict voter registration to 20 calendar days before an election.\n", "As of March 27, 2018, 17 states and the District of Columbia offer same day voter registration, which allows any qualified resident of the state to go to register to vote and cast a ballot all in that day. Additionally, 1 state (Washington) has enacted same day vote registration, which has yet to be implemented. Also, 9 states have voter registration possible for a portion of their early voting periods. \n", "Because of this history, voter registration laws and practices in the United States have been closely scrutinized by interest groups and the federal government, especially following passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. It authorized federal oversight of jurisdictions with a history of under-representation of certain portions of their populations in voting. Such laws are often controversial. Some advocate for their abolition, while others argue that the laws should be reformed, for instance: to allow voters to register on the day of the election. Several US states - Connecticut, Idaho, Iowa, Maine, Minnesota, Montana, New Hampshire, Wisconsin and Wyoming - have adopted this approach, called Election Day Registration. For the 2012 election year, California joined this list.\n", "BULLET::::- The United States Supreme Court struck down, as unconstitutional, a Tennessee law requiring one year's residency in the state before a person could register to vote. For the 6–1 majority ruling, Thurgood Marshall wrote \"30 days appears to be an ample period of time for the State to complete whatever administrative tasks are necessary to prevent fraud – and a year, or three months, too much\". At the time, all but a few states required at least six months' residency. The ruling, made in \"Dunn v. Blumstein\" (405 U.S. 330) effectively opened the way for as many as people to become eligible to register.\n", "The act exempts from its requirements states that have continuously, since March 11, 1993, not required voter registration for federal elections or that have offered Election Day voter registration for federal general elections. Six states satisfy these exemption requirements: North Dakota is exempt for having continuously allowed its residents to vote in federal elections without registering, while Idaho, Minnesota, New Hampshire, Wisconsin, and Wyoming have continuously offered Election Day voter registration for federal general elections. (Several states have since adopted some form of same-day voter registration, but these states are nevertheless subject to the act.)\n", "The modalities of how electoral registration is conducted can also affect turnout. For example, until \"rolling registration\" was introduced in the United Kingdom, there was no possibility of the electoral register being updated during its currency, or even amending genuine mistakes after a certain cut off date. The register was compiled in October, and would come into force the next February, and would remain valid until the next January. The electoral register would become progressively more out of date during its period of validity, as electors moved or died (also people studying or working away from home often had difficulty voting). This meant that elections taking place later in the year tended to have lower turnouts than those earlier in the year. The introduction of rolling registration where the register is updated monthly has reduced but not entirely eliminated this issue since the process of amending the register is not automatic, and some individuals do not join the electoral register until the annual October compilation process. In comparison, the introduction of individual electoral registration in the UK was thought to have negatively affected the number of eligible citizens on the register and voter turnout.\n", "Voter registration in the United States is the voter registration that is required for voting in federal, state and local elections in the United States. The only exception is North Dakota, which does not require registration, although North Dakota law allows cities to register voters for city elections. Voter registration takes place at the county level in many states and at the municipal level in several states. Most states set cutoff dates for voter registration, ranging from 2 to 4 weeks before an election; while a third of states have Election Day or \"same-day\" voter registration which enables eligible citizens to register or update their registration when they vote before or on Election Day.\n", "Many state and local government offices are also elected on Election Day as a matter of convenience and cost saving, although a handful of states hold elections for state offices (such as governor) during odd-numbered \"off years\", or during other even-numbered \"midterm years\", and may hold special elections for offices that have become vacant. Congress has mandated a uniform date for presidential () and congressional ( and ) elections, though early voting is nonetheless authorized in many states.\n", "General elections for state offices were moved to make them simultaneous with federal elections (November in even-numbered years), with elections for county and judicial offices to be held in August of even-numbered years; that later became the traditional date for primary elections for the statewide offices to be held as well so that the day on which, for example, a sheriff was elected would be the same day as the primary election for governor would be held.\n", "Electoral rolls, under various names, are used in, for example, the United States, United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand, but not all jurisdictions require voter registration as a prerequisite for voting, such as in the State of North Dakota in the United States. Most jurisdictions close updating of electoral rolls some period, commonly 14 or 28 days, before an election, but some American jurisdictions allow registration at the same time as attending a polling station to vote, and Australia closes the rolls 7 days after an election is called, rather than with reference to election day.\n", "Traditionally, voters have had to register at government offices to vote, but in 1993 Congress passed the National Voter Registration Act of 1993, also known as the \"Motor Voter\" law, which came into effect on January 1, 1995, to make registering easier, in an attempt to increase turnout. The law requires state governments to provide opt-in registration services through drivers' license registration centers, disability centers, schools, libraries, and mail-in registration, though the States which since March 11, 1993, have not required voter registration for federal elections or had same-day voter registration on Election Day were exempt from the Act. Six states qualify for the exemption: North Dakota (which does not have registration), Idaho, Minnesota, New Hampshire, Wisconsin and Wyoming.\n", "It has been argued that some registration requirements deter some people (especially disadvantaged people) from registering and therefore exercising their right to vote, resulting in a lower voter turnout. According to a 2012 study, 24% of the voting-eligible population in the United States are not registered to vote, equaling some 51 million U.S. citizens. While voters traditionally had to register at government offices by a certain period of time before an election, in the mid-1990s, the federal government made efforts to facilitate registering, in an attempt to increase turnout. The National Voter Registration Act of 1993 (the \"Motor Voter\" law) now requires state governments to \"either\" provide uniform opt-in registration services through drivers' license registration centers, disability centers, schools, libraries, and mail-in registration, \"or\" to allow Election Day voter registration, where voters can register at polling places immediately prior to voting. In 2016, Oregon became the first state to make voter registration fully automatic (opt-out) when issuing driver licenses and ID cards, since followed by four more states. Political parties and other organizations sometimes hold \"voter registration drives\", that is, events to register new voters.\n", "Presently, as there are no on-point federal regulations, the states retain the authority to regulate the dates on which other aspects of the election process are held (registration, primary elections, etc.) and where elections will be held. As for regulating the \"manner\" of elections, the Supreme Court has interpreted this to mean \"matters like notices, registration, supervision of voting, protection of voters, prevention of fraud and corrupt practices, counting of votes, duties of inspectors and canvassers, and making and publication of election returns.\" The Supreme Court has held that States may \"not\" exercise their power to determine the \"manner\" of holding elections to impose term limits on their congressional delegation.\n", "The current system of registration in the United Kingdom (UK), introduced by the Labour government, is known as rolling registration. Electors can register with a local authority at any time of the year. This replaced the twice-yearly census of electors, which often disenfranchised those who had moved during the interval between censuses.\n", "Registration laws making it harder for voters to register correlate strongly with lower percentages of people turning out to vote where voting is voluntary.\n", "Voter registration in the United States is an independent responsibility, so citizens choose whether they want to register or not. This led to only 64% of the voting age population being registered to vote in 2016. The United States is one of the sole countries that requires its citizens to register separately from voting. The lack of automatic registration contributes to the issue that there are over a third of eligible citizen in the United States that are not registered to vote.\n", "The act exempts from its requirements the states that have continuously, since March 11, 1993, not required voter registration for federal elections or that have offered Election Day voter registration (EDR) for federal general elections. Six states qualify for exemption from the act: North Dakota (which does not require registration), Idaho, Minnesota, New Hampshire, Wisconsin and Wyoming. Maine lost the exemption when it abolished EDR in 2011, although EDR was subsequently restored in that state.\n\nSection::::Background.\n", "Public voting in Rome was originally a process that did not allow for a true choice from the people. After the Senate prepared a list of candidates, it was the magistrate that narrowed the list to the two candidates that could contend for the nomination. Later on in the Roman Republic a practice called \"professio\" was established, in which potential candidates started to “profess to the magistrate” their wish to be nominated for candidacy. This led to the nominated candidates publicly advertising their aspirations to office and even “[conducting] their own canvass,” clearly campaigning with the idea of voters’ choice in mind. Still, the people’s power could be limited, as there were a few instances in 201 BC and 169 BC when candidates suspiciously became elected just a day after they declared themselves a candidate, which would of course allow no real time for the people to be aware of, much less vote for, such last-minute choices. In the later century, however, more concrete rules were established regarding the behavior and canvassing of candidates. These laws kept people from declaring candidacy the day before an election, requiring the professio to be made before a certain set date.\n", "Section::::Hawaii State House of Representatives.:Same-day and automatic voter registration.\n\nIn 2013 and 2014, Ing introduced a bill to provide for a same-day voter registration law. With the support of Common Cause, the League of Women Voters, and Faith Action for Community Equity (FACE), the revised bill passed and was signed into law on July 1, 2014. The law has allowed voters to register and vote during a single visit at all early-polling places in Hawaii starting in 2016, and at all polling places on election day starting in 2018.\n\nSection::::Hawaii State House of Representatives.:Mark Zuckerberg's quiet title action.\n", "Despite high turnout during the Arizona Democratic primary, 2016, many voters spent over five hours in lines at several Maricopa County and Arizona polling stations. From 2008 to 2016, polling locations were cut down over 70 percent, from over 200 to 40. State officials claimed the decrease was a cost savings directive. Republican Governor Doug Ducey stated, \"If people want to take the time to vote they should be able to, and their vote should be counted.\"\n\nSection::::Historical examples.:2016 presidential election.:Kansas.\n", "The Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971 was enacted to increase disclosure of contributions for federal campaigns. Subsequent amendments to law require that candidates to a federal office must file a Statement of Candidacy with the Federal Election Commission before they can receive contributions aggregating in excess of $5,000 or make expenditures aggregating in excess of $5,000. Thus, this began a trend of presidential candidates declaring their intentions to run as early as the Spring of the previous calendar year so they can start raising and spending the money needed for their nationwide campaign.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02837	does the human body really have a 24 hour body clock?	Kinda, yes. We have a [circadian clock]( URL_0 ), a biological mechanism that works by releasing certain hormones over a 24 hour period, as well as taking external cues such as the Sun. Without external cues, the circadian clock can actually run a bit longer or shorter than 24 hours, and in babies it's still all messed up (which is why they have an irregular sleep schedule). Not just humans have a circadian clock, almost every animal does. This has nothing to do with leap years though, since leap years just add a whole day, not messing with our circadian clock.	[ "The circadian rhythms of humans can be entrained to slightly shorter and longer periods than the Earth's 24 hours. Researchers at Harvard have shown that human subjects can at least be entrained to a 23.5-hour cycle and a 24.65-hour cycle (the latter being the natural solar day-night cycle on the planet Mars).\n\nSection::::In mammals.:Humans.\n", "The term circadian derives from the Latin \"circa\" (about) \"diem\" (a day), since when taken away from external cues (such as environmental light), they do not run to exactly 24 hours. Clocks in humans in a lab in constant low light, for example, will average about 24.2 hours per day, rather than 24 hours exactly.\n\nThe normal body clock oscillates with an endogenous period of exactly 24 hours, it entrains, when it receives sufficient daily corrective signals from the environment, primarily daylight and darkness. Circadian clocks are the central mechanisms that drive circadian rhythms. They consist of three major components:\n", "While a precise 24-hour circadian clock is found in many organisms, it is not universal. Organisms living in the high arctic or high antarctic do not experience solar time in all seasons, though most are believed to maintain a circadian rhythm close to 24 hours, such as bears during torpor. Much of the earth's biomass resides in the dark biosphere, and while these organisms may exhibit rhythmic physiology, for these organisms the dominant rhythm is unlikely to be circadian. For east-west migratory organisms—and especially should an organism circumnavigate the globe—the absolute 24-hour phase might deviate over months, seasons, or years.\n", "Non-24-hour sleep-wake disorder is diagnosed when the patient fails to follow (\"entrain\" to) a 24-hour light-dark cycle and clock times. As such, the \"entrainment\" status (defined as whether the hypothalamic circadian clock is synchronized to a 24-hour day) physiologically defines this disorder and can thus be used as the sole outcome measure. This is similar to elevated blood pressure characterizing essential hypertension. In contrast to other circadian rhythm sleep disorders (CRSD), a diagnosis of non-24-hour sleep-wake disorder requires the documentation of progressive shifting of the sleep-wake times over at least 14 days using sleep diaries and/or actigraphy.\n", "Section::::Estimating based on AMH archaeology.\n", "Section::::Importance in animals.:Effect of circadian disruption.\n\nMutations or deletions of clock gene in mice have demonstrated the importance of body clocks to ensure the proper timing of cellular/metabolic events; clock-mutant mice are hyperphagic and obese, and have altered glucose metabolism. In mice, deletion of the Rev-ErbA alpha clock gene facilitates diet-induced obesity and changes the balance between glucose and lipid utilization predisposing to diabetes. However, it is not clear whether there is a strong association between clock gene polymorphisms in humans and the susceptibility to develop the metabolic syndrome.\n\nSection::::Importance in animals.:Effect of light–dark cycle.\n", "Circadian clock\n\nA circadian clock, or circadian oscillator, is a biochemical oscillator that cycles with a stable phase and is synchronized with solar time.\n\nSuch a clock's \"in vivo\" period is necessarily almost exactly 24 hours (the earth's current solar day). In most living things, internally synchronized circadian clocks make it possible for the organism to anticipate daily environmental changes corresponding with the day–night cycle and adjust its biology and behavior accordingly.\n", "The disorder also occurs in sighted people for reasons that are not well understood. Their circadian rhythms are not normal, often running to more than 25 hours. Their visual systems may function normally but their brains are incapable of making the large adjustment to a 24-hour schedule.\n\nThough often referred to as non-24, for example by the FDA, the disorder is also known as: non-24-hour sleep–wake syndrome or disorder, free-running disorder (FRD), hypernychthemeral syndrome, hypernychthemeral sleep-wake cycle disturbance, circadian rhythm sleep disorder—free-running type or nonentrained type, non-24-hour circadian rhythm disorder.\n", "Humans with regular circadian function have been shown to maintain regular sleep schedules, regulate daily rhythms in hormone secretion, and sustain oscillations in core body temperature. Even in the absence of Zeitgebers, humans will continue to maintain a roughly 24-hour rhythm in these biological activities. Regarding sleep, normal circadian function allows people to maintain balance rest and wakefulness that allows people to work and maintain alertness during the day's activities, and rest at night.\n", "When animals or people \"free-run\", experiments can be done to see what sort of signals, known as zeitgebers, are effective in entrainment. Also, much work has been done to see how long or short a circadian cycle to which different organisms can be entrained. For example, some animals can be entrained to a 22-hour day, but they can not be entrained to a 20-hour day. In recent studies funded by the U.S. space industry, it has been shown that most humans can be entrained to a 23.5-hour day and to a 24.65-hour day.\n", "Humans are normally diurnal creatures, that is to say they are active in the daytime. As with most other diurnal animals, human activity-rest patterns are endogenously controlled by biological clocks with a circadian (~24-hour) period. Chronotypes have also been investigated in other species, such as fruit flies and mice.\n", "In sighted people, the diagnosis is typically made based on a history of persistently delayed sleep onset that follows a non-24-hour pattern. In their large series, Hayakawa reported the average day length was 24.9 ± 0.4 hours (with the range of 24.4–26.5). There may be evidence of \"relative coordination\" with the sleep schedule becoming more normal as it coincides with the conventional timing for sleep. Most reported cases have documented a non-24-hour sleep schedule with a sleep diary (see below) or actigraphy. In addition to the sleep diary, the timing of melatonin secretion or core body temperature rhythm has been measured in a few patients who were enrolled in research studies, confirming the endogenous generation of the non-24-hour circadian rhythm.\n", "Underlying the foundation of light as therapy is the understanding that all living organisms have biological rhythms that repeat approximately in 24-hour cycles, in accordance with the cycle of sunlight. The most prominent way to measure whether a body is entrained in this circadian cycle is by measuring melatonin secretion, cortisol, and core body temperature. The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) regulates melatonin and temperature and typically produces melatonin at night. Melatonin informs the body when it is time to sleep.\n", "An organism whose circadian clock exhibits a regular rhythm corresponding to outside signals is said to be \"entrained\"; an entrained rhythm persists even if the outside signals suddenly disappear. If an entrained human is isolated in a bunker with constant light or darkness, he or she will continue to experience rhythmic increases and decreases of body temperature and melatonin, on a period which slightly exceeds 24 hours. Scientists refer to such conditions as free-running of the circadian rhythm. Under natural conditions, light signals regularly adjust this period downward, so that it corresponds better with the exact 24 hours of an Earth day.\n", "The first detailed study of non-24 in a blind subject was by Miles Le and his colleagues in 1977. The researchers reported on a 28-year-old male who had a 24.9-hour rhythm in sleep, plasma cortisol, and other parameters. Even while adhering to a typical 24-hour schedule for bedtime, rise time, work, and meals, the man's body rhythms continued to shift.\n\nSection::::Research.\n", "Biological clock\n\nBiological clock may refer to:\n\nBULLET::::- Age and female fertility, decrease of female fertility with advancing maternal age\n\nBULLET::::- Ageing, biological program that limits the lifespan of an individual\n\nBULLET::::- Circadian clock, a molecular mechanism that results in a circadian rhythm in a living organism\n\nBULLET::::- Circadian rhythm, biological process that displays an oscillation about 24 hours, such as the human sleep-wake cycle (the \"body clock\")\n\nBULLET::::- Epigenetic clock, a set of DNA sites whose methylation levels can be used to measure aging throughout the body\n", "Lighting requirements for circadian regulation are not simply the same as those for vision; planning of indoor lighting in offices and institutions is beginning to take this into account. Animal studies on the effects of light in laboratory conditions have until recently considered light intensity (irradiance) but not color, which can be shown to \"act as an essential regulator of biological timing in more natural settings\".\n\nSection::::Human health.:Obesity and diabetes.\n", "The term \"circadian\" comes from the Latin \"circa\", meaning \"around\" (or \"approximately\"), and \"diēm\", meaning \"day\". The formal study of biological temporal rhythms, such as daily, tidal, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called chronobiology. Processes with 24-hour oscillations are more generally called diurnal rhythms; strictly speaking, they should not be called circadian rhythms unless their endogenous nature is confirmed.\n", "The first recorded observation of an endogenous circadian oscillation was by the French scientist Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan in 1729. He noted that 24-hour patterns in the movement of the leaves of the plant \"Mimosa pudica\" continued even when the plants were kept in constant darkness, in the first experiment to attempt to distinguish an endogenous clock from responses to daily stimuli.\n", "The \"Oxford English Dictionary\" (OED) defines the term as \"twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week; constantly\". It lists its first reference to 24/7 to be from a 1983 story in the US magazine \"Sports Illustrated\" in which Louisiana State University player Jerry Reynolds describes his jump shot in just such a way: 24-7-365.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Commercial business.\n", "Different organisms such as bacteria, plants, fungi, and animals, show genetically-based near-24-hour rhythms. Although all of these clocks appear to be based on a similar type of genetic feedback loop, the specific genes involved are thought to have evolved independently in each kingdom. Many aspects of mammalian behavior and physiology show circadian rhythmicity, including sleep, physical activity, alertness, hormone levels, body temperature, immune function, and digestive activity. The SCN coordinates these rhythms across the entire body, and rhythmicity is lost if the SCN is destroyed. For example, total time of sleep is maintained in rats with SCN damage, but the length and timing of sleep episodes becomes erratic. The SCN maintains control across the body by synchronizing \"slave oscillators,\" which exhibit their own near-24-hour rhythms and control circadian phenomena in local tissue.\n", "The first report and description of a case of non-24, a man living on 26-hour days, who happened to be sighted, was \"A man with too long a day\" by Ann L. Eliott et al. in November 1970. The related and more common delayed sleep phase disorder was not described until 1981.\n", "Much of Aschoff's later work involved tests on human subjects. He found that the absence of a light-dark cycle does not prevent humans from entrainment. Rather, knowing the time of day from social cues, such as regular meal times, is sufficient for entrainment. \n", "Section::::Research.:Circadian Rhythms in Olfaction.\n", "Though oscillators in the skin respond to light, a systemic influence has not been proven. In addition, many oscillators, such as liver cells, for example, have been shown to respond to inputs other than light, such as feeding.\n\nSection::::Light and the biological clock.\n\nLight resets the biological clock in accordance with the phase response curve (PRC). Depending on the timing, light can advance or delay the circadian rhythm. Both the PRC and the required illuminance vary from species to species and lower light levels are required to reset the clocks in nocturnal rodents than in humans.\n\nSection::::Enforced longer cycles.\n" ]	[ "The human body has a 24 hour clock. " ]	[ "While the human body technically does have a 24 hour clock, sometimes the clock can run a little longer or spend less time than 24 hours." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The human body has a 24 hour clock. ", "The human body has a 24 hour clock. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "While the human body technically does have a 24 hour clock, sometimes the clock can run a little longer or spend less time than 24 hours.", "While the human body technically does have a 24 hour clock, sometimes the clock can run a little longer or spend less time than 24 hours." ]
2018-13471	How is the exchange rate for currencies determined?	Float : USD rate is depending on what the foreign exchange market believe it is to be worth. What causes it to go up and down simply is how much people are buying or selling the dollar for tradw uses/investment. Like apples ..if there are a lot of people wanting apples from Mr. John down the street and he's the only one but has limited amount of apples to sell..the value per apple will rise. If no one wants it or if Mr. John has too much apples..he will lower price to get some people to buy it..thus people will value the apple less. To get into the complexity of currency market is far beyond ELI5 especially with interesting rates and free flowing capital (the trifecta system..you can only control two). The other side is a fixed exchange rate: countries like China and others will tie their currency to USD or another currency..buying or selling that currency to keep their own value. Fun article to see what happens when a nation suddenly stops fixed currency. URL_0 There is a third way but I'm sure 5 year old tommy has gotten bored.	[ "Supply and demand for any given currency, and thus its value, are not influenced by any single element, but rather by several. These elements generally fall into three categories: economic factors, political conditions and market psychology.\n\nSection::::Determinants of exchange rates.:Economic factors.\n\nThese include: (a) economic policy, disseminated by government agencies and central banks, (b) economic conditions, generally revealed through economic reports, and other economic indicators.\n", "Each country determines the exchange rate regime that will apply to its currency. For example, the currency may be free-floating, pegged (fixed), or a hybrid.\n\nIf a currency is free-floating, its exchange rate is allowed to vary against that of other currencies and is determined by the market forces of supply and demand. Exchange rates for such currencies are likely to change almost constantly as quoted on financial markets, mainly by banks, around the world.\n", "BULLET::::- Buying rate: Also known as the purchase price, it is the price used by the foreign exchange bank to buy foreign currency from the customer. In general, the exchange rate where the foreign currency is converted to a smaller number of domestic currencies is the buying rate, which indicates how much the country's currency is required to buy a certain amount of foreign exchange.\n", "BULLET::::6. Government market intervention: When exchange rate fluctuations in the foreign exchange market adversely affect a country’s economy, trade, or the government needs to achieve certain policy goals through exchange rate adjustments, monetary authorities can participate in currency trading, buying or selling local or foreign currencies in large quantities in the market. The foreign exchange supply and demand has caused the exchange rate to change.\n", "BULLET::::- Cross rate: After the basic exchange rate is worked out, the exchange rate of the local currency against other foreign currencies can be calculated through the basic exchange rate. The resulting exchange rate is the cross exchange rate.\n\nSection::::Exchange rate classification.:Other classifications.\n\nBULLET::::- According to the payment method in foreign exchange transactions:\n\nBULLET::::- Telegraphic exchange rate\n\nBULLET::::- Mail transfer rate\n\nBULLET::::- Demand draft rate\n\nBULLET::::- According to the level of foreign exchange controls:\n", "An exchange rate is a price at which two currencies can be exchanged against each other. This is used for trade between the two currency zones. Exchange rates can be classified as either floating or fixed. In the former, day-to-day movements in exchange rates are determined by the market; in the latter, governments intervene in the market to buy or sell their currency to balance supply and demand at a static exchange rate.\n", "BULLET::::- According to the method of setting the exchange rate:\n\nBULLET::::- Basic rate: Usually choose a key convertible currency that is the most commonly used in international economic transactions and accounts for the largest proportion of foreign exchange reserves. Compare it with the currency of the country and set the exchange rate. This exchange rate is the basic exchange rate. The key currency generally refers to a world currency, which is widely used for pricing, settlement, reserve currency, freely convertible, and internationally accepted currency.\n", "If the exchange rate drifts too far above the fixed benchmark rate (it is stronger than required), the government sells its own currency (which increases Supply) and buys foreign currency. This causes the price of the currency to decrease in value (Read: Classical Demand-Supply diagrams). Also, if they buy the currency it is pegged to, then the price of that currency will increase, causing the relative value of the currencies to be closer to the intended relative value (unless it overshoots...)\n", "Like the stock exchange, money can be made (or lost) on trading by investors and speculators in the foreign exchange market. Currencies can be traded at spot and foreign exchange options markets. The spot market represents current exchange rates, whereas options are derivatives of exchange rates.\n\nSection::::Manipulation of exchange rates.\n", "Quotation using a country's home currency as the price currency is known as direct quotation or price quotation (from that country's perspective) \n\nQuotation using a country's home currency as the unit currency (for example, USD 1.11 = EUR 1.00 in the Eurozone) is known as indirect quotation or quantity quotation and is used in British newspapers ; it is also common in Australia, New Zealand and the Eurozone.\n", "BULLET::::3. Asset market model: views currencies as an important asset class for constructing investment portfolios. Asset prices are influenced mostly by people's willingness to hold the existing quantities of assets, which in turn depends on their expectations on the future worth of these assets. The asset market model of exchange rate determination states that “the exchange rate between two currencies represents the price that just balances the relative supplies of, and demand for, assets denominated in those currencies.”\n", "Exchange rates are determined in the foreign exchange market, which is open to a wide range of different types of buyers and sellers, and where currency trading is continuous: 24 hours a day except weekends, i.e. trading from 20:15 GMT on Sunday until 22:00 GMT Friday. The spot exchange rate refers to the current exchange rate. The forward exchange rate refers to an exchange rate that is quoted and traded today but for delivery and payment on a specific future date.\n", "Under a system of fixed-convertibility, currency is bought and sold by the central bank or monetary authority on a daily basis to achieve the target exchange rate. This target rate may be a fixed level or a fixed band within which the exchange rate may fluctuate until the monetary authority intervenes to buy or sell as necessary to maintain the exchange rate within the band. (In this case, the fixed exchange rate with a fixed level can be seen as a special case of the fixed exchange rate with bands where the bands are set to zero.)\n", "Under a system of fiat fixed rates, the local government or monetary authority declares a fixed exchange rate but does not actively buy or sell currency to maintain the rate. Instead, the rate is enforced by non-convertibility measures (e.g. capital controls, import/export licenses, etc.). In this case there is a black market exchange rate where the currency trades at its market/unofficial rate.\n", "A country's GNI in local (national) currency is converted into U.S. dollars using the Atlas conversion factor, which uses a three-year average of exchange rates to smooth effects of transitory exchange rate fluctuations, adjusted for the difference between the rate of inflation in the country (using the country's GDP deflator), and that in a number of developed countries (using a weighted average of the countries' GDP deflators in SDR terms). The resulting GNI in U.S. dollars is divided by the country's midyear population to obtain the GNI per capita.\n", "Under this system, the central bank first announces a fixed exchange-rate for the currency and then agrees to buy and sell the domestic currency at this value. The market equilibrium exchange rate is the rate at which supply and demand will be equal, i.e., markets will clear. In a flexible exchange rate system, this is the spot rate. In a fixed exchange-rate system, the pre-announced rate may not coincide with the market equilibrium exchange rate. The foreign central banks maintain reserves of foreign currencies and gold which they can sell in order to intervene in the foreign exchange market to make up the excess demand or take up the excess supply \n", "Currency board is an exchange rate regime in which a country's exchange rate maintain a fixed exchange rate with a foreign currency, based on an explicit legislative commitment. It is a type of fixed regime that has special legal and procedural rules designed to make the peg \"harder—that is, more durable.\" Examples include the Hong Kong dollar against the U.S dollar and Bulgarian lev against the Euro.\n\nDollarisation\n\nDollarisation, also \"currency substitution\", means a country unilaterally adopts the currency of another country. \n", "There is only a tiny variation around the fixed exchange rate against another currency, well within plus or minus 2%.\n\nFor example, Denmark has fixed its exchange rate against the euro, keeping it very close to 7.44 krone per euro (0.134 euro per krone).\n\nCrawling peg\n\nThe currency steadily depreciates or appreciates at an almost constant rate against another currency. And the exchange rate follows a simple trend.\n\nCrawling band\n\nSome variation about the rate is allowed, and adjusted as above.\n\nFor example, Colombia from 1996 to 2002, and Chile in the 1990s.\n\nCurrency basket peg\n", "Section::::The retail exchange market.\n", "Section::::Quotations.\n\nThere is a market convention that determines which is the fixed currency and which is the variable currency. In most parts of the world, the order is: EUR – GBP – AUD – NZD – USD – others. Accordingly, in a conversion from EUR to AUD, EUR is the fixed currency, AUD is the variable currency and the exchange rate indicates how many Australian dollars would be paid or received for 1 Euro. Cyprus and Malta, which were quoted as the base to the USD and others, were recently removed from this list when they joined the Eurozone.\n", "Section::::Hybrid exchange rate systems.:Monetary co-operation.:Example: The Snake.\n", "In January 2019 Asgardia by voting chose the basket of currencies. Using the results of this voting, the Ministry of Finance and its counterpart, the parliamentary Finance Committee, will analyse and examine how the Solar may be freely exchanged against those currencies in open markets and at what future exchange rates.\n\nThe following 12 currencies have been selected: US Dollar; Euro; British Pound; Japanese Yen; Canadian Dollar; Swiss Franc; Hong Kong Dollar; Mexican Peso; Australian Dollar; Singapore Dollar; Norwegian Krone; Swedish Krona.\n\nSection::::Economy.:Economic Forum.\n", "Section::::Hybrid exchange rate systems.:Currency boards.\n", "The officially quoted rate is a spot price. In a trading market however, currencies are offered for sale at an offering price (the \"ask price\"), and traders looking to buy a position seek to do so at their \"bid price\", which is always lower or equal to the asking price. This price differential is known as the \"spread\". For example, if the quotation of EUR/USD is 1.3607/1.3609, then the spread is US$0.0002, or 2 pips. In general, markets with high liquidity exhibit smaller spreads than less frequently traded markets.\n", "Section::::Background.\n\nIn the absence of intervention in the foreign exchange market by national government authorities, the exchange rate of a country's currency is determined, in general, by market forces of supply and demand at a point in time. Government authorities may intervene in the market from time to time to achieve specific policy objectives, such as maintaining its balance of trade or to give its exporters a competitive advantage in international trade.\n\nSection::::Background.:Reasons for intentional devaluation.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-05109	Are there 'half' dimensions?	There are fractal dimensions, which usually consist of infinitely detailed patterns of lines or shapes. Though if you get too much into what a fractal dimension really means, then it gets blurry as to what a dimension really is. Fractal dimensions only work in a mathematical terms, not in a spatial reality. In a mathematical sense, a dimension can usually be defined as the rate of expansion of its respective measurement of space. When you increase the length of the side of a square, its area is the length to the power of 2, therefore giving it 2 dimensions. When you do the same thing to a cube, the amount its volume increases the length to the 3rd. This applies to every other dimensions. You may ask, "how would we know whether to measure by volume or area or even cells?" Imagine a square in 3d space, with an expanding length. This would normally make absolutely no sense since the square is infinitely thin, but for the sake of math lets ignore that. As the length of the square expands, the total volume it takes up is still going to be the length to the second power, as the thickness of the mathematically 2 dimensional square never gets thicker. If the thickness of the square increased with the length, then volume would be the length to the 3rd power & therefore be 3 dimensional. When increasing the length of a 4 dimensional cube (known as a tesseract), the amount of space it takes up increases to the 4th power, & so on. Anything that doesn't expand in whole number proportions are things that exist within fractal dimensions. This is kind of hard to explain through pure text, but bare with me. Imagine taking a line, & adding more line to create a bump in it. Then add more line to create a smaller bump within that bump. Then do that an infinite number of times. You get a fractal dimension. If you measure this in 1 dimensions (length) it is infinitely long, but if you measure it by 2 dimensions (area) it equals zero. Congratulations, you have created a thing that exist in a fractal dimension. If you have no idea what i mean, search up some imagery of fractals. A famous example is the coastline of Britain, which is pretty much always used when explaining a fractal dimension. The coastline is impossible to measure, because as your unit of measurement increases, so does its length. If you measure it with a ruler a meter long, you'll get a lower reading that misses fine detail. If you measure with a ruler a centimeter long, you still miss the extremely fine detail, and your measurement is even longer. Mathematically, the coastline is infinitely long & is a fractal dimension of approximately 1.25 for the west coast. In a practical realistic sense, this is not useful since the edges of Britain don't actually warp into another field of space, telling someone the fractal dimension count doesn't help them at all, & the coastline changes constantly due to things like erosion. Despite this, it is useful as an example of how a real world fractal applies to fractal dimensions. Note that I'm saying things such as "imagine" & "infinite". This is because fractal dimensions don't work in the way you're used to thinking of dimensions, in reality. When you define a dimension as a direction of space, you cannot move halfway between one dimension & the next without creating a mathematical paradox. However in math when were talking about the expansion of its length/space, it works out fine. If you're still having trouble grasping this, try [this 3Blue1Brown video]( URL_0 ) which explains it very well. Also typing this made me wonder, can we have imaginary, complex, or negative dimensions?	[ "It has been argued by some physicists, e.g., M. J. Duff, that the laws of physics are inherently dimensionless. The fact that we have assigned incompatible dimensions to Length, Time and Mass is, according to this point of view, just a matter of convention, borne out of the fact that before the advent of modern physics, there was no way to relate mass, length, and time to each other. The three independent dimensionful constants: \"c\", \"ħ\", and \"G\", in the fundamental equations of physics must then be seen as mere conversion factors to convert Mass, Time and Length into each other.\n", "BULLET::::- Warped extra dimensions, such as those proposed by the Randall–Sundrum model (RS), based on warped geometry where the universe is a five-dimensional anti-de Sitter space and the elementary particles except for the graviton are localized on a (3 + 1)-dimensional brane or branes.\n\nBULLET::::- Universal extra dimension, proposed and first studied in 2000, assume, at variance with the ADD and RS approaches, that all fields propagate universally in the extra dimensions.\n", "Section::::In philosophy.\n\nImmanuel Kant, in 1783, wrote: \"That everywhere space (which is not itself the boundary of another space) has three dimensions and that space in general cannot have more dimensions is based on the proposition that not more than three lines can intersect at right angles in one point. This proposition cannot at all be shown from concepts, but rests immediately on intuition and indeed on pure intuition \"a priori\" because it is apodictically (demonstrably) certain.\"\n", "Science fiction texts often mention the concept of \"dimension\" when referring to parallel or alternate universes or other imagined planes of existence. This usage is derived from the idea that to travel to parallel/alternate universes/planes of existence one must travel in a direction/dimension besides the standard ones. In effect, the other universes/planes are just a small distance away from our own, but the distance is in a fourth (or higher) spatial (or non-spatial) dimension, not the standard ones.\n", "The concept of dimension is not restricted to physical objects. s frequently occur in mathematics and the sciences. They may be parameter spaces or configuration spaces such as in Lagrangian or Hamiltonian mechanics; these are abstract spaces, independent of the physical space we live in.\n\nSection::::In mathematics.\n", "planes of rotation, where is the dimension. The maximum number of planes up to eight dimensions is shown in this table:\n", "BULLET::::- Extra dimensions: Does nature have more than four spacetime dimensions? If so, what is their size? Are dimensions a fundamental property of the universe or an emergent result of other physical laws? Can we experimentally observe evidence of higher spatial dimensions?\n", "BULLET::::- \"Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ghostbusters\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ghostbusters\" (2016)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Goonies\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gremlins\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Harry Potter\n\nBULLET::::- \"Jurassic World\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Knight Rider\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Legends of Chima\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lego City\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Lego Batman Movie\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Lego Movie\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Lord of the Rings\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Midway Arcade\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Portal 2\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Powerpuff Girls\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scooby-Doo\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Simpsons\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sonic the Hedgehog\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Teen Titans Go!\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Wizard of Oz\"\n", "A design maneuver is a change made by the designer in the notation design, to alter its position within a particular dimension. Dimensions are created to be pairwise independent, so that the design can be altered in one dimension while keeping a second one constant.\n", "Similar to the issue of a point of reference is the issue of orientation: a displacement in 2 or 3 dimensions is not just a length, but is a length together with a \"direction\". (This issue does not arise in 1 dimension, or rather is equivalent to the distinction between positive and negative.) Thus, to compare or combine two dimensional quantities in a multi-dimensional space, one also needs an orientation: they need to be compared to a frame of reference.\n\nThis leads to the extensions discussed below, namely Huntley's directed dimensions and Siano's orientational analysis.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n", "For example, at dimension-six, there is a Higgs-free term which couples the lepton doublets to the quark doublets, formula_17, which is a coupling to the strong interaction quark condensate. Even with a relatively low energy pion scale, this type of interaction could conceivably give a mass to the neutrino of size formula_18, which is only a factor of 10 less than the pion condensate itself at . This would be some of mass, about a thousand times bigger than what is measured.\n", "Section::::Using RDFs in solving two-state trajectories.\n\nSection::::Using RDFs in solving two-state trajectories.:Properties of RDFs in solving two-state trajectories.\n", "The effect complicates nearest neighbor search in high dimensional space. It is not possible to quickly reject candidates by using the difference in one coordinate as a lower bound for a distance based on all the dimensions.\n", "This term also allows for lepton number violating pion decays, and for proton decay. In fact in all operators with dimension greater than four, there are CP, baryon, and lepton-number violations. The only way to suppress them is to deal with them term by term, which nobody has done.\n\nThe popularity, or at least prominence, of these models may have been enhanced because they allow the possibility of black hole production at LHC, which has attracted significant attention.\n\nSection::::Empirical tests.\n\nAnalyses of results from the Large Hadron Collider severely constrain theories with large extra dimensions.\n", "The best-known treatment of time as a dimension is Poincaré and Einstein's special relativity (and extended to general relativity), which treats perceived space and time as components of a four-dimensional manifold, known as spacetime, and in the special, flat case as Minkowski space.\n\nSection::::In physics.:Additional dimensions.\n", "For Zingg's applications, \"R\" was set equal to . Perhaps this is an intuitively reasonable setting in general for the point at which something's dimensions become significantly unequal.\n", "Through the use of numerical experiments using, for example, the finite element method, the nature of the relationship between the two non-dimensional groups can be obtained as shown in the figure. As this problem only involves two non-dimensional groups, the complete picture is provided in a single plot and this can be used as a design/assessment chart for rotating discs\n\nSection::::Extensions.\n\nSection::::Extensions.:Huntley's extension: directed dimensions.\n\nHuntley has pointed out that it is sometimes productive to refine our concept of dimension. Two possible refinements are:\n", "Dynamical dimensional reduction or spontaneous dimensional reduction is the apparent reduction in the number of spacetime dimensions as a function of the distance scale, or conversely the energy scale, with which spacetime is probed. At least within the current level of experimental precision, our universe has three dimensions of space and one of time. However, the idea that the number of dimensions may increase at extremely small length scales was first proposed more than a century ago, and is now fairly commonplace in theoretical physics. Contrary to this, a number of recent results in quantum gravity suggest the opposite behavior, a dynamical reduction of the number of spacetime dimensions at small length scales. \n", "Section::::Proponents' views.\n", "The model was proposed by Nima Arkani-Hamed, Savas Dimopoulos, and Gia Dvali in 1998.\n", "One of the most heralded science fiction stories regarding true geometric dimensionality, and often recommended as a starting point for those just starting to investigate such matters, is the 1884 novella \"Flatland\" by Edwin A. Abbott. Isaac Asimov, in his foreword to the Signet Classics 1984 edition, described \"Flatland\" as \"The best introduction one can find into the manner of perceiving dimensions.\"\n", "In three dimensions, a circle may be extruded to form a cylinder. In four dimensions, there are several different cylinder-like objects. A sphere may be extruded to obtain a spherical cylinder (a cylinder with spherical \"caps\", known as a spherinder), and a cylinder may be extruded to obtain a cylindrical prism (a cubinder). The Cartesian product of two circles may be taken to obtain a duocylinder. All three can \"roll\" in four-dimensional space, each with its own properties.\n", "The figures opposite show the difference between these definitions, in the case of a wheel graph having a central vertex and six peripheral vertices, with one spoke removed. Its representation in the plane allows two vertices at distance 1, but they are not connected.\n\nWe write this dimension as formula_20. It is never less than the dimension defined as above:\n\nSection::::Euclidean dimension and maximal degree.\n\nPaul Erdős and Miklós Simonovits proved the following result in 1980:\n\nSection::::Computational complexity.\n", "Extra dimensions\n\nIn physics, extra dimensions are proposed additional space or time dimensions beyond the (3 + 1) typical of observed spacetime, such as the first attempts based on the Kaluza–Klein theory. Among theories proposing extra dimensions are:\n\nBULLET::::- Large extra dimension, mostly motivated by the ADD model, by Nima Arkani-Hamed, Savas Dimopoulos, and Gia Dvali in 1998, in an attempt to solve the hierarchy problem. This theory requires that the fields of the Standard Model are confined to a four-dimensional membrane, while gravity propagates in several additional spatial dimensions that are large compared to the Planck scale.\n", "A subspace formula_50 is said to be a minimum DRS for formula_13 if it is a DRS and its dimension is less than or equal to that of all other DRSs for formula_13. A minimum DRS formula_50 is not necessarily unique, but its dimension is equal to the structural dimension formula_45 of formula_13, by definition.\n\nIf formula_50 has basis formula_33 and is a minimum DRS, then a plot of \"y\" versus formula_42 is a minimal sufficient summary plot, and it is (\"d\" + 1)-dimensional.\n\nSection::::Central subspace.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00107	Why do you feel nauseous and/or the feeling to throw up if you think about ingesting something gross?	Vomiting up disgusting things helps prevent you being poisoned. It's likely to be a primitive instinctive response present in many species. Similar things happen when you get drunk or motion sickness: your body decides you might have consumed poison and dumps your stomach.	[ "Studies have demonstrated that the insula is activated by disgusting stimuli, and that observing someone else's facial expression of disgust seems to automatically retrieve a neural representation of disgust. Furthermore, these findings emphasize the role of the insula in feelings of disgust.\n\nOne particular neuropsychological study focused on patient NK who was diagnosed with a left hemisphere infarction involving the insula, internal\n", "The emotion of disgust may have an important role in understanding the neurobiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), particularly in those with contamination preoccupations. In a study by Shapira & colleagues (2003), eight OCD subjects with contamination preoccupations and eight healthy volunteers viewed pictures from the International Affective Picture System during f-MRI scans. OCD subjects showed significantly greater neural responses to disgust-invoking images, specifically in the right insula. Furthermore, Sprengelmeyer (1997) found that the brain activation associated with disgust included the insula and part of the gustatory cortex that processes unpleasant tastes and smells. OCD subjects and healthy volunteers showed activation patterns in response to disgust pictures that differed significantly at the right insula. In contrast, the two groups were similar in their response to threat-inducing pictures, with no significant group differences at any site.\n", "The anterior insula processes a person's sense of disgust both to smells and to the sight of contamination and mutilation — even when just imagining the experience. This associates with a mirror neuron-like link between external and internal experiences.\n\nIn social experience, it is involved in the processing of norm violations, emotional processing, empathy, and orgasms.\n", "The hypothesis that ergotism could explain cases of bewitchment has been subject to debate and has been criticized by several scholars. Within a year of Caporael's article, historians Spanos and Gottlieb argued against the idea in the same journal. In Spanos and Gottlieb's rebuttal to Caporael's article, they concluded that there are several flaws in the explanation. For example, they argued that, if the food supply was contaminated, the symptoms would have occurred by household, not individual. However, historian Leon Harrier said that even if supplies were properly cooked, residents suffering from stomach ulcers had a risk of absorbing the toxin through the stomach lining, offering a direct route to the bloodstream. Being similar to Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), ergot would not survive in the acidic environment of a typical human's stomach, especially in properly cooked food. But if some but not all residents were malnourished and suffering from bleeding stomach ulcers, only they could be affected by ingesting contaminated grains, leaving the majority unaffected, explaining why ergotism was not previously recognized. Harrier argued that the numbers could have been larger, possibly including the entire town, but due to the trials on bewitchment and heresy, and the fear of being accused and subsequently executed, few could come forward while suffering from legitimate medical conditions.\n", "Disgust is also theorized as an evaluative emotion that can control moral behavior. When one experiences disgust, this emotion might signal that certain behaviors, objects, or people are to be avoided in order to preserve their purity. Research has established that when the idea or concept of cleanliness is made salient then people make less severe moral judgments of others. From this particular finding, it can be suggested that this reduces the experience of disgust and the ensuing threat of psychological impurity diminishes the apparent severity of moral transgressions.\n\nSection::::Morality.:Political orientation.\n", "Functional MRI experiments have revealed that the anterior insula in the brain is particularly active when experiencing disgust, when being exposed to offensive tastes, and when viewing facial expressions of disgust. The research has supported that there are independent neural systems in the brain, each handling a specific basic emotion. Specifically, f-MRI studies have provided evidence for the activation of the insula in disgust recognition, as well as visceral changes in disgust reactions such as the feeling of nausea. The importance of disgust recognition and the visceral reaction of \"feeling disgusted\" is evident when considering the survival of organisms, and the evolutionary benefit of avoiding contamination.\n", "In discussing specific neural locations of disgust, research has shown that forebrain mechanisms are necessary for rats to acquire conditioned disgust for a specific emetic (vomit-inducing) substance (such as lithium chloride). Other studies have shown that lesions to the area postrema and the parabrachial nucleus of the pons but not the nucleus of the solitary tract prevented conditioned disgust. Moreover, lesions of the dorsal and medial raphe nuclei (depleting forebrain serotonin) prevented the establishment of lithium chloride-induced conditioned disgust.\n\nSection::::Morality.\n", "It is natural that accidental ingestion of hallucinogenic species also occurs, but is rarely harmful when ingested in small quantities. Cases of serious toxicity have been reported in small children. \"Amanita pantherina\", while containing the same hallucinogens as \"Amanita muscaria\" (e.g., ibotenic acid and muscimol), has been more commonly associated with severe gastrointestinal upset than its better-known counterpart.\n", "These mechanisms include sensory processes through which cues connoting the presence of parasitic infections are perceived (e.g., the smell of a foul odor, the sight of pox or pustules), as well as stimulus–response systems through which these sensory cues trigger a cascade of aversive affective, cognitive, and behavioral reactions (e.g., arousal of disgust, automatic activation of cognitions that connote the threat of disease, behavioral avoidance).\n", "Tybur, et al., outlines three domains of disgust: \"pathogen disgust\", which \"motivates the avoidance of infectious microorganisms\"; \"sexual disgust\", \"which motivates the avoidance of [dangerous] sexual partners and behaviors\"; and \"moral disgust\", which motivates people to avoid breaking social norms. Disgust may have an important role in certain forms of morality.\n\nPathogen disgust arises from a desire to survive and, ultimately, a fear of death. He compares it to a \"behavioral immune system\" that is the 'first line of defense' against potentially deadly agents such as dead bodies, rotting food, and vomit.\n", "Although disgust was first thought to be a motivation for humans to only physical contaminants, it has since been applied to moral and social moral contaminants as well. The similarities between these types of disgust can especially be seen in the way people react to the contaminants. For example, if someone stumbles upon a pool of vomit, they will do whatever possible to place as much distance between themselves and the vomit as possible, which can include pinching the nose, closing the eyes, or running away. Likewise, when a group experiences someone who cheats, rapes, or murders another member of the group, its reaction is to shun or expel that person from the group.\n", "The fact that the insula is necessary for our ability to feel and recognize the emotion of disgust is further supported by neuropsychological studies. Both Calder (2000) and Adolphs (2003) showed that lesions on the anterior insula lead to deficits in the experience of disgust and recognizing facial expressions of disgust in others. The patients also reported having reduced sensations of disgust themselves. Furthermore, electrical stimulation of the anterior insula conducted during neurosurgery triggered nausea, the feeling of wanting to throw up and uneasiness in the stomach. Finally, electrically stimulating the anterior insula through implanted electrodes produced sensations in the throat and mouth that were \"difficult to stand\". These findings demonstrate the role of the insula in transforming unpleasant sensory input into physiological reactions, and the associated feeling of disgust.\n", "Oftentimes, this phobia is comorbid with several others, making it necessary to deal with each phobia individually in order for the patient to recover fully. For example, it is common for emetophobics to also suffer from a fear of food, known as cibophobia, where the sufferer worries that the food they are eating is carrying pathogens that can cause vomiting. As such, people will develop specific behaviors that will, in their minds, make the food safe to eat, such as a ritualistic type of washing or the intentional overcooking of meat to avoid the intake of harmful pathogens. In time, these fears can become so ingrained that the person who has them can begin to suffer from anorexia nervosa.\n", "Section::::Neural basis.:Insula.\n\nThe insula (or insular cortex), is the main neural structure involved in the emotion of disgust. The insula has been shown by several studies to be the main neural correlate of the feeling of disgust both in humans and in macaque monkeys. The insula is activated by unpleasant tastes, smells, and the visual recognition of disgust in conspecific organisms.\n", "Although the avoidance response is often advantageous and has developed because it is adaptive, it can sometimes be harmful or become obsessive. Such is the case with obsessive compulsive disorder, a disorder involving mental obsessions followed by actions performed often repetitively, to relieve the anxiety of the obsessions, panic disorder, and other psychiatric disorders. In panic disorder, a person learns to avoid certain situations such as being in crowded places because when they enter these situations, a panic attack (aversive stimulus) ensues. People with obsessive compulsive disorder may learn to avoid using public restrooms because it produces anxiety in them (aversive stimulus). \n", "Defensive vomiting\n\nDefensive vomiting refers to the use of emesis to defend against ingested pathogens or, in animals, against predators.\n\nSection::::In humans.\n\nVomiting serves an evolutionary purpose for humans by preventing the ingestion of something harmful, and by expelling noxious substances once ingested.\n\nVomiting excessive amounts of alcohol is an attempt by the body to prevent alcohol poisoning and death. Vomiting may also be caused by other drugs, such as opiates, or toxins found in some foods and plants. Food allergies and sensitivities, such as lactose intolerance, can cause vomiting.\n", "The emotion of disgust can be described to serve as an affective mechanism following occurrences of negative social value, provoking repulsion, and desire for social distance. The origin of disgust can be defined by motivating the avoidance of offensive things, and in the context of a social environment, it can become an instrument of social avoidance. An example of disgust in action can be found from the Bible in the book of Leviticus. Leviticus includes direct commandments from God to avoid disgust causing individuals, which included people who were sexually immoral and those who had leprosy. Disgust is also known to have originally evolved as a response to unpleasant food that may have been carriers of disease.\n", "Researchers dispute whether this is actually a psychological adaptation, however evidence advocates it is the result of strong selective pressures in our hereditary past. For example, the toxins are found only in natural wild plant foods, not processed foods in our modern-day environment. Furthermore, pregnant women experiencing sickness have been found to avoid particular bitter or pungent smelling foods, potentially containing toxins. Pregnancy induced sickness only typically occurs 3 weeks after conception, around the time when the embryo has started forming major organs and is therefore at the highest risk. It is also a cross-cultural universal adaptation, a suggestion it is an innate mechanism.\n", "Within seven months, however, an article disagreeing with this theory was published in the same journal by Spanos and Gottlieb They performed a wider assessment of the historical records, examining all the symptoms reported by those claiming affliction, among other things, that \n\nBULLET::::1. Ergot poisoning has additional symptoms that were not reported by those claiming affliction.\n\nBULLET::::2. If the poison was in the food supply, symptoms would have occurred on a house-by-house basis not in only certain individuals.\n", "A 2007 study found that 78% of a clinical sample of OCD patients had intrusive images. Most people who suffer from intrusive thoughts have not identified themselves as having OCD, because they may not have what they believe to be classic symptoms of OCD, such as handwashing. Yet, epidemiological studies suggest that intrusive thoughts are the most common kind of OCD worldwide; if people in the United States with intrusive thoughts gathered, they would form the fourth-largest city in the US, following New York City, Los Angeles, and Chicago.\n", "The concept of \"auto-intoxication\", the idea that food enters the intestine and rots, provides a rationale for colon cleansing. The ancient Egyptians believed that toxins formed as a result of decomposition within the intestines, and moved from there into the circulatory system, causing fever and the development of pus. The Ancient Greeks adopted and expanded the idea, applying their belief in the four humours. In the 19th century, studies in biochemistry and microbiology seemed to support the autointoxication hypothesis, and mainstream physicians promoted the idea.\n", "John Bunyan (1628–1688), the author of \"The Pilgrim's Progress\", displayed symptoms of OCD (which had not yet been named). During the most severe period of his condition, he would mutter the same phrase over and over again to himself while rocking back and forth. He later described his obsessions in his autobiography \"Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners\", stating, \"These things may seem ridiculous to others, even as ridiculous as they were in themselves, but to me they were the most tormenting cogitations.\" He wrote two pamphlets advising those suffering from similar anxieties. In one of them, he warns against indulging in compulsions: \"Have care of putting off your trouble of spirit in the wrong way: by promising to reform yourself and lead a new life, by your performances or duties\".\n", "People with emetophobia frequently report a vomit related traumatic event, such as a long bout of stomach flu, accidentally vomiting in public or having to witness someone else vomit, as the start of the emetophobia. They may also be afraid of hearing that someone is feeling like vomiting or that someone has vomited, usually in conjunction with the fears of seeing someone vomit or seeing vomit.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Emetophobia is clinically considered an \"elusive predicament\" because limited research has been done pertaining to it. The fear of vomiting receives little attention compared with other irrational fears.\n", "Along with social environmental factors, ingestive behaviors are also influenced by atmospheric environmental factors. Atmospheric factors include:\n\nSection::::Initiating ingestion.:Signals from stomach.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-06013	How can a post-birth 'husband stitch' cause skin that didn't tear during surgery to fuse together?	You are right. It heals poorly—if at all. A suture like prolene or vicryl would be better than the standard “cat gut” because it lasts longer. The “husband stitch” is pretty much a myth because the tissue tied together is weak and it doesn’t do anything. If it did, if would cause pain for the woman. A real “husband stitch” would require you to find and tie the torn fascia together. You are absolutely right about healing. Whenever I have an abdominal skin incision not heal right, it’s because the Resident or medical student sewed or stapled the non-bleeding external keratinized skin.	[ "A perineoplasty procedure repairs damage to the perineum and damage to the Vulva that a woman might experience as a result of:\n\nBULLET::::- Child birth — the stretching of parturition can cause tears to the tissues, or might require cutting (episiotomy) should the woman’s birth canal prove too narrow to allow unobstructed passage of the infant. Moreover, any perineal tissue that presents either a cut or a tear can heal and fuse together before the stitches dissolve, regardless of whether or not the tissues originally were joined in that anatomic configuration.\n", "BULLET::::9. The donor site area is closed primarily. Sometimes a Split Thickness Skin graft (STSG) may be performed and placed on top of the defect site and/or the donor site.\n\nSection::::Postoperative Complications/Sequalae.\n", "BULLET::::- Undermining the donor site for the second lobe allows closing it primarily; it also eliminates excess-skin \"dog-ears\" at the donor site. Moreover, if the donor site cannot be closed with sutures, or if the skin blanches (whitens) when sutured, usually because of excessively tight sutures, the tension is decreased by reducing the size (length, width, depth) of the wound with deep sutures that will allow it to heal more readily.\n\nBULLET::::- II. Nasolabial flap\n", "Following delivery if the mother had an episiotomy or tearing at the opening of the vagina, it is stitched. At one time an episiotomy was routine, however more recent research shows that a surgical incision may be more extensive than a natural tear, and is more likely to contribute to later incontinence and pain during sex than a natural tear would have. A healthcare professional can recommend comfort measures to help to ease perineal pain\n\nSection::::Acute phase.:Infant caring in the acute phase.\n", "The more complicated surgical technique required to harvest the DIEAP free flap does include the possibility of damaging the perforator blood vessels; a long time for the patient to be under anaesthesia; and a long surgical scar at the abdominal-tissue donor site.\n\nBULLET::::- Indications\n", "A 2008 study found that over 85% of women having a vaginal birth sustain some form of perineal trauma. A retrospective study of 8,603 vaginal deliveries in 1994 found a third degree tear had been clinically diagnosed in only 50 women (0.6%). However, when the same authors used anal endosonography in a consecutive group of 202 deliveries, there was evidence of third degree tears in 35% of first-time mothers and 44% of mothers with previous children. These numbers are confirmed by other researchers in 1999.\n", "Labral reconstruction was first described in 2009 by Sierra et al. The procedure described in their article described reconstructing a patient's native labrum with a ligamentum teres capitis graft. This was done in the setting of an open surgical hip dislocation. Prior to the introduction of labral reconstruction, complex labral tears were often treated with removal of damaged tissue (debridement) or focal repair. The applicability of these methods to severe or widespread labral damage is less than ideal. Since then, surgeons have reported on a variety of graft choices and surgical techniques, and an arthroscopic approach has usurped open dislocation, due to fewer complications, a lower need for revision surgery and quicker recovery time.\n", "Organic threads (such as polylactide filament for example) are stitched through laminate layers of fiber reinforced polymer, which are then boiled and vacuumed out of the material after curing of the polymer, leaving behind empty channels than can be filled with healing agents.\n\nSection::::Self-healing fibre-reinforced polymer composites.\n", "While repair of the perineum may be medically necessary, an \"extra\" stitch is not, and may cause discomfort or pain. Use of the term in the medical literature can be traced to \"Transactions of the Texas State Medical Association\" in 1885. There is also a reference to it in \"What Women Want to Know\" (1958), a book co-written by an American gynaecologist.\n", "Recently, surgeons have begun experimenting with circumferential (front-to-back) reconstruction in which the entirety of the native labral tissue is debrided, and the labrum is completely reconstructed. This technique has shown promising outcomes when utilized in patients whose native labral tissue is far too damaged for repair or debridement. A recent study comparing primary labral reconstruction versus primary labral repair demonstrated higher failure rates in the repair cohort versus the reconstruction cohort.\n\nSection::::Outcomes.\n", "Conjunctival auto-grafting is a surgical technique that is an effective and safe procedure for pterygium removal. When the pterygium is removed, the tissue that covers the sclera known as the Tenons layer is also removed. Auto-grafting covers the bare sclera with conjunctival tissue that is surgically removed from an area of healthy conjunctiva. That “self-tissue” is then transplanted to the bare sclera and is fixated using sutures or tissue adhesive.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Surgery.:Amniotic membrane transplantation.\n", "Section::::Attraction description.\n", "In 2013 it was proven in pig tissue that full thickness micro columns of tissue, less than 0.5mm in diameter could be removed and that the replacement tissue, was regenerative tissue, not scar. The tissue was removed in a fractional pattern, with over 40% of a square area removed; and all of the fractional full thickness holes in the square area healed without scarring. In 2016 this fractional pattern technique was also proven in human tissue.\n\nSection::::History of human tissue regeneration.:History of regeneration techniques.:Regeneration with materials.\n", "Section::::Heart repair.:Alternatives.\n\nSutures can damage heart tissue and take too long to apply. Staples can also damage heart tissue. Existing surgical adhesives can be toxic, and they can become unstuck in wet, dynamic environments such as the heart. As a result, infants often require subsequent operations to \"replug\" the hole. One other surgical adhesive cures when exposed to water.\n", "The graft is carefully spread on the bare area to be covered. It is held in place by a few small stitches or surgical staples. The graft is initially nourished by a process called plasmatic imbibition in which the graft \"drinks plasma\". New blood vessels begin growing from the recipient area into the transplanted skin within 36 hours in a process called capillary inosculation. To prevent the accumulation of fluid under the graft which can prevent its attachment and revascularization, the graft is frequently meshed by making lengthwise rows of short, interrupted cuts, each a few millimeters long, with each row offset by half a cut length like bricks in a wall. In addition to allowing for drainage, this allows the graft to both stretch and cover a larger area as well as to more closely approximate the contours of the recipient area. However, it results in a rather pebbled appearance upon healing that may ultimately look less aesthetically pleasing.\n", "A process for inducing regeneration in skin was invented by Dr. Ioannis V. Yannas (then an assistant professor in the Fibers and Polymers Division, Department of Mechanical Engineering, at Massachusetts Institute of Technology) and Dr. John F. Burke (then chief of staff at Shriners Burns Institute in Boston, Massachusetts). Their initial objective was to discover a wound cover that would protect severe skin wounds from infection by accelerating wound closure. Several kinds of grafts made of synthetic and natural polymers were prepared and tested in a guinea pig animal model. By the late 1970s it was evident that the original objective was not reached. Instead, these experimental grafts typically did not affect the speed of wound closure. In one case, however, a particular type of collagen graft led to significant delay of wound closure. Careful study of histology samples revealed that grafts that delayed wound closure induced the synthesis of new dermis de novo at the injury site, instead of forming scar, which is the normal outcome of the spontaneous wound healing response. This was the first demonstration of regeneration of a tissue (dermis) that does not regenerate by itself in the adult mammal. After the initial discovery, further research led to the composition and fabrication of grafts that were evaluated in clinical trials. These grafts were synthesized as a graft copolymer of microfibrillar type I collagen and a glycosaminoglycan, chondroitin-6-sulfate, fabricated into porous sheets by freeze-drying, and then cross-linked by dehydrothermal treatment. Control of the structural features of the collagen scaffold (average pore size, degradation rate and surface chemistry) was eventually found to be a critical prerequisite for its unusual biological activity. In 1981 Burke and Yannas proved that their artificial skin worked on patients with 50 to 90 percent burns, vastly improving the chances of recovery and improvised quality of life. John F. Burke also claimed, in 1981, \"[The Artificial skin] is soft and pliable, not stiff and hard, unlike other substances used to cover burned-off skin.\"\n", "Use of mesh-based repair vs. suture-based repair has also been discussed. Some results suggest less inguinodynia after Shouldice (suture) than Lichtenstein (open mesh) for young men. Other studies find equal results between Shouldice and laparoscopic TEP. It must be recalled that the experience of the surgeon critically impacts the results, especially for Shouldice and laparoscopic repairs, which are fairly technical operations.\n", "Having ensured that sufficient tissue has been removed to allow the desired fusion of the skin, the circumciser pulls together the opposite sides of the labia majora, ensuring that the raw edges where the skin has been removed are well approximated. The wound is now ready to be stitched or for thorns to be applied. If a needle and thread are being used, close tight sutures will be placed to ensure that a flap of skin covers the vulva and extends from the mons veneris to the perineum, and which, after the wound heals, will form a bridge of scar tissue that will totally occlude the vaginal introitus.\n", "An alternative is to use dabs of thickened epoxy in between the \"stitching\" to join the panels, and after it has cured, completely remove the wire stitches instead of just snipping them off on the outside. With the wires removed, a fillet of thickened epoxy is applied over the entire length of the joint.\n", "In surgical incisions it does not work as well as sutures as the wounds often break open.\n", "Strands of 2/0 Prolene monofilament thread, with little notches cut into their sides, are placed in the subcutaneous plane under the ptosed facial skin. These are anchored under secure points in fronto-occipitalis and temporalis tissues. Dropped or \"ptosed\" facial skin is then elevated onto the barbed threads, and stay elevated because of the barbs. Thus the patient gets a \"facelift\", without any scalpel work and without any removal of skin.\n", "Section::::Technique.:Segmental vs. circumferential/front-to-back.\n\nTraditionally, only the damaged labral tissue was resected, and the graft was attached to both the acetabulum and the native labral tissue. This method demonstrated superiority over straight debridement in the treatment of irreperable labral tears. There was concern by some surgeons, however, that the junction points between the native labrum and graft were inherently weak, and thus prone to failure. There was also concern that despite resection of the visibly damaged tissue there existed the possibility for underresection, which could lead to persistent pain despite restoration of the labral biomechanics.\n", "Usually, good results would be expected from plastic surgery that emphasize careful planning of incisions so that they fall within the line of natural skin folds or lines, appropriate choice of wound closure, use of best available suture materials, and early removal of exposed sutures so that the wound is held closed by buried sutures.\n\nSection::::Reconstructive surgery.\n", "Hand cutwork is the most traditional form of cutwork. Here, areas of the fabric are cut away and stitch is applied to stop the raw edges from fraying.\n\nSection::::Laser cutwork.\n", "Reparation of tissue in the mammalian fetus is radically different than the healing mechanisms observed in a healthy adult. During early gestation fetal skin wounds have the remarkable ability to heal rapidly and without scar formation. Wound healing itself is a particularly complex process and the mechanisms by which scarring occurs involves inflammation, fibroplasia, the formation of granulation tissue and finally scar maturation. Since the observation of scar free healing was first reported in the early fetus more than three decades ago, research has focused intently on the underlying mechanisms which separate scarless fetal wound repair from normal adult wound healing.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02447	Just how accurate are the best telescopes? Is there a limit to their fidelity?	Theres a limit to a telescopes “resolving power”, which is the telescopes ability to discern two closely separated objects as individual objects rather than a blur or oblong object. That limit is governed by the diameter of the main objective lens or mirror. No matter what magnification you use, objects below the resolution limit of the particular scope will not be resolved into discrete objects.	[ "Relatively cheap, mass-produced ~2 meter telescopes have recently been developed and have made a significant impact on astronomy research. These allow many astronomical targets to be monitored continuously, and for large areas of sky to be surveyed. Many are robotic telescopes, computer controlled over the internet (see \"e.g.\" the Liverpool Telescope and the Faulkes Telescope North and South), allowing automated follow-up of astronomical events.\n", "Three categories of telescopes are available from Tasco - \"Novice,\" \"Luminova\", and \"Spacestation.\" Each family has several models. The \"Novice\" family features the most economical telescopes using manual focus and view finding, while the high end \"Spacestation\" utilizes fully automated sky-mapping, \"GoTo\" technology. Magnification ranges of the telescopes are advertised as between 25 and 675 power.\n", "Initially the detector used in telescopes was the human eye. Later, the sensitized photographic plate took its place, and the spectrograph was introduced, allowing the gathering of spectral information. After the photographic plate, successive generations of electronic detectors, such as the charge-coupled device (CCDs), have been perfected, each with more sensitivity and resolution, and often with a wider wavelength coverage.\n\nCurrent research telescopes have several instruments to choose from such as: \n\nBULLET::::- imagers, of different spectral responses\n\nBULLET::::- spectrographs, useful in different regions of the spectrum\n\nBULLET::::- polarimeters, that detect light polarization.\n", "Section::::Large solar telescopes after 1900.\n\nTelescopes for the Sun have existed for hundreds of years, this list is not complete and only goes back to 1900.\n\nSection::::Other types of solar telescopes.\n\nThere are much smaller commercial and/or amateur telescopes such as \"Coronado Filters\" from founder and designer David Lunt, bought by Meade Instruments in 2004 and sells SolarMax solar telescopes up to 8 cm\n\nMost solar observatories observe optically at visible, UV, and near infrared wavelengths, but other things can be observed.\n\nBULLET::::- CERN Axion Solar Telescope(CAST), looks for solar axions in the early 2000s\n", "To do almost any scientific work requires that telescopes track objects as they wheel across the visible sky. In other words, they must smoothly compensate for the rotation of the Earth. Until the advent of computer controlled drive mechanisms, the standard solution was some form of equatorial mount, and for small telescopes this is still the norm. However, this is a structurally poor design and becomes more and more cumbersome as the diameter and weight of the telescope increases. The world's largest equatorial mounted telescope is the 200 inch (5.1 m) Hale Telescope, whereas recent 8–10 m telescopes use the structurally better altazimuth mount, and are actually physically \"smaller\" than the Hale, despite the larger mirrors. As of 2006, there are design projects underway for gigantic alt-az telescopes: the Thirty Metre Telescope , and the 100 m diameter Overwhelmingly Large Telescope.\n", "In recent years, a number of technologies to overcome the distortions caused by atmosphere on ground-based telescopes have been developed, with good results. See adaptive optics, speckle imaging and optical interferometry.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Astronomy\n\nBULLET::::- Astrophotography\n\nBULLET::::- Amateur telescope making\n\nBULLET::::- Bahtinov mask\n\nBULLET::::- Carey mask\n\nBULLET::::- Depth of field\n\nBULLET::::- Dipleidoscope\n\nBULLET::::- Globe effect\n\nBULLET::::- Hartmann mask\n\nBULLET::::- History of optics\n\nBULLET::::- List of optical telescopes\n\nBULLET::::- List of largest optical reflecting telescopes\n\nBULLET::::- List of largest optical refracting telescopes\n\nBULLET::::- List of largest optical telescopes historically\n\nBULLET::::- List of solar telescopes\n\nBULLET::::- List of space telescopes\n", "Section::::Common techniques.:Remote-controlled telescopes.\n", "For large ground-based telescopes, the resolution is limited by atmospheric seeing. This limit can be overcome by placing the telescopes above the atmosphere, e.g., on the summits of high mountains, on balloon and high-flying airplanes, or in space. Resolution limits can also be overcome by adaptive optics, speckle imaging or lucky imaging for ground-based telescopes.\n", "BULLET::::- Department of Physics, Montana State University\n\nBULLET::::- NASA Goddard Space Flight Center\n\nBULLET::::- NASA Marshall Space Flight Center\n\nBULLET::::- Plasma Physics Laboratory, Princeton University\n\nBULLET::::- Instrumentation and Space Research Division, Southwest Research Institute\n\nBULLET::::- W.W. Hansen Experimental Physics Laboratory, Stanford University\n\nBULLET::::- University of California Los Angeles\n\nBULLET::::- Center for Astrophysics and Space Sciences, University of California, San Diego\n\nBULLET::::- Center for Astrophysics and Space Astronomy and Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics, University of Colorado at Boulder\n\nBULLET::::- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Rochester\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Daniel K. Inouye International Airport\n\nBULLET::::- List of solar telescopes\n", "BULLET::::- The Fry telescope, an 8\" refractor manufactured in 1862, is in regular use at the University of London Observatory in Mill Hill, London.\n\nBULLET::::- A 10\" refractor from 1860 is in use at the Blackett Observatory, Wiltshire.\n\nBULLET::::- A 10\" refractor from 1871, which was purchased by St. Andrews in 1938 and used as a training telescope, has been in use since 1951 at Mills Observatory, Dundee, Scotland.\n", "The following are lists of devices categorized as types of telescopes or devices associated with telescopes. They are broken into major classifications with many variations due to professional, amateur, and commercial sub-types. Telescopes can be classified by optical design or mechanical design/construction. Telescopes can also be classified by where they are placed, such as space telescopes. One major determining factor is type of light, or particle being observed including devices referred to as \"telescopes\" that do not form an image or use optics. Some telescopes are classified by the task they perform; for example Solar telescopes are all designs that look at the Sun, Dobsonian telescopes are designed to be low cost and portable, Aerial telescopes overcame the optical shortcomings of 17th-century objective lenses, etc.\n", "BULLET::::- There is a 6\" Cooke telescope in use at the Baxendell Observatory in Hesketh Park, Southport\n\nBULLET::::- A 6\" Cooke refractor exists in the 1929 observatory of the University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada,\n", "More advanced methods of locating objects in the sky include telescope mounts with \"setting circles\", which assist with pointing telescopes to positions in the sky that are known to contain objects of interest, and \"GOTO telescopes\", which are fully automated telescopes that are capable of locating objects on demand (having first been calibrated).\n\nSection::::Common techniques.:Mobile apps.\n", "The invention of the achromatic lens in 1733 partially corrected color aberrations present in the simple lens and enabled the construction of shorter, more functional refracting telescopes. Reflecting telescopes, though not limited by the color problems seen in refractors, were hampered by the use of fast tarnishing speculum metal mirrors employed during the 18th and early 19th century—a problem alleviated by the introduction of silver coated glass mirrors in 1857, and aluminized mirrors in 1932. The maximum physical size limit for refracting telescopes is about 1 meter (40 inches), dictating that the vast majority of large optical researching telescopes built since the turn of the 20th century have been reflectors. The largest reflecting telescopes currently have objectives larger than 10 m (33 feet), and work is underway on several 30-40m designs.\n", "Lists of telescopes\n\nThis is a list of lists of telescopes.\n\nBULLET::::- List of astronomical interferometers at visible and infrared wavelengths\n\nBULLET::::- List of astronomical observatories\n\nBULLET::::- List of highest astronomical observatories\n\nBULLET::::- List of large optical telescopes\n\nBULLET::::- List of largest infrared telescopes\n\nBULLET::::- List of largest optical telescopes historically\n\nBULLET::::- List of largest optical telescopes in the 18th century\n\nBULLET::::- List of largest optical telescopes in the 19th century\n\nBULLET::::- List of largest optical telescopes in the 20th century\n\nBULLET::::- List of largest optical reflecting telescopes\n\nBULLET::::- List of largest optical refracting telescopes\n\nBULLET::::- List of optical telescopes\n", "A fix is called a \"running fix\" when one or more of the LOPs used to obtain it is an LOP advanced or retrieved over time. In order to get a fix the LOP must cross at an angle, the closer to 90° the better. This means the observations must have different azimuths. During the day, if only the Sun is visible, it is possible to get an LOP from the observation but not a fix as another LOP is needed. What may be done is take a first sight which yields one LOP and, some hours later, when the Sun's azimuth has changed substantially, take a second sight which yields a second LOP. Knowing the distance and course sailed in the interval, the first LOP can be advanced to its new position and the intersection with the second LOP yields a \"running fix\".\n", "Radio telescopes may need to be extremely large in order to receive signals with low signal-to-noise ratio. Also since angular resolution is a function of the diameter of the \"objective\" in proportion to the wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation being observed, \"radio telescopes\" have to be much larger in comparison to their optical counterparts. For example, a 1-meter diameter optical telescope is two million times bigger than the wavelength of light observed giving it a resolution of roughly 0.3 arc seconds, whereas a radio telescope \"dish\" many times that size may, depending on the wavelength observed, only be able to resolve an object the size of the full moon (30 minutes of arc).\n", "BULLET::::- 1863 – William Allen Miller and Sir William Huggins use the photographic wet collodion plate process to obtain the first ever photographic spectrogram of a star, Sirius and Capella.\n\nBULLET::::- 1872 – Henry Draper photographs a spectrum of Vega that shows absorption lines.\n\nBULLET::::- 1878 – Dreyer published a supplement to the GC of about 1000 new objects, the New General Catalogue\n", "These telescopes have a number of features in common, in particular the use of a segmented primary mirror (similar to the existing Keck telescopes), and the use of high-order adaptive optics systems.\n\nAlthough extremely large telescope designs are large, they can have smaller apertures than the aperture synthesis on many large optical interferometers. However, they may collect much more light, along with other advantages.\n\nSection::::List of telescopes.\n", "BULLET::::- 1973 – UK Schmidt Telescope 1.2 metre optical reflecting telescope begins operation, located in Anglo-Australian Observatory near Coonabarabran, Australia\n\nBULLET::::- 1974 – Anglo-Australian Telescope optical reflecting telescope begins operation, located in Anglo-Australian Observatory near Coonabarabran, Australia\n\nBULLET::::- 1975 – Gerald Smith, Frederick Landauer, and James Janesick use a CCD to observe Uranus, the first astronomical CCD observation\n\nBULLET::::- 1975 – Antoine Labeyrie builds the first two-telescope optical interferometer\n\nBULLET::::- 1976 – The 6-m BTA-6 (Bolshoi Teleskop Azimutalnyi or “Large Altazimuth Telescope”) goes into operation on Mt. Pashtukhov in the Russian Caucasus\n", "For instruments requiring very high stability, or that are very large and cumbersome, it is desirable to mount the instrument on a rigid structure, rather than moving it with the telescope. Whilst transmission of the full field of view would require a standard coudé focus, spectroscopy typically involves the measurement of only a few discrete objects, such as stars or galaxies. It is therefore feasible to collect light from these objects with optical fibers at the telescope, placing the instrument at an arbitrary distance from the telescope. Examples of fiber-fed spectrographs include the planet-hunting spectrographs HARPS or ESPRESSO.\n", "Initially, there were four ASAS-SN telescopes at Haleakala and another four at Cerro Tololo, an LCOGT site. Twelve more telescopes were deployed in 2017 in Chile, South Africa and Texas, with funds from the Moore Foundation, the Ohio State University, the Mount Cuba Astronomical Foundation, China, Chile, Denmark, and Germany. All the telescopes (Nikon telephoto f400/2.8 lenses) have a diameter of 14 cm and ProLine PL230 CCD cameras. The pixels in the cameras span 7.8 arc seconds, so follow up observations on other telescopes are usually required to get a more accurate location.\n", "BULLET::::- Principal Investigator: National Solar Observatory\n\nBULLET::::- Co-Principal Investigators:\n\nBULLET::::- High Altitude Observatory\n\nBULLET::::- New Jersey Institute of Technology\n\nBULLET::::- Institute for Astronomy, University of Hawaii\n\nBULLET::::- Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics and Department of Mathematics, University of Chicago\n\nBULLET::::- Collaborators:\n\nBULLET::::- Air Force Research Laboratory\n\nBULLET::::- Bellan Plasma Group, Laboratories of Applied Physics, California Institute of Technology\n\nBULLET::::- Department of Physics and Astronomy, California State University at Northridge\n\nBULLET::::- Colorado Research Associates\n\nBULLET::::- Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics\n\nBULLET::::- Kiepenheuer-Institut für Sonnenphysik, Freiburg, Germany\n\nBULLET::::- Lockheed Martin Solar and Astrophysics Laboratory\n\nBULLET::::- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Michigan State University\n", "BULLET::::- 1961 – Parkes 64-metre radio telescope begins operation, located near Parkes, Australia\n\nBULLET::::- 1962 – European Southern Observatory (ESO) founded\n\nBULLET::::- 1962 – Kitt Peak solar observatory founded\n\nBULLET::::- 1962 – Green Bank, West Virginia 90m radio telescope\n\nBULLET::::- 1962 – Orbiting Solar Observatory 1 satellite launched\n\nBULLET::::- 1963 – Arecibo 300-meter radio telescope begins operation, located in Arecibo, Puerto Rico\n\nBULLET::::- 1964 – Martin Ryle's radio interferometer begins operation, located in Cambridge, England\n\nBULLET::::- 1965 – Owens Valley 40-meter radio telescope begins operation, located in Big Pine, California\n\nBULLET::::- 1967 – First VLBI images, with 183 km baseline\n", "BULLET::::- 1991 – Compton Gamma Ray Observatory satellite\n\nBULLET::::- 1993 – Keck 10-meter optical/infrared reflecting telescope begins operation, located at Mauna Kea, Hawaii\n\nBULLET::::- 1993 – Very Long Baseline Array of 10 dishes\n\nBULLET::::- 1995 – Cambridge Optical Aperture Synthesis Telescope (COAST)—the first very high resolution optical astronomical images (from aperture synthesis observations)\n\nBULLET::::- 1995 – Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope of thirty 45 m dishes at Pune\n\nBULLET::::- 1996 – Keck 2 10-meter optical/infrared reflecting telescope begins operation, located at Mauna Kea, Hawaii\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04862	How is the average lifespan decided for newborns?	Basically it's a best case scenario of statistical projection. So if people are easily living to their 80s/90s now and medicine is improving and other factors like access to food, water, hygiene are improving you can make a projection based off of that. The problem is they don't account for things like the emergence of superevolved diseases we can't treat yet or breakdown of society or our pending inevitable nuclear war or psychological fall out and things you just can't predict. Ultimately it's statistics that you should take with a grain of salt, but understand are still likely accurate without cataclysmic events.	[ "Other life tables in historical demography may be based on historical records, although these often undercount infants and understate infant mortality, on comparison with other regions with better records, and on mathematical adjustments for varying mortality levels and life expectancies at birth. \n\nFrom this starting point, a number of inferences can be derived.\n\nBULLET::::- The probability of surviving any particular year of age\n\nBULLET::::- The remaining life expectancy for people at different ages\n", "To calculate the preventable years of life lost, the analyst has to set an upper reference age. This is essentially arbitrary and can be set, for example, to 65 to capture the whole population up to retirement, or 75 which, in developed countries, corresponds roughly to the life expectancy of the population being studied.\n\nThe analyst must then select the ICD codes for causes of death that are deemed by the ONS to be preventable. The calculation can then proceed in the same way as for years of potential life lost (PYLL).\n\nSection::::Significance.\n", "The starting point for calculating life expectancy is the age-specific death rates of the population members. If a large amount of data is available, a statistical population can be created that allow the age-specific death rates to be simply taken as the mortality rates actually experienced at each age (the number of deaths divided by the number of years \"exposed to risk\" in each data cell). However, it is customary to apply smoothing to iron out, as much as possible, the random statistical fluctuations from one year of age to the next. In the past, a very simple model used for this purpose was the Gompertz function, but more sophisticated methods are now used.\n", "Section::::Data Sources and their Availability.\n\nEurostat calculates information about the healthy life years at three different ages during a person's life. One is at birth, another is at age 50, and the third is at age 65, with an indicator used separately for men and women. The data is calculated and collected by using mortality statistics as well as self perceived longstanding activity limitations- a dimension that captures longstanding limitation in regards to health and/or disability to perform usual and frequent activities. \n", "The life table observes the mortality experience of a single generation, consisting of 100,000 births, at every age number they can live through.\n\nLife tables are usually constructed separately for men and for women because of their substantially different mortality rates. Other characteristics can also be used to distinguish different risks, such as smoking status, occupation, and socioeconomic class.\n", "Life expectancy forecasting is usually based on two different approaches:\n\nBULLET::::- Forecasting the life expectancy directly, generally using ARIMA or other time series extrapolation procedures: that has the advantage of simplicity, but it cannot account for changes in mortality at specific ages, and the forecast number cannot be used to derive other life table results. Analyses and forecasts using this approach can be done with any common statistical/mathematical software package, like EViews, R, SAS, Stata, Matlab, or SPSS.\n", "In epidemiology and public health, both standard life tables (used to calculate life expectancy), as well as the Sullivan and multi-state life tables (used to calculate health expectancy), are the most commonly mathematical used devices. The latter includes information on health in addition to mortality. By watching over the life expectancy of any year(s) being studied, epidemiologists can see if diseases are contributing to the overall increase in mortality rates. Epidemiologists are able to help demographers understand the sudden decline of life expectancy by linking it to the health problems that are arising in certain populations.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "The most common system used among healthcare professionals is Naegele's rule, which estimates the expected date of delivery (EDD) by adding a year, subtracting three months, and adding seven days to the first day of a woman's last menstrual period (LMP) or corresponding date as estimated from other means.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Medical fetal viability.\n", "However, for some purposes, such as pensions calculations, it is usual to adjust the life table used by assuming that age-specific death rates will continue to decrease over the years, as they have usually done in the past. That is often done by simply extrapolating past trends; but some models exist to account for the evolution of mortality like the Lee–Carter model.\n", "Life tables that relate to maternal deaths and infant moralities are important, as they help form family planning programs that work with particular populations. They also help compare a country's average life expectancy with other countries. Comparing life expectancy globally helps countries understand why one country's life expectancy is rising substantially by looking at each other's healthcare, and adopting ideas to their own systems.\n\nSection::::Insurance applications.\n", "BULLET::::- Forecasting age specific death rates and computing the life expectancy from the results with life table methods: that is usually more complex than simply forecasting life expectancy because the analyst must deal with correlated age-specific mortality rates, but it seems to be more robust than simple one-dimensional time series approaches. It also yields a set of age specific-rates that may be used to derive other measures, such as survival curves or life expectancies at different ages. The most important approach within this group is the Lee-Carter model, which uses the singular value decomposition on a set of transformed age-specific mortality rates to reduce their dimensionality to a single time series, forecasts that time series and then recovers a full set of age-specific mortality rates from that forecasted value. Software includes Professor Rob J. Hyndman's R package called `demography` and UC Berkeley's LCFIT system.\n", "BULLET::::- Global Agewatch has the latest internationally comparable statistics on life expectancy from 195 countries.\n\nBULLET::::- Rank Order—Life expectancy at birth from the CIA's World Factbook.\n\nBULLET::::- CDC year-by-year life expectancy figures for USA from the USA Centers for Disease Controls and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics.\n\nBULLET::::- Life expectancy in Roman times from the University of Texas.\n\nBULLET::::- Animal lifespans: Animal Lifespans from Tesarta Online (Internet Archive); The Life Span of Animals from Dr Bob's All Creatures Site.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Creation of the Berkeley Mortality Database, a precursor to the Human Mortality Database.\n\nIn 1997, John R. Wilmoth at the Department of Demography in the University of California, Berkeley started work on a database titled the Berkeley Mortality Database (BMD) with a grant from the National Institute of Aging in the United States. The BMD included data across the entire age range, but was restricted to only four countries (France, Japan, Sweden, and the United States).\n", "It is important to note that the statistic is usually based on past mortality experience and assumes that the same age-specific mortality rates will continue into the future. Thus, such life expectancy figures need to be adjusted for temporal trends before calculating how long a currently living individual of a particular age is expected to live. Period life expectancy remains a commonly used statistic to summarize the current health status of a population.\n", "The rate of mortality at each age is, therefore, in practice usually determined by a series of figures deduced from observation; and the value of an annuity at any age is found from these numbers by means of a series of arithmetical calculations.\n", "For example, an 1871 census in the UK (the first of its kind, but personal data from other censuses dates back to 1841 and numerical data back to 1801) found the average male life expectancy as being 44, but if infant mortality is subtracted, males who lived to adulthood averaged 75 years. The present life expectancy in the UK is 77 years for males and 81 for females, while the United States averages 74 for males and 80 for females.\n", "Note: Life expectancy values have been rounded to one decimal place. As a result, the values appear to be tied in several instances but the rankings reflect the original calculations, not the rounded values. In cases where there is no life expectancy estimate, the population of that group is too small to enable reliable estimates.\n\nSection::::Rankings.:Discrepancies.\n", "Life expectancy is by definition an arithmetic mean. It can also be calculated by integrating the survival curve from 0 to positive infinity (or equivalently to the maximum lifespan, sometimes called 'omega'). For an extinct or completed cohort (all people born in year 1850, for example), it can of course simply be calculated by averaging the ages at death. For cohorts with some survivors, it is estimated by using mortality experience in recent years. The estimates are called period cohort life expectancies.\n", "More recently, thresholds for \"fetal death\" continue to vary widely internationally, sometimes incorporating weight as well as gestational age. The gestational age for statistical recording of fetal deaths ranges from 16 weeks in Norway, to 20 weeks in the US and Australia, 24 weeks in the UK, and 26 weeks in Italy and Spain.\n", "Section::::Statistical Findings.\n", "Another limitation in regards to the way the data is collected is the consideration of institutionalized people. For example, people living in health and social care institutions, who are expected to be more likely to face limitations than the rest of the population that is living in private households, are not covered or surveyed when collecting the data for healthy life years calculations and expediencies. This therefore impacts the results by limiting it and making it less inclusive.\n\nSection::::Sociological Challenges.\n", "These are the most common methods now used for that purpose:\n\nBULLET::::- to fit a mathematical formula, such as an extension of the Gompertz function, to the data,\n\nBULLET::::- for relatively small amounts of data, to look at an established mortality table that was previously derived for a larger population and make a simple adjustment to it (as multiply by a constant factor) to fit the data.\n\nBULLET::::- with a large number of data, one looks at the mortality rates actually experienced at each age, and applies smoothing (as by cubic splines).\n", "According to American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, the main methods to calculate gestational age are:\n\nBULLET::::- Directly calculating the days since the beginning of the last menstrual period.\n", "Another summary is called the life table. For a \"cohort\" of persons born in the same year, it traces and projects their life experiences from birth to death. For a given cohort, the proportion expected to survive each year (or decade in an \"abridged life table\") is presented in tabular or graphical form.\n\nThe ratio of males to females by age indicates the consequences of differing mortality rates on the sexes. Thus, while values above one are common for newborns, the ratio dwindles until it is well below one for the older population.\n\nSection::::Collection.\n", "Section::::Human patterns.:Centenarians.\n\nIn developed countries, the number of centenarians is increasing at approximately 5.5% per year, which means doubling the centenarian population every 13 years, pushing it from some 455,000 in 2009 to 4.1 million in 2050. Japan is the country with the highest ratio of centenarians (347 for every 1 million inhabitants in September 2010). Shimane prefecture had an estimated 743 centenarians per million inhabitants.\n\nIn the United States, the number of centenarians grew from 32,194 in 1980 to 71,944 in November 2010 (232 centenarians per million inhabitants).\n\nSection::::Human patterns.:Mental illness.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-23433	Why is there internet download and upload limits.	Partly to help keep bandwidth available for other people to use; but mostly just because they can make money out of you that way.	[ "U.S. internet service providers have most recently asserted that data caps are needed in order to provide \"fair\", tiered services at different price points based on speed and usage.\n", "The limits that users face on accessing information via mobile applications coincide with a broader process of fragmentation of the internet. Zero-rating, the practice of internet providers allowing users free connectivity to access specific content or applications for free, has offered some opportunities for individuals to surmount economic hurdles, but has also been accused by its critics as creating a ‘two-tiered’ internet. To address the issues with zero-rating, an alternative model has emerged in the concept of ‘equal rating’ and is being tested in experiments by Mozilla and Orange in Africa. Equal rating prevents prioritization of one type of content and zero-rates all content up to a specified data cap. Some countries in the region had a handful of plans to choose from (across all mobile network operators) while others, such as Colombia, offered as many as 30 pre-paid and 34 post-paid plans.\n", "Section::::Internet.\n\nSection::::Internet.:Isolating the factors that remove isolation.\n", "Public and private institutions that provide Internet access for their employees, customers, students, or members will sometimes limit this access in an attempt to ensure it is used only for the purposes of the organization. This can include content-control software to limit access to entertainment content in business and educational settings and limiting high-bandwidth services in settings where bandwidth is at a premium. Some institutions also block outside e-mail services as a precaution, usually initiated out of concerns for local network security or concerns that e-mail might be used intentionally or unintentionally to allow trade secrets or other confidential information to escape.\n", "The limits that users face on accessing information via mobile applications coincide with a broader process of fragmentation of the Internet. Zero-rating, the practice of internet providers allowing users free connectivity to access specific content or applications for free, has offered some opportunities for individuals to surmount economic hurdles, but has also been accused by its critics as creating a ‘two-tiered’ internet. To address the issues with zero-rating, an alternative model has emerged in the concept of ‘equal rating’ and is being tested in experiments by Mozilla and Orange in Africa. Equal rating prevents prioritization of one type of content and zero-rates all content up to a specified data cap. Some countries in the region had a handful of plans to choose from (across all mobile network operators) while others, such as Colombia, offered as many as 30 pre-paid and 34 post-paid plans.\n", "During the early years of the Internet, Internet access was limited to a few locations. High speed links were not available for most users, and online connectivity was rare and expensive. Download of large files (then considered to be over a few megabytes) was nearly impossible due to bandwidth limitations, as well as frequent errors and lost connections. The original FTP specification did not allow for a session to be resumed, and the transmission had to restart from the beginning.\n", "Global Internet usage has increased significantly across the world from 12,881,000 hosts in 1998 to 908,585,739 hosts in 2012. Internet use has surged with the introduction of mobile devices and tablet computing. Internet access has also changed during this time frame from 56kbit/s dial-up to high-speed bandwidth access at 100Mbit/s or higher. The increase in Internet users and increase in access bandwidth is a contributing factor to the Internet Rush Hour.\n\nThe table below shows the big picture of world internet usage versus the population.\n\nSection::::Reasons.:Infrastructure.\n", "BULLET::::- The growth in all Internet traffic, especially across international telecommunication links, resulted in stress to institutional infrastructure and high costs on networks that billed Internet traffic on a per-use basis.\n\nBULLET::::- Much of this traffic was redundant, the results of repeated requests by many independent users to access the same stored files and content.\n\nBULLET::::- Large files and content retrieved from distant Web servers was often delayed due to high delays experienced over long and complex Internet paths.\n", "Section::::Jurisdictions.:France.\n\nIn October 2009, France's highest constitutional court approved the HADOPI law, a \"three-strikes law\"; however, the law was revoked on 10 July 2013 by the French Government because the punitive penalties imposed on copyright infringers was considered to be disproportionate.\n\nSection::::Jurisdictions.:Ireland.\n", "Although often referred to as a \"bandwidth cap\", it is not the actual bandwidth (bits per second) that is limited, but the amount of data downloaded per month.\n\nSection::::Standard cap.\n", "Section::::Economic impact.:Availability.\n\nMany argue that file-sharing has forced the owners of entertainment content to make it more widely available legally through fee or advertising on demand on the internet. In a 2011 report by Sandvine showed that Netflix traffic had come to surpass that of Bittorrent.\n\nSection::::Copyright issues.\n", "Section::::Existing and proposed laws.:Noncommercial file sharing.:Legality of uploading.\n\nAlthough downloading or other private copying is sometimes permitted, public distribution – by uploading or otherwise offering to share copyright-protected content – remains illegal in most, if not all countries. For example, in Canada, even though it was once legal to download any copyrighted file as long as it was for noncommercial use, it was still illegal to distribute the copyrighted files (e.g. by uploading them to a P2P network).\n\nSection::::Existing and proposed laws.:Noncommercial file sharing.:Relaxed penalties.\n", "However, the Spanish Association of Music Promoters (APM) states that \"Music is alive,\" as despite the decrease in record sales the revenues from concert ticket sales has increased 117% over the last decade, from €69.9 million to €151.1 million in 2008. The number of concerts doubled from 71,045 in 2000 to 144,859 in 2008, and the number of people attending concerts increased from 21.8 million in 2000 to over 33 million in 2008.\n", "Network management practices have brought about debates relating to net neutrality in terms of fair access to all content on the Internet. According to The European Consumer Organisation, network neutrality can be understood as an aim that \"all Internet should be treated equally, without discrimination or interference. When this is the case, users enjoy the freedom to access the content, services, and applications of their choice, using any device they choose\".\n", "Corporations that provide Internet access for their employees, customers, students, or members will sometimes limit this access in an attempt to ensure it is used only for the purposes of the corporation. This can include content-control software to limit access to entertainment content in business and educational settings and limiting high-bandwidth services in settings where bandwidth is at a premium. Some institutions also block outside e-mail services as a precaution, usually initiated out of concerns for local network security or concerns that e-mail might be used intentionally or unintentionally to allow trade secrets or other confidential information to escape.\n", "Personal data are the basis for behavioral advertising, and early in the 21st century their value began to grow exponentially, at least as measured in the market capitalization of the major platforms holding personal data on their respective users. European Union regulators reacted to this perceived power imbalance between platforms and users, although much still hinges on the terms of consent given by users to the platforms. The concept of data portability comprises an attempt to correct the perceived power imbalance by introducing an element of competition allowing users to choose among platforms.\n\nSection::::European Union.\n", "Since 2006, UK channel owners and content producers have been creating Internet services to access their programmes. Often, these are available for a window after the broadcast schedule. These services generally block users outside of the UK.\n\nSection::::Internet video services.:Online video services for professionally-produced content.\n", "BULLET::::- Bandwidth and quality of service: In some countries it is difficult or expensive to get a high quality connection that is fast enough for good-quality video conferencing. Technologies such as ADSL have limited upload speeds and cannot upload and download simultaneously at full speed. As Internet speeds increase higher quality and high definition video conferencing will become more readily available.\n", "BULLET::::- November 1998 – Audiogalaxy is created by Michael Merhej. Initially an FTP search engine, the Audiogalaxy Satellite P2P client would reach 1 million downloads in 2001. In May 2002, a suit by the RIAA would force Audiogalaxy to block sharing of illegal songs. In June 2002, Audiogalaxy would settle the suit for an undisclosed amount and make its services opt-in. In September 2002, Audiogalaxy would discontinue P2P services in favor of Rhapsody, a pay streaming service.\n\nBULLET::::- December 1998 – MP3 Newswire, the first digital media news site, is launched.\n", "However, amendments proposed in 2010 to the Digital Economy Bill by the industry regulator Ofcom, made ISPs with fewer than 400,000 subscribers exempt. Also exempt are ISPs that provide mobile broadband access due in part to the way in which this service operates. One of the main reasons for providing the exemption is the costs and time-scale required for smaller ISPs to put the monitoring in place.\n", "The concept was first proposed in Italy in 2014. Member of the Italian Parliament Stefano Quintarelli proposed a bill which states that users should be free to access content and use the applications they wish, provided they are legal, they do not impair safety and security, and they are not in violation of other laws or court orders.\n\nA limitation of this freedom by device manufacturers should be examinable on the grounds of anti consumeristic behaviour. \n", "Zero-rating, the practice of Internet service providers allowing users free connectivity to access specific content or applications without cost, has offered opportunities to surmount economic hurdles, but has also been accused by its critics as creating a two-tiered Internet. To address the issues with zero-rating, an alternative model has emerged in the concept of 'equal rating' and is being tested in experiments by Mozilla and Orange in Africa. Equal rating prevents prioritization of one type of content and zero-rates all content up to a specified data cap. A study published by Chatham House, 15 out of 19 countries researched in Latin America had some kind of hybrid or zero-rated product offered. Some countries in the region had a handful of plans to choose from (across all mobile network operators) while others, such as Colombia, offered as many as 30 pre-paid and 34 post-paid plans.\n", "Section::::History.:\"No Limits!\" (1993–1994).\n", "In November 2009, the European Parliament voted on changes to the Telecoms Package. With regard to file-sharing, MEPs agreed to compromise between protecting copyright and protecting user's rights. A European Parliament statement reads \"A user's internet access may be restricted, if necessary and proportionate, only after a fair and impartial procedure including the user's right to be heard.\" EU members were given until May 2011 to implement these changes into their own laws.\n\nSection::::Jurisdictions.:Germany.\n", "U.S. ISPs have asserted that bandwidth caps are required in order to provide a \"fair\" service to their respective subscribers. The use of bandwidth caps has been criticized for becoming increasingly unnecessary, as decreasing infrastructure costs have made it cheaper for ISPs to increase the capacity of their networks to keep up with the demands of their users, rather than place arbitrary limits on usage. It has also been asserted that bandwidth caps are meant to help protect pay television providers that may also be owned by an ISP from competition with over-the-top streaming services.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-16442	Why do our eyes twitch when we have a lack of sleep?	It’s actually a magnesium deficiency that causes eye twitching. I’ve experienced this eye twitching with or without lack of sleep.	[ "Dr. David M. Maurice (1922-2002), an eye specialist and semi-retired adjunct professor at Columbia University, proposed that REM sleep was associated with oxygen supply to the cornea, and that aqueous humor, the liquid between cornea and iris, was stagnant if not stirred. Among the supportive evidences, he calculated that if aqueous humor was stagnant, oxygen from iris had to reach cornea by diffusion through aqueous humor, which was not sufficient. According to the theory, when the animal is awake, eye movement (or cool environmental temperature) enables the aqueous humor to circulate. When the animal is sleeping, REM provides the much-needed stir to aqueous humor. This theory is consistent with the observation that fetuses, as well as eye-sealed newborn animals, spend much time in REM sleep, and that during a normal sleep, a person's REM sleep episodes become progressively longer deeper into the night. However, owls have REM sleep, but do not move their head more than in non-REM sleep and is well known that owls' eyes are nearly immobile.\n", "BULLET::::- Blepharospasm (eyelid twitching) is an involuntary spasm of the eyelid muscle. The most common factors that make the muscle in the eyelid twitch are fatigue, stress, and caffeine. Eyelid twitching is not considered a harmful condition and therefore there is no treatment available. Patients are however advised to get more sleep and drink less caffeine.\n", "Section::::Possible functions.:Oxygen supply to cornea.\n", "NREM Stage 1 (N1 – light sleep, somnolence, drowsy sleep – 5–10% of total sleep in adults): This is a stage of sleep that usually occurs between sleep and wakefulness, and sometimes occurs between periods of deeper sleep and periods of REM. The muscles are active, and the eyes roll slowly, opening and closing moderately. The brain transitions from alpha waves having a frequency of 8–13 Hz (common in the awake state) to theta waves having a frequency of 4–7 Hz. Sudden twitches and hypnic jerks, also known as positive myoclonus, may be associated with the onset of sleep during N1. Some people may also experience hypnagogic hallucinations during this stage. During Non-REM1, humans lose some muscle tone and most conscious awareness of the external environment.\n", "Section::::Parasomnias.\n\nThe occurrence of parasomnias is very common in the last stage of NREM sleep. Parasomnias are sleep behaviors that affect the function, quality, or timing of sleep, caused by a physiological activation in which the brain is caught between the stages of falling asleep and waking. The autonomous nervous system, cognitive process, and motor system are activated during sleep or while the person wakes up from sleep.\n", "Section::::Physiology.:Circulation, respiration, and thermoregulation.\n\nGenerally speaking, the body suspends homeostasis during paradoxical sleep. Heart rate, cardiac pressure, cardiac output, arterial pressure, and breathing rate quickly become irregular when the body moves into REM sleep. In general, respiratory reflexes such as response to hypoxia diminish. Overall, the brain exerts less control over breathing; electrical stimulation of respiration-linked brain areas does not influence the lungs, as it does during non-REM sleep and in waking. The fluctuations of heart rate and arterial pressure tend to coincide with PGO waves and rapid eye movements, twitches, or sudden changes in breathing.\n", "Section::::Muscle movements during non-REM.\n\nDuring non-REM sleep, the tonic drive to most respiratory muscles of the upper airway is inhibited. This has two consequences:\n\nBULLET::::1. The upper airway becomes more floppy.\n\nBULLET::::2. The rhythmic innervation results in weaker muscle contractions because the intracellular calcium levels are lowered, as the removal of tonic innervation hyperpolarizes motoneurons, and consequently, muscle cells.\n", "Recognition of different types of sleep can be seen in the literature of ancient India and Rome. Observers have long noticed that sleeping dogs twitch and move but only at certain times.\n", "BULLET::::- Sleep myoclonus occurs during the initial phases of sleep, especially at the moment of dropping off to sleep, and include familiar examples of myoclonus such as the hypnic jerk. Some forms appear to be stimulus-sensitive. Some people with sleep myoclonus are rarely troubled by it, or need treatment. If it is a symptom of a more complex and disturbing sleep disorders, such as restless legs syndrome, it may require medical treatment. Myoclonus can be associated with patients with Tourette syndrome.\n\nSection::::Cause.\n", "Section::::Possible functions.:Other theories.\n\nAnother theory suggests that monoamine shutdown is required so that the monoamine receptors in the brain can recover to regain full sensitivity.\n", "Section::::Physiological regulation.:Sleep and rest.\n\nThe immune system is affected by sleep and rest, and sleep deprivation is detrimental to immune function. Complex feedback loops involving cytokines, such as interleukin-1 and tumor necrosis factor-α produced in response to infection, appear to also play a role in the regulation of non-rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. Thus the immune response to infection may result in changes to the sleep cycle, including an increase in slow-wave sleep relative to REM sleep.\n", "The word \"myoclonus\" uses combining forms of \"myo-\" and \"clonus\", indicating muscle contraction dysfunction. It is pronounced or . The prevalence of the variants shows division between American English and British English. The variant stressing the \"-oc-\" syllable is the only pronunciation given in a half dozen major American dictionaries (medical and general). The variant stressing the \"-clo-\" syllable is given in the British English module of Oxford Dictionaries online but not in the American English module.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Periodic limb movement disorder\n\nBULLET::::- Benign fasciculation syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Restless legs syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Fasciculation\n\nBULLET::::- Brain Zaps (SSRI withdrawal)\n", "REM sleep is physiologically different from the other phases of sleep, which are collectively referred to as non-REM sleep (NREM sleep, NREMS, synchronized sleep). REM and non-REM sleep alternate within one sleep cycle, which lasts about 90 minutes in adult humans. As sleep cycles continue, they shift towards a higher proportion of REM sleep. The transition to REM sleep brings marked physical changes, beginning with electrical bursts called PGO waves originating in the brain stem. Organisms in REM sleep suspend central homeostasis, allowing large fluctuations in respiration, thermoregulation, and circulation which do not occur in any other modes of sleeping or waking. The body abruptly loses muscle tone, a state known as REM atonia.\n", "Section::::Physiology.:Electrical activity in the brain.:Forebrain.\n", "Eyelid myoclonia, not the absences, is the hallmark of Jeavons syndrome.\n\nEyelid myoclonia consists of marked jerking of the eyelids often associated with jerky upwards deviation of the eyeballs and retropulsion of the head (eyelid myoclonia without absences). This may be associated with or followed by mild impairment of consciousness (eyelid myoclonia with absences). The seizures are brief (3–6 s), and occur mainly and immediately after closing of the eyes (eye closure) and consistently many times a day. All patients are photosensitive.\n", "Neural activity during REM sleep seems to originate in the brain stem, especially the pontine tegmentum and locus coeruleus. REM sleep is punctuated and immediately preceded by PGO (ponto-geniculo-occipital) waves, bursts of electrical activity originating in the brain stem. (PGO waves have long been measured directly in cats but not in humans because of constraints on experimentation; however comparable effects have been observed in humans during \"phasic\" events which occur during REM sleep, and the existence of similar PGO waves is thus inferred.) These waves occur in clusters about every 6 seconds for 1–2 minutes during the transition from deep to paradoxical sleep. They exhibit their highest amplitude upon moving into the visual cortex and are a cause of the \"rapid eye movements\" in paradoxical sleep. Other muscles may also contract under the influence of these waves.\n", "BULLET::::- Uncontrollable contractions or twitches of the eye muscles and surrounding facial area. Some sufferers have twitching symptoms that radiate into the nose, face and sometimes, the neck area\n\nBULLET::::- Dryness of the eyes\n\nBULLET::::- Sensitivity to the sun and bright light\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nSome causes of blepharospasm have been identified; however, the causes of many cases of blepharospasm remain unknown, although some educated guesses are being made. Some blepharospasm patients have a history of dry eyes and/or light sensitivity, but others report no previous eye problems before onset of initial symptoms.\n", "Eye movement\n\nEye movement includes the voluntary or involuntary movement of the eyes, helping in acquiring, fixating and tracking visual stimuli. A special type of eye movement, rapid eye movement, occurs during REM sleep.\n\nThe eyes are the visual organs of the human body, and move using a system of six muscles. The retina, a specialised type of tissue containing photoreceptors, senses light. These specialised cells convert light into electrochemical signals. These signals travel along the optic nerve fibers to the brain, where they are interpreted as vision in the visual cortex.\n", "REM atonia, an almost complete paralysis of the body, is accomplished through the inhibition of motor neurons. When the body shifts into REM sleep, motor neurons throughout the body undergo a process called hyperpolarization: their already-negative membrane potential decreases by another 2–10 millivolts, thereby raising the threshold which a stimulus must overcome to excite them. Muscle inhibition may result from unavailability of monoamine neurotransmitters (restraining the abundance of acetylcholine in the brainstem) and perhaps from mechanisms used in waking muscle inhibition. The medulla oblongata, located between pons and spine, seems to have the capacity for organism-wide muscle inhibition. Some localized twitching and reflexes can still occur. Pupils contract.\n", "The REM phase is also known as paradoxical sleep (PS) and sometimes desynchronized sleep because of physiological similarities to waking states, including rapid, low-voltage desynchronized brain waves. Electrical and chemical activity regulating this phase seems to originate in the brain stem and is characterized most notably by an abundance of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, combined with a nearly complete absence of monoamine neurotransmitters histamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine.\n", "Section::::Possible functions.\n", "Section::::Physiology.:Eye movements.\n", "Section::::Non-rapid eye movement (NREM)-related parasomnias.:Sleep terrors (night terrors/ pavor nocturnus).\n", "Section::::Timing.\n\nIn the \"ultradian sleep cycle\" an organism alternates between deep sleep (slow, large, synchronized brain waves) and paradoxical sleep (faster, desynchronized waves). Sleep happens in the context of the larger circadian rhythm, which influences sleepiness and physiological factors based on timekeepers within the body. Sleep can be distributed throughout the day or clustered during one part of the rhythm: in nocturnal animals, during the day, and in diurnal animals, at night. The organism returns to homeostatic regulation almost immediately after REM sleep ends.\n", "While the precise function of REM sleep is not well understood, several theories have been proposed.\n\nSection::::Possible functions.:Memory.\n" ]	[ "Our eyes twitch when we have a lack of sleep.", "Eyes twitch when we have a lack of sleep." ]	[ "A magnesium deficiency causes eye twitching and the eye twitching can occur with or without lack of sleep.", "Eyes twitch because of a magnesium deficiency ." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Our eyes twitch when we have a lack of sleep.", "Eyes twitch when we have a lack of sleep." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "A magnesium deficiency causes eye twitching and the eye twitching can occur with or without lack of sleep.", "Eyes twitch because of a magnesium deficiency ." ]
2018-02532	Why do kittens wiggle their ears while bottle-feeding?	Their ears move when swallowing.. If what you are observing is both ears going back a bit at the same time, then forward, that is swallowing. Funny thing - young lambs shake their tails when swallowing too.	[ "In cats, flattened ears generally indicate that an individual feels threatened and may attack. Having the mouth open and no teeth exposed indicates playfulness.\n\nSection::::Visual.:Ears.\n\nCats can change the position of their ears very quickly, in a continuum from erect when the cat is alert and focused, slightly relaxed when the cat is calm, and flattened against the head when extremely defensive or aggressive.\n\nSection::::Visual.:Eyes.\n", "Adult cats are able to make use of pinch-induced behavioural inhibition to induce a 'freeze reflex' in their young which enables them to be transported by the neck without resisting. This reflex can also be exhibited by adults. This is also known as 'clipnosis'.\n\nSection::::Eating patterns.\n", "An example of a mutation that is shared among all felines, including the big cats, is a mutant chemosensor in their taste buds that prevents them from tasting sweetness, which may explain their indifference to fruits, berries, and other sugary foods. In some breeds of cats congenital deafness is very common, with most white cats (but not albinos) being affected, particularly if they also have blue eyes. The genes responsible for this defect are unknown, but the disease is studied in the hope that it may shed light on the causes of hereditary deafness in humans.\n", "Humans and cats have a similar range of hearing on the low end of the scale, but cats can hear much higher-pitched sounds, up to 64 kHz, which is 1.6 octaves above the range of a human, and even 1 octave above the range of a dog. When listening for something, a cat's ears will swivel in that direction; a cat's ear flaps (pinnae) can independently point backwards as well as forwards and sideways to pinpoint the source of the sound. Cats can judge within the location of a sound being made away—this can be useful for locating their prey.\n", "Cats, like rats, are nocturnal animals, sensitive to tactual cues from their vibrissae. But the cat, as a predator, must rely more on its sight. Kittens were observed to have excellent depth-discrimination. At four weeks, the earliest age that a kitten can skillfully move about, they preferred the shallow side of the cliff. When placed on the glass over the deep side, they either freeze or circle backward until they reach the shallow side of the cliff.\n\nSection::::The study in different species.:Turtles.\n", "Section::::Nutrients and functions.:Bisphenol A.\n\nA 2004 study reported that food packaged in cans coated with bisphenol A is correlated with the development of hyperthyroidism in cats.\n\nSection::::Nutrients and functions.:Food allergy.\n", "Ear wiggling\n\nEar wiggling is movement of the external ear using the three muscles which are attached to it forward, above and behind. Some mammals have good control of these muscles, which they use to twitch and orient their ears, but humans usually find this difficult. J. H. Bair conducted experiments on humans, using a kymograph to measure their ear movements. He found that only two out of twelve subjects had any voluntary control at the start but that the others could acquire this by training with an early form of biofeedback.\n", "To determine what parts of the auditory cortex contribute to sound localization, investigators implanted cryoloops to deactivate the 13 known regions of acoustically responsive cortex of the cat. Cats learned to make an orienting response by moving their heads and approaching a 100-ms broad-band noise stimulus emitted from a central speaker or one of 12 peripheral speakers located at 15° intervals from left 90° to right 90°along the horizontal plane after attending to a central visual stimulus generated by a red LED. After the cats had reached at least 80% accuracy in identifying the location of the sound stimulus, each was implanted with one or two bilateral pairs of cryoloops over the different sections of the auditory cortex; 10 sections were defined. Cryoloops were turned on so that the loops reached a temperature of 3°C (plus or minus 1°C), first unilaterally, then bilaterally, next unilaterally on the other side, and finally baseline task performance was recorded after recovering from cooling. This cycle was repeated several times for each cat. \n", "American Curl kittens are born with straight ears, which begin to curl within forty-eight hours. After four months, their ears will not curl any longer, and should be hard and stiff to the touch at the base of the ear with flexible tips. A pet quality American Curl may have almost straight ears, but showcats must have ears that curl in an arc between 90 and 180 degrees. A 90 degrees is preferable, but cats will be disqualified if their ears touch the back of their skulls.\n", "In comatose patients with cerebral damage, the fast phase of nystagmus will be absent as this is controlled by the cerebrum. As a result, using cold water irrigation will result in deviation of the eyes toward the ear being irrigated. If both phases are absent, this suggests the patient's brainstem reflexes are also damaged and carries a very poor prognosis.\n\nSection::::Mnemonic.\n\nOne mnemonic used to remember the FAST direction of nystagmus is \"COWS\".\n", "Thyroid Cartilage Control: This figure demonstrates control of the position or \"tilt\" of the thyroid cartilage through engagement or disengagement of the cricothyroid muscle. The speaker or singer can tilt the thyroid cartilage by adopting the posture of crying or sobbing, or making a soft whimpering noise, like a small dog whining. In Estill Voice training, it is proposed that the position of the thyroid cartilage influences not only pitch but also the quality and intensity of the sound produced.\n", "Section::::Ear types.\n\nCu = American Curl gene (dominant). Cats with this gene have ears that start out normal, but gradually curl backwards. So far, no major harmful defects have been associated with this gene, however, due to the more exposed inner ear regular cleaning is required to prevent infection. Curled ears have also been observed in free-roaming cats in the Greek islands and in a cat in Australia.\n", "Those with more natural ear shapes, like those of wild canids like the fox, generally hear better than those with the floppier ears of many domesticated species.\n\nSection::::Senses.:Smell.\n", "Unlike human babies, kittens are born very immature: blind, deaf, the intestinal tract not fully developed etc., so even slight prematurity may tip them over the edge from being viable to non viable. Many FCKS kittens may have fallen just the wrong side of this boundary in their development at the time of birth. Further, if a kitten does not scream or open its lungs well enough at birth, even if it is fully mature and has sufficient surfactant, it may end up with atelectasis. Patches of atelectasis in the lungs mean that part of a lung is not operating properly. If the kitten goes to sleep and its respiratory rate drops, the patches of atelectasis can slowly expand until large areas of the lung collapse and cannot be reinflated. Good advice to any breeder therefore would be to ensure that kittens cry loudly when they are born, to make sure that the airways are clear, but also that the lungs expand as fully as possible. (This was the reason newborn babies were always held upside down immediately after birth (so that any residual fluid drains downwards) and smacked to make them cry strongly.)\n", "Chirping is also used by mothers to comfort and get the attention of the kittens in their litters. The kittens learn to identify their mothers' chirps fairly early in life. There was also mention of a call, that presumably was a chirp, in Brown et al. 1978 where a five-week-old kitten had wandered from the nest and when the mother chirped and the kitten immediately turned back in her direction.\n\nSection::::Vocal.:Call.\n", "Like many areas in the neocortex, the functional properties of the adult primary auditory cortex (A1) are highly dependent on the sounds encountered early in life. This has been best studied using animal models, especially cats and rats. In the rat, exposure to a single frequency during postnatal day (P) 11 to 13 can cause a 2-fold expansion in the representation of that frequency in A1. Importantly, the change is persistent, in that it lasts throughout the animal's life, and specific, in that the same exposure outside of that period causes no lasting change in the tonotopy of A1.\n\nSection::::Function.\n", "Natal homing, or natal philopatry, is the homing process by which some adult animals return to their birthplace to reproduce. This process is primarily used by aquatic animals, such as sea turtles and Pacific salmon. Scientists believe that the main cues used by the animals are geomagnetic imprinting and olfactory cues. The benefits of returning to the precise location of an animal's birth may be largely associated with its safety and suitability as a breeding ground. When seabirds, like the Atlantic puffin, return to their natal breeding colony, which are mostly on islands, they are assured of a suitable climate and a sufficient lack of land-based predators.\n", "In kittens and juvenile felines, omega-3 fatty acids are very important for the development of the brain, components of the nervous system and retinal accretion. It was found in a study by Pawlosky \"et al.\" (1997), when pregnant domestic felines were fed a diet high in omega-3 fatty acids that their offspring showed high levels of DHA in brain and retinal tissues. In the group that fed low concentrations of omega-3 fatty acid and omega-6 fatty acid, their kittens had extremely low amounts of DHA in these tissues which shows that young felines, have poor biosynthetic ability to produce these fatty acids. This study also showed hindered brain waves in kittens whose mother were fed low omega-3 and omega-6 diets which is a significant indicator, that these fatty acids aid in the development of the feline brain at a juvenile stage.\n", "There is a common misconception that all odd-eyed cats are born deaf in one ear. This is not true, as about 60%–70% of odd-eyed cats can hear. About 10%–20% of normal-eyed cats are born deaf or become deaf as part of the feline aging process. White cats with one or two blue eyes do, however, have a higher incidence of genetic deafness, with the white gene occasionally causing the degeneration of the cochlea, beginning a few days after birth. If a white kitten has any speck of another color, the frequency of deafness is greatly diminished, even if the speck of coloration fades as the cat becomes more mature.\n", "Section::::Technique.\n\nAfter determining down from up visually or with their vestibular apparatus (in the inner ear), cats manage to twist themselves to face downward without ever changing their net angular momentum. They are able to accomplish this with these key steps:\n\nBULLET::::1. Bend in the middle so that the front half of their body rotates about a different axis from the rear half.\n", "While it has been suggested the cropping may interfere with a dog's ability to communicate using ear signals, some also argue that cropping increases a dog's ability to communicate with ear signals. There has been no scientific comparative study of ear communication in cropped and uncropped dogs.\n\nSection::::Naturally small ears.\n\nSome animals, such as the Lamancha goat, have ears which are naturally small as the result of selective breeding, and some people mistakenly believe their ears to be cropped.\n", "The \"tapetum lucidum\" functions as a retroreflector which reflects light directly back along the light path. This serves to match the original and reflected light, thus maintaining the sharpness and contrast of the image on the retina. The \"tapetum lucidum\" reflects with constructive interference, thus increasing the quantity of light passing through the retina. In the cat, the \"tapetum lucidum\" increases the sensitivity of vision by 44%, allowing the cat to see light that is imperceptible to human eyes.\n\nIt has been speculated that some flashlight fish may use eyeshine both to detect and to communicate with other flashlight fish.\n", "Section::::Behavior.:Communication.:Food calls.\n\nThe cotton-top tamarin makes selective, specialized vocalizations in the presence of food. These include the C-call, produced when a cotton-top approaches and sorts through food, and the D-call, which is associated with food retrieval and is exhibited while eating.\n", "Kittens \"knead\" the breast while suckling, using the forelimbs one at a time in an alternating pattern to push against the mammary glands to stimulate lactation in the mother.\n", "Gestation is usually between 50 and 52 days, although there have been 62- and 63-day gestation periods reported from foxes in captivity. The typical litter is between one and four kits, with weaning taking place at around 61 to 70 days. When born, the kit's ears are folded over and its eyes are closed, with the eyes opening at around ten days, and the ears lifting soon afterward. The life span of a fennec fox has been recorded as up to 14 years in captivity.\n\nSection::::Habitat.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00225	Why does cheese go hard when you melt it then let it go cold?	When you heat the cheese up past a certain point, moisture is released, which when it cools down, makes it harder as it is more dense. Water in cheese makes it softer.	[ "Above room temperatures, most hard cheeses melt. Rennet-curdled cheeses have a gel-like protein matrix that is broken down by heat. When enough protein bonds are broken, the cheese itself turns from a solid to a viscous liquid. Soft, high-moisture cheeses will melt at around , while hard, low-moisture cheeses such as Parmesan remain solid until they reach about . Acid-set cheeses, including halloumi, paneer, some whey cheeses and many varieties of fresh goat cheese, have a protein structure that remains intact at high temperatures. When cooked, these cheeses just get firmer as water evaporates.\n", "At refrigerator temperatures, the fat in a piece of cheese is as hard as unsoftened butter, and its protein structure is stiff as well. Flavor and odor compounds are less easily liberated when cold. For improvements in flavor and texture, it is widely advised that cheeses be allowed to warm up to room temperature before eating. If the cheese is further warmed, to , the fats will begin to \"sweat out\" as they go beyond soft to fully liquid.\n", "Some hard cheeses are then heated to temperatures in the range of . This forces more whey from the cut curd. It also changes the taste of the finished cheese, affecting both the bacterial culture and the milk chemistry. Cheeses that are heated to the higher temperatures are usually made with thermophilic starter bacteria that survive this step—either \"Lactobacilli\" or \"Streptococci\".\n", "Most cheeses achieve their final shape when the curds are pressed into a mold or form. The harder the cheese, the more pressure is applied. The pressure drives out moisture—the molds are designed to allow water to escape—and unifies the curds into a single solid body.\n\nSection::::Processing.:Ripening.\n", "During the fermentation process, once the cheesemaker has gauged that sufficient lactic acid has been developed, rennet is added to cause the casein to precipitate. Rennet contains the enzyme chymosin which converts κ-casein to para-κ-caseinate (the main component of cheese curd, which is a salt of one fragment of the casein) and glycomacropeptide, which is lost in the cheese whey. As the curd is formed, milk fat is trapped in a casein matrix. After adding the rennet, the cheese milk is left to form curds over a period of time.\n\nSection::::Process.:Draining.\n", "The use of emulsifiers in processed cheese results in a product that melts without separating when cooked; with prolonged heating, some natural cheeses (especially cheddar and mozzarella) separate into a lumpy, molten protein gel and liquid fat combination. The emulsifiers (typically sodium phosphate, potassium phosphate, tartrate, or citrate) reduce the tendency for tiny fat globules in the cheese to coalesce and pool on the surface.\n\nBecause processed cheese does not separate when melted, it is used as an ingredient in a variety of dishes. Unlike some unprocessed cheeses, heating does not alter its taste or texture.\n\nSection::::Sale and labeling.\n", "At this point, the cheese has set into a very moist gel. Some soft cheeses are now essentially complete: they are drained, salted, and packaged. For most of the rest, the curd is cut into small cubes. This allows water to drain from the individual pieces of curd.\n", "Some cheeses, like raclette, melt smoothly; many tend to become stringy or suffer from a separation of their fats. Many of these can be coaxed into melting smoothly in the presence of acids or starch. Fondue, with wine providing the acidity, is a good example of a smoothly melted cheese dish. Elastic stringiness is a quality that is sometimes enjoyed, in dishes including pizza and Welsh rarebit. Even a melted cheese eventually turns solid again, after enough moisture is cooked off. The saying \"you can't melt cheese twice\" (meaning \"some things can only be done once\") refers to the fact that oils leach out during the first melting and are gone, leaving the non-meltable solids behind.\n", "Cheese\n\nCheese is a dairy product derived from milk that is produced in a wide range of flavors, textures, and forms by coagulation of the milk protein casein. It comprises proteins and fat from milk, usually the milk of cows, buffalo, goats, or sheep. During production, the milk is usually acidified, and adding the enzyme rennet causes coagulation. The solids are separated and pressed into final form. Some cheeses have molds on the rind, the outer layer, or throughout. Most cheeses melt at cooking temperature.\n", "BULLET::::- Cheddaring: (Cheddar, other English cheeses) The cut curd is repeatedly piled up, pushing more moisture away. The curd is also mixed (or \"milled\") for a long time, taking the sharp edges off the cut curd pieces and influencing the final product's texture.\n\nBULLET::::- Washing: (Edam, Gouda, Colby) The curd is washed in warm water, lowering its acidity and making for a milder-tasting cheese.\n", "This power law model represents a type of non-Newtonian fluid relating shear rate and shear stress with viscosity. As cheese is pushed out of the can shear rate increases causing a decrease in viscosity and higher flow rates of the material. In this case, the cheese behaves more as a fluid. After it is expelled, there is no more shear rate and the cheese retains its original higher viscosity. Here, the cheese behaves like a solid. Easy Cheese must provide a smooth uniform texture whilst maintaining its viscoelastic structure to maintain its shape after extrusion from the can.\n", "Skim milk is held until lactic acid bacteria acidify and coagulate its proteins. The curdled milk is stirred and heated to a temperature as high as 80 °C (175 °F), then the whey is drained off and the curd is gathered in bags and pressed. The curd is placed in flat pans, broken up, and washed with warm skim milk, to form a mixture consisting of two parts milk to one part curd. This mixture is stirred and heated, as before, until the casein in the milk curdles and adheres to the mass of curd. The steps of draining, pressing, adding more skim milk, and heating are repeated once more. The curd is drained again, salted (2 to 2.5% by weight) and kneaded on a table for about 15 minutes. Hot butterfat or rich cream is added, about one part of butterfat for every five parts of curd, and the mixture is once again heated and stirred. The cheese is then molded in parchment-lined boxes.\n", "As its temperature continues to rise, cheese will brown and eventually burn. Browned, partially burned cheese has a particular distinct flavor of its own and is frequently used in cooking (e.g., sprinkling atop items before baking them).\n\nSection::::Cooking and eating.:Cheeseboard.\n", "When food is cooked, some of its proteins become denatured. This is why boiled eggs become hard and cooked meat becomes firm.\n", "Section::::Physical-chemical properties.:Physical structure.\n\nSection::::Physical-chemical properties.:Physical structure.:Casein and emulsifying agents.\n", "The resistance to melting comes from the fresh curd being heated before being shaped and placed in brine. Traditional halloumi is a semicircular shape, about the size of a large wallet, weighing 220–270 g. The fat content is approximately 25% wet weight, 47% dry weight with about 17% protein. Its firm texture when cooked causes it to squeak on the teeth when being chewed.\n", "Cheese curds are made from fresh pasteurized milk in the process of creating cheese when bacterial culture and rennet are added to clot the milk. After the milk clots it is then cut into cubes; the result is a mixture of whey and curd. This mixture is then cooked and pressed to release the whey from the curd, creating the final product of cheese curd.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.\n", "In making Cheddar (or many other hard cheeses) the curd is cut into small cubes and the temperature is raised to approximately to 'scald' the curd particles. Syneresis occurs and cheese whey is expressed from the particles. The Cheddar curds and whey are often transferred from the cheese vat to a cooling table which contains screens that allow the whey to drain, but which trap the curd. The curd is cut using long, blunt knives and 'blocked' (stacked, cut and turned) by the cheesemaker to promote the release of cheese whey in a process known as 'cheddaring'. During this process the acidity of the curd increases and when the cheesemaker is satisfied it has reached the required level, around 0.65%, the curd is milled into ribbon shaped pieces and salt is mixed into it to arrest acid development. The salted green cheese curd is put into cheese moulds lined with cheesecloths and pressed overnight to allow the curd particles to bind together. The pressed blocks of cheese are then removed from the cheese moulds and are either bound with muslin-like cloth, or waxed or vacuum packed in plastic bags to be stored for maturation. Vacuum packing removes oxygen and prevents mould (fungal) growth during maturation, which depending on the wanted final product may be a desirable characteristic or not.\n", "In the processing of dairy milk, for example during cheese making, syneresis is the formation of the curd due to the sudden removal of the hydrophilic macropeptides, which causes an imbalance in intermolecular forces. Bonds between hydrophobic sites start to develop and are enforced by calcium bonds which form as the water molecules in the micelles start to leave the structure. This process is usually referred to as the phase of coagulation and syneresis. The splitting of the bond between residues 105 and 106 in the κ-casein molecule is often called the primary phase of the rennet action, while the phase of coagulation and syneresis is referred to as the secondary phase.\n", "One of the main actions of rennet is its protease chymosin cleaving the kappa casein chain. Casein is the main protein of milk. Cleavage causes casein to stick to other cleaved casein molecules and form a network. It can cluster better in the presence of calcium and phosphate, which is why it is occasionally added in cheese making especially from calcium phosphate-poor goat milk. The solid truncated casein protein network traps other components of milk like fats and minerals to create cheese. In digestion it is followed by other proteases cutting casein further to ultimately release and absorb the component amino acids and minerals. In a nutshell, curdling is chymosin cleaving casein, a process that is part of natural digestion and cheese making.\n", "Salt is added to milk. The whey \"zizza\" is prepared with the acid whey processing of the previous day and the rennet, mostly in powder, left to curdle for about 20–30 minutes. The curd is then broken into pieces the size of a grain of corn and allowed to cool for an hour or two. Finally part of the whey is removed to be used for ricotta, and the curd is left to precipitate and sottosiero rest for about 90 minutes. Then the curd is fed, rested on the table mitters cut and left to further acidify the optimal point: sometimes the cheese-maker assesses the maturation, testing the consistency between his fingers and trying spinning with a small aliquot of putting on a big spoon wood and immersed in boiling water. When the curd has reached the right maturity, it is further crushed, placed in wooden tub beech or oak and pour almost boiling water (90 °C / 194 °F).\n", "Section::::Process.:Mould-ripening.\n", "The cheese is made by heating whole milk, adding quark, and then cooking the mixture until fluffy curds separate from a clear whey. The whey is discarded when the cheese mass reaches a temperature of . At this point, the curds are placed into a skillet or cooking pan, and stirred with a traditional mixture of egg, butter, salt, and caraway seeds. Once a solid, firm ball is formed, the cheese is placed in a muslin or cheesecloth to drain. Generally, the cheese is prepared a few days before eating, and is allowed to ripen in a cool place before consumption.\n", "Although granular cheese can be created using any method that achieves the designated standard for physical and chemical properties, there is one method that is generally used. First, the milk or cream may be warmed and treated with hydrogen peroxide and catalase, producing water and oxygen gas. Then, a lactic acid-producing bacterial culture is added, and the product is treated with clotting enzymes to form a semisolid mass. This mass is cut, stirred, and heated to separate the curd and the whey. Increasing the amount of time between cutting and heating will increase both the final moisture content and the milkfat content of the cheese, thereby increasing the yield. There follows an alternating cycle of draining of the whey and stirring. After most of the whey has been drained, the curd is salted, drained, and pressed into the desired form. The remaining product may be cured if the original dairy products were not pasteurized. A common method of curing is to dry the cheese on racks for about a week, then to wax it and place it in coolers until the time of consumption.\n", "Each of these factors affects the cheese-ripening process differently, and has been the subject of much research. It is important for manufacturers to understand how each of these elements work, so that they are able to maintain the quality of the cheese while producing the cheese at an acceptable investment of time and cost. These agents contribute to the three primary reactions that define cheese ripening: glycolysis, proteolysis, and lipolysis.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-16708	how a country like Venezuela in such financial and institutional chaos can ever recover.	Define "recover". The government may be deposed violently, a bunch of people may starve or flee the country, but they aren't entirely without resources so a smaller population could be supported. Alternatively the current government may see the opposition coming and institute a civil war / purge to reduce the population to a smaller, loyal base. After the death squads clear out the areas that oppose the current regime there are fewer people to support and it can be blamed on treason and foreign influence rather than mismanagement.	[ "Economy of Venezuela\n\nSince the mid-2010s, the economy of Venezuela has been in a state of total economic collapse.\n", "According to Martinez Lázaro, professor of economics at the IE Business School in Madrid, the economic woes Venezuela continued to suffer under Maduro would have occurred even if Chávez were still in power. In early 2013, shortly after Chávez's death, \"Foreign Policy\" stated that whoever succeeded Chávez would \"inherit one of the most dysfunctional economies in the Americas—and just as the bill for the deceased leader’s policies comes due.\"\n\nSection::::Background.:Maduro presidency.\n", "Several international and inter-governmental organizations with assistance from development agencies and donor countries have begun addressing this challenge. International organizations such as the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), the World Bank's StAR Initiative and the Swiss-based non-governmental organization International Centre for Asset Recovery have been offering training and capacity development.\n", "Section::::Social development.:Poverty and hunger.\n\nExtreme poverty and lack of food and medicines has pushed more than three million Venezuelans to leave the country in recent years. Andres Bello Catholic University conducted a study of poverty that found the poorest 20% of Venezuelans had 1.4% of the nation's wealth, down from 3.4% in 2014, while the richest 10% had 61% of the nation's wealth, up from 30%.\n", "The economy recovered and grew by 16.8% in 2004. This growth occurred across a wide range of sectors—the oil industry directly provides only a small percentage of employment in the country. International reserves grew to US$27 billion. Polling firm Datanalysis noted that real income in the poorest sectors of society grew by 33% in 2004.\n", "1989 - After a stable but limited growth period, Chocolates El Rey, C.A. quickly reacts to a new government initiative: to lead the country along the path of a market economy. A second transformation in foreign trade takes place in the country; this time, it is based on the comparative advantages of Venezuelan cacao in an effort to become competitive within a regional and world economic integration scheme.\n", "Chávez's promise to allocate more funds to the impoverished concerned wealthy and middle-class Venezuelans, triggering the first wave of emigrants fleeing the Bolivarian government. Later in his tenure, Chávez would seize private property and target political opponents, sparking increased uneasiness and ultimately emigration. Andrés Bello Catholic University Economic and Social Research Institute head Anitza Freitez stated that during the Chávez presidency, \"individual development prospects and individual security\" were the main causes of emigration from Venezuela.\n\nSection::::Deterrents.\n", "The annual inflation rate for consumer prices has risen hundreds and thousands of percentage points during the crisis. Inflation in Venezuela remained high during Chávez's presidency. By 2010, inflation removed any advancement of wage increases, and by 2014 at 69% it was the highest in the world. In November 2016, Venezuela entered a period of hyperinflation, with inflation reaching 4,000% in 2017; the Venezuelan government \"essentially stopped\" producing inflation estimates in early 2018.\n", "Major reasons for the emigration of educational professionals include Venezuela's crime rate and low government pay. According to the President of the Venezuelan Academy of Physical, Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Claudio Bifano, most of Venezuela's \"technology and scientific capacity, built up over half a century\" had been lost during Hugo Chávez's presidency. Despite 2 percent of the country's GDP being invested in science and technology, the number of papers published in international journals fell from about 1,600 to 1,000 (the 1997 figure, when Venezuela's technology budget was 0.3 percent of GDP) from 2008 to 2012.\n", "Foreign aid to Venezuela\n\nBecause of its abundant natural resources, there was little need for foreign aid to Venezuela until it was hit by an economic crisis in 1989. From 1994 to 2002, the European Union (EU) committed €130 million. European aid is focusing on technical and financial cooperation projects in the areas of education, health, prison conditions, regional development, environment, and the fight against narcotics. A total of €63.8 million has been earmarked for Venezuela for the period 2000–2006 for technical and financial co-operation and rehabilitation and reconstruction.\n", "The annual inflation rate for consumer prices has risen hundreds and thousands of percentage points during the crisis. Inflation in Venezuela remained high during Chávez's presidency. By 2010, inflation removed any advancement of wage increases, and by 2014 at 69% it was the highest in the world. In November 2016, Venezuela entered a period of hyperinflation, with inflation reaching 4,000% in 2017; the Venezuelan government \"essentially stopped\" producing inflation estimates in early 2018. At the end of 2018, inflation had reached 1.35 million percent.\n", "When the country's economy collapsed in 2014, hunger and malnutrition became a severe problem. In 2015, close to 45% of Venezuelans said they were unable to afford food at times. In 2018, this figure rose to 79%, one of the highest rates in the world.\n", "Venezuela currently is not receiving any major foreign aid from the United States. In response to heavy rains, landslides and persistent flooding in the north-central region of Venezuela that began on February 7, 2005, the U.S. Agency for International Development’s Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance provided US$50,000 through the U.S. Embassy in Caracas to the Venezuelan Red Cross for the purchase and distribution of emergency relief items.\n\nSection::::Aid background.\n", "Maduro's government stopped releasing social and economic indicators, so most data rely on estimates. The Institute of International Finance (IIF) stated in March 2019 that \"Venezuela's economic collapse is among the world's worst in recent history\". A chief economist of the IIF said the crisis resulted from \"policy decisions, economic mismanagement, and political turmoil\", saying it is on a scale that \"one would only expect from extreme natural disasters or military confrontations\". The April 2019 International Monetary Fund (IMF) World Economic Outlook described Venezuela as being in a \"wartime economy\". For the fifth consecutive year, Bloomberg rated Venezuela last on its misery index in 2019.\n", "On 10 September 2009, Chávez gave a speech at the Peoples' Friendship University of Russia in Moscow declaring that \"in all history, there was never a government more terrorist than the US. The Empire of the Yankees. They are the main terrorists of the world\", he added, referring to the U.S. \"The Yankee empire will fall. It's already falling, and will disappear from the face of the Earth, and it's going to happen this century.\" \n", "Section::::History.\n\nDuring the 20th century, \"Venezuela was a haven for immigrants fleeing Old World repression and intolerance\" according to \"Newsweek\". Emigration began at low rates in 1983 after oil prices collapsed, though the increased rates of emigration, especially the flight of professionals, grew largely following the Bolivarian Revolution which was led by Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez. Andrés Bello Catholic University Economic and Social Research Institute head Anitza Freitez said that emigration became more prominent during Chávez's presidency, attributing \"individual development prospects and individual security\" as the main reasons.\n\nSection::::History.:Initial emigration.\n", "Section::::Structure.\n", "Section::::Basic needs.:Health care.\n\nDuring the Bolivarian Revolution, the government began providing free healthcare, with Cuban medical professionals providing aid. The government's failure to concentrate on healthcare and a reduction in spending on healthcare, along with unchecked government corruption resulted in avoidable deaths due to severe shortages of medical supplies and equipment, and the emigration of medical professionals to other countries.\n", "According to Cbonds, nowadays there are 20 international bonds of Venezuela which are recognized in default. The overall amount of defaulted obligations is equal to 36 billion dollars.\n\nSection::::Sectors.\n\nUnder the tenures of Hugo Chávez and his successor Nicolás Maduro, many businesses abandoned Venezuela. In 1999, there were 13,000 companies in the country. By 2016, less than a third of companies remained in Venezuela, with only 4,000 companies operating in the nation.\n\nSection::::Sectors.:Petroleum and other resources.\n", "BULLET::::- Gabriel García Márquez's \"The General in His Labyrinth\" (\"El general en su laberinto\", 1989) is a fictionalized account of the last days in the life of Simón Bolívar. Bolívar, also known as the Great Liberator, freed from Spanish rule the territory that would subsequently become Venezuela, Bolivia, Colombia, Peru, and Ecuador. However the character of the General is not portrayed as the glorious hero that traditional history has presented; instead García Márquez develops a pathetic protagonist, a prematurely aged man who is physically ill and mentally exhausted.\n", "Section::::Decline.:Bolivarian diaspora.\n\nFollowing the Bolivarian Revolution, many wealthy Venezuelans have sought residence in other countries. According to \"Newsweek\", the \"Bolivarian diaspora is a reversal of fortune on a massive scale\" where the reversal is a comparison to when in the 20th century \"Venezuela was a haven for immigrants fleeing Old World repression and intolerance\". \"El Universal\" explains how the \"Bolivarian diaspora\" in Venezuela has been caused by the \"deterioration of both the economy and the social fabric, rampant crime, uncertainty and lack of hope for a change in leadership in the near future\".\n", "A socioeconomic and political crisis that began in Venezuela during the presidency of Hugo Chávez, has continued into the presidency of Nicolás Maduro. It is marked by hyperinflation, escalating starvation, disease, crime and mortality rates, resulting in massive emigration from the country. The situation is the worst economic crisis in Venezuela's history and the worst facing a country that is not experiencing war since the mid-twentieth century. In comparison to historical crises, the crisis in Venezuela is more severe than that of the United States during the Great Depression, of , of Zimbabwe's 2008-09 hyperinflation crisis or that of Russia, Cuba, and Albania following the collapse of the Soviet Union.\n", "By 2014, Venezuela had entered an economic recession and by 2016, the country had an inflation rate of 800%, the highest in its history. The International Monetary Fund expects inflation in Venezuela to be 1,000,000% for 2018.\n", "Section::::International assistance.\n\nSection::::International assistance.:Cuba.\n\nMany of these programs involve importing expertise from abroad; Venezuela is providing Cuba with 53,000 barrels (8,000 m) of below-market-rate oil a day in exchange for the service of thousands of physicians, teachers, sports trainers, and other skilled professionals.\n", "Section::::Basic needs.:Housing.\n\nSince the mid-2000s during Chávez's presidency, Venezuela has had a housing crisis. In 2005, the Venezuelan Construction Chamber (CVC) estimated that there was a shortage of 1.6 million homes, with only 10,000 of 120,000 promised homes constructed by Chávez's government despite billions of dollars in investments. Poor Venezuelans attempted to construct homes on their own despite structural risks.\n" ]	[ "Venezuela must eventually recover." ]	[ "Venezuela may not ever recover, but may continue to exist with a smaller population." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Venezuela must eventually recover.", "Venezuela must eventually recover." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Venezuela may not ever recover, but may continue to exist with a smaller population.", "Venezuela may not ever recover, but may continue to exist with a smaller population." ]
2018-12640	How can gaining salt water (drinking it) and losing salt water (sweating) BOTH dehydrate you?	Sweating is literally water leaving your body. How would that re-hydrate you? Drinking sea water will dehydrate but drinking salt water that's isotonic (has the same concentration of salt as the rest of the water in your body) will not. IV saline is water that has salt in. The reason sea water causes dehydration is because it has way more salt in it than your body can process. Human kidneys can only make urine that is less salty than salt water. Therefore, to get rid of all the excess salt taken in by drinking seawater, you have to urinate more water than you drank, which is what causes dehydration.	[ "Any activity or situation that promotes heavy sweating can lead to water intoxication when water is consumed to replace lost fluids. Persons working in extreme heat and/or humidity for long periods must take care to drink and eat in ways that help to maintain electrolyte balance. People using drugs such as MDMA (often referred to colloquially as \"Ecstasy\") may overexert themselves, perspire heavily, feel increased thirst, and then drink large amounts of water to rehydrate, leading to electrolyte imbalance and water intoxication – this is compounded by MDMA use increasing the levels of antidiuretic hormone (ADH), decreasing the amount of water lost through urination. Even people who are resting quietly in extreme heat or humidity may run the risk of water intoxication if they drink large amounts of water over short periods for rehydration.\n", "In warm or humid weather or during heavy exertion, water loss can increase markedly, because humans have a large and widely variable capacity for the active secretion of sweat. Whole-body sweat losses in men can exceed 2 L/h during competitive sport, with rates of 3–4 L/h observed during short-duration, high-intensity exercise in the heat. When such large amounts of water are being lost through perspiration, electrolytes, especially sodium, are also being lost.\n", "Circulating water and solutes in the body maintain blood pressure in the blood, as well as other functions such as regulation of body temperature. When salt is ingested, it is dissolved in the blood as two separate ions – Na and Cl. The water potential in blood will decrease due to the increase solutes, and blood osmotic pressure will increase. While the kidney reacts to excrete excess sodium and chloride in the body, water retention causes blood pressure to increase.\n\nSection::::Effect of salt on blood pressure.:DASH-Sodium study.\n", "Renal losses of salt and fluid can lead to hypovolemic shock. The kidneys usually excrete sodium and water in a manner that matches sodium intake and water intake. \n\nDiuretic therapy and osmotic diuresis from hyperglycemia can lead to excessive renal sodium and volume loss. In addition, there are several tubular and interstitial diseases beyond the scope of this article that cause severe salt-wasting nephropathy. \n\nSection::::Cause.:Fluid loss.:Skin.\n", "Osmolality of blood increases with dehydration and decreases with overhydration. In normal people, increased osmolality in the blood will stimulate secretion of antidiuretic hormone (ADH). This will result in increased water reabsorption, more concentrated urine, and less concentrated blood plasma. A low serum osmolality will suppress the release of ADH, resulting in decreased water reabsorption and more concentrated plasma.\n", "These agents can also act at other parts of the body. For example, they can be used to reduce intracranial and intra-ocular pressure. Osmotic diuretics increase plasma volume, but because they do not cross the blood-brain barrier, this does not affect the nervous system. In effect, this is the cause of their action reducing locally the plasma volume in the nervous system. \n\nSection::::Mechanism of action.\n", "Furosemide and other loop diuretics inhibit the activity of NKCC2, thereby impairing sodium reabsorption in the thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle.\n\nImpaired sodium reabsorption increases diuresis by three mechanisms:\n\nBULLET::::1. Increases the amount of active osmolytes in urine by decreasing absorption of sodium\n\nBULLET::::2. Erases the papillar gradient\n\nBULLET::::3. Inhibits tubuloglomerular feedback\n\nLoop diuretics therefore ultimately result in decreased blood pressure.\n", "Section::::Countercurrent exchange in biological systems.:Countercurrent exchange in sea and desert birds to conserve water.\n\nSea and desert birds have been found to have a salt gland near the nostrils which concentrates brine, later to be \"sneezed\" out to the sea, in effect allowing these birds to drink seawater without the need to find freshwater resources. It also enables the seabirds to remove the excess salt entering the body when eating, swimming or diving in the sea for food. The kidney cannot remove these quantities and concentrations of salt.\n", "This was first demonstrated by Khalaf Bushara and colleagues as the first nonmuscular use of BTX-A in 1993. BTX-A has since been approved for the treatment of severe primary axillary hyperhidrosis (excessive underarm sweating of unknown cause), which cannot be managed by topical agents. \n\nA microwave-based device has been tried for excessive underarm perspiration and appears to show promise.\n\nTap water iontophoresis as a treatment for palmoplantar hyperhidrosis was originally described in the 1950s. Studies showed positive results and good safety with tap water iontophoresis. One trial found it decreased sweating by about 80%.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Surgery.\n", "Profuse sweating can increase the need for electrolyte replacement. Water-electrolyte imbalance produces headache and fatigue if mild; illness if moderate, and sometimes even death if severe. For example, water intoxication (which results in hyponatremia), the process of consuming too much water too quickly, can be fatal. Deficits to body water result in volume contraction and dehydration. Diarrhea is a threat to both body water volume and electrolyte levels, which is why diseases that cause diarrhea are great threats to fluid balance.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Water consumption.\n", "is based on the natural and non-destructive phenomenon of osmosis across cell membranes. The driving force for the diffusion of water from the tissue into the solution is provided by the higher osmotic pressure of the hyper-tonic solution. The diffusion of water is accompanied by the simultaneous counter diffusion of solutes from the osmotic solution into the tissue. Since the cell membrane responsible for osmotic transport is not perfectly selective, solutes present in the cells (organic acids, reducing sugars, minerals, flavors and pigment compounds) can also be leaked into the osmotic solution, which affects the organoleptic and nutritional characteristics of the product.\n", "The well known effect of sodium on blood pressure can be explained by comparing blood to a solution with its salinity changed by ingested salt. Artery walls are analogous to a selectively permeable membrane, and they allow solutes, including sodium and chloride, to pass through (or not), depending on osmosis.\n", "Athletes actively training and competing lose water and electrolytes by sweating, and expending energy. However, Robert Robergs, an exercise physiologist at the University of New Mexico who studied Gatorade, said that unless someone is exercising or competing in a sporting event for longer than 90 minutes, there is no reason to drink something with excess sugar and electrolytes. The Australian Institute of Sport states that excessive salt supplementation during exercise may lead to \"gastrointestinal problems or cause further impairment of fluid balance\" and may cause salt-induced cramps.\n", "In most athletes, exercising and sweating for 4–5 hours with a sweat sodium concentration of less than 50 mmol/L, the total sodium lost is less than 10% of total body stores (total stores are approximately 2,500 mmol, or 58 g for a 70-kg person). These losses appear to be well tolerated by most people. The inclusion of some sodium in fluid replacement drinks has some theoretical benefits and poses little or no risk, so long as these fluids are hypotonic (since the mainstay of dehydration prevention is the replacement of free water losses).\n", "When fresh water is unavailable (e.g. at sea or in a desert), seawater and ethanol will worsen the condition. Urine contains a lower solute concentration than seawater, and numerous guides advise against its consumption in survival situations. If somebody is dehydrated and is taken to a hospital, IVs are also used.\n", "Salt restriction is the initial treatment, which allows diuresis (production of urine) since the person now has more fluid than salt concentration. Salt restriction is effective in about 15% of these people. Water restriction is needed if serum sodium levels drop below 130 mmol L.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Diuretics.\n", "BULLET::::- Increases blood flow through the vasa recta, which will wash the solutes (sodium chloride (NaCl), and urea) out of the medullary interstitium. The lower osmolarity of the medullary interstitium leads to less reabsorption of tubular fluid and increased excretion.\n", "The ocean can gain moisture from rainfall, or lose it through evaporation. Evaporative loss leaves the ocean saltier; the Mediterranean and Persian Gulf for example have strong evaporative loss; the resulting plume of dense salty water may be traced through the Straits of Gibraltar into the Atlantic Ocean. At one time, it was believed that evaporation/precipitation was a major driver of ocean currents; it is now known to be only a very minor factor.\n\nSection::::Circulation.:Planetary waves.\n\nBULLET::::- Kelvin Waves\n", "Sweat is not pure water; it always contains a small amount (0.2–1%) of solute. When a person moves from a cold climate to a hot climate, adaptive changes occur in the sweating mechanisms of the person. This process is referred to as acclimatisation: the maximum rate of sweating increases and its solute composition decreases. The volume of water lost in sweat daily is highly variable, ranging from 100 to 8,000 mL/day. The solute loss can be as much as 350 mmol/d (or 90 mmol/d acclimatised) of sodium under the most extreme conditions. During average intensity exercise, sweat losses can average up to 2 litres of water/hour. In a cool climate and in the absence of exercise, sodium loss can be very low (less than 5 mmol/d). Sodium concentration in sweat is 30-65 mmol/l, depending on the degree of acclimatisation.\n", "1) Temperature of osmotic solution. \n\n2) Concentration of the osmotic solution. \n\n3) Osmotic agent used. \n\n4) Process duration. \n\n5) Geometry of food material.\n\nSection::::Process.\n\nWater removal\n", "Section::::Cause.\n\nRisk factors for dehydration include but are not limited to: exerting oneself in hot and humid weather, habitation at high altitudes, endurance athletics, elderly adults, infants, children and people living with chronic illnesses.\n\nDehydration can also come as a side effect from many different types of drugs and medications.\n", "In most open waters concentrations vary somewhat around typical values of about 3.5%, far higher than the body can tolerate and most beyond what the kidney can process. A point frequently overlooked in claims that the kidney can excrete NaCl in Baltic concentrations of 2% (in arguments to the contrary) is that the gut cannot absorb water at such concentrations, so that there is no benefit in drinking such water. Drinking seawater temporarily increases blood's NaCl concentration. This signals the kidney to excrete sodium, but seawater's sodium concentration is above the kidney's maximum concentrating ability. Eventually the blood's sodium concentration rises to toxic levels, removing water from cells and interfering with nerve conduction, ultimately producing fatal seizure and cardiac arrhythmia.\n", "Dehydration\n\nIn physiology, dehydration is a deficit of total body water, with an accompanying disruption of metabolic processes. It occurs when free water loss exceeds free water intake, usually due to exercise, disease, or high environmental temperature. Mild dehydration can also be caused by immersion diuresis, which may increase risk of decompression sickness in divers.\n", "Many factors may contribute to the development of EAH. Under normal conditions, sodium and water levels are regulated by the renal and hormonal systems. The decrease in sodium levels can occur due to a defect in the renal and hormonal systems, an overwhelming increase in water consumption and excessive loss of sodium through sweating. When the sodium levels outside of the cells decrease, water moves into the cells. The cells begin to increase in size. When several cells in one area begin to increase in size, swelling occurs in the affected area. Swelling is commonly observed in hands, legs, and feet.\n", "At Pennsylvania State University, Dr. Logan tries to use waste heat with low calority using the fact that ammonium bicarbonate disappears into NH and CO in warm water to form ammonia bicarbonate again in cold water. So in a RED energy producing closed system the two different gradients of salinity are kept.\n\nSection::::Possible negative environmental impact.\n" ]	[ "Drinking salt water dehydrates you.", "Drinking salt water dehydrates you." ]	[ "While drinking sea water will dehydrate the body, drinking salt water that has the same concentration of salt as is in your body will not.", "Only sea water will dehydrate you but isotonic salt water will not." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Drinking salt water dehydrates you.", "Drinking salt water dehydrates you." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "While drinking sea water will dehydrate the body, drinking salt water that has the same concentration of salt as is in your body will not.", "Only sea water will dehydrate you but isotonic salt water will not." ]
2018-16745	Why does the music when you're on hold sound so crappy/distorted?	Traditional telephone lines can only transfer sound frequencies between 300 and 3,400 hertz. Humans can hear from 20 to 20,000Hz and this is roughly the same range as music uses. Therefore, on a phone line you will lose lot of the bass (low frequencies) and treble (high frequencies) which causes the music to sound crappy.	[ "Section::::Complaints about noise.\n", "With the application of newer equipment, music on hold devices can now interact with the caller. No additional programs are required on the platform, as all the logic is done with the MoH device. This can include services such as 'polling on hold', rating your customer service officer anonymously, etc. \n\nThe trend toward hosted IP telephony for business phone systems is demanding changes in music on hold message technology.\n\nSection::::Legal aspects.\n\nSection::::Legal aspects.:Copyright law.\n", "Music on hold\n\nMusic on hold (MOH) is the business practice of playing recorded music to fill the silence that would be heard by telephone callers who have been placed on hold. It is especially common in situations involving customer service.\n\nMusic on hold is sometimes referred to as phone on hold, message on hold, on hold messaging, or hold music.\n\nSection::::Development.\n", "A number of studies have been conducted, which highlight consumer perceptions of music on hold, reinforcing its use by businesses to improve standards of call handling.\n\nA survey of more than 2,000 UK consumers commissioned by audio branding specialist PHMG (company) revealed 70% of consumers are put on hold for more than 50% of their calls. When put on hold, 73% of callers want to hear something other than beeps or silence.\n", "BULLET::::4. Through a reputable on hold company be fully licensed and legal for on hold playback\n\nBULLET::::5. Reduce hang-ups and make the business look more professional\n\nBULLET::::6. Control length of programming based on average caller hold-time\n", "Audio lag is also a significant detriment in rhythm games, where precise timing is required to succeed. Most of these games have a lag calibration setting where upon the game will adjust the timing windows by a certain number of milliseconds to compensate. In these cases, the notes of a song will be sent to the speakers before the game even receives the required input from the player in order to maintain the illusion of rhythm. Games that rely upon \"freestyling\", such as Rock Band drums or DJ Hero, can still suffer tremendously, as the game cannot predict what the player will hit in these cases, and excessive lag will still create a noticeable delay between hitting notes and hearing them play.\n", "BULLET::::- Although radio stations may provide the desired musical format, there is no control over the specific songs that are played, some of which may be offensive to the callers, or depending on the music played, sound harsh in monaural sound. This kind of system is also vulnerable to interference.\n", "A CNN survey found that 70 percent of callers in the United States who hold the line in silence hang up within 60 seconds. Meanwhile, research by North American Telecom found callers hearing music on hold will stay on the line 30 seconds longer than callers experiencing silence.\n\nSection::::Source of music.\n\nSection::::Source of music.:Radio.\n\nThe musical source may be as simple as playing a local radio station through the MOH jack. This is unlawful without the express permission of the music title and mechanical copyright holders, or their representatives.\n", "In those instances where the pre-alarm video is not long enough, it is comforting to know that the original complete video is always available, recorded at the edge.\n\nSection::::Dual Streaming.\n", "Some users experience a high level of background hiss and quantization noise when using the Walkman feature at low volume levels, a problem that first appeared in a firmware update. No official fix is planned, though end users have provided solutions that can be applied by directly accessing the phone's filesystem.\n\nSection::::Fake W800.\n\nA fake W800 has been released in China under the name of Music Mobile W800c.\n", "In 2012, The Script released their third studio album, \"#3\". Conceived by the band to appeal to a more mainstream audience, The album was initially released alongside mixed to negative reviews from music critics, who described the album as having been rushed and lacking artistic vision, especially in the band's venture into hip hop influences. Despite the negative reaction from critics, the album was commercially successful, achieving a hot-shot debut on the Irish Album Charts and peaking at #2 on the UK Albums Chart.\n", "Section::::Recording.\n", "These acoustic technologies must also remove or reduce the noise levels so that the caller is well understood. A person making a call from a handsfree device who is in a busy restaurant or while driving will introduce large levels of noise into the call. This situation is complicated as the software must not only remove the noise around him, but must transmit his voice clearly and loudly to whoever is connected to him. \n", "Because the game was designed to be played on mobile devices, Salta and the music team worked to make sure audio quality would be high on small mobile speakers as well as through headphones or higher-end hardware. Since there was a limited budget for the music, Salta chose which sounds and instruments he would record live.\n\nSection::::Release.\n", "Digital recording has eliminated the concern for noise, but the lack of a standard for digital audio level has resulted in compact disk recordings and portable music player files with widely varying levels. Increasingly, digital music is excessively compressed, to ensure that the selection is not perceived by the listener as being too soft in comparison with other sources.\n", "Noise created by mobile phones has become a particular concern in live performances, particularly those being recorded. In one notable incident, maestro Alan Gilbert halted the New York Philharmonic in a performance of Gustav Mahler's Symphony No. 9 until an audience member's iPhone was silenced.\n\nSection::::Noise as excessive volume.\n\nMusic played at excessive volumes is often considered a form of noise pollution. Governments such as that of the United Kingdom have local procedures for dealing with noise pollution, including loud music.\n", "Music on hold was created by Alfred Levy, an inventor, factory owner, and entrepreneur. In 1962, Levy discovered a problem with the phone lines at his factory. He discovered that a loose wire was touching a metal girder on the building. This made the building a giant receiver so that the audio broadcast signal from a radio station next door would transmit through the loose wire and could be heard when calls were put on hold. Levy patented his work in 1966. While other advancements have come to change and enhance the technology, it was this initial patent creation that began the evolution for today's music on hold.\n", "The most common MOH is \"Opus Number One\", which is on \"65 million Cisco phone sets worldwide as the default hold music,\" according to a \"This American Life\" podcast (number 516). The composer, Tim Carleton, recorded the song in 1989 on a four-track tape recorder with Darrick Deel. When Deel, who works at Cisco, told Carleton their song could be the default music on hold, Carleton also approved.\n\nSection::::Recent trends.\n", "BULLET::::- 2018 GRAMMY Award – Best Music Film\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 Guild of Music Supervisors Award – Best Music Supervision, TV Limited Series or Movie\n\nBULLET::::- 2017 Emmy Award – News & Documentary, Outstanding Music and Sound\n\nBULLET::::- 2016 Critics’ Choice Documentary Award – Best Limited Documentary Series\n\nBULLET::::- 2017 RealScreen Award – Non-Fiction Arts & Culture\n\nBULLET::::- 21st Annual Webby Award – Official Honoree in Social Music.\n\nSection::::Episodes.\n\nBULLET::::1. Episode One: The Art of Recording\n\nBULLET::::2. Episode Two: Painting with Sound\n\nBULLET::::3. Episode Three: The Human Instrument\n\nBULLET::::4. Episode Four: Going Electric\n\nBULLET::::5. Episode Five: Four on the Floor\n", "The album was nominated for Best Rap Album at the 2015 Grammy Awards.\n\nSection::::Commercial performance.\n", "The album was promoted with two singles, \"Emergency Room\" and \"Too Much MIDI (Please Forgive Me).\" \"Channel Pressure\" garnered favorable reviews from professional music journalists upon its release, and was number 18 on a year-end list of the best albums of 2011 by \"Gorilla vs. Bear\".\n\nSection::::Background and production.\n", "If you are having a conversation, the high-fidelity audio allows you to hear people's voices coming from the appropriate directions, as you would in the real world. Since voices or other sounds become softer as you move away from them, Open Wonderland easily supports multiple, simultaneous conversations within the same virtual space.\n", "Section::::Critical reception.\n", "One of two methods can be employed for live performances. The first involves animating the entire set, with little or no allowance for audience interaction, then 'performing' it as is. The major pitfall with this method is the lack of audience interaction, which can be vital during concerts. This is best suited to short performances, where audience response can be predicted.\n", "BULLET::::1. Audio latency: Most musicians who play in a group rely on audio cues to maintain tempo and other communication. The most obvious example is the use of a drummer in pop music to keep time. In a normal rehearsal or performance environment, there is a delay between the time one musician plays and another hears the sound due to the speed of sound in air. This is typically from 3 - 50ms. When audio is transmitted through a digital medium (i.e. the Internet), the delay (or latency) can be much longer. Cell phones have latency of approximately 50ms. Applications such as Skype have approximately 100ms. And, QuickTime and Windows Media server-based streaming systems add 8 or more seconds of latency. When the latency is too high, the audio cues are no longer effective. Researchers have shown that some musicians can ignore this delay while others find it obtrusive. In general, the higher the audio quality and the more channels transmitted, the higher the latency needs to be to reliably transmit the audio stream.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-21559	Why was the Iceland christmas advert about the orangutan banned for being too political?	In the UK, TV broadcasting first started with the BBC, which is funded by a television licence. As such the BBC required no advertising to pay its way. Commercial broadcasting came along later, and with it came worries about the power and persuasive influence of TV advertising. Because of this laws, regulations and codes of conduct were drawn up to restrict what could be shown. One of the very first things to be banned was any form of political advertising. Instead TV channels are required to give space during elections for parties to air their own Party Political Broadcasts. It is this restriction that the Iceland advert has fallen foul of. Because the advert is not selling a service, but promoting a cause - it been judged to have contravened the above rules.	[ "In November 2018, Iceland submitted a version of an animated short starring a fictional orangutan named Rang-tan (originally released by Greenpeace) to Clearcast, but the submission was denied. Iceland originally planned to utilise the short as the television advertisement for Christmas season that year, and it was an extension to the earlier palm oil reduction drive.\n\nSection::::Dispute over the trademark \"Iceland\".\n", "2009 Pendet controversy\n\nIn 2009, an advertisement promoting Enigmatic Malaysia featured Balinese Pendet dancers which it incorrectly showed to be a Malaysian dance, which caused anger in Indonesia.\n", "For ADI's My Mate's a Primate campaign – which highlights the threats and exploitation of primates as a result of the bushmeat trade, in entertainment, the pet trade and in experiments – a TV advert was produced in which a young actress highlighted the suffering of chimpanzees in advertising. In the UK, the advert was banned on the grounds that it was “political”. ADI's challenge against the ban – which prevents advertising by animal, environmental and human rights organizations – has now moved to the European Court of Human Rights.\n", "The campaign received extensive press coverage both in Australia and overseas, particularly after it was banned in the United Kingdom. It enjoyed a mixed reception, being praised for its provocativeness and memorability but also being criticised as inappropriate for a tourism campaign. It was pulled in 2008, and its overall effectiveness has been debated.\n\nSection::::Bans due to controversial language.\n", "In September 2010 the government's Corruption Prevention and Combating Bureau (KNAB), which enforces campaign laws, removed a satirical film, The Last Bear Slayer, from the on-demand playlist of the partially state-owned cable provider, Lattelecom. The KNAB stated that the film might have constituted election advertising. Reporters Without Borders charged that the prohibition constituted improper censorship, but noted it was ineffective because the film was widely available on the Internet.\n", "Section::::Television advertisements.\n\nBULLET::::1. As a fake, caveman-insensitive commercial is being filmed, the boom operator turns out to be a Neanderthal caveman who stops the filming and yells \"Not cool!\"\n\nBULLET::::2. Two cavemen in their apartment watch the ad from commercial # 1 on TV, and take offense at its condescending tone, as it makes cavemen seem less intelligent.\n", "\"Fox News\" reported on June 21, 2018 that Facebook blocked ads from ReelWorks Studios promoting \"The Trump Prophecy\" for meeting the social media platform's definition of \"political\" content, although Eldridge and the film's male lead, Chris Nelson, reasoned that Facebook judged the ads only by their inclusion of the word Trump.\n", "In 2008, a commercial featuring anthropomorphic animals (such as a deer, a bear, peacocks, and chameleons) in swimsuits, caused outrage in the United Kingdom, for its sexually suggestive content. In the video, the animals gyrate around poles, spray the drink onto the breasts of other animals, and ride bottles which then explode. The advert had already had 45 seconds of more provocative footage cut, and was only to be shown after the 9 o'clock watershed, initially during a programme titled \"How to Look Good Naked\".\n", "The UK's Communications Act 2003 section 321(2) bans political and industrial dispute related adverts. Animal Defenders International had an advertisement, not offensive, which was themed 'My Mate's a Primate'. The Broadcasting Advertising Clearance Centre refused to let it show because it was deemed to fall within the prohibition on political advertising. They said this breached their ECHR article 10 right to freedom of expression.\n\nSection::::Judgment.\n\nSection::::Judgment.:House of Lords.\n", "In November 2018, Iceland Foods Ltd submitted a version of the Rang-tan video (which they were to use as their television advertisement for the Christmas season that year) to Clearcast. Earlier in 2018, Iceland Foods has announced that it would remove palm oil from the company's own products by the end of the year, and the company's use of the Greenpeace short was an extension to the earlier effort. The version, as submitted by the supermarket chain, did not contain any reference to Greenpeace. However, Clearcast, highlighting where the video came from, denied the retailer's submission of the animated advertisement.\n", "The ad was banned by the ASA for lack of substantial evidence for the claim of helping 24 million people. Two other grounds claiming misleading facts in the ad were not upheld, including that the church had \"educated 19 million people on 'the facts about illicit drugs and made \"tens of millions aware of their human rights\". They were found to not be in breach of the standards of the ASA.\n", "Promotion for the film included an effort to generate buzz through people the target audience \"trust and admire,\" such as Glenn Beck and Rush Limbaugh. Later, an advertisement for the film was submitted to CNN, who requested that the filmmakers \"explain why they believe the ad is not subject to political advertising disclosure requirements.\" The ad was not run because no explanation was received; however, the filmmakers submitted a different version of the ad which did run.\n", "On the promotional side, an example of Greenpeace's success in the area is a viral video from 2016 protesting Nestlé's use of palm oil in Kit Kat bars. The video received over 1 million views, and resulted in a public statement by Nestlé claiming to no longer use such practices in their products. In 2018, Greenpeace released an animated short starring a fictional orangutan named Rang-tan ahead of the World Orangutan Day. In November 2018, UK's Clearcast have denied a version of Rang-tan video as submitted by Iceland Foods Ltd.\n\nSection::::Forest campaign.:Removal of an ancient tree.\n", "Prior to the billboard, Exit International had developed a pro-voluntary euthanasia television advertisement that was due to screen in 2010. The advertisement was prompted by a The Gruen Transfer segment, where two advertising agencies had been requested to create a pro-euthanasia advertisement to \"market the unmarketable\". Although the winning entry was not able to be used by Exit International, they employed the successful advertising agency. The resulting advertisement was to screen on 12 September, but was unable to be shown after approval for the advertisement was withdrawn two days prior to screening, legal concerns in regard to the promotion of euthanasia and suicide being cited as the cause.\n", "In January 2008 Media Markt launched a campaign presenting a fictitious country called \"Dumb Land\", where several characters with Eastern European accents were presented as being from this country, which even has an anthem. A central theme of this campaign presented a Boy Scout as an idiot. This really upset people as many consider Scouts to be responsible and valued members of society. An online petition was created to persuade Media Markt to withdraw the campaign and to offer a public apology. Due to this petition and a lot of pressure from the Scouting movement, Media Markt had to remove the Boy Scout from their campaign, including TV and radio ads.\n", "Section::::Controversy.:Ad Agencies.\n\nIn late 2012, news circulated that ad agencies in which \"Inkaar\" was filmed refused any kind of association with the film. Leo Burnett Worldwide and Grey Worldwide agencies in which \"Inkaar\" was extensively shot, warned the production team that they did not want any branding or reference to their respective agencies in the film.\n\nSection::::Release.\n\nSection::::Release.:Critical reception.\n", "A majority of people polled by \"The New Paper\" felt the advertisement was disrespectful and in bad taste. MICA said that the advertisement did not breach the law as it only reproduced some components of the flag—it did not, for example, incorporate the flag's red and white background together. However, K.U. Menon, director of MICA's National Resilience Division, said: \"MICA does not encourage such ads which treat the national flag with disrespect. [...] Symbols should be treated with some measure of dignity and we hope Loof will withdraw the ad on its own initiative.\"\n", "Section::::Production.:Filming.\n\nFilming took place between late 2011 to early 2012. The film was extensively shot in actual advertising agencies including Leo Burnett Worldwide and Grey Worldwide.\n\nSection::::Controversy.\n\nSection::::Controversy.:Title Conflict.\n", "Section::::Criticisms.\n\nIndonesia's Vice-Minister for Tourism said the company running the New7Wonders campaign used underhanded tactics, threatening to remove Indonesia's Komodo National Park from the list if Indonesia refused to host a declaration ceremony for $35M. Nothing in the New7Wonders voting procedure prohibited repetitive voting, making the results subject to government and tourism industry campaigns to vote often for local sites with the financial incentive of increased tourism.\n", "In 2010, DB Breweries ran an advertising campaign attributing the creation of one of its brands, DB Export Gold to the increased taxes on beer introduced by the 'black budget'. However, the brewery was forced to pull the campaign from television and internet in February 2011 (though newspaper ads were unaffected) after the New Zealand Advertising Standards Authority partially upheld a complaint laid by Progressive Party leader Jim Anderton that the campaign was \"unethical, inaccurate and distorted history\" as little beer was then imported to New Zealand and the budget raised the excise only to the same as local beers.\n", "BULLET::::- 9525 – This carried the adverts for the NS/Olympic partnership.\n\nBULLET::::- 9522 – This sported a white/magenta livery advertising the OV-Chipkaart.\n\nBULLET::::- 9524 – This carried advertising liveries for \"Mamma Mia\" and \"The Lion King\". As well as that, it sported a completely white/magenta livery, advertising the OV-chipkaart similar to unit no. 9522.\n\nBULLET::::- 9520 – This carried an orange/blue livery advertising Queen Beatrix Wilhelmina Armgard resigning from the throne.\n", "Another gaffe took place when the Day campaign used the hit single \"Ordinary Day\" by Great Big Sea at a rally without permission. The band demanded that Day's campaign cease using the song for campaigning purposes.\n", "In 2010, a gay friendly Orangina commercial was released in France, a few weeks after a McDonald's advertisement featuring a gay teenager was shown on French television.\n\nIn 2015, an Orangina cinematic commercial was created by Hobby Films and directed by Vesa Manninen.\n\nSection::::Advertising.:Controversy.\n", "The advertisement was controversial, receiving both public support and establishment condemnation. It was discussed in Parliament. At the 1967 Tory party conference, the Shadow Home Secretary, Quintin Hogg said he was \"profoundly shocked by the irresponsibility of those who wanted to change the law\", describing their arguments as \"casuistic, confused, sophistical and immature.\"\n", "Political advertising on television and radio in the UK was prohibited by the Communications Act 2003, with the exception of permitted party political broadcasts. Three major cinema chains stopped showing adverts by referendum campaign groups after receiving negative feedback from their customers.\n\nSection::::Administration.:Campaign structures.:Donations.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-14682	why do “overweight” people tend to snore more than average weighted people?	The extra weight on the throat, combined with the extra weight on the chest compressing the lungs making breathing more difficult.	[ "There are two types of sleep apnea, obstructive and central. Obstructive sleep apnea is more common among overweight patients, and occurs when the airway is fully or partially blocked at times during sleep. Any air that does sneak by the blocked passage can cause loud snoring. The second type of sleep apnea, central sleep apnea, is much more rare and has to do with the part of the brain that regulates breathing. The signal from the brain to the lungs is disrupted, resulting in pauses in breathing. \n", "This problem can also be caused by excessive weight in children. In this case, the symptoms are more like the symptoms adults feel such as restlessness, exhaustion, etc. If adenotonsillar hypertrophy remains the most common cause of OSA in children, obesity can also play a role in the pathophysiology of upper airway obstruction during sleep which can lead to OSA, making obese children more likely to develop the condition. The recent epidemic increase of obesity prevalence has thus contributed to changes in the prevalence and in the characteristics of pediatric OSA, the severity of OSA being proportional to the degree of obesity. Obesity leads to the narrowing of upper airway structure due to fatty infiltration and fat deposits in the anterior neck region and cervical structures. Alongside with the additional weight loading on the respiratory system, it increases the risk of pharyngeal collapsibility while reducing the intrathoracic volume and diaphragm excursion. Moreover, excessive daytime sleepiness resulting from sleep fragmentation can decrease physical activity and thus lead to weight gain (by sedentary habits or increased food intake to overcome somnolence). The obesity-related obstruction of upper airway structure has led some authors to distinguish between two types of OSA in children: type I is associated with marked lymphadenoid hypertrophy without obesity and type II is first associated with obesity and with milder upper airway lymphadenoid hyperplasia. The two types of OSA in children can results in different morbidities and consequences. Studies have shown that weight loss in obese adolescents can reduce sleep apnea and thus the symptoms of OSA.\n", "BULLET::::- Increased soft tissue around the airway (sometimes due to obesity)\n\nBULLET::::- Structural features that give rise to a narrowed airway.\n\nSome adults with OSA are obese. Obese adults show an increase in pharyngeal tissue which cause respiratory obstruction during sleep. Adults with normal body mass indices (BMIs) often have decreased muscle tone causing airway collapse and sleep apnea. Sleeping on the supine position is also a risk factor for OSA. The supine sleeping position generates mandibular retraction and tongue collapse which constitutes an anatomical basis for respiratory obstruction during sleep.\n", "Section::::Treatment.:Alternative medicine.\n\nAmong the natural remedies are exercises to increase the muscle tone of the upper airway, and one medical practitioner noting anecdotally that professional singers seldom snore, but there have been no medical studies to fully link the two.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n", "Statistics on snoring are often contradictory, but at least 30% of adults and perhaps as many as 50% of people in some demographics snore. One survey of 5,713 American residents identified habitual snoring in 24% of men and 13.8% of women, rising to 60% of men and 40% of women aged 60 to 65 years; this suggests an increased susceptibility to snoring with age.\n", "Individuals with low muscle-tone and soft tissue around the airway (e.g., because of obesity) and structural features that give rise to a narrowed airway are at high risk for obstructive sleep apnea. The elderly are more likely to have OSA than young people. Men are more likely to suffer sleep apnea than women and children are, though it is not uncommon in the last two population groups.\n\nThe risk of OSA rises with increasing body weight, active smoking and age. In addition, patients with diabetes or \"borderline\" diabetes have up to three times the risk of having OSA.\n", "In adult patients, OSA has been shown to be associated with insulin resistance. In children, metabolic consequences of OSA are complicated to assess as they can also be associated to puberty and/or obesity (if present). However, when OSA is associated with obesity, the interaction of the two conditions can lead to metabolic disturbances such as insulin resistance and altered lipidemia, liver disease, abdominal adiposity and metabolic syndrome. Obesity interact with those effects.\n\nSection::::Consequences.:In children.:Nocturnal enuresis.\n", "When infants have a lower birth weight or younger gestational age, there is a greater risk of infantile apnea. With the advancement of neonatal intensive care units and the greater technology available, there are more successful premature births compared to the past. With the greater number of premature infants being born, there is also a greater number of children with infantile apnea. Approximately 85 percent of infants born with a weight less than experience infantile apnea within the first month after birth. This risk decreases to 25 percent for infants weighing less than . Studies have found that almost 2% of the pediatric population experience obstructive sleep apnea.\n", "Obesity hypoventilation syndrome is a form of sleep disordered breathing. Two subtypes are recognized, depending on the nature of disordered breathing detected on further investigations. The first is OHS in the context of obstructive sleep apnea; this is confirmed by the occurrence of 5 or more episodes of apnea, hypopnea or respiratory-related arousals per hour (high apnea-hypopnea index) during sleep. The second is OHS primarily due to \"sleep hypoventilation syndrome\"; this requires a rise of CO levels by 10 mmHg (1.3 kPa) after sleep compared to awake measurements and overnight drops in oxygen levels without simultaneous apnea or hypopnea. Overall, 90% of all people with OHS fall into the first category, and 10% in the second.\n", "Sleep apnea is a sleep disorder which causes an individual to have short pauses in breathing or very shallow breaths while sleeping. These pauses in breathing can often cause the individual to wake up, snore, choke, or just generally disrupt their sleep. As a result, sufferers of the disease do not get quality sleep during the night and are tired during the daytime. Sleep apnea is very difficult to diagnose because doctors can't exactly tell if a person has sleep apnea in a regular routine visit. Additionally the patient himself may not even realize he has sleep apnea because it occurs during sleep, so a partner or roommate is usually the first to notice symptoms. \n", "Individuals with decreased muscle tone and increased soft tissue around the airway, and structural features that give rise to a narrowed airway are at high risk for OSA. Men, in which the anatomy is typified by increased mass in the torso and neck, are at increased risk of developing sleep apnea, especially through middle age and later. Women suffer typically less frequently and to a lesser degree than do men, owing partially to physiology, but possibly also to differential levels of progesterone. Prevalence in post-menopausal women approaches that of men in the same age range. Women are at greater risk for developing OSA during pregnancy.\n", "Snoring is a common finding in people with this syndrome. Snoring is the turbulent sound of air moving through the back of the mouth, nose, and throat. Although not everyone who snores is experiencing difficulty breathing, snoring in combination with other risk factors has been found to be highly predictive of OSA. The loudness of the snoring is not indicative of the severity of obstruction, however. If the upper airways are tremendously obstructed, there may not be enough air movement to make much sound. Even the loudest snoring does not mean that an individual has sleep apnea syndrome. The sign that is most suggestive of sleep apneas occurs when snoring \"stops\".\n", "The term \"sleep-disordered breathing\" is commonly used in the U.S. to describe the full range of breathing problems during sleep in which not enough air reaches the lungs (hypopnea and apnea). Sleep-disordered breathing is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, stroke, high blood pressure, arrhythmias, diabetes, and sleep deprived driving accidents. When high blood pressure is caused by OSA, it is distinctive in that, unlike most cases of high blood pressure (so-called essential hypertension), the readings do \"not\" drop significantly when the individual is sleeping. Stroke is associated with obstructive sleep apnea.\n", "While there are some similarities between adults and children, OSA does not have the same consequences in both populations. Examples of similarities are the snoring – which is the most common complaint in both pediatric OSA and OSA in adults –, variability of blood pressure and cardiovascular morbidities. A major difference is the excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS) which is commonly reported in adult OSA, while it is not very common in pediatric OSA. Nevertheless, OSA in adults also implies a large scope of adverse and serious consequences, the latter leading to higher mortality amongst OSA patients. Those consequences are even worsen by common morbidities such as obesity.\n", "As the muscle tone of the body ordinarily relaxes during sleep, and the airway at the throat is composed of walls of soft tissue, which can collapse, it is not surprising that breathing can be obstructed during sleep. Although a minor degree of OSA is considered to be within the bounds of normal sleep, and many individuals experience episodes of OSA at some point in life, a small percentage of people have chronic, severe OSA.\n", "In the race, Pooch catches up as he elevates his car over every vehicle in his path. A bubble gum trick applied by a bystander does only little to slow him down. And when another driver punches him, Pooch goes into a fistfight until that driver falls off the edge of a mountainside road.\n\nHalfway in the race, Pooch stops at a refueling station. Little does he know that the fuel provided at the station is very low grade. Pooch's car starts to act bizarrely a little but still manages to carry on in the event.\n", "Snoring is known to cause sleep deprivation to snorers and those around them, as well as daytime drowsiness, irritability, lack of focus and decreased libido. It has also been suggested that it can cause significant psychological and social damage to sufferers. Multiple studies reveal a positive correlation between loud snoring and risk of heart attack (about +34% chance) and stroke (about +67% chance).\n", "The prevalence of OSA in the general population is estimated to 27% of middle-aged men and 9% of middle-aged women. However, it is highly underdiagnosed as the OSA is not always accompanied by daytime sleepiness which can leave the sleep-disordered breathing unnoticed. The prevalence of OSA with daytime sleepiness is thus estimated to affect 3% to 7% of men and 2% to 5% of women, and the disease is common in both developed and developing countries. It is most commonly diagnosed in individuals over 65 years old, with estimations ranging from 19% to 57%. The prevalence has drastically increased the past decades mainly explained by the obesity epidemic currently observed.\n", "Although this so-called \"hypersomnolence\" (excessive sleepiness) may also occur in children, it is not at all typical of young children with sleep apnea. Toddlers and young children with severe OSA instead ordinarily behave as if \"over-tired\" or \"hyperactive.\" Adults and children with very severe OSA also differ in typical body \"habitus\". Adults are generally heavy, with particularly short and heavy necks. Young children, on the other hand, are generally not only thin but may have \"failure to thrive\", where growth is reduced. Poor growth occurs for two reasons: the work of breathing is intense enough that calories are burned at high rates even at rest, and the nose and throat are so obstructed that eating is both tasteless and physically uncomfortable. OSA in children, unlike adults, is often caused by obstructive tonsils and adenoids and may sometimes be cured with tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy.\n", "Set point of ventilation is different in wakefulness and sleep. pCO2 is higher and ventilation is lower in sleep. Sleep onset in normal subjects is not immediate, but oscillates between arousal, stage I and II sleep before steady NREM sleep is obtained. So falling asleep results in decreased ventilation and a higher pCO2, above the wakefulness set point. On wakefulness, this constitutes an error signal which provokes hyperventilation until the wakefulness set point is reached. When the subject falls asleep, ventilation decreases and pCO2 rises, resulting in hypoventilation or even apnea. These oscillations continue until steady state sleep is obtained. The medulla oblongata controls our respiration.\n", "A type of CSA was described in the German myth of Ondine's curse where the person when asleep would forget to breathe. The clinical picture of this condition has long been recognized as a character trait, without an understanding of the disease process. The term \"Pickwickian syndrome\" that is sometimes used for the syndrome was coined by the famous early 20th century physician William Osler, who must have been a reader of Charles Dickens. The description of Joe, \"the fat boy\" in Dickens's novel \"The Pickwick Papers\", is an accurate clinical picture of an adult with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome.\n", "Airway resistance increases by about 230% during NREM sleep. Elastic and flow resistive properties of the lung do not change during NREM sleep. The increase in resistance comes primarily from the upper airway in the retroepiglottic region. Tonic activity of the pharyngeal dilator muscles of the upper airway decreases during the NREM sleep, contributing to the increased resistance, which is reflected in increased esophageal pressure swings during sleep. The other ventilatory muscles compensate for the increased resistance, and so the airflow decreases much less than the increase in resistance.\n\nSection::::Normal.:Steady NREM (Non-REM) sleep.:Arterial blood gases.\n", "Section::::History.:The Walsingham Union workhouse.\n", "Many patients experience chronic insomnia that creates both a difficulty falling asleep and staying asleep. As a result, patients typically experience frequent sleep disruptions. Loud snoring also serves as a possible indicator of the syndrome, but is not a symptom required for diagnosis.\n\nSome patients experience hypotension, which may cause lightheadedness, and patients with UARS are also more likely to experience headaches and irritable bowel syndrome.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "Treating obstructive sleep apnea is much easier than central sleep apnea, and the treatment plan may include things such as lifestyle changes, mouthpieces, surgery, and breathing devices\n\nSection::::Sleep in the Media.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-22040	Could I photograph the exact moment of light spreading inside my room?	You would need a very fast camera. Light travels at speed of 300 thousand km a second. Human requires 0.1 sec to react. In that time, light has already spread in the room. You would have to build a circuit with a very fast camera so that you would record at very high fps the moment you press the button. There is a TED talk by Ramesh Raskar in which he told about a camera that records at a trillion fps. He captured light traveling in it.	[ "When Germany invades France in 1940, Marie-Laure and her father flee to the coastal town of Saint-Malo to take refuge with her great-uncle Etienne, a recluse suffering shell-shock from the Great War. Etienne spends all his days indoors but reveals to Marie-Laure that he and his deceased brother Henri used to broadcast science lessons to children from a large radio inside the chimney. \n", "Special countdown activities were held before entering the year of 2011 (at 23:59:00).\n\nSection::::Lights Out Hong Kong.\n", "In the 4th century, Greek scholar Theon of Alexandria observed that \"candlelight passing through a pinhole will create an illuminated spot on a screen that is directly in line with the aperture and the center of the candle.\"\n\nSection::::History.:500 to 1000: Earliest experiments, study of light.\n\nIn the 6th century, the Byzantine-Greek mathematician and architect Anthemius of Tralles (most famous as a co-architect of the Hagia Sophia), experimented with effects related to the camera obscura. Anthemius had a sophisticated understanding of the involved optics, as demonstrated by a light-ray diagram he constructed in 555 AD.\n", "Globe at Night observations identify the dimmest stars that are visible given the surrounding conditions. Assuming normal visible acuity and clear skies, it is possible to approximately convert Globe at Night naked eye limiting maximum estimates into other units:\n\nSection::::History.\n", "From an early age, Reines exhibited an interest in science, and liked creating and building things. He later recalled that:\n\nThe first stirrings of interest in science that I remember occurred during a moment of boredom at religious school, when, looking out of the window at twilight through a hand curled to simulate a telescope, I noticed something peculiar about the light; it was the phenomenon of diffraction. That began for me a fascination with light.\n", "In another experiment, Tobias \"et al.\" (1971) exposed two people to a beam composed of neutrons ranging from 20 to 640 MeV after they were fully dark-adapted. One observer, who was given four exposures ranging in duration from one to 3.5 seconds, observed \"pinpoint\" flashes. The observer described them as being similar to \"luminous balls seen in fireworks, with initial tails fuzzy and heads like tiny stars\". The other observer who was given one exposure lasting three seconds long, reported seeing 25 to 50 \"bright discrete light, he described as stars, blue-white in color, coming towards him\".\n", "BULLET::::- Focused into a 20° beam, the same light bulb would have an intensity of around 18,000 cd within the beam.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "By his account, one night he felt drowsy and went to lie down in bed. Instead of falling asleep, he felt himself \"lengthen, widen and expand into a sphere\" and then entered a great space. He saw a group of stars far away and was told that it was the universe he had left behind. He then traveled at great speed through a great expanse and beyond, there were seven (7) \"mountain-like cones of light, one stacked upon another\". He described how he entered the cones of light one after another until he entered the seventh, the last. Then he returned to earth and saw what looked like stars in the sky but later realized they were the lights of Semarang, the hometown where he lived. He even tarried a little over the rooftop of his own house trying to lift up some roof tiles with his fingers but instead found himself inside his own room. It was about the time of Subuh or dawn.\n", "In the first week of Lent, on the Friday, 16 February, in the evening, there appeared an unusual star, and for a long time after that it was seen shining a while every evening. This star appeared in the south-west; it seemed small and dark. The ray that shone from it, however, was very bright, and seemed to be like an immense beam shining north-east; and one evening it appeared as if this beam were forking into many rays toward the star from an opposite direction. \n\nSection::::Observations.:China.\n", "Welling has held various teaching positions at universities since 1995. He is currently Area Head of Photography at UCLA. In the fall of 2014, he will serve as Visiting Professor of Photography at Princeton University, where he previously held the position in 2012.\n", "BULLET::::- At midnight on 5–6 May 1916 the British polar explorer Ernest Shackleton was at the tiller of the small sailboat \"James Caird\" in the Southern Ocean during a storm when he thought he saw the bad weather clearing in the west, astern. He then realized that what he thought was a line of white clouds above a clear dark sky was actually the crest of a single enormous wave that struck and nearly swamped the boat. Shackleton reported that the wave was larger than any he had ever seen before in his 26 years of seafaring.\n", "Another time, Manley was photographing the Roman Forum. Manley noticed an apartment building nearby, selected a second-story window from which he could get a good photograph and went into the building. He knocked on the door of an apartment and a woman who spoke only Italian opened it, saw his camera and started to close the door. Manley stuck his foot in the doorway and pushed a handful of cash through the opening. Despite language difficulties, an agreement was reached and Manley remained at the window of the apartment for more than an hour until the light was right.\n", "BULLET::::- 1979: \"Electricity in the 17th and 18th Centuries: A Study of Early Modern Physics\", University of California Press. .\n\nBULLET::::- 1974: \"H. G. J. Moseley: The Life and Letters of an English Physicist, 1887-1915\", University of California Press. .\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Brief biography in AIP Center for History of Physics Newsletter, Volume XXXVIII, No. 1, Spring 2006.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- \"What Time Is It in the Transept?\" D. Graham Burnett book review of \"The Sun in the Church: Cathedrals as Solar Observatories\", The New York Times, October 24, 1999.\n", "The frequency of light used in the definition corresponds to a wavelength in a vacuum of 555 nm, which is near the peak of the eye's response to light. If the source emitted uniformly in all directions, the total radiant flux would be about 18.40 mW, since there are 4π steradians in a sphere. A typical candle produces very roughly one candela of luminous intensity.\n", "José Francisco Salgado has contributed his photography and videos of astronomical observatories and the night sky to many science documentaries including:\n\nBULLET::::- Outrageous Acts of Science (Science Channel TV series): \"Bucket List\" episode (first aired on 21 March 2017)\n\nBULLET::::- Horizon (BBC TV series): \"Seeing Stars\" episode (aired 15 August 2011)\n\nSection::::Music Films.\n\nSection::::Music Films.:\"Science & Symphony\" films.\n", "Hence, in 1850, when Foucault and Fizeau found by experiment that light travels more slowly in water than in air, in accordance with the wave explanation of refraction and contrary to the corpuscular explanation, the result came as no surprise.\n\nSection::::Lighthouses and the Fresnel lens.\n\nSection::::Lighthouses and the Fresnel lens.:Prior art.\n", "BULLET::::- Magic Lantern – A School of Cinema Film Institute Chennai\n\nBULLET::::- University of Tasmania Library Lantern Slide Collection\n\nBULLET::::- LUCERNA - The Magic Lantern Web Resource\n\nBULLET::::- The Magic Lantern Society An introduction to lantern history featuring images of lanterns, slides, and lantern accessories\n\nBULLET::::- Joseph Boggs Beale collection of magic lantern illustrations, Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences\n\nBULLET::::- Images of Lantern Slides from the National Museum of Australia\n\nBULLET::::- The Magic Lantern Society, United Kingdom\n\nBULLET::::- The Lantern Slide Collection at the New-York Historical Society\n\nBULLET::::- QUT Digital Collections - Historical images of Japan\n", "This episode explores the wave theory of light as studied by mankind, noting that light has played an important role in scientific progress, with such early experiments from over 2000 years ago involving the camera obscura by the Chinese philosopher Mozi. Tyson describes the work of the 11th century Arabic scientist Ibn al-Haytham, considered to be one of the first to postulate on the nature of light and optics leading to the concept of the telescope, as well as one of the first researchers to use the scientific method.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Dazzle Ships \", 5 contemporary artists have transformed real-life ships in the UK and USA, paying homage to the hundreds of ships that were ‘dazzled’ during the First World War.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Spectra,\" London\"\", Ryoji Ikeda presented a tower of light which punctuated London's sky for seven nights.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lights Out\", more than 16 million people around the UK turned off their lights for an hour in a remarkable act of collective reflection.\n", "Supernatural explanations, such as those by Father Pio Scatizzi who argues that observers in Fátima could not be collectively deceived, or that the effect was not seen by observatories in distant places because of divine intervention have been dismissed by critics who say those taking part in the event could certainly be deceived by their senses, or they could have experienced a localized, natural phenomenon.\n", "BULLET::::- brucemunro.co.uk — Bruce Munro's official website\n\nBULLET::::- fieldoflight.co.uk — Field of Light page, Bruce Munro website\n\nBULLET::::- EdenProject.com — The Eden Projects official website\n\nBULLET::::- — The Telegraph on the Holburne Museum\n\nBULLET::::- http://light.longwoodgardens.org/light/installations/field-of-light-Longwood Gardens Light: Installations by Bruce Munro website\n\nBULLET::::- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AcY6AoJJEhY Bruce Munro: Winter Light, Waddesdon Manor, 2013\n\nBULLET::::- Field of Light, Holburne Museum, Bath\n\nBULLET::::- Nobel Laureate Frank Wilczek's Aha Moment at 'Field of Light'https://www.wsj.com/video/nobel-laureate-frank-wilczek-aha-moment-at-field-of-light/3404331D-ED39-41DC-8189-D00C39B2361B.html\n\nBULLET::::- The Creators Project, Vice Media \"A Field of 20,000 Glowing Lights \| Bruce Munro at Cheekwood\" - YouTube\n\nBULLET::::- Nicholas Conservatory and Gardens - Official Website\n", "The work of Augustin Fresnel was showcased in a special Fresnel Lecture on 10 March 2015 held at the Royal Institution in London and organised by the Society of Light and Lighting. The event attracted 400 people and was attended by the Duke of York. Possible links between Fresnel and the development of links between art and science were discussed in a multidisciplinary event Au Prisme d'Augustin Fresnel held at the Louvre in Paris on 2 November 2015.\n\nSection::::IYL 2015 Activities Overview.:Selected Activities.:IYL 2015 and Astronomy.\n", "The year 2015 marks the 1000th anniversary since the appearance of the remarkable seven-volume treatise on optics Kitab al-Manazir, written by the Arab scientist Ibn al-Haytham (also known by the Latinization Alhazen or Alhacen). Born around a thousand years ago in present-day Iraq, Ibn Al-Haytham was a pioneering scientific thinker who made important contributions to the understanding of vision, optics, and light. Today, many consider him a pivotal figure in the history of optics and the \"Father of modern optics\". He was the first person to explain that vision occurs when light bounces on an object and then is directed to one's eyes.\n", "Subsequent festivals included: Hot Springs Documentary Film Festival, Atlanta International Documentary Film Festival, Big Sky Documentary Film Festival, Calgary International Film Festival, Buffalo Niagara International Film Festival, Bronx International Film Festival, Indianapolis International Film Festival, Da Vinci Film Festival, Tallahassee Film Festival, Los Angeles United Film Festival, USA Film Festival, and Wisconsin Film Festival.\n", "For example, after taking refraction and parallax into account, the observed maximum on 15 September in Sydney, Australia was several hours earlier, and then occurred in daylight. The table on the right shows the major standstills that were actually visible (i.e. not in full daylight, and with the Moon above the horizon) from both London, UK, or Sydney, Australia.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-18730	What prevents flat wires from getting tangled compared to round wires?	Wire will curl in the path of least resistance and so flat wire will naturally try to turn in on itself in the direction of one of the flat sides where as round wire can twist and curl easily in any direction it needs to and this can end in a tangled mess quite effectively. The reason round wire is used more for daily applications such as phone chargers, vacuum cleaners, or extension cords is because these wires are moved around a lot and need the mobility of the round wire for practical ease of use because the wire will be malleable and move in the direction you want it to where as a flat wire won’t easily bend or turn in the direction of the thin edges and has a chance of damaging if forced to do so.	[ "Wire comes in solid core, stranded, or braided forms. Although usually circular in cross-section, wire can be made in square, hexagonal, flattened rectangular, or other cross-sections, either for decorative purposes, or for technical purposes such as high-efficiency voice coils in loudspeakers. Edge-wound coil springs, such as the Slinky toy, are made of special flattened wire.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "A regular gear pair can be represented as two circles rolling together without slip. In the case of non-circular gears, those circles are replaced with anything different from a circle. For this reason NCGs in most cases are not round, but round NCGs looking like regular gears are also possible (small ratio variations result from meshing area modifications).\n", "BULLET::::- The tip of an inextensible wire initially stretched on half arc of lower cycloid and bounded to the upper circle in formula_7 will then follow the point along its path \"without changing its length\" because the speed of the tip is at each moment orthogonal to the wire (no stretching or compression). The wire will be at the same time tangent in formula_8 to the lower arc because the tension and the demonstrated items. If it would not be tangent then there would be a discontinuity in formula_8 and consequently there would be unbalanced tension forces.\n\nSection::::Area.\n", "Flexible, flat cables are used in place of round cables for easy cable management, especially in high-flex applications. They usually take up less space than round cables, often offering better EMI/RFI suppression and eliminating wire-coupling issues. In addition, because the wires are protected individually and not wrapped many times over by different materials as round cables are, they are lighter in weight and offer greater flexibility.\n", "Flat TPS is more common, and is used for fixed wiring of domestic and industrial lighting, power outlets and, also, for \"hard-wired\" appliances and heating and air conditioning units. Round TPS is less common, and is generally used only where cable glands are required. It may be more difficult to strip the outer sheathing from round TPS than from flat TPS.\n\nSection::::United Kingdom.\n", "Section::::Mechanical design considerations.:Sharp corners.\n\nWhen cutting sharp corners, the wire dwells longer by the inside radius causing a slight overcut. On the outside radius, it speeds, leaving a slight undercut. Hence, sharp corners should be avoided while designing part.\n\nSection::::Mechanical design considerations.:Galvanic corrosion.\n", "Section::::Dowell method for determination of losses.\n\nThis one-dimensional method for transformers assumes the wires have rectangular cross-section, but can be applied approximately to circular wire by treating it as square with the same cross-sectional area.\n", "Two parts that are flat to about 1 helium light band (HLB) can be \"wrung\" together, which means they will cling to each other when placed in contact. This phenomenon is commonly used with gauge blocks.\n\nGeometric dimensioning and tolerancing has provided geometrically defined, quantitative ways of defining flatness operationally. \n\nSection::::History.\n", "The signal can be directed around corners with at least two methods: The first method can be implemented by creating a loop in the string which is then twisted and anchored to another object. Another method makes use of an extra can positioned on the apex of the corner; the string is threaded through the base of the can so as to avoid coming into contact with the object around which the signal is to be directed. \n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- History of the telephone\n\nBULLET::::- Sound powered telephone\n\nBULLET::::- Speaking tube\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Tin Can Telephone\n", "Historically, all wire was round. Advances in technology now allow the manufacture of jewelry wire with different cross-sectional shapes, including circular, square, and half-round. Half round wire is often wrapped around other pieces of wire to connect them. Square wire is used for its appearance: the corners of the square add interest to the finished jewelry. Square wire can be twisted to create interesting visual effects.\n\nSection::::Wire size.\n", "Drawing is a similar process, which uses the tensile strength of the material to pull it through the die. This limits the amount of change which can be performed in one step, so it is limited to simpler shapes, and multiple stages are usually needed. Drawing is the main way to produce wire. Metal bars and tubes are also often drawn.\n", "Two or more wires may be wrapped concentrically, separated by insulation, to form coaxial cable. The wire or cable may be further protected with substances like paraffin, some kind of preservative compound, bitumen, lead, aluminum sheathing, or steel taping. Stranding or covering machines wind material onto wire which passes through quickly. Some of the smallest machines for cotton covering have a large drum, which grips the wire and moves it through toothed gears; the wire passes through the centre of disks mounted above a long bed, and the disks carry each a number of bobbins varying from six to twelve or more in different machines. A supply of covering material is wound on each bobbin, and the end is led on to the wire, which occupies a central position relatively to the bobbins; the latter being revolved at a suitable speed bodily with their disks, the cotton is consequently served on to the wire, winding in spiral fashion so as to overlap. If a large number of strands are required the disks are duplicated, so that as many as sixty spools may be carried, the second set of strands being laid over the first.\n", "Particularly in complex equipment, wired circuits are often laid out as a \"ladder\" of side-by-side components, which need connecting to ladders or components by wire links. A good layout minimizes such links and wiring complexity, often approaching that of direct point-to-point. Amongst complex devices, the pre-PCB Tektronix vacuum-tube oscilloscopes stand out for their very well-designed point-to-point wiring.\n\nIf parasitic effects are significant, point-to-point and terminal strip wiring have variable parasitic components, while the inductance and capacitance due to a PCB are the same for all samples and can be compensated for reliably which may be essential for some RF circuits.\n", "BULLET::::- Unclosed fixed string subgroup: The pieces of string are not closed, but are somewhere on its length attached to the wire. In these puzzles the string is not to be disentangled from the wire. One possible task may be to shift a ring or ball from one end of the string to another end.\n", "Modern wiring methods assume two or more load-carrying conductors will lie very near each other, as for instance in standard NM-2 cable. When installed correctly, the K&T wires are held away from the structural materials by ceramic insulators.\n", "Often intermediate anneals are required to counter the effects of cold working, and to allow more further drawing. A final anneal may also be used on the finished product to maximize ductility and electrical conductivity.\n\nAn example of product produced in a continuous wire drawing machine is telephone wire. It is drawn 20 to 30 times from hot rolled rod stock.\n\nWhile round cross-sections dominate most drawing processes, non-circular cross-sections are drawn. They are usually drawn when the cross-section is small and quantities are too low to justify rolling. In these processes, a block or Turk's-head machine are used.\n\nSection::::Process.:Lubrication.\n", "BULLET::::- Three-stranding: Three single wires are stranded to a tripartite group.\n\nBULLET::::- Four-stranding: Two tightly twisted pairs may be loosely twisted together, or:\n\nBULLET::::- Star quad twisting: Four single wires maintain the same relation to each other in the quad, whereby the members of a twisted pair face each other diagonally.\n\nSection::::Telecommunication.:Transmission technique.\n", "Wire is often reduced to the desired diameter and properties by repeated drawing through progressively smaller dies, or traditionally holes in draw plates. After a number of passes the wire may be annealed to facilitate more drawing or, if it is a finished product, to maximise ductility and conductivity.\n\nSection::::Finishing, jacketing, and insulating.\n", "BULLET::::- Proximity effect: Another similar effect that also increases the resistance of the wire at high frequencies is proximity effect, which occurs in parallel wires that lie close to each other. The individual magnetic field of adjacent turns induces eddy currents in the wire of the coil, which causes the current in the conductor to be concentrated in a thin strip on the side near the adjacent wire. Like skin effect, this reduces the effective cross-sectional area of the wire conducting current, increasing its resistance.\n", "Introducing a continuous helical groove onto the drum, like the thread of a screw, provides a way to guide the rope when spooling onto or off a drum. However this has been shown to work effectively only when the rope is wrapped in a single layer. When the rope is wrapped in multiple layers, problems remain.\n", "Wire puzzles consist of two or more entangled pieces of more or less stiff wire. \n\nThe pieces may or may not be closed loops. The closed pieces might be simple rings or have more complex shapes. Normally the puzzle must be solved by disentangling the two pieces without bending or cutting the wires. \n\nEarly wire puzzles were made from horseshoes and similar material.\n\nSection::::Plate-and-ring puzzles.\n\nA plate-and-ring puzzle usually consists of three pieces:\n\nBULLET::::- one plate or similar displaying many holes and/or indentations\n\nBULLET::::- a closed or nearly closed ring or a similar item.\n", "Wire is usually drawn of cylindrical form; but it may be made of any desired section by varying the outline of the holes in the draw-plate through which it is passed in the process of manufacture. The draw-plate or die is a piece of hard cast-iron or hard steel, or for fine work it may be a diamond or a ruby. The object of utilising precious stones is to enable the dies to be used for a considerable period without losing their size, and so producing wire of incorrect diameter. Diamond dies must be rebored when they have lost their original diameter of hole, but metal dies are brought down to size again by hammering up the hole and then drifting it out to correct diameter with a punch.\n", "However, for many high-frequency applications, \"proximity effect\" is more severe than skin effect, and in some limited cases, simple stranded wire can reduce proximity effect. For better performance at high frequencies, litz wire, which has the individual strands insulated and twisted in special patterns, may be used.\n\nSection::::Forms of wire.:Prefused.\n\nPrefused wire is stranded wire made up of strands that are heavily tinned, then fused together. Prefused wire has many of the properties of solid wire, except it is less likely to break.\n\nSection::::Forms of wire.:Braided wire.\n", "The primary line constants are normally taken to be constant with position along the line leading to a particularly simple analysis and model. However, this is not always the case, variations in physical dimensions along the line will cause variations in the primary constants, that is, they have now to be described as functions of distance. Most often, such a situation represents an unwanted deviation from the ideal, such as a manufacturing error, however, there are a number of components where such longitudinal variations are deliberately introduced as part of the function of the component. A well-known example of this is the horn antenna.\n", "Section::::Principles.\n\nEfficient coils minimize the materials and volume required for a given purpose. The ratio of the area of electrical conductors, to the provided winding space is called \"fill factor\". Since round wires will always have some gap, and wires also have some space required for insulation between turns and between layers, the fill factor is always smaller than one. To achieve higher fill factors, rectangular or flat wire can be used. \n\nThe fill factor can be calculated from:\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-12241	How does the air stay so hot in the nighttime when the sun isn’t even out? And how is it that the sun makes the temperature only like 5-10 degrees warmer during the daytime in the summer?	The same reason the inside of an oven doesn't return to room temperature the instant you turn it off. Both the atmosphere and the ground absorb heat during the daytime. It takes time for this heat to dissipate after the sun sets. Furthermore, and this answers some of the second part of your question as well, air doesn't stay in one place. There are both local and global weather phenomenon that move air around, so warm air can be coming from elsewhere on the planet. As for your claim that it's only 5-10 degrees (I assume you mean Fahrenheit) cooler at night, that's your personal observation in your specific location for a short period of time, not fact. There are tons of historical weather records from all over the world at different times of year and different points in history that show the actual daily, weekly, monthly, and seasonal highs and lows, and I think you'll find there's a ton of variation.	[ "As solar energy strikes the Earth's surface each morning, a shallow layer of air directly above the ground is heated by conduction. Heat exchange between this shallow layer of warm air and the cooler air above is very inefficient. On a warm summer's day, for example, air temperatures may vary by from just above the ground to waist height. Incoming solar radiation exceeds outgoing heat energy for many hours after noon and equilibrium is usually reached from 3–5 p.m. but this may be affected by a variety of different things such as large bodies of water, soil type and cover, wind, cloud cover/water vapor, and moisture on the ground.\n", "It has been reported that \"On the basis of the nightime air temperature data, every northern spring and early northern summer yet observed were identical to within the level of experimental error (to within ±1 °C)\" but that the \"daytime data, however, suggest a somewhat different story, with temperatures varying from year-to-year by up to 6 °C in this season. This day-night discrepancy is unexpected and not understood\". In southern spring and summer, variance is dominated by dust storms which increase the value of the night low temperature and decrease the daytime peak temperature. This results in a small (20 °C) decrease in average surface temperature, and a moderate (30 °C) increase in upper atmosphere temperature.\n", "Diurnal temperature variation\n\nIn meteorology, diurnal temperature variation is the variation between a high temperature and a low temperature that occurs during the same day.\n\nSection::::Temperature lag.\n\nTemperature lag is an important factor in diurnal temperature variation: peak daily temperature generally occurs \"after\" noon, as air keeps net absorbing heat even after noon, and similarly minimum daily temperature generally occurs substantially after midnight, indeed occurring during early morning in the hour around dawn, since heat is lost all night long. The analogous annual phenomenon is seasonal lag.\n", "Deserts usually have a large diurnal and seasonal temperature range, with high daytime temperatures falling sharply at night. The diurnal range may be as much as and the rock surface experiences even greater temperature differentials. During the day the sky is usually clear and most of the sun's radiation reaches the ground, but as soon as the sun sets, the desert cools quickly by radiating heat into space. In hot deserts, the temperature during daytime can exceed in summer and plunge below freezing point at night during winter.\n", "The IPCC stated that \"it is well-known that compared to non-urban areas urban heat islands raise night-time temperatures more than daytime temperatures.\" For example, Barcelona, Spain is cooler for daily maxima and warmer for minima than a nearby rural station. A description of the very first report of the UHI by Luke Howard in the late 1810s said that the urban center of London was warmer at night than the surrounding countryside by . Though the warmer air temperature within the UHI is generally most apparent at night, urban heat islands exhibit significant and somewhat paradoxical diurnal behavior. The air temperature difference between the UHI and the surrounding environment is large at night and small during the day. The opposite is true for skin temperatures of the urban landscape within the UHI.\n", "The city seldom experiences extreme heat or cold. Some areas around the city, however, can see temperatures fall to around or during winter. Frost usually occurs in the early winter mornings, and there is a slight wind chill in the city at elevated areas that causes the cold mornings to be bitter, including low humidity. The sun warms the city to the high and low during the noontime but it drops drastically as night falls in.\n", "Approximately 50% of the heat from the Sun is absorbed at the surface. Consequently, the temperature at the surface may vary considerably according to the day / night cycle, according to weather and particularly according to season. Underground, these temperature changes are blunted and delayed, termed thermal lag. The thermal properties of earth therefore mean that in Winter the temperature below the surface will be higher than the surface air temperature, and conversely in Summer the earth temperature will be lower than the surface air temperature.\n", "A 2010 study found that in the immediate vicinity of wind farms, the climate is cooler during the day and slightly warmer during the night than the surrounding areas due to the turbulence generated by the blades.\n", "The daily (diurnal) longitudinal effects are at the mesoscale (a horizontal range of 5 to several hundred kilometres). During the day, air warmed by the relatively hotter land rises, and as it does so it draws a cool breeze from the sea that replaces the risen air. At night, the relatively warmer water and cooler land reverses the process, and a breeze from the land, of air cooled by the land, is carried offshore by night.\n\nSection::::Longitudinal circulation features.:Walker circulation.\n", "Western and eastern sun can provide warmth and lighting, but are vulnerable to overheating in summer if not shaded. In contrast, the low midday sun readily admits light and warmth during the winter, but can be easily shaded with appropriate length overhangs or angled louvres during summer and leaf bearing summer shade trees which shed their leaves in the fall. The amount of radiant heat received is related to the location latitude, altitude, cloud cover, and seasonal / hourly angle of incidence (see Sun path and Lambert's cosine law).\n", "During the afternoon, air pressure decreases over the land as the warmer air rises. The relatively cooler air over the sea rushes in to replace it. The result is a relatively cool onshore wind. This process usually reverses at night where the water temperature is higher relative to the landmass, leading to an offshore land breeze. However, if water temperatures are colder than the land at night, the sea breeze may continue, only somewhat abated. This is typically the case along the California coast, for example.\n", "Section::::Mesoscale features.:Sea and land breeze fronts.\n\nSea breeze fronts occur on sunny days when the landmass warms the air above it to a temperature above the water temperature. Similar boundaries from downwind on lakes and rivers during the day, as well as offshore landmasses at night. Since the specific heat of water is so high, there is little diurnal temperature change in bodies of water, even on the sunniest days. The water temperature varies less than . By contrast, the land, with a lower specific heat, can vary several degrees in a matter of hours.\n", "There are some other reasons for significant changes in temperature in tropical deserts. For instance, a lack of water and vegetation on the ground can enhance the absorption of the heat due to insolation. Subsiding air from dominant high pressure areas in a cloud-free sky can also lead to large amounts of insolation; a cloudless sky enables day temperature to escape rapidly at night.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Precipitation.\n", "Given that Earth's own axis of rotation is tilted about 23.5° to the line perpendicular to its orbital plane, called the ecliptic, the length of daytime varies with the seasons on the planet's surface, depending on the observer's latitude. Areas tilted toward the Sun are experiencing summer. Their tilt toward the Sun leads to more than half of the day seeing daylight and warmer temperatures, due to the higher directness of solar rays, the longer period of daytime itself, and less absorption of sunlight in the atmosphere. While increased daylight can have some effect on the higher temperatures in the summer, most of temperature rise results from the directness of the Sun, not the increased daylight. The high angles (around the zenith) of the Sun causes the tropics to be warm, while low angles (barely above the horizon) causes the polar regions to be cold. The slight effect of daylight hours on average seasonal temperature can be seen with the poles and tropical regions. The poles are still cold during their respective summers, despite seeing 24 hours of daylight for six months, while the Equator remains warm throughout the year, with only 12 hours of daylight per day.\n", "The variation in temperature that occurs from the highs of the day to the cool of nights is called diurnal temperature variation. Temperature ranges can also be based on periods of a month, or a year. \n\nThe size of ground-level atmospheric temperature ranges depends on several factors, such as:\n\nBULLET::::- The average temperature\n\nBULLET::::- The average humidity\n\nBULLET::::- The regime of winds (intensity, duration, variation, temperature, etc.)\n\nBULLET::::- The proximity to large bodies of water, such as the sea\n", "In equatorial regions at less than 23.5 degrees, the position of the sun at solar noon will oscillate from north to south and back again during the year.\n\nIn regions closer than 23.5 degrees from either north-or-south pole, during summer the sun will trace a complete circle in the sky without setting whilst it will never appear above the horizon six months later, during the height of winter.\n", "As a comparison, Temperatures on any given clear night throughout the year, can be between 1-3 degrees C warmer than the Manchester weather station, situated in nearby Woodford Aerodrome in Cheshire, near to Bramhall but on a cloudy night are almost equal. Daytime highs are pretty similar, and predominately almost exacting to 'Woodford', though fluctuations due to localised weather patterns can produce variations.\n", "Section::::Seasonal behavior.\n", "The oasis effect occurs most prominently during the summertime because warmer temperatures lead to more evaporation. In the winter, the oasis effect operates differently. Instead of making the oasis cooler, the oasis effect makes it warmer at night. This occurs through the fact that trees block heat from leaving the land. Basically, radiation cannot be emitted back into the atmosphere because the trees intercept and absorb it.\n\nSection::::Urban Planning.\n", "The UHI can be defined as either the air temperature difference (the canopy UHI) or the surface temperature difference (surface UHI) between the urban and the rural area. These two show slightly different diurnal and seasonal variability and have different causes \n\nSection::::Diurnal behavior.\n", "Section::::Solar access laws.\n\nSection::::Solar access laws.:The Netherlands.\n\nIn the Dutch building codes, the principal façade of houses must receive 3 hours of direct sunlight between the dates of 21 March and 21 September, the vernal point and autumnal points of the equinox. when the solar elevation is about 38°. For East and West oriented houses, the solar elevation is lowered to 32°, which reflects the sun’s path across the sky.\n\nSection::::Solar access laws.:United States.\n", "Daylight is present at a particular location, to some degree, whenever the Sun is above the local horizon. (This is true for slightly more than 50% of the Earth at any given time. For an explanation of why it is not exactly half, see here). However, the outdoor illuminance can vary from 120,000 lux for direct sunlight at noon, which may cause eye pain, to less than 5 lux for thick storm clouds with the Sun at the horizon (even <1 lux for the most extreme case), which may make shadows from distant street lights visible. It may be darker under unusual circumstances like a solar eclipse or very high levels of atmospheric particulates, which include smoke (see New England's Dark Day), dust, and volcanic ash.\n", "Also in the middle latitudes, the seasonal climate variations produced by changes in the length of daytime are the most marked, with very distinct periods of cold and heat, and other secondary seasonal changes such as snow and ice in winter that disappear in summer and so on. At high latitudes, it is cold most of the time, with constant snow and ice, so the seasons are less obvious; and in the tropics, it is hot most of the time, with no snow or ice at all, so again the seasons are less obvious.\n", "BULLET::::- Solstice day arcs as viewed from 70° latitude. At local noon the winter Sun culminates at −3.44°, and the summer Sun at 43.44°. Said another way, during the winter the Sun does not rise above the horizon, it is the polar night. There will be still a strong twilight though. At local midnight the summer Sun culminates at 3.44°, said another way, it does not set, it is the polar day.\n", "The idea of passive solar building design first appeared in Greece around the fifth century BC. Up until that time, the Greeks' main source of fuel had been charcoal, but due to a major shortage of wood to burn they were forced to find a new way of heating their dwellings. With necessity as their motivation, the Greeks revolutionized the design of their cities. They began using building materials that absorbed solar energy, mostly stone, and started orienting the buildings so that they faced south. These revolutions, coupled with overhangs that kept out the hot summer sun, created structures which required very little heating and cooling. Socrates wrote, \"In houses that look toward the south, the sun penetrates the portico in winter, while in summer the path of the sun is right over our heads and above the roof so that there is shade.\" \n" ]	[ "Air is 5-10 degrees warmer during the daytime in the summer.", "The sun only makes the temperature 5-10 degrees warmer during the daytime in the summer." ]	[ "Globally there is a lot of variation in daytime and nightime temperatures, and the difference between them.", "Historical weather data shows more variance than 5-10 degrees." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Air is 5-10 degrees warmer during the daytime in the summer.", "The sun only makes the temperature 5-10 degrees warmer during the daytime in the summer." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Globally there is a lot of variation in daytime and nightime temperatures, and the difference between them.", "Historical weather data shows more variance than 5-10 degrees." ]
2018-04799	Why do universities have gymnastics teams?	> but rather from the aspect that there is future in the sport after college Realistically there's no athletic future for 99% of college athletes in any sport. The sports exist because there's enough interest from the student body and the athletic boosters to keep them around, regardless of career track.	[ "With the passage of the 1972 Title 9 Amendment which provided for the inclusion of women in sports, The University of Alabama Gymnastics team existed as a club sport. With the first team acting as a club sport In 1972, The University of Alabama Gymnastics Team existed and competed with such teams as Jacksonville State until it was later sanctioned as a viable gymnastic team in 1975. \n", "Section::::Women's basketball.:Jersey sleeves.\n", "At the time of the 2019 announcement, 29 NCAA member institutions competed under the auspices of the National Collegiate Acrobatics and Tumbling Association.\n\nSection::::Sports.:Potential future emerging sports.:Wrestling.\n\nAt the time of the 2019 announcement, the Wrestle Like a Girl organization, along with the sport's national governing body of USA Wrestling, noted that 23 NCAA member institutions sponsored varsity women's wrestling.\n\nSection::::Sports.:Current NCAA sports.\n\nFormer emerging sports that have since achieved NCAA Championship status:\n\nSection::::Sports.:Current NCAA sports.:Rowing.\n", "Ohio State University has been the most successful collegiate team at synchronized swimming with, 15 before, 13 during, and two titles after the emerging sport period.\n\nBetween 1995 and 2009, they were always around eight participating teams. In the 2009–10 season, no university sponsored the sport. Since then it has grown to three teams in the 2016–17 season.\n\nSection::::Sports.:Dropped sports.:Team handball.\n\nTeam handball was one of the first nine emerging sports. Between 1997 and 2006, the NCAA sanctioned the Southeast Team Handball Conference.\n", "College gymnastics is an ever-growing sport in the United States. All of the college gymnastics is governed by the NCAA, excluding club gymnastics, which is headed by the NAIGC (National Association of International Collegiate Clubs). College gymnastics is a select college program with only 84 schools sponsoring it, throughout the three athletic divisions. In women's gymnastics, there are 82 schools sponsoring the sport, throughout Divisions I, II and III. Conversely, in men's gymnastics, only 16 schools sponsor an NCAA men's gymnastics team; all of which are in I, excluding Springfield College which is in Division III. There are many club teams for men's gymnastics, however. This is largely due to the fact that schools run out of money to fund the program and therefore it is cut from the school's program. An excellent example of this would be the Temple Owls team, who cut the program following the 2014 season, due to reasons such as \"title IX, student welfare and facility needs\".\n", "In March 2011, Varsity Spirit supported USA Cheer as it developed the USA Cheer Safety Council in partnership with the American Sports Medicine Institute (ASMI) in Birmingham, Alabama, founded by Dr. James Andrews, the renowned orthopedic surgeon.\n\nSection::::Philanthropy.\n\nSection::::Philanthropy.:St. Jude Children's Research Hospital.\n", "Triathlon is the newest emerging sport, having received that status in January 2014.\n\nAs of the 2017–18 school year, four D-I, eight D-II, and seven D-III schools participated in varsity competition. Nine NCAA schools added the sport in 2018–19, with Hampton becoming the first historically black school to sponsor the sport.\n\nSection::::Sports.:Potential future emerging sports.\n\nOn June 3, 2019, the NCAA announced that its Committee on Women’s Athletics had recommended the addition of acrobatics & tumbling and wrestling to the Emerging Sports program, effective with the 2020–21 school year.\n\nSection::::Sports.:Potential future emerging sports.:Acrobatics & tumbling.\n", "In 1995, the first halftime cheer was done by a lone member of the group, Richie Medalla. It was at a women's basketball game, done over a dare to do the cheers of UST, traditional style. Then soon others wanted in the action, cheering during pregame and halftime on the court. In 1997, the group became the official pep squad of the university under the name \"UST Yellow Jackets\" and was placed under UST's Institute of Physical Education and Sports (IPEA). Under IPEA, the organization was placed under the advisory of Prof. Robinson Laxa (1994-2007), Prof. Raymond Anselmo (2008–2016) and Mr. Teodoro Dela Peña (2016–Present).\n", "Volleyball is a popular NCAA sport, mostly for women. In the 2013-14 school year, 1064 NCAA member schools, 329 of them in the top-level Division I, sponsored women's volleyball at the varsity level, with 16,647 participants across all three divisions. At the same time, 109 schools in all three NCAA divisions combined sponsored varsity men's volleyball, with only 23 of them in Division I; the number of men's varsity volleyball players was roughly one-tenth of women's participation (1,720 to 16,647).\n", "Another factor added to the contest to earn a college scholarship in gymnastics is the, which has only recently started to occur, interest in college gymnastics from international gymnasts. In previous years, college gymnastics has seen gymnasts from Canada, Great Britain, Australia, New Zealand, the Netherlands and Mexico. Typically, international recruits will be former Olympians, such as Marissa King, Brittany Rogers and Olivia Vivian. The most 'culturally diverse' women's gymnastics programs could be known to be teams such as UCLA Bruins, Oregon State Beavers, Florida Gators and LSU Tigers; all of whom have had 2+ international team members every year since 2010. Generally, not as many international gymnasts compete in men's gymnastics, but there is still a handful of international collegiate gymnasts.\n", "The band is also known for their creative visual performances at halftime shows (e.g. the formation of a sperm fertilizing an egg). During Homecoming weekend, the entire band was known to dress up as hobos for Michigan's Tech (now discontinued) Homecoming Parade.\n", "Members of Alpha Phi Omega carry the world's largest Texas flag during a pregame ceremony at a University of Texas football game. Another notable flag-related tradition is that of Washington State University; a group of alumni has arranged for a school flag to be flown at every broadcast of the football version of \"College GameDay\" since October 2003.\n\nSection::::Ritual in rivalry.\n", "The current championship for team handball is the College Nationals. Army has won 19 titles, making them the record champion. They won 13 titles during the emerging sport period.\n\nThree universities won the adult National Championships. These are Kansas State University at the first edition in 1975, Ohio State University in 1978, and the University of Minnesota in 1990.\n\nNo university ever sponsored Team handball.\n", "Section::::Group behaviors.\n", "The organization dates to 1975 and traces its roots to Nancy Neill. After attending a Saddle Tramps meeting, she discovered there had been several failed attempts to organize a women's organization to support Texas Tech's women athletes. She decided that, with better planning, she could create a lasting group to fill the gap.\n", "Neither UP nor UST won the cheerdance tilt in from 2013 to 2015. In 2013, UST had its lowest ranking and settled seventh place. As of 2013, UP never placed outside top three while UST failed to get a podium ranking four times in five years.\n", "College gymnastics receives adequate television coverage with programming contracts from SEC Network, Big Ten Network and Pac-12 Network, who often broadcast meets during the regular season. However, some Pac-12 Conference coaches, including Greg Marsden and Chris Waller, have been demanding more television coverage for women's collegiate gymnastics.\n\nSection::::Club gymnastics.\n\nCurrently, there are around 86,800 athletes enrolled in artistic gymnastics disciplines in the United States. This figure makes up just under 85% of the total number of athletes enrolled in any gymnastics discipline in USA Gymnastics; clearly showing that artistic gymnastics is the most popular gymnastics discipline in the country.\n", "Section::::CIAA cheerleading.\n\nOne of the signature events of \"Super Saturday\" at the CIAA Basketball Tournament is the Cheer Exhibition. At the exhibition, CIAA cheer squads showcase elaborate themes and routines to entertain fans and display their talents. Every cheerleading team in the CIAA is a \"Stomp-N-Shake\" squad which is a unique style of cheer that is most common among predominately African-American schools and colleges located in the East Coast region\n", "The rivalry between the two squads began in 1999 when UST returned to reclaim the title after their year of absence. However, they only finished second behind UP Pep Squad. In 2001, UP Pep Squad matched the record of UST's three consecutive wins.\n", "When the CIAU (now U Sports) began, the Queen’s University Track and Field team was one of the only teams to participate in all three athletics sports – indoor track and field, outdoor track and field, and cross-country.\n", "Section::::Pep rallies and ceremonies as ritual.\n", "As a result of the 2013 split of the original Big East Conference, SMU and UCF both left C-USA for that league's football-sponsoring offshoot, the American Athletic Conference, in 2013, and Tulsa made the same move a year later. C-USA added two new rowing affiliates for the 2013–14 season in Sacramento State and San Diego State, but both left after that season for The American. The rapid turnover in rowing membership presumably led the Big 12 to take over the C-USA women's rowing league, with the three remaining C-USA rowing schools (Alabama, Old Dominion, Tennessee) becoming Big 12 affiliates.\n", "The Women's volleyball team at Michigan Tech first formed in 1975 under Title IX. The first coach was Cheryl Depuydt, the Michigan Tech figure skating instructor. When football coach and athletic director, Ted Kearly, was in need of a women's athletic coach, Coach DePuydt, or Cheryl as she was known, volunteered to coach both the women's basketball and volleyball teams. She initially coached both teams without pay. Not only was she the first female coach at MTU, she was the first female instructor and served as chair of the department until her death in 2006, after a battle with cancer. Cheryl’s work was crucial to developing Husky volleyball and is highly regarded for her role in the foundation of women’s athletics at Michigan Tech.\n", "Arguably, Club Universidad de Chile is a works team, having been formed by university students before becoming part of the university's brand until 1980. (A number of university teams around the world play professionally, including University of Pretoria F.C. in South Africa; FC Academia Chișinău in Moldova; Cardiff Metropolitan University F.C. in Wales (once called Inter CableTel A.F.C.); and Club Universidad de Guadalajara in Mexico.)\n", "In 2001, women's ice hockey became an official NCAA sport.\n\nThe University of Minnesota is the most dominant women's collegiate ice hockey team in the US. Minnesota has won six national championships and produced many Olympians.\n\nAs of the 2018–19 school year, 35 D-I, five D-II, and 59 D-III schools participated in varsity competition. One D-I school (LIU) is scheduled to add the sport for 2019–20.\n\nSection::::Sports.:Current NCAA sports.:Water polo.\n\nIn 2001, women's water polo become an NCAA sport.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01686	If electrons move in a copper wire not by each electron travelling all the way, but by bumping into the one ahead and pushing it forward, how can electricity travel faster than the speed of sound of copper?	The electrons don't bump into each other, they can't as their charges will repel them from one another. The propagation of electricity through a conductor is solely due to the propagation of the electric field not due to the motion of electrons. The speed of sound in copper is 4.6 km/s, electric signals move at a good fraction of the speed of light, but electrons in 12 gauge wire carrying 1 amp of current move at a whopping 2.3 x 10^-5 m/s. If you were waiting for electrons to bump into each other you'd be waiting a really long time, but luckily each electron is already pushing on other nearby electrons so as soon as one begins to move its electric field pushes on near by ones which move in the same direction so you're really just limited by how quickly the electric field can push on the next one which is a fraction of the speed of light.	[ "The energy/signal usually flows overwhelmingly outside the electric conductor of a cable; the purpose of the conductor is thus not to conduct energy, but to guide the energy-carrying wave.\n\nSection::::Electromagnetic waves.:Speed of electromagnetic waves in good dielectrics.\n\nThe speed of electromagnetic waves in a low-loss dielectric is given by\n\nwhere\n\nSection::::Electromagnetic waves.:Speed of electromagnetic waves in good conductors.\n\nThe speed of electromagnetic waves in a good conductor is given by\n\nwhere \n", "Any accelerating electric charge, and therefore any changing electric current, gives rise to an electromagnetic wave that propagates at very high speed outside the surface of the conductor. This speed is usually a significant fraction of the speed of light, as can be deduced from Maxwell's Equations, and is therefore many times faster than the drift velocity of the electrons. For example, in AC power lines, the waves of electromagnetic energy propagate through the space between the wires, moving from a source to a distant load, even though the electrons in the wires only move back and forth over a tiny distance.\n", "Typically, electric charges in solids flow slowly. For example, in a copper wire of cross-section 0.5 mm, carrying a current of 5 A, the drift velocity of the electrons is on the order of a millimetre per second. To take a different example, in the near-vacuum inside a cathode ray tube, the electrons travel in near-straight lines at about a tenth of the speed of light.\n", "Speed of electricity\n\nThe word \"electricity\" refers generally to the movement of electrons (or other charge carriers) through a conductor in the presence of potential and an electric field. The speed of this flow has multiple meanings. In everyday electrical and electronic devices, the signals or energy travel as electromagnetic waves typically on the order of 50%–99% of the speed of light, while the electrons themselves move (drift) much more slowly.\n\nSection::::Electromagnetic waves.\n", "The speed of sound in a plasma for the common case that the electrons are hotter than the ions (but not too much hotter) is given by the formula (see here)\n\nwhere\n\nBULLET::::- \"m\" is the ion mass;\n\nBULLET::::- \"μ\" is the ratio of ion mass to proton mass ;\n\nBULLET::::- \"T\" is the electron temperature;\n\nBULLET::::- \"Z\" is the charge state;\n\nBULLET::::- \"k\" is Boltzmann constant;\n\nBULLET::::- \"γ\" is the adiabatic index.\n", "BULLET::::- is the length of the conductor, in m\n\nSection::::Numerical example.\n\nElectricity is most commonly conducted in a copper wire. Copper has a density of , and an atomic weight of , so there are . In one mole of any element there are atoms (the Avogadro number). Therefore, in of copper there are about atoms (). Copper has one free electron per atom, so is equal to electrons per cubic metre.\n", "Section::::Velocity factor.\n\nIn a transmission line, a signal travels at a rate controlled by the effective capacitance and inductance per unit of length of the transmission line. Some transmission lines consist only of bare conductors, in which case their signals propagate at the speed of light, \"c\". More often the signal travels at a reduced velocity κ\"c\", where κ is the \"velocity factor\", a number less than 1, representing the ratio of that velocity to the speed of light.\n", "Fluid velocity and resistance of metals: As with water hoses, the carrier drift velocity in conductors is directly proportional to current. However, water only experiences drag via the pipes' inner surface, while charges are slowed at all points within a metal, as with water forced through a filter. Also, typical velocity of charge carriers within a conductor is less than centimeters per minute, and the \"electrical friction\" is extremely high. If charges ever flowed as fast as water can flow in pipes, the electric current would be immense, and the conductors would become incandescently hot and perhaps vaporize. To model the resistance and the charge-velocity of metals, perhaps a pipe packed with sponge, or a narrow straw filled with syrup, would be a better analogy than a large-diameter water pipe. Resistance in most electrical conductors is a linear function: as current increases, voltage drop increases proportionally (Ohm's Law). Liquid resistance in pipes is not linear with volume, varying as the square of volumetric flow (see Darcy–Weisbach equation).\n", "With very small currents and considering shorter time scales (thus wider bandwidths) shot noise can be significant. For instance, a microwave circuit operates on time scales of less than a nanosecond and if we were to have a current of 16 nanoamperes that would amount to only 100 electrons passing every nanosecond. According to Poisson statistics the \"actual\" number of electrons in any nanosecond would vary by 10 electrons rms, so that one sixth of the time less than 90 electrons would pass a point and one sixth of the time more than 110 electrons would be counted in a nanosecond. Now with this small current viewed on this time scale, the shot noise amounts to 1/10 of the DC current itself.\n", "Since the velocity of propagation is very high – about 300,000 kilometers per second – the wave of an alternating or oscillating current, even of high frequency, is of considerable length. At 60 cycles per second, the wavelength is 5,000 kilometers, and even at 100,000 hertz, the wavelength is 3 kilometers. This is a very large distance compared to those typically used in field measurement and application.\n", "The process by which electric current passes through a material is termed electrical conduction, and its nature varies with that of the charged particles and the material through which they are travelling. Examples of electric currents include metallic conduction, where electrons flow through a conductor such as metal, and electrolysis, where ions (charged atoms) flow through liquids, or through plasmas such as electrical sparks. While the particles themselves can move quite slowly, sometimes with an average drift velocity only fractions of a millimetre per second, the electric field that drives them itself propagates at close to the speed of light, enabling electrical signals to pass rapidly along wires.\n", "The emitter wire is typically connected to the positive terminal of the high voltage power supply. In general, it is made from a small gauge bare conductive wire. While copper wire can be used, it does not work quite as well as stainless steel. Similarly, thinner wire such as 44 or 50 gauge tends to work well compared to more common, larger sizes such as 30 gauge, as the stronger electric field around the smaller diameter wire results in better ionisation and a larger corona current.\n", "The speed at which energy or signals travel down a cable is actually the speed of the electromagnetic wave traveling along (guided by) the cable. i.e. a cable is a form of a waveguide. The propagation of the wave is affected by the interaction with the material(s) in and surrounding the cable, caused by the presence of electric charge carriers (interacting with the electric field component) and magnetic dipoles (interacting with the magnetic field component). These interactions are typically described using mean field theory by the permeability and the permittivity of the materials involved.\n", "In copper at 60 Hz, formula_23 3.2 m/s. Some sprinters can run more than three times as fast. As a consequence of Snell's Law and the extremely low speed, electromagnetic waves always enter good conductors in a direction that is normal to the surface, regardless of the angle of incidence. This velocity is the speed with which electromagnetic waves penetrate into the conductor and is not the drift velocity of the conduction electrons.\n\nSection::::Electromagnetic waves.:Electromagnetic waves in circuits.\n", "Section::::Electric drift.\n", "Assume a current , and a wire of diameter (radius = ). This wire has a cross sectional area of (). The charge of one electron is . The drift velocity therefore can be calculated:\n\nDimensional analysis:\n\nformula_8\n\nTherefore, in this wire the electrons are flowing at the rate of . At 60 Hz alternating current, this means that within half a cycle the electrons drift less than 0.2 μm. In other words, electrons flowing across the contact point in a switch will never actually leave the switch.\n", "The resistance and conductance of a wire, resistor, or other element is mostly determined by two properties:\n\nBULLET::::- geometry (shape), and\n\nBULLET::::- material\n\nGeometry is important because it is more difficult to push water through a long, narrow pipe than a wide, short pipe. In the same way, a long, thin copper wire has higher resistance (lower conductance) than a short, thick copper wire.\n", "Charge flow speed (drift velocity) is equivalent to the particle speed of water. The moving charges themselves move rather slowly.\n\nDC is equivalent to the a constant flow of water in a circuit of pipes.\n\nLow frequency AC is equivalent to water oscillating back and forth in a pipe\n", "BULLET::::- The capacitance \"C\" controls how much the bunched-up electrons within each conductor repel the electrons in the \"other\" conductor. By absorbing some of these bunched up electrons, the speed of the wave and its strength (voltage) are both reduced. With a larger capacitance, there is less repulsion, because the \"other\" line (which always has the opposite charge) partly cancels out these repulsive forces \"within\" each conductor. Larger capacitance equals (weaker restoring force)s making the wave move slightly slower, and also gives the transmission line a lower impedance (higher current for the same voltage).\n", "The article states that alternating power source generates electromotive force, which generates potential differences and longitudinal electric fields in a circuit almost instantaneously. The word '\"speed of alternating electricity\"' refers generally to the speed of electric energy from an alternating power source to an electric load (such as a resistor) in an electric circuit. The movement of electrons through a conductor in the presence of potential and an electric field is very slow. When a DC voltage is applied, The drift speed is on the order of millimeters per hour.\n", "BULLET::::- At 60 Hz, the skin depth of a copper wire is about .\n\nBULLET::::- At 60,000 Hz (60 kHz), the skin depth of copper wire is about .\n\nBULLET::::- At 6,000,000 Hz (6 MHz) the skin depth of copper wire is about .\n\nRound conductors such as wire or cables larger than a few skin depths do not conduct much current near their axis, so the metal located at the central part of the wire is not used effectively.\n\nSection::::Principle of operation.:Proximity effect.\n", "In a microtron, due to the electrons' increasing momentum, the particle paths are different for each pass. The time needed for that is proportional to the pass number. The slow electrons need one electric field oscillation, the faster electrons need an integer multiple of this oscillation.\n\nSection::::Racetrack microtron.\n", "Fields (Maxwell equations, Inductance): Electrons can push or pull other distant electrons via their fields, while water molecules experience forces only from direct contact with other molecules. For this reason, waves in water travel at the speed of sound, but waves in a sea of charge will travel much faster as the forces from one electron are applied to many distant electrons and not to only the neighbors in direct contact. In a hydraulic transmission line, the energy flows as mechanical waves through the water, but in an electric transmission line the energy flows as fields in the space surrounding the wires, and does not flow inside the metal. Also, an accelerating electron will drag its neighbors along while attracting them, both because of magnetic forces.\n", "BULLET::::1. (, ); (, , ); (, , ); (, ); (, )\n\nBULLET::::2. (, , , )\n", "The theory of metals in their solid state helps to explain the unusually high electrical conductivity of copper. In a copper atom, the outermost 4s energy zone, or conduction band, is only half filled, so many electrons are able to carry electric current. When an electric field is applied to a copper wire, the conduction of electrons accelerates towards the electropositive end, thereby creating a current. These electrons encounter resistance to their passage by colliding with impurity atoms, vacancies, lattice ions, and imperfections. The average distance travelled between collisions, defined as the \"mean free path\", is inversely proportional to the resistivity of the metal. What is unique about copper is its long mean free path (approximately 100 atomic spacings at room temperature). This mean free path increases rapidly as copper is chilled.\n" ]	[ "Electrons \"move\" by bumping into each other." ]	[ "Electrons don't travel down the wire or bump into each other. They propogate an electric field due to their own motion at their specific location. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Electrons \"move\" by bumping into each other." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Electrons don't travel down the wire or bump into each other. They propogate an electric field due to their own motion at their specific location. " ]
2018-24230	Why do English singers sound American when they sing?	It really depends on the music, mainstream music tries to get a American appeal while indie music usually sings in "British"	[ "Many U.S.-based artists, such as Elvis Presley and Michael Jackson are recognized worldwide and have sold over 500 million albums each. Michael Jackson's album \"Thriller\", at 100 million sales, is the best-selling album of all time.\n\nThrough the study of vocabulary and spelling of English words in books and tweets, American English is more common in communities in European Union compared to British English. This trend is more apparent in the events following World War II and the fall of the Soviet Union.\n\nSection::::Business and brands.\n", "Noted for its long-lasting popularity was the debut single from LeAnn Rimes, \"How Do I Live\", which spent 33 weeks in the UK Top 40, selling 714,000 copies and becoming the biggest-selling single ever to peak at No. 7 (it finished higher in the \"year end\" chart than in the weekly charts). It was more popular in the US, spending 32 weeks in the US Top 10, 61 weeks in the US Top 40 and 69 weeks on the Billboard Hot 100.\n\nSection::::Summary.:British acts.\n", "American artists such as Ariana Grande, Bebe Rexha, Demi Lovato, Fifth Harmony, Hailee Steinfeld, Lady Gaga, Meghan Trainor, Nicki Minaj and Taylor Swift, are popular in the United Kingdom. British artists such as Adele, Anne-Marie, Charli XCX, Dua Lipa, Ellie Goulding, Little Mix and Rita Ora have achieved much success in the large American market. Undoubtedly, the popular music of both nations has had a strong sway on each other.\n", "During 1983, 30% of the US record sales were from British acts. On 18 July 1983, 18 singles in the top 40, and 6 in the top 10, were by British artists. \"Newsweek\" magazine ran an issue which featured Annie Lennox and Boy George on the cover of one of its issues, with the caption \"Britain Rocks America – Again\", while \"Rolling Stone\" would release an \"England Swings\" issue with Boy George on the cover. In April 1984, 40 of the top 100 singles, and in a May 1985 survey 8 of the top 10 singles, were by acts of British origin.\n", "BULLET::::4. The Bee Gees were born on the Isle of Man, a Crown dependency that is not part of the UK, and moved to the UK proper in their early childhood, but moved to Australia later in their childhood and resided there for eight years before moving back to the UK.\n\nBULLET::::5. Linda McCartney was American. It is unknown whether she chose to become a British national too.\n", "BULLET::::- British Male Solo Artist: Plan B\n\nBULLET::::- British Female Solo Artist: Laura Marling\n\nBULLET::::- British Breakthrough Act: Tinie Tempah\n\nBULLET::::- British Group: Take That\n\nBULLET::::- MasterCard British Album: \"Sigh No More\" – Mumford & Sons\n\nBULLET::::- British Single: \"Pass Out\" – Tinie Tempah\n\nBULLET::::- International Male Solo Artist: Cee Lo Green\n\nBULLET::::- International Female Solo Artist: Rihanna\n\nBULLET::::- International Breakthrough Act: Justin Bieber\n\nBULLET::::- International Group: Arcade Fire\n\nBULLET::::- International Album: \"The Suburbs\" – Arcade Fire\n\nBULLET::::- British Producer: Markus Dravs\n\nBULLET::::- Critics' Choice: Jessie J\n\nSection::::British music awards.:Classical BRIT Awards.\n", "Section::::Before Eurovision.:Selection process.\n", "British soul in the 2000s has been dominated by female singers, most notably Amy Winehouse, Estelle, Joss Stone, Duffy, Paloma Faith, Florence Welch, Adele, Floetry, Jessie J and Leona Lewis. They have enjoyed success on the American charts, leading to talk of another \"British Invasion\", a \"Female Invasion\" or a \"British soul invasion\". In 2008, Amy Winehouse won 5 Grammy Awards, then more than any British female artist had won in one night. In 2009, Jay Sean's single \"Down\" reached the number one spot on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 and sold millions in the United States, making him \"the most successful male UK urban artist in US chart history\" at the time.\n", "As a member of the \"Big 5\", the United Kingdom automatically qualified to compete in the final of the Eurovision Song Contest.\n\nSection::::Background.\n", "British musical success in the United States was at its lowest point in the early 2000s. Less than 2% of the top 100 United States albums in both 2000 and 2001 were from the United Kingdom. In April 2002, for the first time since October 1963, there were no British acts on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 singles chart. This would be reversed in the latter half of the decade when the percentage of albums sold in the U.S. by British acts increased every year from 2005 through 2008. It would increase from 8.5% to 10% of the market between 2007 and 2008.\n", ". New Zealander soprano Hayley Westenra is primarily a classical crossover performer, whose \"Pure\" CD was the United Kingdom's biggest-selling classical album of the 21st century so far. Along with her classical repertoire, she also performs a mixture of easy listening, folk and pop style songs, and has sung in English, Māori, Italian, German, Japanese, Mandarin Chinese, Taiwanese, Irish Gaelic, Welsh, French, Portuguese, Quenya, Latin and Scottish Gaelic.\n", "Section::::Before Eurovision.:Revamp of the song.\n", "While their fathers were stationed at the United States Air Force base at RAF South Ruislip near London in the mid-1960s, Beckley, Bunnell, and Peek attended London Central High School at Bushey Hall, where they met while playing in two different bands.\n\nPeek left for the United States for a failed attempt at college during 1969. Soon after his return to the UK the following year, the three began making music together. Starting out with borrowed acoustic guitars, they developed a style that incorporated three-part vocal harmony with the style of contemporary folk-rock acts such as Crosby, Stills & Nash.\n", "The birth of jazz, swing, big band, and especially rock and roll, all developed and originating in the United States, had greatly influenced the later development of rock music in the United Kingdom, particularly British rock bands such as The Beatles and Herman's Hermits, The Rolling Stones, while its American precursor, the blues, greatly influenced British electric rock.\n\nSection::::Sport.\n", "BULLET::::- Sam Edwards – Ollie Owl\n\nBULLET::::- Rex Allen – \"Sombrero\" Dog\n\nBULLET::::- Sue Allen – Collegiate Quartet Member\n\nBULLET::::- Mic Bell – Alligator, Biker Bird, \"Rattle and Roll\" Frog, \"Rattle and Roll\" Stork\n\nBULLET::::- Ray Campi – Swamp Boy\n\nBULLET::::- Peggy Clark – Collegiate Quartet Member\n\nBULLET::::- Bill Cole – Boothill Boy, Collegiate Quartet Member, Tenor Fox, Singing Goose\n\nBULLET::::- Mac Curtis – Swamp Boy\n\nBULLET::::- Jewel Hall – Biker Chick\n\nBULLET::::- Geary Hanley – Swamp Boy\n\nBULLET::::- Bill Lee – Boothill Boy, Collegiate Quartet Member, Singing Goose\n\nBULLET::::- Diana Lee – \"The Wandering Boy's\" Mother\n", "Section::::Before Eurovision.:Eurovision: Your Country Needs You 2010.\n", "Section::::Before Eurovision.\n\nSection::::Before Eurovision.:Early rumours.\n", "Section::::Lyrics and music.:Conception and style.\n", "Section::::2010s to present.\n\nThe success of UK artists in the US during the early 2010s led to some claiming a new British Invasion was taking place, as British musicians took their largest ever share of the US album charts year-on-year between 2011 (11.7% of US market), 2012 (13.7% of US market), 2013 and 2014. Notable British musicians achieving global success at the beginning of the 2010s include One Direction, Little Mix, Adele and Mumford & Sons.\n", "BULLET::::- The Spice Girls attend the Cannes Film Festival to announce their plans to hit the big screen with . A photo call on top of the Hotel Martinez entrance brings the area to a standstill.\n\nBULLET::::- At the 42nd Eurovision Song Contest, held in Dublin's Point Theatre, the UK win with \"\"Love Shine a Light\"\", sung by Katrina and the Waves.\n", "Section::::Before Eurovision.:\"Eurovision: You Decide\".:Competing entries.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Down In The Licensed Saloon\" – Geese Quartet & Mother Rabbit\n\nBULLET::::- \"Won't You Come Home Bill Bailey\" – Showgirl Pig\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sweet Adeline\" – Blossom-Nose Murphy (goose) & Geese Quartet\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Old Gray Mare\" – The Old Gray Mare & Geese Quartet\n\nBULLET::::- \"Only a Bird in a Gilded Cage\" – Bird in a Gilded Cage and Fox\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ta-ra-ra Boom-de-ay\" – Bird in a Gilded Cage, Fox, Storks, Geese Quartets (male and female), Pig, Sam and Ollie\n\nSection::::The songs.:Act 4 – Modern Times.\n", "The most recent recognized movement came in the mid to late 2000s when British R&B and soul artists such as Amy Winehouse, Estelle, Joss Stone, Duffy, Natasha Bedingfield, Florence Welch, Adele, Floetry, Jessie J, Leona Lewis, Jay Sean and Taio Cruz enjoyed huge success in the US charts, which led to talk of a \"Third British Invasion\" or a \"British Soul Invasion\".\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Anglophile\n\nBULLET::::- Britpop\n\nBULLET::::- Cool Britannia\n\nBULLET::::- List of \"Billboard\" Hot 100 number-ones by British artists\n\nBULLET::::- List of British Invasion artists\n\nBULLET::::- Music of the United Kingdom (1960s)\n\nBULLET::::- Second British Invasion, 1980s\n", "BULLET::::- 16 May - Alexander Rybak wins the Eurovision Song Contest 2009 in Moscow, for Norway. Within a couple of days, his song, \"Fairytale\", reaches the top ten in charts in most of Europe, including a No. 10 entry in the UK Singles Chart. Jade Ewen finishes 5th for the UK with \"It's My Time\".\n", "\"When I started out with rock bands, I sang in an American accent. Then I heard real Americans sing the blues and it made me feel like a fraud. Ever since then, the most important thing for me is to be true to who I am and where I come from.\"\n" ]	[ "English singers always sound American when they sing.", "All English singers sound American when singing. " ]	[ "The genre of music dictates how English singers sound.", "English singers attempt to appeal to American in Mainstream music, but singers sound \"British\" in Indie music. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "English singers always sound American when they sing.", "All English singers sound American when singing. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The genre of music dictates how English singers sound.", "English singers attempt to appeal to American in Mainstream music, but singers sound \"British\" in Indie music. " ]
2018-01404	why is it impossible to isolate a magnetic pole?	ELI5 attempt at an answer/counterquestion: can you isolate one end of a piece of string? You can cut off the end of the string, but the new, smaller piece now also has two ends.	[ "The same principle makes a small loop particularly sensitive to sources of \"magnetic\" noise in its near field. Likewise, a Hertzian (short) dipole couples directly with the electric field and is relatively immune to locally produced magnetic noise. However at radio frequencies nearby sources of magnetic interference are generally not an issue. In either case the small antenna's immunity does not extend to noise sources outside of the near field: Noise sources over one wavelength distant, whether originating as an electric or magnetic field, are received simply as electromagnetic waves. Noise from outside any antenna's near field will be received equally well by any antenna sensitive to a radio transmitter from the direction of that noise source.\n", "Section::::21st century.:Open problems.\n\nThe magnetic monopole in the \"quantum\" theory of magnetic charge started with a paper by the physicist Paul A.M. Dirac in 1931. The detection of magnetic monopoles is an open problem in experimental physics. In some theoretical models, magnetic monopoles are unlikely to be observed, because they are too massive to be created in particle accelerators, and also too rare in the Universe to enter a particle detector with much probability.\n", "formula_15\n\nThe force between two poles is:\n\nformula_16\n\nThis model doesn't give the correct magnetic field inside the core and thus gives incorrect results if the pole of one magnet gets too close to another magnet.\n\nSection::::Side effects.\n\nThere are several side effects which occur in electromagnets which must be provided for in their design. These generally become more significant in larger electromagnets.\n\nSection::::Side effects.:Ohmic heating.\n", "Since a bar magnet gets its ferromagnetism from electrons distributed evenly throughout the bar, when a bar magnet is cut in half, each of the resulting pieces is a smaller bar magnet. Even though a magnet is said to have a north pole and a south pole, these two poles cannot be separated from each other. A monopole—if such a thing exists—would be a new and fundamentally different kind of magnetic object. It would act as an isolated north pole, not attached to a south pole, or vice versa. Monopoles would carry \"magnetic charge\" analogous to electric charge. Despite systematic searches since 1931, , they have never been observed, and could very well not exist.\n", "Since it is based on the fictitious idea of a \"magnetic charge density\", the pole model has limitations. Magnetic poles cannot exist apart from each other as electric charges can, but always come in north/south pairs. If a magnetized object is divided in half, a new pole appears on the surface of each piece, so each has a pair of complementary poles. The magnetic pole model does not account for magnetism that is produced by electric currents.\n\nSection::::Magnetic field and permanent magnets.:Amperian loop model and the B-field.\n", "Section::::Magnetic field and force.:Magnets.\n\nPermanent magnets make their own magnetic field. An example of a material from which a permanent magnet can be made is iron. It has a north and south pole, and cannot be split into a monopole — in other words, a north pole does not exist without a south pole.\n\nElectrons moving around atoms can create a magnetic field if their effects sum up constructively. For magnetic materials like iron, the magnetic fields of the electrons moving around the nucleus add up, while for non-magnetic materials the effects average out to zero net magnetic field.\n", "Bending a current-carrying wire into a loop concentrates the magnetic field inside the loop while weakening it outside. Bending a wire into multiple closely spaced loops to form a coil or \"solenoid\" enhances this effect. A device so formed around an iron core may act as an \"electromagnet\", generating a strong, well-controlled magnetic field. An infinitely long cylindrical electromagnet has a uniform magnetic field inside, and no magnetic field outside. A finite length electromagnet produces a magnetic field that looks similar to that produced by a uniform permanent magnet, with its strength and polarity determined by the current flowing through the coil.\n", "Section::::Physics.:Magnetic circuit – the constant \"B\" field approximation.\n\nIn many practical applications of electromagnets, such as motors, generators, transformers, lifting magnets, and loudspeakers, the iron core is in the form of a loop or magnetic circuit, possibly broken by a few narrow air gaps. This is because the magnetic field lines are in the form of closed loops. Iron presents much less \"resistance\" (reluctance) to the magnetic field than air, so a stronger field can be obtained if most of the magnetic field's path is within the core.\n", "BULLET::::2. Magnetic poles (or states of polarization at individual points) attract or repel one another in a manner similar to positive and negative charges and always exist as pairs: every north pole is yoked to a south pole.\n\nBULLET::::3. An electric current inside a wire creates a corresponding circumferential magnetic field outside the wire. Its direction (clockwise or counter-clockwise) depends on the direction of the current in the wire.\n", "Nevertheless, some theoretical physics models predict the existence of these magnetic monopoles. Paul Dirac observed in 1931 that, because electricity and magnetism show a certain symmetry, just as quantum theory predicts that individual positive or negative electric charges can be observed without the opposing charge, isolated South or North magnetic poles should be observable. Using quantum theory Dirac showed that if magnetic monopoles exist, then one could explain the quantization of electric charge—that is, why the observed elementary particles carry charges that are multiples of the charge of the electron.\n", "The material of a magnetic core (often made of iron or steel) is composed of small regions called magnetic domains that act like tiny magnets (see ferromagnetism). Before the current in the electromagnet is turned on, the domains in the iron core point in random directions, so their tiny magnetic fields cancel each other out, and the iron has no large-scale magnetic field. When a current is passed through the wire wrapped around the iron, its magnetic field penetrates the iron, and causes the domains to turn, aligning parallel to the magnetic field, so their tiny magnetic fields add to the wire's field, creating a large magnetic field that extends into the space around the magnet. The effect of the core is to concentrate the field, and the magnetic field passes through the core more easily than it would pass through air.\n", "According to standard inflationary cosmology, magnetic monopoles produced before inflation would have been diluted to an extremely low density today. Magnetic monopoles may also have been produced thermally after inflation, during the period of reheating. However, the current bounds on the reheating temperature span 18 orders of magnitude and as a consequence the density of magnetic monopoles today is not well constrained by theory.\n", "Much stronger magnetic fields can be produced if a \"magnetic core\" of a soft ferromagnetic (or ferrimagnetic) material, such as iron, is placed inside the coil. A core can increase the magnetic field to thousands of times the strength of the field of the coil alone, due to the high magnetic permeability μ of the material. This is called a ferromagnetic-core or iron-core electromagnet. However, not all electromagnets use cores, and the very strongest electromagnets, such as superconducting and the very high current electromagnets, cannot use them due to saturation.\n\nSection::::Physics.:Ampere's law.\n", "Pole pieces are used with both permanent magnets and electromagnets. In the case of an electromagnet, the pole piece or pieces simply extend the magnetic core and can even be regarded as part of it, particularly if they are made of the same material. In the case of a permanent magnet, the distinction between the magnet itself and the pole piece or pieces is more clear cut.\n\nSection::::Materials.\n", "Audio induction loops create relatively high magnetic field levels. Other equipment must be designed and installed to work properly within this field.\n", "For one, there is the classic single T-segment with the disadvantage of having a high number of contact points. In addition, there is the phase winded T-segment with a reduced number of contact points. Finally, there is also the winding of so-called pole chains with a drastically reduced number of contact points.\n\na) T-segments\n", "Section::::Characteristics.:Environment.\n", "The main advantage of an electromagnet over a permanent magnet is that the magnetic field can be quickly changed by controlling the amount of electric current in the winding. However, unlike a permanent magnet that needs no power, an electromagnet requires a continuous supply of current to maintain the magnetic field.\n", "Some condensed matter systems contain effective (non-isolated) magnetic monopole quasi-particles, or contain phenomena that are mathematically analogous to magnetic monopoles.\n\nSection::::Historical background.\n\nSection::::Historical background.:Pre-twentieth century.\n", "But magnetic fields can penetrate to any distance, and if a magnetic monopole (an isolated magnetic pole) is surrounded by a metal the field can escape without collimating into a string. In a superconductor, however, electric charges move with no dissipation, and this allows for permanent surface currents, not just surface charges. When magnetic fields are introduced at the boundary of a superconductor, they produce surface currents which exactly neutralize them.\n", "In some cases the losses are undesirable and with very strong fields saturation can be a problem, and an 'air core' is used. A former may still be used; a piece of material, such as plastic or a composite, that may not have any significant magnetic permeability but which simply holds the coils of wires in place.\n\nSection::::Core materials.:Solid metals.\n\nSection::::Core materials.:Solid metals.:Soft iron.\n", "There are a number of examples in condensed-matter physics where collective behavior leads to emergent phenomena that resemble magnetic monopoles in certain respects, including most prominently the spin ice materials. While these should not be confused with hypothetical elementary monopoles existing in the vacuum, they nonetheless have similar properties and can be probed using similar techniques.\n\nSome researchers use the term magnetricity to describe the manipulation of magnetic monopole quasiparticles in spin ice, in analogy to the word \"electricity\".\n", "Many of the other particles predicted by these GUTs were beyond the abilities of current experiments to detect. For instance, a wide class of particles known as the X and Y bosons are predicted to mediate the coupling of the electroweak and strong forces, but these particles are extremely heavy and well beyond the capabilities of any reasonable particle accelerator to create.\n\nSection::::Searches for magnetic monopoles.\n\nExperimental searches for magnetic monopoles can be placed in one of two categories: those that try to detect preexisting magnetic monopoles and those that try to create and detect new magnetic monopoles.\n", "High energy particle colliders have been used to try to create magnetic monopoles. Due to the conservation of magnetic charge, magnetic monopoles must be created in pairs, one north and one south. Due to conservation of energy, only magnetic monopoles with masses less than the center of mass energy of the colliding particles can be produced. Beyond this, very little is known theoretically about the creation of magnetic monopoles in high energy particle collisions. This is due to their large magnetic charge, which invalidates all the usual calculational techniques. As a consequence, collider based searches for magnetic monopoles cannot, as yet, provide lower bounds on the mass of magnetic monopoles. They can however provide upper bounds on the probability (or cross section) of pair production, as a function of energy.\n", "Sometimes, either spontaneously, or owing to an applied external magnetic field—each of the electron magnetic moments will be, on average, lined up. A suitable material can then produce a strong net magnetic field.\n\nThe magnetic behavior of a material depends on its structure, particularly its electron configuration, for the reasons mentioned above, and also on the temperature. At high temperatures, random thermal motion makes it more difficult for the electrons to maintain alignment.\n\nSection::::Types of Magnetism.\n\nSection::::Types of Magnetism.:Diamagnetism.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02393	Why do video game cutscenes give me a constant 60FPS even if the game normally gives me way less?	Cutscenes are pre-rendered: this means you are basically watching a movies, which is just a bunch of pictures that a pre-made shown one after the other. Normal gameplay, however, requires the GPU to do a bunch of math calculations to determine what the image should look like based on the position of all the characters, the world, the abilities, etc.	[ "Section::::Types.:Interactive cutscenes.\n\nInteractive cutscenes involve the computer taking control of the player character while prompts (such as a sequence of button presses) appear onscreen, requiring the player to follow them in order to continue or succeed at the action. This gameplay mechanic, commonly called quick time events, has its origins in interactive movie laserdisc video games such as \"Dragon's Lair\", \"Road Blaster\", and \"Space Ace\".\n\nSection::::Criticism.\n", "Section::::Types.:Mixed media cutscenes.\n\nMany games use both pre-rendered and real time cutscenes as the developer feels is appropriate for each scene.\n", "During the 1990s in particular, it was common for the techniques of live action, pre-rendering, and real time rendering to be combined in a single cutscene. For example, popular games such as \"Myst\", \"Wing Commander III\", and \"Phantasmagoria\" use film of live actors superimposed upon pre-rendered animated backgrounds for their cutscenes. Though \"Final Fantasy VII\" primarily uses real-time cutscenes, it has several scenes in which real-time graphics are combined with pre-rendered full motion video. Though rarer than the other two possible combinations, the pairing of live action video with real time graphics is seen in games such as \"Killing Time\".\n", "A more recent use of QTEs have been within cutscenes themselves where failing to perform the QTE may alter or provide more details about the game's story and affect the character later in the game. In \"Mass Effect 2\" and \"Mass Effect 3\", certain cutscenes contain dramatic moments where a QTE will appear for a short moment, indicating an action that will drive the character towards either extreme of a morality scale. In one case, the player is given the opportunity to stop ruffians from firing upon a weaker character, with the QTE provided helping to boost the player towards higher moral standing. Telltale Games' \"The Walking Dead\" includes QTEs intermittently, creating tension throughout the game. Furthermore, during conversation trees with non-player characters, failure to select the next choice of topic in a limited time may affect later events in the game.\n", "Cutscenes became much more common with the rise of CD-ROM as the primary storage medium for video games, as its much greater storage space allowed developers to use more cinematically impressive media such as FMV and high-quality voice tracks.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nSection::::Types.:Live-action cutscenes.\n\nLive-action cutscenes have many similarities to films. For example, the cutscenes in \"Wing Commander IV\" used both fully constructed sets, and well known actors such as Mark Hamill and Malcolm McDowell for the portrayal of characters.\n", "Section::::Types.:Real time cutscenes.\n\nReal time cutscenes are rendered on-the-fly using the same game engine as the graphics during gameplay. This technique is also known as Machinima.\n\nReal time cutscenes are generally of much lower detail and visual quality than pre-rendered cutscenes, but can adapt to the state of the game. For example, some games allow the player character to wear several different outfits, and appear in cutscenes wearing the outfit the player has chosen. It is also possible to give the player control over camera movement during real time cutscenes, as seen in \"Dungeon Siege\", \"\", \"\", and \"\".\n", "Cutscenes often feature \"on the fly\" rendering, using the gameplay graphics to create scripted events. Cutscenes can also be pre-rendered computer graphics streamed from a video file. Pre-made videos used in video games (either during cutscenes or during the gameplay itself) are referred to as \"full motion videos\" or \"FMVs\". Cutscenes can also appear in other forms, such as a series of images or as plain text and audio.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The game's cutscenes, which were in MPEG-2 format, made the team decide to move the platform from the PlayStation to the PlayStation 2 due to issues of the former's loading capabilities as the cutscenes are at least 5 hours and 30 minutes long according to Yamamoto. In addition, they had used real photos of Mars and Phobos as part of the cutscenes.\n\nSection::::Production.:News.\n", "The term \"cutscene\" was coined by game designer Ron Gilbert to describe non-interactive plot sequences in the 1987 adventure game \"Maniac Mansion\". \"Pac-Man\" (1980) is frequently credited as the first game to feature cutscenes, in the form of brief comical interludes about Pac-Man and Blinky chasing each other, though \"Space Invaders Part II\" employed a similar technique in the same year.\n", "Cutscene\n\nA cutscene or event scene (sometimes in-game cinematic or in-game movie) is a sequence in a video game that is not interactive, breaking up the gameplay. Such scenes could be used to show conversations between characters, set the mood, reward the player, introduce new gameplay elements, show the effects of a player's actions, create emotional connections, improve pacing or foreshadow future events.\n", "The game was initially written around a film-style screenplay; however, based on feedback at PAX 2013, it was considered overly-reliant on long cutscenes and was rebuilt around continuous interaction.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "Others see cutscenes as another tool designers can use to make engrossing video games. An article on Gamefront calls upon a number of successful video games that make excessive use of cutscenes for storytelling purposes, referring to cutscenes as a highly effective way to communicate a storyteller's vision. Rune Klevjer states: \"A cutscene does not cut off gameplay. It is an integral part of the configurative experience\", saying that they will always affect the rhythm of a game, but if they are well implemented, cutscenes can be an excellent tool for building suspense or providing the player with helpful or crucial visual information.\n", "BULLET::::- Nintendo's \"Paper Mario\" series used cutout animation with the characters to explore the various locations in or around the Mushroom Kingdom. The commercial for the Nintendo 3DS game \"\" also uses cutout animation.\n\nBULLET::::- Sega's \" and \" game opening logo used cutout animation with 3D model sprites of modern Sonic and Tails.\n\nBULLET::::- The mobile game Sega Heroes uses cutout animation with Sega character sprites.\n", "BULLET::::- The frame-rate in the GameCube version sometimes drops, usually when you and/or the camera is too close to the spell's graphics. It also happens on 2P mode in the stage \"Roof of Abandoned Building\". It happens if you just stand at your starting position, and the camera is pointing not only at the back of you, but inside the outside scenery as well.\n\nBULLET::::- The GameCube version has one extra song added to the game, which is notably used in the \"Meadows\" stage. In the PlayStation 2 version, the song used in the Schoolyard stage is used instead.\n", "In 1983, the laserdisc video game \"Bega's Battle\" introduced animated full-motion video (FMV) cutscenes with voice acting to develop a story between the game's shooting stages, which became the standard approach to game storytelling years later. The games \"Bugaboo (The Flea)\" (1983) and \"Karateka\" (1984) helped introduce the cutscene to home computers. Other early video games known to use cutscenes extensively include \"Portopia Renzoku Satsujin Jiken\" in 1983; \"Valis\" in 1986; \"Phantasy Star\", \"Maniac Mansion\", and \"La Abadía del Crimen\" in 1987; \"\", and \"Prince of Persia\" and \"Zero Wing\" in 1989. Since then, cutscenes have been part of many video games, especially in action-adventure and role-playing video games.\n", "Video games, which use a wide variety of rendering engines, tend to benefit visually from vertical synchronization, as a rendering engine is normally expected to build each frame in real time, based on whatever the engine's variables specify at the moment a frame is requested. However, because vertical synchronization causes input lag, it interferes with the interactive nature of games, and particularly interferes with games that require precise timing or fast reaction times.\n\nSection::::Prevention.:V-sync.:Complications.:Benchmarking.\n", "The defining characteristic of a longplay is that few shortcuts, if any, are taken to finish the game. Dull moments may be ultimately edited out of the final video, and sidequests may be ignored, but in general every task necessary to reach the end is to be recorded, including cutscenes.\n\nSection::::Creation.\n\nGames may be recorded in several ways: using screencast software, a feature built into an emulator, or via a video capture device connected to a console or another computer. Some games (for example, Doom) have a demo recording feature built into the game.\n\nSection::::Neologism status.\n", "The game's developers were forced to sacrifice visual effects for performance, because they did not want the game to run with motion blur or framerate drops, due to the hardware limitations of the PlayStation 4. The game runs at a stable 60 frames per second (FPS), and Staniszewski believes that games that run at lower FPS than 60 are not the \"proper way that games should look on TVs\".\n\nSection::::Development.:Post-release patches.\n", "Some movie tie-in games, such as Electronic Arts' \"The Lord of the Rings\" and \"Star Wars\" games, have also extensively used film footage and other assets from the film production in their cutscenes. Another movie tie-in, \"Enter the Matrix\", used film footage shot concurrently with \"The Matrix Reloaded\" that was also directed by the film's directors, the Wachowskis.\n\nSection::::Types.:Pre-rendered cutscenes.\n\nPre-rendered cutscenes are animated and rendered by the game's developers, and take advantage of the full array of techniques of CGI, cel animation or graphic novel-style panel art. Like live-action shoots, pre-rendered cutscenes are often presented in full motion video.\n", "When vertical synchronization is used, the frame rate of the rendering engine gets limited to the video signal frame rate. Though this feature normally improves video quality, it involves trade-offs in some cases.\n\nSection::::Prevention.:V-sync.:Complications.:Judder.\n", "Scene complexity can be increased by overdrawing, which happens when \"an object is drawn to the frame buffer, and then another object (such as a wall) is drawn on top of it, covering it up. The time spent drawing the first object was wasted because it isn't visible.\" When a sequence of scenes is extremely complex (many pixels have to be drawn for each scene), the frame rate for the sequence may drop. When designing graphics intensive applications, one can determine whether the application is fillrate-limited (or shader limited) by seeing if the frame rate increases dramatically when the application runs at a lower resolution or in a smaller window.\n", "Another problem with the use of QTE during cutscenes is that it can dilute the emotion and importance of the scene to a single button press, trivializing the nature of the scene. This issue was raised from \"\", in which during an early scene where the player character attends the funeral of a fallen fellow soldier, the player is given the option to press a button to mourn for the soldier. Forcing this type of interaction has been considered a poor form of storytelling, as some have argued the scene could have been played out without requiring player action to make the same form of emotional connection to the protagonist, or with the player give more control of the character.\n", "Alternatively, if the mood of the simulated figure were to change in real time from happy to sad, the interpolation would be more influenced by the happy walking motion at the start of the transition. Towards the end of the transition, the interpolation would be more influenced by the sad walking motion until the figure simply walks the sad walking motion.\n", "QTEs are often used during dramatic cutscenes. \"Resident Evil 4\" uses QTEs (described by cinematics lead Yoshiaki Hirabayashi as an \"action button system\") to \"facilitate a seamless transition between gameplay and the in-game movies\" and prevent players from losing interest during cutscenes. One example in \"Resident Evil 4\" is a knife fight. The fight occurs during a late-game cutscene where the protagonist meets a major villain, who explains missing links in the game's story while periodically slashing at the protagonist and requiring the player to quickly press a button to parry him. As the action takes place during the major revelation of the game, the QTE serves to prevent the player from skipping over the cutscene. While this example is considered to use QTEs effectively, punctuating the heating discussion between the characters with rapid player reactions, it also demonstrates a common failing with the mechanism, in that if the player should miss a QTE, the protagonist will be killed, and the player must restart the cutscene and the fight from the start. Because of the likelihood of player death, the phrase \"Press X to not die\" has become synonymous with the use of QTEs in game. Furthermore, when a QTE is used during such a scene, the player's attention is drawn away from the animation and instead to the area of the screen where the button control indicator would appear, rendering the effort put into animating the scene meaningless.\n", "With the establishing shot, 180 degree rule, eyeline match, and the previously discussed match on action, spatial continuity is attainable; however, if wishing to convey a disjointed space, or spatial discontinuity, aside from purposefully contradicting the continuity tools, one can take advantage of crosscutting and the jump cut.\n" ]	[ "Because a video game cutscene is able to process 60FPS, then normal video games should be able to process similar speeds. " ]	[ "Video game cutscenes are pre-rendered unlike actual game play, and due to this, video game game play is unable to play at a constant rate of 60fps." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Because a video game cutscene is able to process 60FPS, then normal video games should be able to process similar speeds. ", "Because a video game cutscene is able to process 60FPS, then normal video games should be able to process similar speeds. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Video game cutscenes are pre-rendered unlike actual game play, and due to this, video game game play is unable to play at a constant rate of 60fps.", "Video game cutscenes are pre-rendered unlike actual game play, and due to this, video game game play is unable to play at a constant rate of 60fps." ]
2018-03176	How did humans survive for so long without toothpaste?	A lot of it has to do with the difference in diet and lifestyle of then vs now. Back then (say, before the industrial revolution, at least), humans didn't eat any refined foods. They ate a lot of "basic" foods - wheat, rice, barley, potatoes, and the like. As you probably know, sugar is terrible for your teeth, so this low-sugar diet made it easier to get away with not brushing your teeth. Nowadays, however, just about everything you eat has sugar (or high fructose corn syrup), which would just rot your teeth away if you didn't brush. Even with the diet differences, our teeth are healthier now than ever before. Few people had pearly whites like many do today - there were many brown, unhealthy, dying teeth, but they just had so many other maladies to worry about, that people didn't focus on teeth too much. Finally, they did have some level of dental care back then. They used toothpick-like objects and sometimes mouth-cleaning elixirs as well.	[ "By 1924, diatomaceous earth was mined for tooth powder. In modern times, baking soda has been the most commonly used tooth powder, although this has now been mostly supplanted by commercial toothpastes. \n\nThe use of powdered substances such as charcoal, brick, and salt for cleaning teeth has been historically widespread in India, particularly in rural areas. Modern tooth powder has been positioned as a cost-effective substitute for toothpaste, as it can be applied with the index finger without requiring use of a toothbrush.\n\nSection::::Types of dentifrices.:Mouthwash.\n", "The teeth of the Stillwater Marsh people also incurred a great deal of wear. After consuming seeds, using their teeth as tools, and chewing some stone and sand with meals for so long, the teeth of the skeletons that were older than 50 at the time of death were worn down to the roots. The amount of gritty material that clung to the gums led to periodontal disease in many of the Marsh people's jaws. Despite the other issues concerning the teeth and jaws of the Stillwater Marsh people, their teeth did not decay, as sugar was not part of their diet.\n", "Most common people faced usually present with tooth loss and disease. This caused the most day-to-day pain the people of Pacatnamu suffered. This is usually associated with the diet of those living in Pacatnamu, while it was nutritious and well balanced; it was very damaging to their teeth.\n\nSection::::Death.:Disease and trauma.:Trauma.\n", "The antibacterial properties of the tubers may have helped prevent tooth decay in people who lived in Sudan 2000 years ago. Less than 1% of that local population's teeth had cavities, abscesses, or other signs of tooth decay, though those people were probably farmers (early farmers' teeth typically had more tooth decay than those of hunter-gatherers because the high grain content in their diet created a hospitable environment for bacteria that flourish in the human mouth, excreting acids that eat away at the teeth).\n\nSection::::Uses.:Modern uses and studies.\n", "Most species are omnivorous, but fruit is the preferred food among all but some human groups. Chimpanzees and orangutans primarily eat fruit. When gorillas run short of fruit at certain times of the year or in certain regions, they resort to eating shoots and leaves, often of bamboo, a type of grass. Gorillas have extreme adaptations for chewing and digesting such low-quality forage, but they still prefer fruit when it is available, often going miles out of their way to find especially preferred fruits. Humans, since the neolithic revolution, consume mostly cereals and other starchy foods, including increasingly highly processed foods, as well as many other domesticated plants (including fruits) and meat. Hominid teeth are similar to those of the Old World monkeys and gibbons, although they are especially large in gorillas. The dental formula is . Human teeth and jaws are markedly smaller for their size than those of other apes, which may be an adaptation to eating cooked food since the end of the Pleistocene.\n", "Section::::Mammals.:Rabbit.\n", "BULLET::::- The Ice Age/The Great Flood/War; we are always plagued by the potential for disaster, both natural and man-made.\n\nBULLET::::- Art and literature are ways of advancing our humanity: enhancing empathy, tolerance, vision. Improvements in technology, though, don't necessarily advance human nature at all.\n\nSection::::Plot.\n\nSection::::Plot.:Act I.\n", "Since 5000 BC, the Egyptians made a tooth powder, which consisted of powdered ashes of ox hooves, myrrh, powdered and burnt eggshells, and pumice. The Greeks, and then the Romans, improved the recipes by adding abrasives such as crushed bones and oyster shells. In the 9th century, Iraqi musician and fashion designer Ziryab invented a type of toothpaste, which he popularized throughout Islamic Spain. The exact ingredients of this toothpaste are unknown, but it was reported to have been both \"functional and pleasant to taste\". It is not known whether these early toothpastes were used alone, were to be rubbed onto the teeth with rags, or were to be used with early toothbrushes, such as neem-tree twigs and \"miswak\". During Japan's Edo period, inventor Hiraga Gennai's \"Hika rakuyo\" (1769), contained advertisements for \"Sosekiko\", a \"toothpaste in a box.\" Toothpastes or powders came into general use in the 19th century.\n", "As long ago as 3000 B.C., the ancient Egyptians constructed crude toothbrushes from twigs and leaves to clean their teeth. Similarly, other cultures such as the Greeks, Romans, and Indians cleaned their teeth with twigs. Some would fray one end of the twig so that it could penetrate between the teeth more effectively. The Arabs, especially after the rise of Islam, used Miswak, a kind of natural toothbrush.\n", "Since before recorded history, a variety of oral hygiene measures have been used for teeth cleaning. This has been verified by various excavations done throughout the world, in which chew sticks, tree twigs, bird feathers, animal bones and porcupine quills have been found. In historic times, different forms of tooth cleaning tools have been used. Indian medicine (Ayurveda) has used the neem tree, or \"daatun\", and its products to create teeth cleaning twigs and similar products; a person chews one end of the neem twig until it somewhat resembles the bristles of a toothbrush, and then uses it to brush the teeth. In the Muslim world, the miswak, or \"siwak\", made from a twig or root, has antiseptic properties and has been widely used since the Islamic Golden Age. Rubbing baking soda or chalk against the teeth was also common; however, this can have negative side effects over time.\n", "Alternative methods of oral hygiene also exist around the world, such as the use of teeth cleaning twigs such as miswaks in some Middle Eastern and African cultures. There is some limited evidence demonstrating the efficacy of these alternative methods of oral hygiene.\n\nSection::::Prevention.:Dietary modification.\n\nPeople who eat more free sugars get more cavities, with cavities increasing exponentially with increasing sugar intake. Populations with less sugar intake have fewer cavities. In one population, in Nigeria, where sugar consumption was about 2g/day, only two percent of the population, of any age, had had a cavity.\n", "There is a long history of dental caries. Over a million years ago, hominins such as Paranthropus suffered from cavities. The largest increases in the prevalence of caries have been associated with dietary changes.\n", "Almost half of \"H. naledi\" teeth have one or more chips on the enamel surface, caused by teeth coming into contact with hard foods or environmental grit during life. These antemortem enamel fractures are predominantly small and on the surfaces between molars, suggesting either a small hard dietary item was commonly consumed, or, more likely, environmental grit was incorporated into their diet when eating foods such as tubers. Two other studies support the suggestion that \"H. naledi\" consumed large quantities of small hard objects, most likely in the form of dust or grit. Crown shape supports this finding, with taller crowned and more wear resistant molars, potentially evolving to protect against abrasive particles. Microwear on the molars of \"H. naledi\" also suggests they regularly consumed hard and abrasive items. Overall, it is likely \"H. naledi\" differed substantial from other African fossil hominins in terms of diet, behaviour, or masticatory processing.\n", "Sarakan toothpaste was developed after a British Army doctor who was serving in India noticed that his patients’ teeth and gum health were comparatively very good despite the general low quality of nutrition. He discovered that many used a \"chewing stick\" to clean and massage their teeth and gums. These small portions of twig came from a specific shrub, Salvadora persica (the toothbrush tree), which is widespread throughout the Middle East, Africa and Asia. The doctor, on his return to the UK, decided to develop a toothpaste suitable for the European market with extract of Salvadora persica.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "The predecessor of the toothbrush is the chew stick. Chew sticks were twigs with frayed ends used to brush the teeth while the other end was used as a toothpick. The earliest chew sticks were discovered in Sumer in southern Mesopotamia in 3500 BC, an Egyptian tomb dating from 3000 BC, and mentioned in Chinese records dating from 1600 BC. The Greeks and Romans used toothpicks to clean their teeth, and toothpick-like twigs have been excavated in Qin Dynasty tombs. Chew sticks remain common in Africa, the rural Southern United States, and in the Islamic world the use of chewing stick Miswak is considered a pious action and has been prescribed to be used before every prayer five times a day. Miswaks have been used by Muslims since 7th century.\n", "Known in all cultures, the toothpick is not just the oldest instrument for dental cleaning, but predates the arrival of early modern humans, for the skulls of Neanderthals, as well as Homo sapiens, show clear signs of teeth picked with a tool. Toothpicks made of bronze have been found as burial objects in prehistoric graves in Northern Italy and in the East Alps. In 1986, researchers in Florida discovered the 7500-year-old remains of ancient Native Americans and discovered small grooves between many of the molar teeth. One of the researchers, Justin Martin of Concordia University Wisconsin, said \"The enamel on teeth is quite tough, so they must have used the probes quite rigorously to make the grooves.\"\n", "There is also evidence of caries increase in North American Indians after contact with colonizing Europeans. Before colonization, North American Indians subsisted on hunter-gatherer diets, but afterward there was a greater reliance on maize agriculture, which made these groups more susceptible to caries.\n", "Before he left for the US, Begg at one point drew a sketch of the aboriginal people of Australia and noticed that their incisors were completely worn down. A striking fact he observed was that these aboriginal people had no caries or periodontal disease in their teeth.\n", "BULLET::::- Cosmetic uses: Most important to a select number of folks was mesquite's use against hair loss. This treatment was used by men only, and consisted of the black sap that oozes from mesquite wounds (not the clear sap) mixed with other secret herbs and applied to the scalp. Special mesquite herbal soap for \"macho\" hair is still available in parts of Mexico.\n\nBULLET::::- Bark was used for baskets and fabrics.\n\nBULLET::::- Wood is important for firewood and for flavor when grilling meat.\n\nSection::::Food.\n", "Tooth decay was low in pre-agricultural societies, but the advent of farming society about 10,000 years ago correlated with an increase in tooth decay (cavities). An infected tooth from Italy partially cleaned with flint tools, between 13,820 and 14,160 years old, represents the oldest known dentistry, although a 2017 study suggests that 130,000 years ago the Neanderthals already used rudimentary dentistry tools. The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) has yielded evidence of dentistry being practised as far back as 7000 BC. An IVC site in Mehrgarh indicates that this form of dentistry involved curing tooth related disorders with bow drills operated, perhaps, by skilled bead crafters. The reconstruction of this ancient form of dentistry showed that the methods used were reliable and effective. The earliest dental filling, made of beeswax, was discovered in Slovenia and dates from 6500 years ago. Dentistry was practiced in prehistoric Malta, as evidenced by a skull which had an abscess lanced from the root of a tooth dating back to around 2500 BC.\n", "Section::::History.:Tooth powder.\n\nTooth powders for use with toothbrushes came into general use in the 19th century in Britain. Most were homemade, with chalk, pulverized brick, or salt as ingredients. An 1866 Home Encyclopedia recommended pulverized charcoal, and cautioned that many patented tooth powders that were commercially marketed did more harm than good.\n\nArm & Hammer marketed a baking soda-based toothpowder in the United States until approximately 2000, and Colgate currently markets toothpowder in India and other countries.\n\nSection::::History.:Modern toothpaste.\n", "BULLET::::- Toothbrush: Traditionally, slender neem twigs (called datun) are first chewed as a toothbrush and then split as a tongue cleaner. This practice has been in use in India, Africa, and the Middle East for centuries. It is still used in India's rural areas. Neem twigs are still collected and sold in rural markets for this use. It has been found to be as effective as a toothbrush in reducing plaque and gingival inflammation.\n", "Postcanine megadontia is commonly associated with the repeated consumption of tough plant-like material, which can be referred to as \"low-quality food stuffs\". The substances were integral to the diet of extinct hominids, and their molars were subject to the constant occlusal attrition from the stress of vigorous mastication. The development and evolution of this trait was characterized by a thick coating of enamel surrounding the molars and premolars, mitigating the detrimental effects of the tough diet. As such, this postcanine dentition is capable of “crushing and grinding” the tough shoots and leaves common to the diet of an early hominid. Australopithecus Paranthropus, for example, was perhaps the most noteworthy hominid to display this trait, an adaptation perhaps due to its varied and encompassing diet . Note, postcanine megadontia is hypothesized to have no correlation to durophagy, but is rather a crucial development in hominids that allowed for preservation of occlusal quality.\n", "These bacterial strains, most notably \"S. mutans\", can be inherited by a child from a caretaker's kiss or through feeding premasticated.\n\nSection::::Cause.:Dietary sugars.\n", "Section::::Diet and subsistence.:Dental pathologies.\n\nDental pathologies are used as a dietary proxy in bioarchaeological studies. As expected for generalist foragers living in a tropical environment, the elevated frequency of dental abscesses and caries has been reported for early Holocene Lagoa Santa, particularly among females. In an environment with a wide variety of tubers and fruits such as pequi (\"Caryocar brasiliense\"), jatobá (\"Hymenaea sp.\") and araticum (\"Annona classiflora\"), it is expected that humans would have had a diverse diet instead of focusing exclusively on meat.\n\nSection::::Diet and subsistence.:Mobility.\n" ]	[ "Humans couldn't survive without toothpaste.", "Humans shouldn't of been able to survive without toothbrushes. " ]	[ "Toothpaste is a requirement due to our diets degrading over time.", "The diet of humans in the past is not similar to humans in the present. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Humans couldn't survive without toothpaste.", "Humans shouldn't of been able to survive without toothbrushes. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Toothpaste is a requirement due to our diets degrading over time.", "The diet of humans in the past is not similar to humans in the present. " ]
2018-11738	Weather conditions impact on the human body	Can only speak from a personal standpoint, but my migraines are triggered from the weather. When the barometric pressure drops, I get severe migraines. I live in Southeast Georgia and it has been thunder storming for the past month with bouts of sun, this doesn’t allow me to become acclimated to the low pressure before it levels out again (the struggle is real). I also just received a storm notification as I was typing this lol.	[ "Effects of weather on sport\n\nThe effects of weather on sport are varied, with some events unable to take place while others are changed considerably. The performance of participants can be reduced or improved, and some sporting world records are invalid if set under certain weather conditions. While outdoor sports are most affected, those played indoors can still be impacted by adverse or advantageous weather conditions.\n\nSection::::Temperature.\n\nTemperature has a significant impact on the performance of athletes. High temperature can cause various heat illnesses such as heat cramps and heat stroke, while very low temperatures may lead to hypothermia.\n", "Training regimes may include methods of heat acclimatization, and regulations in some sports stipulate the intensity of some schedules. The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) in North America requires teams to build up the level of training in hot weather. Such preparation intends to improve performance and reduce the potentially fatal risk of heat stroke.\n", "Section::::Heat Illness.\n\nHeat illness and dehydration are typically brought on by high temperatures and high humidity. These conditions carry increased risk for young athletes, particularly at the beginning of a season, when they are less fit. Other factors that increase vulnerability include: heat-retaining clothing, recent illness, previous experience with heat illness, chronic conditions, and sleep deprivation. Additional precautions should be taken if a child is taking supplements or using cold medication. \n\nHeat illnesses are among the primary causes of sports-related death or disability. They require immediate medical attention. Symptoms to watch for are as follows:\n", "Section::::Reliability.:Sayings which may be locally accurate.:Aches and pains.\n\nThere have been medical studies done which indicate some people experience this effect. The most likely reason is that with a fall in atmospheric pressure, blood vessels dilate slightly in reaction. This has the effect of aggravating already-irritated nerves near corns, cavities, or arthritic joints. Studies are inconclusive, however, with some researchers attributing this effect to selective memory.\n\nSection::::Reliability.:Fallibility of lore.\n", "When played professionally, the following sports do not usually take place during any level of precipitation:\n\nBULLET::::- Auto racing (NASCAR, IndyCar)\n\nBULLET::::- Baseball\n\nBULLET::::- Cricket\n\nBULLET::::- Golf\n\nBULLET::::- Tennis\n\nWhen the rain is excessive an event might be canceled because of a waterlogged pitch. Winter sports can sometimes be canceled due to the amount of snow on the ground, be it too little or too much.\n\nSection::::Wind.\n\nWind can blow the equipment in a sporting event, changing the direction or travel of a ball. In golf the wind levels may influence the way a shot is taken.\n", "Environmental factors such as air resistance, rain, terrain, and heat all contribute to a marathon runner's ability to perform at the full potential of their physiological characteristics. Air resistance or wind and the physical terrain of the marathon course (hilly or flat) were often associated with increased intensities in order to maintain pace. The rain can affect a marathon runner's performance by adding weight to the attire of the marathon runner causing their overall load to carry to be slightly heavier. Temperature, in particular the heat, is the strongest contributor of environmental factors leading to poorer marathon performance. An increase in air temperature affects all the runners the same. This negative correlation of increased temperature and decreased race time is affiliated with marathon runners' hospitalizations and exercise induced hyperthermia. There are other environmental factors less directly associated with marathon performance such as the pollutants in the air and even prize money associated with a specific marathon itself.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Heat exhaustion\", possibly developing into \"heatstroke\", can occur in hot weather, particularly if one is dehydrated or dressed too warmly. The risk of heatstroke can be minimized by avoiding direct sun, and staying wet when possible. This is a life-threatening condition: a victim must be cooled off and transported to a hospital immediately.\n", "The methods and measurements traditionally used in biometeorology are not different when applied to study the interactions between human bodies and the atmosphere, but some aspects or applications may have been explored more extensively. For instance, wind chill has been investigated to determine the time period an individual can sustain exposure to given temperature and wind conditions. Another important example concerns the study of airborne allergens (such as pollens and aerosols) and their impact on individuals: weather conditions can favor or hinder the release as well as the transport and deposition of these allergens, sometimes severely affecting the well-being of sensitive populations.\n", "A study published in the \"British Medical Journal\" in 2017 examined reports of joint or back pain from millions of doctor visits between 2008 and 2012 as recorded by Medicare, the U.S. health system for the elderly. It compared these to rain data as recorded by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, but found no correlation.\n\nSection::::Non-English languages.\n", "Section::::Colours explained.\n\nThere are four colours to point out the weather conditions in a certain European country: green, yellow, orange and red.\n\nBULLET::::- Green\n\nIf a country is coloured green, then there’s nothing to worry about.\n\nBULLET::::- Yellow\n\nThis means potential danger. The weather is unlikely to be extreme but care is called for in activities that are dependent on the weather.\n\nBULLET::::- Orange\n", "Heat-related illnesses from occupational heat stress have several risk factors. Some of these factors include high temperatures, humidity, radiant heat sources, limited air movement, metabolic heat from physical exertion of energy, not drinking enough fluids, personal protective equipment and clothing, physical condition and health problems, medications, pregnancy, lack of acclimatization, advanced age, having a previous heat-related illness and others. \n\nSection::::Examples of high risk occupations.\n", "The frequency of environmental hyperthermia can vary significantly from year to year depending on factors such as heat waves. Statistically, outdoor workers, including agricultural workers, are at increased risk of experiencing heat stress and the resulting negative health effects. Between 1992 and 2006 in the United States, 68 crop workers died from heat stroke, representing a rate 20 times that of US civilian workers overall.\n", "Heat illnesses are a recent concern in youth athletics. They include heat syncope, muscle cramps, heat exhaustion, heat stroke and exertional hyponatremia. Heat illness and dehydration are typically brought on by conditions of high temperatures and high humidity. These conditions carry increased risk for young athletes, particularly if at the beginning of a season when they are less fit. Other factors which increase vulnerability include: heat-retaining clothing, recent illness, previous experience with heat illness, chronic conditions, or sleep deprivation. Additional precaution is to be taken if the child is taking supplements or using cold medication. \n", "Thermoregulation in humans\n\nAs in other mammals, thermoregulation in humans is an important aspect of homeostasis. In thermoregulation, body heat is generated mostly in the deep organs, especially the liver, brain, and heart, and in contraction of skeletal muscles. Humans have been able to adapt to a great diversity of climates, including hot humid and hot arid. High temperatures pose serious stress for the human body, placing it in great danger of injury or even death. For humans, adaptation to varying climatic conditions includes both physiological mechanisms resulting from evolution and behavioural mechanisms resulting from conscious cultural adaptations.\n", "High temperatures also result in thinner air, which results in less drag on athletes in sports where air resistance plays a major role. Velodrome designers capitalise on this, heating the stadium in the hope of making the cycling faster, and \"The Daily Telegraph\" has reported that some Olympic Games organisers have pumped cold air into velodromes to give rival teams a disadvantage in close time trials.\n\nSection::::Precipitation.\n\nSome sports are cancelled because of precipitation. Some are deemed too dangerous to play when the ground is damp because of the danger of injury to a player through slipping.\n", "Section::::Models.:PMV/PPD method.:Local thermal discomfort.:Draft.\n\nWhile air movement can be pleasant and provide comfort in some circumstances, it is sometimes unwanted and causes discomfort. This unwanted air movement is called \"draft\" and is most prevalent when the thermal sensation of the whole body is cool. People are most likely to feel a draft on uncovered body parts such as their head, neck, shoulders, ankles, feet, and legs, but the sensation also depends on the air speed, air temperature, activity, and clothing.\n\nSection::::Models.:PMV/PPD method.:Local thermal discomfort.:Vertical air temperature difference.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Hypothermia\" is a potentially fatal drop in core body temperature. It occurs most easily in cold weather and when wet. Wet or damp clothing (due to rain, sweat, stream crossings, etc.) can bring it on even in relatively warm air, particularly at high elevation, windy conditions, or at low humidity. Even if hypothermia does not kill the victim directly it causes confusion, irrationality and impaired judgment, increasing the risk of other injuries. Sufficient clothing helps prevent hypothermia, but some materials (especially cotton) are discouraged because they absorb and hold water.\n", "It has been suggested that energy intake also increases during conditions of extreme or prolonged cold temperatures. Relatedly, researchers have posited that reduced variability of ambient temperature indoors could be a mechanism driving obesity, as the percentage of US homes with air conditioning increased from 23 to 47 percent in recent decades. In addition, several human and animal studies have shown that temperatures above the thermoneutral zone significantly reduce food intake. However, overall there are few studies indicating altered energy intake in response to extreme ambient temperatures and the evidence is primarily anecdotal.\n\nSection::::Environmental influences.:Ambient characteristics.:Lighting.\n", "Danger. There is severe weather that may cause damage or accidents. The weather brings risks. It is wise to be careful and keep abreast of the latest developments in the weather. Take heed of advice given by the authorities.\n\nBULLET::::- Red\n\nGreat danger from extremely severe weather. Major damage and accidents are likely, in many cases with threat to life and limb, over a wide area. It’s wise to be extremely careful, pay constant attention to bulletins and obey the instructions and advice given by the authorities. There may be exceptional measures taken.\n", "Summer is warm and largely dry compared with the rest of the UK with a mixture of cloud, sun and occasional light rain. Extremes do sometimes occur in the summer as was seen notably in 2003 and 2006, when 35 °C was recorded.\n\nPlease see the climate statistics for Leeming (the nearest weather station) below and assume slightly more extreme averages for Streetlam.\n\nSection::::Sport.\n", "Studies have shown that as availability of natural environments (e.g. parks, woodlands, inland waters, coasts) increases, more leisure-time physical activity such as walking and cycling are reported . Meteorological conditions have been found to predict physical activity differently in different types of environment. For example, in a large population-based study in England, higher air temperatures and lower wind speeds were associated with increased physical activity. \n", "BULLET::::- polar-continental air masses, cold and dry in winter, hot and dry in summer; arisen from east and northeast;\n\nBULLET::::- arctic-maritime air masses pervade from North Atlantic Ocean, within the pale of polar circulation. Determine frosty weather and relatively wet in winter, and in spring and autumn frosts;\n\nBULLET::::- tropical-maritime air masses, that pervade from the south and southwest, determine during the winter mists and heavy snow falls, and in summer determine atmospheric instability;\n", "The first publication of documented changes in pain perception associated with the weather was in the \"American Journal of the Medical Sciences\" in 1887. This case report described a person with phantom limb pain who concluded that \"approaching storms, dropping barometric pressure and rain were associated with increased pain complaint.\" Most investigations examining the relationship between weather and pain have studied people diagnosed with arthritis. After reviewing many case reports, Rentshler reported in the \"Journal of the American Medical Association\" in 1929 that there was strong evidence that \"warm weather is beneficial and barometric pressure changes are detrimental to patients with arthritis.\"\n", "Section::::Epidemiology.\n\nIn India, hundreds die every year from summer heat waves, including more than 2,500 in the year 2015. Later that same summer, the 2015 Pakistani heat wave caused about 2,000 deaths.\n\nSection::::Other animals.\n\nHeatstroke can affect livestock, especially in hot, humid weather; or if the horse, cow, sheep or other is unfit, overweight, has a dense coat, is overworked, or is left in a horsebox in full sun. Symptoms include drooling, panting, high temperature, sweating, and rapid pulse.\n\nThe animal should be moved to shade, drenched in cold water and offered water or electrolyte to drink.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Workers who are working in laundries, bakeries, restaurant kitchens, steel foundries, glass factories, brick-firing and ceramic plants, electrical utilities, smelters, and outdoor workers such as construction workers, firefighters, farmers, and mining workers are more vulnerable to exposure to extreme heat. Effects of heat stress include:\n\nBULLET::::- Increased irritability\n\nBULLET::::- Dehydration\n\nBULLET::::- Heat stroke\n\nBULLET::::- Chronic heat exhaustion\n\nBULLET::::- Cramps, rashes, and burns\n\nBULLET::::- Sweaty palms and dizziness\n\nBULLET::::- Increased risk of other accidents\n\nBULLET::::- Loss of concentration and ability to do mental tasks and heavy manual work\n\nBULLET::::- Sleep disturbances, sickness, and susceptibility to minor injuries\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00100	How do psychology researchers obtain informed consent without tipping their subjects off on the subject of the study?	You have to tell them what will happen to them during the study. You don't have to tell them why you are doing it or what conclusions you will draw, except in the vaguest of terms. "You will answer a series of timed questionnaires while being observed by our researchers, to increase our knowledge about how people make decisions". Maybe they don't care about your answers to the quizzes, only your facial expressions while you take them.	[ "Research involving deception is controversial given the requirement for informed consent. Deception typically arises in social psychology, when researching a particular psychological process requires that investigators deceive subjects. For example, in the Milgram experiment, researchers wanted to determine the willingness of participants to obey authority figures despite their personal conscientious objections. They had authority figures demand that participants deliver what they thought was an electric shock to another research participant. For the study to succeed, it was necessary to deceive the participants so they believed that the subject was a peer and that their electric shocks caused the peer actual pain.\n", "The Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct set by the American Psychological Association says that psychologists may conduct research that includes a deceptive compartment only if they can both justify the act by the value and importance of the study's results and show they could not obtain the results by some other way. Moreover, the research should bear no potential harm to the subject as an outcome of deception, either physical pain or emotional distress. Finally, the code requires a debriefing session in which the experimenter both tells the subject about the deception and gives subject the option of withdrawing the data.\n", "Section::::Ethics.:Humans.\n\nUniversity psychology departments have ethics committees dedicated to the rights and well-being of research subjects. Researchers in psychology must gain approval of their research projects before conducting any experiment to protect the interests of human participants and laboratory animals.\n", "Nonetheless, research involving deception prevents subjects from exercising their basic right of autonomous informed decision-making and conflicts with the ethical principle of respect for persons.\n", "Some types of social scientific research, such as psychological experiments, may use deception as part of the study; in these cases, researchers may not fully describe the procedures to participants, and thus participants are not fully informed. However, researchers are required to debrief participants immediately after the experiment is concluded. Certain populations are considered to be vulnerable, and in addition to informed consent, special protections must be made available to them. These include persons who are incarcerated, pregnant women, persons with disabilities, and persons who have a mental disability. Children are considered unable to provide informed consent.\n\nSection::::Planning law.\n", "Researchers are required to obtain informed consent from potential participants before any research begins – this is a fundamental principle of medical research as laid out in the Declaration of Helsinki. Traditionally this has been done through a paper consent form which is accompanied by a subject information sheet that describes the risks and benefits of being involved in the research. Increasingly, this also outlines how an individual's data will be protected and their privacy maintained. This constitutes a formal agreement that specifies how a research participant’s data will be used in that particular study. Participants should be informed about the purpose(s) for which their data will (or may) be used; where it will be stored; the expected retention time; if any other parties are involved; the amount and the sensitivity of the information exchanged; whether the data will be shared onward to yet other parties; whether the consent to use these data can be revoked. Consent to data processing is also a requirement of data protection and privacy laws in most countries. Traditionally, participants have obtained details of how their data will be used from patient information sheets and face-to-face interactions with researchers or healthcare staff.\n", "Informed consent assures that research subjects who are put at risk through their involvement in research understand the proposed research, the purpose for which they are being asked to participate in research, the anticipated benefits of the research, and the risks of the subject's participation in that research. They are then free to choose to accept or decline participation. These risks may involve identifiability in research data, but can extend to other potential harms.\n\n2. Beneficence\n", "The guidelines that a research study must follow before being approved involves: informed consent of the subjects, minimal risk to the subjects, and no abuse of “vulnerable subjects”. Informed consent must include all aspects of the research which include the overall premise, risks, benefits, alternative procedures, confidentiality, and any compensations that may be available. The subject must officially state that they voluntary choose to participate in the experiment under all the circumstances provided by the establishment. This informed consent is documented by the IRB and signed by the test subject.\n", "As the medical guidelines established in the Nuremberg Code were imported into the ethical guidelines for the social sciences, informed consent became a common part of the research procedure. However, while informed consent is the default in medical settings, it is not always required in the social science. Here, research often involves low or no risk for participants, unlike in many medical experiments. Second, the mere knowledge that they participate in a study can cause people to alter their behavior, as in the Hawthorne Effect: \"In the typical lab experiment, subjects enter an environment in which they are keenly aware that their behavior is being monitored, recorded, and subsequently scrutinized.\"\n", "In the case of prospective public attitude surveys on biobanking, of which there are many in the existing literature, Johnsson et al., 2010, found that reported willingness to share data and tissue for research was prone to both overestimating and underestimating recorded participation levels in different cases, leading to questions about the usefulness of this type of research in making predictions of future behaviours.\n", "There was a large amount of respondents who thought that research participants did not read or understand the documents provided for informed consent. However, more surprisingly, those respondents did not believe that was an ethical or moral concern.\n\nSection::::Ethical concerns.:Research in rural communities.:Willingness to join a research study.\n", "BULLET::::2. What education and training should the research institution give to the CAB members to enable them to perform their duties?\n\nBULLET::::3. To what extent should CABs participate in the development of informed consent processes?\n\nBULLET::::4. To what extent should CABs participate in developing guidelines to determine whether research participants give sufficient consent?\n\nBULLET::::5. In emergency situations, to what extent can CABs provide consultation on what response researchers should have to the emergency?\n\nBULLET::::6. When study participants have ethical problems with the research, to what extent should the CAB directly receive those participants' concerns?\n", "In such cases, seeking informed consent directly interferes with the ability to conduct the research, because the very act of revealing that a study is being conducted is likely to alter the behavior studied. List exemplifies the potential dilemma that can result: \"if one were interested in exploring whether, and to what extent, race or gender influences the prices that buyers pay for used cars, it would be difficult to measure accurately the degree of discrimination among used car dealers who know that they are taking part in an experiment.\" In cases where such interference is likely, and after careful consideration, a researcher may forgo the informed consent process. This is commonly done after weighting the risk to study participants versus the benefit to society and whether participants are present in the study out of their own wish and treated fairly. Researchers often consult with an ethics committee or institutional review board to render a decision.\n", "There is a range of autonomy which study participants may have in deciding their participation in clinical research. One of the measures for safeguarding this right is the use of informed consent for clinical researches. Researchers refer to populations which have low autonomy as \"vulnerable populations\"; these are groups which may not be able to fairly decide for themselves whether to participate in clinical trials. Examples of groups which are vulnerable populations include incarcerated persons, children, prisoners, soldiers, people under detention, migrants, persons exhibiting insanity or any other condition which precludes their autonomy, and to a lesser extent, any population for which there is reason to believe that the research study could seem particularly or unfairly persuasive or misleading. There are particular ethical problems using children in clinical trials.\n", "Current ethical guidelines state that using non-human animals for scientific purposes is only acceptable when the harm (physical or psychological) done to animals is outweighed by the benefits of the research. Keeping this in mind, psychologists can use certain research techniques on animals that could not be used on humans.\n\nBULLET::::- An experiment by Stanley Milgram raised questions about the ethics of scientific experimentation because of the extreme emotional stress suffered by the participants. It measured the willingness of study participants to obey an authority figure who instructed them to perform acts that conflicted with their personal conscience.\n", "Section::::Ethics.\n\nEthical standards in the discipline have changed over time. Some famous past studies are today considered unethical and in violation of established codes the Canadian Code of Conduct for Research Involving Humans, and the Belmont Report).\n", "There are a number of important limitations to consider when evaluating the results of studies of consent practices. In many cases, while a statistically significant preference for one form of consent over another can be found, this is not necessarily indicative of a clear majority preference. For example, Haddow et al., 2011, characterised their reported consent preferences as 'not strong'. Another study reported that while 58% of respondents described re-consent as 'a waste of time', 51% also felt that being asked for it was an indication that they were 'respected and involved' participants in research.\n", "The IRB must approve informed consent prior to study initiation, and often the CRC is liaison between the IRB and the sponsor. The sponsor sets informed consent requirements, as does the IRB. Each local IRB must review and approve the informed consent, but the CRC is responsible for communication between the IRB and the sponsor. §46.116 of the Code of Federal Regulations outlines the basic elements of informed consent as a:\n\nBULLET::::1. Statement that the study involves research, an explanation of research purpose, expected duration of subject's participation, description of procedures, and identification of any experimental procedures\n", "Chronically ill medical research participants report expectation of being told about COIs and some report they would not participate if the researcher had some sorts of COIs. With few exceptions, multiple ethical guidelines forbid researchers with a financial interest in the outcome from being involved in human trials.\n\nThe consent agreements entered into with study participants may be legally binding on the academics but not on the sponsor, unless the sponsor has a contractual commitment saying otherwise.\n", "The most important contemporary standards are informed and voluntary consent. After World War II, the Nuremberg Code was established because of Nazi abuses of experimental subjects. Later, most countries (and scientific journals) adopted the Declaration of Helsinki. In the U.S., the National Institutes of Health established the Institutional Review Board in 1966, and in 1974 adopted the National Research Act (HR 7724). All of these measures encouraged researchers to obtain informed consent from human participants in experimental studies. A number of influential studies led to the establishment of this rule; such studies included the MIT and Fernald School radioisotope studies, the Thalidomide tragedy, the Willowbrook hepatitis study, and Stanley Milgram's studies of obedience to authority.\n", "Researchers raise concerns about the impact of consent withdrawal (more easily facilitated by dynamic consent) on the integrity of their research data sets.\n\nSection::::Challenges to dynamic consent.:Rebuttals.\n", "Ann Cook and Freeman Hoas from the University of Montana's Department of Psychology conducted a study to gain more understanding about what influences potential candidates to consent to participation in any given clinical trial. They published their findings in February 2015. This study is also particularly interesting because Cook and Hoas asked for the perspectives of the researchers and whether they would consent to being a subject in a clinical trial. To assess the shift to rural communities, they surveyed 34 physicians or researchers and 46 research coordinators from states that have “large rural populations and have historically demonstrated limited participation in clinical research.” Proper consent forms were provided and signed at the start of the study. Of the physicians and research coordinators that participated in this study, 90% were from hospital centers or worked in a hospital-clinic setting. Of all the participants, only 66% of research coordinators and 53% of physicians received training in research methods, while 59% of the coordinators received any ethics training. Only 17% of the physicians had ethics research training prior to this study.\n", "Furthermore, a process of informed consent is often used to make sure that volunteers know what will happen in the experiment and understand that they are allowed to quit the experiment at any time. A debriefing is typically done at the experiment's conclusion in order to reveal any deceptions used and generally make sure that the participants are unharmed by the procedures. Today, most research in social psychology involves no more risk of harm than can be expected from routine psychological testing or normal daily activities.\n\nSection::::Research.:Adolescents.\n", "\"Tearoom Trade\" is the name of a book by American psychologist Laud Humphreys. In it he describes his research into male homosexual acts. In conducting this research he never sought consent from his research subjects and other researchers raised concerns that he violated the right to privacy for research participants.\n", "Steinsbekk et al. in their publication criticising dynamic consent also argued that rather than increasing the number of people taking part in research, dynamic consent may have the opposite effect. 'Being confronted with the detailed complexity of biomedical research, and being asked again and again for an 'opinion' (a consent), it is likely that at least some people will struggle with feelings of falling short – that their own competence or knowledge do not suffice. This could easily be interpreted as a 'lack of respect' for the passive participant, and result in lower participation as people would rather choose to stay away from such studies than face shortcomings.'\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00950	What was the Vietnam war about?	During the Cold War, the US had a foreign politics policy of "Containment" - stopping the spread of Communism around the world and stopping the spread of the Soviet Union's influence around the world. This was an example of a proxy war fought between pro-democratic/US-forces and pro-communist/USSR/Chinese forces. Right after the end of World War 2, in 1946, there was the First Indochina War that pitted nationalist Vietnam forces against French forces (as the area was a French colony for a long time prior). At the conclusion of the war, Vietnam was divided into two territories - essentially North (Communist) and South Vietnam (Democratic). Due to various political events that transpired in South Vietnam, the North made a move to reunify the country under one blanket communist government, leading to the rise of violence and ultimately war in the area.	[ "Outline of the Vietnam War\n\nThe following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to the Vietnam War:\n", "Section::::Names.\n\nVarious names have been applied to the conflict. \"Vietnam War\" is the most commonly used name in English. It has also been called the \"Second Indochina War\" and the \"Vietnam Conflict\".\n\nGiven that there have been several conflicts in Indochina, this particular conflict is known by the names of its primary protagonists, in order to distinguish it from others. In Vietnamese, the war is generally known as \"Kháng chiến chống Mỹ\" (Resistance War Against America), but less formally as 'Cuộc chiến tranh Mỹ' (The American War). It is also called \"Chiến tranh Việt Nam\" (The Vietnam War).\n\nSection::::Background.\n", "Section::::Women.:Vietnamese soldiers.\n", "Section::::Foreign involvement.:Soviet Union.\n", "Section::::The Vietnam War.\n", "List of allied military operations of the Vietnam War (T–Z and others)\n\nThis article is a list of known military operations of the Vietnam War, a war fought by America to try to stop communism in Southeast Asia, conducted by the armed forces of the Republic of Vietnam, the United States and their assorted allies. This is not a complete list.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Lists of allied military operations of the Vietnam War\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- John M. Carland (2000), \"Combat Operations\", 430 pages\n\nBULLET::::- Marvin E. Gettleman (1995), \"Vietnam and America\", 560 pages\n", "BULLET::::- 21 March\n", "BULLET::::- 7 April\n", "Terminology of the Vietnam War\n\nVarious names have been applied what is known as the Vietnam War. These have shifted over time, although Vietnam War is the most commonly used title in English. It has been variously called the Second Indochina War, the Vietnam Conflict, the Vietnam War, and Nam. In Vietnam it is commonly known as Kháng chiến chống Mỹ (Resistance War against America).\n\nSection::::Second Indochina War.\n", "Section::::Post-war tensions.:Asia.:French Indochina.\n\nEvents during World War II in the colony of French Indochina (consisting of the modern-day states of Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia) set the stage for the First Indochina War which in turn led to the Vietnam War.\n", "Vietnam War – Cold War-era proxy war that occurred in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. This war followed the First Indochina War (1946–54) and was fought between North Vietnam—supported by the Soviet Union, China and other communist allies—and the government of South Vietnam—supported by the United States, Philippines and other anti-communist allies. The Viet Cong (also known as the National Liberation Front, or NLF), a South Vietnamese communist common front aided by the North, fought a guerrilla war against anti-communist forces in the region. The People's Army of Vietnam, also known as the North Vietnamese Army (NVA), engaged in a more conventional war, at times committing large units to battle.\n", "Section::::Background.:Political developments during the Vietnam War.\n", "BULLET::::- 1946 – Cold War: The United States Department of State releases the Acheson–Lilienthal Report, outlining a plan for the international control of nuclear power.\n\nBULLET::::- 1951 – First Indochina War: In the Battle of Mạo Khê, French Union forces, led by World War II hero Jean de Lattre de Tassigny, inflict a defeat on Việt Minh forces commanded by General Võ Nguyên Giáp.\n\nBULLET::::- 1959 – The State Council of the People's Republic of China .\n", "Section::::February.\n\nBULLET::::- 7 February\n", "Section::::The British in Vietnam.\n", "List of allied military operations of the Vietnam War (1966)\n\nThis article is a list of known military operations of the Vietnam War in 1966, conducted by the armed forces of the Republic of Vietnam, the United States and their allies.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of allied military operations of the Vietnam War (1967)\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Edwin E. Moïse (1996), \"Tonkin Gulf and the escalation of the Vietnam War\", 304 pages\n\nBULLET::::- Lewis Sorley (2007), \"A Better War\", 528 pages\n\nBULLET::::- Institute Of Medicine, Institute of Medicine (U.S.), National Academies Press (U.S.) (2007), \"Veterans and agent orange\", 871 pages\n", "Section::::Background.\n\nSection::::Background.:Soviet-Chinese discord.\n", "Section::::Career.:Vietnam War.\n", "War in Vietnam (1945–46)\n\nThe War in Vietnam, codenamed Operation Masterdom by the British, and also known as Nam Bộ kháng chiến () by the Vietnamese, was a post–World War II armed conflict involving a largely British-Indian and French task force and Japanese troops from the Southern Expeditionary Army Group, versus the Vietnamese communist movement, the Viet Minh, for control of the country, after the unconditional Japanese surrender.\n", "Section::::Second Indochina War.\n\nThe Second Indochina War, commonly known as the Vietnam War, pitted the recently successful Communist Vietnam People's Army (VPA or PAVN, but also known as the North Vietnamese Army or NVA) and the National Front for the Liberation of Vietnam (Vietnamese NLF guerrilla fighters allied with the PAVN, known in the America as the Viet Cong, meaning 'Communists Traitor to Vietnam') against United States troops and the United States-backed by South Vietnamese Government ARVN (Republic of Vietnam soldiers).\n", "The term \"Vietnam Conflict\" is largely a U.S. designation, it acknowledges that the United States Congress never declared war on North Vietnam. Legally, the President used his constitutional discretion—supplemented by supportive resolutions in Congress—to conduct what was said to be a \"police action\".\n\nSection::::Vietnam War.\n\n\"Vietnam War\" is the most commonly used designation in English. Most Vietnamese who interact with foreigners are familiar with the term Vietnam War. The Vietnam War translates directly as \"Chiến tranh Việt Nam\" in Vietnamese.\n\nSection::::Resistance War against America (\"Kháng chiến chống Mỹ\").\n", "BULLET::::- 1930 – The news of the discovery of Pluto is telegraphed to the Harvard College Observatory.\n\nBULLET::::- 1933 – Great Depression: Banks in the U.S. begin to re-open after President Franklin D. Roosevelt mandates a \"bank holiday\".\n\nBULLET::::- 1940 – The Russo-Finnish Winter War ends.\n\nBULLET::::- 1943 – The Holocaust: German forces liquidate the Jewish ghetto in Kraków.\n\nBULLET::::- 1954 – First Indochina War: Viet Minh forces under Võ Nguyên Giáp unleashed a massive artillery barrage on the French to begin the Battle of Điện Biên Phủ, the climactic battle in the First Indochina War.\n", "Vietnam War in film\n\nThis article lists notable films related to the Vietnam War.\n\nSection::::Representation of the Vietnamese in film.\n", "\"Battlefield Vietnam\" features the United States, with Marines, Army and the Navy, South Vietnam with Army of the Republic of Vietnam and North Vietnam with the Viet Cong.\n", "Paramilitary officers from the CIA's Special Activities Division trained and led Hmong tribesmen in Laos and into Vietnam. The indigenous forces numbered in the tens of thousands and they conducted direct action missions, led by paramilitary officers, against the Communist Pathet Lao forces and their North Vietnamese supporters. The CIA also ran the Phoenix Program and participated in Military Assistance Command, Vietnam – Studies and Observations Group (MAC-V SOG), which was originally named the Special Operations Group, but was changed for cover purposes.\n\nSection::::Johnson's escalation, 1963–69.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04230	Why are greek/ roman gods not worshipped anymore?	very very aggressive religious subjugation by the Catholic church over a millenia. They had crusades over it, they actively killed pagans, it was messy. its 2.5 thousand years of government and people changing over a given plot of land. The big one that set it up though was the roman empire adopting christianity. they owned all of europe and what they say goes. r/askhistorians may get you a more exact answer	[ "As the Romans extended their dominance throughout the Mediterranean world, their policy in general was to absorb the deities and cults of other peoples rather than try to eradicate them, since they believed that preserving tradition promoted social stability.\n", "From the 350s, new laws prescribed the death penalty for those who performed or attended pagan sacrifices, and for the worshipping of idols; temples were shut down, and the traditional Altar of Victory was removed from the Senate. There were also frequent episodes of ordinary Christians destroying, pillaging, desecrating, and vandalizing many of the ancient pagan temples, tombs and monuments.\n", "In some instances, deities of an enemy power were formally invited through the ritual of \"evocatio\" to take up their abode in new sanctuaries at Rome.\n\nCommunities of foreigners \"(peregrini)\" and former slaves \"(libertini)\" continued their own religious practices within the city. In this way Mithras came to Rome and his popularity within the Roman army spread his cult as far afield as Roman Britain. The important Roman deities were eventually identified with the more anthropomorphic Greek gods and goddesses, and assumed many of their attributes and myths.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Ancient Rome\n\nBULLET::::- List of \"Metamorphoses\" characters\n", "The same gods whom the Romans believed had protected and blessed their city and its wider empire during the many centuries they had been worshipped were now demonized by the early Christian Church.\n\nSection::::Toleration and Constantine.\n", "The Romans tended towards syncretism, seeing the same gods under different names in different places of the Empire, accommodating other Europeans such as the Hellenes, Germans, and Celts, and Semitic and other groups in the Middle East. Under Roman authority, the various national myths most similar to Rome were adopted by analogue into the overall Roman mythos, further cementing Imperial control. Consequently, the Romans were generally tolerant and accommodating towards new deities and the religious experiences of other peoples who formed part of their wider Empire.\n\nSection::::Before the Edict of Milan.:The rise of esoteric philosophy.\n", "As contact with the Greeks increased, the old Roman gods became increasingly associated with Greek gods. Thus, Jupiter was perceived to be the same deity as Zeus, Mars became associated with Ares, and Neptune with Poseidon. The Roman gods also assumed the attributes and mythologies of these Greek gods. Under the Empire, the Romans absorbed the mythologies of their conquered subjects, often leading to situations in which the temples and priests of traditional Italian deities existed side by side with those of foreign gods.\n", "Section::::Before the Edict of Milan.:Eastern sun-worship.\n", "From the reign of Septimius Severus, other, less gender-specific, forms of sun-worship also increased in popularity throughout the Roman Empire.\n", "Decline of Greco-Roman polytheism\n\nReligion in the Greco-Roman world at the time of the Constantinian shift mostly comprised three main currents:\n\nBULLET::::- the traditional religions of ancient Greece and Rome;\n\nBULLET::::- the official Roman imperial cult;\n\nBULLET::::- various mystery religions, such as the Dionysian and Eleusinian Mysteries and the mystery cults of Cybele, Mithras, and the syncretized Isis.\n", "As the Romans extended their dominance throughout the Mediterranean world, their policy in general was to absorb the deities and cults of other peoples rather than try to eradicate them, since they believed that preserving tradition promoted social stability.\n", "BULLET::::- 389–391 Theodosian decrees, Christianity becomes official state religion of the Roman Empire.\n\nBULLET::::- 440-450 All Hellenic monuments, altars and Temples of Athens, Olympia, and other Greek cities are destroyed. As German historian Gregorovius, in his \"History of Athens\" says, the pagan monuments of Athens and Greece were the best preserved among other monuments in the late Roman Empire.\n", "Archaic Rome was part of a broader civilisation which included Latin, colonial Greek and possibly Carthaginian elements, dominated by the Etruscans - the rites of the \"haruspex\", for example, were almost certainly Etruscan. In its ascendancy from local to Imperial power, Rome pragmatically embraced the local cults of its neighbouring villages and towns, then of city-states and provinces. Local cult became an instrument of Roman administration, run by locally elected official-priests. Their \"foreign\" gods never became gods of the Roman state as a whole, but were an essential feature of reciprocal relations between Rome and its provinces. In approximately 155 CE, Aelius Aristides would remark that his own favourite gods, Asclepius, Isis and Serapis, were widely revered in the Empire \"because\" of the favour shown them by Rome.\n", "Section::::Renewal of persecution under Gratian.\n", "Section::::Final decline.\n", "Section::::Polytheism revival.\n", "The Roman deities, in a manner similar to the ancient Greeks, inspired community festivals, rituals and sacrifices led by \"flamines\" (priests, pontifs), but priestesses (Vestal Virgins) were also held in high esteem for maintaining sacred fire used in the votive rituals for deities. Deities were also maintained in home shrines (\"lararium\"), such as Hestia honored in homes as the goddess of fire hearth. This Roman religion held reverence for sacred fire, and this is also found in Hebrew culture (Leviticus 6), Vedic culture's Homa, ancient Greeks and other cultures.\n", "Rome introduced a more widespread habit of public inscriptions, and broke the power of the druids in the areas it conquered; in fact, most inscriptions to deities discovered in Gaul (modern France and Northern Italy), Britain and other formerly (or presently) Celtic-speaking areas post-date the Roman conquest.\n", "The Jewish historian and theologian Jacob Neusner writes: \"It was only after the near catastrophe of Julian's reversion to paganism that the Christian emperors systematically legislated against paganism so as to destroy it.\"\\\n", "Under Pope Gregory I, the caverns, grottoes, crags and glens that had once been used for the worship of the pagan gods were now appropriated by Christianity: \"Let altars be built and relics be placed there\" wrote Pope Gregory I, \"so that [the pagans] have to change from the worship of the daemones to that of the true God.\"\n\n\"The triumph of Catholic Christianity over Roman paganism, heretical Arianism [and] pagan barbarism,\" asserts Hillgarth \"was certainly due in large part to the support it received, first from the declining Roman state and later from the barbarian monarchies.\"\n\nSection::::Evaluation and legacy.\n", "Eastern mystery religions penetrated Gaul early on. These included the cults of Orpheus, Mithras, Cybele, and Isis.\n\nThe imperial cult, centred primarily on the \"numen\" of Augustus, came to play a prominent role in public religion in Gaul, most dramatically at the pan-Gaulish ceremony venerating Rome and Augustus at the Condate Altar near Lugdunum annually on 1 August.\n\nSection::::Religion.:Christianity.\n", "The Pantheon in Rome was once a temple dedicated to the Roman gods and it was converted to a Roman Catholic church dedicated to St. Mary and the Martyrs.\n", "In 170 AD, the Temple of Demeter was sacked by the Sarmatians but was rebuilt by Marcus Aurelius. Aurelius was then allowed to become the only lay person ever to enter the anaktoron. As Christianity gained in popularity in the 4th and 5th centuries, Eleusis's prestige began to fade. The last pagan emperor of Rome, Julian, reigned from 361 to 363 after about fifty years of Christian rule. Julian attempted to restore the Eleusinian Mysteries and was the last emperor to be initiated into them.\n", "Section::::Use by governments and public institutions.\n\nRoman conquerors allowed the incorporation of existing Greek mythological figures such as Zeus into their coinage in places like Phrygia, in order to \"augment the fame\" of the locality, while \"creating a stronger civil identity\" without \"advertising\" the imposition of Roman culture.\n", "Under Theodosius, visits to the pagan temples were forbidden, the eternal fire in the Temple of Vesta in the Roman Forum extinguished, the Vestal Virgins disbanded, auspices and witchcrafting punished. Theodosius refused to restore the Altar of Victory in the Senate House, as asked by remaining pagan Senators.\n", "Section::::European neopagan religions.:Roman religion.\n\nThe Roman polytheism also known as Religio Romana (\"Roman religion\") in Latin or the Roman Way to the Gods (in Italian 'Via romana agli Déi') is alive in small communities and loosely related organizations, mainly in Italy.\n\nSection::::European neopagan religions.:Druidry.\n\nThe religious development of Druidry was largely influenced by Iolo Morganwg. Modern practises aim to imitate the practises of the Celtic peoples of the Iron Age.\n\nSection::::Official religions.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-05047	How do head massages help relieve headaches?	Well fist let me explain what a headache is. A head ache can be caused by many things and there are over 200 types, but they usually happen from when a blood vessel or nerve in you head (not your brain) are swollen or pinched causing pain. Your actual brain has no nerves in it so massaging your brain would feel like nothing and would probably give you brain damage if it didn’t kill you. People get brain surgery all the time and most of them require cutting a hole in the skull and they usually need you conscious to make sure you’re still functioning so they know they’re not messing up (don’t worry, they get numbed). The brain can’t feel anything which is why when people get brain damage they sometimes don’t know it. So your brain doesn’t hurt it’s your head, your nerves realize something is wrong and make you know by causing pain, when you message it you’re soothing those nerves and/or pushing the extra blood in the blood vessels along relieving the pain	[ "Also, relaxation therapy can involve mental techniques to decrease body tension. The first is called \"focused imagery\". Focused imagery involves concentration on relaxed body parts, followed by focus on tense muscles and imagining that the tense areas are being worked on or relaxed. The next mental technique involves focus on the whole body, instead of its individual parts. In \"deepening imagery\", a person imagines the body's tension as a meter of high to low, and works to reduce tension mentally. An additional mental strategy involves creating and experiencing a location of relaxation in the mind. The last mental strategy involves the chronic headache patient visualizing a place of stress in his or her life and imagining a relaxed response. Meditation in a relaxing environment is also suggested to prevent headaches. Meditation often involves repeating a one syllable sound or staring at a visual object to help focus attention. Relaxation helps the body to unwind, preventing the formation of headaches.\n", "Relaxation training is another form of non-pharmacological treatment for chronic headache. Relaxation training helps to reduce internal tension, allowing a person to control headaches triggered by stress. The different relaxation methods are normally taught by a psychologist or a therapist. Relaxation training works as people become in tune with their own body, allowing them to realize when it is necessary to decrease tension before a headache occurs. The point of relaxation training is to teach people \"an attitude of consciously setting out to relax but not trying too hard\", enabling people to relax in everyday situations. Relaxation training includes two different types of methods: physical and mental.\n", "Section::::Non-medicinal.:Relaxation training.:Physical methods.\n\nPhysical relaxation methods involve actual body movement or action. One physical method for releasing tension involves \"purposefully tensing and then relaxing groups of muscles in a definite sequence\", which is named accordingly progressive muscle relaxation. Another physical method of relaxation is deep breathing. Deep breathing is done by breathing from the bottom of the lungs up, which is characterized by the rise and fall of the stomach, not the chest. These are the two most common physical methods of relaxation for chronic headache sufferers.\n\nSection::::Non-medicinal.:Relaxation training.:Mental methods.\n", "Another non-medicinal treatment, which does not require at-home exercises, is acupuncture. Acupuncture involves a certified acupuncturist picking particular points on the body to insert acupuncture needles; these points may differ on an individual basis. With chronic headache patients, the acupuncturist may needle \"tender points at or near the site of maximal headache pain\". A study conducted by the University of North Carolina School of Medicine found that compared to medicinal treatment alone, medicinal treatment plus acupuncture resulted in more improvement for chronic daily headache patients. Another acupuncture study in Germany found that 52.6% of patients reported a decrease in headache frequency In both studies, acupuncture was not the only treatment. Trials show that acupuncture can cause \"relevant improvements\" for people with chronic headaches.\n", "Hawaiian kupuna (elder) Auntie Margaret Machado describes lomilomi as \"praying\" work. Emma Akana Olmstead, a kupuna of Hana, Maui, in the 1930s, said, \"When a treatment is to be given, the one who gives the treatment first plucks the herbs to be used. He prays as he picks the herbs. No one should call him back or distract his attention, all should be as still as possible for they do not want the vibration broken. They knew the laws of vibration. They knew the power of the spoken word. They knew Nature. They gathered the vibration of the plentiful.\"\n", "In addition to medicines, physical therapy is a treatment to help improve chronic headaches. In physical therapy, a patient works together with a therapist to help identify and change physical habits or conditions that affect chronic headaches. Physical therapy for chronic daily headaches focuses on the upper body, including the upper back, neck, and face. Therapists assess and improve the patient's body posture, which can aggravate headaches. During office sessions, therapists use manual therapy, such as a massage, stretching, or joint movement to release muscle tension. Other methods to relax muscles include heat packs, ice packs, and \"electrical stimulation\". Therapists also teach chronic headache sufferers at-home exercises to strengthen and stretch muscles that may be triggering headaches. In physical therapy, the patient must take an active role to practice exercises and make changes to his or her lifestyle for there to be improvement.\n", "Muscle relaxants are typically used for and are helpful with acute post-traumatic TTH rather than ETTH. Opioid medications are not utilized to treat ETTH. Botulinum toxin does not appear to be helpful.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Medications.:Treatment of CTTH.\n", "Some instruments that a massagers may use, but are more likely to be used by the individual themselves. Usually these tools are used for the purpose of a vibration massage. One the very well known manufacturers of these tools is HoMedics mini battery operated massagers, (especially the PM series). The majority of massagers that use such devices are usually hair cutters, who may massage the head after an haircut. \n", "A 2011 Cochrane review of four trials using acupuncture and nine studies using acupressure to control pain in childbirth concluded that \"acupuncture or acupressure may help relieve pain during labour, but more research is needed\". Another Cochrane Collaboration review found that massage provided some long-term benefit for low back pain, and stated: \"It seems that acupressure or pressure point massage techniques provide more relief than classic (Swedish) massage, although more research is needed to confirm this.\"\n", "Acupressure [from Latin acus \"needle\" (see acuity) + pressure (n.)] is a technique similar in principle to acupuncture. It is based on the concept of life energy which flows through \"meridians\" in the body. In treatment, physical pressure is applied to acupuncture points with the aim of clearing blockages in those meridians. Pressure may be applied by fingers, palm, elbow, toes or with various devices.\n", "Historically, the treatments for headache pain included one or a combination of herbal remedies, stress-reduction exercises, massage, acupuncture, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID), narcotic pain relievers, anti-seizure medications, chiropractic adjustments, anti-depressants or sedatives.\n", "Tension-type headaches can usually be managed with NSAIDs (ibuprofen, naproxen, aspirin), or acetaminophen. Triptans are not helpful in tension-type headaches unless the person also has migraines. For chronic tension type headaches, amitriptyline is the only medication proven to help. Amitriptyline is a medication which treats depression and also independently treats pain. It works by blocking the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine, and also reduces muscle tenderness by a separate mechanism. Studies evaluating acupuncture for tension-type headaches have been mixed. Overall, they show that acupuncture is probably not helpful for tension-type headaches.\n\nSection::::Management.:Cluster headaches.\n", "Section::::Non-medicinal.:Acupuncture.\n", "Section::::Clinical significance.:Treatment of resistant hypertension.\n\nStimulation of baroreceptors at the carotid sinus can be used to treat resistant hypertension via activation of the baroreflex. A pacemaker-like device can be implanted to electrically stimulate the receptors chronically, which is found to lower blood pressure by 15-25 mmHg.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Massage.\n", "Thai Massage is a popular massage therapy that is used for management of conditions such as musculoskeletal pain and fatigue. Thai Massage involves a number of stretching movements that improve body flexibility, joint movement and also improve blood circulation throughout the body. In one study scientists found that Thai Massage showed comparable efficacy as the painkiller ibuprofen in reduction of joint pain caused by osteoarthritis (OA) of the knee.\n\nSection::::Types and methods.:Traditional Chinese massage.\n", "Sometimes confused with pressure point massage, this involves deactivating trigger points that may cause local pain or refer pain and other sensations, such as headaches, in other parts of the body. Manual pressure, vibration, injection, or other treatment is applied to these points to relieve myofascial pain. Trigger points were first discovered and mapped by Janet G. Travell (President Kennedy's physician) and David Simons. Trigger points have been photomicrographed and measured electrically and in 2007 a paper was presented showing images of Trigger Points using MRI. These points relate to dysfunction in the myoneural junction, also called neuromuscular junction (NMJ), in muscle, and therefore this technique is different from reflexology, acupressure and pressure point massage.\n", "The main professionals that provide therapeutic massage are massage therapists, athletic trainers, physical therapists and practitioners of many traditional Chinese and other eastern medicines. Massage practitioners work in a variety of medical settings and may travel to private residences or businesses. Contraindications to massage include deep vein thrombosis, bleeding disorders or taking blood thinners such as Warfarin, damaged blood vessels, weakened bones from cancer, osteoporosis, or fractures, and fever.\n\nSection::::Medical and therapeutic use.:Practitioner associations and official recognition of professionals.\n", "\"Total Health Magazine\" found the video to be unique in that it \"is both instructional for someone learning to be a masseur and instructor Cleo demonstrates how to give yourself a massage. Techniques are plainly shown how to relieve tension in neck, shoulders, back, hips, chest, abdomen, legs, arms, feet, face and head\".\n", "For children and adolescents, a review of RCTs evaluating the effectiveness of psychological therapy for the management of chronic and recurrent pain found that psychological treatments are effective in reducing pain when people under 18 years old have headaches. This beneficial effect may be maintained for at least three months following the therapy. Psychological treatments may also improve pain control for children or adolescents who experience pain not related to headaches. It is not known if psychological therapy improves a child or adolescents mood and the potential for disability related to their chronic pain.\n\nSection::::Psychological approach.:Hypnosis.\n", "People with tension-type headache often use spinal manipulation, soft tissue therapy, and myofascial trigger point treatment. Studies of effectiveness are mixed. A 2006 systematic review found no rigorous evidence supporting manual therapies for tension headache. A 2005 structured review found only weak evidence for the effectiveness of chiropractic manipulation for tension headache, and that it was probably more effective for tension headache than for migraine. A 2004 Cochrane review found that spinal manipulation may be effective for migraine and tension headache, and that spinal manipulation and neck exercises may be effective for cervicogenic headache. Two other systematic reviews published between 2000 and May 2005 did not find conclusive evidence in favor of spinal manipulation. A 2012 systematic review of manual therapy found that hands-on work may reduce both the frequency and the intensity of chronic tension-type headaches. More current literature also appears to be mixed however, CTTH patients may benefit from massage and physiotherapy as suggested by a systemic review examining these modalities via RCTs specifically for this patient population Despite being helpful, the review also makes a point to note that there is no difference in effectiveness long term (6 months) between those CTTH patients utilizing TCAs and physiotherapy. Another systemic review comparing manual therapy to pharmacologic therapy also supports little long term difference in outcome regarding TTH frequency, duration, and intensity.\n", "These medications however, are not effective if concurrent overuse of over the counter medications or other analgesics is occurring. Stopping overuse must occur prior to proceeding with other forms of treatment.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Manual therapy.\n\nCurrent evidence for acupuncture is slight. A 2016 systematic review suggests better evidence among those with frequent tension headaches, but concludes that further trials comparing acupuncture with other treatment options are needed.\n", "Shiatsu (指圧) (\"shi\" meaning finger and \"atsu\" meaning pressure) is a type of alternative medicine consisting of the fingers and palm pressure, stretches, and other massage techniques. There is no convincing data available to suggest that shiatsu is an effective treatment for any medical condition.\n\nSection::::Types and methods.:Structural Integration.\n", "Various species of the genus \"Hypericum\" have been used since ancient times as herbal remedies. This species has been used traditionally to reduce muscle spasms and for the treatment of asthma.\n\n\"Hypericum calycinum\" is an economically valuable plant in North America, commonly used for ornamental reasons and landscaping.\n", "BULLET::::- Diseases (especially acute or unstable) such as blood pressure disorders (Hypertension or Hypotension), any cardiac or neurological conditions, second or third degree burns, or pregnancy.\n\nBULLET::::- Thrombosis or any blood clotting disorders\n\nBULLET::::- Any Spinal conditions and diseases, especially bulging, ruptured, or herniated discs\n\nSection::::History of hydro massage.\n", "In traditional medicine, the juice of the leaves is also used for kidney stones, although there is no scientific evidence for this use, and, indeed, such usage could prove dangerous and even fatal in some cases. In the French West Indies, Kalanchoe pinnata, called zeb maltet, is used in local application against headaches. For the people of the Amazon, kalanchoe has multiple uses: the Creoles use it roasted against inflammations and cancer and as an infusion, and as a popular remedy for fevers. Against headaches, Palikur rubs their forehead with a mixture of kalanchoe leaf juice with coconut oil.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01696	How can certain animals such as frogs and flies freeze solid and survive, but most mammals suffer extreme tissue damage?	At least part of the answer is that some animals evolved [ice-binding proteins or antifreeze proteins]( URL_0 ). These proteins prevent the growth of ice crystals which can rupture cells.	[ "Freeze tolerance, in which organisms survive the winter by freezing solid and ceasing life functions, is known in a few vertebrates: five species of frogs (\"Rana sylvatica\", \"Pseudacris triseriata\", \"Hyla crucifer\", \"Hyla versicolor\", \"Hyla chrysoscelis\"), one of salamanders (\"Hynobius keyserlingi\"), one of snakes (\"Thamnophis sirtalis\") and three of turtles (\"Chrysemys picta\", \"Terrapene carolina\", \"Terrapene ornata\"). Snapping turtles \"Chelydra serpentina\" and wall lizards \"Podarcis muralis\" also survive nominal freezing but it has not been established to be adaptive for overwintering. In the case of \"Rana sylvatica\" one cryopreservant is ordinary glucose, which increases in concentration by approximately 19 mmol/l when the frogs are cooled slowly.\n", "The larvae of \"Haemonchus contortus\", a nematode, can survive 44 weeks frozen at -196 °C.\n\nSection::::Cryopreservation in nature.:Animals.:Vertebrates.\n\nFor the wood frog (\"Rana sylvatica\"), in the winter, as much as 45% of its body may freeze and turn to ice. \"Ice crystals form beneath the skin and become interspersed among the body's skeletal muscles. During the freeze, the frog's breathing, blood flow, and heartbeat cease. Freezing is made possible by specialized proteins and glucose, which prevent intracellular freezing and dehydration.\" The wood frog can survive up to 11 days frozen at -4 °C.\n", "BULLET::::- Chilblains: condition caused by repeated exposure of skin to temperatures just above freezing. The cold causes damage to small blood vessels in the skin. This damage is permanent and the redness and itching will return with additional exposure. The redness and itching typically occurs on cheeks, ears, fingers, and toes.\n\nBULLET::::- Frostbite: the freezing and destruction of tissue\n\nBULLET::::- Frostnip: a superficial cooling of tissues without cellular destruction\n\nBULLET::::- Trench foot or immersion foot: a condition caused by repetitive exposure to water at non-freezing temperatures\n", "To cope with low temperatures, some fish have developed the ability to remain functional even when the water temperature is below freezing; some use natural antifreeze or antifreeze proteins to resist ice crystal formation in their tissues. Amphibians and reptiles cope with heat loss by evaporative cooling and behavioral adaptations. An example of behavioral adaptation is that of a lizard lying in the sun on a hot rock in order to heat through radiation and conduction.\n\nSection::::Classification of animals by thermal characteristics.:Endothermy.\n", "Water-bears (\"Tardigrada\"), microscopic multicellular organisms, can survive freezing by replacing most of their internal water with the sugar trehalose, preventing it from crystallization that otherwise damages cell membranes. Mixtures of solutes can achieve similar effects. Some solutes, including salts, have the disadvantage that they may be toxic at intense concentrations. In addition to the water-bear, wood frogs can tolerate the freezing of their blood and other tissues. Urea is accumulated in tissues in preparation for overwintering, and liver glycogen is converted in large quantities to glucose in response to internal ice formation. Both urea and glucose act as \"cryoprotectants\" to limit the amount of ice that forms and to reduce osmotic shrinkage of cells. Frogs can survive many freeze/thaw events during winter if no more than about 65% of the total body water freezes. Research exploring the phenomenon of \"freezing frogs\" has been performed primarily by the Canadian researcher, Dr. Kenneth B. Storey.\n", "At extreme temperatures, Cranwell's frogs enter a period of estivation, developing a thick layer of protective skin to trap moisture and aid in respiration. When estivation is complete, the frog uses its front and hind legs to help shed the protective layer. In many cases, the frog uses its jaws to help pull the skin over its back, often eating the skin in the process.\n\nSection::::As pets.\n", "Poikilotherm animals must be able to function over a wider range of temperatures than homeotherms. The speed of most chemical reactions vary with temperature, and in order to function poikilotherms may have four to ten enzyme systems that operate at different temperatures for an important chemical reaction. As a result, poikilotherms often have larger, more complex genomes than homeotherms in the same ecological niche. Frogs are a notable example of this effect, though their complex development is also an important factor in their large genome. \n", "With some exceptions, the formation of ice within cells generally causes cell death even in freeze-tolerant species due to physical stresses exerted as ice crystals expand. Ice formation in extracellular spaces is also problematic, as it removes water from solution through the process of osmosis, causing the cellular environment to become hypertonic and draw water from the cell interiors. Excessive cell shrinkage can cause severe damage. This is because as ice forms outside the cell, the possible shapes that can be assumed by the cells are increasingly limited, causing damaging deformation. Finally, the expansion of ice within vessels and other spaces can cause physical damage to structures and tissues.\n", "Freeze tolerance in insects refers to the ability of some insect species to survive ice formation within their tissues. All insects are ectothermic, which can make them vulnerable to freezing. In most animals, intra- and extracellular freezing causes severe tissue damage, resulting in death. Insects that have evolved freeze-tolerance strategies manage to avoid tissue damage by controlling where, when, and to what extent ice forms. In contrast to freeze avoiding insects that are able to exist in cold conditions by supercooling, freeze tolerant organisms limit supercooling and initiate the freezing of their body fluids at relatively high temperatures. Physiologically, this is accomplished through inoculative freezing, the production of ice nucleating proteins, crystalloid compounds, and/or microbes.\n", "Section::::Freezing of living organisms.:Bacteria.\n\nThree species of bacteria, \"Carnobacterium pleistocenium\", as well as \"Chryseobacterium greenlandensis\" and \"Herminiimonas glaciei\", have reportedly been revived after surviving for thousands of years frozen in ice.\n\nSection::::Freezing of living organisms.:Plants.\n\nMany plants undergo a process called hardening, which allows them to survive temperatures below 0 °C for weeks to months.\n\nSection::::Freezing of living organisms.:Animals.\n\nThe nematode \"Haemonchus contortus\" can survive 44 weeks frozen at liquid nitrogen temperatures. Other nematodes that survive at temperatures below 0 °C include \"Trichostrongylus colubriformis\" and \"Panagrolaimus davidi\". Many species of reptiles and amphibians survive freezing. See cryobiology for a full discussion.\n", "Other vertebrates that survive at body temperatures below 0 °C include painted turtles (\"Chrysemys picta\"), gray tree frogs (\"Hyla versicolor\"), box turtles (\"Terrapene carolina\" - 48 hours at -2 °C), spring peeper (\"Pseudacris crucifer\"), garter snakes (\"Thamnophis sirtalis\"- 24 hours at -1.5 °C), the chorus frog (\"Pseudacris triseriata\"), Siberian salamander (\"Salamandrella keyserlingii\" - 24 hours at -15.3 °C), European common lizard (\"Lacerta vivipara\") and Antarctic fish such as \"Pagothenia borchgrevinki\". Antifreeze proteins cloned from such fish have been used to confer frost-resistance on transgenic plants.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Gonatocerus kalika\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gonatocerus karakum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gonatocerus karlik\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gonatocerus katraps\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gonatocerus kazak\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gonatocerus kikimora\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gonatocerus kiskis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gonatocerus kochi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gonatocerus kodaianus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gonatocerus koebelei\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gonatocerus komarik\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gonatocerus koziavka\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gonatocerus krasavchik\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gonatocerus kulik\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gonatocerus kum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gonatocerus kusaka\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gonatocerus lamarcki\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gonatocerus latipennis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gonatocerus lissonotus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gonatocerus litoralis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gonatocerus logarzoi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gonatocerus lomonosoffi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gonatocerus longicornis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gonatocerus longicrus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gonatocerus longior\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gonatocerus longiterebratus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gonatocerus lucidus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gonatocerus macauleyi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gonatocerus maculatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gonatocerus maculipennis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gonatocerus maga\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gonatocerus malanadensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gonatocerus mancae\"\n", "There are many different species that are either commonly known or not known amongst many people. These species have either adapted over time into these extreme environments or they have resided their entire life no matter how many generations. The different species that are able to live in these environments because of their flexibility with adaptation. Many can adapt to different climate conditions and hibernate if need be to survive.\n\nThe following list contains only a few species that live in extreme environments . \n\nDifferent Types of Species \n\nBULLET::::- Giant kangaroo rat\n\nBULLET::::- Certain species of frogs\n", "Lethal freezing occurs when insects are exposed to temperatures below the freezing point of their body fluids; therefore, insects that do not migrate from regions with the onset of colder temperatures must devise strategies to either tolerate or avoid freezing of intracellular and extracellular body fluids. Surviving colder temperatures, in insects, generally falls under two categories: Freeze-tolerant insects can tolerate the formation of internal ice and freeze-avoidant insects avoid freezing by keeping the bodily fluids liquid. The general strategy adopted by insects also differs between the northern hemisphere and the southern hemisphere. In temperate regions of the northern hemisphere where cold temperatures are expected seasonally and are usually for long periods of time, the main strategy is freeze avoidance. In temperate regions of the southern hemisphere, where seasonal cold temperatures are not as extreme or long lasting, the main strategy is freeze tolerance. However, in the Arctic, where freezing occurs seasonally, and for extended periods (9 months), freeze tolerance also predominates.\n", "The rate of cooling of a tissue may also be significant in the production of injury to enzyme systems. Francavilla showed that when liver slices were rapidly cooled (immediate cooling to 12 °C in 6 minutes) anaerobic glycolysis, as measured on rewarming to 37 °C, was inhibited by about 67% of the activity that was demonstrated in slices that had been subjected to delayed cooling. However, dog kidney slices were less severely affected by the rapid cooling than were the liver slices.\n\nSection::::Nature of kidney preservation injury.:Mechanisms of injury.:Metabolic injury.:Anoxia.\n", "Nucleating proteins may be produced by the insect, or by microorganisms that have become associated with the insects' tissues. These microorganisms possess proteins within their cell walls that function as nuclei for ice growth.\n\nThe temperature that a particular ice nucleator initiates freezing varies from molecule to molecule. Although an organism may possess a number of different ice nucleating proteins, only those that initiate freezing at the highest temperature will catalyze an ice nucleation event. Once freezing is initiated, ice will spread throughout the insect's body.\n\nSection::::Freeze tolerance.:Cryoprotectants.\n", "For example, frogs in cold climates can survive for extended periods of time with most of their body water in a frozen state, whereas desert frogs in Australia can become inactive and dehydrate in dry periods, losing up to 75% of their fluids, yet return to life by rapidly rehydrating in wet periods. Either type of frog would appear biochemically inactive (i.e. not living) during dormant periods to anyone lacking a sensitive means of detecting low levels of metabolism.\n\nSection::::Overview.:Nonplanetary life.\n\nSection::::Overview.:Nonplanetary life.:Dust and plasma-based.\n", "BULLET::::- Dehydration – the longest that living tardigrades have been shown to survive in a dry state is nearly 10 years, although there is one report of leg movement, not generally considered \"survival\", in a 120-year-old specimen from dried moss. When exposed to extremely low temperatures, their body composition goes from 85% water to only 3%. As water expands upon freezing, dehydration ensures the tardigrades’ tissues are not ruptured by the expansion of freezing ice.\n", "H.M. Vernon has done work on the death temperature and paralysis temperature (temperature of heat rigor) of various animals. He found that species of the same class showed very similar temperature values, those from the Amphibia examined being 38.5 °C, fish 39 °C, Reptilia 45 °C, and various Molluscs 46 °C.\n\nTo cope with low temperatures, some fish have developed the ability to remain functional even when the water temperature is below freezing; some use natural antifreeze or antifreeze proteins to resist ice crystal formation in their tissues.\n", "environment – for example, pig hearts work in a different anatomical site and under different hydrostatic pressure than in humans;\n\ntemperature – the body temperature of pigs is 39 °C (2 °C above the average human body temperature). Implications of this difference, if any, on the activity of important enzymes are currently unknown.\n\nSection::::Barriers and issues.:Xenozoonosis.\n", "Most freeze-tolerant species restrict ice formation to extracellular spaces. Some species, however, can tolerate intracellular freezing as well. This was first discovered in the fat body cells of the goldenrod gall fly \"Eurosta solidaginis\". The fat body is an insect tissue that is important for lipid, protein and carbohydrate metabolism (analogous to the mammalian liver). Although it is not certain why intracellular freezing is restricted to the fat body tissue in some insects, there is evidence that it may be due to the low water content within fat body cells.\n\nSection::::Locations of hibernating insects.\n", "Section::::Cold tolerance.\n", "Section::::Biology.:Adaptations.\n\nPsychrophiles are protected from freezing and the expansion of ice by ice-induced desiccation and vitrification (glass transition), as long as they cool slowly. Free living cells desiccate and vitrify between −10 °C and −26 °C. Cells of multicellular organisms may vitrify at temperatures below −50 °C. The cells may continue to have some metabolic activity in the extracellular fluid down to these temperatures, and they remain viable once restored to normal temperatures.\n", "Nematodes that survive below 0 °C include \"Trichostrongylus colubriformis\" and \"Panagrolaimus davidi\". Cockroach nymphs (\"Periplaneta japonica\") survive short periods of freezing at -6 to -8 °C. The red flat bark beetle (\"Cucujus clavipes\") can survive after being frozen to -150 °C. The fungus gnat \"Exechia nugatoria\" can survive after being frozen to -50 °C, by a unique mechanism whereby ice crystals form in the body but not the head. Another freeze-tolerant beetle is \"Upis ceramboides\". See insect winter ecology and antifreeze protein. Another invertebrate that is briefly tolerant to temperatures down to -273 °C is the tardigrade.\n", "Thus, the function of the nervous system is dependent on this endocytic cycle. An example of this dependence is found in fruit flies. A key protein required for endocytosis is dynamin: It assists in budding a coated pit into a cell to form a coated vesicle. Mutations in the dynamin gene in which the activity of the dynamin protein is lost at above-normal temperatures (for the fly) exist: These are called temperature-sensitive mutations. Such mutant flies have the property that, when the fly is brought from its normal 22 °C to 30 °C, the dynamin function is lost. However, when the flies are cooled to 22 °C, it is regained. In other words, in these mutant flies, the endocytic cycle can be turned off at 30 °C, and turned back on by cooling. What one observes is that, within seconds of warming to 30 °C, the fruit flies become paralysed: They drop out of the air and appear near-dead. On cooling, they slowly get up, flutter their wings and fly away. The endocytic cycle has been temporarily suspended with drastic effects.\n" ]	[ "If animals and insects such as frogs and flies are able to survive freezing solid without dying, then most mammals shouldn't suffer severe tissue damage. " ]	[ "The animals that are able to freeze solid and survive have antifreeze proteins within them, something many mammals don't possess." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "If animals and insects such as frogs and flies are able to survive freezing solid without dying, then most mammals shouldn't suffer severe tissue damage. ", "If animals and insects such as frogs and flies are able to survive freezing solid without dying, then most mammals shouldn't suffer severe tissue damage. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The animals that are able to freeze solid and survive have antifreeze proteins within them, something many mammals don't possess.", "The animals that are able to freeze solid and survive have antifreeze proteins within them, something many mammals don't possess." ]
2018-03206	How are those marbled Crayfish able to reproduce without a partner?	It’s called parthenogenesis, is the females ability to clone themselves, it happens with a few species in the animal kingdom. It has a few advantages (they don’t need to find a partner) but because all of the descendente is the same they should have a hard time adapting to new conditions.	[ "Section::::Model organism.\n\nMarbled crayfish are the only known decapod crustaceans to reproduce only by parthenogenesis. All individuals are female, and the offspring are genetically identical to the parent. Marbled crayfish are triploid animals, which may be the main reason for their parthenogenetic reproduction. Marbled crayfish are thus a model for the rapid generation of species.\n\nBecause marbled crayfish are genetically identical, easy to care for, and reproduce at high rates, they are a potential model organism, particularly for studying development. A major drawback, however, is the long generation time (several months) compared to other research organisms.\n", "Section::::Intraspecies behavior.\n", "BULLET::::- Hamlets, unlike other fish, seem quite at ease mating in front of divers, allowing observations in the wild to occur readily. They do not practice self-fertilization, but when they find a mate, the pair takes turns between which one acts as the male and which acts as the female through multiple matings, usually over the course of several nights.\n", "Crustacean reproduction varies both across and within species. The water flea \"Daphnia pulex\" alternates between sexual and parthenogenetic reproduction. Among the better-known large decapod crustaceans, some crayfish reproduce by parthenogensis. \"Marmorkrebs\" are parthenogenetic crayfish that were discovered in the pet trade in the 1990s. Offspring are genetically identical to the parent, indicating it reproduces by apomixis, i.e. parthenogenesis in which the eggs did not undergo meiosis. Spinycheek crayfish (\"Orconectes limosus\") can reproduce both sexually and by parthenogenesis. The Louisiana red swamp crayfish (\"Procambarus clarkii\"), which normally reproduces sexually, has also been suggested to reproduce by parthenogenesis, although no individuals of this species have been reared this way in the lab. \"Artemia parthenogenetica\" is a species or series of populations of parthenogenetic brine shrimps.\n", "In 2012, facultative parthenogenesis was reported in wild vertebrates for the first time by US researchers amongst captured pregnant copperhead and cottonmouth female pit-vipers. The Komodo dragon, which normally reproduces sexually, has also been found able to reproduce asexually by parthenogenesis. A case has been documented of a Komodo dragon reproducing via sexual reproduction after a known parthenogenetic event, highlighting that these cases of parthenogenesis are reproductive accidents, rather than adaptive, facultative parthenogenesis.\n", "Some anglerfish, like those of the deep sea ceratioid group, employ this unusual mating method. Because individuals are very thinly distributed, encounters are also very rare. Therefore, finding a mate is problematic. When scientists first started capturing ceratioid anglerfish, they noticed that all the specimens were female. These individuals were a few centimetres in size and almost all of them had what appeared to be parasites attached to them. It turned out that these \"parasites\" were highly reduced male ceratioid anglerfish. This indicates the anglerfish use a polyandrous mating system.\n", "It is rare to find true parthenogenesis in fishes, where females produce female offspring with no input from males. All-female species include the Texas silverside, \"Menidia clarkhubbsi\" as well as a complex of Mexican mollies.\n\nParthenogenesis has been recorded in 70 vertebrate species including hammerhead sharks, blacktip sharks, amphibians\n\nand crayfish.\n\nSection::::Types of sexual behaviour.:Reproductive sexual behaviour.:Unisexuality.\n", "\"Linckia multifora\" and \"Linckia guildingi\" are two species of starfish found on Hawaii which were found to exhibit autotomy, shedding one or more arms frequently. The arms are known as \"comets\" and can move about independently and each one can grow into a new individual. Though severed from the nervous system and the water vascular system they still exhibit normal behaviour patterns.\n", "In addition to \"Ariolimax\" species, autoapophallation (self-amputation) has been documented in \"Deroceras laeve\". Here, it is a regular part of mating, although the penis does not get trapped in the other slug (as there is external sperm transfer), and may occur because the amputee’s penis retraction ability has been inhibited by the partner by transfer of a secretion. As a result, these individuals can no longer mate, and are only able to reproduce uniparentally. Aphallic individuals of \"Ariolimax\" species are still able to mate, but only as females, as they have intromission and internal sperm exchange.\n\nSection::::Mating of marine gastropods.\n", "Most studies have focused on females, but male mate copying has been found in sailfin mollies (\"Poecilia latipinna\") and humans. Additionally, it does not have to occur in both sexes of a species. For example, male, but not female, mate copying was observed in the Atlantic molly (\"Poecilia mexicana\"). \n", "Protandrous fishes include clownfish. Clownfish have a very structured society. In the \"Amphiprion percula\" species, there are zero to four individuals excluded from breeding and a breeding pair living in a sea anemone. Dominance is based on size, the female being the largest and the male being the second largest. The rest of the group is made up of progressively smaller non-breeders, which have no functioning gonads. If the female dies, the male gains weight and becomes the female for that group. The largest non-breeding fish then sexually matures and becomes the male of the group.\n", "True breeding pairs are usually found only in vertebrates, but there are notable exceptions, such as the Lord Howe Island stick insect. True breeding pairs are rare in amphibians or reptiles, although the Australian Shingleback is one exception with long-term pair-bonds. Some fish form short term pairs and the French angelfish is thought to pair-bond over a long term. True breeding pairs are quite common in birds. Breeding pair arrangements are rare in mammals, where the prevailing patterns are either that the male and female only meet for copulation (e.g. brown bear) or that dominant males have a harem of females (e.g. walrus).\n", "Some fish, like the California sheephead, are hermaphrodites, having both testes and ovaries either at different phases in their life cycle or, as in hamlets, have them simultaneously.\n", "Population-dependent and reversible sex determination, found in animals such as the blue wrasse fish, have less potential for failure. In the blue wrasse, only one male is found in a given territory: larvae within the territory develop into females, and adult males will not enter the same territory. If a male dies, one of the females in his territory becomes male, replacing him. While this system ensures that there will always be a mating couple when two animals of the same species are present, it could potentially decrease genetic variance in a population, for example if the females remain in a single male's territory.\n", "BULLET::::- The mangrove killifish (\"Kryptolebias marmoratus\") is a species of fish that lives along the east coast of North, Central and South America. These fish are simultaneous hermaphrodites. \"K. marmoratus\" produces eggs and sperm by meiosis and routinely reproduces by self-fertilization. Each individual hermaphrodite normally fertilizes itself when an egg and sperm produced by an internal organ unite inside the fish's body.\n\nSection::::Zoology.:Pseudohermaphroditism.\n", "Some anglerfish, like those of the Ceratiidae, or sea devils employ an unusual mating method. Because individuals are locally rare, encounters are also very rare. Therefore, finding a mate is problematic. When scientists first started capturing ceratioid anglerfish, they noticed that all of the specimens were female. These individuals were a few centimetres in size and almost all of them had what appeared to be parasites attached to them. It turned out that these \"parasites\" were highly reduced male ceratioids. This indicates some taxa of anglerfish use a polyandrous mating system.\n", "Some species of male pipefish have a fully or partially enclosed pouch where females deposit eggs. Males then fertilize and carry the offspring in or on his body until the offspring hatch. The pipefish species, \"Syngnathus typhle\" males can only carry approximately half of the brood produced by a larger female. This male limitation allows females to increase their fitness by developing eggs for multiple males. These females can then mate with multiple males, which leads to increased female fecundity and supports the second step of the evolution of classical polyandry.\n\nSection::::Cooperative polyandry.\n", "There are a few examples of fish that self-fertilise. The mangrove rivulus is an amphibious, simultaneous hermaphrodite, producing both eggs and spawn and having internal fertilisation. This mode of reproduction may be related to the fish's habit of spending long periods out of water in the mangrove forests it inhabits. Males are occasionally produced at temperatures below and can fertilise eggs that are then spawned by the female. This maintains genetic variability in a species that is otherwise highly inbred.\n\nSection::::Fossil record.\n", "Section::::Reproduction.:Mating system.\n\nConvict cichlids are serially monogamous, so pair bonds may form first before they establish a territory together, or the male and female may each obtain a territory before pairing with each other. Because the convict cichlids are also substrate-brooding, this territory will include a breeding site for the deposition of eggs.\n\nSection::::Reproduction.:Sexual selection.\n", "Male garter snakes often copulate with dead females. One case has been reported in the \"Bothrops jararaca\" snake with a dead South American rattlesnake. The prairie rattlesnake (\"Crotalus viridis\") and \"Helicops carinicaudus\" snake have both been seen attempting to mate with decapitated females, presumably attracted by still-active sex pheromones. Male crayfish sometimes copulate with dead crayfish of either sex, and in one observation even with a dead crayfish of a different species.\n", "Inheritance of asexual reproduction by a single recessive locus has also been found in the parasitoid wasp \"Lysiphlebus fabarum\".\n\nSection::::Examples in animals.\n\nAsexual reproduction is found in nearly half of the animal phyla. Parthenogenesis occurs in the hammerhead shark and the blacktip shark. In both cases, the sharks had reached sexual maturity in captivity in the absence of males, and in both cases the offspring were shown to be genetically identical to the mothers. The New Mexico whiptail is another example.\n", "Parthenogenesis. Several species of whiptail lizard (especially in the genus \"Aspidoscelis\") consist only of females that have the ability to reproduce through parthenogenesis. Females engage in sexual behavior to stimulate ovulation, with their behavior following their hormonal cycles; during low levels of estrogen, these (female) lizards engage in \"masculine\" sexual roles. Those animals with currently high estrogen levels assume \"feminine\" sexual roles. Some parthenogenetic lizards that perform the courtship ritual have greater fertility than those kept in isolation due to an increase in hormones triggered by the sexual behaviors. So, even though asexual whiptail lizards populations lack males, sexual stimuli still increase reproductive success. From an evolutionary standpoint, these females are passing their full genetic code to all of their offspring (rather than the 50% of genes that would be passed in sexual reproduction). Certain species of gecko also reproduce by parthenogenesis.\n", "\"Linckia multifora\" exhibits autotomy (self amputation) and often sheds one or more arms. In this process, the arms become detached at various positions and each can grow into a new individual. This happens with such frequency that it is considered to be a means of asexual reproduction. Few individuals are found that do not exhibit some evidence of prior autotomy.\n", "It appears to be common in the Adélie penguin.\n\nAmong insects, there have been reports of immature females being forcibly copulated with.\n", "Elacatinus, also widely known as neon gobies, also exhibit social monogamy. Hetereosexual pairs of fish belonging to the genus Elacatinus remain closely associated during both reproductive and non-reproductive periods, and often reside in same cleaning station to serve client fish.\n\nSection::::Varieties in biology.:Evolution in animals.\n" ]	[ "Every animal should need a partner in order to reproduce." ]	[ "Some animals possess the ability to clone themselves, in which they don't require a partner." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Every animal should need a partner in order to reproduce.", "Every animal should need a partner in order to reproduce." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Some animals possess the ability to clone themselves, in which they don't require a partner.", "Some animals possess the ability to clone themselves, in which they don't require a partner." ]
2018-01639	How did they manage to melt gold in Ancient Rome?	Smelting metals actually predates Ancient Rome, metal smelting goes back more than 8000 years (so about 6000 years before the founding of Rome). The bronze age is so named because of the ability to make and use metals like bronze. you can melt lead & tin in an open fire. For copper or gold you need a furnace or kiln which people already had plenty of. Also gold can be found in veins or nuggets and hammered without even needing to be melted.	[ "At around the same time indigenous Ecuadorians were combining gold with a naturally-occurring platinum alloy containing small amounts of palladium, rhodium, and iridium, to produce miniatures and masks composed of a white gold-platinum alloy. The metal workers involved heated gold with grains of the platinum alloy until the gold melted at which point the platinum group metals became bound within the gold. After cooling, the resulting conglomeration was hammered and reheated repeatedly until it became as homogenous as if all of the metals concerned had been melted together (attaining the melting points of the platinum group metals concerned was beyond the technology of the day).\n", "Calcarelle was the most basic approach. A stack of ore was made of about in a ditch and the floors were beaten hard and sloped downward allowing the molten sulfur to flow to the bottom. The largest pieces were stacked at the bottom with smaller pieces on top as the stack grew higher. This stack was then set on fire and by the third day molten ore started to flow from an opening called a Morto (Death). Ore in the center melted more than the outside which oxidized. The yield could be as low as 6%.\n", "While native gold is common, the ore will sometimes contain small amounts of silver and copper. The Romans utilised a sophisticated system to separate these precious metals. The use of cupellation, a process developed before the rise of Rome, would extract copper from gold and silver, or an alloy called electrum. In order to separate the gold and silver, however, the Romans would granulate the alloy by pouring the liquid, molten metal into cold water, and then smelt the granules with salt, separating the gold from the chemically altered silver chloride (Tylecote 1962). They used a similar method to extract silver from lead. \n", "Mining in Egypt occurred in the earliest dynasties. The gold mines of Nubia were among the largest and most extensive of any in Ancient Egypt. These mines are described by the Greek author Diodorus Siculus, who mentions fire-setting as one method used to break down the hard rock holding the gold. One of the complexes is shown in one of the earliest known maps. The miners crushed the ore and ground it to a fine powder before washing the powder for the gold dust.\n\nSection::::History.:Ancient Greek and Roman mining.\n", "Such heated missiles have also been used in mining situations; the 1st century Roman writer Vitruvius describes a counter-mine dug above the attackers' gallery by defenders at the siege of Apollonia. Piercing the floor between the mines, the Apollonian defenders poured down boiling water, hot sand and hot pitch onto the heads of their enemy. Other mixtures were more innovative; the defenders at Chester in 918 boiled a mixture of water and ale in copper tubs and poured it over the Viking besiegers, causing their skin to peel off.\n", "Cupellation was also being used in parts of Europe to extract gold, silver, zinc, and tin by the late ninth to tenth century AD. Here, one of the earliest examples of an integrated unit process for extracting more than one precious metal was first introduced by Theophilus around the twelfth century. First, the gold-silver ore is melted down in the crucible, but with an excess amount of lead. The intense heat then oxidizes the lead which reacts quickly and binds with the impurities in the gold-silver ore. Since both gold and silver have low reactivity with the impurities, they remain behind once the slag is removed. The last stage involves parting, in which the silver is separated from the gold. First the gold-silver alloy is hammered into thin sheets and placed into a vessel. The sheets were then covered in urine, which contains sodium chloride (NaCl). The vessel is then capped and heated for several hours until the chlorides bind with the silver, creating silver chloride (AgCl). Finally, the silver chloride powder is then removed and smelted to recover the silver, while the pure gold remains intact.\n", "The smelting of gold began sometime around 6000 - 3000 BC. According to one source the technique began to be in use in Mesopotamia or Syria. In ancient Greece, Heraclitus wrote on the subject.\n\nAccording to de Lecerda and Salomons (1997) mercury was first in use for extraction at about 1000 BC, according to Meech and others (1998), mercury was used in obtaining gold until the latter period of the first millennia.\n\nA technique known to Pliny the Elder was extraction by way of crushing, washing, and then applying heat, with the resultant material powdered.\n\nSection::::History.:Industrial era.\n", "A part engraved jewel has also been found in the vicinity. Such activities would have needed skilled, not slave labour. No workshops or furnaces have yet been found, but it is likely that both existed on site. Ingots of gold would have been easier to transport than dust or nuggets, although a high-temperature refractory furnace will have been needed to melt the gold, which has a melting point of . Pliny mentions such special furnaces in his Naturalis Historia. A workshop will have been vital for building and maintaining mining equipment such as the drainage wheels, flumes for washing tables, shuttering for aqueducts, crushing equipment and pit-props. Official mints would have produced gold coins, a key component of Roman currency. After the military occupation the mine may have been taken over by Romano-British civilian contractors some time after 125, although the final history of the site has yet to be determined.\n", "Lubaloy can be fabricated using blanking, forming, and drawing processes. The early versions of brass were created by co-smelting mixed ores. The process was called cementation, which involved heating zinc and copper in a closed crucible with charcoal. This dates back to the 7th century BC in Greece. Sometimes the zinc ore was pre-heated to produce metallic zinc which condensed from the hot vapour. This was called speltering. It produced a superior product where the purity can be controlled and modified. This process was noted from around 1000 AD in India. Today full-scale production is more stream-lined; modern smelters and electrolytic refineries are used.\n", "Nasa silver mine\n\nThe Nasa (Nasafjäll) silver mine (), located on Nasa Mountain on the border between Sweden and Norway, was used for mining silver, mainly from 1635 to 1659 and from 1770 to 1810. Smelting occurred during the first period (1635-1659) at Skellefteälven; during the second period (1770-1810) at Adolfström in Arjeplog .\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:During First Phase.\n", "Operations during the first period (1635-1659) were carried out with forced recruited labor. The Sami were not forced to work in the mines but were conscripted into supply and transport work using their sleds and reindeer. They would take the ore for smelting in Silbojokk, about 60 km away, however many fled to Norway to escape the harsh work on themselves and their animals.\n\nIn August 1659, a Norwegian invasion force under the command of Preben von Ahnen (1606-1675), came over the mountains plundering and burning the mine, bringing an end to the operations.\n\nSection::::History.:During Second Phase.\n", "Pea-sized raw ore of metals such as iron, copper, lead, and even those containing precious metals can be melted in the cupola or blast furnace. Vannoccio Biringuccio describes how to separate metals and slag by pouring the melted ore contents from the furnace into a small pool then peeling off layers of slag or metal from the top as they cool into a solid. \n", "The process of extraction, cupellation, was fairly simple. First, the ore was smelted until the lead, which contained the silver, separated from the rock. The lead was removed, and further heated up to 1100° Celsius using hand bellows. At this point, the silver separated from the lead, and was put into moulds which, when cooled, would form ingots that were to be sent all over the Roman Empire for minting.\n", "For crushing the ore to extract the gold they used a grinding stone similar to those used now for making masalas and a few of which can even now be found in the area. The actual gold was recovered by passing the crushed ore, mixed with water, over goats' skins, the fur trapping the heavy particles of gold while allowing the lighter minerals to be washed off.\n", "The history of powder metallurgy and the art of metal and ceramic sintering are intimately related to each other. Sintering involves the production of a hard solid metal or ceramic piece from a starting powder. The ancient Incas made jewelry and other artifacts from precious metal powders, though mass manufacturing of PM products did not begin until the mid- or late- 19th century. In these early manufacturing operations, iron was extracted by hand from metal sponge following reduction and was then reintroduced as a powder for final melting or sintering.\n", "The Romans produced considerable quantities of brass (an alloy of zinc and copper) as early as 200 BC by a cementation process where copper was reacted with zinc oxide. The zinc oxide is thought to have been produced by heating zinc ore in a shaft furnace. This liberated metallic zinc as a vapor, which then ascended the flue and condensed as the oxide. This process was described by Dioscorides in the 1st century AD. Zinc oxide has also been recovered from zinc mines at Zawar in India, dating from the second half of the first millennium BC. This was presumably also made in the same way and used to produce brass.\n", "This process was used from Lydian to post medieval times. It is a solid state process relying on common salt as the active ingredient but it is possible to use a mixture of saltpetre (KNO) and green vitriol (FeSO). The basic process involved the mixing of argentiferous gold foil (in later periods granules were used), common salt and brick dust or burnt clay in a closed and sealed container. Theophilus mentions the addition of urine to the mix. With heating, the silver reacts with the salt to form silver chloride which is removed leaving a purified gold behind. Conditions needed for this process are below 1000 °C as the gold should not melt. Silver can be recovered by smelting the debris. Heating can take 24 hours. Hoover and Hoover explains the process thus: under heating salt (sodium chloride, NaCl) decomposes in the presence of silica and alumina (from the brick dust or clay) to produce hydrochloric acid and also some chlorine. This reacts with the silver to produce silver chloride (AgCl). The urine is acidic and aids decomposition. Silver chloride is volatile and would be removed from the metal. And the container is sealed to stop the escape of the silver which can be recovered later. Notton in experiments found that with one heating the gold content could be taken from 37.5% to 93%\n", "In Europe a similar liquid process in open-topped crucibles took place which was probably less efficient than the Roman process and the use of the term tutty by Albertus Magnus in the 13th century suggests influence from Islamic technology. The 12th century German monk Theophilus described how preheated crucibles were one sixth filled with powdered calamine and charcoal then topped up with copper and charcoal before being melted, stirred then filled again. The final product was cast, then again melted with calamine. It has been suggested that this second melting may have taken place at a lower temperature to allow more zinc to be absorbed. Albertus Magnus noted that the \"power\" of both calamine and tutty could evaporate and described how the addition of powdered glass could create a film to bind it to the metal. \n", "To make the artifacts, copper ingots were hammered into sheet metal and formed into the desired shape (e.g. a mask). While the exact method for adding the gold film to the outside is not known, one well-accepted theory is that gold was likely dissolved in aqueous solutions of corrosive compounds recovered from the Northern Peruvian deserts and brought to a low boil, after which the copper sheet was dipped in resulting in the reaction:\n", "According to Herbert Hoover, a small iron industry had existed there \"for one hundred and fifty years\", which produced a secret process for generating sheet iron \"unusually resistant to rust.\" The process \"consisted of alternately heating the sheets and sweeping them when hot with a wet pine-bough. The effect was to create a coating of iron oxide which was rust-resistant.\" \n", "Many underground mines were constructed by the Romans. Once the raw ore was removed from the mine, it would be crushed, then washed. The less dense rock would wash away, leaving behind the iron oxide, which would then be smelted using the bloomery method. The iron was heated up to 1500 °C using charcoal. The remaining slag was removed and generally dumped.\n\nAfter being smelted, the iron was sent to forges, where it was reheated, and formed into weapons or other useful items.\n\nSection::::Working conditions.\n", "The mine had nine grinding mills, each with 12–24 wooden hammers with iron heads weighing .\n\nThe gravel from the mine was placed in an iron container, then pounded into dust by the hammers, which were driven by a wooden wheel.\n\nThe dust was washed from the container by a fast current of water running through a cloth-lined trough.\n\nThe heavy gold fell into the cloth, while lighter elements were washed out at the end.\n\nThe cloth was then washed to remove the gold dust.\n\nThe work continued day and night.\n\nIn 1839 a record of of gold was extracted.\n", "Most early processes in Europe and Africa involved smelting iron ore in a bloomery, where the temperature is kept low enough so that the iron does not melt. This produces a spongy mass of iron called a bloom, which then must be consolidated with a hammer to produce wrought iron. The earliest evidence to date for the bloomery smelting of iron is found at Tell Hammeh, Jordan (), and dates to 930 BC (C14 dating).\n\nSection::::History.:Later iron smelting.\n", "This mine is probably one of the most ancient metal mines in the world, dating to the Pre-Ashokan period, the ancient miners having worked down to a depth of over 2300 feet. It is probable they had broken the rock by \"fire-setting\" i.e. heating it by means of fires and suddenly cooling it by pouring water onto the heated rock causing pieces to break off. As per carbon dating done by Dr. Rafter from Australia in the year 1955, the age of the two samples of timber found in old workings was estimated to be about 1980 years old.\n", "Since gold alloy has a relatively low melting point of \"circa\" 960 °C, a very careful temperature control and an isothermal heating process were required, so as to avoid melting any of the surface. For this, the Bronze Age artisans used a charcoal fire or oven similar to those used for pottery. The temperature could only be controlled through the addition of oxygen, using a bellows. \n" ]	[ "They melted gold in Ancient Rome." ]	[ "Gold could be hammered and shaped without being melted. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "They melted gold in Ancient Rome.", "They melted gold in Ancient Rome." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Gold could be hammered and shaped without being melted. ", "Gold could be hammered and shaped without being melted. " ]
2018-17007	If D.I.D patients can have different allergies per alter, how does this work physically? Is it placebo?	I studied brain science in university. I assume you're talking about dissociative identity disorder, and alternative personalities. It can be a placebo affect, but we can also hypothesize that there's a hormonal effect. Hormones can affect swelling and immune response, and are hormone release can be modulated by the brain.	[ "In an international, double-blind, parallel group study of 1603 patients with psoriasis (affecting at least 10% of one or more body regions), more patients on once-daily Cal/BD ointment had controlled disease, defined as having absence or very mild disease at 4 weeks (56.3%) compared with Cal 50 µg/g (22.3%). In addition, a retrospective analysis of data from six phase 3, double-blind studies found that more patients treated with Cal/BD ointment achieved PASI 75 than patients treated with individual components, regardless of baseline disease severity.\n\nBULLET::::- Foam\n", "The most common adverse reactions experienced by patients who received ivacaftor in the pooled placebo-controlled Phase 3 studies were abdominal pain (15.6% versus 12.5% on placebo), diarrhoea (12.8% versus 9.6% on placebo), dizziness (9.2% versus 1.0% on placebo), rash (12.8% versus 6.7% on placebo), upper respiratory tract reactions (including upper respiratory tract infection, nasal congestion, pharyngeal erythema, oropharyngeal pain, rhinitis, sinus congestion, and nasopharyngitis) (63.3% versus 50.0% on placebo), headache (23.9% versus 16.3% on placebo) and bacteria in sputum (7.3% versus 3.8% on placebo). One patient in the ivacaftor group reported a serious adverse reaction: abdominal pain.\n\nSection::::Pharmacology.\n\nSection::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacodynamics.\n", "BULLET::::- Host-directed therapeutics: First identifying OSU-03012 antiparasitic activity against \"Leishmania donovani\". To improve the delivery of this compound, since it has a narrow therapeutic window, the Ainslie lab encapsulated it in acetalated dextran microparticles and also applied the formulation for \"Salmonella enterica\" and \"Francisella tularensis\" infection.\n\nBULLET::::- Electrospray for vaccines: Reported the first use of electrospray for formation of protein based microparticle vaccines made of acetalated dextran. The application of electrospray was then expanded to encapsulate the hydrophillic STING agonist cGAMP.\n\nBULLET::::- Electrospun acetalated dextran nanofibers: Used for interstitial delivery of chemotherapeutics for glioblastoma.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Google Scholar\n", "Allergies, while a critical subject of immunology, also vary considerably among individuals and sometimes even among genetically similar individuals. The assessment of protein allergenic potential focuses on three main aspects: (i) immunogenicity; (ii) cross-reactivity; and (iii) clinical symptoms. Immunogenicity is due to responses of an IgE antibody-producing B cell and/or of a T cell to a particular allergen. Therefore, immunogenicity studies focus mainly on identifying recognition sites of B-cells and T-cells for allergens. The three-dimensional structural properties of allergens control their allergenicity.\n", "De Cordi et al. studied thirty patients with lesions of the mouth and oropharynx (caused by various diseases). 83% of patients reported a reduction in pain, 13% remained the same and 3% showed initial improvement but then got worse. 83% showed a distinct improvement in functionality in the ability to take food, 7% remained the same, and 7% got worse, while 3% reported considerable improvement followed by slight worsening. 57% of patients reported an improvement in the grade of oral mucositis, 40% remained the same while 3% got worse.\n", "Four randomized controlled trials of particular interest were done regarding Adcon-L's effect on scarring and clinical outcomes. Three of these tests were done in Europe and one in the United States. Together, the trials consisted 468 patients treated with the gel and 473 patients acting as a control group. The first trial done determined that the adhesion reduced the severity of the scarring post-operation as well as have minor improvements in clinical outcomes. The second trial (occurring in the United States) at first agreed with the first trial but the results were then given to independent investigators. These investigators declared there was no effect on the scarring using Adcon-L or any effect on the clinical outcome after 6 months.\n", "However, further analysis on the trial demonstrated that ingredient b made a significant contribution to the remedy’s efficacy. Examining his data, Jellinek discovered that there was a very significant difference in responses between the 120 placebo-responders and the 79 non-responders. The 79 non-responders' reports showed that if they were considered as an entirely separate group, there was a significant difference the \"success rates\" of Drugs A, B, and C: viz., 88%, 67%, and 77%, respectively. And because this significant difference in relief from the test drugs could only be attributed to the presence or absence of ingredient b, he concluded that ingredient b was essential.\n", "Section::::Health Awards.:Test patch for child food allergies.\n\nThe team from DBV Technologies has developed a patented innovative process, the \"E-patch\", which is used to determine allergies of children. The ready-to-use standardised patch tests are highly reliable and conserve the allergic agents in their best state of allergy.\n", "Disjunct matrix\n\nDisjunct and separable matrices play a pivotal role in the mathematical area of non-adaptive group testing. This area investigates efficient designs and procedures to identify 'needles in haystacks' by conducting the tests on groups of items instead of each item alone. The main concept is that if there are very few special items (needles) and the groups are constructed according to certain combinatorial guidelines, then one can test the groups and find all the needles. This can reduce the cost and the labor associated with large scale experiments.\n", "In the phase III (2011-2014) Abaloparatide Comparator Trial in Vertebral Endpoints (ACTIVE) trial, an 18-months randomized, multicenter, double-blinded, placebo-controlled study evaluated the long-term efficacy of abaloparatide compared to placebo and teriparatide in 2,463 postmenopausal women (± 69 years old). Women who received daily injections of abaloparatide experienced substantial reduction in the incidence of fractures compared to placebo. Additionally, greater BMD increase at 6, 12 and 18 months in spinal, hips and femoral bones was observed in abaloparatide compared to placebo and teriparatide-treated subjects.\n", "BULLET::::1. A, B, C, D\n\nBULLET::::2. B, A, D, C\n\nBULLET::::3. C, D, A, B\n\nBULLET::::4. D, C, B, A.\n\nOver the entire population of 199 subjects, there were 120 \"\"subjects reacting to placebo\"\" and 79 \"\"subjects not reacting to placebo\"\".\n\nOn initial analysis, there was no difference between the self-reported \"success rates\" of Drugs A, B, and C (84%, 80%, and 80% respectively) (the \"success rate\" of the simulating placebo Drug D was 52%); and, from this, it appeared that ingredient b was completely unnecessary.\n", "GWAS in allergy\n\nGWAS in allergy is a study of a meta-analysis of GWAS in which allergy is associated with different susceptibility loci . The three allergic phenotypes studied were to cat, dust mites and pollen, for which found patients presenting allergic symptoms.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Two conclusions came from this trial:\n\nBULLET::::- Jellinek, having identified 120 \"placebo reactors\", went on to suppose that all of them may have been suffering from either \"\"psychological headaches\"\" (with or without attendant \"\"hypochondriasis\"\") or \"\"true physiological headaches [which were] accessible to suggestion\"\". Thus, according to this view, the degree to which a \"placebo response\" is present tends to be an index of the psychogenic origins of the condition in question.\n", "Regarding EAV devices, \"results are not reproducible when subject to rigorous testing and do not correlate with clinical evidence of allergy\". There is no credible evidence of diagnostic capability. The American Cancer Society has concluded that the evidence does not support the use of EAV \"as a method that can diagnose, cure, or otherwise help people with cancer\" or \"as a reliable aid in diagnosis or treatment of .. other illness\" In double-blind trials, \"A wide variability of the measurements was found in most patients irrespective of their allergy status and of the substance tested. Allergic patients showed more negative skin electrical response at the second trial, compared to normal controls, independent of the tested substance. No significant difference in skin electrical response between allergens and negative controls could be detected.\"\n", "The immunotherapy provided by the clinic uses dendritic cells, but very little had been published on the use of dendritic cells to treat DIPG. \n", "In all pivotal trials of Cal/BD ointment, topical suspension, or foam, treatment success or achievement of 'clear' or 'almost clear' disease was defined by Investigator's Global Assessment, an alternative to the Psoriasis Area and Severity Index (PASI) score.\n\nBULLET::::- Ointment\n", "Section::::Evidence.\n\nSeveral reviews of the available evidence for various alternative techniques in allergy diagnosis have determined that applied kinesiology, the primary diagnostic technique in NAET, is ineffective at diagnosing allergies and advise against its use. Various medical associations also advise against its use, including the European Academy of Allergology and Clinical Immunology, the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence, the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology, the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, the Australasian Society of Clinical Immunology and Allergy and the Allergy Society of South Africa.\n", "Trial treatments of SCID have been gene therapy's first success; since 1999, gene therapy has restored the immune systems of at least 17 children with two forms (ADA-SCID and X-SCID) of the disorder.\n", "Stewart-Williams and Podd argue that using the contrasting terms \"placebo\" and \"nocebo\" to label inert agents that produce pleasant, health-improving, or desirable outcomes versus unpleasant, health-diminishing, or undesirable outcomes (respectively), is extremely counterproductive. For example, precisely the same inert agents can produce analgesia and hyperalgesia, the first of which, from this definition, would be a placebo, and the second a nocebo.\n", "Lusher and colleagues reported on the peculiar side effect profile (i.e., anaphylaxis, nephrotic syndrome) of recombinant factor IX in patients with hemophilia B.\n\nLusher also participated in a multi-center phase 1 trial of Factor VIII gene therapy.\n\nSection::::Recognition.\n", "Section::::Allergens.\n\nAllergens may also be applied under the tongue, and the FDA is currently reviewing this method of allergen immunotherapy but it is not yet approved in the US. In 2007, Roder published work showing sublingual immunotherapy with grass pollen is not effective in symptomatic youngsters in primary care.\n\nSection::::Therapeutic peptides and proteins.\n", "Participants who completed 18 months of abaloparatide or placebo in the ACTIVE study were invited to participate in an extended open-labeled study - ACTIVExtend study (2012-2016). Subjects (n=1139) received additional 2 years of 70 mg of alendronate, Vitamin D (400 to 800 IU), and calcium (500–1000 mg) supplementation daily. Combined abaloparatide and alendronate therapy reduced significantly the incidence of vertebral and nonvertebral fractures.\n", "Concerning immunosuppressive drugs, the effects on NK cells are milder in comparison to T cells.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms of rejection.:T-lymphocytes.\n\nAlloantigen recognition\n\nAlloantigen on APC surface can be recognized by recipient's T-lymphocytes through two different pathways:\n\nBULLET::::- Direct allorecognition – occurs when donor's APCs are presenting graft antigens. Recipient's T-lymphocytes can identify either MHC molecules alone or complex MHC molecule-foreign peptide as alloantigens. Specific T-cell receptors (TCR) of CD8 T-lymphocytes recognize these peptides when form the complex with MHC class I molecules and TCR of CD4 T-lymphocytes recognize a complex with MHC class II molecules.\n", "A temporary desensitization method involves the administration of small doses of an allergen to produces an IgE-mediated response in a setting where an individual can be resuscitated in the event of anaphylaxis; this approach, through uncharacterized mechanisms, eventually overrides the hypersensitive IgE response.\n\nDesensitization approaches for food allergies are generally at the research stage. They include:\n\nBULLET::::- oral immunotherapy, which involves building up tolerance by eating a small amount of (usually baked) food;\n\nBULLET::::- sublingual immunotherapy, which involves placing a small drop of milk or egg white under the tongue;\n", "Other studies have looked at improving intelligence and preventing cognitive decline by using cognition enhancing substances known as nootropics. One such study gave participants a number of known nootropics in combination in the hopes of targeting numerous cellular mechanisms and increasing the effects on cognition that each would have if administered individually. They conducted a double blind test and administered the combination treatment or placebo to adults for 28 days. They administered Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices as a measure of intelligence on the first day and after 28 days. The results indicated a significant improvement in performance for those who had taken the treatment compared to those taking the placebo. The effect was equivalent to an increase in IQ of around 6 points.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-24317	Why do humans have the noses we have?	Our primate ancestors switched to an emphasis on vision, specifically amazing colour vision for daytime, over smell, and colour vision is excellent for locating fruit. As for our noses compared to the other great apes, one thing we do that they don't is run. Our noses are well adapted for warming air flowing in and retaining moisture from air flowing out, important adaptations for our specialization in long distance running	[ "Acting as the first interface between the external environment and an animal's delicate internal lungs, a nose conditions incoming air, both as a function of thermal regulation and filtration during respiration, as well as enabling the sensory perception of smell. \n", "Primates are phylogenetically divided into Strepsirrhini, species that possess a curly “wet nose” rhinarium, and Haplorhini, those that possess a dry “simple nose” structure. Strepsirrhines are considered to have more primitive features and adaptations because of their preservation of heightened smell. In haplorrhine primates, the loss of the wet rhinarium and reduced number of turbinates are correlated with their diminished reliance on smell. Accordingly, the dry noses of humans place them under the Haplorhini clade as well.\n\nSection::::Human.\n\nSection::::Human.:Genetics.\n", "Another major function of the nose is olfaction, the sense of smell. The area of olfactory epithelium, in the upper nasal cavity, contains specialised olfactory cells responsible for this function.\n\nThe nose is also involved in the function of speech. Nasal vowels and nasal consonants are produced in the process of nasalisation. The nasal cavity is the third most effective vocal resonator.\n", "Section::::Sense of direction.\n\nThe wet nose of dogs is useful for the perception of direction. The sensitive cold receptors in the skin detect the place where the nose is cooled the most and this is the direction a particular smell that the animal just picked up comes from.\n\nSection::::Structure in air-breathing forms.\n", "The nose is the first organ of the upper respiratory tract in the respiratory system, and its main function is the supply and conditioning of inhaled air to the rest of the respiratory tract and the lungs. Another function is to filter the air by removing particulates. Nasal hair in the nostrils traps large particles preventing their entry into the lungs.\n", "Section::::Development.\n\nSection::::Development.:Development of the nose.\n", "The nose also plays the major part in the olfactory system. It contains an area of specialised cells, olfactory receptor neurons responsible for the sense of smell. Olfactory mucosa in the upper nasal cavity, contains a type of nasal gland called olfactory glands or Bowman's glands which help in olfaction. The nasal conchae also help in olfaction function, by directing air-flow to the olfactory region.\n\nSection::::Function.:Speech.\n", "Section::::Structure.:Blood supply.\n\nThere is a rich blood supply to the nasal cavity. In some animals, such as dogs, the capillary beds flowing through the nasal cavity help cool the blood flow to the brain.\n\nBlood supply comes from branches of both the internal and external carotid artery, including branches of the facial artery and maxillary artery. The named arteries of the nose are:\n\nBULLET::::- Sphenopalatine artery and greater palatine artery, branches of the maxillary artery.\n\nBULLET::::- Anterior ethmoidal artery and posterior ethmoidal artery, branches of the ophthalmic artery\n", "Miquel Hernández of the Department of Animal Biology at the University of Barcelona said the \"high and narrow nose of Eskimos\" and \"Neanderthals\" is an \"adaption to a cold and dry environment\", since it contributes to warming and moisturizing the air and the \"recovery of heat and moisture from expired air\".\n\nSection::::Neoteny.\n", "There is a nasal valve area in the cavity responsible for providing resistance to the flow of air. This enables an increased time for warming and moistening the air. This area is of two nasal valves. The internal nasal valve is the narrowest part of the airway in the middle third of the cavity. The larger external nasal valve is located in the alar wall.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Internal nose.:Nasal vestibule.\n", "In recent humans, nasal configuration is mostly associated with nasal bridge elevation and width of the internal nasal cavity. Emergence of such a structure mainly derives from respiratory needs in varying climates; for instance, a large nasal cavity in Neanderthals adjusted for the cold environment and low humidity of that epoch. In higher primates, the structural reduction of the snout is correlated with diminished priority for olfaction. As such, the human nose displays reduced innervations of the olfactory mucous membrane, decreased snout length, and an overall reduction of complexity of the nasal concha.\n\nSection::::Human.:Selection.\n", "The vomeronasal organ of mammals is generally similar to that of reptiles. In most species, it is located in the floor of the nasal cavity, and opens into the mouth via two \"nasopalatine ducts\" running through the palate, but it opens directly into the nose in many rodents. It is, however, lost in bats, and in many primates, including humans.\n\nSection::::In fish.\n", "The respiratory epithelium that covers the erectile tissue (or lamina propria) of the conchae plays a major role in the body's first line of immunological defense. The respiratory epithelium is partially composed of mucus-producing goblet cells. This secreted mucus covers the nasal cavities, and serves as a filter, by trapping air-borne particles larger than 2 to 3 micrometers. The respiratory epithelium also serves as a means of access for the lymphatic system, which protects the body from being infected by viruses or bacteria.\n\nSection::::Function.:Smell.\n", "The role of smell has long been viewed as secondary to the importance of auditory, tactile, and visual senses. Humans do not rely on olfaction for survival to the same extent as other species. Instead, smell plays a heavier role in aesthetic food perception and gathering information on the surroundings. Nevertheless, humans also communicate via odorants and pheromones, exerting both subconscious and conscious (artificial) scents. For example, olfaction is able to mediate the synchronization of menstrual cycles for females living in close proximity.\n\nSection::::Human.:Interindividual Variation.\n", "At the back of the nasal cavity there are two openings, one from each fossa, called choanae. The choanae are also called the posterior nostrils and give entrance to the nasopharynx and rest of the respiratory tract.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Internal nose.:Nasal valves.\n", "In most mammals, the philtrum is a narrow groove that may carry dissolved odorants from the rhinarium or nose pad to the vomeronasal organ via ducts inside the mouth.\n\nFor humans and most primates, the philtrum survives only as a vestigial medial depression between the nose and upper lip.\n\nThe human philtrum, bordered by ridges, also is known as the \"infranasal depression\", but has no apparent function. That may be because most higher primates rely more on vision than on smell. Strepsirrhine primates, such as lemurs, still retain the philtrum and the rhinarium, unlike monkeys and apes.\n\nSection::::Function.:Development.\n", "The skull of the extinct \"Hadrocodium wui\", which are considered reptiles that evolved into the first mammals, has unveiled significant implications of the reptilian olfactory transition. In comparison to their descendants, CT scans of these craniums revealed that the olfactory bulb had increased in size over large timescales. This sequence of events culminated the origin of mammalian olfaction, suggesting an OR gene shift from reptiles to mammals.\n\nSection::::Mammals.\n\nSection::::Mammals.:Genetics.\n", "In primates, olfaction is primarily important for social signalling and dietary strategies. Ample evidence suggests that olfactory social behaviours, such as sniffing and scent marking, are heavily involved in communicative interactions among primate species. For instance, scent marking with glandular secretions is a prevalent mode of signalling in strepsirrhines. Within the order Catarrhini, all hominoid genera contain specialized cutaneous scent glands (i.e. apocrine glands in the axilla) to detect aromatic cues. Recent studies have also drawn connections between olfactory function and mate preference across a broad range of primates, including humans.\n\nSection::::Primates.:The Olfaction Tradeoff.\n", "Generally, in animals, nasal conchae are convoluted structures of thin bone or cartilage located in the nasal cavity. These are lined with mucous membranes that can perform two functions. They can improve the sense of smell by increasing the area available to absorb airborne chemicals, and they can warm and moisten inhaled air, and extract heat and moisture from exhaled air to prevent desiccation of the lungs. Olfactory turbinates are found in all living tetrapods, and respiratory turbinates are found in most mammals and birds.\n", "The internal roof of the nasal cavity is composed of the horizontal, perforated cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone through which pass sensory fibres of the olfactory nerve. There is an area of olfactory mucosa in the roof of the cavity. This region is about 5 square cm in each fossa covering the superior concha, the cribriform plate, and the nasal septum.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Internal nose.:Choanae.\n", "Several bones and nasal cartilages make up the bony-cartilaginous framework of the nose, and the internal structure. The nose is also made up of types of soft tissue such as skin, epithelia, mucous membrane, muscles, nerves, and blood. In the skin there are sebaceous glands, and in the mucous membrane there are nasal glands.\n\nThe framework of the nose is made up of bone and cartilage which provides strong protection for the internal structures of the nose. The arrangement of the cartilages allows flexibility through muscle control to enable airflow to be modified.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Bones.\n", "Section::::Anatomy of the human nose.:The structures of the nose.:C. Nasal blood supply – arteries and veins.\n\nLike the face, the human nose is well vascularized with arteries and veins, and thus supplied with abundant blood. The principal arterial blood-vessel supply to the nose is two-fold: (i) branches from the internal carotid artery, the branch of the anterior ethmoidal artery, the branch of the posterior ethmoidal artery, which derive from the ophthalmic artery; (ii) branches from the external carotid artery, the sphenopalatine artery, the greater palatine artery, the superior labial artery, and the angular artery.\n", "One hallmark feature of the Order Primates is the diminished emphasis on olfaction. Smell is often viewed as a mitigated special sense during the emergence of higher neural function, and correspondingly, olfaction has been increasingly reduced throughout the course of primate evolution. Some researchers relate the de-emphasis of smell to the emergence of complex vision. Accordingly, many primate species convey a large proportion of OR pseudogenes, with the highest levels shown in humans, chimpanzees, and gorillas. Humans only contain approximately 400 functional genes, contrasted with the 600 OR pseudogenes present within the genome. The disparity is explained by the development of acute vision in Catarrhini (apes and Old World monkeys) 40 million years ago, namely during the period when the Earth became cooler. Trichromatic vision was evolved to enhance long-distance perception and foraging for ripe fruit, reducing the selective advantage of possessing a large OR gene repertoire.\n", "Mammals (unlike other tetrapods) utilize a nose to sense volatile odors. The appearance of nasal turbinates and fossae, which resemble scroll-shaped spongy bones in the nasal passage, is one of the distinctive features of their evolution. These structures are paired on both sides of the midline nasal septum, linking the external nasal opening and the internal nasal aperture together. Evidence for their first appearance are shown in fossils of Therapsida, from which mammals descend. The first true mammals developed additional nasal tissue to carry more neurons that transfer olfactory information to the brain. Among amniotes, mammals were the first to evolve a complex system of nasal turbinates, which augment the surface area for olfactory epithelium. The complexity of turbinates vary highly across mammalian species, yet a correlation appears to exist among phylogenetic groups rather than the environmental niche.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Olfactory genes\"\n\nGenes involved in detecting smell show strong evidence of adaptive evolution (Voight et al. 2006), probably due to the fact that the smells encountered by humans have changed recently in their evolutionary history (Williamson et al. 2007). Humans’ sense of smell has played an important role in determining the safety of food sources.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nutrition genes\"\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03558	if earth does a full rotation of it’s axis in 24 hours in an eastward direction, what (theoretically) prevents a transport system from being built which would go straight up, and then straight back down again in a place west of your origin, taking advantage of the earths rotation?	If you go straight up, you will still retain your momentum you had from being grounded. So going straight up means you keep rotating relatively parralel to Earths surface. You would need to decrease your relative momentum by accelerating against the rotation. There is nothing that can break your rotaion for you, since Earth Athmosphere is rotating too and outside of athmosphere there is nothing to friction against.	[ "A good example of actually using earth's rotational energy is the location of the European spaceport in French Guiana (on S. American continent). Wiki: Guiana Space Centre. This is within about 5 degrees of the equator, so space rocket launches (for primarily geo-stationary satellites) from here to the east obtain nearly all of the full rotational speed of the earth at the equator (about 1,000 mph, sort of a \"sling-shot benefit). Rocket launches easterly from Kennedy (USA) on the other hand obtain only about 900 mph added benefit due to the lower relative rotational speed of the earth at that northerly latitude. This saves significant rocket fuel per launch.\n", "An argument of perigee of 270° places apogee at the northernmost point of the orbit. An argument of perigee of 90° would likewise serve the high southern latitudes. An argument of perigee of 0° or 180° would cause the satellite to dwell over the equator, but there would be little point to this as this could be better done with a conventional geostationary orbit.\n\nSection::::Properties.:Period.\n\nThe period of one sidereal day ensures that the satellites follows the same ground track over time. This is controlled by the semi-major axis of the orbit.\n\nSection::::Properties.:Eccentricity.\n", "To extend the life-time of ageing geostationary spacecraft with little fuel left one sometimes discontinues the North-South control only continuing with the East-West control. As seen from an observer on the rotating Earth the spacecraft will then move North-South with a period of 24 hours. When this North-South movement gets too large a steerable antenna is needed to track the spacecraft. An example of this is Artemis.\n\nTo save weight, it is crucial for GEO satellites to have the most fuel-efficient propulsion system. Some modern satellites are therefore employing a high specific impulse system like plasma or ion thrusters.\n", "BULLET::::- Argument of perigee: undefined\n\nBULLET::::- Semi-major axis: 42,164 km\n\nSection::::Properties.:Orbital stability.\n\nA geostationary orbit can be achieved only at an altitude very close to and directly above the equator. This equates to an orbital velocity of and an orbital period of 1,436 minutes, which equates to almost exactly one sidereal day (23.934461223 hours). This ensures that the satellite will match the Earth's rotational period and has a stationary footprint on the ground. All geostationary satellites have to be located on this ring.\n", "where \"a\" is the semi-major axis, \"P\" is the orbital period, and \"μ\" is the geocentric gravitational constant, equal to 398,600.4418 km/s.\n\nIn the special case of a geostationary orbit, the ground track of a satellite is a single point on the equator. In the general case of a geosynchronous orbit with a non-zero inclination or eccentricity, the ground track is a more or less distorted figure-eight, returning to the same places once per sidereal day.\n\nSection::::Geostationary orbit.\n", "Launch loops in Lofstrom's design are placed close to the equator and can only directly access equatorial orbits. However other orbital planes might be reached via high altitude plane changes, lunar perturbations or aerodynamic techniques.\n\nLaunch rate capacity of a launch loop is ultimately limited by the temperature and cooling rate of the rotor to 80 per hour, but that would require a 17 GW power station; a more modest 500 MW power station is sufficient for 35 launches per day.\n\nSection::::Description.:Economics.\n\nFor a launch loop to be economically viable it would require customers with sufficiently large payload launch requirements.\n", "The rotating skyhook, or momentum-exchange tether, is an idea related to the space elevator concept. It is one of the many proposed applications of space tethers, which include some propulsion systems. The tether is rotated from a heavy orbiting vehicle such that the far end, weighted with a docking station, periodically enters Earth's atmosphere. With the right timing, a fast aircraft can transfer cargo and passengers during the brief time the skyhook is at the bottom of its cycle and stationary relative to Earth's surface.\n\nSection::::Space flight.:Light sail.\n", "An active geosynchronous orbit is a hypothetical orbit that could be maintained if forces other than gravity were also used, such as a solar sail. Such a statite could be geosynchronous in an orbit different (higher, lower, more or less elliptical, or some other path) from the conic section orbit dictated by the laws of gravity.\n\nA further form of geosynchronous orbit is proposed for the theoretical space elevator, in which one end of the structure is tethered to the ground, maintaining a shorter orbital period than by gravity alone if under tension.\n\nOther related orbit types are:\n", "If a geosynchronous satellite's orbit is not exactly aligned with the Earth's equator, the orbit is known as an inclined orbit. It will appear (when viewed by someone on the ground) to oscillate daily around a fixed point. As the angle between the orbit and the equator decreases, the magnitude of this oscillation becomes smaller; when the orbit lies entirely over the equator in a circular orbit, the satellite remains stationary relative to the Earth's surface – it is said to be \"geostationary\".\n\nSection::::Application.\n\n, there are approximately 446 active geosynchronous satellites, some of which are not operational. \n", "BULLET::::- Self-moving roads are much more a symbol of over-abundance on Earth in the beginning of 22nd century than a real transportation device. The principles of this technology are unknown, but visually they resemble 8-meter wide horizontal escalators crossing the continents of the planet in all directions. Apart from the main function, they are known for somehow purifying the environment of unwanted emissions and pollution. See \"\" for more info.\n", "The \"Pioneer 10\" and \"11\", and \"Voyager 1\" and \"2\" Centaur (second) stages are also in heliocentric orbits.\n\nIn order to leave the Solar System, the probe needs to reach the escape velocity. After leaving Earth, the Sun's escape velocity is 42.1 km/s. In order to reach this speed, it is highly advantageous to use the orbital speed of the Earth around the Sun, which is 29.78 km/s. By passing near a planet, a probe can gain extra speed.\n", "A second effect to be taken into account is the longitudinal drift, caused by the asymmetry of the Earth – the equator is slightly elliptical. There are two stable (at 75.3°E and 252°E) and two unstable (at 165.3°E and 14.7°W) equilibrium points. Any geostationary object placed between the equilibrium points would (without any action) be slowly accelerated towards the stable equilibrium position, causing a periodic longitude variation. The correction of this effect requires station-keeping maneuvers with a maximal delta-v of about 2 m/s per year, depending on the desired longitude.\n", "Different synchronous non-rotating orbiting skyhook concepts and versions have been proposed, starting with Isaacs in 1966, Artsutanov in 1967, Pearson and Colombo in 1975, Kalaghan in 1978, and Braginski in 1985. The versions with best potential involve a much shorter tether in low Earth orbit which rotates in its orbital plane and whose ends brush the upper Earth atmosphere, with the rotational motion cancelling the orbital motion at ground level. These \"rotating\" skyhook versions were proposed by Moravec in 1976, and Sarmont in 1994.\n", "When the satellite gets to point B, it is traveling at the same speed as Earth. Earth's gravity is still accelerating the satellite along the orbital path, and continues to pull the satellite into a higher orbit. Eventually, at Point C, the satellite reaches a high and slow enough orbit such that it starts to lag behind Earth. It then spends the next century or more appearing to drift 'backwards' around the orbit when viewed relative to the Earth. Its orbit around the Sun still takes only slightly more than one Earth year. Given enough time, the Earth and the satellite will be on opposite sides of the Sun.\n", "A perfectly stable geostationary orbit is an ideal that can only be approximated. In practice the satellite drifts out of this orbit because of perturbations such as the solar wind, radiation pressure, variations in the Earth's gravitational field, and the gravitational effect of the Moon and Sun, and thrusters are used to maintain the orbit in a process known as station-keeping.\n\nSection::::Other geosynchronous orbits.\n", "Although this simple model would work best above the equator, Paul Birch calculated that since the ring station can be used to accelerate the orbital ring eastwards as well as hold the tether, it is therefore possible to deliberately cause the orbital ring to precess around the Earth instead of staying fixed in space while the Earth rotates beneath it. By precessing the ring once every 24 hours, the Orbital Ring will hover above any meridian selected on the surface of the Earth. The cables which dangle from the ring are now geostationary without having to reach geostationary altitude or without having to be placed into the equatorial plane. This means that using the Orbital Ring concept, one or many pairs of Stations can be positioned above \"any\" points on Earth desired or can be moved everywhere on the globe. Thus, any point on Earth can be served by a space elevator. Also a whole network of orbital rings can be built, which, by crossing over the poles, could cover the whole planet and be capable of taking over most of freight and passenger transport. By an array of elevators and several geostationary ring stations, asteroid or Moon material can be received and gently put down where land fills are needed. The electric energy generated in the process would pay for the system expansion and ultimately could pave the way for a solar-system-wide terraforming- and astroengineering-activity on a sound economical basis.\n", "A geostationary orbit is a particular type of geosynchronous orbit, which has an orbital period equal to Earth's rotational period, or one sidereal day (23 hours, 56 minutes, 4 seconds). Thus, the distinction is that, while an object in geosynchronous orbit returns to the same point in the sky at the same time each day, an object in geostationary orbit never leaves that position. Geosynchronous orbits move around relative to a point on Earth's surface because, while geostationary orbits have an inclination of 0° with respect to the Equator, geosynchronous orbits have varying inclinations and eccentricities.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Earth-based mass drivers for propelling vehicles to orbit, such as the StarTram concept, would require considerable capital investment.\n\nThe Earth's relatively strong gravity and relatively thick atmosphere make such an installation difficult, thus many proposals feature installing mass drivers on the moon, where the lower gravity and lack of atmosphere greatly reduce the required velocity to reach lunar orbit.\n", "Eventually the satellite comes around to point D where Earth's gravity is now reducing the satellite's orbital velocity. This causes it to fall into a lower orbit, which actually increases the angular speed of the satellite around the Sun. This continues until point E where the satellite's orbit is now lower and faster than Earth's orbit, and it begins moving out ahead of Earth. Over the next few centuries it completes its journey back to point A.\n", "The delta-v required to return from Near-Earth objects is usually quite small, sometimes as low as , with aerocapture using Earth's atmosphere. However, heat shields are required for this, which add mass and constrain spacecraft geometry. The orbital phasing can be problematic; once rendezvous has been achieved, low delta-v return windows can be fairly far apart (more than a year, often many years), depending on the body.\n\nIn general, bodies that are much further away or closer to the sun than Earth, have more frequent windows for travel, but usually require larger delta-vs.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Bi-elliptic transfer\n", "Geosynchronous satellite\n\nA geosynchronous satellite is a satellite in geosynchronous orbit, with an orbital period the same as the Earth's rotation period. Such a satellite returns to the same position in the sky after each sidereal day, and over the course of a day traces out a path in the sky that is typically some form of analemma. A special case of geosynchronous satellite is the geostationary satellite, which has a geostationary orbit – a circular geosynchronous orbit directly above the Earth's equator. Another type of geosynchronous orbit used by satellites is the Tundra elliptical orbit.\n", "There will of course be similar trajectories with periods of about two sidereal months, three sidereal months, and so on. In each case, the two apogees will be further and further away from Earth. These were not considered by Schwaniger.\n\nThis kind of trajectory can occur of course for similar three-body problems; this problem is an example of a circular restricted three-body problem.\n\nWhile in a true free-return trajectory no propulsion is applied, in practice there may be small mid-course corrections or other maneuvers.\n", "At Kennedy Space Center's 28.5 degree north latitude the situation is more complicated. Over the 90 minute orbit KSC will rotate about . Unlike the equatorial orbit case, however, letting the spacecraft stay in the inclined orbit a little longer will start taking it south of the launch site (for the most efficient launch eastward, where the orbital inclination is equal to the launch latitude, making the launch point the most northerly of its ground path), its closest point of approach being about to the southwest. A spacecraft wishing to return to its launch site will need about 300 miles of cross-range maneuverability during re-entry, and the NASA shuttle designs demanded about 450 miles in order to have some working room.\n", "BULLET::::- Geostationary orbit (GEO): A circular geosynchronous orbit with an inclination of zero. To an observer on the ground this satellite appears as a fixed point in the sky. \"All geostationary orbits must be geosynchronous, but not all geosynchronous orbits are geostationary.\"\n\nBULLET::::- Tundra orbit: A synchronous but highly elliptic orbit with significant inclination (typically close to 63.4°) and orbital period of one sidereal day (23 hours, 56 minutes for the Earth). Such a satellite spends most of its time over a designated area of the planet. The particular inclination keeps the perigee shift small.\n", "In 1990, NASA launched the ESA spacecraft \"Ulysses\" to study the polar regions of the Sun. All the planets orbit approximately in a plane aligned with the equator of the Sun. Thus, to enter an orbit passing over the poles of the Sun, the spacecraft would have to eliminate the 30 km/s speed it inherited from the Earth's orbit around the Sun and gain the speed needed to orbit the Sun in the pole-to-pole plane — tasks that are impossible with current spacecraft propulsion systems alone, making gravity assist maneuvers essential.\n" ]	[ "Going into the air allows you to escape the rotation of the earth under you. ", "Because Earth does a full rotation, nothing is preventing the construction of a transport system that heads straight upwards." ]	[ "When you are on the earth and when you leave you still have the momentum of the rotation of the earth. You need to apply a force opposite to that.", "If headed upwards, the momentum from being grounded would be sustained, meaning nothing would be able to break your own rotation. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Going into the air allows you to escape the rotation of the earth under you. ", "Because Earth does a full rotation, nothing is preventing the construction of a transport system that heads straight upwards." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "When you are on the earth and when you leave you still have the momentum of the rotation of the earth. You need to apply a force opposite to that.", "If headed upwards, the momentum from being grounded would be sustained, meaning nothing would be able to break your own rotation. " ]
2018-02834	How is a show depicting illegal activities allowed to be aired on live television?	Moonshiners is laughably fake. The whole thing is staged, and nobody is committing any crimes. As for other shows, like documentaries about gangs or the drug trade, the police can certainly use them as evidence. Which is why the subjects are often given fake names and have their faces obscured.	[ "\"Live Show\" created a public outcry in the Philippines. The Catholic Church severely criticized the Philippine government for allowing the screening of the film, which shows upper frontal nudity. After running for about two weeks, then President of the Philippines Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo suspended \"Live Show\"'s run in theaters and ordered the creation of an appeals committee, which includes representative of Macapagal-Arroyo and the film industry, to screen a review the said film.\n", "Mexican national Oscar Mata Duran, who was arrested in the raid, filed a complaint with the Canadian Privacy Commissioner after being filmed by the series and presented with a filming consent form. The Canadian Privacy Commissioner found that the CBSA breached the Privacy Act by filming Duran before he was advised of the purposes of filming and found that the coercive nature of being held in a detention facility would have prevented Duran from providing informed consent for his appearance.\n", "The show describes itself as a cross between \"Cops\" and \"Punk’d\", setting up elaborate sting operations to snare people wanted on outstanding warrants. These sting operations include opportunities for felons to work as an extra on a movie set or as a model in a fashion shoot, among others. Once the trap is set and the actors have had their fun with the unsuspecting criminals, police officers arrest and take them to jail.\n", "In 2000, officials in Essex County, New Jersey denied producers permission to film on county-owned property, arguing that the show depicts Italian Americans in a \"less than favorable light.\" In 2002, organizers of the New York City Columbus Day Parade won an injunction preventing Mayor Michael Bloomberg from inviting cast members of \"The Sopranos\" to participate in the parade.\n", "During the month of July 2006,Televisa hosted a some events during the FIFA World Cup in Germany, several actors from the cast traveled to record some scenes from the soap opera, and presented in a show before 15,000 people.\n\nSection::::Recordings.:Problems.\n", "On rare occasions, a scripted series will do an episode live to attract ratings. In the U.S. and Canada, the episode is occasionally performed twice: once for the east coast which is composed of the Eastern Time Zone and Central Time Zone and again three hours later for the west coast which is composed of the Mountain Time Zone and the Pacific Time Zone unless they have Dish Network or Direct TV who provides the live feed in all states. The most recent scripted series to air all live episodes was \"Undateable\" on NBC during its third season, which aired from October 2015 until January 2016.\n", "BULLET::::- Actor Theodore Wilson made three appearances on \"What's Happening!!\" as three different characters: in the pilot episode he played the father of a classmate named Betty who hosted a house party without her parents' permission; a card player alongside Mabel's employer, who gambled away his wife's jewelry but pointed the finger at Mabel as a coverup; and as bootlegging criminal Al Dunbar, who forced Rerun to illegally record the Doobie Brothers concert.\n", "BULLET::::- Radio hosts Fitzy & Wippa entered as guests and disguised themselves as rangers, they sabotaged Paul's tucker trial so he wouldn't win any stars, but later in camp, Fitzy & Wippa gave the camp 10 stars worth of food & wine\n\nBULLET::::- As a prank by Fitzy, Wippa was temporarily a camp member and had to participate in this tucker trial\n\nBULLET::::- When Wippa was evicted from the jungle, he chose Brendan to participate with Havana in this tucker trial\n", "In March 2011, the Texas Theatre in Dallas began showing two episodes of \"Dallas\" on the big screen every Sunday; over 100 patrons, some in costume of their favorite characters, appeared at the free screenings every week. However, the screenings came to an abrupt end in May 2011 after Warner Bros. issued a cease-and-desist against the Texas Theatre for unauthorized showings, citing the fact that those that were involved in the show's production were not getting paid or benefiting from these screenings.\n", "This episode featured a segment which was recorded on-location at an Italian restaurant in Stamford, Connecticut which had a weekly karaoke night. Recording at the restaurant ran into trouble at first, as Producer/cameraman Sean Haffner was confronted by a pair of large Italian gentlemen who demanded \"“No cameras!”\". Sharky eventually persuaded the gentlemen to allow Haffner to record the evening's entertainment. After many of the restaurant's regular patrons performed various songs for the rest of the audience, VoxPop host Bill Arciprete sang The Beach Boys’ song \"“Good Vibrations”\". The final performance of the segment featured host Jim Sharky and singer Annette Wellington (an African-American) singing the Paul McCartney/Stevie Wonder song \"“Ebony And Ivory”\". After the karaoke performances ended, \"The Lone Shark\" crew was given a free dinner and then invited into the restaurant owner’s office – where the owner then offered them a multitude of narcotic drugs (which Sharky and the crew graciously refused).\n", "On May 1, 2017, \"The Violence\" became enshrouded in controversy when it was revealed that the band was prohibited from shooting a music video due to being \"anti-government\". The plan originally called for Rise Against to perform the song in a field containing busts of all 43 United States presidents located on a privately owned farm in Croaker, Virginia, formerly the site of the deteriorating Presidents Park. The permit granting Rise Against the right to film on the property was rescinded by the farm's board of directors during filming as the \"message\" it sent was deemed too \"anti-American\".\n", "Section::::Production.:Filming.\n\nPrincipal photography for the series took place from October 2018 to February 2019 in Effingham County, Georgia.\n\nMultiple scenes were filmed at the Savannah Mall and in Episode 8 scenes were filmed at the Bryan County Courthouse.\n\nSection::::Production.:Controversy.\n", "If you have been on the verge of becoming a millionaire and that has not happened because of far-right pressure groups, and your work has been banned and taken apart, and you've been threatened with prosecution, and the police have advised people involved with your production to go into hiding, and bed and breakfasts won't have the cast to stay because they're blasphemers, and you have to cross a BNP picket line to go to work in Plymouth, you do start to think, well, what can be worse than that?\n", "Again in Malaysia, despite the film having already been screened at the Malaysian parliament, a private human rights organisation screening of the film in Kuala Lumpur was raided and the organisers arrested.\n", "The program features actors acting out scenes of conflict or illegal activity in public settings while hidden cameras record the scene, and the focus is on whether or not bystanders intervene, and how. Variations are also usually included, such as changing the genders, the races or the clothing of the actors performing the scene, to see if bystanders react differently. Quiñones appears at the end of each scenario to interview bystanders and witnesses about their reactions.\n", "The footage was the subject of a separate investigation conducted by ABC program, Four Corners, shown on 30 May 2011. The report entitled “A Bloody Business” was the winner of a Logie Award for “Most Outstanding Public Affairs Report” as well as the 2011 Gold Walkley Award.\n", "BULLET::::- If callers start giving too much praise to Juan and Moonshadow, the cast will start singing a Puerto Rican bomba which starts \"Es Un Lambón\" (He's A Kiss-up)\n\nBULLET::::- If the hosts judge a story as over-the-top, or an outright fabrication, the cast will start chanting \"Embustero, Embustero...\" (Liar, Liar...)\n", "The program also attracted negative attention in Season 2 when Agence France-Presse journalist Alex Ogle discovered that the producers doctored a crowd scene said to be of \"thousands upon thousands lined up\" to audition for the program. In post-production, portions of the scene were replicated so as to make the crowd look larger than it actually was, as evidenced by multiple appearances by especially noticeable people in the scene.\n", "BULLET::::- \"A King in New York\", a 1957 film written and directed by Charlie Chaplin has the main character, a fictional European monarch portrayed by Chaplin, secretly filmed while talking to people at a New York cocktail party. The footage is later turned into a television show within the film.\n", "BULLET::::- December 20, 2015 – Miss Universe host Steve Harvey crowned the wrong winner by mistake then crowned the actual winner on live television.\n\nBULLET::::- January 8, 2016 – \"The Late Show with Stephen Colbert\" airs a live episode for the first time in the 23-year history of CBS's late-night franchise.\n\nBULLET::::- July 21, 2016 - Late Night with Seth Meyers airs a live episode for the first time in the 30-year history of NBC's late-night franchise.\n", "Section::::Failures and controversies.\n\nBULLET::::- \"El Castro de Lugo\", in Madrid, closed shortly before the episode about it aired. Besides, the cook, who was portrayed on the show as an absent-minded and extremely devout woman, claimed everything was scripted and she had been forced to play that role. She also added that the part where she was shown praying in a nearby church was filmed without her consent.\n", "In late 2007, \"\" scheduled a visit from some of its celebrities to the provincial jail. The celebrities danced with 1,600 CPDRC inmates to the tune of \"Rico Mambo\" as part of their weekly task, set by Big Brother. The request had been made by Maria Rowena Benitez, Pinoy Big Brother production manager. The housemates were not informed of their task, but were brought to the prison in blindfolds. They were then subsequently given back their sight, with the inmates surrounding them. Beforehand, it was also announced that the Big Brother celebrity housemates would perform a concert, with the proceeds being donated to CPDRC. The concert, held inside the Pinoy Big Brother house in Manila, was attended by 100 people, who each paid P1,000.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Drunk Show\": Inspired by an episode of \"WKRP in Cincinnati\" and intended to celebrate the show's 21st episode (the drinking age in Florida, although for various reasons the topic was ultimately pushed back to the 23rd show), the cast (all of whom agreed to give up their car keys and spend the night in the studio) took one shot of Rumple Minze for every half-hour of broadcast time. This show is considered a somewhat controversial episode of PawPets.\n", "Notable examples of shows that have had a live episode include:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gimme a Break!\" (1985)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Roc\" (The entire second season, 1993)\n\nBULLET::::- \"ER\" (1997)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Coronation Street\" (for its 40th anniversary in 2000, its 50th anniversary in 2010 and ITV's 60th anniversary in 2015)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Drew Carey Show\" (1999, 2000, and 2001)\n\nBULLET::::- \"One Life to Live\" (Went live for an entire week of episodes in May 2002)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Bill\" (2003 and 2005)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Daily Show\" (2004, 2008, 2009)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Blue Heelers\" (2004)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Will & Grace\" (2005 and 2006)\n", "On May 28, 2014, Josue Carrion was arrested by the FBI at Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport in San Juan after trying to board a flight to New York City. He was accused of trying to bring a loaded weapon on board a commercial aircraft.WAPA-TV announced that his program would go on, but that Carrion would be substituted by two, possibly three, co-workers as show host of \"El Tiempo es Oro\". However, after the announcement, Carrion met with Joe Ramos, WAPA-TV's president, and they agreed that Carrion would only take a week off and return to the show on June 9, 2014.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-02817	What determines how someone will act when they’re drunk. Does drunkeness reveal someone’s true selves?	I think it does reveal a persons 'true self' in some ways because if you would never do or say a particular thing then you simply won't.. but if you only never do or say those things because you are aware of consequences then it is likely you will do or say them whilst drunk	[ "One example is \"The Hangover\", where three groomsmen lose the groom during a bachelor party in Las Vegas, so they retrace their steps to find him. The characters still had functioning implicit/procedural memory, which allowed them to carry out the many acts they performed that night, but their episodic memory was impaired and thus they had no recollection of the events occurring. In addition to alcohol the characters were also under the influence of flunitrazepam.\n\nAnother movie is \"What Happens in Vegas\". After an intoxicated night in \"Sin City,\" two people wake-up to find they got married.\n", "Alcoholism can enhance state-dependent memory as well. In a study comparing the state-dependent memory effects of alcohol on both subjects with alcoholism and subjects without alcoholism, researchers found that the alcoholic subjects showed greater effects for state-dependent memory on tasks of recall and free association. This is not because alcohol better produces associations, but because the person with alcoholism lives a larger portion of their life under the influence of alcohol. This produces changes in cognition and so when the person with alcoholism drinks, the intoxication primes their brain towards certain associations made in similar states. Essentially, the intoxicated and sober states of the alcoholic are in fact, different from the intoxicated and sober states of the non-alcoholic person, whose body is not as used to processing such large amounts of the substance. For this reason, we see slightly larger effects of state-dependent memory while intoxicated for chronic drinkers than for those who do not drink often.\n", "When attempting to examine the effects that alcohol consumption has on social inhibition researchers found that after being provoked sober individuals used inhibiting cues, such as the innocence of the instigator and the severity of the retaliation to control their response to the aggressive provocation. However, the researchers found that an intoxicated individual did not have these same inhibitions and, as a result, exhibited more extreme behaviors of retaliated aggression to the provocation without processing information they would normally consider about the situation. On average, drunken individuals exhibited more aggression, self-disclosure, risk taking behaviors, and laughter than sober individuals. Extreme behaviors are not as common in sober individuals because they are able to read inhibitory cues and social conduct norms that drunken individuals are not as inclined to consider. These negative social behaviors, then, are a result of lowered social inhibitions.\n", "Alcohol exaggerates the drinker’s perception of the world around him. The drinker’s response to this exaggerated world manifests in erratic and dramatic behaviors. Under the influence of alcohol, individuals are incapable of sufficiently processing the long-term consequences of their actions; they will respond to immediate and salient cues in the moment. In this way, drunk individuals can be described as \"slaves to the present moment\". \n", "If a \"specific intent\" in either sense is required and there is clear evidence that the accused was too intoxicated to form the element subjectively, this fact is recognised as a defense unless the loss of control was part of the plan. But this is of little value to defendants since there are almost always offenses of basic intent that can be charged and/or the basic intent offenses are usually lesser included offenses and an alternative verdict can be delivered by judge or jury without the need for a separate charge. In English law, note the controversial \"Jaggard v Dickinson\" [1980] 3 All ER 716 which held that, for the purposes of the statutory defense of \"lawful excuse\" under s5 Criminal Damage Act 1971, a drunken belief will found the defense even though this allows drunkenness to negate basic intent. This is limited authority and does not affect the generality of the defense.\n", "Short-term effects of alcohol include the risk of injuries, violence, and fetal damage. Alcohol has also been linked with lowered inhibitions, although it is unclear as to what degree this is chemical or psychological as studies with placebos can often duplicate the social effects of alcohol at either low or moderate doses. Some studies have suggested that intoxicated people have much greater control over their behavior than is generally recognized, though they have a reduced ability to evaluate the consequences of their behavior. Behavioral changes associated with drunkenness are, to some degree, contextual.\n", "In an Australian context, a study was undertaken in 2013 that surveyed 139 Australian women, aged between 18 and 29, who were enrolled in an undergraduate degree at university. These women were asked to complete a survey regarding compensatory eating and behaviours in response to alcohol consumption to test for drunkorexia symptomatology. In the sample tested, 79% of participants demonstrated engaging in characterised drunkorexia behaviour. Further analysis of the results showed that social norms of drinking and the social norms associated with body image and thinness impacted heavily upon the motivation for these behaviours.\n", "Dry drunk\n\nDry drunk is a informal expression which describes an alcoholic or former alcoholic who no longer drinks but otherwise maintains the same behavior patterns of an alcoholic. They may have many different emotions during the period of them becoming sober.\n", "Alcohol use disorders often cause a wide range of cognitive impairments that result in significant impairment of the affected individual. If alcohol-induced neurotoxicity has occurred a period of abstinence for on average a year is required for the cognitive deficits of alcohol abuse to reverse.\n", "Section::::Measurement.\n\nDillard & Shen have provided evidence that psychological reactance can be measured, in contrast to the contrary opinion of Jack Brehm, who developed the theory. In their work they measured the impact of psychological reactance with two parallel studies: one advocating flossing and the other urging students to limit their alcohol intake.\n", "Drunks (film)\n\nDrunks is a 1995 film starring Spalding Gray and Richard Lewis and directed by Peter Cohn.\n\nSection::::Plot.\n\nA group of alcoholics meet up one night at a 12-step recovery meeting. At the beginning of the meeting, Jim reluctantly tells the story of his drug and alcohol abuse leading to his eventual sobriety and then leaves in frustration. The movie then alternates between Jim's ultimately futile attempts to resist the temptation to drink that night, and the remaining attendees of the meeting recounting their own struggles with addiction.\n\nSection::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Richard Lewis as Jim\n\nBULLET::::- Liam Ahern as Billy\n", "In addition to these societal restraints, DUI offenders ignore their own personal experience, including both social and physical consequences. The study \"Cognitive Predictors of Alcohol Involvement and Alcohol consumption-Related Consequences in a Sample of Drunk-Driving Offenders\" was performed in Albuquerque, New Mexico on the cognitive, or mental, factors of DUI offenders. Characteristics such as gender, marital status, and age of these DWI offenders were similar to those in other populations. Approximately 25% of female and 21% of male offenders had received \"a lifetime diagnosis of alcohol abuse\" and 62% of females and 70% of males \"received a diagnosis of alcohol dependence.\" All of the offenders had at least one DWI and males were more likely to have multiple citations. In terms of drinking patterns approximately 25% stated that \"they had drunk alcohol with in the past day, while an additional 32% indicated they had drunk within the past week.\" In regards to domestic drinking, \"25% of the sample drank at least once per week in their own homes.\" Different items were tested to see if they played a role in the decision to drink alcohol, which includes socializing, the expectation that drinking is enjoyable, financial resources to purchase alcohol, and liberation from stress at the work place. The study also focused on two main areas, \"intrapersonal cues\", or internal cues, that are reactions \"to internal psychological or physical events\" and \"interpersonal cues\" that result from \"social influences in drinking situations.\" The two largest factors between tested areas were damaging alcohol use and its correlation to \"drinking urges/triggers.\" Once again different behaviors are characteristic of male and female. Males are \"more likely to abuse alcohol, be arrested for DWI offenses, and report more adverse alcohol-related consequences.\" However, effects of alcohol on females vary because the female metabolism processes alcohol significantly when compared to males, which increases their chances for intoxication. The largest indicator for drinking was situational cues which comprised \"indicators tapping psychological (e.g. letting oneself down, having an argument with a friend, and getting angry at something), social (e.g. relaxing and having a good time), and somatic cues (e.g. how good it tasted, passing by a liquor store, and heightened sexual enjoyment).\"\n", "By the second season, Jinx's alcoholism peaks. She is arrested for public intoxication, which she profusely denies. She is ordered by the court to attend AA meetings. However, she refuses to do it, and convinces Brandi to attend in her place. Later, when confronted with video of her arrest before court, she realizes that she is an alcoholic, pleads guilty, and asks to be placed in rehab.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Expressions of Drunkenness (400 Rabbits)\": This book is the 10th in a scholarly series on alcohol in society published by the International Center for Alcohol Policies (ICAP)and provides an understanding of the historical origins of drunkenness; the biological explanations of intoxication; the language used to define this phenomenon; and modern day drinking patterns.\n", "The effect of intoxication on criminal responsibility varies by jurisdiction and offense. The criminal code in question may require proof of various levels of intent. This may range from premeditation, through various degrees of intent or willingness to commit a crime, general recklessness, and finally no intent at all in some instances of strict liability. Intoxication may serve as a defense against proving more specific forms of intent. If so, its potential effectiveness will sometimes hinge on whether the defendant's intoxication was \"voluntary\" or \"involuntary\": the defense would be denied defendants who had voluntarily disabled themselves by knowingly consuming an intoxicating substances, but allowed to those who had consumed it unknowingly or against their will.\n", "Several other studies have shown that students who were told they were consuming alcoholic beverages (which in fact were non-alcoholic) perceived themselves as being \"drunk\", exhibited fewer physiological symptoms of social stress, and drove a simulated car similarly to other subjects who had actually consumed alcohol. The result is somewhat similar to the placebo effect.\n", "Section::::Characteristics of drunk drivers.:Cognitive processes.\n\nNot only can personality traits of DUI offenders be dissimilar from the rest of the population, but so can their thought processes, or cognitive processes. They are unique in that \"they often drink despite the severity of legal and financial sanctions imposed on them by society.\"\n", "It may be that internal forces are more likely to drive DWI offenders to drink than external, which is indicated by the fact that the brain and body play a greater role than social influences. This possibility seems particularly likely in repeat DWI offenders, as repeat offences (unlike first-time offences) are not positively correlated with the availability of alcohol. Another cognitive factor may be that of using alcohol to cope with problems. It is becoming increasingly apparent that the DWI offenders do not use proper coping mechanisms and thus turn to alcohol for the answer. Examples of such issues \"include fights, arguments, and problems with people at work, all of which imply a need for adaptive coping strategies to help the high-risk drinker to offset pressures or demands.\" DWI offenders would typically prefer to turn to alcohol than more healthy coping mechanisms and alcohol can cause more anger which can result in a vicious circle of drinking more alcohol to deal with alcohol-related issues. This is a not the way professionals tell people how to best deal with the struggles of everyday life and calls for \"the need to develop internal control and self-regulatory mechanisms that attenuate stress, mollify the influence of relapse-based cues, and dampen urges to drink as part of therapeutic interventions.\"\n", "A direct effect of alcohol on a person's brain is an overestimation of how quickly their body is recovering from the effects of alcohol. A study, discussed in the article \"Why drunk drivers may get behind the wheel\", was done with college students in which the students were tested with \"a hidden maze learning task as their BAC [Blood Alcohol Content] both rose and fell over an 8-hour period.\" The researchers found through the study that as the students became more drunk there was an increase in their mistakes \"and the recovery of the underlying cognitive impairments that lead to these errors is slower, and more closely tied to the actual blood alcohol concentration, than the more rapid reduction in participants' subjective feeling of drunkenness.\"\n", "This thought process and brain function that is lost under the influence of alcohol is a very key element in regards to being able to drive safely, including \"making judgments in terms of traveling through intersections or changing lanes when driving.\" These essential driving skills are lost while a person is under the influence of alcohol.\n\nSection::::Characteristics of drunk drivers.\n\nSection::::Characteristics of drunk drivers.:Personality traits.\n", "\"Wasted: Tales of a Gen-X Drunk\" is a memoir of the author's experiences with alcoholism. The author takes a cynical view towards Alcoholics Anonymous. He describes his early life growing up in relative suburbia in the state of Maryland, close to Washington, D.C. He recounts attending Catholic educational institutions where drinking alcohol was socially acceptable at a young age. Judge's behavior led to clashes with both the priests and the nuns at his Catholic schools. Judge engages in theft of school supplies from nuns. The author impersonates priests by wearing their attire. Alcoholic behavior was easy to maintain while his parents were absent from his life both by being away from the primary domicicle, and by being inattentive to their son. \n", "Alcohol has a very significant effect on the functions of the body which are vital to driving and being able to function. Alcohol is a depressant, which mainly affects the function of the brain. Alcohol first affects the most vital components of the brain and \"when the brain cortex is released from its functions of integrating and control, processes related to judgment and behavior occur in a disorganized fashion and the proper operation of behavioral tasks becomes disrupted.\" In all actuality alcohol weakens a variety of skills that are necessary to perform everyday tasks.\n", "Section::::Mechanisms.:Molecular Mechanisms.:Adenylyl Cyclase.\n\nAdenylyl cyclase (AC) plays a role in ethanol induced signaling pathways. Acute ethanol may increase AC activity resulting in increased levels of cAMP and altered activity of cAMP targets. Of the cAMP targets, protein kinase A (PKA) has been associated with ethanol use. While acute ethanol use increases the activity of AC, chronic use tends to desensitize AC such that more simulation, increased ethanol consumption, is required to elicit the same response.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms.:Molecular Mechanisms.:Kinases.\n", "However, alcoholic family roles have not withstood the standards that psychological theories of personality are typically subjected to. The evidence for alcoholic family roles theory provides limited or no construct validity or clinical utility.\n\nSection::::Prevalence.\n", "P. G. Zimbardo (1969) suggested \"the expression of normally inhibited behavior\" may have both positive and negative consequences. He expanded the proposed realm of factors that contribute to deindividuation, beyond anonymity and loss of personal responsibility, to include: \"arousal, sensory overload, a lack of contextual structure or predictability, and altered consciousness due to drugs or alcohol,\" as well as \"altered time perspectives...and degree of involvement in group functioning\" Zimbardo postulated that these factors lead to \"loss of identity or loss of self-consciousness,\" which result in unresponsiveness to external stimuli by the individual and the loss of \"cognitive control over motivations and emotions.\" Consequently, individuals reduce their compliance with good and bad sanctions held by influences outside the group.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-05129	When lips dry out because of lack of water in the body, why does wound always appear in lower lip before upper lip?	I wouldn't say it always appears in the lower lip first, but it's probably more likely because the lower lip tends to be larger, with more areas to dry out and crack	[ "Some patients are allergic to the common local anesthetics like lidocaine and probably should not consider lip injections. Some react badly to the skin test that patients must take before receiving collagen. Other patients who should forego procedures to the lip include those who have active skin conditions like cold sores, blood clotting problems, infections, scarring of the lips or certain diseases like diabetes or lupus that cause slower healing. Patients with facial nerve disorders, severe hypertension or recurrent herpes simplex lesions should also eschew lip augmentation. As in all surgeries, smokers complicate completion of their procedure as well as the speed of healing.\n", "The pattern of the vermilion border defines the areas of the lip:\n\nBULLET::::- Philtrum-two vertical lines extending from the base of the nose to the central vermilion border, forming the bow of the central upper lip;\n\nBULLET::::- Commissures-where the upper and lower lips meet laterally;\n\nBULLET::::- Lateral upper lip-between philtrum and commissure.\n\nSection::::Relevant anatomy.:Deep.\n", "Often an incomplete cleft lip requires the same surgery as complete cleft. This is done for two reasons. Firstly the group of muscles required to purse the lips run through the upper lip. In order to restore the complete group a full incision must be made. Secondly, to create a less obvious scar the surgeon tries to line up the scar with the natural lines in the upper lip (such as the edges of the philtrum) and tuck away stitches as far up the nose as possible. Incomplete cleft gives the surgeon more tissue to work with, creating a more supple and natural-looking upper lip.\n", "Chapped lips (also cheilitis simplex or common cheilitis) are characterized by cracking, fissuring, and peeling of the skin of the lips, and are one of the most common types of cheilitis. While both lips may be affected, the lower lip is the most common site. There may also be burning or the formation of large, painful cracks when the lips are stretched. Chronic cheilitis simplex can progress to crusting and bleeding.\n", "Common reactions can range from redness, swelling or itching at the injection site(s). Other possible complications include bleeding, uneven lips, movement of the implants or extrusion, when an implant breaks through the outermost surface of the skin. The usual, expected swelling and bruising can last from several days to a week.\n", "The muscles and overlying skin are supplied by branches of the external carotid artery (the facial artery and Superior labial artery.\n\nSection::::Relevant anatomy.:Lymph drainage.\n\nSubmandibular/submental-Under the chin\n\nSection::::Principles of Reconstruction.\n\nBULLET::::- Preserve sensation of the lips\n\nBULLET::::- Maintain oral competence\n\nBULLET::::- Continuity of vermilion border\n\nBULLET::::- Sufficient oral access (not too small, microstoma)\n\nBULLET::::- Adequate lip appearance\n\nSection::::Types of defects.\n", "Section::::Examples.\n\nNotable examples in British history include Captain Lawrence Oates's understated act of Antarctic sacrifice: aware that his own ill health was compromising his three companions' chances of survival, he calmly left the tent and chose certain death; Sir Francis Drake finishing his game of bowls before embarking on the defeat of the Spanish Armada; and The Earl of Uxbridge's calm assessment of his injuries (he had lost his leg) to the Duke of Wellington when hit by a cannonball during the Battle of Waterloo in the Napoleonic Wars.\n\nSection::::Origins.\n", "The skin of the lips is stratified squamous epithelium. The mucous membrane is represented by a large area in the sensory cortex, and is therefore highly sensitive. The \"Frenulum Labii Inferioris\" is the frenulum of the lower lip. The \"Frenulum Labii Superioris\" is the frenulum of the upper lip.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Nerve supply.\n\nBULLET::::- Trigeminal nerve\n\nBULLET::::- The infraorbital nerve is a branch of the maxillary branch. It supplies not only the upper lip, but much of the skin of the face between the upper lip and the lower eyelid, except for the bridge of the nose.\n", "Doctors disagree on the issues of scarring with not suturing versus resolution of the swelling allowed by leaving the wounds open to drain fluid. Since the incisions are small, and the amount of fluid that must drain out is large, some surgeons opt to leave the incisions open, while others suture them only partially, leaving space for the fluid to drain out.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Incising wounds of the face may involve the parotid duct. This is more likely if the wound crosses a line drawn between the tragus of the ear to the upper lip. The approximate location of the course of the duct is the middle third of this line.\n", "The axillary lymph nodes are arranged in six groups:\n\nBULLET::::1. Anterior (pectoral) group: Lying along the lower border of the pectoralis minor behind the pectoralis major, these nodes receive lymph vessels from the lateral quadrants of the breast and superficial vessels from the anterolateral abdominal wall above the level of the umbilicus.\n\nBULLET::::2. Posterior (subscapular) group: Lying in front of the subscapularis muscle, these nodes receive superficial lymph vessels from the back, down as far as the level of the iliac crests.\n", "Small defects of the upper and lower lip can be closed primarily. For the upper lip, defects of up to 1/4 (25%) of the lip may be closed primarily. For the lower lip, defects of up to 1/3 of the lip may be closed primarily. This means the edges of the defect are simply sutured together in three layers: oral mucosa, muscle, and skin. This closure has the best outcome because it re-establishes continuity of the orbicularis oris, which allows for oral competence, maximal preservation of sensation of the lip, continuity of vermilion border, and adequate size of the opening.\n", "About 25% of patients have cutaneous lesions, with tense vesicles or bullae, mainly on the face, neck, and scalp. Healing of erosion is either with or without atrophic scars. Cutaneous lesions of cicatricial pemphigoid presents in 2 subtypes: (1)presents as generalized eruption of tense bullae without scarring (2) presents as localised blisters on an erythematous base, resulting in atrophic scarring.\n\nSection::::Clinical Features.:Cicatricial pemphigoid is also associated with malignancy..\n", "BULLET::::- The mental nerve is a branch of the mandibular branch ( via the inferior alveolar nerve). It supplies the skin and mucous membrane of the lower lip and labial gingiva (gum) anteriorly.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Blood supply.\n\nThe facial artery is one of the six non-terminal branches of the external carotid artery.\n\nThis artery supplies both lips by its superior and inferior labial branches. Each of the two branches \"bifurcate\" and \"anastomose\" with their companion branch from the other terminal.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Muscles.\n", "Since 2000, more products and techniques have been developed to make lip augmentation more effective and patient friendly. The relative ease of many injections is due to surgeons using tiny 30 and 31 gauge (about as thick as a dozen human hairs) needles that are used to inject the very sensitive lips. Nonetheless, topical anesthesias are often used for lip augmentation procedures.\n\nSome of these new techniques and substances include.\n", "The lip skin is not hairy and does not have sweat glands. Therefore, it does not have the usual protection layer of sweat and body oils which keep the skin smooth, inhibit pathogens, and regulate warmth. For these reasons, the lips dry out faster and become chapped more easily.\n\nThe lower lip is formed from the mandibular prominence, a branch of the first pharyngeal arch. The lower lip covers the anterior body of the mandible. It is lowered by the depressor labii inferioris muscle and the orbicularis oris borders it inferiorly.\n", "There are potential health hazards in wound licking due to infection risk, especially in immunocompromised patients. Human saliva contains a wide variety of bacteria that are harmless in the mouth, but that may cause significant infection if introduced into a wound. A notable case was a diabetic man who licked his bleeding thumb following a minor bicycle accident, and subsequently had to have the thumb amputated after it became infected with \"Eikenella corrodens\" from his saliva. The practice of metzitzah during circumcision is controversial as it can transmit the herpes virus to the infant.\n\nSection::::Licking of people's wounds by animals.\n", "Section::::Features.\n\nFeatures of the labiodental tap:\n\nBULLET::::- Its manner of articulation is flap, which normally means it is produced with a single contraction of the muscles so that the tongue makes very brief contact. In this case, being a non-rhotic consonant, the flap is made with the lower lip.\n\nBULLET::::- Its place of articulation is dental, which means it is articulated behind upper front teeth.\n\nSection::::Occurrence.\n", "Section::::Types of defects.:Superficial lower lip reconstruction.:Vermilion only.\n\nBULLET::::- A-T closure\n\nBULLET::::- Single or double advancement\n\nSection::::Types of defects.:Superficial lower lip reconstruction.:Below the vermilion.\n\nBULLET::::- Single or double advancement\n\nBULLET::::- A-T closure\n\nSection::::Types of defects.:Deep/full thickness lip reconstruction.\n\nDeeper and larger defects of the lip introduce greater reconstruction challenges, as they compromise the integrity of the orbicularis oris, its nerve and blood supply. Accordingly, there is a shift in emphasis toward the functional outcome of the reconstruction, and less focus on the appearance of the lip. All of the flaps described below can be used on the upper or lower lip.\n", "Section::::Types of defects.:Superficial upper lip reconstruction.:Lateral lip.\n\nBULLET::::- Straight line closure\n\nBULLET::::- A-T closure-extends the defect up to the philtrum or down to the vermilion border to make the scar less noticeable.\n\nBULLET::::- Single Advancement-incision along vermilion border to pull tissue in from the lateral aspect\n\nBULLET::::- Rotation flaps-rotate in tissue from the cheek\n\nSection::::Types of defects.:Superficial lower lip reconstruction.\n\nThe anatomic requirements are not as limiting for the lower lip because the surrounding anatomy is less complex. The considerations include maintaining a non-distorted vermillion border, hiding incisions in the horizontal crease of the chin, and not distorting the commissure.\n", "BULLET::::- Inflammation of the lips is termed cheilitis. This can be in several forms such as chapped lips (dry, peeling lips), angular cheilitis (inflammation of the corners of the mouth), herpes labialis (cold sore, a form of herpes simplex) and actinic cheilitis (chronically sun damaged lips).\n\nBULLET::::- Cleft lip is a type of birth defect that can be successfully treated with surgery.\n", "Embryologically, the upper lip may become clefted in the center (a median cleft lip) or on one or both sides (a paramedian cleft lip). The paramedian form is more common, and the median cleft lip is exceedingly rare. Most classification schemes consider only paramedian cleft lip to fall under the CL/P grouping, although this has been the subject of some controversy. (Many consider the median cleft lip to be better grouped under the Tessier classification for atypical orofacial clefts, with median cleft lip representing a Tessier 0 cleft.) The typical paramedian cleft lip may affect one side (unilateral) or both sides (bilateral). A unilateral cleft lip is much more common.\n", "Of the three borders, the anterior is attached to the dorsal surface of the bone; the posterior, or crest of the spine, is broad, and presents two lips and an intervening rough interval.\n\nBULLET::::- The trapezius is attached to the superior lip, and a rough tubercle is generally seen on that portion of the spine which receives the tendon of insertion of the lower part of this muscle.\n\nBULLET::::- The deltoideus is attached to the whole length of the \"inferior lip\".\n\nBULLET::::- The \"interval between the lips\" is subcutaneous and partly covered by the tendinous fibers of these muscles.\n", "Successful reconstruction of the upper lip attempts to maintain the anatomic relationship of the philtrum (central portion of upper lip) and the base of the nose. Not distorting the commissure is also desirable for upper lip reconstruction.\n\nSection::::Types of defects.:Superficial upper lip reconstruction.:Central lip.\n\nBULLET::::- Straight line closure-may cause a pulling up of the vermilion border as it heals\n\nBULLET::::- Advancement flaps-these pull in skin from the sides and heal best when the defect is the full height of the upper lip, can come in from one or both sides (single or double advancement)\n", "Section::::Plot.\n" ]	[ "Cracking of the lips always appears in the lower lip first.", "Wounds within dry lips always appear in the lower lip before the upper. " ]	[ "Does not agree that lip cracking always appears in the lower lip first.", "Wounds don't always occur within the lower lip before the upper. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Cracking of the lips always appears in the lower lip first.", "Wounds within dry lips always appear in the lower lip before the upper. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Does not agree that lip cracking always appears in the lower lip first.", "Wounds don't always occur within the lower lip before the upper. " ]
2018-21916	Why do accidental notes in music have word accident in them?	In old-school philosophy things were described as having an essential nature. Objects behaved according to their essential nature - rocks fell downwards, smoke rose upward, dogs barked, water flowed, old men were grumpy, and so on. Anything that happened that was contradictory to something's essential nature was accidental. So if you threw a rock upwards, that was accidental motion of the rock. If you dammed a river to stop it from flowing, that was accidental motion of the water. Make an old man happy, that was an accidental mood, and so on. Expanding that into music, the key signature at the start of the piece sets the "essential nature" of the notes. If there are notes that go against this essential nature, that have to be marked with their own sharps or flats, those are accidental notes.	[ "In Restoration England, in the French modelled, Lullist influenced works of Henry Purcell, William Croft, Jeremiah Clarke and their contemporaries, the short–long slurred pairs of \"notes inégales\" can be found throughout the musical literature, and often variant sources \"write out\" the short–long \"snapped\" \"notes inégales\" rhythms explicitly.\n\nSection::::History.:Imitation of the French style outside France.\n", "The practice of slurred pairs of notes being possibly an indication of \"short–long \"notes inégales\"\" has been suggested to extend further than France to \"French (Lullist) modelled\" compositions throughout Europe, especially Germany, Austria, and England, and even to influence the performance of slurred pairs of notes in the fast movements of Beethoven (and other non-French and non-Baroque composers), such as in the Sonata in F major, Op.83, among other sonatas, where the tempo and the slurred pairs can only result in a Lombardic or snapped \"short–long \"notes inégales\"\" performance.\n", "Section::::History.:Slurred long–short pairs.\n\nOften, the long–short version of \"notes inégales\" was indicated by slurred pairs of notes throughout the French repertoire in François Couperin, Jacques Duphly, Antoine Forqueray, Pierre Dumage, Louis-Nicolas Clérambault, Jean-François Dandrieu, and Jean-Philippe Rameau, to cite the more prominent keyboard composers from the French Baroque.\n\nSection::::History.:Lullist short–long pairs.\n\nOccasionally the long–short version of \"notes inégales\" was reversed to a short–long, known sometimes as the Lombard rhythm or the Scotch snap.\n", "Roger North prohibits the placing of triplets against duplets; and the conclusion must be that either the triplet must be assimilated into the duplet, or the duplet must be assimilated into the triplet, by subjecting the duplet into a form of \"notes inégales\". One of the phenomena noted above was the adoption in England of \"notes inégales\" especially by Purcell and his contemporaries. In English Music during the time of Purcell, as well as just before and after, \"notes inégales\" were often applied in French modeled works, such as courants, and other \"French\" dance movements where the \"notes inégales\" are not written out. It must be decided on a case by case basis. However one of the forms of the \"notes inégales\", the \"Lombardic or 'scotch' snap\", became very popular in English music in the post-Elizabethan period, and that predilection continued throughout the Baroque and into the Classical period. It is usually written out, but not always. The short–long \"notes inégales\", or \"scotch snap\" can be found to be nearly begging for use at the ends of certain phrases, typically in a triplet based texture, and for instance especially in a Menuet that features triplets, where often at the cadential points, the triplets fall away and playing the evenly notated 8th notes seem to invite a short–long rhythmic alteration. This can also be found in the transitional music such as that found in \"Musicks Hand-maid\", (1678), (John Playford, editor), as well as in typically English composers such as Thomas Augustus Arne in his keyboard sonatas. Arne in particular wrote many variation movements that would sometimes start in duplets, but sometimes used a great deal of triplets, and often in the transitions one finds even notes that when leading to a triplet section, applying long–short (or even occasionally short–long) \"notes inégales\" proves very effective. This also often occurs in the Gallant, Empfindsamkeit, and Classical music of J.C. Bach and Haydn and their contemporaries. (further citations and examples to come SJ)\n", "With respect to the \"short–long, snapped\" version of \"notes inégales\", this rhythmic and stylistic feature – the \"lombardic snap\" – became a recognizable stylistic cliche in Purcell's music, and in the music of his contemporaries. The snapped pair is often stepwise, but is nearly as often found in slower textures in downward \"snapping\" pairs of notes, the second of which note, the longer, destination note, together with the first note of the \"notes inégales\", form a diminished 4th to a leading tone (especially in minor keys), but can often be found used in various non-stepwise intervals, seemingly at odds with the \"general rules\" of \"notes inégales\"; nonetheless, this usage is pervasive in the music of Restoration period England by Purcell and his contemporaries.\n", "Today, the term is often loosely applied to all unnotated inflections (whether they are actually \"recta\" or \"ficta\" notes; see below) that must be inferred from the musical context and added either by an editor or by performers themselves . However, some of the words used in modern reference books to represent \"musica ficta\", such as \"inflection\", \"alteration\", and \"added accidentals\" lie outside the way many Medieval and Renaissance theorists described the term .\n\nSection::::Historical sense and relation to hexachords.\n", "The typical rule, from the late 17th century until the French Revolution, is that \"notes inégales\" applies to all notes moving stepwise which have a duration of \"one quarter the denominator of the meter\", for instance, eighth notes in a meter of , or sixteenth notes in a meter of ; and \"one half the denominator of the meter\" in cases of triple or compound meter, for instance, eighth notes in , sixteenth notes in , and . In addition, the \"inégales\" could only function on one metrical level; for example, if sixteenths are to be played long–short, long–short, an even eighth-note pulse must be carefully maintained for the music to retain its shape.\n", "Perhaps one of the most famous instances of \"notes inégales\", which for many years was incorrectly heard (and played) is in the so-called \"Masterpiece Theatre\" \"trumpet tune\". This famous \"trumpet tune\" is actually a French baroque work, Fanfare-Rondeau, by Jean-Joseph Mouret incorrectly attributed to Jeremiah Clarke. It is often heard played as even eighth notes, but its correct performance would almost certainly be that all of its evenly notated 8th notes would be performed in long–short \"notes inégales\"!\n\nSection::::History.:England in the Classical Period.\n", "/score\n\nA more usual method of abbreviating the repetition of a passage of the length of the above is to write over it the word \"bis\" (twice), or in some cases \"ter\" (three times), or to enclose it between the dots of an ordinary repeat sign.\n\nSection::::Passages in octaves.\n\nPassages intended to be played in octaves are often written as single notes with the words \"coll' ottava\" or \"coll' 8va\" placed above or below them, according as the upper or lower octave is to be added.\n", "BULLET::::- Half Note: Du-u\n\nBULLET::::- Quarter Note: Du\n\nBULLET::::- 2 Eighth Notes: Du-De\n\nBULLET::::- 4 Sixteenth Notes: Du-Ta-De-Ta\n\nUsual Triple Meter\n\nBULLET::::- Dotted Quarter Note: Du\n\nBULLET::::- 3 Eighth Notes: Du-Da-Di\n\nBULLET::::- 6 Sixteenth Notes: Du-Ta-Da-Ta-Di-Ta\n\nUnusual meters pair the duple and triple meter syllables, and employ the \"b\" consonant.\n\nSection::::Syllables Systems.:Takadimi.\n", "A group of three, four, or more notes is abbreviated by the repetition of the cross strokes without the notes as many times as the group has to be repeated.\n\n\\relative c' « { \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f } \\time 4/4 \\new staff { \\repeat percent 2 { e8[ g c g] } \| \\repeat percent 4 { e16 g c g } \\bar \"\|\|\" } \\new staff { e8 g c g e g c g \| e16 g c g e g c g e g c g e g c g } »\n\n/score\n", "In particular, in much of French music, and a lot in Handel as well, there are problems the performer faces, and the most prevalent one is this: sometimes at the approach of cadences in an \"notes inégales\" texture, the composer suddenly writes some dotted notes out explicitly and sometimes then stops; the inconsistency of dotting has continued to be a problem for every musicologist, theoretical and performer. Anthony Newman has suggested in an article, that there was an undocumented convention that the dotted texture recedes generally at the approach to a cadence, all other musical factors and concerns being equal, and that is why the dots stop and start sometimes quite oddly towards the approach to cadence.\n", "Today, editors usually show their recommendations for \"ficta\" in Medieval and Renaissance music by placing an \"accidental\" sign above the note in question. This indicates that these \"accidentals\" were not part of the original source. Editors place any signs found in a period document on the staff directly before the note the sign applies to—as they would an accidental placed by the composer of a modern work, and indeed as it appears in the original document.\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Henderson, Robert V. 1969. \"Solmization Syllables in Musical Theory, 1100 to 1600.\" PhD dissertation, Columbia University.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "This is however seldom done, as only a small amount of space is saved. When a long note has to be repeated in the form of triplets or sextuplets, the figure 3 or 6 is usually placed over it in addition to the stroke across the stem, and the note is sometimes, though not necessarily, written dotted.\n", "Of the band's name origins, the band have stated in radio interviews that they had decided on \"The Accidentals\" because of the accidental note in music, which is denoted by a pitch that is not a member of the scale or mode that is specified by the most recently applied key signature, and the coincidental qualities behind its relation to their meeting each other by chance.\n", "As polyphony became more complex, notes other than B required alteration to avoid undesirable harmonic or melodic intervals (especially the augmented fourth, or tritone, that music theory writers referred to as \"diabolus in musica\", i.e., \"the devil in music\"). Nowadays \"ficta\" is used loosely to describe any such un-notated accidentals. The implied alterations can have more than one solution, but sometimes the intended pitches can be found in lute tablatures where a fret is specified. \n", "Another method of scat singing is practiced by guitarists who scat along with their solos note for note. Notable practitioners include George Benson, Sheldon Reynolds, and Rik Emmett.\n\nSection::::Vocal percussion.\n\nNon-lexical vocables that take on percussive roles:\n\nBULLET::::- Tabla Bols\n\nBULLET::::- Beatboxing\n\nBULLET::::- Konnakol\n\nSection::::Musical training.\n\nBULLET::::- Solfège, or solfa, is a technique for teaching sight-singing, in which each note is sung to a special syllable (do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, ti).\n\nBULLET::::- Canntaireachd is an ancient Scottish practice of noting music with a combination of definite syllables for ease of recollection and transmission.\n", "Section::::Courtesy accidentals.\n\nIn modern scores, a barline cancels an accidental, with the exception of tied notes. \"Courtesy accidentals\", also called \"cautionary accidentals\" or \"reminder accidentals\" are used to remind the musician of the correct pitch if the same note occurs in the following measure. The rules for applying courtesy accidentals (sometimes enclosed in parentheses) varies among publishers, though in a few situations they are customary:\n\nBULLET::::- When the first note of a measure had an accidental in the previous measure\n\nBULLET::::- After a tie carries an accidental across a barline, and the same note appears in the next measure\n", "Another sign of abbreviation of a group consists of an oblique line with two dots, one on each side; this serves to indicate the repetition of a group of any number of notes of any length. This can even apply to a passage composed of several groups, provided such passage is not more than two bars in length.\n", "Mordent\n\nIn music, a mordent is an ornament indicating that the note is to be played with \"a single\" rapid alternation with the note above or below. Like trills, they can be chromatically modified by a small flat, sharp or natural accidental. The term entered English musical terminology at the beginning of the 19th century, from the German \"Mordent\" and its Italian etymon, \"mordente\", both used in the 18th century to describe this musical figure. The word ultimately is derived from the Latin \"mordere\" (to bite).\n", "Late Renaissance composers in particular were concerned with matching text up with music in such a way that the latter could be said to express the former. Madrigalists used a declamation technique known as word painting (aka text painting or tone painting) to make musical notes illustrate word meanings, trying literally to paint visual images with sonic materials. Thomas Weelkes' madrigal \"As Vesta was from Latmos hill descending\" uses word painting throughout to declaim textual meaning:\n\nmm 1-9: \"Latmos hill\" - \"hill\" is always set with the highest note in the phrase\n", "The term \"compound melody\" may have its origin in Walter Piston's \"Counterpoint\" (New York, Norton, 1947), under the form \"compound melodic line\" (London edition, 1947, p. 23). In the context of Schenkerian analysis, it appears among others in Forte & Gilbert, \"Introduction to Schenkerian Analysis\" (1982), Chapter 3, pp. 67-80. Manfred Bukofzer, \"Music in the Baroque Era\", New York, Norton, 1947, had spoken of \"implied polyphony\".\n", "BULLET::::- \"Anyone Who Had a Heart\" by Burt Bacharach, sung by Dionne Warwick – turnaround at the end of the bridge, as pointed out to Bacharach by Dionne Warwick. However the song features \", , to and resolving on in only eight bars\" according to Allmusic.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Baroque Bordello\" by The Stranglers: on the verse, the guitar is in while the other instruments play in .\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Battle of Epping Forest\" from \"Selling England by the Pound\" by Genesis. The intro + verse are in , followed by several sub-sections and then back to .\n", "Accidentals apply to subsequent notes on the same staff position for the remainder of the measure where they occur, unless explicitly changed by another accidental. Once a barline is passed, the effect of the accidental ends, except when a note affected by an accidental is tied to the same note across a barline. Subsequent notes at the same staff position in the second or later bars are not affected by the accidental carried through with the tied note. \n\n/score\n\nUnder this system, the notes in the example above are: \n\nBULLET::::- 1: G, G, G (the sharp carries over)\n", "Handel also seemed to use and understand \"notes inégales\" in many of his works. However, like often in the French literature, there are also inconsistencies which have never been fully explained where dots start and then stop for no clear reason, but as Newman has observed, mostly this happens towards the approach to cadences. But in general, in many of his suites, and even his orchestral music, the application of \"notes inégales\" finds a solid home in Handel. Most obvious are in some of the Ouvertures, but there are many movements where a subtle \"notes inégales\" works well, such as in the Sarabande of the E Minor suite (from the set of Eight Great Suites; his earliest compilation); and numerous Menuets throughout his keyboard and even some of his orchestral works. Even in his orchestral music, and vocal music, Handel can have some very \"French\" moments – some of the menuets in particular, keyboard as well as orchestral, can work well with a subtle \"notes inégales\", despite Handel's very intercontinental lineage. Whether in Germany or England, he was clearly a master at the French \"notes inégales\" as well as the Ouverture style. He was strongly influenced by Georg Muffat's nephew, who will be discussed below, and perhaps that is a part of Handel's reception of the French Style of playing. And occasionally one finds movements that don't seem necessarily \"French\", as over the years, Handel did develop a very strong \"English\" style that was unique to him, but nonetheless, sound very much more \"revealed\" when subjected to \"notes inégales\" aka inequality procedure.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-15753	How can we see Venus on the night sky ?	Venus is always closer to the Sun that Earth is, but Venus is not always in between the Earth and the Sun. If Venus is directly in between or directly behind the Sun, you cannot see it, but if Venus is on the side (in its orbital position), then you will have a great view of Venus during dawn and dusk. Here is a [diagram]( URL_0 ).	[ "After the Sun, the second-brightest object in the Mercurian sky is Venus, which is much brighter there than for terrestrial observers. The reason for this is that when Venus is closest to Earth, it is between the Earth and the Sun, so we see only its night side. Indeed, even when Venus is brightest in the Earth's sky, we are actually seeing only a narrow crescent. For a Mercurian observer, on the other hand, Venus is closest when it is in opposition to the Sun and is showing its full disk. The apparent magnitude of Venus is as bright as −7.7.\n", "Naked eye observations of Venus during daylight hours exist in several anecdotes and records. Astronomer Edmund Halley calculated its maximum naked eye brightness in 1716, when many Londoners were alarmed by its appearance in the daytime. French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte once witnessed a daytime apparition of the planet while at a reception in Luxembourg. Another historical daytime observation of the planet took place during the inauguration of the American president Abraham Lincoln in Washington, D.C., on 4 March 1865. Although naked eye visibility of Venus's phases is disputed, records exist of observations of its crescent.\n\nSection::::Observation.:Ashen light.\n", "On rare occasions, Venus can actually be seen in both the morning (before sunrise) and evening (after sunset) on the same day. This scenario arises when Venus is at its maximum separation from the ecliptic and concomitantly at inferior conjunction; then one hemisphere (Northern or Southern) will be able to see it at both times. This opportunity presented itself most recently for Northern Hemisphere observers within a few days on either side of March 29, 2001, and for those in the Southern Hemisphere, on and around August 19, 1999. These respective events repeat themselves every eight years pursuant to the planet's synodic cycle.\n", "Because its orbit takes it between the Earth and the Sun, Venus as seen from Earth exhibits visible phases in much the same manner as the Earth's Moon. Galileo Galilei was the first person to observe the phases of Venus in December 1610, an observation which supported Copernicus's then-contentious heliocentric description of the Solar System. He also noted changes in the size of Venus's visible diameter when it was in different phases, suggesting that it was farther from Earth when it was full and nearer when it was a crescent. This observation strongly supported the heliocentric model. Venus (and also Mercury) is not visible from Earth when it is full, since at that time it is at superior conjunction, rising and setting concomitantly with the Sun and hence lost in the Sun's glare.\n", "Venus \"overtakes\" Earth every 584 days as it orbits the Sun. As it does so, it changes from the \"Evening Star\", visible after sunset, to the \"Morning Star\", visible before sunrise. Although Mercury, the other inferior planet, reaches a maximum elongation of only 28° and is often difficult to discern in twilight, Venus is hard to miss when it is at its brightest. Its greater maximum elongation means it is visible in dark skies long after sunset. As the brightest point-like object in the sky, Venus is a commonly misreported \"unidentified flying object\".\n\nSection::::Observation.:Phases.\n", "A particularly favourable viewing opportunity occurred on 8 October 2015, with a 40% illuminated Venus reappearing from behind the unlit limb of a 15% sunlit Moon. The event was visible in dark skies throughout Central Australia and was recorded by David and Joan Dunham (of the International Occultation Timing Association) using a 10\" f/4 Newton telescope with a Watec 120N+ video camera from a location just north of Alice Springs. They also observed the event visually with an 8\" Schmidt–Cassegrain telescope. Neither the real-time visual observation nor close visual inspection of the video recording showed any sign of the dark side of Venus. While not conclusive, these observations suggest the ashen light is more likely attributable to telescope optics and eye physiology rather than atmospheric phenomena on Venus.\n", "As it orbits the Sun, Venus displays phases like those of the Moon in a telescopic view. The planet appears as a small and \"full\" disc when it is on the opposite side of the Sun (at superior conjunction). Venus shows a larger disc and \"quarter phase\" at its maximum elongations from the Sun, and appears its brightest in the night sky. The planet presents a much larger thin \"crescent\" in telescopic views as it passes along the near side between Earth and the Sun. Venus displays its largest size and \"new phase\" when it is between Earth and the Sun (at inferior conjunction). Its atmosphere is visible through telescopes by the halo of sunlight refracted around it.\n", "BULLET::::4. the infrared 1 μm camera (IR1) is imaging on the night side heat radiation (0.90–1.01 μm) emitted from Venus's surface and help researchers to spot active volcanoes, if they exist. While on the day side, it sensed the solar near-infrared radiation (0.90 μm) reflected by the middle clouds. Unavailable for observation after December 2016 due to an electronic failure.\n", "NASA's Solar and Heliospheric Observatory could not see the transit as it was not in between the Earth and the Sun at the time of the event, but high-definition images of the event were obtained by Solar Dynamics Observatory, from above the Earth. Agency astrophysicist Dr. Lika Guhathakurta said, \"We get to see Venus in exquisite detail because of SDO's spatial resolution, SDO is a very special observatory. It takes images that are about 10 times better than a high-definition TV and those images are acquired at a temporal cadence of one every 10 seconds. This is something we've never had before\".\n", "BULLET::::- The Hubble Space Telescope, which cannot be pointed directly at the Sun, used the Moon as a mirror to study the light that had passed through the atmosphere of Venus in order to determine its composition. This will help to show whether a similar technique could be used to study exoplanets.\n\nSection::::Past and future transits.\n", "Section::::Observation.\n", "Because Venus is closer to the Sun than the Earth, it passes the Earth during its orbit. When it passes behind the Sun at superior conjunction and between the Earth and the Sun at inferior conjunction it is invisible. Particularly dramatic is the disappearance as evening star and its reappearance as the morning star approximately eight days later, after inferior conjunction. The cycle of Venus is 583.92 days long but it varies between 576.6 and 588.1 days. Astronomers calculate heliacal phenomena (first and last visibility of rising or setting bodies) using the \"arcus visionis\" – the difference in altitude between the body and the center of the Sun at the time of geometric rising or setting of the body, not including the 34 arc minutes of refraction that allows one to see a body before its geometric rise or the 0.266,563,88... degree semidiameter of the sun. Atmospheric phenomena like extinction are not considered. The required arcus visionis varies with the brightness of the body. Because Venus varies in size and has phases, a different arcus visionus is used for the four different rising and settings.\n", "The latest pair was June 8, 2004 and June 5–6, 2012. The transit could be watched live from many online outlets or observed locally with the right equipment and conditions.\n", "The ashen light has often been sighted when Venus is in the evening sky, when the evening terminator of the planet is toward the Earth. Observation attempts were made on 17 July 2001, when a 67% Venus reappeared from behind a 13% moon. None of the observers of this occurrence (including some using 'Super RADOTS' telescopes) reported seeing the ashen light. Video from the event was captured, but the camera was too insensitive to detect even the earthshine.\n", "By using five different cameras working at several wavelengths,\" Akatsuki\" is studying the stratification of the atmosphere, atmospheric dynamics, and cloud physics. Astronomers working on the mission reported detecting a possible gravity wave that occurred on Venus in December 2015.\n\nSection::::Mission.\n", "Section::::Observation by spacecraft.:Recent flybys.\n", "Section::::Naked eye observations.\n\nThe extreme crescent phase of Venus can be seen without a telescope by those with exceptionally acute eyesight, at the limit of human perception. The angular resolution of the naked eye is about 1 minute of arc. The apparent disk of Venus' extreme crescent measures between 60.2 and 66 seconds of arc, depending on the distance from Earth. \n", "\"MESSENGER\" passed by Venus twice on its way to Mercury. The first time, it flew by on October 24, 2006, passing 3000 km from Venus. As Earth was on the other side of the Sun, no data was recorded. The second flyby was on July 6, 2007, where the spacecraft passed only 325 km from the cloudtops.\n\nSection::::Observation by spacecraft.:Future missions.\n", "The atmosphere of Venus is so thick that the Sun is not distinguishable in the daytime sky, and the stars are not visible at night. Color images taken by the Soviet Venera probes suggest that the sky on Venus is orange. If the Sun could be seen from Venus's surface, the time from one sunrise to the next (a solar day) would be 116.75 Earth days. Because of Venus's retrograde rotation, the Sun would appear to rise in the west and set in the east.\n", "An observer aloft in Venus's cloud tops, on the other hand, would circumnavigate the planet in about four Earth days and see a sky in which Earth and the Moon shine brightly (about magnitudes −6.6 and −2.7, respectively) at opposition. Mercury would also be easy to spot, because it is closer and brighter, at up to magnitude −2.7, and because its maximum elongation from the Sun is considerably larger (40.5°) than when observed from Earth (28.3°).\n\nSection::::The Moon.\n", "The \"Akatsuki\" spacecraft, by Japan's space agency JAXA, was injected into Venus orbit on 7 December 2015. Part of its scientific payload includes the Lightning and Airglow Camera (LAC) which is looking for lightning in the visible spectrum (552-777 nm). To image lightning, the orbiter has sight of the dark side of Venus for about 30 minutes every 10 days. No lightning has been detected.\n\nSection::::Hypotheses.\n", "A green flash from the moon and bright planets at the horizon, including Venus and Jupiter, can also be observed.\n\nSection::::Mirage.:Fata Morgana.\n", "Observations and explorations of Venus\n\nObservations of the planet Venus include those in antiquity, telescopic observations, and from visiting spacecraft. Spacecraft have performed various flybys, orbits, and landings on Venus, including balloon probes that floated in the atmosphere of Venus. Study of the planet is aided by its relatively close proximity to the Earth, compared to other planets, but the surface of Venus is obscured by an atmosphere opaque to visible light.\n\nSection::::Historical observations and impact.\n", "Section::::Observation by spacecraft.:Orbiters.:Magellan.\n", "Section::::Science.:Telescope.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02000	When companies report the current sales of an item, where do they get the figures from? Is it from how much they sell to their retailers/distributors? Or do they have their retailers report back how much they sold?	Vendors generally require distributers and resellers to report sales all the way through to end users as part of thier trade agreements. They call it "sell in" from vendor to disti. "Sell out" from disti to reseller and "Sell through" from reseller to end users. All easily tracked at any point in time. When they announce global sales they are only talking about sell through.	[ "Direct marketing businesses must record the revenues and profits received from merchandise sales in order to satisfy basic legal requirements and calculate tax liabilities. Sales of individual items must be tracked in order to fulfill customer orders and manage inventories. As a result, the gross profit and profit margin for each item sold can be calculated as a means of determining which items are most profitable to the business and its owners.\n", "Those facilities may belong to one company or span over several companies. CLIP is an analog measurement taking the portion of fulfillment into account using customer commit date as reference date. This intends a usage within a supply chain part with a fixed-period demand pattern (e.g. daily or weekly) and a permanent material flow (e.g. between production and distribution center), which is later on again split to be sent to different customers and locations. \n\nSection::::Definition.\n", "CLIP is being measured for every part number. The CLIP value of a certain “bundle“ (location, PL, Segment etc.) of part numbers is calculated by averaging the CLIP values of the individual part number in that “bundle“. Each part number in an aggregation (“bundle”) is counted as 1, irrespective of how big the volume of production for that part number is. \n\nThe lateness compared to the confirmed date is taken into account. In every period p the backlog of previous periods is not fulfilled the CLIP performance is worsened signaling the receiver an open demand.\n", "Since 1951, the U.S. Census Bureau has published the Retail Sales report every month. It is a measure of consumer spending, an important indicator of the US GDP. Retail firms provide data on the dollar value of their retail sales and inventories. A sample of 12,000 firms is included in the final survey and 5,000 in the advanced one. The advanced estimated data is based on a subsample from the US CB complete retail & food services sample.\n\nSection::::Statistics for national retail sales.:Central Europe.\n", "Sales forecasting uses past sales figures to predict the short-term or long-term future performance to enable sound financial planning. Historical sales and/or economic data is often used to improve the forecast of sales.\n\nFor shops and stores, market research may yield the following indicators for deriving initial forecasts:\n\nBULLET::::- average sales volume per unit area for similar shops in similar locations of similar size\n\nBULLET::::- number of consumers or consumer households in appropriate vicinity of the store and their annual expenses on the product in question\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Choice architecture\n\nBULLET::::- Customer Relationship Management (CRM)\n\nBULLET::::- Customer service\n", "Specific identification (inventories)\n\nSpecific identification is a method of finding out ending inventory cost. \n\nIt requires a detailed physical count, so that the company knows exactly how many of each goods brought on specific dates remained at year end inventory. When this information is found, the amount of goods are multiplied by their purchase cost at their purchase date, to get a number for the ending inventory cost. \n", "The sale records and inventory are highly important to the business because they provide very useful information to the company in terms of customer preferences, customer membership particulars, what are the top selling products, who are the vendors and what margins the company is getting from them, the company monthly total revenue and cost, just to name some.\n", "The sales journal is used to record all of the company sales on credit. Most often these sales are made up of inventory sales or other merchandise sales. Notice that only credit sales of inventory and merchandise items are recorded in the sales journal. Cash sales of inventory are recorded in the cash receipts journal. Both cash and credit sales of non-inventory or merchandise are recorded in the general journal.\n", "`Micro-analysis', which is simply the normal management process of investigating detailed problems, then investigates the individual elements (individual products, sales territories, customers and so on) which are failing to meet targets\n\nSection::::Performance analysis.:Market share analysis.\n\nFew organizations track market share though it is often an important metric. Though absolute sales might grow in an expanding market, a firm's share of the market can decrease which bodes ill for future sales when the market starts to drop. Where such market share is tracked, there may be a number of aspects which will be followed:\n\nBULLET::::- overall market share\n", "Same-store sales are also known as comparable store sales, identical store sales or like-store sales.\n\nSame-store sales are widely reported by publicly owned retail chains as a key element of their operational results. For chains that are growing quickly by opening new outlets, same store sales figures allow analysts to differentiate between revenue growth that comes from new stores, and growth from improved operations at existing outlets.\n", "Business Activity, New Orders, Imports, and Employment indices are seasonally adjusted. All data points from this survey are made available at US Macro » Non-Manufacturing ISM Report on Business (link outdated, 404)\n\nThe report is based on data compiled from monthly replies to questions asked of more than 370 purchasing and supply executives in over 62 different industries representing nine divisions from the Standard Industrial Classification categories.\n", "Market contact audit\n\nThe market contact audit is a research tool, which measures the effectiveness of various contacts in a category using a common method and a common unit. Therefore, it provides a yardstick to understand which are the key contacts that drive the category, which contact points are working better for the brand and which are the ones where money should be saved. It is a planning process that helps in rationalizing and prioritizing the marketing and media spends.\n", "Also during the year, multiple sales happen. The Current Goods Available for Sale is deducted by the amount of goods sold, and the Cost of Current Inventory is deducted by the amount of goods sold times the latest (before this sale) Current Cost per Unit on Goods. This deducted amount is added to Cost of Goods Sold.\n\nAt the end of the year, the last Cost per Unit on Goods, along with a physical count, is used to determine ending inventory cost.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Inventory\n\nBULLET::::- FIFO and LIFO accounting\n\nBULLET::::- Specific identification\n\nBULLET::::- Income statement\n\nSection::::References.\n", "Specific store sales can also be compared. For example, a retail chain's finding that its same store sales at location A for the week-long shopping rush before Christmas are greater than those at location B is a useful piece of data. That data would have been less useful if only chain-wide sales for that week were known (with all stores averaged together), or if only year-long sales were known for that particular store. This makes same store sales a useful metric not only for external assessments of a retailer's performance, but also for internal benchmarking guiding store opening, remodelling and closing decisions.\n", "To determine the confirmed line item performance two \"virtual\" quantities are introduced: the virtually committed order and the virtual delivery. The virtually committed order for a product p consists of the actual order for the considered delivery week (DW) plus any backlog of this product accumulated up to that week. \n\nThe virtual delivery for a product consists of the actually delivered chips within the considered delivery week plus any excess deliveries of this product accumulated up to that week.\n", "While price data generally originates from the exchanges, reference data generally originates from the issuer. However, before it arrives in the hands of investors or traders, it usually passes through the hands of financial data vendors that may reformat it, organize it and attempt to clear obvious anomalies on a real-time basis.\n", "Through BEPs, which are weighted via the CCF, activities can be compared across all brands and among all contacts of the category. Through BEPs, levels of activities can also be compared across markets and categories.\n", "Section::::Gross sales and net sales.\n\nformula_1\n\nGross sales are the sum of all sales during a time period. Net sales are gross sales minus sales returns, sales allowances, and sales discounts. Gross sales do not normally appear on an income statement. The sales figures reported on an income statement are net sales.\n\nBULLET::::- sales returns are refunds to customers for returned merchandise / credit notes\n\nBULLET::::- debit notes\n\nBULLET::::- sales journal entries non-current, current batch processed transactions predictive analytics in strategic management/administration/governance research metaframeworks\n", "In their \"Advance Monthly Sales for Retail Trade and Food Services\", the US Census Bureau publishes estimates of US retail and food services sales. These \"sales\" are orders that have been filled; payment has been made or is an account receivable.\n\nIn their \"Preliminary Report on Manufacturers' Shipments, Inventories and Orders\", the US Census Bureau publishes statistics for \"new orders\", shipments, \"unfilled orders\" and inventories for manufactured durable goods. This gives an indication whether trade is increasing or decreasing for manufactured durable goods in the US.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Backlog (disambiguation)\n\nBULLET::::- Bill of sale\n\nBULLET::::- Contract of sale\n", "Accounts receivable refers to the outstanding balance of accounts receivable at a point in time here whereas average sales per day is the mean sales computed over some period of time. This can be annual as in the formula above, or it can be any period of time considered useful to the company. Because this is an average general KPI, though, choosing a time period that's too low may introduce undesirable artifacts in the data. Typically this is a calendar year or month or a fiscal year or period.\n", "The confirmed line item performance of one product p for a delivery week is calculated as the ratio of the virtual delivery to the virtually committed order. If there are more chips delivered than ordered, the CLIP of the respective product is 100%. \n\nThe CLIP of the whole site is calculated as the average CLIP of all products with a virtually committed order. Each product is counted separately (by part number). There is no weighting by volume applied.\n\nSection::::Aggregation.\n", "Section::::Output.:Brand experience points (BEPS).\n\nBrand experience points (BEP) is an indicator that reflects the perceived weight of experienced consumer – brand encounters through individual contacts. BEPs are measured by the degree to which consumers associate brands and contacts. These associations are normalized and weighted by the CCF to deliver the BEP levels for each brand against each contact.\n\nThe higher the BEP level for a contact, the more consumers report experiencing the brand in that contact.\n", "Same-store sales\n\nSame-store sales is a business term which refers to the difference in revenue generated by a retail chain's existing outlets over a certain period (often a fiscal quarter or a particular shopping season), compared to an identical period in the past, usually in the previous year. By comparing sales data from existing outlets (that is, by excluding new outlets or outlets which have since closed), the comparison is like-to-like, and avoids comparing data that are fundamentally incomparable. This financial and operational metric is expressed as a percentage.\n", "BULLET::::- Related to share above, an item or category of items can have a sales rate per million dollars of ACV. This allows for comparison of how well an item sells in one outlet vs. another regardless of its overall distribution. This is often referred to as weighted sales velocity.\n\nBULLET::::- What percentage of ACV$ in a market is a product or grouping benefiting from trade merchandising such as feature advertisements, in-store point of sale display, coupons, etc. One can then deduce how much one time period has extra merchandising support versus another.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Numeric distribution\n", "Multiple data points, for example the average of the monthly averages, will provide a much more representative turn figure.\n\nThe average days to sell the inventory is calculated as follows:\n\nSection::::Application in Business.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-05029	What's so special about TV studio lenses?	The lenses are round. However, they typically have a rectangular shade to keep the studio lights from entering and causing reflections; and they often sport motorized zoom and/or focus controls. If this doesn't explain the type you're thinking of, maybe provide a link or two to some pictures or items?	[ "A different type of teleconverter called a teleside converter can be mounted on the front of the camera's lens rather than between the primary lens and the camera body. These are popular with users of video cameras and bridge cameras with fixed lenses, as they represent the only way to add more reach to such a camera. They are usually afocal lenses that do not reduce the brightness of the image, but are more likely to add aberrations to the image, independent of the quality of the main lens.\n\nSection::::Function.:Versus extension tubes.\n", "A unique triplet of ultra-fast 50 mm lenses originally created by Zeiss for NASA's lunar program had the distinction of being reused by Stanley Kubrick in the filming of his historical drama \"Barry Lyndon\". The period atmosphere of the film demanded that several indoor scenes be filmed by candlelight. To facilitate this, Kubrick had the lenses modified to mount onto a cinema camera and two of them subsequently further modified in separate ways to give wider angles of view.\n\nSection::::Camera lenses.:Smartphone lenses.\n", "Some teleconverters are \"dedicated\" or matched to particular primary lenses, normally one or more lenses by the same manufacturer as the teleconvertor, and when used in this combination deliver quality comparable to the primary lens. Others are general-purpose, and in use typically offer less image quality then a primary lens of the same quality, but allow a camera kit to offer a wider variety of focal lengths with a smaller number of lenses, saving in both cost and weight.\n", "Director of Photography Angus Hudson and Nooshin opted for the Cooke Xtal Express range of anamorphic lenses, originally spherical lenses from the 1930s that had been re-housed and modified with anamorphic elements in the 1980s.\n", "There are numerous companies that are known for manufacturing anamorphic lenses. The following are the most well known in the film industry:\n\nSection::::Lens makers and corporate trademarks.:Origination.\n", "BULLET::::- Vantage Film, designers and manufacturers of Hawk lenses. The entire Hawk lens system consists of 50 different prime lenses and 5 zoom lenses, all of them specifically developed and optically computed by Vantage Film. Hawk lenses have their anamorphic element in the middle of the lens (not up front like Panavision), which makes them more flare-resistant. This design choice also means that if they do flare, one does not get the typical horizontal flares. The C-Series, which were developed in the mid-1990s, are relatively small and lightweight. The V-Series (2001) and V-Plus Series (2006) are an improvement over the C-Series as far as sharpness, contrast, barrel-distortion and close-focus are concerned. This increased optical performance means a higher weight, however (each lens is around 4-5 kilograms). There are 14 lenses in this series—from 25 mm to 250 mm. The V-Series also have the closest minimum focus of any anamorphic lens series available and as such can rival spherical lenses. Vantage also offers a series of lightweight lenses called V-Lite. They are 8 very small anamorphic lenses (about the size of a Cooke S4 spherical lens), which are ideal for handheld and Steadicam while also giving an optical performance comparable to the V-Series and V-Plus lenses. In 2008 Vantage introduced the Hawk V-Lite 16, a set of new lenses for 16 mm anamorphic production, as well as the Hawk V-Lite 1.3x lenses, which make it possible to use nearly the entire image area of 3-perf 35 mm film or the sensor area of a 16:9 digital camera and at the same time provide the popular 2.39:1 release format.\n", "Director of photography John Alcott was honored at the 48th Academy Awards with the Best Cinematography award for his work on Barry Lyndon. One of the modified Mitchell BNC cameras, and two of the modified f0.7 lenses are on display with the Stanley Kubrick Exhibition.\n\nSection::::Products.:CP35.\n", "BULLET::::- Anamorphic lenses are used principally in cinematography to produce wide-screen films where the projected image has a substantially different ratio of height to width than the image recorded on the film plane. This is achieved by the use of a specialised lens design which compresses the image laterally at the recording stage and the film is then projected through a similar lens in the cinema to recreate the wide-screen effect. Although in some cases the anamorphic effect is achieved by using an anamorphising attachment as a supplementary element on the front of a normal lens, most films shot in anamorphic formats use specially designed anamorphic lenses, such as the Hawk lenses made by Vantage Film or Panavision's anamorphic lenses. These lenses incorporate one or more aspheric elements in their design.\n", "Some TV lenses lack provision to focus or vary the aperture, so may not operate properly with film cameras. Also, some TV lenses may have bits that protrude behind the mount far enough to interfere with the shutter or reflex finder mechanisms of a film camera.\n", "Section::::Photographic catadioptric lenses.\n", "Matte box\n\nIn still photography and video, a matte box is a device used on the end of a lens to block the sun or other light source in order to prevent glare and lens flare. It performs essentially the same function as a lens hood and also mounts in front of the lens, but usually includes adjustable fins called \"French flags.\"\n", "The first of the early 1990s sealed anamorphic monobloc Iscoramas. These were the spiritual successors to the original Iscorama, but were much more limited in their range of possible applications due to their sealed construction and fixed anamorphic optics. Ironically, some of the 2000 series lenses were also optically inferior to their 1960s forebears.\n", "Section::::Lenses used in front of the primary lens.\n\nExamples of secondary lenses designed to be used in front of the primary lens are:\n\nBULLET::::- Fisheye adaptors\n\nBULLET::::- Corrected wide angle adaptors\n\nBULLET::::- Telephoto adaptors such as teleside converters\n\nBULLET::::- Close-up lenses\n\nAll of these typically mount on the filter ring of the primary lens.\n\nFront-mounting secondary lenses are commonly used to provide wide-angle and telephoto lenses for cameras which lack the facility to change the primary lens, such as consumer and \"prosumer\" video cameras and camcorders, bridge cameras, point-and-shoot cameras and some older consumer medium format cameras.\n", "The original Iscoramas were discontinued at the end of the 1970s, by which point in time ISCO had released the Cinegon C-Mount Cine lens, plus the Iscorama 36 and Iscorama 54 screw-in anamorphic adapters, and the associated Iscostat projection mount system. These new stand-alone adapters were a tacit acknowledgement of the fact that many ISCO customers were mounting the front element of the original Iscorama detachable monobloc onto other manufacturers' taking lenses. \n", "When used with somewhat slow lenses they may reduce the effective aperture enough that the camera's autofocus system will no longer work; depending on the camera system, this may range from f/5.6 to f/8.\n\nDedicated teleconverters only work with a limited number of lenses, usually telephoto lenses made by the same manufacturer, or by a third-party manufacturer to a matching standard.\n", "Using a teleconverter with an existing lens is usually less expensive than acquiring a separate, longer telephoto lens, but as the teleconverter is magnifying the existing image circle, it also magnifies any aberrations. The use of a teleconverter also results in a darker image.\n\nSection::::Function.:Teleside converter.\n", "Section::::Limitations.\n\nA DOF adapter comes with a few limitations. First is the inherent light loss that comes with attaching the unit to the front of the camera. Using any one of these adapters requires that the scene being shot by the camera be adequately lit.\n", "Studio cameras are light and small enough to be taken off the pedestal and the lens changed to a smaller size to be used on a camera operator's shoulder, but they still have no recorder of their own and are cable-bound. Cameras can also be mounted on a tripod, a dolly or a crane, thus making the cameras much more versatile than previous generations of studio cameras. These cameras have a tally light, a small signal-lamp used that indicates, for the benefit of those being filmed as well as the camera operator, that the camera is 'live' – i.e. its signal is being used for the 'main program' at that moment.\n", "Another option is to use a flip module. A flip module is yet another addition to 35mm adapter construction set that is made up of a series of mirrors or prisms that literally \"flip\" the image while shooting. This avoids the burden of needing an external LCD monitor, but at the cost of additional light loss. Many adapters already have a flip module within them, so the filmmakers do not have to worry about flipping the image in post-production.\n\nSection::::Construction.\n", "Forward and backward compatibility was maintained in most cases so that the newer lenses could be used on older cameras, and old standard lenses could be used on the newer cameras, but of course without the advanced automation. However, Olympus FTL lenses and Fujica screw mount lenses had a projecting cam which means that they cannot be fully screwed down on a regular screw mount body.\n", "The FA-J series consisted of three lower-priced zoom lenses, that were largely identical to the FA series of lenses, but like later DA series lenses lacked the aperture ring. As a result, they are not fully compatible with some older manual film cameras, as there was no method of setting the aperture other than through the camera body.\n\nSection::::Lens designations.:D FA lenses.\n", "The depth-of-field adapter (also called a DOF adapter or 35 mm adapter) is a largely obsolete device that uses a ground glass focusing screen to enable the use of interchangeable lenses on a fixed lens camcorder. There are also lens adapters made for other optical systems, including microscopes and telescopes.\n\nSection::::Basic design.\n", "Most users of SLR and DSLR cameras stick to using zoom lenses, while a few of the more adventurous amateurs and many professional photographers also invest in a few prime lenses. Special purpose lenses are, as the designation implies, for special purposes, and are not so common.\n", "Scleral lenses are not to be confused with \"sclera\" lenses, which are soft lenses and do not contain a fluid reservoir. \"Sclera\" contacts are used in movies such as the whited-out eyes of the monsters in \"Evil Dead\", or blacked-out eyes in \"Underworld\" and \"\", or the \"Star Trek\" episode \"Where No Man Has Gone Before\". These lenses tend to be uncomfortable and sometimes impede the actors' vision, but the visual effects produced can be striking. These lenses can be custom-painted, although most companies only sell lenses with a pre-designed look.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Eye movement measurement.\n", "Today, most lenses are multi-coated in order to minimize lens flare and other unwanted effects. Some lenses have a UV coating to keep out the ultraviolet light that could taint color. Most modern optical cements for bonding glass elements also block UV light, negating the need for a UV filter. UV photographers must go to great lengths to find lenses with no cement or coatings.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03327	Can You drink warm tap water or only cold? (without boiling)	I would seriously advise against it as it isn’t made to be drank I’ve heard that the tanks for hot water aren’t as clean so don’t do it x.	[ "In tropical countries, like Singapore and India, a storage water heater may vary from 10 L to 35 L. Smaller water heaters are sufficient, as ambient weather temperatures and incoming water temperature are moderate.\n\nSection::::Types of water heating appliances.:Point-of-use (POU) vs centralized hot water.\n", "Appliances that provide a continual supply of hot water are called \"water heaters\", \"hot water heaters\", \"hot water tanks\", \"boilers\", \"heat exchangers\", \"geysers\" (Southern Africa only), or \"calorifiers\". These names depend on region, and whether they heat potable or non-potable water, are in domestic or industrial use, and their energy source. In domestic installations, potable water heated for uses other than space heating is also called \"domestic hot water\" (\"DHW\").\n", "Two conflicting safety issues affect water heater temperature—the risk of scalding from excessively hot water greater than , and the risk of incubating bacteria colonies, particularly \"Legionella\", in water that is not hot enough to kill them. Both risks are potentially life-threatening and are balanced by setting the water heater's thermostat to . The European Guidelines for Control and Prevention of Travel Associated Legionnaires’ Disease recommend that hot water should be stored at and distributed so that a temperature of at least and preferably is achieved within one minute at points of use.\n", "BULLET::::- Safe beverages include bottled water, bottled carbonated beverages, and water boiled or appropriately treated by the traveler (as described below). Caution should be exercised with tea, coffee, and other hot beverages that may be only heated, not boiled.\n\nBULLET::::- In restaurants, insist that bottled water be unsealed in your presence; reports of locals filling empty bottles with untreated tap water and reselling them as purified water have surfaced. When in doubt, a bottled carbonated beverage is the safest choice, since it is difficult to simulate carbonation when refilling a used bottle.\n", "Boiling water is not recommended for use in hot-water bottles. This is due to risks of the rubber being degraded from high-temperature water, and the risk of injury in case of breakage.\n\nSection::::In fiction.\n\nAlfred, the cantankerous hot-water bottle, is a character from \"Johnson and Friends\", a popular Australian children's television series from the 1990s. This character has gained a cult following in recent years, particularly among those who grew up with the series, due to the odd character choice. Alfred is believed to be the only anthropomorphised hot-water bottle in existence.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Hot water bottle blowing\n", "Domestically, water is traditionally heated in vessels known as \"water heaters\", \"kettles\", \"cauldrons\", \"pots\", or \"coppers\". These metal vessels that heat a batch of water do not produce a continual supply of heated water at a preset temperature. Rarely, hot water occurs naturally, usually from natural hot springs. The temperature varies with the consumption rate, becoming cooler as flow increases.\n", "Water typically enters residences in the US at about , depending on latitude and season. Hot water temperatures of are usual for dish-washing, laundry and showering, which requires that the heater raise the water temperature about if the hot water is mixed with cold water at the point of use. The Uniform Plumbing Code reference shower flow rate is per minute. Sink and dishwasher usages range from per minute.\n", "For people who are alert and able to swallow, drinking warm sweetened liquids can help raise the temperature. Many recommend alcohol and caffeinated drinks be avoided. As most people are moderately dehydrated due to cold-induced diuresis, warmed intravenous fluids to a temperature of are often recommended.\n\nSection::::Management.:Cardiac arrest.\n", "In Act I of Bernard Shaw's play \"Widowers' Houses\" (1892), the English tourist Sartorius is shocked that there is a church in Germany called Apollinaris, thinking they have named it after the mineral water.\n\nIn \"What Maisie Knew\" by Henry James (1897) (chapter 19), Maisie and her stepfather, in a coffee-room at lunch-time, partake of cold beef and apollinaris.\n", "There are two ways to heat bottles with disposable inserts or hard plastic, and glass bottles. A bottle can be placed under hot, running tap water until the desired temperature is reached. This should take one-to-two minutes. A bottle can be placed in a pan after the water has been heated on a stove. The pan can be removed from the heat and set the bottle in it until it is warm. It is safer to shake milk or formula to even out the temperature. Heating breast milk or infant formula in the microwave is not recommended. This results in \"hot spots\" that can scald a baby's mouth and throat.\n", "Where a space-heating water boiler is employed, the traditional arrangement in the UK is to use boiler-heated (\"primary\") water to heat potable (\"secondary\") water contained in a cylindrical vessel (usually made of copper)—which is supplied from a cold water storage vessel or container, usually in the roof space of the building. This produces a fairly steady supply of DHW (Domestic Hot Water) at low static pressure head but usually with a good flow. In most other parts of the world, water heating appliances do not use a cold water storage vessel or container, but heat water at pressures close to that of the incoming mains water supply.\n", "Hot water used for space heating may be heated by fossil fuels in a boiler, while potable water may be heated in a separate appliance. This is common practice in the US, especially when warm-air space heating is usually employed.\n\nSection::::Types of water heating appliances.:Storage water heaters (tank-type).\n", "(Illustrated by a still lake, where the surface water can be comfortably warm for swimming but deeper layers be so cold as to represent a danger to swimmers, the same effect as gives rise to notices in London's city docks warning 'Danger Cold Deep Water).\n", "Among fishers in the United States, freshwater fish species are usually classified by the water temperature in which they survive. The water temperature affects the amount of oxygen available as cold water contains more oxygen than warm water.\n\nSection::::Classification in the United States.:Coldwater.\n\nColdwater fish species survive in the coldest temperatures, preferring a water temperature of . In North America, air temperatures that result in sufficiently cold water temperatures are found in the northern United States, Canada, and in the southern United States at high elevation. Common coldwater fish include brook trout, rainbow trout, and brown trout.\n", "Sitting in water above normal body temperatures can cause drowsiness which may lead to unconsciousness and subsequently result in drowning. The U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) recommends that water temperatures never exceed 40 degrees Celsius. A temperature of 37 degrees is considered safe for a healthy adult. Soaking in water above 39 degrees Celsius can cause fetal damage during the first three months of pregnancy.\n", "Most residential dishwashing machines, for example, include an internal electric heating element for increasing the water temperature above that provided by a domestic water heater.\n\nSection::::Water heater safety.:Bacterial contamination.\n", "This is a popular arrangement where higher flow rates are required for limited periods. Water is heated in a pressure vessel that can withstand a hydrostatic pressure close to that of the incoming mains supply. A pressure reducing valve is sometimes employed to limit the pressure to a safe level for the vessel. In North America, these vessels are called \"hot water tanks\", and may incorporate an electrical resistance heater, a heat pump, or a gas or oil burner that heats water directly.\n", "In water and ice-based baths, tap water is commonly used due to ease of access and the higher costs of using ultrapure water. However, tap water and ice derived from tap water can be a contaminant to biological and chemical samples. This has created a host of insulated devices aimed at creating a similar cooling or freezing effect as ice baths without the use of water or ice.\n\nSection::::Traditional cooling baths.:Safety Recommendations.\n\nThe American Chemical Society notes that the ideal organic solvents to use in a cooling baths have the following characteristics:\n\n1. Nontoxic vapors\n\n2. Low viscosity\n\n3. Nonflammability\n", "The temperature of the tea brewed in this manner is never heated high enough to kill any bacteria, leaving the water potentially unsafe to drink. The tea should be discarded if it appears thick, syrupy, or has rope-like strands in it, though it may be hazardous even without such indicators.\n\nBecause of this danger an alternative called \"refrigerator tea\" has been suggested where the tea is brewed in the refrigerator overnight. This has the dual advantage of preventing the growth of harmful bacteria and the tea already being cold without the addition of ice.\n\nSection::::Varieties.:Fountain iced tea.\n", "In hot weather, people need to drink plenty of cool liquids and mineral salts to replace fluids lost from sweating. Thirst is not a reliable sign that a person needs fluids. A better indicator is the color of urine. A dark yellow color may indicate dehydration.\n\nThe Occupational Safety and Health Administration in the United States publishes a QuickCard with a checklist designed to help protect workers from heat stress:\n\nBULLET::::- Know signs/symptoms of heat-related illnesses.\n\nBULLET::::- Block out direct sun and other heat sources.\n\nBULLET::::- Drink fluids often, and \"before\" you are thirsty.\n\nBULLET::::- Wear lightweight, light-colored, loose-fitting clothes.\n", "While generally used for keeping warm, conventional hot-water bottles can be used to some effect for the local application of heat as a medical treatment, for example for pain relief, but newer items such as purpose-designed heating pads are often used now.\n\nSection::::Regulation.\n", "Chlorinating water also reduces dissolved lead. It causes the interiors of lead pipes to become coated with lead chloride, which is very insoluble in cold water. However, lead chloride is fairly soluble in hot water. For this reason, water that is to be used for drinking or the preparation of food should never be taken from a hot-water tap, if the water may have been in contact with lead. Water should be taken from a cold-water tap, and heated in a pan or kettle that does not contain lead or lead solder.\n\nSection::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- Possibility of the potable water or collector fluid overheating or freezing\n\nThe minimum requirements of the system are typically determined by the amount or temperature of hot water required during winter, when a system's output and incoming water temperature are typically at their lowest. The maximum output of the system is determined by the need to prevent the water in the system from becoming too hot.\n\nSection::::Design requirements.:Freeze protection.\n", "Section::::Water quality.:Water treatment.\n\nMost water requires some treatment before use; even water from deep wells or springs. The extent of treatment depends on the source of the water. Appropriate technology options in water treatment include both community-scale and household-scale point-of-use (POU) designs. Only a few a large urban areas such as Christchurch, New Zealand have access to sufficiently pure water of sufficient volume that no treatment of the raw water is required.\n", "While copper and stainless steel domestic hot water tanks are more commonplace in Europe, carbon steel tanks are more common in the United States, where typically the periodic check is neglected, the tank develops a leak whereupon the entire appliance is replaced. Even when neglected, carbon steel tanks tend to last for a few years more than their manufacturer's warranty, which is typically 3 to 12 years in the US.\n" ]	[ "You can drink warm tap water just like cold tap water." ]	[ "Hot water tanks are not as clean so don't do it." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "You can drink warm tap water just like cold tap water." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Hot water tanks are not as clean so don't do it." ]
2018-01384	If a basketball player could dunk by jumping from the 3 point line, would the basket count as 2 or 3 points?	3 points, per the NBA rule book. > A successful field goal attempt from the area outside the three-point field goal line shall count three points. (1) The shooter must have at least one foot on the floor outside the three-point field goal line prior to the attempt. (2) The shooter may not be touching the floor on or inside the three-point field goal line. (3) The shooter may contact the three-point field goal line, or land in the two-point field goal area, after the ball is released. So landing in the 2 zone is ok.	[ "The three-point line is the line that separates and the two-point area from the three-point area; any shot converted beyond this line counts as three points. If the shooting player steps on the line, it is counted as two points. Any foul made in the act of shooting beyond the three-point line would give the player three free throws if the shot does not go in, and one if it does.\n", "A player can be classified as a 3.5 point player if they display characteristics of a 3 point player and 4 point player, and it is not easy to determine exactly which of these two classes the player fits in. For example, Australian Shelley Chaplin is classified as 3.5 point player.\n\nSection::::Strategy and on court ability.\n", "In FIBA-sanctioned 3-on-3 play (branded as 3x3), a \"three-point\" or \"four-point play\" is possible only under very limited circumstances. In that form of the game, field goals taken inside the \"three-point\" arc are worth only 1 point, and field goals made from outside the arc are worth 2 points.\n\nBULLET::::- A player fouled in the act of shooting a successful 2-point basket receives 1 free throw, as long as the defensive team has committed 6 or fewer team fouls in the game.\n", "In 3x3, a FIBA-sanctioned variant of the half-court 3-on-3 game, the same line exists, but shots from behind it are only worth 2 points with all other shots worth 1 point.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- A player who is fouled on an unsuccessful field goal attempt receives one free throw if the attempt was from inside the 'three-point\" arc, and two free throws if the attempt was from outside the arc. This reflects the different scoring of that variation, in which baskets from inside the arc are worth 1 point and those from outside the arc are worth 2 points.\n\nBULLET::::- If the player's team has 6 or fewer team fouls in the game, and the foul was not in the act of shooting, the team fouled gets possession of the ball.\n", "The sport's international governing body, FIBA, introduced the three-point line in 1984, and it made its Olympic debut in 1988 in Seoul, South Korea.\n", "If a shooter is fouled while attempting a three-pointer and subsequently misses the shot, the shooter is awarded three free-throw attempts. If a player completes a three-pointer while being fouled, the player is awarded one free-throw for a possible 4-point play. Conceivably, if a player completed a three-pointer while being fouled, and that foul was ruled as either a Flagrant 1 or a Flagrant 2 foul, the player would be awarded two free throws for a possible 5-point play.\n\nSection::::Related concepts.\n", "In NCAA basketball, the rules state: \"When a player scores a field goal in the opponent’s basket, it shall count two points for the opponent regardless of the location on the playing court from where it was released. Such a field goal shall not be credited to a player in the scorebook but shall be indicated with a footnote.\"\n\nIn NBA rules, the goal is credited to the player on the scoring team who is closest to defensive shooter and is mentioned in a footnote.\n\nUnder FIBA rules, the player designated captain is credited with the basket.\n\nSection::::American football.\n", "Three years later in June 1979, the NBA adopted the three-point line for a one-year trial for the despite the view of many that it was a gimmick. Chris Ford of the Boston Celtics is widely credited with making the first three-point shot in NBA history on October 12, 1979; the season opener at Boston Garden was more noted for the debut of Larry Bird (and two new Rick Barry of the Houston Rockets, in his final season, also made one in the same game, and Kevin Grevey of the Washington Bullets made one that Friday night \n", "Section::::Rules.\n\nIf a 1 point player fouls out of a game, their team is required to replace them in order to keep five players on the court. The team may need to make additional substitutions in order to ensure they do not exceed their point total of fourteen.\n\nSection::::Strategy and on court performance.\n", "BULLET::::- 1's only – each basket counts as 1 point\n\nBULLET::::- 2's only – each basket counts as 2 points\n\nBULLET::::- 1's and 2's – each basket counts as 1 point if inside the arc, or 2 points if outside the arc\n\nBULLET::::- 2's and 3's – each basket counts as 2 points if inside the arc, or 3 points if outside the arc\n", "In Australia, wheelchair basketball players and other disability athletes are generally classified after they have been assessed based on medical, visual or cognitive testing, after a demonstration of their ability to play their sport, and the classifiers watching the player during competitive play.\n\nSection::::Competitors.\n\nAustralian Grant Mizens is a 2 point player. Kylie Gauci is a 2 point player for Australia's women's national team. Bo Hedges and Richard Peter are a 2.5 point players for the Canadian men's national team.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Paralympic Classification Education Video by the Australian Paralympic Committee\n", "A player's feet must be completely behind the three-point line at the time of the shot or jump in order to make a three-point attempt; if the player's feet are on or in front of the line, it is a two-point attempt. A player is allowed to jump from outside the line and land inside the line to make a three-point attempt, as long as the ball is released in mid-air.\n", "Section::::Beyond 4.5.\n\nBeyond 4.5, there is sometimes used a 5-point player classification for abled bodied athletes. The 5 point player is not recognized by wheelchair basketball's governing body. There has been a push by the National Wheelchair Basketball Association to allow for able-bodied athletes to compete in wheelchair basketball games. The argument is the sport is called \"wheelchair basketball,\" not \"disability basketball.\" Able bodied athletes, in a wheelchair, have the same functionality as 4.5 point players.\n\nSection::::Strategy and on court performance.\n", "Section::::Getting classified.\n", "One point players often play more minutes than other players because their low point value means another higher point player can be on the court. 4 point players can move their wheelchairs at a significantly faster speed than 1 point players. In games, 4 point players steal the ball three times more often than 1 point players. 1 point and 2 point players handle the ball the least on court.\n", "Point (basketball)\n\nPoints in basketball are used to keep track of the score in a game. Points can be accumulated by making field goals (two or three points) or free throws (one point). If a player makes a field goal from within the three-point line, the player scores two points. If the player makes a field goal from beyond the three-point line, the player scores three points. The team that has recorded the most points at the end of a game is declared that game's winner.\n\nSection::::NBA.\n\nSection::::NBA.:Regular season.\n\nBULLET::::- Most career points: Kareem Abdul-Jabbar (38,387 pts)\n", "Slam Dunk: Players jumped off the Aerial Bridge and attempted to shoot a basketball through an elevated basketball hoop with each jump. Baskets only counted if they were made after the player touched the ground. All three players competed at the same time, and the player with the most baskets scored in 60 seconds won.\n", "In a push to increase participation the sport, people involved with the National Wheelchair Basketball Association have argued allowing able-bodied athletes to compete would help 1 and 2 point players because there would be a need to balance participation on the team because of the rules regarding maximum points on the floor.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nThe original classification system for wheelchair basketball was a 3 class medical one managed by ISMGF. Players in this system were class 1. Following the move to the functional classification system in 1983, class 1 players continued to be class 1 players.\n", "The distance from the basket to the three-point line varies by competition level: in the National Basketball Association (NBA) the arc is from the center of the basket; in FIBA, the WNBA, and NCAA Division I men's play the arc is ; and in women's play in all three NCAA divisions, plus men's play in NCAA Divisions II and III, the arc is . In the NBA and FIBA/WNBA, the three-point line becomes parallel to each sideline at the points where the arc is from each sideline; as a result the distance from the basket gradually decreases to a minimum of . In NCAA Divisions II and III the arc is continuous for 180° around the basket. There are more variations (see main article).\n", "Hollinger responded via a post on ESPN's TrueHoop blog:\n\nBerri leads off with a huge misunderstanding of PER—that the credits and debits it gives for making and missing shots equate to a “break-even” shooting mark of 30.4% on 2-point shots. He made this assumption because he forgot that PER is calibrated against the rest of the league at the end of the formula.\n", "The four-pointer was introduced in competition by the Harlem Globetrotters. The BIG3 basketball league is the only current professional league that uses the four-point field goal. In BIG3, there are three distinct circles beyond the three-point arc designated as a four-point field goal area. A four-point field goal is attempted when a player shoots with any part of the player's body touching any part of the four-point circle. \n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Mike Coppinger, \"Going Deep: Harlem Globetrotters Add a Four Point Line,\" \"USA Today,\" Sept. 22, 2016.\n", "BULLET::::- In 2018, there is a 4-point decal located 2 feet from the top of the 3-point line which will would active during the second half of the game. To score four points, a player's foot must be touching any part of a decal. Since 2019, the 4-point decal became a 4-point line set a yard behind the 3-point line and the line is in use for the entire game. A player's foot must be behind the 4-point line to score four points.\n\nSection::::2003 NBA All-Star Celebrity Game.\n", "In 1982, wheelchair basketball made the move to a functional classification system internationally. While the traditional medical system of where a spinal cord injury was located could be part of classification, it was only one advisory component. People in this class would have been Class II as 2 or 2.5 point players. Under the current classification system, people in this class would likely be a 2 point player.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Rule specifications.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-18285	Why do some states require you to reveal your identity when you win the lottery?	It's to prove that it wasn't a scam. The lottery is generally regulated by the government to some capacity and so they want to ensure that it's transparent. If you didn't require to reveal the identity of the winner it would be very easy to see a situation where the governor's siblings all just happen to be the winners each time and no one would be able to find out. This was the case for McDonald's Monopoly game for many years when it first came out.	[ "Section::::Work with the New Jersey Lottery.\n", "Section::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Lexow Committee\n\nBULLET::::- Lottery\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- New York Times; October 8, 1905; \"Al\" Adams Has Quit. Says He's Dropped Policy Forever and Would Forget Past Troubles. By Albert J. Adams. My attention has been called to the fact that my name has been extensively coupled with the recent policy raids in Brooklyn. I wish to ask your indulgence in denying the truth of such allegations. Let me say once and for all time, I am absolutely and forever out of politics, gambling policy and all kinds of lotteries.\n", "§ All Hot Lotto members (when game ended in October 2017) offered \"Lotto America\" when it began in November 2017, with the exception of New Hampshire which plans to join in June 2018.\n\nSection::::Hot Lotto members when game ended.:Lotteries pulled out of game.\n\nBULLET::::- District of Columbia (April 2004–December 24, 2016)\n\nBULLET::::- Vermont (July 2009–May 17, 2014)\n\nSection::::Fraud scandal.\n", "According to Louisiana law, Lottery ticket purchasers must be at least 21 years old. Individuals who sell tickets are required to obtain proof of age through a valid current drivers' license, ID card, passport, or military/federal ID containing a photo and date of birth.\n", "Section::::Life and career.:\"Lottery!\".\n", "Jackson lived in North Bennington, Vermont, and her comment reveals that she had Bennington in mind when she wrote \"The Lottery\". In a 1960 lecture (printed in her 1968 collection, \"Come Along with Me\"), Jackson recalled the hate mail she received in 1948:\n", "When Carroll was 13, he received a custodial sentence for shoplifting and was sent to the Hollesley Bay Prison in Suffolk where he reports that he learned to read and write. When Carroll won the Lottery at the age of 19, he was employed part-time as a binman. At the time of his win, Carroll did not have a bank account, and tried opening one at Coutts as recommended by the lottery company. Coutts refused his application, which Carroll later ascribed to his criminal record.\n\nSection::::Lottery winner.\n", "Virginia Lottery drawings are conducted under elaborate security protocols. The set of balls used for each drawing are randomly selected from a number of sets; and detailed records of \"test\" drawings are maintained to prevent systematic biases. In addition, forging lottery tickets, or tampering with a Lottery drawing is a Class 5 felony. All Virginia Lottery employees and applicants to become Lottery sales agents are fingerprinted and subject to criminal background checks.\n", "Theft of Virginia Lottery tickets are investigated by both the Lottery Investigators and local law enforcement agencies. Lottery Investigators are fully sworn Law Enforcement Officers. Per Virginia law it vests the Director, the director of security, and investigators of the State Lottery Department with the powers of sheriffs in enforcing the statutes and regulations relating to the lottery.\n\nSection::::Compulsive gambling.\n", "Lottery tickets are bearer instruments, which means that the Lottery must pay the holder of a winning ticket presented for payment. Signing the back of the ticket is the single most important thing one can do to help protect themselves from theft and demonstrate ownership of the ticket. Any alteration to a winning ticket worth more than $600 is cause for an immediate security investigation. Once a winning ticket has been paid, however, it is much more difficult to determine whether another individual was the rightful owner. By law, the Lottery can pay a winning ticket only once.\n\nSection::::Lottery games.\n", "In December 2015, the story of an Iraqi man who won $6.4 million in the Oregon Megabucks lottery after purchasing his tickets at theLotter was widely reported around the world. The win was controversial for a number of reasons. The Oregon Lottery launched an investigation into whether international lottery ticket sales were legal. Chuck Baumann, spokesman for the Oregon Lottery, said there were no restrictions on foreigners winning prizes in the lottery or buying tickets through an online agent. According to Jack Roberts, director of the Oregon Lottery, the winner had done nothing wrong and most importantly, had all six winning numbers on his ticket. The Oregon Lottery made an exception on the winner’s behalf in lieu of potential risks to his family in Iraq and allowed him to remain anonymous.\n", "Government officials at the local, state, and federal level often implement an open door policy for the purpose of meeting with constituents. In Salt Lake City, mayor Ralph Becker maintains an open door policy every Wednesday to meet with residents one-on-one to discuss issues, concerns, and suggestions involving the city. The Democratic Caucus of Orange County, New York has maintained an open door policy for over ten years, where all individuals, regardless of political affiliation are welcome to attend the meeting. In 2011, in an effort to introduce a more open and transparent government, Governor Andrew Cuomo of New York extended an open door policy to members of the public. A lottery was introduced that allowed for 300 New Yorkers to visit Gracie Mansion following the inaugural festivities. The following week, for the first time in the history of the State of New York, a lottery was held to open the State of the State Address to additional members of the public.\n", "Section::::United States.\n\nAll lottery winnings are subject to Federal taxation (automatically reported to the Internal Revenue Service if the win is at least $600); many smaller jurisdictions also levy taxes. The IRS requires a minimum withholding of 25% of the prize (minus the wager) of any gambling win in excess of $5,000. However, the net for a major prize often is misleading; winners often owe the IRS upon filing a return because the Federal withholding was below the winner's tax obligations. Nonresident U.S. lottery winners have 30% of winnings of at least $600 withheld.\n", "The Department of State has issued a warning against the scammers. It notes that any email claiming the recipient to be a winner of the lottery is fake because the Department has never notified and will not notify winners by email. The Department has urged recipients of such messages to notify the Internet Crime Complaint Center about the scam.\n\nThe office of inspector general has identified multiple problems with DV lottery in several countries, including Ukraine, Ghana, Albania in embassy inspection reports.\n", "Mr. Janner: \"Does the Prime Minister recall recently endorsing a lottery intended to benefit the grossly under-resourced National Health Service and then having to remove her endorsement when the lottery turned out to be illegal? Is she proposing to endorse a further lottery launched today for the same purpose, which appears to be illegal under both current and intended legislation?\"\n\nbr\n", "There is a growing number of fraudulent green card lottery scams, in which false agents take money from applicants by promising to submit application forms for them. Most agents are not working for the distribution service. Some claim that they can increase the chance of winning the lottery. This is not true; in fact, they may delay or not submit the application. Likewise, some claim to provide to winners free airline tickets or other benefits, such as submissions in future years or cash funds. There is no way to guarantee their claims, and there are numerous nefarious reasons for them not to fulfill their promises. Applicants are advised to use only official U.S. government websites, in which the URL ends in .gov.\n", "There have also been numerous cases of fraudulent emails and letters which falsely claim to have been sent by the Department of State and that the recipient has been granted a Permanent Resident Card. These messages prompt the recipients to transfer a \"visa processing fee\" as a prerequisite for obtaining a \"guaranteed\" green card. The messages are sometimes sent to people who never participated in the lottery and can look trustworthy as they contain the recipient's exact name and contact details and what appears to be a legal notice.\n", "In April 1988, \"The Kicker\" add-on game began, as an option for \"Super Lotto\". A six-digit number was added to all \"Super Lotto\" tickets, whether or not \"The Kicker\" was \"activated.\" When \"Super Lotto\" became \"Super Lotto Plus\" in July 2000, \"The Kicker\" was added to \"SLP\".\n", "The purchaser, however, is subject to the element of chance, as it is not known in advance which actual bonds will be redeemed at either value, nor when. This element of chance appeals to a section of society who will take a lower guaranteed return in the hope of a windfall.\n\nSection::::UK Premium Bonds.\n", "your image may be captured by cameras and you may be automatically detected by security.\" An OLG spokesman provided this response when questioned by the CBC after the investigation of the self-enforcement program had been completed: \"We provide supports to self-excluders by training our staff, by providing disincentives, by providing facial recognition, by providing our security officers to look for players. No one element is going to be foolproof because it is not designed to be foolproof\".\n\nSection::::Chair of the Board of Directors of the OLGC.\n\nBULLET::::- George L. Cooke 2016–present\n\nBULLET::::- Phil Olsson 2013-2016\n\nBULLET::::- Peter Wallace 2013 (interim)\n", "At an October 11, 2005 hearing related to his January 2003 DUI, a visibly shaken Whittaker lashed out at local law enforcement agencies for focusing on his troubles while failing to arrest anyone in relation to his granddaughter's death, saying \"Go after whoever killed my granddaughter with as much as these butt holes are trying to convict me of something I didn't do.\"\n", "In New England, at Suffolk Downs and Rockingham Park, a legendary announcer named Babe Rubenstein called races for decades, starting in the 1930s. Rubenstein, it was said, never miscalled a race. He was working at Rockingham Park on the day of the 1938 hurricane, when the winds are said to have blown off the broadcast booth from the top of the grandstand. An often told story in the 1950s had it that Babe was contacted by one networks, for possible employment on a national level, as opposed to his work in New England. The story went that as part of the proposed contract Babe would have to change his name. He refused, saying, \"I was born Babe Rubenstein and I will die Babe Rubenstein.\" Jim Hannon was another prominent race caller in New England.\n", "In \"Lotto\", Toby says in a talking-head interview that if he won the lottery, he wouldn't change his life at all, except for quitting his job, moving away, and maybe re-entering the dating world. He also says he would spend a lot of time launching his true-crime podcast, \"The Flenderson Files\".\n", "\"The New Yorker\" kept no records of the phone calls, but letters addressed to Jackson were forwarded to her. That summer she regularly took home 10 to 12 forwarded letters each day. She also received weekly packages from \"The New Yorker\" containing letters and questions addressed to the magazine or editor Harold Ross, plus carbon copies of the magazine's responses mailed to letter writers.\n\nSection::::Reception.:Critical interpretations.\n\nHelen E. Nebeker's essay, The Lottery': Symbolic Tour de Force\", in \"American Literature\" (March 1974), claims that every major name in the story has a special significance.\n", "The BBC TV series \"The Real Hustle\" showed a variation of the lottery scam in which a group of scammers pretended to have won a lottery, but was prevented from claiming the prize as the person who wrote the name on the back of the ticket was supposedly out of the country on that date. They were able to persuade a stranger to put up money as collateral in order to share in the prize pool.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02642	How does green Jewellery stains occur?	This is common with fake gold jewelry. The reason being that the “gold” is made up of a gold and copper mix to make it cheap. When you sweat, the acid in your sweat reacts with the copper to form green colored slats that absorb into the skin.	[ "Some irradiated diamonds are completely natural; one famous example is the Dresden Green Diamond. In these natural stones the color is imparted by \"radiation burns\" (natural irradiation by alpha particles originating from uranium ore) in the form of small patches, usually only micrometers deep. Additionally, Type IIa diamonds can have their structural deformations \"repaired\" via a high-pressure high-temperature (HPHT) process, removing much or all of the diamond's color.\n\nSection::::Optical properties.:Luster.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- In 1974, Elizabeth Taylor wore a cognac diamond ring and earrings to the Oscars. The jewelry was a gift from Richard Burton for their tenth anniversary.\n\nSection::::Causes of color.\n\nSection::::Causes of color.:Irradiation.\n", "Green gold was known to the Lydians as long ago as 860 BC under the name electrum, a naturally occurring alloy of silver and gold. It actually appears as greenish-yellow rather than green. Fired enamels adhere better to these alloys than to pure gold.\n\nCadmium can also be added to gold alloys to create a green color, but there are health concerns regarding its use, as cadmium is highly toxic. The alloy of 75% gold, 15% silver, 6% copper, and 4% cadmium yields a dark-green alloy.\n\nSection::::Alloys.:Grey gold.\n", "Jewellery cleaning\n\nJewelry cleaning is the practice of removing dirt or tarnish from jewelry to improve its appearance.\n\nSection::::Methods and risks.\n", "Seecharran was born in Guyana in 1969, and at the age of 11 emigrated with her parents to New York City. She graduated in 1991 from Parsons School of Art with a BA in Product Design, and then in 1996 attended the State University of New York at New Paltz and graduated with an MFA in Jewellery.\n\nIn 1998, she moved to London and started working from her studio in Clerkenwell. Her work has continued to evolve since then and continues to experiment with and develop the use of fabric in silver jewellery.\n\nRecent exhibitions:\n", "Section::::Materials.:Metals.\n", "Section::::Occurrence.\n\nSection::::Occurrence.:Iron and steel corrosion.\n\nGreen rust compounds were identified in green corrosion crusts that form on iron and steel surfaces, in alternating aerobic and anaerobic conditions, by water containing anions such as chloride, sulfate, carbonate, or bicarbonate. They are believed to be intermediates in the oxidative corrosion of iron to form iron(III) oxyhydroxides (ordinary brown rust). The green rust may be formed either directly from metallic iron or from iron(II) hydroxide () .\n\nSection::::Occurrence.:Soil.\n", "Section::::Description.\n", "There is a supplemental letter from the Gemological Institute of America stating that the diamond has been determined to be a Type IIa diamond. Type IIa diamonds are the most chemically pure type of diamond, and often have exceptional optical transparency. Type IIa diamonds were first identified as originating from India, particularly from the Golconda region, but have since been recovered in all major diamond-producing regions of the world. Famous examples of Type IIa diamonds are the 530.20 carat Cullinan I and the 105.60 carat Koh-i-noor.\n", "In \"The Ladies' Home Journal\" of May 1889, is written, \"Chantilly cloaks come shaped like the old-fashioned rotonde, with collar of narrow lace, and are worn over a lining of chartreuse green or jonquil yellow.\"\n\nIn \"The Millinery Trade Review\" (1889) is written, \"From Madame Catlin of Paris, a hat of velvet in moss-green of medium tone, or of strong Chartreuse-green.\"\n\nIn \"The Mineral Industry\" (1898) is written, \"The characteristic twin colors of a few doubly refractive gems will prove of interest ... tourmaline green (chartreuse green and bluish green).\n", "The finest quality as per color grading is totally colorless, which is graded as D color diamond across the globe, meaning it is absolutely free from any color. The next grade has a very slight trace of color, which can be observed by any expert diamond valuer/grading laboratory. However, when studded in jewellery these very light colored diamonds do not show any color or it is not possible to make out color shades. These are graded as E color or F color diamonds.\n", "Purple gold (also called amethyst gold and violet gold) is an alloy of gold and aluminium rich in gold–aluminium intermetallic (AuAl). Gold content in AuAl is around 79% and can therefore be referred to as 18 karat gold. Purple gold is more brittle than other gold alloys (a serious fault when it forms in electronics), as it is an intermetallic compound instead of a malleable alloy, and a sharp blow may cause it to shatter. It is therefore usually machined and faceted to be used as a \"gem\" in conventional jewelry rather than by itself. At a lower content of gold, the material is composed of the intermetallic and an aluminium-rich solid solution phase. At a higher content of gold, the gold-richer intermetallic AuAl forms; the purple color is preserved to about 15% of aluminium. At 88% of gold the material is composed of AuAl and changes color. The actual composition of AuAl is closer to AlAu as the sublattice is incompletely occupied.\n", "By 2013, her jewellery had been sold and listed next to the likes of Anoushka Ducas & Theo Fennel and stocked internationally in London, UK and Cape Town, South Africa. Her 2013 collection \"Diamond Dreaming\" included bracelets, necklaces and pendants inspired by the Islamic Hamsa motif as well as keys, crowns and peace signs in 9ct and 18ct white, yellow and rose gold.\n", "All of the diamonds had been laser-inscribed with the Graff logo and a Gemological Institute of America identification number. \n\nDetectives investigating the robbery stated: \"They knew exactly what they were looking for and we suspect they already had a market for the jewels.\" The suspects' details were circulated to all ports and airports but police believed they would have an elaborately prepared escape route and had already left the country.\n\nThe robbery was being investigated by Barnes Flying Squad, headed by Detective Chief Inspector Pam Mace.\n\nSection::::The robbery.:Financial loss to Graff Diamonds.\n", "Stefan Hemmerle in 1995 designed a ring for the wife of a Munich art collector, in response to her practice of wearing Berlin iron jewellery (which Germans received in exchange for donating their gold and silver jewels toward funding the War of Liberation). He set a diamond in textured iron rather than in gold or platinum. The combination of common metal with a precious stone was unusual.\n\nSection::::Design.\n", "Description: A piece of jewelry around the neck with a silver metal band and two clear plastic-like ornaments at the end with a small gold band at the end. This gives a description of art is found in everything and is shown with the different shapes along the jewelry.\n\nSection::::Artwork.:Alice in Wonderland.\n", "Section::::Density.\n", "Her work includes the symbolic use of color throughout. Describing beads from one work, she said “If they’re red, they're holding rage and love simultaneously. If they’re white -- they're holding ghosts - the presence of your ancestors ...and they're also holding forgiveness and peace.\"\n\nSection::::ARThouse and Love Front Porch.\n", "On her right hand, she had a ring made of white gold without any stone. She was wearing two pendant necklaces made of white gold. One pendant had a leaf design and a round turquoise stone. The other was made of plastic and was heart-shaped with a rose design. She was not wearing earrings, and her ears had not been pierced.\n\nSection::::Investigation.\n", "In 2013, Lee was commissioned by jeweller Cora Sheibani to design a collection on which to display her jewellery. This accidental soft launch led to a flurry of private orders and the birth of her eponymous collection. It was discovered by Hamish Bowles, reviewed in Vogue and Women’s Wear Daily, written up by the New York Times and chosen as one of Harper’s Bazaar’s 10 Favorite Things and one of Vogue Italia’s Talents. Her work has been covered extensively in the press since.\n", "Similar to single interstitials, divacancies do not produce photoluminescence. Divacancies, in turn, anneal out at ~900 °C creating multivacancy chains detected by EPR and presumably hexavacancy rings. The latter should be invisible to most spectroscopies, and indeed, they have not been detected thus far. Annealing of vacancies changes diamond color from green to yellow-brown. Similar mechanism (vacancy aggregation) is also believed to cause brown color of plastically deformed natural diamonds.\n\nSection::::Intrinsic defects.:Dislocations.\n", "Peridot is one of the few gemstones that occur in only one color: an olive-green. The intensity and tint of the green, however, depends on the percentage of iron in the crystal structure, so the color of individual peridot gems can vary from yellow, to olive, to brownish-green. In rare cases, peridot may have a medium-dark toned, pure green with no secondary yellow hue or brown mask.\n\nSection::::Occurrence.\n\nSection::::Occurrence.:Geologically.\n", "Other commonly used materials include glass, such as fused-glass or enamel; wood, often carved or turned; shells and other natural animal substances such as bone and ivory; natural clay; polymer clay; Hemp and other twines have been used as well to create jewellery that has more of a natural feel. However, any inclusion of lead or lead solder will give a British Assay office (the body which gives U.K. jewellery its stamp of approval, the Hallmark) the right to destroy the piece, however it is very rare for the assay office to do so.\n", "Section::::Industry.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-17969	If the earth is constantly moving, how come we see the same stars every night? How is there such a thing as the "northern star"?	Imagine you are riding on a Ferris wheel. The Earth is the basket thing you ride in and the sun is the center of the Ferris wheel. And theres a clock tower far away on the horizon. Every time you look out the left side (lets say) of the basket you'd see the same clock tower no matter where you are in the full rotation of the wheel. Constellations do change seasonally, so you might see a river on the upswing of the Ferris wheel and a mall on the downswing, but no matter what the clock tower would always be out there on the left.	[ "The precession of the Earth's axis has a number of observable effects. First, the positions of the south and north celestial poles appear to move in circles against the space-fixed backdrop of stars, completing one circuit in approximately 26,000 years. Thus, while today the star Polaris lies approximately at the north celestial pole, this will change over time, and other stars will become the \"north star\". In approximately 3200 years, the star Gamma Cephei in the Cepheus constellation will succeed Polaris for this position. The south celestial pole currently lacks a bright star to mark its position, but over time precession also will cause bright stars to become south stars. As the celestial poles shift, there is a corresponding gradual shift in the apparent orientation of the whole star field, as viewed from a particular position on Earth.\n", "Over the course of Earth's 26,000-year axial precession cycle, a series of bright naked eye stars (an apparent magnitude up to +6; a full moon is −12.9) in the northern hemisphere will hold the transitory title of North Star. While other stars might line up with the north celestial pole during the 26,000 year cycle, they do not necessarily meet the naked eye limit needed to serve as a useful indicator of north to an Earth-based observer, resulting in periods of time during the cycle when there is no clearly defined North Star. There will also be periods during the cycle when bright stars give only an approximate guide to \"north\", as they may be greater than 5° of angular diameter removed from direct alignment with the north celestial pole.\n", "The relative direction of diurnal motion in the Northern Celestial Hemisphere are as follows:\n\nBULLET::::- Facing north, below Polaris: rightward, or eastward\n\nBULLET::::- Facing north, above Polaris: leftward, or westward\n\nBULLET::::- Facing south: rightward, or westward\n\nThus, northern circumpolar stars move counterclockwise around Polaris, the north pole star.\n\nAt the North Pole, the cardinal directions do not apply to diurnal motion. Within the circumpolar circle, all the stars move simply rightward, or looking directly overhead, counterclockwise around the zenith, where Polaris is.\n", "Polaris is near the north celestial pole for only a small fraction of the 25,700-year precession cycle. It will remain a good approximation for about 1,000 years, by which time the pole will have moved closer to Alrai (Gamma Cephei). In about 5,500 years, the pole will have moved near the position of the star Alderamin (Alpha Cephei), and in 12,000 years, Vega (Alpha Lyrae) will become the \"North Star\", though it will be about six degrees from the true north celestial pole.\n", "At the North Pole it is continuously nighttime for six months of the year and the same hemisphere of stars (a 180° view) are always visible making one counterclockwise rotation every 24 hours. The star Polaris (the \"North Star\") is almost at the center of this rotation (which is directly overhead). Some of the 88 modern constellations visible are Ursa Major (including the Big Dipper), Cassiopeia, and Andromeda. The other six months of the year, it is continuously daytime and the light from the Sun mostly blots out the stars. (The location of the poles can be defined by these phenomena, which only occur there; more than 24 hours of continuous daylight can occur north of the Arctic Circle and south of the Antarctic Circle.)\n", "As one travels south of the Equator, the opposite happens. The south celestial pole appears increasingly high in the sky, and all the stars lying within an increasingly large circle centered on that pole become circumpolar about it. This continues until one reaches the Earth's South Pole where, once again, all visible stars are circumpolar.\n", "Section::::Guidepost.\n\nNot only are the stars in the Big Dipper easily found themselves, they may also be used as guides to yet other stars. Thus it is often the starting point for introducing Northern Hemisphere beginners to the night sky:\n\nBULLET::::- Polaris, the North Star, is found by imagining a line from Merak (β) to Dubhe (α) and then extending it for five times the distance between the two Pointers.\n", "Section::::Story.:A larger family.\n", "The direction of astronomical true north is marked in the skies by the north celestial pole. This is within about 1° of the position of Polaris, so that the star would appear to trace a tiny circle in the sky each sidereal day. Due to the axial precession of Earth, true north rotates in an arc with respect to the stars that takes approximately 25,000 years to complete. Around 2100–02, Polaris will make its closest approach to the celestial north pole (extrapolated from recent Earth precession). The visible star nearest the north celestial pole 5,000 years ago was Thuban.\n", "In the Tuareg Berber language in North Africa the North Star is known as \"\"Tatrit tan Tamasna\"\" which means: \"star of the plains\" or \"star of the desert\" and that indicates its central role in navigating the vast deserts. \n\nIts name in traditional pre-Islamic Arab astronomy was \"Al-Judeyy\" الجدي, and that name was used in medieval Islamic astronomy as well. In those times, it was not yet as close to the north celestial pole as it is now, and used to rotate around the pole.\n", "In Inuit astronomy, the three brightest stars—Polaris, Kochab and Pherkad—were known as \"Nuutuittut\" \"never moving\", though the term is more frequently used in the singular to refer to Polaris alone. The Pole Star is too high in the sky at far northern latitudes to be of use in navigation.\n\nIn Chinese astronomy, the main stars of Ursa Minor are divided between two asterisms:\n\n勾陳 \"Gòuchén\" (Curved Array) (including α UMi, δ UMi, ε UMi, ζ UMi, η UMi, θ UMi, λ UMi) and \n\n北極 \"Běijí\" (Northern Pole) (including β UMi and γ UMi).\n\nSection::::Characteristics.\n", "The circumpolar stars appear to lie within a circle that is centered at the celestial pole and tangential to the horizon. At the Earth's North Pole, the north celestial pole is directly overhead, and all stars that are visible at all (that is, all stars in the Northern Celestial Hemisphere) are circumpolar. As one travels south, the north celestial pole moves towards the northern horizon. More and more stars that are at a distance from it begin to disappear below the horizon for some portion of their daily \"orbit\", and the circle containing the remaining circumpolar stars becomes increasingly small. At the Equator, this circle vanishes to a single point – the celestial pole itself – which lies on the horizon, and there are thus effectively no circumpolar stars at all.\n", "Section::::Non-application to circumpolar stars at extra-tropical latitudes.\n\nSome stars, when viewed from latitudes outside of the tropics on Earth, do not rise or set. These are circumpolar stars, which are either always in the sky or never. For example, the North Star (Polaris) is not visible in Australia and the Southern Cross is not seen in Europe, because they always stay below the respective horizons. \n", "The Solar System and all of the visible stars are in different orbits about the core of the Milky Way galaxy. Thus, their relative positions change over time, and for the nearer stars this movement can be measured. As a star moves toward or away from us, its apparent brightness changes. Sirius is currently the brightest star in Earth's night sky, but it has not always been so. Canopus has persistently been the brightest star over the ages; other stars appear brighter only during relatively temporary periods, during which they are passing the Solar System at a much closer distance than Canopus.\n", "Each night the positions of the stars appear to change as the Earth rotates. However, when a star is located along the Earth's axis of rotation, it will remain in the same position and thus is called a pole star. The direction of the Earth's axis of rotation gradually changes over time in a process known as the precession of the equinoxes. A complete precession cycle requires 25,770 years, during which time the pole of the Earth's rotation follows a circular path across the celestial sphere that passes near several prominent stars. At present the pole star is Polaris, but around 12,000 BC the pole was pointed only five degrees away from Vega. Through precession, the pole will again pass near Vega around AD 14,000. Vega is the brightest of the successive northern pole stars.\n", "The 26,000 year cycle of North Stars, starting with the current star, with stars that will be \"near-north\" indicators when no North Star exists during the cycle, including each star's average brightness and closest alignment to the north celestial pole during the cycle:\n\nSection::::Southern pole star (South Star).\n\nCurrently, there is no South Star as useful as Polaris. Sigma Octantis is the closest naked-eye star to the south Celestial pole, but at apparent magnitude 5.45 it is barely visible on a clear night, making it unusable for navigational purposes.\n", "The north celestial pole is located very close to the pole star (Polaris or North Star), so from the Northern Hemisphere, all circumpolar stars appear to move around Polaris. Polaris itself remains almost stationary, always at the north (i.e. azimuth of 0°), and always at the same altitude (angle from the horizon), equal to the observer's latitude. These are then classified into quadrants.\n\nSection::::Definition of circumpolar stars.\n", "Orion is among the most prominent and recognizable constellations. The Big Dipper (which has a wide variety of other names) is helpful for navigation in the northern hemisphere because it points to Polaris, the north star.\n\nThe pole stars are special because they are approximately in line with the Earth's axis of rotation so they appear to stay in one place while the other stars rotate around them through the course of a night (or a year).\n\nSection::::Visual presentation.:Planets.\n", "Section::::Story.:The rise.\n", "Section::::Andromeda.\n\nAnother example of star lore is the story behind the constellation Andromeda, also known at \"the chained woman\". Andromeda was the daughter of the king and queen of Ethiopia, King Cepheus and Cassiopeia. The story goes that because Cassiopeia bragged so much of Andromeda's beauty to the Nereids, daughters of Poseidon, that they complained to their father, who sent a sea monster to destroy the coast of Ethiopia. Cepheus consulted an oracle for assistance and learned that the only way to save his lands was to sacrifice his daughter to Poseidon's monster.\n", "In graphical terms, the Earth behaves like a spinning top, and tops tend to wobble as they spin. The spin of the Earth is its daily (diurnal) rotation. The spinning Earth slowly wobbles over a period slightly less than 26,000 years. From our perspective on Earth, the stars are ever so slightly 'moving' from west to east at the rate of one degree approximately every 72 years. One degree is about twice the diameter of the Sun or Moon as viewed from Earth. The easiest way to notice this slow movement of the stars is at any fixed time each year. The most common fixed time is at the vernal equinox around 21 March each year.\n", "At the equator, it is possible to see both Polaris and the Southern Cross. The Celestial south pole is moving toward the Southern Cross, which has pointed to the south pole for the last 2000 years or so. As a consequence, the constellation is no longer visible from subtropical northern latitudes, as it was in the time of the ancient Greeks. \n\nAround 200 BC, the star Beta Hydri was the nearest bright star to the Celestial south pole. Around 2800 BC, Achernar was only 8 degrees from the south pole.\n", "In the next 7500 years, the south Celestial pole will pass close to the stars Gamma Chamaeleontis (4200 AD), I Carinae, Omega Carinae (5800 AD), Upsilon Carinae, Iota Carinae (Aspidiske, 8100 AD) and Delta Velorum (Alsephina, 9200 AD). From the eightieth to the ninetieth centuries, the south Celestial pole will travel through the False Cross. Around 14,000 AD, when Vega is only 4° from the North Pole, Canopus will be only 8° from the South Pole and thus circumpolar on the latitude of Bali (8°S).\n", "The celestial pole will move away from α UMi after the 21st century, passing close by Gamma Cephei by about the 41st century, moving towards Deneb by about the 91st century. The celestial pole was close to Thuban around 2750 BC, and\n", "Section::::Specialized catalogues.:Proper motion catalogues.\n\nA common way of detecting nearby stars is to look for relatively high proper motions. Several catalogues exist, of which we'll mention a few. The Ross and Wolf catalogues pioneered the domain:\n\nWillem Jacob Luyten later produced a series of catalogues:\n\nL - Luyten, Proper motion stars and White dwarfs\n\nLFT – Luyten Five-Tenths catalogue\n\nLHS – Luyten Half-Second catalogue\n\nLTT – Luyten Two-Tenths catalogue\n\nNLTT – New Luyten Two-Tenths catalogue\n\nLPM – Luyten Proper-Motion catalogue\n\nAround the same time period, Henry Lee Giclas worked on a similar series of catalogues:\n\nSection::::Specialized catalogues.:uvby98.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "If the Earth moves then stars will be completely different in the sky every night." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Constellations do change seasonally, but will always be in view in the sky." ]
2018-04013	Why do people throw up after high intensity and strenuous activity such as cardio?	It's not really a reaction by the body to get rid of something toxic or poisonous. During an extreme physical event such as running, your muscles need a huge supply of oxygen, and your body responds by decreasing blood flow to your stomach and intestines and other internal organs, and increasing the blood flow to your heart and muscles. The decreased blood flow to your stomach means that it is not able to digest food as efficiently, so it may try to get rid of the food by vomiting. This is why serious long-distance runners will try to keep their energy up with those energy gel packs that are easy to digest, because it's basically just carbohydrates.	[ "Exercise-induced nausea\n\nExercise-induced nausea is a feeling of sickness or vomiting which can occur shortly after exercise has stopped as well as during exercise itself. It may be a symptom of either over-exertion during exercise, or from too abruptly ending an exercise session. People engaged in high-intensity exercise such as aerobics and bicycling have reported experiencing exercise-induced nausea. \n\nSection::::Cause.\n\nA study of 20 volunteers conducted at Nagoya University in Japan associated a higher degree of exercise-induced nausea after eating.\n", "Lack of hydration during exercise is a well known cause of headache and nausea. Exercising at a heavy rate causes blood flow to be taken away from the stomach, causing nausea.\n\nAnother possible cause of exercise induced nausea is overhydration. Drinking too much water before, during, or after extreme exercise (such as a marathon) can cause nausea, diarrhea, confusion, and muscle tremors. Excessive water consumption reduces or dilutes electrolyte levels in the body causing hyponatremia.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Exercise intolerance\n\nBULLET::::- Exercise-induced bronchoconstriction\n\nBULLET::::- Exercise-induced urticaria\n\nBULLET::::- Exercise-associated hyponatremia\n\nBULLET::::- Heat intolerance\n\nBULLET::::- Ventilatory threshold\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Exercise-associated hyponatremia\n\nExercise-associated hyponatremia, is a fluid-electrolyte disorder caused by a decrease in sodium levels (hyponatremia) during or up to 24 hours after prolonged physical activity. This disorder can develop when marathon runners or endurance event athletes drink more fluid, usually water or sports drinks, than their kidneys can excrete. This excess water can severely dilute the level of sodium in the blood needed for organs, especially the brain, to function properly.\n", "Exercise can cause a release of potassium into bloodstream by increasing the number of potassium channels in the cell membrane. The degree of potassium elevation varies with the degree of exercise, which range from 0.3 meq/L in light exercise to 2 meq/L in heavy exercise, with or without accompanying ECG changes or lactic acidosis. However, peak potassium levels can be reduced by prior physical conditioning and potassium levels are usually reversed several minutes after exercise. High levels of adrenaline and noradrenaline have a protective effect on the cardiac electrophysiology because they bind to beta 2 adrenergic receptors, which, when activated, extracellularly decrease potassium concentration.\n", "People with spinal injuries at T6 or higher are more likely to develop Autonomic dysreflexia (AD). It also sometimes rarely effects people with injuries at T7 and T8. The condition causes over-activity of the autonomic nervous system, and can suddenly onset when people are playing sports. Some of the symptoms include nausea, high blood pressure, a pounding headache, flushed face, profuse sweating, a lower heart rate or a nasal congestion. If left untreated, it can cause a stroke. Players in some sports like wheelchair rugby are encouraged to be particularly on guard for AD symptoms.\n\nSection::::Governance.\n", "Sodium is an important electrolyte needed for maintaining blood pressure. Sodium is mainly found in the body fluids that surround the cells and is necessary for nerves, muscles, and other body tissues to function properly.\n", "BULLET::::- 0.9% saline and hypertonic saline intravenously\n\nBULLET::::- 100 ml of 3% saline hourly\n\nWhen EAH is treated early, complete recovery is expected.\n\nIn addition to the above treatments, athletes experiencing EAH encephalopathy may also receive high-flow oxygen and a rapid infusion of 100 ml of 3% NaCl to reduce brain edema.\n\nSection::::Recent research.\n", "BULLET::::- Sodium absorption is affected by the release of interleukin-6 as this can cause the secretion of arginine vasopressin which, in turn, can lead to exercise-associated dangerously low sodium levels (hyponatremia). This loss of sodium in blood plasma can result in swelling of the brain. This can be prevented by awareness of the risk of drinking excessive amounts of fluids during prolonged exercise.\n\nSection::::Brain.\n", "In most athletes, exercising and sweating for 4–5 hours with a sweat sodium concentration of less than 50 mmol/L, the total sodium lost is less than 10% of total body stores (total stores are approximately 2,500 mmol, or 58 g for a 70-kg person). These losses appear to be well tolerated by most people. The inclusion of some sodium in fluid replacement drinks has some theoretical benefits and poses little or no risk, so long as these fluids are hypotonic (since the mainstay of dehydration prevention is the replacement of free water losses).\n", "People with spinal injuries at T6 or higher are more likely to develop Autonomic dysreflexia (AD). It also sometimes rarely effects people with injuries at T7 and T8. The condition causes over-activity of the autonomic nervous system, and can suddenly onset when people are playing sports. Some of the symptoms include nausea, high blood pressure, a pounding headache, flushed face, profuse sweating, a lower heart rate or a nasal congestion. If left untreated, it can cause a stroke. Players in some sports like wheelchair rugby are encouraged to be particularly on guard for AD symptoms.\n\nSection::::Governance.\n", "People with spinal injuries at T6 or higher are more likely to develop Autonomic dysreflexia (AD). It also sometimes rarely effects people with injuries at T7 and T8. The condition causes over-activity of the autonomic nervous system, and can suddenly onset when people are playing sports. Some of the symptoms include nausea, high blood pressure, a pounding headache, flushed face, profuse sweating, a lower heart rate or a nasal congestion. If left untreated, it can cause a stroke. Players in some sports like wheelchair rugby are encouraged to be particularly on guard for AD symptoms.\n\nSection::::Definition.:Functional.\n", "Section::::Without depletion.\n\nResearch in the 1980s led to a modified carbo-loading regimen that eliminates the depletion phase, instead calling for increased carbohydrate intake (to about 70% of total calories) and decreased training for three days before the event is the correct regimen.\n\nSection::::Short workout.\n", "As the incidence of EAH has increased in recent years, current research has focused on the prevalence of EAH in marathon runners and endurance athletes. One study found 26% of the athletes competing in the Triple Iron ultra-triathlon developed EAH. A similar study measured the prevalence of EAH in open-water ultra-endurance swimmers and found 8% of males and 36% of females developed EAH.\n", "Risks that lead to ER include exercise in hot and humid conditions, improper hydration, inadequate recovery between bouts of exercise, intense physical training, and inadequate fitness levels for beginning high intensity workouts. Dehydration is one of the biggest factors that can give almost immediate feedback from the body by producing very dark-colored urine.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.:Anatomy.\n", "Symptoms may be absent or mild for the early onset of EAH and can include impaired exercise performance, nausea, vomiting, headache, bloating, and swelling of hands, legs, and feet. As water retention increases, weight gain may also occur. More severe symptoms include pulmonary edema and hyponatremic encephalopathy. Symptoms of hyponatremic encephalopathy are associated with an altered level of consciousness and can include sullenness, sleepiness, withdrawing from social interaction, photophobia, and seizures.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Sodium is also important in regulating the amount of water that passes through the blood-brain barrier. Decreased sodium blood levels result in increased permeability of water across the blood-brain barrier. This increased influx of water causes brain swelling which leads to severe neurological symptoms.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n\nEAH is categorized by having a blood serum or plasma sodium level below normal, which is less than 135 mmol/l. Asymptomatic EAH is not normally detected unless the athlete has had a sodium blood serum or plasma test. Hyponatremic encephalopathy may be detect using brain imaging studies and pulmonary edema may be confirmed by x-ray.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "Often in the continuation of this anaerobic exercise, the product from this metabolic mechanism builds up in what is called lactic acid fermentation. Lactate is produced more quickly than it is being removed and it serves to regenerate NAD cells on where it's needed. During intense exercise when oxygen is not being used, a high amount of ATP is produced and pH levels fall causing acidosis or more specifically lactic acidosis. Lactic acid build up can be treated by staying well-hydrated throughout and especially after the workout, having an efficient cool down routine and good post-workout stretching.\n", "Gastrointestinal (GI) complaints and low intensity GI bleeding frequently occur in marathon runners. Strenuous exercise, particularly in elite athlete runners and less frequently in other exercise activities, can cause acute incapacitating gastrointestinal symptoms including heartburn, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea and gastrointestinal bleeding. Approximately one third of endurance runners experience transient but exercise limiting symptoms, and repetitive gastrointestinal bleeding occasionally causes iron deficiency and anaemia. Runners can sometimes experience significant symptoms including hematemesis. Exercise is associated with extensive changes in gastrointestinal (GI) tract physiology, including diversion of blood flow from the GI tract to muscle and lungs, decreased GI absorption and small intestinal motility, increased colonic transit, neuroimmunoendocrine changes in hormones and peptides such as vasoactive intestinal peptide, secretin and peptide-histidine-methionine. Substantial changes occur in stress hormones including cortisol, in circulating concentrations and metabolic behavior of various leucocytes, and in immunoglobulin levels and major histocompatibility complex expression. Symptoms can be exacerbated by dehydration or by pre-exercise ingestion of certain foods and hypertonic liquids, and lessened by adequate training.\n", "People with spinal injuries at T6 or higher are more likely to develop Autonomic dysreflexia (AD). It also sometimes rarely effects people with injuries at T7 and T8. The condition causes over-activity of the autonomic nervous system, and can suddenly onset when people are playing sports. Some of the symptoms include nausea, high blood pressure, a pounding headache, flushed face, profuse sweating, a lower heart rate or a nasal congestion. If left untreated, it can cause a stroke. Players in some sports like wheelchair rugby are encouraged to be particularly on guard for AD symptoms.\n\nSection::::Governance.\n", "The incidence of EAH in athletes has increased in recent years, especially in the United States, as marathon races and endurance events have become more popular. A recent study showed 13% of the Boston 2002 marathon runners experienced EAH; most cases were mild. Eight deaths from EAH have been documented since 1985.\n\nSection::::Symptoms.\n", "By restricting their diet, the athlete may worsen their problem of low energy availability. Having low dietary energy from excessive exercise and/or dietary restrictions leaves too little energy for the body to carry out normal functions such as maintaining a regular menstrual cycle or healthy bone density.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Amenorrhea.\n", "Cortisol decreases amino acid uptake by muscle tissue, and inhibits protein synthesis. The short-term increase in protein synthesis that occurs subsequent to resistance training returns to normal after approximately 28 hours in adequately fed male youths. Another study determined that muscle protein synthesis was elevated even 72 hours following training.\n", "While most athletes do not meet the clinical criteria to be diagnosed with an eating disorder such as anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa, many will exhibit disordered eating habits such as fasting, as well as avoiding certain types of food the athlete thinks are \"bad\" (such as foods containing fat). More severe examples of disordered eating habits may include binge-eating; purging; and the use of diet-pills, laxatives, diuretics, and enemas.\n", "BULLET::::- Altitude related - This physiologic polycythemia is a normal adaptation to living at high altitudes (see altitude sickness). Many athletes train at high altitude to take advantage of this effect — a legal form of blood doping. Some individuals believe athletes with primary polycythemia may have a competitive advantage due to greater stamina. However, this has yet to be proven due to the multifaceted complications associated with this condition.\n", "Section::::Energy pathways during exercise.:Phosphogenic.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00350	Why do diabetes 2 patients sometimes need amputations??	They are generally also at high risk to develop peripheral artery disease, where plaque deposition in the arteries of the limbs starts restricting blood flow. Eventually flow is too restricted to properly support the tissue, and it can die or become severely infected.	[ "BULLET::::- Diabetic foot, often due to a combination of sensory neuropathy (numbness or insensitivity) and vascular damage, increases rates of skin ulcers (diabetic foot ulcers) and infection and, in serious cases, necrosis and gangrene. It is why it takes longer for diabetics to heal from leg and foot wounds and why diabetics are prone to leg and foot infections. In the developed world is the most common cause of non-traumatic adult amputation, usually of toes and or feet.\n", "As many as 25% of diabetic patients will eventually develop foot ulcers, and recurrence within five years is 70%. If not aggressively treated, these wounds can lead to amputations. It is estimated that every 30 seconds a lower limb is amputated somewhere in the world because of a diabetic wound. Amputation often triggers a downward spiral of declining quality of life, frequently leading to disability and death. In fact, only about one third of diabetic amputees will live more than five years, a survival rate equivalent to that of many cancers.\n", "Nearly half of the individuals who have an amputation due to vascular disease will die within 5 years, usually secondary to the extensive co-morbidities rather than due to direct consequences of amputation. This is higher than the five year mortality rates for breast cancer, colon cancer, and prostate cancer. Of persons with diabetes who have a lower extremity amputation, up to 55% will require amputation of the second leg within two to three years.\n\nSection::::Etymology.\n", "Although diabetes can ravage the body in many ways, non-healing ulcers on the feet and lower legs are common outward manifestations of the disease. Also, diabetics often suffer from nerve damage in their feet and legs, allowing small wounds or irritations to develop without awareness. Given the abnormalities of the microvasculature and other side effects of diabetes, these wounds take a long time to heal and require a specialized treatment approach for proper healing.\n", "Another team, led by Bronwyn Kingwell, Head of the Baker Institute's Metabolic and Vascular Physiology, have found a new use for an old drug. The researchers found that after taking the standard anti-hypertensive drug Ramipril, patients with peripheral arterial disease (PAD), which restricts mobility due to leg pain, enjoyed a longer and less painful time on their feet. For some patients, this could be the difference between living independently and living under the care of others for the rest of their lives.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Diabetes in Australia\n\nBULLET::::- Health in Australia\n\nBULLET::::- Baker Heart and Diabetes Institute\n\nSection::::Bibliography.\n", "In 1991, Kathol conducted a study which showed a correlation between calcaneal insufficiency avulsion fractures (a fracture in which the Achilles tendon removes a portion of the bone as it rescinds) and diabetes mellitus. The diabetic population is more susceptible to the risks of fracture and potential healing complications and infection that may lead to limb amputation. Diabetes can be regulated and prevented through diet and exercise.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "As a complication, there is an increased risk of injury to the feet because of loss of sensation (see diabetic foot). Small infections can progress to ulceration and this may require amputation.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n\nGlobally diabetic neuropathy affects approximately 132 million people as of 2010 (1.9% of the population).\n\nDiabetes is the leading known cause of neuropathy in developed countries, and neuropathy is the most common complication and greatest source of morbidity and mortality in diabetes. It is estimated that neuropathy affects 25% of people with diabetes. Diabetic neuropathy is implicated in 50–75% of nontraumatic amputations.\n", "Diabetes can lead to damaged nerves, causing loss of sensation, pain, or, if autonomic nerves are associated, damage to the circulatory, reproductive, or digestive systems, among others. Over 60% of diabetic patients are said to have some form of neuropathy, however, the severity ranges dramatically. Neuropathy not only directly causes harm and damage but also can indirectly lead to such problems as diabetic ulcerations, which in turn can lead to amputations. In fact, over half of all lower limb amputations in the United States are of patients with diabetes.\n", "In diabetes, peripheral nerve dysfunction can be combined with peripheral artery disease (PAD) causing poor blood circulation to the extremities (diabetic angiopathy). Around half of patients with a diabetic foot ulcer have co-existing PAD.\n\nWhere wounds take a long time to heal, infection may set in and lower limb amputation may be necessary. Foot infection is the most common cause of non-traumatic amputation in people with diabetes.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Lipohypertrophy\" may be caused by insulin therapy. Repeated insulin injections at the same site, or near to, causes an accumulation of extra subcutaneous fat and may present as a large lump under the skin. It may be unsightly, mildly painful, and may change the timing or completeness of insulin action.\n\nBULLET::::- Depression was associated with diabetes in a 2010 longitudinal study of 4,263 individuals with type 2 diabetes, followed from 2005–2007. They were found to have a statistically significant association with depression and a high risk of micro and macro-vascular events.\n\nSection::::Risk factors.\n\nSection::::Risk factors.:Age.\n", "BULLET::::- the 2008 observation, that non-diabetic first-degree relatives of diabetics had elevated enzyme levels associated with diabetic renal disease and nephropathy.\n\nBULLET::::- the 2007 finding that non-diabetic family members of type 1 diabetics had increased risk for microvascular complications,\n\nBULLET::::- such as diabetic retinopathy\n\nSection::::Risk factors.:Mechanisms.\n", "CLI was conceived to identify patients at high-risk for major amputation, but the increasing prevalence of diabetes mellitus has led to a broader conception of limb threat that includes the risk of amputation associated with severely infected and non-healing wounds.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nCritical limb ischemia is further subdivided into rest pain and tissue loss:\n\nSection::::Types.:Rest pain.\n", "Approximately 15 percent of people with diabetes experience foot ulcers. And approximately 84 percent of lower limb amputations have a history of ulceration with only approximately half of amputees surviving for more than 2 years. 56 percent of individuals with foot ulcers who do not have an amputations survive for 5 years. Foot ulcers and amputations significantly reduce the quality of life. Approximately 8.8 percent of hospital admissions of diabetic patients are for foot related problems, and such hospital admissions are about 13 days longer than for diabetics without foot related admissions. Approximately 35 to 40 percent of ulcers recur within 3 years and up to 70 percent recur within 5 years. Diabetic foot disease is the leading cause of non-traumatic lower limb amputations.\n", "Overall, complications are far less common and less severe in people with well-controlled blood sugar levels. However, (non-modifiable) risk factors such as age at diabetes onset, type of diabetes, gender and genetics play a role. Some genes appear to provide protection against diabetic complications, as seen in a subset of long-term diabetes type 1 survivors without complications.\n\nSection::::Statistics.\n\nAs of 2010, there were about 675,000 diabetes-related emergency department (ED) visits in the U.S. which involved neurological complications, 409,000 ED visits with kidney complications, and 186,000 ED visits with eye complications.\n\nSection::::Acute.\n\nSection::::Acute.:Diabetic ketoacidosis.\n", "Macrovascular disease leads to cardiovascular disease, to which accelerated atherosclerosis is a contributor:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Coronary artery disease\", leading to angina or myocardial infarction (\"heart attack\")\n\nBULLET::::- \"Diabetic myonecrosis\" ('muscle wasting')\n\nBULLET::::- \"Peripheral vascular disease\", which contributes to intermittent claudication (exertion-related leg and foot pain) as well as diabetic foot.\n\nBULLET::::- Stroke (mainly the ischemic type)\n\nBULLET::::- Carotid artery stenosis does not occur more often in diabetes, and there appears to be a lower prevalence of abdominal aortic aneurysm. However, diabetes does cause higher morbidity, mortality and operative risks with these conditions.\n", "There is no randomized study in medical literature that has studied the response with amputation of patients who have failed the above-mentioned therapies and who continue to be miserable. Nonetheless, there are reports that on average cite about half of the patients will have resolution of their pain, while half will develop phantom limb pain and/or pain at the amputation site. It is likely that as in any other chronic pain syndrome, the brain becomes chronically stimulated with pain, and late amputation may not work as well as it might be expected. In a survey of fifteen patients with CRPS Type 1, eleven responded that their life was better after amputation. Since this is the ultimate treatment of a painful extremity, it should be left as a last resort.\n", "His report describes in detail the death of Patrick Cavanaugh, an inmate who he claims died due to complications of diabetes, after having received no insulin for a period of three years and having his ulcerated legs left to fester without treatment or amputation. The report also mentions accounts of wholly untreated cases of chronic pain, hepatitis, fibromyalgia, rheumatoid arthritis and syphilis. The report also notes cases in which an epileptic patient was not regularly equipped with a helmet; in which a stroke sufferer was not given any physical therapy nor even an arm brace to prevent the eventual contraction of his affected limb; and in which a patient was switched back to a potentially lethal medication.\n", "Papară was in a car accident in 3 September 2005. Because of the accident, doctors amputated his leg. After the accident, he tried to live a normal life. He tried to make sure his amputation did not mean he could not do things he wanted to do. He said, \"The recovery after such an accident, after an amputation is very difficult and lasting. If I were to give advice to a person in the same situation, I would tell them to start a physical activity, to start sport as soon as possible.\"\n", "In February 2011, ESPN ran a somber article about him, citing ongoing health and drinking problems, and a weight of . In January 2016, Perry, weighing more than 425 pounds, checked himself into the hospital to receive treatment for diabetes. Confined to a wheelchair, Perry revealed he had no feeling in his feet and was in danger of having his leg amputated.\n", "The primary complications of diabetes due to damage in small blood vessels include damage to the eyes, kidneys, and nerves. Damage to the eyes, known as diabetic retinopathy, is caused by damage to the blood vessels in the retina of the eye, and can result in gradual vision loss and eventual blindness. Diabetes also increases the risk of having glaucoma, cataracts, and other eye problems. It is recommended that diabetics visit an eye doctor once a year. Damage to the kidneys, known as diabetic nephropathy, can lead to tissue scarring, urine protein loss, and eventually chronic kidney disease, sometimes requiring dialysis or kidney transplantation. Damage to the nerves of the body, known as diabetic neuropathy, is the most common complication of diabetes. The symptoms can include numbness, tingling, pain, and altered pain sensation, which can lead to damage to the skin. Diabetes-related foot problems (such as diabetic foot ulcers) may occur, and can be difficult to treat, occasionally requiring amputation. Additionally, proximal diabetic neuropathy causes painful muscle atrophy and weakness.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Complications.\n\nAll forms of diabetes increase the risk of long-term complications. These typically develop after many years (10–20) but may be the first symptom in those who have otherwise not received a diagnosis before that time.\n\nThe major long-term complications relate to damage to blood vessels. Diabetes doubles the risk of cardiovascular disease and about 75% of deaths in people with diabetes are due to coronary artery disease. Other macrovascular diseases include stroke, and peripheral artery disease.\n", "Methods in preventing amputation, limb-sparing techniques, depend on the problems that might cause amputations to be necessary. Chronic infections, often caused by diabetes or decubitus ulcers in bedridden patients, are common causes of infections that lead to gangrene, which would then necessitate amputation.\n\nThere are two key challenges: first, many patients have impaired circulation in their extremities, and second, they have difficulty curing infections in limbs with poor vasculation (blood circulation).\n", "There are a number of ways that diabetes damages the nerves, all of which seem to be related to increased blood sugar levels over a long period of time. Proximal diabetic neuropathy is one of four types of diabetic neuropathy.\n\nProximal diabetic neuropathy can occur in type 2 and type 1 diabetes mellitus patients however, it is most commonly found in type 2 diabetics. Proximal neuropathy is the second most common type of diabetic neuropathy and can be resolved with time and treatment.\n\nSection::::Signs & symptoms.\n", "Over 185,000 amputations occur annually, with approximately 86% of incidents being lower-limb amputations. The majority of cases are reportedly caused by vascular disease (54%) and trauma (45%). Lower-limb amputees are further categorized by where the amputation occurs with respect to the knee joint. However, 34.5% of individuals with an initial foot or ankle amputation experience a progression of symptoms leading to subsequent amputations at higher levels of limb loss. Out of these reamputation cases, diabetic patients had a higher likelihood of requiring further amputations, regardless of initial amputation location. The rate of amputation has decreased significantly with the introduction and optimization of revascularization to combat vascular disease. An increasingly studied trend in amputation rates is the gender disparity of women receiving more surgical revascularization treatments and less amputations than male counterparts.\n", "Bone is more susceptible to ischemia, with hematopoietic cells usually dying within 2 hours, and other bone cells (osteocytes, osteoclasts, osteoblasts etc.) within 12–20 hours. On the other hand, it has better regenerative capacity once blood supply is reestablished, as the remaining dead inorganic osseous tissue forms a framework upon which immigrating cells can reestablish functional bone tissue in optimal conditions.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nCauses include:\n\nBULLET::::- Thrombosis (approximately 40% of cases)\n\nBULLET::::- Arterial embolism (approximately 40%)\n\nBULLET::::- arteriosclerosis obliterans\n\nAnother cause of limb infarction is \"skeletal muscle infarction\" as a rare complication of long standing, poorly controlled diabetes mellitus.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04351	Why is paper white when trees are brown?	They are very heavily bleached. You can look at papyrus for what a more normal color of cellulose would be	[ "Bleaching of wood pulp\n\nBleaching of wood pulp is the chemical processing of wood pulp to lighten its color and whiten the pulp. The primary product of wood pulp is paper, for which whiteness (similar to, but distinct from brightness) is an important characteristic. These processes and chemistry are also applicable to the bleaching of non-wood pulps, such as those made from bamboo or kenaf.\n\nSection::::Paper brightness.\n", "Kraft pulp is darker than other wood pulps, but it can be bleached to make very white pulp. Fully bleached kraft pulp is used to make high quality paper where strength, whiteness and resistance to yellowing are important.\n\nThe kraft process can use a wider range of fiber sources than most other pulping processes. All types of wood, including very resinous types like southern pine, and non-wood species like bamboo and kenaf can be used in the kraft process.\n\nSection::::Byproducts and emissions.\n", "Kraft pulp is darker than other wood pulps, but it can be bleached to make very white pulp. Fully bleached kraft pulp is used to make high quality paper where strength, whiteness, and resistance to yellowing are important.\n\nSection::::Manufacture.\n", "Pulp used in the manufacture of paperboard can be bleached to decrease colour and increase purity. Virgin fibre pulp is naturally brown in colour, because of the presence of lignin. Recycled paperboard may contain traces of inks, bonding agents and other residue which colors it grey.\n\nAlthough bleaching is not necessary for all end-uses, it is vital for many graphical and packaging purposes. There are various methods of bleaching, which are used according to a number of factors for example, the degree of colour change required, chemicals chosen and method of treatment. There are three categories of bleaching methods:\n", "Paper made from mechanical pulp contains significant amounts of lignin, a major component in wood. In the presence of light and oxygen, lignin reacts to give yellow materials, which is why newsprint and other mechanical paper yellows with age. Paper made from bleached kraft or sulfite pulps does not contain significant amounts of lignin and is therefore better suited for books, documents and other applications where whiteness of the paper is essential.\n", "Surface chemistry of paper\n\nThe surface chemistry of paper is responsible for many important paper properties, such as gloss, waterproofing, and printability. Many components are used in the paper-making process that affect the surface.\n\nSection::::Pigment and dispersion medium.\n", "Newsprint ranges from 55-75 ISO brightness. Writing and printer paper would typically be as bright as 104 ISO.\n", "BULLET::::- Others: It is also possible to use the fibres of Sugarcane Bagasse, Straw, Hemp, Cotton, Flax, Kenaf, Abaca and other plant products\n\nSection::::Production.:Pulping.\n\nTwo principal methods for extracting fibres from their sources are:\n\nBULLET::::- Chemical pulping uses chemical solutions to convert wood into pulp, yielding around 30% less than mechanical pulping; however, pulp made by the kraft process has superior strength\n\nBULLET::::- Thermo mechanical pulp is a two-stage process which results in a very high yield of wood fibres at the expense of strength.\n\nSection::::Production.:Pulping.:Bleaching.\n", "The bark from mulberry trees contain lignin and holocellulose, which contribute to the durability of Hanji. The ordinary papers that people commonly use have a pH level of 4~5.5. The neutral level that is not harmful to the humans is pH 7, meaning that these papers are acidic. If papers have low pH level (more acidic), they are completely decomposed in 100 years. Hanji, however, uses Hibiscus Manihot, which has a pH level of 7 and does not get dismantled easily (“The Significance”).\n\nSection::::Use of Hanji.\n\nSection::::Use of Hanji.:Ancient Uses.\n", "BULLET::::- Amate, paper made of bark, used in pre-Columbian Central America\n\nBULLET::::- Bleaching of wood pulp\n\nBULLET::::- Environmental issues with paper\n\nBULLET::::- Museums: Williams Paper Museum, Basel Paper Mill\n\nBULLET::::- Papyrus, a precursor to paper used in the Mediterranean world\n\nBULLET::::- Sizing\n\nBULLET::::- Stickies (papermaking)\n\nBULLET::::- Surface chemistry of paper\n\nBULLET::::- Tree-free paper\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- The Harrison Elliott Collection at the Library of Congress has paper specimens, personal papers and research material relating to the history of papermaking\n", "To make paper, the black bark must be converted into white bark. The stored black bark is soaked and then scraped by hand with a knife to remove the black outer coat. It is then washed in water and again placed in the sun to dry.\n", "In Canada, between 2000 and 2012, direct GHG emissions declined by 56% and total energy use by 30%. Some of this decline is due to the contraction of the forest industry but a large part is due to reduced use of fossil fuels and increased self-generation of power from renewable biomass. Bioenergy accounted for 56% of forest industry energy use in 2012, up from 49% in 2000.\n\nSection::::Issues.:Non-renewable resources.\n\nClay or calcium carbonate are used as fillers for some papers. Kaolin is the most commonly used clay for coated papers.\n\nSection::::Mitigation.\n", "The brightness gains achieved in bleaching mechanical pulps are temporary since almost all of the lignin present in the wood is still present in the pulp. Exposure to air and light can produce new chromophores from this residual lignin. This is why newspaper yellows as it ages.\n\nyellowing also occurs due to the acidic sizing\n\nSection::::Bleaching of recycled pulp.\n\nHydrogen peroxide and sodium dithionite are used to increase the brightness of deinked pulp. The bleaching methods are similar for mechanical pulp in which the goal is to make the fibers brighter.\n\nSection::::Bleaching chemical pulps.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Euclidia mi\" ab. \"illuminata\" ab. nov. [Warren] is a paler form of the type in which the dark areas are restricted by the amplification of the pale spaces, the underside yellowish white; in litterata Cyr. from Italy the white is pure, the underside bluish white; but the white spots of the upperside are restricted in size;\n\nBULLET::::- \"Euclidia mi\" ab. \"extrema\" B.-Haas from Amurland and Central Asia, the white predominates still more over the black than in \"illuminata\", the underside being also pure white;\n", "Some of the most commonly used softwood trees for paper making include spruce, pine, fir, larch and hemlock, and hardwoods such as eucalyptus, aspen and birch. There is also increasing interest in genetically modified tree species (such as GM eucalyptus and GM poplar), because of several major benefits these can provide, such as increased ease of breaking down lignin and increased growth rate.\n", "There are several manufacturers in North America who use a different composition of materials to form the final product. One composition is cellulose fiber and phenolic resin (a type of polymer) which is combined and baked for a smooth hard surface. The natural fibers are made from plant, animal and mineral sources. However most natural fibers are predominantly cellulosic.\n\nBULLET::::1. Cellulose derived from tree pulp is turned into large rolls of paper.\n\nBULLET::::2. The paper is then soaked in phenolic resin and goes up to a heating chamber to be dried out before being rolled back up.\n", "Section::::Production.\n\nAround 5%-10% of paper production worldwide is produced from agricultural crops, valuing agricultural paper production at between $5 billion and $10 billion. The most notable of these agricultural crops are wheat straw and bagasse. Using agricultural crops rather than wood has the added advantage of reducing deforestation.\n\nDue to the ease with which bagasse can be chemically pulped, bagasse requires less bleaching chemicals than wood pulp to achieve a bright, white sheet of paper.\n\nMost chemical bagasse pulp mills concentrate the spent reaction chemicals and combust them to power the paper-mills and to recover the reaction chemicals.\n", "The branches of the paper mulberry shrubs are harvested in the autumn, so the fibre can be processed and the paper formed during the cold winter months, because the fibre spoils easily in the heat. The branches are cut into sections two to three feet long and steamed in a large kettle, which makes the bark shrink back from the inner wood, allowing it to be pulled off like a banana peel. The bark can then be dried and stored, or used immediately. There are three layers to the bark at this stage: black bark, the outermost layer; green bark, the middle layer; and white bark, the innermost layer. All three can be made into paper, but the finest paper is made of white bark only.\n", "The scraped bark strips are then cooked for two or three hours in a mixture of water and soda ash. The fibre is cooked enough when it can easily be pulled apart lengthwise. The strips are then rinsed several times in clean water to rinse off the soda ash. Rinsing also makes the fibre brighter and whiter—fine kozo paper is not bleached, but is naturally pure white.\n", "In the case of a plant designed to produce pulp to make brown sack paper or linerboard for boxes and packaging, the pulp does not always need to be bleached to a high brightness. Bleaching decreases the mass of pulp produced by about 5%, decreases the strength of the fibers and adds to the cost of manufacture.\n\nSection::::The process.:Process chemicals.\n\nProcess chemicals are added to improve the production process:\n\nBULLET::::- Impregnation aids. Surfactants may be used to improve impregnation of the wood chips with the cooking liquors.\n", "Newsprint is generally made by a mechanical milling process, without the chemical processes that are often used to remove lignin from the pulp. The lignin causes the paper to become brittle and yellow when exposed to air or sunlight. Traditionally, newsprint was made from fibers extracted from various softwood species of trees (most commonly, spruce, fir, balsam fir or pine). However, an increasing percentage of the world's newsprint is made with recycled fibers.\n\nSection::::Sustainability.\n", "Pigments that absorb in the yellow and red part of the visible spectrum can be added. As the dye absorbs light, the brightness of the paper will decrease, unlike the effect of an optical-brightening agent. To increase whiteness, a combination of pigments and an optical-brightening agent are often used. The most commonly used pigments are blue and violet dyes.\n\nSection::::Coating.:Optical-brightening agent.\n", "The paper industry's answer to \"tree free\" paper has been focused on \"recycled waste paper\" as a tree free alternative even though the vast majority of \"recycled waste paper\" originally started its life cycle from tree grown pulp.\n", "Chromated copper arsenate, once the most commonly used wood preservative in North America began being phased out of most residential applications in 2004. Replacing it are amine copper quat and copper azole.\n\nAll wood preservatives used in the United States and Canada are registered and regularly re-examined for safety by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and Health Canada's Pest Management and Regulatory Agency, respectively.\n\nSection::::Timber framing.\n", "While the results are the same, the processes and fundamental chemistry involved in bleaching chemical pulps (like kraft or sulfite) are very different from those involved in bleaching mechanical pulps (like stoneground, thermomechanical or chemithermomechanical). Chemical pulps contain very little lignin while mechanical pulps contain most of the lignin that was present in the wood used to make the pulp. Lignin is the main source of color in pulp due to the presence of a variety of chromophores naturally present in the wood or created in the pulp mill.\n\nSection::::Bleaching mechanical pulps.\n" ]	[ "Paper is white directly from the tree." ]	[ "Paper is bleached to be white. Papyrus is a more natural color that resembles the color of the wood it was made from. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Paper is white directly from the tree." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Paper is bleached to be white. Papyrus is a more natural color that resembles the color of the wood it was made from. " ]
2018-18941	Why do you feel incredibly cold when your body is actually burning hot when you are sick and vice versa?	When you are sick with something like the flu, the bodies natural defense is to raise your body temperature to help kill off invading bacteria/viruses. The feeling of being cold is your blood temperature being colder than your bodies new set point	[ "Symptoms of an infection of \"P. oryzihabitans\" are actually quite vague and similar to the signs that can indicate other illnesses or diseases, so it is relatively difficult to identify when only looking at symptoms. However, in several cases, these infections result after an individual's immune system has been weakened, so it is likely to occur in recovering or ill patients. Most patients, after receiving treatment for another disease or during recovery from surgery, experience chills and increase in body temperature. While these symptoms could mean a variety of things, it is clear that the patient's recovery is halted and that there is an infection of some sort. In an example where a woman developed an infection of \"P. oryzihabitans\" from a case of sinusitis, she experienced the same chills and elevated temperature, but also nasal discharge containing pus, right facial pain, and a fever.\n", "BULLET::::- HEAT repeat domain, a solenoid protein domain found in a number of cytoplasmic proteins\n\nBULLET::::- Heat vs. cold, the sensation of temperatures above and below body temperature in Thermoception\n\nSection::::Science.:Healthcare.\n\nBULLET::::- Fever, also known as pyrexia and febrile response, is defined as having a body temperature above the normal range in response to internal physiological conditions, such as an infection\n\nBULLET::::- Heat illness or heat-related illness, a spectrum of mild to severe acute medical problems caused by environmental exposure to heat:\n", "The first single, \"Sick Like Me\" from the band's album, \"Black Widow\" was released to digital retailers on September 9, 2014 while the album, produced by Kevin Churko, was released on November 17, 2014.\n", "BULLET::::- Kawasaki disease Children with this disease also present with a strawberry tongue and undergo a desquamative process on their palms and soles. However, these children tend to be younger than 5 years old, their fever lasts longer (at least five days) and they have additional clinical criteria (including signs such as conjunctival redness and cracked lips) which can help distinguish this from Scarlet Fever.\n", "BULLET::::- Scarlet fever, infectious disease whose symptoms can include paranoia and hallucinations.\n\nIn The Wound Dresser / a series of letters written from the hospitals in Washington ..., by Walt Whitman the part called \"Letters of 1864\" (about 3/4 of the way through the book), \"VI\", a letter dated March 15, 1861 describes a patient Whitman lost to brain fever.\n", "Acute mediastinitis is an infectious process and can cause fever, chills, tachycardia. Pain can occur with mediastinitis but the location of the pain depends on which part of the mediastinum is involved. When the upper mediastinum is involved, the pain is typically retro-sternal pain. When the lower mediastinum is involved, pain can be located between in the scapulae and radiate around to the chest.\n\nSection::::Symptoms.:Chronic.\n", "BULLET::::- Toxic shock syndrome: Both Streptococcal and Staphylococcal bacteria can cause this syndrome. Clinical manifestations include diffuse rash and desquamation of the palms and soles. Can be distinguished from Scarlet Fever by low blood pressure, the rash will lack sandpaper texture, and multi-organ system involvement.\n", "Then with the passing of the days and the increasing heat of the summer, which is usually a sign of future fever, they were struck down with sickness. They found it difficult to breathe, fever set in, and at one moment they were shivering with cold the next burning with heat. They had caught the black plague. So great a hold had it got on them that, scarcely able to move, worn out with fever and almost at the point of death, the breath of life had practically left their bodies. But God in His never failing providence and fatherly love deigned to listen to their prayers and come to their aid, so that each of them rested in turn for one week whilst they attended to each other's needs.\n", "The effect of PPE on hyperthermia has been noted in fighting the 2014 Ebola virus epidemic in Western Africa. Doctors and healthcare workers were only able to work 40 minutes at a stretch in their protective suits, fearing heat strokes.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Other.\n\nOther rare causes of hyperthermia include thyrotoxicosis and an adrenal gland tumor, called pheochromocytoma, both of which can cause increased heat production. Damage to the central nervous system, from brain hemorrhage, status epilepticus, and other kinds of injury to the hypothalamus can also cause hyperthermia.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "Sick (The Walking Dead)\n\n\"Sick\" is the second episode of the third season of the post-apocalyptic horror television series \"The Walking Dead\", which aired on AMC in the United States on October 21, 2012.\n\nSection::::Plot.\n", "Fever, also known as pyrexia and febrile response, is defined as having a temperature above the normal range due to an increase in the body's temperature set point. There is not a single agreed-upon upper limit for normal temperature with sources using values between . The increase in set point triggers increased muscle contractions and causes a feeling of cold. This results in greater heat production and efforts to conserve heat. When the set point temperature returns to normal, a person feels hot, becomes flushed, and may begin to sweat. Rarely a fever may trigger a febrile seizure. This is more common in young children. Fevers do not typically go higher than .\n", "BULLET::::- Lines of petechiae which appear as pink/red areas located in arm pits and elbow pits\n\nVomiting and abdominal pain\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Strep throat.\n\nTypical symptoms of streptococcal pharyngitis (also known as strep throat):\n\nBULLET::::- Sore throat, painful swallowing\n\nBULLET::::- Fever - typically over 39 °C (102.2 °F)\n\nBULLET::::- Fatigue\n\nBULLET::::- Enlarged and reddened tonsils with yellow or white exudates present (this is typically an exudative pharyngitis)\n\nBULLET::::- Enlarged and tender lymph nodes usually located on the front of the neck\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Mouth.\n\nThe streptococcal pharyngitis which is the usual presentation of scarlet fever in combination with the characteristic rash commonly involves the tonsils. The tonsils will appear swollen and reddened. The palate and uvula are also commonly affected by the infection. The involvement of the soft palate can be seen as tiny red and round spots known as Forchheimer spots.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Variable presentations.\n", "Wolfgang was complaining of his eyes. I noticed his head was warm, that his cheeks were hot and very red, but that his hands were cold as ice. Moreover, his pulse was not right. So we gave him some black powder and put him to bed. During the night he was rather restless and in the morning he still had the dry fever.\n\nA frightening symptom of Wolfgang's illness, not made explicit in Leopold's letter, was an inability to see. In a letter written much later (1800), his sister Nannerl reported:\n", "BULLET::::- Cold weather/Snow: Exposure to cold or cool air can quickly trigger a reaction; for example going down the \"cold\" aisle in a supermarket.\n\nBULLET::::- Sweat: A reaction may even occur on a warm day when there is sweat on the skin, since the reaction is triggered by skin temperature, not core temperature. If there is a breeze it will rapidly cool the skin and create hives.\n", "With fever, the body's core temperature rises to a higher temperature through the action of the part of the brain that controls the body temperature; with hyperthermia, the body temperature is raised without the influence of the heat control centers.\n\nSection::::Concepts.:Hypothermia.\n\nIn hypothermia, body temperature drops below that required for normal metabolism and bodily functions. In humans, this is usually due to excessive exposure to cold air or water, but it can be deliberately induced as a medical treatment. Symptoms usually appear when the body's core temperature drops by below normal temperature.\n\nSection::::Concepts.:Basal body temperature.\n", "The neural activation mechanisms involved in the regulation of body temperature are largely undefined. It is known that sympathetic pathways are involved in increasing heat production and reducing heat loss and are activated by neurons in the rostal medullary raphe (RMR). These neurons were identified as playing an important role in the elevation of body temperature during both cold exposure and induced fever by observation that hyperpolarization prior to exposure to these conditions inhibits the elevation of body temperature in response.\n\nSection::::Role in thermoregulation.:Febrile response.\n", "\"Yersinia pseudotuberculosis\" has been divided into 6 genetic groups: group 1 has only been isolated from the Far East.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "BULLET::::- III. Acute Delirium in States of Fever: An increased body temperature can alter brain functioning that may lead to temporary ASCs expressing themselves in a delirium or hallucinations. Affected individuals experience a state of emotionally frightening illusions that lead to acute states of anxiety and restlessness. Such a delirium is not insignificant in a forensic context, since there have been several cases reported in which feverish and delusional individuals committed a crime.\n", "Later in Santa Helena when the medicine has been distributed and a recovered Montoya fetes the doctor for his bravery and medicine which was salicylic acid from willow bark. Standing alongside is Grisham and Montoya tells him he knows everything, but he still controls him. Tessa and Marta tease the doctor about the Queen of Swords and the doctor admits she is not as bad as he thought.\n\nSection::::Production notes.\n\nJean-Louis Airola became swordmaster/stunt co-ordinator for this episode taking over from Anthony De Longis who did production episodes 101-107 excluding 105\n", "In 1906, the Austrian pediatrician Clemens von Pirquet postulated that disease-causing immune complexes were responsible for the nephritis that followed scarlet fever.\n", "Section::::Composition.\n", "\"Febricula\" is an old term for a low-grade fever, especially if the cause is unknown, no other symptoms are present, and the patient recovers fully in less than a week.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Hyperpyrexia.\n", "Inflammation can occur when the immune system recognizes an antigen and activates the immune response cascade. The transcribed and translated products of the HERV-W Env gene come from retroviral DNA thus the human body detects these proteins as antigens triggering the immune response. Specifically, cytokine production is elevated in the MS PBMC cultures as compared to the healthy controls and mediated by the surface unit of the MSRV Env protein.\n", "The first description of the disease in the medical literature appeared in the 1553 book \"De Tumoribus praeter Naturam\" by the Sicilian anatomist and physician Giovanni Filippo Ingrassia, where he referred to it as \"rossalia\". He also made a point to distinguish that this presentation had different characteristics to measles. It was redescribed by Johann Weyer during an epidemic in lower Germany between 1564 and 1565; he referred to it as \"scalatina anginosa\". The first unequivocal description of scarlet fever appeared in a book by Joannes Coyttarus of Poitiers, \"De febre purpura epidemiale et contagiosa libri duo\", which was published in 1578 in Paris. Daniel Sennert of Wittenberg described the classical 'scarlatinal desquamation' in 1572 and was also the first to describe the early arthritis, scarlatinal dropsy, and ascites associated with the disease.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01402	Why is propane in liquid form in a tank, but gas form in a bottle or bucket?	Pressure. In a tank there's so much pressure that the gas 'sticks' together condensing into a liquid	[ "One hazard associated with propane storage and transport is known as a BLEVE or boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion. The Kingman Explosion involved a railroad tank car in Kingman, Arizona in 1973 during a propane transfer. The fire and subsequent explosions resulted in twelve fatalities and numerous injuries.\n\nSection::::Comparison with natural gas.\n", "Retail sales of small scale gas supply are not confined to just the industrial gas companies or their agents. A wide variety of hand-carried small gas containers, which may be called cylinders, bottles, cartridges, capsules or canisters are available to supply LPG, butane, propane, carbon dioxide or nitrous oxide. Examples are Whipped-cream chargers, powerlets, campingaz and sodastream.\n\nSection::::Early history of gases.\n", "Bulk liquid gases are often transferred to end user storage tanks. Gas cylinders (and liquid gas containing vessels) are often used by end users for their own small scale distribution systems. Toxic or flammable gas cylinders are often stored by end users in gas cabinets for protection from external fire or from any leak.\n\nSection::::What defines an industrial gas.\n", "BULLET::::- 2. Equipment downstream of gas outlet is not a flare or vent system and can safely handle maximum liquid carry-over.\n\nBULLET::::- 3. Vessel function does not require handling of separate fluid phases.\n\nBULLET::::- 4. Vessel is a small trap from which liquids are manually drained.\n", "Rigid sections of liquid line are usually made using copper tubing, although in some applications, steel pipes are used instead. The ends of the pipes are always double-flared and fitted with flare nuts to secure them to the fittings.\n\nLiquid line fittings are mostly made from brass. The fittings typically adapt from a thread in a component, such as a BSP or NPT threaded hole on a tank, to an SAE flare fitting to suit the ends of pipes or hoses.\n\nSection::::System components.:Tank.\n", "Section::::Container types.\n\nThe main containers of liquefied petroleum gas, propane and butane are automotive tanks, disposable cylinders, permanent tanks and portable cylinders.\n\nSection::::Connector types and standards.\n\nThe list of standards shows one applicable standard for each connector type listed in the table below. A single applicable standard has been chosen in case multiple versions of the same standard have been published, for example a German and a European version.\n\nSection::::Connector types and standards.:Connector types.\n", "In the United States, \"bottled gas\" typically refers to liquefied petroleum gas. \"Bottled gas\" is sometimes used in medical supply, especially for portable oxygen tanks. Packaged industrial gases are frequently called \"cylinder gas\", though \"bottled gas\" is sometimes used.\n", "Because the contents are under high pressure and are sometimes hazardous, there are special safety regulations for handling bottled gases. These include chaining bottles to prevent falling and breaking, proper ventilation to prevent injury or death in case of leaks and signage to indicate the potential hazards.\n", "Bottled gas\n\nBottled gas is a term used for substances which are gaseous at standard temperature and pressure (STP) and have been compressed and stored in carbon steel, stainless steel, aluminum, or composite bottles known as gas cylinders.\n\nSection::::Gas state in cylinders.\n", " Gasholders were constructed of a variety of materials, brick, stone, concrete, steel, or wrought iron. The holder or floating vessel is the storage reservoir for the gas, and it serves the purpose of equalizing the distribution of the gas under pressure, and ensures a continuity of supply, while gas remains in the holder. They are cylindrical like an inverted beaker and work up and down in the tank. In order to maintain a true vertical position, the vessel has rollers which work on guide-rails attached to the tank sides and to the columns surrounding the holder. \n", "Condensers were either air cooled or water cooled. Air cooled condensers were often made up from odd lengths of pipe and connections. The main varieties in common use were classified as follows:\n\n(a) Horizontal types \n\n(b) Vertical types\n\n(c) Annular types \n\n(d) The battery condenser.\n", "However, because these propellants are stored at higher pressures (up to ) while liquid CO is stored at around , tanks for nitrogen and HPA are more expensive and heavier. The tanks themselves can either be filled with pure N or compressed air, which is 79% N. Tanks smaller than may not last heated matches, while larger tanks are cumbersome and require mounting options that create a larger marker profile.\n", "Section::::Uses.:Refrigeration.:In motor vehicles.\n\nSuch substitution is widely prohibited or discouraged in motor vehicle air conditioning systems, on the grounds that using flammable hydrocarbons in systems originally designed to carry non-flammable refrigerant presents a significant risk of fire or explosion.\n\nVendors and advocates of hydrocarbon refrigerants argue against such bans on the grounds that there have been very few such incidents relative to the number of vehicle air conditioning systems filled with hydrocarbons.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Motor fuel.\n", "BULLET::::- surface area of the gas–liquid interface.\n\nIn particular heat and mass transfer velocity is higher for equipment with higher values of gas–liquid interface surface area, so gas–liquid contactors with high surface area (e.g. packed column, spray tower) are often preferred when it is important to lower the cost of the equipment.\n", "BULLET::::- Four 1,200m spherical vessels used for propane storage\n\nBULLET::::- Four 2,000m pressure vessels used for propane storage\n\nBULLET::::- Two 150m horizontal bullet pressure vessels used for propane and butane\n\nBULLET::::- Ten 2,500m and 6500m floating roof tanks used for the storage of finished grade petrol and kerosene\n", "BULLET::::- — video of propane and isobutane BLEVEs from a train derailment at Murdock, Illinois (3 September 1983)\n\nBULLET::::- — video of BLEVE from the\n\nBULLET::::- - Dozens of LPG tank BLEVEs after a road accident in Moscow\n\nBULLET::::- Kingman, AZ BLEVE — An account of the 5 July 1973 explosion in Kingman, with photographs\n\nBULLET::::- Propane Tank Explosions — Description of circumstances required to cause a propane tank BLEVE.\n\nBULLET::::- Analysis of BLEVE Events at DOE Sites - Details physics and mathematics of BLEVEs.\n", "Section::::Common practices.\n\nThe most common gas used in blanketing is nitrogen. Nitrogen is widely used due to its inert properties, as well as its availability and relatively low cost. Tank blanketing is used for a variety of products including cooking oils, volatile combustible products, and purified water. These applications also cover a wide variety of storage containers, ranging from as large as a tank containing millions of gallons of vegetable oil down to a quart-size container or smaller. Nitrogen is appropriate for use at any of these scales.\n", "BULLET::::- air\n\nBULLET::::- argon\n\nBULLET::::- fluorine\n\nBULLET::::- helium\n\nBULLET::::- hydrogen\n\nBULLET::::- krypton\n\nBULLET::::- nitrogen\n\nBULLET::::- oxygen\n\nSection::::Gas state in cylinders.:Case II.\n\nThe substance \"liquefies\" at \"standard temperature\" but \"increased pressure\". Examples include:\n\nBULLET::::- ammonia\n\nBULLET::::- butane\n\nBULLET::::- carbon dioxide (also packaged as a cryogenic gas, Case IV)\n\nBULLET::::- chlorine\n\nBULLET::::- nitrous oxide\n\nBULLET::::- propane\n\nBULLET::::- sulfur dioxide\n\nSection::::Gas state in cylinders.:Case III.\n\nThe substance is \"dissolved\" at \"standard temperature\" in a solvent. Examples include:\n\nBULLET::::- acetylene\n", "In the United States, the Compressed Gas Association (CGA) sells a number of booklets and pamphlets on safe handling and use of bottled gases. (Members of the CGA can get the pamphlets for free.) The European Industrial Gases Association and the British Compressed Gases Association provide similar facilities in Europe and the United Kingdom.\n\nSection::::Nomenclature differences.\n\nIn the United States, 'bottled gas' typically refers to liquefied petroleum gas. 'Bottled gas' is sometimes used in medical supply, especially for portable oxygen tanks. Packaged industrial gases are frequently called 'cylinder gas', though 'bottled gas' is sometimes used.\n", "A BLEVE need not be a chemical explosion—nor does there need to be a fire—however if a flammable substance is subject to a BLEVE it may also be subject to intense heating, either from an external source of heat which may have caused the vessel to rupture in the first place or from an internal source of localized heating such as skin friction. This heating can cause a flammable substance to ignite, adding a secondary explosion caused by the primary BLEVE. While blast effects of any BLEVE can be devastating, a flammable substance such as propane can add significantly to the danger.\n", "Bulk gas is usually stored in manifolded groups of storage cylinders known as \"quads\", which usually carry about 16 high pressure cylinders, each of about 50 litres internal volume mounted on a frame for ease of transport, or larger frames carrying larger capacity high pressure \"tubes\". These tube frames are usually designed to be handled by intermodal container handling equipment, so are usually made in one of the standard sizes for intermodal containers.\n\nSection::::Architecture of a surface saturation facility.:Gas reclaim systems.\n", "Section::::Pressure container technology.\n\nSeveral approaches to the problem of cost-effective high-pressure containers are possible. The main variables are the material to be used and the geometry of the containers. Standard method of storing non-condensed gases in metal flasks is not cost-effective for high-volume storage at high pressure. (This does not apply to gases such as butane and propane or their mixtures as in liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). LPG gases liquefy at ambient temperatures under moderate pressure and can be economically stored in steel containers of various sizes.)\n", "Section::::Amoco/Dome Synergies.:Extracting NGLs.\n\nSeparated from a gas stream, NGLs are an undifferentiated batch of light hydrocarbons — ethane, propane, butane and condensate. To separate them into more valuable individual products requires fractionation facilities. Fractionation towers separate a stream of mixed NGL feedstock into specification-grade ethane, propane, butane and condensate products.\n", "There are four cases: either the substance remains a gas at standard temperature but increased pressure, the substance liquefies at standard temperature but increased pressure, the substance is dissolved in a solvent, or the substance is liquefied at reduced temperature and increased pressure. In the last case the bottle is constructed with an inner and outer shell separated by a vacuum (dewar flask) so that the low temperature can be maintained by evaporative cooling.\n\nSection::::Gas state in cylinders.:Case I.\n\nThe substance remains a \"gas\" at \"standard temperature\" and \"increased pressure\", its critical temperature being below standard temperature. Examples include:\n", "Any gas is likely to be considered an industrial gas if it is put in a gas cylinder (except perhaps if it is used as a fuel)\n\nPropane would be considered an industrial gas when used as a refrigerant, but not when used as a refrigerant in LNG production, even though this is an overlapping technology.\n\nSection::::Gases.\n\nSection::::Gases.:Elemental gases.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03240	How do Olympic figure skaters spin without getting dizzy?	Apparently they get used to it after many many hours of training, their bodies adapt to the spinning (always counter-clockwise) and the “dizzy” affect goes away almost immediately after they’re done spinning.	[ "When performing some types of spin, an elite skater can complete on average six rotations per second, and up to 70 rotations in a single spin. However, this is rarely seen in modern competitions because it would gain no extra points for the spin.\n", "Spins are normally entered on the ice, but they can also be entered from a jump or sequence of jumps known as star jumps. Spins that are entered through a jump are calling flying spins; these include the flying camel, flying sit spin, death drop, and butterfly spin. Flying spins may go from a forward spin to a back spin and they can also be performed as part of a spin sequence (combination spin).\n", "There are many types of spins, identified by the foot on which the spin is performed, the entrance to the spin, and the position of the arms, legs, and torso. Spins may be performed on either foot. Figure skaters are rarely able to spin in both directions; most favor one or the other. For skaters who rotate in a counterclockwise direction, a spin on the left foot is called a \"forward\" or \"front spin\", while a spin on the right foot is called a \"back spin\". Spins may be entered with a step or a jump. Spins entered with a jump are referred to as \"flying spins\". There are three basic positions, for which many variations exist. There are five levels of difficulty — Level B to Level 4.\n", "Most jumps have a \"natural\" rotation; that is, the approach and landing curves both have the same rotational sense as the jump in the air. A few jumps, notably including the Lutz and Walley, are \"counter-rotated\", with the approach edge having an opposite rotational sense to the rotation in the air and landing curve.\n", "The flying layback spin is rarely performed because of the physical danger posed by landing with a hyperextended spine and the fact that few coaches know how the move is performed. However, some skaters such as Choi Ji Eun have been successfully credited with flying layback spins in competition.\n\nSection::::In competition.\n", "Section::::Types of spins.:Upright spins.\n\nAn upright spin is a spin where the skater is in an upright position and their head is in line with their spine. There are many variations on it.\n\nBULLET::::- A basic two-foot spin is an upright spin in which the skater rotates with both feet on the ice using their arms to swing around and create momentum.\n\nBULLET::::- A basic one-foot spin is an upright spin in which the skater rotates with one foot on the ice. Spins can be skated on either foot.\n", "Spins are a required element in all four Olympic disciplines. There are three basic positions – upright, sit and camel – with numerous variations.\n\nBULLET::::- Upright spin variations include layback, Biellmann, haircutter, layover layback, attitude, and pearl.\n\nBULLET::::- Sit spin variations include pancake, broken leg, tuck behind, cannonball, flying, and clam.\n\nBULLET::::- Camel spin variations include catch-foot, layover, flying, and donut.\n", "A figure skater only needs to be able to spin in one direction, either clockwise or counter-clockwise. Most skaters favor a counter-clockwise direction of rotation when spinning (as in jumping), but there are some skaters who prefer to spin in the clockwise direction. A small minority of skaters are able to spin in both directions. Spins may be performed on either foot. For skaters who rotate in a counter-clockwise direction, a spin on the left foot is called a forward spin, while a spin on the right foot is called a back spin. The opposite applies for skaters who rotate in a clockwise direction. When learning to spin, a skater will typically learn a forward spin first, then once that is mastered they will learn how to execute a back spin.\n", "BULLET::::- A scratch spin is an upright spin with the free leg crossed in front of the skating leg. The arms and free leg begin in an open position, extended straight out and high. They are pulled in gradually, which accelerates the spin, and the leg is pushed down so that the feet are crossed at the ankles. This spin is performed on a very tight backward inside edge.\n", "If a skater performs a spin that has no basic position with only two revolutions, or with less than two revolutions, he or she does not fulfill the position requirement for the spin, and receives no points for it. A spin with less than three revolutions is not considered a spin; rather, it is considered a skating movement.S&P/ID 2018, p. 103 The flying spin and any spin that only has one position must have six revolutions; spin combinations must have 10 revolutions. Required revolutions are counted from when the skater enters the spin until he or she exits out of it, except for flying spins and the spins in which the final wind-up is in one position. Skaters increase the difficulty of camel spins by grabbing their leg or blade while performing the spin.\n", "BULLET::::- A basic one-foot spin is an upright spin in which the skater rotates with one foot on the ice. Spins can be skated on either of the feet.\n\nBULLET::::- A scratch spin is an upright spin with the free leg crossed in front of the skating leg. The arms and free leg begin in an open position, extended straight out and high. They are pulled in gradually, which accelerates the spin, and the leg is pushed down so that the feet are crossed at the ankles. This spin is performed on a very tight backward inside edge.\n", "Roller skating also traditionally emphasizes spins that are uncommon on ice, especially the \"inverted camel\" in which the skater is on an outside edge standing on the right foot with their body and left leg extended outward parallel to the floor, the skater then rotates their hips 180 degrees while continuing to spin so that they are spinning upside down (of course this could also be performed on the left.) The inverted camel is generally performed by women - few men learn to do it and even fewer perform it in competition. Other spins popular in roller skating that would be impossible to do with the blades of an ice skate include the \"broken ankle\", which begins as an inside-edge camel and the skater then pushes the skate over so that the spin is rotating on the edge of the two inner wheels, and the \"heel camel spin\", which is only rotated on the back two wheels, or heel.\n", "Upright spin\n\nThe Upright spin is one of the three basic figure skating spin positions. It is defined as a spin position with an extended skating leg which is not a camel position. Two popular variations of the upright spin are the layback spin and Biellmann spin.\n\nSection::::Variations.\n\nThere are many variations on the upright spin.\n\nBULLET::::- A basic two-foot spin is an upright spin in which the skater rotates with both feet on the ice.\n", "Jumps may be rotated in clockwise or counter-clockwise direction. Most skaters are counter-clockwise jumpers.\n\nSection::::Scale of values.\n\nEach jump has a base value, which is adjusted if the jump is under-rotated (), if the jump has wrong edge (e),and a grade of execution (GoE) from +5 to −5, weighted according to the base value.\n\nThe current scale of values is:\n\nSection::::Technique.\n", "Vise/Trent won the bronze medal at their first major event together, the 2003 Golden Spin of Zagreb. Beginning in the 2006–2007 season, Vise/Trent began attempting a throw quadruple salchow jump in competition. At the 2006 Skate Canada International, they were credited with fully rotating the element but not with landing it successfully.\n", "Swiegers began skating at age ten in Saskatchewan and began pairs at age fifteen. In 2005, his first partner, Kristin Bonkowski, decided to focus on her singles career.\n\nSection::::Skating career.:Partnership with Lawrence.\n\nIn summer 2005, Swiegers teamed up with Paige Lawrence, one of few skaters at his club who jumped in the same direction – clockwise.\n", "A skater's weight, when performing the twizzle, \"remains on the skating foot with the free foot in any position during the turn then placed beside the skating foot to skate the next step\". The twizzle has four types of entry edges: the Forward Inside, the Forward Outside, the Backward Inside, and the Backward Outside. Skaters can make twizzle-like Motions, movements in which the skating foot completes less than a full turn and then a step forward while the body performs one full continuous rotation. A series of checked Three Turns does not constitute a twizzle because it is not a continuous action. If the traveling stops while the steps are being made, it is also not a twizzle; rather, it is a Pirouette, or solo spin.\n", "Precisely Right synchronized skating team was founded in 1991 by Pat Lynch, now a USFSA judge at Mennen Arena. The team eventually became a junior level team and existed until 1999, when John Towill became head coach. The team split apart; with older skaters graduating high school and going to college, and younger members going \"to other junior and senior level teams.\"\n", "A jump harness is often employed in training quads. Max Aaron stated that the smallest error may make the difference in the success of a quad attempt: \"The minute your left arm is behind you, or your three-turn is too fast, if your hips don't turn in time, if your foot isn't in the right place, anything will throw you off.\" Ross Miner stated that the quality of the ice sometimes plays a role but more on the quad salchow than the toe loop. Practicing quads increases the risk of injury as well as wear and tear on a skater's body.\n", "Vise/Trent won the bronze medal at their first major event together, the 2003 Golden Spin of Zagreb. Beginning in the 2006–2007 season, Vise/Trent began attempting a throw quadruple salchow jump in competition. At the 2006 Skate Canada International, they were credited with fully rotating the element but not with landing it successfully.\n", "An inverted spiral is a variation performed with the free leg held in front with the skater leaning backward over the edge of the skating foot so that the skater's upper body is held almost parallel to the ice. The position attained in this spiral is similar to that of a layover camel.\n", "Spins are an element in figure skating where the skater rotates, centered on a single point on the ice, while holding one or more body positions. The skater rotates on the part of the blade just behind the toe pick, with the weight on the ball of the foot. There are many types of spins, identified by the position of the arms, legs, and torso, the foot on which the spin is performed, and the entrance to the spin. A \"combination spin\" is a spin where the skater would connect a spin with another separate spin. Spins are a required element in most figure skating competitions.\n", "Section::::Types of spins.\n", "The solo spin combination must be performed once during the short program of pair skating competitions, with at least two revolutions in two basic positions. Both partners must include all three basic positions in order to earn the full points possible. There must be a minimum of five revolutions made on each foot. Spins can be commenced with jumps and must have at least two different basic positions, and both partners must include two revolutions in each position. A solo spin combination must have all three basic positions (the camel spin, the sit spin, and upright positions) performed by both partners, at any time during the spin to receive the full value of points, and must have all three basic positions performed by both partners to receive full value for the element. A spin with less than three revolutions is not counted as a spin; rather, it is considered a skating movement. If a skater changes to a non-basic position, it is not considered a change of position. The number of revolutions in non-basic positions, which may be considered difficult variations, are counted towards the team's total number of revolutions. Only positions, whether basic or non-basic, must be performed by the partners at the same time.\n", "Section::::Career.:2017–18 season.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-03841	How many sides can a shape have before it becomes a circle and does the concept of geometry exist on the very small scale?	In geometry, regular polygons become closer to circles the more sides they have. In that sense, you might say a circle is a regular polygon with an infinite number of sides. Real world objects can be neither perfect circles or perfect regular polygons. Eventually imperfections will crop up, at the molecular level, if not before.	[ "Timeline of geometry\n\nA timeline of algebra and geometry\n\nSection::::Before 1000 BC.\n\nBULLET::::- ca. 2000 BC — Scotland, Carved Stone Balls exhibit a variety of symmetries including all of the symmetries of Platonic solids.\n\nBULLET::::- 1800 BC — Moscow Mathematical Papyrus, findings volume of a frustum\n\nBULLET::::- 1650 BC — Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, copy of a lost scroll from around 1850 BC, the scribe Ahmes presents one of the first known approximate values of π at 3.16, the first attempt at squaring the circle, earliest known use of a sort of cotangent, and knowledge of solving first order linear equations\n", "BULLET::::- 5th century BC — Apastamba, author of the Apastamba Sulba Sutra, another Vedic Sanskrit geometric text, makes an attempt at squaring the circle and also calculates the square root of 2 correct to five decimal places\n\nBULLET::::- 530 BC — Pythagoras studies propositional geometry and vibrating lyre strings; his group also discover the irrationality of the square root of two,\n\nBULLET::::- 370 BC — Eudoxus states the method of exhaustion for area determination\n", "BULLET::::- 17th century – Putumana Somayaji writes the \"Paddhati\", which presents a detailed discussion of various trigonometric series\n\nBULLET::::- 1619 – Johannes Kepler discovers two of the Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra.\n\nSection::::18th century.\n\nBULLET::::- 1722 – Abraham de Moivre states de Moivre's formula connecting trigonometric functions and complex numbers,\n\nBULLET::::- 1733 – Giovanni Gerolamo Saccheri studies what geometry would be like if Euclid's fifth postulate were false,\n\nBULLET::::- 1796 – Carl Friedrich Gauss proves that the regular 17-gon can be constructed using only a compass and straightedge\n", "BULLET::::- 150 BC — Jain mathematicians in India write the “Sthananga Sutra”, which contains work on the theory of numbers, arithmetical operations, geometry, operations with fractions, simple equations, cubic equations, quartic equations, and permutations and combinations\n\nBULLET::::- 140 BC — Hipparchus develops the bases of trigonometry.\n\nSection::::1st millennium.\n\nBULLET::::- ca. 340 — Pappus of Alexandria states his hexagon theorem and his centroid theorem\n", "Thales (635-543 BC) of Miletus (now in southwestern Turkey), was the first to whom deduction in mathematics is attributed. There are five geometric propositions for which he wrote deductive proofs, though his proofs have not survived. Pythagoras (582-496 BC) of Ionia, and later, Italy, then colonized by Greeks, may have been a student of Thales, and traveled to Babylon and Egypt. The theorem that bears his name may not have been his discovery, but he was probably one of the first to give a deductive proof of it. He gathered a group of students around him to study mathematics, music, and philosophy, and together they discovered most of what high school students learn today in their geometry courses. In addition, they made the profound discovery of incommensurable lengths and irrational numbers.\n", "The two problems together indicate a range of values for between 3.11 and 3.16.\n\nProblem 14 in the Moscow Mathematical Papyrus gives the only ancient example finding the volume of a frustum of a pyramid, describing the correct formula:\n\nwhere \"a\" and \"b\" are the base and top side lengths of the truncated pyramid and \"h\" is the height.\n\nSection::::Early geometry.:Babylonian geometry.\n", "An important area of application is number theory. In ancient Greece the Pythagoreans considered the role of numbers in geometry. However, the discovery of incommensurable lengths, which contradicted their philosophical views, made them abandon abstract numbers in favor of concrete geometric quantities, such as length and area of figures. Since the 19th century, geometry has been used for solving problems in number theory, for example through the geometry of numbers or, more recently, scheme theory, which is used in Wiles's proof of Fermat's Last Theorem.\n", "BULLET::::- Babylonian geometry\n\nBULLET::::- Egyptian geometry\n\nBULLET::::- Ancient Greek geometry\n\nBULLET::::- Euclidean geometry\n\nBULLET::::- Pythagorean theorem\n\nBULLET::::- Euclid's \"Elements\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Measurement of a Circle\"\n\nBULLET::::- Indian mathematics\n\nBULLET::::- Bakhshali manuscript\n\nBULLET::::- Modern geometry\n\nBULLET::::- History of analytic geometry\n\nBULLET::::- History of the Cartesian coordinate system\n\nBULLET::::- History of non-Euclidean geometry\n\nBULLET::::- History of topology\n\nBULLET::::- History of algebraic geometry\n\nSection::::General geometry concepts.\n\nSection::::General geometry concepts.:General concepts.\n", "The volume of a pyramid (also any cone) is formula_1, where \"b\" is the area of the base and \"h\" the height from the base to the apex. This works for any polygon, regular or non-regular, and any location of the apex, provided that \"h\" is measured as the perpendicular distance from the plane containing the base. In 499 AD Aryabhata, a mathematician-astronomer from the classical age of Indian mathematics and Indian astronomy, used this method in the \"Aryabhatiya\" (section 2.6).\n", "The ancient Greek mathematicians first attempted straightedge and compass constructions, and they discovered how to construct sums, differences, products, ratios, and square roots of given lengths. They could also construct half of a given angle, a square whose area is twice that of another square, a square having the same area as a given polygon, and a regular polygon with 3, 4, or 5 sides (or one with twice the number of sides of a given polygon). But they could not construct one third of a given angle except in particular cases, or a square with the same area as a given circle, or a regular polygon with other numbers of sides. Nor could they construct the side of a cube whose volume would be twice the volume of a cube with a given side.\n", "BULLET::::- Frustum of a wedge of the second type (used for applications in engineering)\n\nBULLET::::- Cylinder\n\nBULLET::::- Cone with circular base\n\nBULLET::::- Frustum of a cone\n\nBULLET::::- Sphere\n\nContinuing the geometrical legacy of ancient China, there were many later figures to come, including the famed astronomer and mathematician Shen Kuo (1031-1095 CE), Yang Hui (1238-1298) who discovered Pascal's Triangle, Xu Guangqi (1562-1633), and many others.\n\nSection::::Islamic Golden Age.\n", "The \"Baudhayana Sulba Sutra\", the best-known and oldest of the \"Sulba Sutras\" (dated to the 8th or 7th century BC) contains examples of simple Pythagorean triples, such as: formula_2, formula_3, formula_4, formula_5, and formula_6 as well as a statement of the Pythagorean theorem for the sides of a square: \"The rope which is stretched across the diagonal of a square produces an area double the size of the original square.\" It also contains the general statement of the Pythagorean theorem (for the sides of a rectangle): \"The rope stretched along the length of the diagonal of a rectangle makes an area which the vertical and horizontal sides make together.\"\n", "BULLET::::5. If two straight lines in a plane are crossed by another straight line (called the transversal), and the interior angles between the two lines and the transversal lying on one side of the transversal add up to less than two right angles, then on that side of the transversal, the two lines extended will intersect (also called the parallel postulate).\n\nConcepts, that are now understood as algebra, were expressed geometrically by Euclid, a method referred to as Greek geometric algebra.\n\nSection::::Greek geometry.:Hellenistic geometry.:Archimedes.\n", "Among the most common 3-dimensional shapes are polyhedra, which are shapes with flat faces; ellipsoids, which are egg-shaped or sphere-shaped objects; cylinders; and cones.\n\nIf an object falls into one of these categories exactly or even approximately, we can use it to describe the shape of the object. Thus, we say that the shape of a manhole cover is a disk, because it is approximately the same geometric object as an actual geometric disk.\n\nSection::::Shape in geometry.\n\nThere are several ways to compare the shapes of two objects:\n", "Geometric shape\n\nA geometric shape is the geometric information which remains when location, scale, orientation and reflection are removed from the description of a geometric object. That is, the result of moving a shape around, enlarging it, rotating it, or reflecting it in a mirror is the same shape as the original, and not a distinct shape.\n\nObjects that have the same shape as each other are said to be similar. If they also have the same scale as each other, they are said to be congruent.\n", "The ratio between the areas of similar figures is equal to the square of the ratio of corresponding lengths of those figures (for example, when the side of a square or the radius of a circle is multiplied by three, its area is multiplied by nine — i.e. by three squared). The altitudes of similar triangles are in the same ratio as corresponding sides. If a triangle has a side of length and an altitude drawn to that side of length then a similar triangle with corresponding side of length will have an altitude drawn to that side of length . The area of the first triangle is, , while the area of the similar triangle will be . Similar figures which can be decomposed into similar triangles will have areas related in the same way. The relationship holds for figures that are not rectifiable as well.\n", "BULLET::::- ca. 1000 — Law of sines is discovered by Muslim mathematicians, but it is uncertain who discovers it first between Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi, Abu Nasr Mansur, and Abu al-Wafa.\n\nBULLET::::- ca. 1100 — Omar Khayyám “gave a complete classification of cubic equations with geometric solutions found by means of intersecting conic sections.” He became the first to find general geometric solutions of cubic equations and laid the foundations for the development of analytic geometry and non-Euclidean geometry. He also extracted roots using the decimal system (Hindu-Arabic numeral system).\n", "Thales understood similar triangles and right triangles, and what is more, used that knowledge in practical ways. The story is told in DL (loc. cit.) that he measured the height of the pyramids by their shadows at the moment when his own shadow was equal to his height. A right triangle with two equal legs is a 45-degree right triangle, all of which are similar. The length of the pyramid's shadow measured from the center of the pyramid at that moment must have been equal to its height.\n", "Symmetry and its Generalizations\". Coxeter's figure depicts a tessellation of the hyperbolic plane by right triangles with angles of 30°, 45°, and 90°; triangles with these angles are possible in hyperbolic geometry but not in Euclidean geometry. This tessellation may be interpreted as depicting the lines of reflection and fundamental domains of the (6,4,2) triangle group. An elementary analysis of Coxeter's figure, as Escher might have understood it, is given by .\n\nSection::::Geometry.\n", "BULLET::::- Each point is associated with a unique line, called the \"polar line\" of the point, which is the line on the plane through the centre of the sphere and perpendicular to the diameter of the sphere through the given point.\n\nAs there are two arcs (\"line segments\") determined by a pair of points, which are not antipodal, on the line they determine, three non-collinear points do not determine a unique triangle. However, if we only consider triangles whose sides are minor arcs of great circles, we have the following properties:\n", "The related concept of similarity applies if the objects have the same shape but do not necessarily have the same size. (Most definitions consider congruence to be a form of similarity, although a minority require that the objects have different sizes in order to qualify as similar.)\n\nSection::::Determining congruence of polygons.\n", "The existence of Reuleaux polygons shows that diameter measurements alone cannot verify that an object has a circular cross-section. Overlooking this fact may have played a role in the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster, as the roundness of sections of the rocket in that launch was tested only by measuring different diameters, and off-round shapes may cause unusually high stresses that could have been one of the factors causing the disaster.\n", "Circular triangle\n\nIn geometry, a circular triangle is a triangle with circular arc edges.\n\nSection::::Construction.\n\nA convex circular triangle may be constructed by three circles intersecting each other and represents the area of intersection. Its edges are all curved outwards. The sum of the internal angles of a circular triangle is greater than 180°. A Reuleaux triangle is a special case based on an equilateral triangle where the center of each arc is on the opposite vertex.\n", "Section::::Early geometry.:Egyptian geometry.\n\nThe ancient Egyptians knew that they could approximate the area of a circle as follows:\n", "BULLET::::- A complex polygon may have arbitrary topology including holes, requiring more advanced algorithms (often systems will tesselate these into simple polygons).\n\nAny surface is modelled as a tessellation called polygon mesh. If a square mesh has points (vertices) per side, there are \"n\" squared squares in the mesh, or 2\"n\" squared triangles since there are two triangles in a square. There are vertices per triangle. Where \"n\" is large, this approaches one half. Or, each vertex inside the square mesh connects four edges (lines).\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]

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