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2018-00874	why did women’s breasts seem pointy in the 50s and 60s, and not so much today? NSFW	Bra design trends. It was an exaggeration of the hourglass figure and intended to highlight femininity. The trend died out with the rise of the women’s lib movement.	[ "The 1930s and 1940s witnessed the devastating effects of the second World War. While men were out on the battlefield, females began entering the workforce. This resulted in more formal and traditional military dress styles for women, which caused another shift in body image. While waists remained thin but prominent, the media embraced a more curvaceous look similar to the hourglass figure, through the addition of broad shoulders and large breasts as well.\n", "Necklines were accessorized with jeweled scarves. Accessories were a big trend in 1953, becoming more showy, with some designers even embedding jewels in the heels of shoes. The most common accessory for women was the long cotton, wool, silk or fur shawl; it could work with different occasions and outfits.\n\nSection::::1954.\n\nThe tiny waist and full skirt lost their dominance in the shape of style. Rather than emphasizing the waist, women started makes their breasts pointy and big. \n", "The ideal of breasts and cleavage has also evolved in the later half of the 20th century, with shapes enhanced by use of a variety of methods and techniques. In the 1950s the preferred shape was pointy, echoing the sci-fi look of the times; in the 1960s it was elegantly sloped in alignment with Hippie chic of the times; and from the 1990s a buffed, pumped and engorged look has become the preference.\n\nSection::::Western history.:21st century.\n", "Exercise during the late 1960s aimed towards both maintaining a trim figure as well as increasing flexibility and overall well-being. Exercises were intended to tone legs, and strengthen the core and arms, while improving flexibility and grace. Some exercises included basic squats with knees together, ballet positions such as holding an arabesque, variations of sit-ups, and repetitions of leg raises.\n", "Music also had an influence in the ways in which fashions evolved. The Jazz Age saw the popularization of flaps in dresses; and stars such as the entertainer Josephine Baker became known for their semi-translucent flapper frocks.\n\nSection::::The 1930s.\n", "A study of the shapes of over 6,000 women, carried out by researchers at the North Carolina State University circa 2005, for apparel, found that 46% were rectangular, just over 20% spoon, just under 14% inverted triangle, and 8% hourglass. Another study has found \"that the average woman's waistline had expanded by six inches since the 1950s\" and that women in 2004 were taller and had bigger busts and hips than those of the 1950s.\n\nSeveral variants of the above coding systems exist:\n\nBULLET::::- Sheldon: \"Somatotype: {Plumper: Endomorph, Muscular: Mesomorph, Slender: Ectomorph}\", 1940's\n\nBULLET::::- Douty's \"Body Build Scale: {1,2,3,4,5}\", 1968\n", "The look of the 1960s was in marked contrast to the “New Look” developed in the end of the 1940s that heavily influenced trends of the 1950s with femininity and sensuality. The look of the 1960s reflected the main issue of that time: Civil Rights. The 1960s woman “demanded equal rights and equal pay, wanted to be free, to look young and to have fun”. Oversized fashions were utilized in more subtle ways in this decade, giving rise to trends that revolutionized the working woman and gave a voice to more conservative feminines.\n", "The culturally preferred silhouette among Western women during the 1930s was a pointy bust, which further increased demand for a forming garment.\n\nSection::::The 20th century and modern era bra (United States).:The 1940s.\n", "During the 1960s, the popularity of the model Twiggy meant that women favoured a thinner body, with long, slender limbs. This was a drastic change from the former decade's ideal, which saw curvier icons, such as Marilyn Monroe, to be considered the epitome of beautiful. These shifts in what was seen to be the \"fashionable body\" at the time followed no logical pattern, and the changes occurred so quickly that one shape was never in vogue for more than a decade. As is the case with fashion itself in the post-modern world, the premise of the ever-evolving \"ideal\" shape relies on the fact that it will soon become obsolete, and thus must continue changing to prevent itself from becoming uninteresting.\n", "Designers such as Cristóbal Balenciaga, Digby Morton, and Norman Hartnell, however, utilized oversized fashion practices in their early 1940s collections to manifest the consequential happenings of the war. While men were abroad taking up arms, many women took on their positions in factories and offices. Accordingly, women's fashion became more masculine. Wide-legged slacks and pronounced shoulder pads became all the rage, and most American women embraced the virile style.\n", "The \"boyish figure\", moreover, became a prevalent trends of the era, with shapeless silhouettes and dropped waistlines giving a more masculine look to the female figure. The emphasis on a flattened chest revolutionized the construction of undergarments. Along with this new silhouette, 1920s fashions were further modernized by the coming of a new generation of sewing-machines, each with an individual electric motor, enabling designers to create more oversized fashions, while saving time and resources.\n", "For professional men born before 1940, the side parted short back and sides was the norm in the UK, Europe and America from the early 60s until the end of the decade. Black men usually buzzed their hair short or wore styles like the conk, artificially straightened with chemicals. Blue collar white men, especially former military personnel, often wore buzzcuts and flat tops during the summer. During the early to mid 60s, rebellious Irish-American, Italian-American and Hispanic teens influenced by the greaser subculture often wore ducktails, pompadours and quiffs.\n", "The last 100 years envelop the time period in which that overall body type has been seen as attractive, though there have been small changes within the period as well. The 1920s was the time in which the overall silhouette of the ideal body slimmed down. There was dramatic flattening of the entire body resulting in a more youthful aesthetic. As the century progressed, the ideal size of both the breasts and buttocks increased. From the 1950s to 1960 that trend continued with the interesting twist of cone shaped breasts as a result of the popularity of the bullet bra. In the 1960s, the invention of the miniskirt as well as the increased acceptability of pants for women, prompted the idealization of the long leg that has lasted to this day. Following the invention of the push-up bra in the 1970s the ideal breast has been a rounded, fuller, and larger breast. In the past 20 years the average American bra size has increased from 34B to 34DD, although this may be due to the increase in obesity within the United States in recent years. Additionally, the ideal figure has favored an ever-lower waist-hip ratio, especially with the advent and progression of digital editing software such as Adobe Photoshop.\n", "From the 1960s onward, however, changes in fashions were towards increasing displays of cleavage in films and television, with Jane Russell and Elizabeth Taylor being the biggest stars who led the fashion, and in everyday life low-cut dress styles became very common, even for casual wear. The Wonderbra was created in 1964 by Louise Poirier for Canadelle, a Canadian lingerie company. It had 54 design elements that lift and support the bustline while creating a deep plunge and push-together effect.\n", "The 1950s woman also tended to be influenced by the fashions worn by movie stars such as Marilyn Monroe and Audrey Hepburn. Hepburn in her roles in various movies such as \"Roman Holiday\" famously wore an oversized skirt that accentuated her waist, together with a tighter shirt.\n\nSection::::The 1960s.\n", "Second-wave feminism made the miniskirt popular. Women had entered the professional workforce in larger numbers during World War II and many women soon found they craved a career and life outside the home. They wanted the same choices, freedoms, and opportunities that were offered to men.\n", "Women's undergarments began to emphasize the breasts instead of the waist. The decade saw the introduction of the bullet bra pointed bust, inspired by Christian Dior's \"New Look\", which featured pointed cups. The original Wonderbra and push-up bra by Frederick's of Hollywood finally hit it big. Women's panties became more colourful and decorative, and by the mid-1960s were available in two abbreviated styles called the hip-hugger and the bikini (named after the Pacific Ocean island of that name), frequently in sheer nylon fabric.\n", "Mary Quant popularised the mini skirt, and Jackie Kennedy introduced the pillbox hat; both became extremely popular. False eyelashes were worn by women throughout the 1960s. Hairstyles were a variety of lengths and styles. Psychedelic prints, neon colors, and mismatched patterns were in style. In the late 1960s, The hippie movement also exerted a strong influence on women's clothing styles, including bell-bottom jeans, tie-dye and batik fabrics, as well as paisley prints.\n", "After World War II began in 1939, women's fashions became increasingly militarised. Jackets, coats, and even dresses in particular were influenced by masculine styles and shoulder pads became bulkier and were positioned at the top of the shoulder to create a solid look. In 1945, Joan Crawford wore a fur coat with wide, exaggerated shoulders also designed by Adrian in the film Mildred Pierce. Soon the style was universal, found in all garments excepting lingerie but tapering off later in the decade after the war was over and women yearned for a softer, more feminine look.\n\nSection::::1945 to 1970.\n", "In 1953, Hollywood film \"The French Line\" was found objectionable under the Hays Code because of Jane Russell's \"breast shots in bathtub, cleavage and breast exposure\" while some of her décollete gowns were thought \"...intentionally designed to give a bosom peep-show effect beyond even extreme decolletage.\" But other actresses defied the then standards. For example, Gina Lollobrigida raised eyebrows with her famous low-cut dress in 1960, and other celebrities, performers and models followed suit, and the public was not far behind. Low-cut styles of various depths are now common in many situations. During the 1950s, Hollywood and the fashion industry successfully promoted large cloven bustlines (and falsies). In the late 1960s, erogenous attention began to shift from the large bust to the trim lower torso, reasserting the need to diet, especially as new clothing fashions — brief, sheer, and close fitting — prohibited heavy reliance on foundation lingerie. Legs were relatively less emphasized as elements of beauty.\n", "The return of the hourglass figure has been influenced by many different things, including the different roles women play at home and in the workplace. This reflects the fact that women in today's society have more control over what they look like than they did in years past. In the 1960s women celebrated liberation by wearing skimpy mini skirts, in the '70s bohemian fashion emerged thanks to the feminist movement, and in the '80s the fight for equality in the workplace led many women to choose attire that drew less attention to their bodies.\n", "During this period, synthetic yarns that took dyes easily were used. Leather-look plastic also helped to create a vibrant feel to accessories such as shoes, umbrellas and additional clothing items such as mini-skirts. While in this era, clothing became split along lines of age, there were overriding oversized trends including: midi skirts, Dolman sleeves, loose jackets and shapeless frocks. Another factor contributing to the trends of this period was the “post-industrial boom” that helped to generate wealth in the United States. Jackie Kennedy, wife of President John F. Kennedy, became a model of French fashions and helped to spur the spread of the miniskirt, along with Twiggy, who gained iconic status as the face and body of the era wearing the shapeless mod dresses that were a huge trend. Jackie Kennedy's “beehive” hairstyle also highlighted oversized fashion.\n", "Corsets, seamed tights, and skirts covering the knees were no longer fashionable. The idea of buying urbanized clothing that could be worn with separate pieces was intriguing to women of this era. In the past, one would only buy specific outfits for certain occasions.\n\nSection::::Women's fashion.:Late 1960s (1967–69).\n\nSection::::Women's fashion.:Late 1960s (1967–69).:The hippie subculture.\n", "Male pin-ups (known as \"beefcake\") were less common than their female counterparts throughout the 20th century, although a market for homoerotica has always existed as well as pictures of popular male celebrities targeted at women or girls. Examples include James Dean and Jim Morrison.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "To achieve this youthful and flirty look, skirts were shortened, creating a look reminiscent of the 1920s. During this era, in 1965, the miniskirt was developed. An alternative to this exposed look was in high demand, thus leading to the creation of the midi skirt. This new \"midi\" mainly featured a pleated A-line bodice, which allowed it to flow away from the body. This oversized fashion began to make its way to the workplace as it provided both femininity and formality. Evening wear was also affected, and both long and short dresses could be seen at engagements. Designs embraced the oversized look through more elegant silhouettes, specially in evening wear, which boasted loose forms and fluid fabrics. The change in fashion during this period was also due to international influences such as from London and France, where designers were young. A notable point about this period is that women also began to wear pants-suits and jeans.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00958	Why can spicy foods induce asthma?	The chemicals in spicy foods cause inflammation and or irritation in the throat. Which causes trouble breathing. Just like running would. So that causes an attack. It also doesn’t help that since the spice and flavor tends to raise your body temperature and heart rate which will also heighten breathing	[ "[eosinophil]]s in response to capsaicin, can trigger further sensory sensitization to the molecule. Patients with chronic cough also have an enhanced cough reflex to pathogens even if the pathogen has been expelled. In both cases, the release of eosinophils and other immune molecules cause a hypersensitization of sensory neurons in bronchial airways that produce enhanced symptoms. It has also been reported that increased immune cell secretions of neurotrophins in response to pollutants and irritants can restructure the peripheral network of nerves in the airways to allow for a more primed state for sensory neurons.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.\n", "Given its irritant nature to mammal tissues, capsaicin is widely used to determine the cough threshold and as a tussive stimulant in clinical research of cough suppressants. Capsaicin is what makes chili peppers spicy, and might explain why workers in factories with these fruits can develop a cough.\n", "BULLET::::- Food allergies such as milk, peanuts, and eggs. However, asthma is rarely the only symptom, and not all people with food or other allergies have asthma\n\nBULLET::::- Sulfite sensitivity Asthma can occur in reaction to ingestion or inhalation of sulfites, which are added to foods and wine as preservatives.\n\nBULLET::::- Salicylate sensitivity Salicylates can trigger asthma in sensitive individuals. Salicylates occur naturally in many healthy foods. Aspirin is also a salicylate.\n", "BULLET::::- Overexpression of both the cysteinyl leukotriene receptor 1 and the leukotriene C synthase enzyme has been shown in respiratory tissue from patients with aspirin-induced asthma, which likely relates to the increased response to leukotrienes and increased production of leukotrienes seen in the disorder.\n\nBULLET::::- The attachment of platelets to certain leukocytes in the blood of patients with aspirin-sensitive asthma also has been shown to contribute to the overproduction of leukotrienes.\n\nBULLET::::- There may be a relationship between aspirin-induced asthma and \"TBX21\", \"PTGER2\", and \"LTC4S\".\n", "Section::::Cause.\n\nThe disorder is thought to be caused by an anomaly in the arachidonic acid metabolizing cascade that leads to increased production of pro-inflammatory cysteinyl leukotrienes, a series of chemicals involved in the body's inflammatory response. When medications such as NSAIDs or aspirin block the COX-1 enzyme, production of thromboxane and some anti-inflammatory prostaglandins is decreased, and in patients with aspirin-induced asthma, this results in the overproduction of pro-inflammatory leukotrienes, which can cause severe exacerbations of asthma and allergy-like symptoms. The underlying cause of the disorder is not fully understood, but there have been several important findings:\n", "The most effective treatment for asthma is identifying triggers, such as cigarette smoke, pets, or aspirin, and eliminating exposure to them. If trigger avoidance is insufficient, the use of medication is recommended. Pharmaceutical drugs are selected based on, among other things, the severity of illness and the frequency of symptoms. Specific medications for asthma are broadly classified into fast-acting and long-acting categories.\n", "Beta blocker medications such as propranolol can trigger asthma in those who are susceptible. Cardioselective beta-blockers, however, appear safe in those with mild or moderate disease. Other medications that can cause problems in asthmatics are angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, aspirin, and NSAIDs. Use of acid suppressing medication (proton pump inhibitors and H2 blockers) during pregnancy is associated with an increased risk of asthma in the child.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Exacerbation.\n", "While the use of inhaled steroids and long acting beta-adrenoceptor agonists (LABA) are recommended in asthma guidelines for the resulting improved symptom control, concerns have been raised that salmeterol may increase the small risks of asthma deaths and this additional risk is not reduced with the additional use of inhaled steroids. Other side effects from this drug combination may include increased blood pressure, change in heart rate, an irregular heartbeat, increased risk of osteoporosis, cataracts, and glaucoma.\n", "Aspirin exacerbated respiratory disease (AERD), also termed aspirin-induced asthma, is a medical condition initially defined as consisting of three key features: asthma, respiratory symptoms exacerbated by aspirin and other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), and nasal polyps. The symptoms of respiratory reactions in this syndrome are hypersensitivity reactions to NSAIDs rather than the typically described true allergic reactions that trigger other common allergen-induced asthma, rhinitis, or hives. The NSAID-induced reactions do not appear to involve the common mediators of true allergic reactions, immunoglobulin E or T cells. Rather, AERD is a type of NSAID-induced hypersensitivity syndrome. EAACI/WHO classifies the syndrome as one of five types of NSAID hypersensitivity or NSAID hypersensitivity reactions.\n", "There is an association between acetaminophen (paracetamol) use and asthma. The majority of the evidence does not, however, support a causal role. A 2014 review found that the association disappeared when respiratory infections were taken into account. Use by a mother during pregnancy is also associated with an increased risk as is psychological stress during pregnancy.\n", "The respiratory reactions to NSAIDs vary in severity, ranging from mild nasal congestion and eye watering to lower respiratory symptoms including wheezing, coughing, an asthma attack, and in rare cases, anaphylaxis. In addition to the typical respiratory reactions, about 10% of patients with AERD manifest skin symptoms such as urticaria and/or gastrointestinal symptoms such as abdominal pain or vomiting during their reactions to aspirin.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "BULLET::::- Abnormally low levels of prostaglandin E (PGE), which is protective for the lungs, has been found in patients with aspirin-induced asthma and may worsen their lung inflammation.\n\nBULLET::::- In addition to the overproduction of cystinyl leukotrienes, overproduction of 15-lipoxygenase-derived arachidonic acid metabolites viz., 15-hydroxyicosatetraenoic acid and eoxins by the eosinophils isolated from the blood of individuals with AERD; certain of these products may help promote the inflammatory response.\n", "\"H. assulta\" is a pest of red peppers (\"Capsicum frutescens\" ), tobacco (Nicotiatna tobacum), tomato, and onion. They prefer to eat red peppers over tobacco, but are still considered a pest to both. In order to develop and survive successfully, the moth must both have access to nutrient rich food, and be able to digest and uptake the nutrients.\n\nSection::::Food Resources.:Capsaicin.\n", "BULLET::::- Anticholinergic medications, such as ipratropium bromide, provide additional benefit when used in combination with SABA in those with moderate or severe symptoms. Anticholinergic bronchodilators can also be used if a person cannot tolerate a SABA. If a child requires admission to hospital additional ipratropium does not appear to help over a SABA.\n\nBULLET::::- Older, less selective adrenergic agonists, such as inhaled epinephrine, have similar efficacy to SABAs. They are however not recommended due to concerns regarding excessive cardiac stimulation.\n\nSection::::Management.:Medications.:Long–term control.\n", "When capsaicin is ingested, cold milk is an effective way to relieve the burning sensation (due to caseins having a detergent effect on capsaicin); and room-temperature sugar solution (10%) at is almost as effective. The burning sensation will slowly fade away over several hours if no actions are taken.\n\nCapsaicin-induced asthma might be treated with oral antihistamines or corticosteroids.\n\nSection::::Toxicity.:Effects on weight loss and regain.\n", "Asthma results from a dysregulated, hyperresponsive immune response in the airways. Some immune cells in allergic asthmatics respond aggressively to foreign allergens with the release of IL-4 and 13, two key mediators that initiate a cycle of inflammation in the lung. Pitrakinra is an antagonist of the interleukin-4 receptor alpha chain, a protein that is also part of IL-13. It thereby blocks the inflammatory effects of IL-4 and IL-13, interrupting the Th2 lymphocyte immune response.\n", "Aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease (AERD), also known as aspirin-induced asthma, affects up to 9% of asthmatics. AERD consists of asthma, nasal polyps, sinus disease, and respiratory reactions to aspirin and other NSAID medications (such as ibuprofen and naproxen). People often also develop loss of smell and most experience respiratory reactions to alcohol.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Classification.:Alcohol-induced asthma.\n\nAlcohol may worsen asthmatic symptoms in up to a third of people. This may be even more common in some ethnic groups such as the Japanese and those with aspirin-induced asthma. Other studies have found improvement in asthmatic symptoms from alcohol.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Classification.:Nonallergic asthma.\n", "Section::::Host response.\n", "BULLET::::- Methylxanthines (such as theophylline) were once widely used, but do not add significantly to the effects of inhaled beta-agonists. Their use in acute exacerbations is controversial.\n\nBULLET::::- The dissociative anesthetic ketamine is theoretically useful if intubation and mechanical ventilation is needed in people who are approaching respiratory arrest; however, there is no evidence from clinical trials to support this.\n", "BULLET::::- Corticosteroid by mouth are recommended with five days of prednisone being the same 2 days of dexamethasone. One review recommended a seven-day course of steroids.\n\nBULLET::::- Magnesium sulfate intravenous treatment increases bronchodilation when used in addition to other treatment in moderate severe acute asthma attacks. In adults it results in a reduction of hospital admissions.\n\nBULLET::::- Heliox, a mixture of helium and oxygen, may also be considered in severe unresponsive cases.\n\nBULLET::::- Intravenous salbutamol is not supported by available evidence and is thus used only in extreme cases.\n", "Thromboxane A2 (TXA) is generated in the lungs of people with asthma, and when it signals through the thromboxane receptor it causes bronchoconstriction, vasoconstriction, mucous secretion, and airway hyper-responsiveness. Seratrodast inhibits the activity of the thromboxane receptor, blocking the effects of TXA.\n\nSection::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacokinetics.\n", "Avoidance of triggers is a key component of improving control and preventing attacks. The most common triggers include allergens, smoke (from tobacco or other sources), air pollution, non selective beta-blockers, and sulfite-containing foods. Cigarette smoking and second-hand smoke (passive smoke) may reduce the effectiveness of medications such as corticosteroids. Laws that limit smoking decrease the number of people hospitalized for asthma. Dust mite control measures, including air filtration, chemicals to kill mites, vacuuming, mattress covers and others methods had no effect on asthma symptoms. Overall, exercise is beneficial in people with stable asthma. Yoga could provide small improvements in quality of life and symptoms in people with asthma.\n", "BULLET::::- Herbal inhibitors – Many herbal substances have been observed since antiquity for reducing flatulence, particularly gas from eating legumes. Cloves, nutmeg, cinnamon, and garlic are potent in reducing gas. The potency of garlic increases when heated, whereas the potency of cinnamon decreases. Other spices have a lesser effect in reducing gas, including turmeric, black pepper, asafoetida and ginger. Other common Indian spices, cumin, aniseed, ajowan, and cardamom do \"not\" inhibit gas production, in fact they exacerbate it significantly.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms of action.:Relieving gas.\n", "BULLET::::- Allergens from nature, typically inhaled, which include waste from common household pests, the house dust mite and cockroach, as well as grass pollen, mold spores, and pet epithelial cells;\n\nBULLET::::- Indoor air pollution from volatile organic compounds, including perfumes and perfumed products. Examples include soap, dishwashing liquid, laundry detergent, fabric softener, paper tissues, paper towels, toilet paper, shampoo, hair spray, hair gel, cosmetics, facial cream, sun cream, deodorant, cologne, shaving cream, aftershave lotion, air freshener and candles, and products such as oil-based paint.\n\nBULLET::::- Medications, including aspirin, β-adrenergic antagonists (beta blockers), ibuprofen, and penicillin.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-16130	How can high weight low reps possibly be a healthy way to workout?	You do build muscle over time. But that process doesn't happen in one session. The person you watched has worked out countless times prior to get to the point that he can lift that heavy weight now. Also, it's likely that he's doing that to push a personal record rather than working out to build muscle.	[ "However, performing exercises at the absolute limit of one's strength (known as one rep max lifts) is considered too risky for all but the most experienced practitioners. Moreover, most individuals wish to develop a combination of strength, endurance and muscle size. One repetition sets are not well suited to these aims. Practitioners therefore lift lighter (sub-maximal) weights, with more repetitions, to fatigue the muscle and all fibres within that muscle as required by the progressive overload principle.\n", "The Wellspring Plan is based on the belief that, for weight controllers, simple, clear and easily measured goals help them stay focused. Research has shown that 10,000 steps of activity every day does such things as increase metabolic rate all day and accelerate metabolism of fat. Given that more than 85% of high school students fail to achieve 10,000 steps per day, this is a central goal of Wellspring's activity management program.\n\nSection::::Wellspring Plan.:Diet.\n", "Complex training, sometimes referred to as contrast training, involves alternating heavy lifts with plyometric exercises. Ideally, the exercises should move through similar ranges of motion. For example, a set of back squats at about 85-95% 1RM followed by a set of vertical jumps. The intention is to utilise the PAP effect from the heavy back squats in the jumping exercises and thereby increase the power with which the jumps are performed with. Over a period of training, this may increase the trainee’s ability to perform the plyometric exercise more powerfully without the preceding heavy lift being required.\n", "A number of techniques have been developed to make weight training exercises more intense, and thereby potentially increase the rate of progress. Many weight lifters use these techniques to bring themselves past a plateau, a duration where a weightlifter may be unable to do more lifting repetitions, sets, or use higher weight resistance.\n\nSection::::Practice of weight training.:Advanced techniques.:Set structure.\n\nSection::::Practice of weight training.:Advanced techniques.:Set structure.:Drop sets.\n", "Regardless of who originally developed the systems (and machines) it is clear that through Arthur Jones and his company and a crew of HIT advocates, the principles and concepts of HIT became popularized.\n\nSection::::HIT and other training routines.\n\nHIT will target a single body part with one or two exercises, and generally a single set of 6-10 reps for upper body exercises and either 8-15 or more commonly 12-20 reps for lower body exercises, done to momentary muscular failure. Deadlifts usually have a rep range of 1-5 reps.\n", "The optimum proportions of strength for power generation may be non-sports specific and based upon an ability to perform more powerfully in general, or sports specific and based upon the requirements of a particular sport. For example, a sprint cyclist may incorporate heavy back squats into their training regime in order to increase their leg strength, which can in turn help them to generate more power on the bike. However, this may lead to excessive leg strength being developed relative to their core strength. This may hinder any improvement to performance and increase the risk of injury. As such, they may incorporate forms of core training which helps them to perform their back squat more efficiently and reduce the risk of injury. The improved performance of the back squat would also mean it was more beneficial to the cycling action. In such examples the performance of the specific sport or exercise can be improved by ensuring that the involved areas of the body are trained to be in particular proportions of strength, as considered relatively to each other. It is notable that the performance of the sport or exercise alone does not necessarily lead to the body developing in its optimum proportions of strength in order to perform them more powerfully. As stated previously, this result is achieved with the aid of supplementary exercises which optimally influence the body’s proportions of strength so a more powerful performance can be achieved.\n", "Section::::Controversy.\n\nA large number of skeptics dispute the methods and results claimed by HIT advocates. Some of the criticism asserts that HIT violates much conventional \"wisdom\" in weight training. By always using a weight that one can lift 8-12 times, using 4 second negatives, and so on, it has flown in the face of the exercise establishment.\n", "Section::::Technique.:Periodization.\n\nThere are many complicated definitions for periodization, but the term simply means the division of the overall training program into periods which accomplish different goals.\n\nPeriodization is the modulating of volume, intensity, and frequency over time, to both stimulate gains and allow recovery.\n\nIn some programs for example; volume is decreased during a training cycle while intensity is increased. In this template, a lifter would begin a training cycle with a higher rep range than they will finish with.\n\nFor this example, the lifter has a 1 rep max of 225 lb:\n", "The fundamental principles of high-intensity training (HIT) are that exercise should be brief, infrequent, and intense. Exercises are performed with a high level of effort, or intensity, where it is thought that it will stimulate the body to produce an increase in muscular strength and size. Advocates of HIT believe that this method is superior for strength and size building to most other methods which, for example, may stress lower weights with larger volume (sets x reps).\n", "For a time Kubik advocated Dinosaur Training using bodyweight exercises, as described in his book Dinosaur Bodyweight Training (2006), using such exercises as pushups, handstand pushups, pullups, neck bridges, hanging leg raises, and two- and one-legged deep knee bends. In recent years however he has returned to writing about and advocating traditional weightlifting modes of training, using such exercises as squats, deadlifts, powercleans, high pulls, military presses, barbell bentover rows, benchpresses, etc. for low to moderate reps. \n", "While many typical HIT programs comprise a single-set per exercise, tri-weekly, full-body workout, many variations exist in specific recommendations of set and exercise number, workout routines, volume and frequency of training. The common thread is an emphasis on a high level of effort, relatively brief and infrequent (i.e. not daily) training, and the cadence of a lift, which will be very slow compared to a non-HIT weight training routine.\n", "BULLET::::- Arm: 18.25 in.\n\nBULLET::::- Forearm: 16.5 in\n\nSection::::Training and strength feats.\n\nBULLET::::- In 2005 he said that he could bench press 315 lbs for 5 reps with a flat bench.\n\nBULLET::::- He says that he trains biceps with 50 lbs dumbbells and does wrist curls with the same weight. When asked what his one-rep max was he replied that he never tries one rep max because he fears that he would drop the weight on his feet.\n", "Section::::Types of exercises.:Free weights versus weight machines.\n\nFree weights include dumbbells, barbells, medicine balls, sandbells, and kettlebells. Unlike weight machines, they do not constrain users to specific, fixed movements, and therefore require more effort from the individual's stabilizer muscles. It is often argued that free weight exercises are superior for precisely this reason. For example, they are recommended for golf players, since golf is a unilateral exercise that can break body balances, requiring exercises to keep the balance in muscles.\n\nSome free weight exercises can be performed while sitting or lying on an exercise ball.\n", "In addition, though bodybuilding uses the same principles as strength training, it is with a goal of gaining muscle bulk. Strength trainers with different goals and programs will not gain the same mass as a professional bodybuilder.\n\nSection::::Risks and concerns.:Muscle toning.\n\nSome weight trainers perform light, high-repetition exercises in an attempt to \"tone\" their muscles without increasing their size.\n", "BULLET::::- Weight stripping a.k.a. Number Setting: Weight stripping is a technique used after failure with a normal resistance in certain exercises, particularly with easily adjustable machines, whereby the weight trainer or a partner gradually reduces the resistance after a full set is taken to failure. With each reduction in resistance, as many possible reps are completed and the resistance is then reduced again. This is continued until the resistance is approximately half the original resistance.\n", "One rep maximum calculators are used to \"predict\" a one rep maximum lift. The degree of accuracy can vary largely depending on the weight training experience and muscular composition of the athlete. Also, most one rep maximum calculators are designed for seasoned strength trainers, and those with little experience may find their actual one rep maximum is much lower because their nervous system cannot handle the stress of a high weight. This test should be performed with a spotter for reasons of safety.\n", "Section::::Practice of weight training.:Advanced techniques.:Set structure.:Diminishing set.\n\nThe diminishing set method is where a weight is chosen that can be lifted for 20 reps in one set, and then 70 repetitions are performed in as few sets as possible.\n\nSection::::Practice of weight training.:Advanced techniques.:Set structure.:Rest-pause.\n", "The benefits of weight training overall are comparable to most other types of strength training: increased muscle, tendon and ligament strength, bone density, flexibility, tone, metabolic rate, and postural support. This type of training will also help prevent injury for athletes. There are benefits and limitations to weight training as compared to other types of strength training. Contrary to popular belief, weight training can be beneficial for both men and women.\n\nSection::::Weight training and other types of strength training.:Weight training and bodybuilding.\n", "Section::::Combined techniques.\n\nStrength training may involve the combining of different training methods such as weight training, plyometrics, bodyweight exercises, and ballistic exercises. This is often done in order to improve a person's ability to apply their strength quickly. Or in other words, to improve their ability to apply explosive power.\n\nSection::::Combined techniques.:Loaded plyometrics.\n\nLoaded plyometrics involve the addition of weights to jumping exercises. The weights may be held or worn. For instance, vertical jumps whilst holding a trap bar or jumping split squats whilst holding dumbbells. This helps to enhance the explosive power of the athlete.\n\nSection::::Combined techniques.:Complex training.\n", "Lowered-calorie diets have no positive effect on muscle hypertrophy for muscle of any fiber type. They may, however, decrease the thickness of subcutaneous fat (fat between muscle and skin), through an overall reduction in body fat, thus making muscle striations more visible.\n\nSection::::Risks and concerns.:Weight loss.\n\nExercises like sit-ups, or abdominal crunches, performs less work than whole-body aerobic exercises thereby expending fewer calories during exercise than jogging, for example.\n", "Strength training may be important to metabolic and cardiovascular health. Recent evidence suggests that resistance training may reduce metabolic and cardiovascular disease risk. Overweight individuals with high strength fitness exhibit metabolic/cardiovascular risk profiles similar to normal-weight, fit individuals rather than overweight unfit individuals.\n\nSection::::Uses.:For rehabilitation or to address an impairment.\n", "Although weight training is similar to bodybuilding, they have different objectives. Bodybuilders use weight training to develop their muscles for size, shape, and symmetry regardless of any increase in strength for competition in bodybuilding contests; they train to maximize their muscular size and develop extremely low levels of body fat. In contrast, many weight trainers train to improve their strength and anaerobic endurance while not giving special attention to reducing body fat far below normal.\n", "Powerlifters practice weight training to improve performance in the three competitive lifts—the squat, bench press and deadlift. Weight training routines used in powerlifting are extremely varied. For example, some methods call for the use of many variations on the contest lifts, while others call for a more limited selection of exercises and an emphasis on mastering the contest lifts through repetition. While many powerlifting routines invoke principles of sports science, such as specific adaptation to imposed demand (SAID principle), there is some controversy around the scientific foundations of particular training methods, as exemplified by the debate over the merits of \"speed work,\" or training to attain maximum acceleration of submaximal weights.\n", "There exists also a controversy related to the development of HIT and its originality. Near the close of the 19th century, a medical doctor by the name of Gustav Zander developed a complete set of machines and a workout method remarkably close to that promoted by inventor and HIT enthusiast Arthur Jones in the early 1970s. Jones stated:\n", "As bodyweight exercises use the individual's own weight to provide the resistance for the movement, the weight being lifted is never greater than the weight of one's own body. Another disadvantage is that bodyweight training may be daunting to novices and seen to be too easy for experienced athletes. Women, in general, also find it more difficult to do bodyweight exercises involving upper body strength and may be discouraged from undertaking these exercises in their fitness regimens.\n\nSection::::Bodyweight exercise for older adults.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "high weight low reps is a healthy workout." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "It is actually someone just pushing their limits for a record, not trying to workout to increase muscle. " ]
2018-23844	How does insulin and some drugs work when you can just inject it anywhere?	The bloodstream is very effective to distributing stuff everywhere the body. For medications like insulin, time until the drug enters the bloodstream isn't critical, and injecting into a muscle or under the skin is a lot safer and easier than directly to a vein. However, injecting directly into a vein results in the drug being absorbed very quickly, which is desireable for recreational drugs. It also takes a long time to set up, which is why emergency administration of some medicines, such as naloxone (for opiate overdoses) isn't done by IV unless an IV line is already set up.	[ "Once the drugs are dissolved, a small syringe (usually 0.5 or 1 cc) is used to draw the solution through a filter, usually cotton from a cigarette filter or cotton swab (cotton bud). \"Tuberculin\" syringes and types of syringes used to inject insulin are commonly used. Commonly used syringes usually have a built-in 28 gauge (or thereabouts) needle typically 1/2 or 5/8 inches long.\n", "Disadvantages of injections include potential pain or discomfort for the patient and the requirement of trained staff using aseptic techniques for administration. However, in some cases, patients are taught to self-inject, such as SC injection of insulin in patients with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. As the drug is delivered to the site of action extremely rapidly with IV injection, there is a risk of overdose if the dose has been calculated incorrectly, and there is an increased risk of side effects if the drug is administered too rapidly.\n\nSection::::Research.\n", "There are several methods for transdermal delivery of insulin. Pulsatile insulin uses microjets to pulse insulin into the patient, mimicking the physiological secretions of insulin by the pancreas. Jet injection had different insulin delivery peaks and durations as compared to needle injection. Some diabetics may prefer jet injectors to hypodermic injection.\n\nBoth electricity using iontophoresis and ultrasound have been found to make the skin temporarily porous. The insulin administration aspect remains experimental, but the blood glucose test aspect of \"wrist appliances\" is commercially available.\n", "For example, many immunizations are based on the delivery of protein drugs and are often done by injection.\n", "Another device used in intensive insulinotherapy is the injection port. An injection port is a small disposable device, similar to the infusion set used with an insulin pump, configured to accept a syringe. Standard insulin injections are administered through the injection port. When using an injection port, the syringe needle always stays above the surface of the skin, thus reducing the number of skin punctures associated with intensive insulinotheraphy.\n", "Insulin is usually taken as subcutaneous injections by single-use syringes with needles, an insulin pump, or by repeated-use insulin pens with needles. Patients who wish to reduce repeated skin puncture of insulin injections often use an injection port in conjunction with syringes.\n\nAdministration schedules often attempt to mimic the physiologic secretion of insulin by the pancreas. Hence, both a long-acting insulin and a short-acting insulin are typically used.\n\nSection::::Methods of administration.:Insulin pump.\n", "BULLET::::- sublingual and buccal medication administration is a way of giving someone medicine orally (by mouth). Sublingual administration is when medication is placed under the tongue to be absorbed by the body. The word \"sublingual\" means \"under the tongue.\" Buccal administration involves placement of the drug between the gums and the cheek. These medications can come in the form of tablets, films, or sprays. Many drugs are designed for sublingual administration, including cardiovascular drugs, steroids, barbiturates, opioid analgesics with poor gastrointestinal bioavailability, enzymes and, increasingly, vitamins and minerals.\n\nBULLET::::- extra-amniotic administration, between the endometrium and fetal membranes\n", "Insulin pumps may be like 'electrical injectors' attached to a temporarily implanted catheter or cannula. Some who cannot achieve adequate glucose control by conventional (or jet) injection are able to do so with the appropriate pump.\n\nIndwelling catheters pose the risk of infection and ulceration, and some patients may also develop lipodystrophy due to the infusion sets. These risks can often be minimized by keeping infusion sites clean. Insulin pumps require care and effort to use correctly.\n\nSection::::Dosage and timing.\n\nSection::::Dosage and timing.:Dosage units.\n", "Insulin is usually taken as subcutaneous injections by single-use syringes with needles, via an insulin pump, or by repeated-use insulin pens with disposable needles. Inhaled insulin is also available in the U.S. market now.\n\nSynthetic insulin can trigger adverse effects, so some people with diabetes rely on animal-source insulin.\n", "Section::::Mechanism of drug administration.:\"B. ovatus\" mechanism.\n", "Insulin was introduced by Banting and Best from the University of Toronto in 1921 as an injectable agent. German researchers first introduced the idea of inhalable insulin in 1924. Years of failure followed until scientists realized they might be able to use new technologies to turn insulin into a concentrated powder with particles sized for inhalation.\n\nIn the 1980s Nektar Therapeutics developed technology to make insulin into small particles that they licensed to Pfizer; Alkermes developed a delivery device that they licensed to Eli Lilly and Company.\n", "Insulin port\n\nAn insulin port functions as a medication delivery channel directly into the subcutaneous tissue (the tissue layer located just beneath the skin). When applying the injection port, an insertion needle guides a soft cannula (a small, flexible tube) under the skin. Once applied, the insertion needle is removed and only the soft cannula remains below the skin, acting as the gateway into the subcutaneous tissue.\n", "Autoinjector\n\nAn autoinjector (or auto-injector) is a medical device designed to deliver a dose of a particular drug.\n\nMost autoinjectors are spring-loaded syringes. By design, autoinjectors are easy to use and are intended for self-administration by patients, or administration by untrained personnel. The site of injection depends on the drug loaded, but it typically is administered into the thigh or the buttocks. The injectors were initially designed to overcome the hesitation associated with self-administration of the needle-based drug delivery device.\n\nSection::::Design.\n", "Patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus require direct injection of insulin as their bodies cannot produce enough (or even any) insulin. As of 2010, there is no other clinically available form of insulin administration other than injection for patients with type 1: injection can be done by insulin pump, by jet injector, or any of several forms of hypodermic needle. Non-injective methods of insulin administration have been unattainable as the insulin protein breaks down in the digestive tract. There are several insulin application mechanisms under experimental development as of 2004, including a capsule that passes to the liver and delivers insulin into the bloodstream. There have also been proposed vaccines for type I using glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD), but these are currently not being tested by the pharmaceutical companies that have sublicensed the patents to them.\n", "Some medications are also given by IV \"push\" or bolus. A syringe containing the medication is connected to an access port in the primary tubing and the medication is administered through the port. The syringe plunger is pressed slowly, if it might irritate the vein or cause a too-rapid effect. Certain medications, such as potassium, are never to be administered by IV push because the spike in medication in the blood from the IV push could be fatal. Once a medicine has been injected into the fluid stream of the IV tubing, there must be some means of ensuring that it gets from the tubing to the patient. Usually this is accomplished by allowing the fluid stream to flow normally and thereby carry the medicine into the bloodstream; however, a second fluid injection is sometimes used, a \"flush\", following the injection to push the medicine into the bloodstream more quickly.\n", "An injection port can be used in conjunction with multiple daily injections of insulin by people with diabetes. It can also be used for the subcutaneous administration of any other physician prescribed medication\n\nSection::::Applying, Wearing and Using.\n\nInjection ports are usually applied by the patient. The device comes with a needle surrounded by a soft cannula. The needle and cannula are manually inserted into the patient's tissue. Immediately after insertion the needle is removed and the cannula remains below the surface of the skin.\n", "A wide variety of drugs are injected. Among the most popular in many countries are morphine, heroin, cocaine, amphetamine, and methamphetamine. Prescription drugs—including tablets, capsules, and even liquids and suppositories—are also occasionally injected. This applies particularly to prescription opioids, since some opioid addicts already inject heroin. Injecting preparations which were not intended for this purpose is particularly dangerous because of the presence of excipients (fillers), which can cause blood clots. Injecting codeine into the bloodstream directly is dangerous because it causes a rapid histamine release, which can lead to potentially fatal anaphylaxis and pulmonary edema. Dihydrocodeine, hydrocodone, nicocodeine, and other codeine-based products carry similar risks. Codeine may instead be injected by the intramuscular or subcutaneous route. The effect will not be instant, but the dangerous and unpleasant massive histamine release from the intravenous injection of codeine is avoided. To minimize the amount of undissolved material in fluids prepared for injection, a filter of cotton or synthetic fiber is typically used, such as a cotton-swab tip or a small piece of cigarette filter.\n", "Intravenous injections involve needle insertion directly into the vein and the substance is directly delivered into the bloodstream. In medicine and drug use, this route of administration is the fastest way to get the desired effects since the medication moves immediately into blood circulation and to the rest of the body. This type of injection is the most common and often associated with drug use.\n\nSection::::Intramuscular injection.\n", "The drug—usually (but not always) in a powder or crystal form—is dissolved in water, normally in a spoon, tin, bottle cap, the bottom of a soda can, or another metal container. Cylindrical metal containers—sometimes called \"cookers\"—are provided by needle exchange programs. Users draw the required amount of water into a syringe and squirt this over the drugs. The solution is then mixed and heated from below if necessary. Heating is used mainly with heroin (though not always, depending on the type of heroin), but is also often used with other drugs, especially crushed tablets. Cocaine HCl (powdered cocaine) dissolves quite easily without heat. Heroin prepared for the European market is insoluble in water and usually requires the addition of an acid such as citric acid or ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) powder to dissolve the drug. Due to the dangers from using lemon juice or vinegar to acidify the solution, packets of citric acid and Vitamin C powder are available at needle exchanges in Europe. In the U.S., vinegar and lemon juice are used to shoot crack cocaine. The acids convert the water-insoluble cocaine base in crack to a cocaine salt (cocaine acetate or cocaine citrate), which is water-soluble (like cocaine hydrochloride).\n", "BULLET::::- low dead space to reduce complications caused by improper drawing order of different insulin strengths.\n\nSection::::Medical syringes.:Multishot needle syringes.\n\nThere are needle syringes designed to reload from a built-in tank (container) after each injection, so they can make several or many injections on a filling. These are not used much in human medicine because of the risk of cross-infection via the needle. An exception is the personal insulin autoinjector used by diabetic patients.\n\nSection::::Medical syringes.:Venom extraction syringes.\n", "Animal self-administration experiments are typically performed in standard operant conditioning chambers adapted for the catheters used to deliver a drug intravenously. The catheter is secured to the animal by a harness or back plate and is tethered to a protective leash that extends upward through a hole in the top of a chamber, where it attaches to a rotating swivel on a mechanical arm that allows the subject to move around freely. The chamber houses two levers: one whose depression results in the delivery of a drug, the other whose depression does nothing. Activity on these levers can be used to measure drug administration (via activity at the drug-inducing lever) as well as changes in nonspecific behavior that reflect short- and long-term effects of the drug (via activity at the non-inducing lever). The sterile intravenous catheter used to deliver the drug into the bloodstream of the subject is typically composed of a flexible plastic, silastic tubing and nylon mesh placed subcutaneously. It is attached to a mechanical pump that can be calibrated to deliver a specific amount of drug upon depression of one of the levers in the chamber.\n", "Insulin is usually given subcutaneously, either by injections or by an insulin pump. Research of other routes of administration is underway. In acute-care settings, insulin may also be given intravenously. In general, there are three types of insulin, characterized by the rate which they are metabolized by the body. They are rapid acting insulins, intermediate acting insulins and long acting insulins.\n\nExamples of rapid acting insulins include\n\nBULLET::::- Regular insulin (Humulin R, Novolin R)\n\nBULLET::::- Insulin lispro (Humalog)\n\nBULLET::::- Insulin aspart (Novolog)\n\nBULLET::::- Insulin glulisine (Apidra)\n\nBULLET::::- Prompt insulin zinc (Semilente, Slightly slower acting)\n\nExamples of intermediate acting insulins include\n", "Injection is generally administered as a bolus, but can possibly be used for continuous drug administration as well. Even when administered as a bolus, the medication may be long-acting, and can then be called depot injection. Administration by an indwelling catheter is generally preferred instead of injection in case of more long-term or recurrent drug administration.\n", "Self-administration\n\nSelf-administration is, in its medical sense, the process of a subject administering a pharmacological substance to themself. A clinical example of this is the subcutaneous \"self-injection\" of insulin by a diabetic patient.\n", "The basic appeal of hypoglycemic agents by mouth is that most people would prefer a pill or an oral liquid to an injection. However, insulin is a peptide hormone, which is digested in the stomach and gut and in order to be effective at controlling blood sugar, cannot be taken orally in its current form.\n\nThe potential market for an oral form of insulin is assumed to be enormous, thus many laboratories have attempted to devise ways of moving enough intact insulin from the gut to the portal vein to have a measurable effect on blood sugar.\n" ]	[ "Insulin can be injected anywhere in the body. " ]	[ "Injecting insulin into muscle is safer and easier than into a vein." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Insulin can be injected anywhere in the body. ", "Insulin can be injected anywhere in the body. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Injecting insulin into muscle is safer and easier than into a vein.", "Injecting insulin into muscle is safer and easier than into a vein." ]
2018-02395	Why does yawning make your eyes water?	Yawning tightens the muscles and skin around your eyes, which pushes on the lacrimal glands at the top corners of your eyes. These glands store tears for use later, and the pressure can squeeze small amounts out. Interestingly, it’s very individual. Some people’s yawns don’t seem to do this much. Others quite a bit. It depends on the exact shape of your face.	[ "Section::::Detection.:Decreased volume.:Renin-angiotensin system.\n", "found also with \"-n-\" suffix in Greek χαίνω \"to yawn\", and without the \"-n-\" in English \"gap\" (compare the \"figura etymologica\" in Norse \"ginnunga-gap\"), \"gum\" \"palate\" and \"gasp\" (via Old Norse), Latin \"hiō, hiatus\", and Greek \"chasm, chaos\".\n\nThe Latin term used in medicine is \"oscitatio\" (anglicized as \"oscitation\"), from the verb \"oscito\" \"to open the mouth\". \n\n\"Pandiculation\" is the act of yawning and stretching simultaneously.\n\nSection::::Proposed causes.\n", "Another notion states that yawning is the body's way of controlling brain temperature. In 2007, researchers, including a professor of psychology from the University of Albany, proposed yawning may be a means to keep the brain cool. Mammalian brains operate best within a narrow temperature range. In two experiments, subjects with cold packs attached to their foreheads and subjects asked to breathe strictly-nasally exhibited reduced contagious-yawning when watching videos of people yawning. \n", "Water in the eye can alter the optical properties of the eye and blur vision. It can also wash away the tear fluid—along with it the protective lipid layer—and can alter corneal physiology, due to osmotic differences between tear fluid and freshwater. Osmotic effects are made apparent when swimming in freshwater pools, because the osmotic gradient draws water from the pool into the corneal tissue (the pool water is hypotonic), causing edema, and subsequently leaving the swimmer with \"cloudy\" or \"misty\" vision for a short period thereafter. The edema can be reversed by irrigating the eye with hypertonic saline which osmotically draws the excess water out of the eye.\n", "Section::::Detection.:Decreased volume.\n", "A similar hypothesis suggests yawning is used for regulation of body temperature. Similarly, Guttmann and Dopart (2011) found, that, when a subject wearing earplugs yawned, a breeze is heard, caused by the flux of the air moving between the subject's ear and the environment. Guttmann and Dopart determined that a yawn causes one of three possible situations to occur: the brain cools down due to an influx or outflux of oxygen, the pressure in the brain is reduced by an outflux of oxygen, or the pressure of the brain is increased by an influx of air caused by increased cranial space.\n", "BULLET::::- The song features unflatteringly in the 1936 \"Merrie Melodies\" short subject \"I Love to Singa\" as the selection young \"Owl Jolson's\" parents force him to perform in his lessons rather than the title number much to his chagrin and dismay. Warner Bros., which distributed (and later produced) the \"Merrie Melodies\" series (and sister series \"Looney Tunes\"), would later use this song as incidental music in the TV series \"Baby Looney Tunes\", particularly when one of the characters is drinking milk, water or juice, or even pretending to drink tea.\n", "One study states that yawning occurs when one's blood contains increased amounts of carbon dioxide and therefore becomes in need of the influx of oxygen (or expulsion of carbon dioxide) that a yawn can provide. Yawning may, in fact, reduce oxygen intake compared to normal respiration. However, neither providing more oxygen nor reducing carbon dioxide in air decreased yawning.\n", "BULLET::::- SET: \"for we have heard how HASHEM dried up the waters of the Sea of Reeds for you when you went forth from Egypt and what you did to the two kings of the Amorites who were across the Jordan - to Sihon and to Og - whom you utterly destroyed.\"\n\nJoshua’s speech to the troops shortly before the conquest of Jericho:\n", "In April 2019, following the Trump administration not distributing money to West Bank and Gaza \"because of perceived intransigence on peace talks by the Palestinians and payments to the families of those who have attacked Israelis\", Merkley was one of six Democratic senators to introduce a resolution restoring US humanitarian aid to Palestinians in the West Bank and Gaza.\n\nBULLET::::- Saudi Arabia\n", "Lacrimal apparatus\n\nThe lacrimal apparatus is the physiological system containing the orbital structures for tear production and drainage. It consists of:\n\nBULLET::::- The lacrimal gland, which secretes the tears, and its excretory ducts, which convey the fluid to the surface of the human eye;it is a serous gland located in lacrimal fossae.it is a j shaped gland\n\nBULLET::::- The lacrimal canaliculi, the lacrimal sac, and the nasolacrimal duct, by which the fluid is conveyed into the cavity of the nose, emptying anterioinferiorly to the inferior nasal conchae from the nasolacrimal duct;\n", "\"Crocodile tears syndrome\", also known as Bogorad's syndrome, is an uncommon consequence of nerve regeneration subsequent to Bell's palsy or other damage to the facial nerve in which efferent fibres from the superior salivary nucleus become improperly connected to nerve axons projecting to the lacrimal glands, causing one to shed tears (lacrimate) during salivation while smelling foods or eating. It is presumed that this would cause salivation while crying due to the inverse improper connection of the lacrimal nucleus to the salivary glands, but this would be less noticeable.\n", "In March 2012, a UN report listed the spring \"Ein El Azut\", belonging to Bardala, among a number of springs which had been illegally taken over by Israeli settlers. Local Palestinians had formerly used the spring for irrigation and livestock.\n\nSection::::Geography and climate.\n", "The water, warm and clear, flows through a hundred thousand golden channels towards Mount Hugar, \"the Lofty\", one of the daughter-peaks of Hara Berezaiti. On the summit of that mountain is Lake Urvis, \"the Turmoil\", into which the waters flow, becoming quite purified and exiting through another golden channel. Through that channel, which is at the height of a thousand men, one portion of the great spring Aredvi Sura Anahita drizzles in moisture upon the whole earth, where it dispels the dryness of the air and all the creatures of Mazda acquire health from it. Another portion runs down to Vourukasha, the great sea upon which the earth rests, and from which it flows to the seas and oceans of the world and purifies them.\n", "Mr. Dryden\n\nMr. Dryden is a fictional character in the film \"Lawrence of Arabia\" (1962). He is portrayed by veteran actor Claude Rains. He is a diplomat and political leader, the head of the Arab Bureau, who first enlists T. E. Lawrence (Peter O'Toole) for work as a liaison to the Arab Revolt, and manipulates Lawrence and the Arabs to ensure Allied dominion over the post-war Middle East.\n\nSection::::Synopsis.\n", "In August 2018, Cotton and 16 other lawmakers urged the Trump administration to impose sanctions under the Global Magnitsky Act against Chinese officials who are responsible for human rights violations in western China's Xinjiang region targeting the Uyghur ethnic minority. They wrote in a bipartisan letter: \"The detention of as many as a million or more Uyghurs and other predominantly Muslim ethnic minorities in \"political reeducation” centers or camps requires a tough, targeted, and global response.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Darren is introduced to someone by his girlfriend, but somehow always says something innocent that upsets them. The girlfriend angrily \"reminds\" Darren that the person is recently bereaved and he had just made a reference to the departed. This is also promptly followed by Darren then upsetting somebody else, who attacks him without explanation.\n\nBULLET::::- Betty the Cleaner usually interrupts important events to ask when she can start cleaning, such as the evolution of apes and a UN meeting. her catchphrase is \"Are youse gonna be long?\" Played by Tim McGarry.\n", "The resolution stated that the operation of the resolution shall have no effect on rights, debts and claims existing with respect to funds prior to their transfer to the escrow account, and that the accounts from which such funds were transferred shall be kept open for retransfer of the funds in question. It also reiterated that the Compensation Commission and escrow account enjoy all privileges and rights of the United Nations, including immunity from legal proceedings.\n\nThe resolution was approved by 14 votes to none, with one abstention from China.\n", "In 2019 it was revealed that Cate Blanchett had provided the voice of the mysterious masked woman at the orgy party. \n\nSection::::Production.:Filming.\n", "Lacrimal lake\n\nThe lacrimal lake is the pool of tears in the lower conjunctival cul-de-sac, which drains into the opening of the tear drainage system (the \"puncta lacrimalia\"). The volume of the lacrimal lake has been estimated to be between 7 and 10 µL.\n\nAlthough the lacrimal lake usually contains 7–10 µL of tears, the maximum fluid it can usually hold is 25–30 µL before tearing occurs. Aging usually causes the eyelids to become more loose which in turn enables the lacrimal lake to hold even more fluid.\n", "There may also be a stringy discharge from the eyes. Although it may seem strange, dry eye can cause the eyes to water. This can happen because the eyes are irritated. One may experience excessive tearing in the same way as one would if something got into the eye. These reflex tears will not necessarily make the eyes feel better. This is because they are the watery type that are produced in response to injury, irritation, or emotion. They do not have the lubricating qualities necessary to prevent dry eye.\n", "In August 2014, Yawning Man returned to Europe with Arce, Mario Lalli and Stinson for a tour that ran from August 29 to September 7, after which they undertook the Legends of the Desert Tour with Fatso Jetson from February 2 to 28, 2015.\n", "Drooling or sialorrhea can occur during sleep. It is often the result of open-mouth posture from CNS depressants intake or sleeping on one's side. Sometimes while sleeping, saliva does not build up at the back of the throat and does not trigger the normal swallow reflex, leading to the condition. Freud conjectured that drooling occurs during deep sleep, and within the first few hours of falling asleep, since those who are affected by the symptom suffer the most severe harm while napping, rather than during overnight sleep.\n", "Hypovolemia leads to activation of the renin angiotensin system (RAS) and is detected by cells in the kidney. When these cells detect decreased blood flow due to the low volume they secrete an enzyme called renin. Renin then enters the blood where it catalyzes a protein called angiotensinogen to angiotensin I. Angiotensin I is then almost immediately converted by an enzyme already present in the blood to the active form of the protein, angiotensin II. Angiotensin II then travels in the blood until it reaches the posterior pituitary gland and the adrenal cortex, where it causes a cascade effect of hormones that cause the kidneys to retain water and sodium, increasing blood pressure. It is also responsible for the initiation of drinking behavior and salt appetite via the subfornical organ.\n", "Each time the eyelids are closed through the action of the orbicularis, the medial palpebral ligament is tightened, the wall of the lacrimal sac is thus drawn lateralward and forward, so that a vacuum is made in it and the tears are sucked along the lacrimal canals into it. The lacrimal part of the orbicularis oculi draws the eyelids and the ends of the lacrimal canals medialward and compresses them against the surface of the globe of the eye, thus placing them in the most favorable situation for receiving the tears; it also compresses the lacrimal sac. This part comprises two pieces: Horner's muscle and the muscle of Riolan, the latter helps hold the eyelids together to keep the lacrimal passage waterproof.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-08193	How can flies and other insects stay vertical on windows?	Yes, their feet are somehow "sticky". This works in a few different ways. But small things are strong compared to their weight, so enough "stickiness" to keep a bug from falling isn't enough to stop it from moving. The reason for this is the square-cube law. Imagine you were twice as big. Twice the length (front to back), twice the width (left to right) and twice the height. That's eight times the volume and weight. But your legs are only twice the length and twice the width. They may be 4x as strong, but their additional height doesn't make them stronger and they'd be too weak for double-size human. Obviously humans can be fairly large compared to bugs, but we don't have the same strength-to-weight ratio.	[ "The bottom of the enclosure, if it is not the ground or trays of dirt, needs be a surface more solid than screening. A snail placed in a wire-mesh-bottom pen will keep crawling, trying to get off the wires and onto solid, more comfortable ground.\n", "Another alternative, suitable for solid wall enclosures, is to attach to the wall a horizontal piece of screen that projects inward several inches over the enclosure. The screen is made with material such as nylon monofilament that is moderately stiff and springy yet easily flexible. On the inside edge of the screen, the cross fibers are removed, producing a fringe several inches wide. When a snail crawls on the underside of the screen and moves out onto the fringe, his weight pulls several individual fibers down. One by one, another fiber gets away from the snail and springs back up out of reach. Eventually the snail is dangling by a thread. The snail then falls, because the surface area is not big enough to crawl on.\n", "Dickson Despommier is a professor of environmental health sciences and microbiology. He reopened the topic of VF in 1999 with graduate students in a medical ecology class. He speculated that a 30-floor farm on one city block could provide food for 50,000 people including vegetables, fruit, eggs and meat, explaining that hydroponic crops could be grown on upper floors; while the lower floors would be suited for chickens and fish that eat plant waste.\n", "Section::::Gliding animals.:Extant.:Fish.\n", "On the other hand, in contrast to a wall a horizontal floor allows more options when one considers compass directions. One can draw on a floor lines going north, south, east, and west, in fact, along any compass direction. A wall allows fewer options. For instance, on a wall which runs along a longitude, an insect cannot crawl east.\n\nSection::::Geophysical definition.:Independence of horizontal and vertical motions.\n", "To pass from the water surface to land, a water-walking insect must contend with the slope of the meniscus at the water's edge. Many such insects are unable to climb this meniscus using their usual propulsion mechanism.\n\nDavid Hu and coworker John W. M. Bush have shown that such insects climb meniscuses by assuming a fixed body posture. This deforms the water surface and generates capillary forces that propels the insect up the slope without moving its appendages. \n", "The English zoologist Hugh Cott, describing \"Nyctibius griseus\" as \"this wonderful bird\", writes that it \"habitually selects the top of an upright stump as a receptacle for its egg, which usually occupies a small hollow just, and only just, large enough to contain it ... the stump selected had thrown up a new leader just below the point of fracture ... and the birds sat facing this in such a way that when viewed from behind they came into line and blended with the grey stem.\"\n\nSection::::Behavior.:Diet and feeding.\n", "There are three types of vertical stackable hives: hanging or top-access frame, sliding or side-access frame, and top bar.\n", "Troddlers themselves are never wandering around in a level to begin with; they always enter from a special entrance after a fixed amount of time. These creatures will always walk in the same direction if left undisturbed. Also, they can walk on walls and ceilings. Each level involving the rescue of Troddlers includes at least one exit in which the Troddlers must exit. These exits are sometimes placed sideways on walls or upside-down on ceilings.\n", "Section::::Research contributions.:Indoor positioning.\n", "The ability of geckos – which can hang on a glass surface using only one toe – to climb on sheer surfaces has been for many years mainly attributed to the van der Waals forces between these surfaces and the spatulae, or microscopic projections, which cover the hair-like setae found on their footpads. A later study suggested that capillary adhesion might play a role, but that hypothesis has been rejected by more recent studies.\n", "The Muggle-Wumps, tired of being forced to stand on their heads, with the help of the birds use Mr. Twit's powerful glue to attach the couple's furniture to their ceiling while they are away to trick them into thinking that they are upside down and that their ceiling is actually their floor. The birds also smear glue on the Twits' heads, which permanently fixes them to the ground when a panicked Mr. Twit suggests that they stand on their heads so that they are 'the right way up' after they first walk into the upside down living room. \n", "In the day they are normally found perching or nesting usually higher than 12 meters above ground level within big trees. The branches they choose to perch usually are nearly 20 to 30 centimeters in diameter. At night time, they may go to lower perches like 1.5 meters above the ground, from which they hunt.\n\nSection::::Behavior.\n", "Anopheline larvae tend to float horizontal at the surface of the water when not in motion, whereas culicine larvae float with head low and only the siphon at the tail held at the surface.\n\nSection::::Lifecycle.\n", "In the \"SpongeBob SquarePants\" episode \"The Sponge Who Could Fly\", SpongeBob attempts to fly by using flying devices including a lawn chair with balloons tied to it. He doesn't even have a chance to sit on it, as when he removes the ballast, the chair flies away.\n\nIn the \"King of the Hill\" episode \"The Miseducation of Bobby Hill\", Dale has Bill sit on a chair similar to the one Larry used, only for Bill to fly away and land in Mexico.\n", "They are mainly insect eaters, with \"Eurystomus\" species taking their prey on the wing, and those of the genus \"Coracias\" diving from a perch to catch food items from on the ground, like giant shrikes.\n", "Dipteran insects along with the majority of other insect orders use what are known as indirect flight muscles to accomplish flight. Indirect insect flight muscles are composed of two sets of perpendicular muscles (see left figure) that are attached to the thorax (instead of directly to the wing base as is the case for direct flight muscles). When the first set of muscles contracts, they deform the body of the insect and compress its thorax vertically, which lifts the wings. When the first set of muscles relaxes and the second set contracts, the thorax is squeezed in the opposite direction, which extends the body vertically and moves the wings downward. The below figure demonstrates this movement with only the first set of muscles.\n", "Many case studies clearly demonstrate the importance of an organism's associated microbiota to its existence. (For example, see the numerous case studies in the Microbiome article.) However, horizontal \"versus\" vertical transmission of endosymbionts must be distinguished. Endosymbionts whose transmission is predominantly vertical may be considered as contributing to the heritable genetic variation present in a host species.\n", "Originally, it was thought that ecosystems increase uniformly in ascendency as they developed, but subsequent empirical observation has suggested that all sustainable ecosystems are confined to a narrow \"window of vitality\" (Ulanowicz 2002). Systems with relative values of ascendency plotting below the window tend to fall apart due to lack of significant internal constraints, whereas systems above the window tend to be so \"brittle\" that they become vulnerable to external perturbations.\n", "In some species the larva is a trochophore which is planktonic and feeds on floating food particles by using the two bands of cilia round its \"equator\" to sweep food into the mouth, which uses more cilia to drive them into the stomach, which uses further cilia to expel undigested remains through the anus. In some species of the genera \"Loxosomella\" and \"Loxosoma\", the larva produces one or two buds that separate and form new individuals, while the trochophore disintegrates. However, most produce a larva with sensory tufts at the top and front, a pair of pigment-cup ocelli (\"little eyes\"), a pair of protonephridia, and a large, cilia-bearing foot at the bottom. After settling, the foot and frontal tuft attach to the surface. Larvae of most species undergo a complex metamorphosis, and the internal organs may rotate by up to 180°, so that the mouth and anus both point upwards.\n", "When landing, it seeks a vertical attitude. Like all large dragonflies, the wings are held out from the body at rest.\n\nSection::::Life cycle.:Distribution and flight.\n", "\"Polistes\" nests can be built from wood fiber which are collected from posts and plant stems. The fiber is formed into a paper like comb with hexagonal cells. The nests are orientated downward and are held up by one filament. \"P. exclamans\" have also been observed occupying artificial nests put out by researchers and consisting of bundles of straws.\n\nSection::::Colony cycle.\n", "The zooids absorb oxygen and emit carbon dioxide by diffusion, which works well for small animals.\n\nSection::::Reproduction and life cycle.\n", "The grid deck allows access to the \"head block beam\" and \"loft block beams\" of counterweight systems. Spanning from the proscenium wall to the upstage wall, these beams support the dead and live loads of a fly system. As per their names, counterweight system head blocks and loft blocks may be directly mounted to these beams. The head block beam is situated directly above the loading gallery. The loft block beams are spaced to match the \"pick points\" of the lift lines suspending the battens. The loft block beams may also be used to suspend the grid deck support structure.\n", "\"D. media\" builds aerial paper nests above ground. These nests are typically found in shrubs, trees, and sometimes under the eaves of buildings. Nests are made of paper that comes from the digestion of wood and are generally wide and tall. Colonies are often found in both urban and rural areas. These wasps prefer to build nests close to the ground where humidity levels are higher as well as in open areas where the nest is subject to large amounts of sunlight.\n\nSection::::Colony cycle.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01702	What is the difference between True North and Magnetic North	The "true north" is the direction to the geographic north pole which is the point where the Earth rotation axis intersect the surface. Magnetic north is the direction to the magnetic north pole. (The point where the Earth magnetic field goes downward). This is the north a compasses point to.	[ "Magnetic variation (also known as magnetic declination) is different depending on the geographic position on the globe. The Magnetic North Pole is currently in Northern Canada and is moving generally south. A straight line can be drawn from the Geographic North Pole, down to the Magnetic North Pole and then continued straight down to the equator. This line is known as the agonic line, and the line is also moving. In the year 1900, the agonic line passed roughly through Detroit and then was east of Florida. It currently passes roughly west of Chicago, IL, and through New Orleans, LA. If a navigator is located on the agonic line, then variation is zero: the Magnetic North Pole and the Geographic North Pole appear to be directly in line with each other. If a navigator is east of the agonic line, then the variation is westward; magnetic north appears slightly west of the Geographic North Pole. If a navigator is west of the agonic line, then the variation is eastward; the Magnetic North Pole appears to the east of the Geographic North Pole. The farther the navigator is from the agonic line, the greater the variation. The local magnetic variation is indicated on NOAA nautical charts at the center of the compass rose. The magnetic variation is indicated along with the year of that variation. The annual increase or decrease of the variation is also usually indicated, so that the variation for the current year can be calculated.\n", "The direction in which a compass needle points is known as magnetic north. In general, this is not exactly the direction of the North Magnetic Pole (or of any other consistent location). Instead, the compass aligns itself to the local geomagnetic field, which varies in a complex manner over Earth's surface, as well as over time. The local angular difference between magnetic north and true north is called the magnetic declination. Most map coordinate systems are based on true north, and magnetic declination is often shown on map legends so that the direction of true north can be determined from north as indicated by a compass.\n", "Magnetic north is of interest because it is the direction indicated as north on a properly functioning (but uncorrected) magnetic compass. The difference between it and true north is called the magnetic declination (or simply the declination where the context is clear). For many purposes and physical circumstances, the error in direction that results from ignoring the distinction is tolerable; in others a mental or instrument compensation, based on assumed knowledge of the applicable declination, can solve all the problems. But simple generalizations on the subject should be treated as unsound, and as likely to reflect popular misconceptions about terrestrial magnetism.\n", "Aviation sectionals (maps / charts) and databases used for air navigation are based on true north rather than magnetic north, and the constant and significant slight changes in the actual location of magnetic north and local irregularities in the planet's magnetic field require that charts and databases be updated at least twice each year to reflect the current magnetic variation correction from true north.\n\nFor example, as of March 2010, near San Francisco, magnetic north is about 14.3 degrees east of true north, with the difference decreasing by about 6 minutes of arc per year.\n", "True north\n\nTrue north (also called geodetic north) is the direction along Earth's surface towards the geographic North Pole or True North Pole.\n\nGeodetic north differs from \"magnetic\" north (the direction a compass points toward the Magnetic North Pole), and from grid north (the direction northwards along the grid lines of a map projection). Geodetic true north also differs very slightly from \"astronomical\" true north (typically by a few arcseconds) because the local gravity may not point at the exact rotational axis of Earth.\n", "On maps published by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) and the United States Armed Forces, true north is marked with a line terminating in a five-pointed star. The east and west edges of the USGS topographic quadrangle maps of the United States are meridians of longitude, thus indicating true north (so they are not exactly parallel). Maps issued by the United Kingdom Ordnance Survey contain a diagram showing the difference between true north, grid north, and magnetic north at a point on the sheet; the edges of the map are likely to follow grid directions rather than true, and the map will thus be truly rectangular/square.\n", "In North America the line of zero declination (the \"agonic line\") runs from the North Magnetic Pole down through Lake Superior and southward into the Gulf of Mexico (see figure). Along this line, true north is the same as magnetic north. West of the agonic line a compass will give a reading that is east of true north and by convention the magnetic declination is positive. Conversely, east of the agonic line a compass will point west of true north and the declination is negative.\n\nSection::::North Geomagnetic Pole.\n", "On the topographic maps of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), for example, a diagram shows the relationship between magnetic north in the area concerned (with an arrow marked \"MN\") and true north (a vertical line with a five-pointed star at its top), with a label near the angle between the MN arrow and the vertical line, stating the size of the declination and of that angle, in degrees, mils, or both.\n", "All magnets have two poles, where the lines of magnetic flux enter and emerge. By analogy with Earth's magnetic field, these are called the magnet's \"north\" and \"south\" poles. The convention in early compasses was to call the end of the needle pointing to Earth's North Magnetic Pole the \"north pole\" (or \"north-seeking pole\") and the other end the \"south pole\" (the names are often abbreviated to \"N\" and \"S\"). Because opposite poles attract, this definition means that Earth's North Magnetic Pole is actually a magnetic \"south\" pole and Earth's South Magnetic Pole is a magnetic \"north\" pole.\n", "Like the North Magnetic Pole, the North Geomagnetic Pole attracts the north pole of a bar magnet and so is in a physical sense actually a magnetic \"south\" pole. It is the center of the region of the magnetosphere in which the Aurora Borealis can be seen. As of 2015 it was located at approximately , over Ellesmere Island, Canada but it is now drifting away from North America and toward Siberia.\n\nSection::::Geomagnetic reversal.\n", "Its southern hemisphere counterpart is the South Magnetic Pole. Since Earth's magnetic field is not exactly symmetrical, the North and South Magnetic Poles are not antipodal, meaning that a straight line drawn from one to the other does not pass through the geometric center of Earth.\n\nEarth's North and South Magnetic Poles are also known as Magnetic Dip Poles, with reference to the vertical \"dip\" of the magnetic field lines at those points.\n\nSection::::Polarity.\n", "Cartographers use a projection to project the curved surface of the earth onto a flat surface. This generates a grid that is used as a base for national topographic mapping. The projection introduces a distortion so that grid north differs from true north; magnetic north is a natural feature that differs from both. As an example: at 52° 35' N 1° 10' E (approx 7 km west of Norwich, England) true north is 2° 33' west of grid north, and magnetic north is about 7° west of grid north. Magnetic north varies continually and in this example (1986) was reducing by about ° in four years. Orienteering maps are printed using magnetic north and this requires an adjustment to be made to the base map.\n", "Over the life of Earth, the orientation of Earth's magnetic field has reversed many times, with magnetic north becoming magnetic south and vice versa – an event known as a geomagnetic reversal. Evidence of geomagnetic reversals can be seen at mid-ocean ridges where tectonic plates move apart and the seabed is filled in with magma. As the magma seeps out of the mantle, cools, and solidifies into igneous rock, it is imprinted with a record of the direction of the magnetic field at the time that the magma cooled.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- South Magnetic Pole\n\nBULLET::::- North Pole\n", "GPS systems used for air navigation can use magnetic north or true north. In order to make them more compatible with systems that depend on magnetic north, magnetic north is often chosen, at the pilot's preference. The GPS receiver natively reads in true north, but can elegantly calculate magnetic north based on its true position and data tables; the unit can then calculate the current location and direction of the north magnetic pole and (potentially) any local variations, if the GPS is set to use magnetic compass readings.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Compass survey\n\nBULLET::::- Geomagnetism\n\nBULLET::::- L-shell\n\nBULLET::::- Magnetic inclination\n", "North Magnetic Pole\n\nThe North Magnetic Pole is the wandering point on the surface of Earth's Northern Hemisphere at which the planet's magnetic field points vertically downwards (in other words, if a magnetic compass needle is allowed to rotate about a horizontal axis, it will point straight down). There is only one location where this occurs, near (but distinct from) the Geographic North Pole and the Geomagnetic North Pole.\n", "The direction of magnetic field lines is defined such that the lines emerge from the magnet's north pole and enter into the magnet's south pole.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The Geographic North Pole around which the Earth rotates is not in exactly the same position as the Magnetic North Pole. From any position on the globe, a direction can be determined to either the Geographic North Pole or to the Magnetic North Pole. These directions are expressed in degrees from 0–360°, and also fractions of a degree. The differences between these two directions at any point on the globe is magnetic variation (also known as magnetic declination, but for the purposes of the mnemonic, the term 'variation' is preferred. When a compass is installed in a vehicle or vessel, local anomalies of the vessel can introduce error into the direction that the compass points. The difference between the local Magnetic North and the direction that the compass indicates as north is known as magnetic deviation.\n", "Section::::Characteristics.:Magnetic poles.\n\nHistorically, the north and south poles of a magnet were first defined by the Earth's magnetic field, not vice versa, since one of the first uses for a magnet was as a compass needle. A magnet's North pole is defined as the pole that is attracted by the Earth's North Magnetic Pole when the magnet is suspended so it can turn freely. Since opposite poles attract, the North Magnetic Pole of the Earth is really the south pole of its magnetic field (the place where the field is directed downward into the Earth). \n", "In navigation, directions on maps are usually expressed with reference to geographical or true north, the direction toward the Geographical North Pole, the rotation axis of the Earth. Depending on where the compass is located on the surface of the Earth the angle between true north and magnetic north, called magnetic declination can vary widely with geographic location. The local magnetic declination is given on most maps, to allow the map to be oriented with a compass parallel to true north. The locations of the Earth's magnetic poles slowly change with time, which is referred to as geomagnetic secular variation. The effect of this means a map with the latest declination information should be used. Some magnetic compasses include means to manually compensate for the magnetic declination, so that the compass shows true directions.\n", "As a first-order approximation, Earth's magnetic field can be modeled as a simple dipole (like a bar magnet), tilted about 10° with respect to Earth's rotation axis (which defines the Geographic North and Geographic South Poles) and centered at Earth's center. The North and South Geomagnetic Poles are the antipodal points where the axis of this theoretical dipole intersects Earth's surface. If Earth's magnetic field were a perfect dipole then the field lines would be vertical at the Geomagnetic Poles, and they would coincide with the Magnetic Poles. However, the approximation is imperfect, and so the Magnetic and Geomagnetic Poles lie some distance apart.\n", "In 2014, Brunton dropped the circle-over-circle magnetized disk/needle design used in the \"Eclipse\" and \"O.S.S.\" series, and returned to a traditional needle design for the magnetic north indicator. The current TruArc™ baseplate compass line uses rare-earth magnets to stabilize the north indicator needle. Equipped with 'deep-well' liquid-filled capsules, all TruArc™ compasses were designed from the outset to work in all magnetic zones.\n", "The north pole of a magnet is defined as the pole that, when the magnet is freely suspended, points towards the Earth's North Magnetic Pole in the Arctic (the magnetic and geographic poles do not coincide, see magnetic declination). Since opposite poles (north and south) attract, the North Magnetic Pole is actually the \"south\" pole of the Earth's magnetic field. As a practical matter, to tell which pole of a magnet is north and which is south, it is not necessary to use the Earth's magnetic field at all. For example, one method would be to compare it to an electromagnet, whose poles can be identified by the right-hand rule. The magnetic field lines of a magnet are considered by convention to emerge from the magnet's north pole and reenter at the south pole.\n", "A magnetic compass points to magnetic north, not geographic north. Compasses of the style commonly used for hiking include a declination adjustment in the form of a bezel which swivels relative to the base plate. To establish a declination the bezel is rotated until the desired number of degrees plus or minus lie between the bezel's designation N (for North) and the direction indicated by the magnetic end of the needle (usually painted red). This allows the user to establish a true bearing for travel or orientation by aligning the embossed red indicator arrow on the base plate with a landmark or heading on a map. A compass thus adjusted can be said to be reading “true north” instead of magnetic north (as long as it remains within an area on the same isogonic line).\n", "True north is the geometrically accurate direction along the surface of the earth toward the North pole of the planet’s axis of rotation.\n\nThe lines of longitude on maps are in true North/South directions.\n\nSection::::Techniques.:Using a compass.:Magnetic north and variation.\n\nThe Earth has a magnetic field which is not quite in line with the geographic directions. The difference between the magnetic and true directions is known as Variation. It differs from place to place and changes with time. Large scale charts and maps will usually include a compass rose showing variation.\n\nSection::::Techniques.:Using a compass.:Compass north and deviation.\n", "Section::::Plot.:In the characters' past.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01860	Why does steam start rising from water before it's boiling?	Because the visible "steam" you see isn't steam (steam is invisible) but airborne water vapor caused by some of the water evaporating due to having enough heat energy to do so but then condensing in the air as tiny droplets of visible water vapor (just like a cloud).	[ "For example, if the vapor's partial pressure is 2% of atmospheric pressure and the air is cooled from 25 °C, starting at about 22 °C water will start to condense, defining the dew point, and creating fog or dew. The reverse process accounts for the fog burning off in the morning. If the humidity is increased at room temperature, for example, by running a hot shower or a bath, and the temperature stays about the same, the vapor soon reaches the pressure for phase change, and then condenses out as minute water droplets, commonly referred to as steam.\n", "Steam\n\nSteam is water in the gas phase, which is formed when water boils or evaporates. Steam is invisible; however, \"steam\" often refers to wet steam, the visible mist or aerosol of water droplets formed as this water vapour condenses. At lower pressures, such as in the upper atmosphere or at the top of high mountains, water boils at a lower temperature than the nominal at standard pressure. If heated further it becomes superheated steam. \n", "Natural convection, or free convection, occurs due to temperature differences which affect the density, and thus relative buoyancy, of the fluid. Heavier (denser) components will fall, while lighter (less dense) components rise, leading to bulk fluid movement. Natural convection can only occur, therefore, in a gravitational field. A common example of natural convection is the rise of smoke from a fire. It can be seen in a pot of boiling water in which the hot and less-dense water on the bottom layer moves upwards in plumes, and the cool and more dense water near the top of the pot likewise sinks.\n", "If steam is released normally, say by opening a throttle valve, the bubbling action of the water remains moderate and relatively dry steam can be drawn from the highest point in the vessel.\n\nIf steam is released more quickly, the more vigorous boiling action that results can throw a fine spray of droplets up as \"wet steam\" which can cause damage to piping, engines, turbines and other equipment downstream.\n", "A cooking technique called flash boiling uses a small amount of water to quicken the process of boiling. For example, this technique can be used to melt a slice of cheese onto a hamburger patty. The cheese slice is placed on top of the meat on a hot surface such as a frying pan, and a small quantity of cold water is thrown onto the surface near the patty. A vessel (such as a pot or frying-pan cover) is then used to quickly seal the steam-flash reaction, dispersing much of the steamed water on the cheese and patty. This results in a large release of heat, transferred via vaporized water condensing back into a liquid (a principle also used in refrigerator and freezer production).\n", "At atmospheric pressure the boiling point of water is - liquid water at atmospheric pressure does not exist at temperatures higher than . At that moment, the water would boil and turn to vapor explosively, and the liquid water turned to gas would take up significantly more volume (~1,600-fold) than it did as liquid, causing a vapor explosion. Such explosions can happen when the superheated water of a Boiler escapes through a crack in a boiler, causing a boiler explosion.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.:BLEVEs without chemical reactions.\n", "Section::::Practical uses.:Flash boiling in cooking.\n", "Section::::Types of steam and conversions.\n\nSteam is traditionally created by heating a boiler via burning coal and other fuels, but it is also possible to create steam with solar energy. Water vapor that includes water droplets is described as \"wet steam\". As wet steam is heated further, the droplets evaporate, and at a high enough temperature (which depends on the pressure) all of the water evaporates and the system is in vapor–liquid equilibrium.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "By contrast, water vapor that includes water droplets is described as wet steam. If wet steam is heated further, the droplets evaporate, and at a high enough temperature (which depends on the pressure) all of the water evaporates, the system is in vapor–liquid equilibrium, and it becomes \"saturated steam\".\n", "Many shell-type boilers carry a large bath of liquid water which is heated to a higher temperature and pressure (enthalpy) than boiling water would be at atmospheric pressure. During normal operation, the liquid water remains in the bottom of the boiler due to gravity, steam bubbles rise through the liquid water and collect at the top for use until saturation pressure is reached, then the boiling stops. If some pressure is released, boiling begins again, and so on.\n", "Section::::Occurrences.\n\nSteam devils are seen on the Great Lakes in early winter. They occur in the Atlantic off the coast of the Carolinas when cold air from the continent blows across the Gulf Stream. Steam devils can occur on small lakes and even over hot springs, but rather more rarely than on large bodies of water. It is also possible for steam devils to form over wet land if the air is cold and the sun is heating the ground.\n", "Clouds of condensation can sometimes be seen rising from manholes in Manhattan through orange and white \"chimneys\". This can be caused by external water being boiled by contact with the steam pipes or by leaks in the steam system itself.\n", "Section::::Light water reactor examples.\n\nIn a boiling water reactor (BWR), the emergency core cooling system (ECCS) injects liquid water into the reactor core from the top. Water vapor produced from boiling will flow in the opposite direction. Given a high enough flow rate of steam, reversal of the ECCS-injected liquid water occurs.\n", "Boiling is also a phase transition from the liquid phase to gas phase, but boiling is the formation of vapor as bubbles of vapor \"below the surface\" of the liquid. Boiling occurs when the equilibrium vapor pressure of the substance is greater than or equal to the environmental pressure. The temperature at which boiling occurs is the boiling temperature, or boiling point. The boiling point varies with the pressure of the environment.\n", "\"Boiling\" is the method of cooking food in boiling water or other water-based liquids such as stock or milk. Simmering is gentle boiling, while in poaching the cooking liquid moves but scarcely bubbles.\n", "Like all liquids, water boils when its vapor pressure reaches its surrounding pressure. In nature, the atmospheric pressure is lower at higher elevations and water boils at a lower temperature. The boiling temperature of water for atmospheric pressures can be approximated by the Antoine equation:\n\nor transformed into this temperature-explicit form:\n\nwhere the temperature formula_32 is the boiling point in degrees Celsius and the pressure formula_33 is in Torr.\n\nSection::::Dühring's rule.\n\nDühring's rule states that a linear relationship exists between the temperatures at which two solutions exert the same vapor pressure.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n", "A precondition for the formation of steam devils is the presence of a layer of moist air on the water with the misty air (called arctic steam fog) being drawn upwards into fog streamers (non-rotating columns of steam fog). For this to happen the body of water must be unfrozen, and thus relatively warm, and there must be some wind of cold, dry air to form the fog. The cold air is warmed by the water and is humidified by evaporation. The warmed air begins to rise, and as it does so is cooled adiabatically by the falling pressure causing the water vapour content to condense out into fog streamers.\n", "In a conventional boiler, fuel is burned and the hot gases produced pass through a heat exchanger where much of their heat is transferred to water, thus raising the water's temperature.\n", "Typically, a BLEVE starts with a container of liquid which is held above its normal, atmospheric-pressure boiling temperature. Many substances normally stored as liquids, such as CO, propane, and other similar industrial gases have boiling temperatures, at atmospheric pressure, far below room temperature. In the case of water, a BLEVE could occur if a pressurized chamber of water is heated far beyond the standard . That container, because the boiling water pressurizes it, is capable of holding \"liquid\" water at very high temperatures.\n", "Water is said to \"boil\" when bubbles of water vapor grow without bound, bursting at the surface. For a vapor bubble to expand, the temperature must be high enough that the vapor pressure exceeds the ambient pressure (the atmospheric pressure, primarily). Below that temperature, a water vapor bubble will shrink and vanish.\n\nSuperheating is an exception to this simple rule; a liquid is sometimes observed not to boil even though its vapor pressure does exceed the ambient pressure. The cause is an additional force, the surface tension, which suppresses the growth of bubbles.\n", "Section::::Table of specific latent heats.\n\nThe following table shows the specific latent heats and change of phase temperatures (at standard pressure) of some common fluids and gases.\n\nSection::::Specific latent heat for condensation of water in clouds.\n\nThe specific latent heat of condensation of water in the temperature range from −25 °C to 40 °C is approximated by the following empirical cubic function:\n\nwhere the temperature formula_4 is taken to be the numerical value in °C.\n", "A number of chemical reactions have water as a product. If the reactions take place at temperatures higher than the dew point of the surrounding air the water will be formed as vapor and increase the local humidity, if below the dew point local condensation will occur. Typical reactions that result in water formation are the burning of hydrogen or hydrocarbons in air or other oxygen containing gas mixtures, or as a result of reactions with oxidizers.\n", "When a pressurized container such as the waterside of a steam boiler ruptures, it is always followed by some degree of steam explosion. A common operating temperature and pressure for a marine boiler is around and at the outlet of the superheater. A steam boiler has an interface of steam and water in the steam drum, which is where the water is finally evaporating due to the heat input, usually oil-fired burners. When a water tube fails due to any of a variety of reasons, it causes the water in the boiler to expand out of the opening into the furnace area that is only a few psi above atmospheric pressure. This will likely extinguish all fires and expands over the large surface area on the sides of the boiler. To decrease the likelihood of a devastating explosion, boilers have gone from the \"fire-tube\" designs, where the heat was added by passing hot gases through tubes in a body of water, to \"water-tube\" boilers that have the water inside of the tubes and the furnace area is around the tubes. Old \"fire-tube\" boilers often failed due to poor build quality or lack of maintenance (such as corrosion of the fire tubes, or fatigue of the boiler shell due to constant expansion and contraction). A failure of fire tubes forces large volumes of high pressure, high temperature steam back down the fire tubes in a fraction of a second and often blows the burners off the front of the boiler, whereas a failure of the pressure vessel surrounding the water would lead to a full and entire evacuation of the boiler's contents in a large steam explosion. On a marine boiler, this would certainly destroy the ship's propulsion plant and possibly the corresponding end of the ship.\n", "\"Nucleate boiling\" is characterized by the growth of bubbles or pops on a heated surface, which rises from discrete points on a surface, whose temperature is only slightly above the liquids. In general, the number of nucleation sites are increased by an increasing surface temperature.\n" ]	[ "steam rises from water when it is boiling", "It is expected to see steam before water starts to boil." ]	[ "It isn't steam that is rising from the water but water vapour that is airborne.", "It isn't possible to see steam, what is actually seen prior to water boiling is water vapor." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "steam rises from water when it is boiling", "It is expected to see steam before water starts to boil." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "It isn't steam that is rising from the water but water vapour that is airborne.", "It isn't possible to see steam, what is actually seen prior to water boiling is water vapor." ]
2018-05100	How Come When We Sleep makes a Difference Even Though in Theory We Get the Same Amount of Sleep.	Sleeping at the "wrong" time makes you feel bad because your sleep schedule and your internal clock (or circadian rhythm) are out of sync. This clock is affected by how much light (especially blue light) you see, and many other factors, so unless you also change these factors along with your bedtime, you won't feel rested. Restfulness after sleep is also affected by how consistant your sleep schedule is. If you get the same amount of sleep every single night but go to bed at different times each night, you are again messing with your internal clock.	[ "The most pronounced physiological changes in sleep occur in the brain. The brain uses significantly less energy during sleep than it does when awake, especially during non-REM sleep. In areas with reduced activity, the brain restores its supply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the molecule used for short-term storage and transport of energy. In quiet waking, the brain is responsible for 20% of the body's energy use, thus this reduction has a noticeable effect on overall energy consumption.\n", "In 1993, a different model called the opponent process model was proposed. This model explained that these two processes opposed each other to produce sleep, as against Borbely's model. According to this model, the SCN, which is involved in the circadian rhythm, enhances wakefulness and opposes the homeostatic rhythm. In opposition is the homeostatic rhythm, regulated via a complex multisynaptic pathway in the hypothalamus that acts like a switch and shuts off the arousal system. Both effects together produce a see-saw like effect of sleep and wakefulness. More recently, it has been proposed that both models have some validity to them, while new theories hold that inhibition of NREM sleep by REM could also play a role. In any case, the two process mechanism adds flexibility to the simple circadian rhythm and could have evolved as an adaptive measure.\n", "Homeostatic functions, especially thermoregulation, occur normally during non-REM sleep, but not during REM sleep. Thus, during REM sleep, body temperature tends to drift away from its mean level, and during non-REM sleep, to return to normal. Alternation between the stages therefore maintains body temperature within an acceptable range.\n\nIn humans the transition between non-REM and REM is abrupt; in other animals, less so.\n", "The circadian rhythm influences the ideal timing of a restorative sleep episode. Sleepiness increases during the night. REM sleep occurs more during body temperature minimum within the circadian cycle, whereas slow-wave sleep can occur more independently of circadian time.\n", "This two process model was first proposed in 1982 by Borbely, who called them Process S (homeostatic) and Process C (Circadian) respectively. He showed how the slow wave density increases through the night and then drops off at the beginning of the day while the circadian rhythm is like a sinusoid. He proposed that the pressure to sleep was the maximum when the difference between the two was highest.\n", "Sleep increases the sensory threshold. In other words, sleeping persons perceive fewer stimuli, but can generally still respond to loud noises and other salient sensory events.\n\nDuring slow-wave sleep, humans secrete bursts of growth hormone. All sleep, even during the day, is associated with secretion of prolactin.\n", "Section::::Normal.:Steady NREM (Non-REM) sleep.\n\nSection::::Normal.:Steady NREM (Non-REM) sleep.:Ventilation.\n\nBreathing is remarkably regular, both in amplitude and frequency in steady NREM sleep. Steady NREM sleep has the lowest indices of variability of all sleep stages. Minute ventilation decreases by 13% in steady stage II sleep and by 15% in steady slow wave sleep (Stage III and Stage IV sleep). Mean inspiratory flow is decreased but inspiratory duration and respiratory cycle duration are unchanged, resulting in an overall decreased tidal volume.\n", "The quality of sleep may be evaluated from an objective and a subjective point of view. Objective sleep quality refers to how difficult it is for a person to fall asleep and remain in a sleeping state, and how many times they wake up during a single night. Poor sleep quality disrupts the cycle of transition between the different stages of sleep. Subjective sleep quality in turn refers to a sense of being rested and regenerated after awaking from sleep. A study by A. Harvey et al. (2002) found that insomniacs were more demanding in their evaluations of sleep quality than individuals who had no sleep problems.\n", "The secretion of many hormones is affected by sleep-wake cycles. For example, melatonin, a hormonal timekeeper, is considered a strongly circadian hormone, whose secretion increases at dim light and peaks during nocturnal sleep, diminishing with bright light to the eyes. In some organisms melatonin secretion depends on sleep, but in humans it is independent of sleep and depends only on light level. Of course, in humans as well as other animals, such a hormone may facilitate coordination of sleep onset. Similarly, cortisol and thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) are strongly circadian and diurnal hormones, mostly independent of sleep. In contrast, other hormones like growth hormone (GH) & prolactin are critically sleep-dependent, and are suppressed in the absence of sleep. GH has maximum increase during SWS while prolactin is secreted early after sleep onset and rises through the night. In some hormones whose secretion is controlled by light level, sleep seems to increase secretion. Almost in all cases, sleep deprivation has detrimental effects. For example, cortisol, which is essential for metabolism (it is so important that animals can die within a week of its deficiency) and affects the ability to withstand noxious stimuli, is increased by waking and during REM sleep. Similarly, TSH increases during nocturnal sleep and decreases with prolonged periods of reduced sleep, but increases during total acute sleep deprivation. \n", "The potential \"richness of conscious experience\" appears to increase from deep sleep to drowsiness to full wakefulness, as might be quantified using notions from complexity theory that incorporate both the dimensionality as well as the granularity of conscious experience to give an integrated-information-theoretical account of consciousness. As behavioral arousal increases so does the range and complexity of possible behavior. Yet in REM sleep there is a characteristic atonia, low motor arousal and the person is difficult to wake up, but there is still high metabolic and electric brain activity and vivid perception.\n", "Chronic sleep deprivation (less than 8 hours of sleep) was associated with increase in body mass index (BMI). In the Wisconsin sleep cohort study of 1024 patients, the shorter sleep durations showed reduced levels of leptin and elevated levels of ghrelin. In a study with 3000 patients, it has been found that men and women who sleep less than 5 hours have elevated body mass index (BMI). In another study that followed about 70.000 women for 16 years, there was a significant increase in body weight in those who slept 5 hours or less compared to those who slept 7–8 hours.\n", "Section::::Scientific debate.\n\nThere is debate among researchers as to whether the concept of sleep debt describes a measurable phenomenon. The September 2004 issue of the journal \"Sleep\" contains dueling editorials from two leading sleep researchers, David F. Dinges and Jim Horne. A 1997 experiment conducted by psychiatrists at the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine suggested that cumulative nocturnal sleep debt affects daytime sleepiness, particularly on the first, second, sixth, and seventh days of sleep restriction.\n", "Section::::Correlates of sleep.\n\nOne of the important questions in sleep research is clearly defining the sleep state. This problem arises because sleep was traditionally defined as a state of consciousness and not as a physiological state, thus there was no clear definition of what minimum set of events constitute sleep and distinguish it from other states of partial or no consciousness. The problem of making such a definition is complicated because it needs to include a variety of modes of sleep found across different species.\n", "In polyphasic sleep, an organism sleeps several times in a 24-hour cycle, whereas in monophasic sleep occurs all at once. Under experimental conditions, humans tend to alternate more frequently between sleep and wakefulness (i.e., exhibit more polyphasic sleep) if they have nothing better to do. Given a 14-hour period of darkness in experimental conditions, humans tended towards bimodal sleep, with two sleep periods concentrated at the beginning and at the end of the dark time. Bimodal sleep in humans was more common before the industrial revolution.\n", "Mammals have wide diversity in sleep phenomena. Generally, they go through periods of alternating non-REM and REM sleep, but these manifest differently. Horses and other herbivorous ungulates can sleep while standing, but must necessarily lie down for REM sleep (which causes muscular atony) for short periods. Giraffes, for example, only need to lie down for REM sleep for a few minutes at a time. Bats sleep while hanging upside down. Male armadillos get erections during non-REM sleep, and the inverse is true in rats. Early mammals engaged in polyphasic sleep, dividing sleep into multiple bouts per day. Higher daily sleep quotas and shorter sleep cycles in polyphasic species as compared to monophasic species, suggest that polyphasic sleep may be a less efficient means of attaining sleep’s benefits. Small species with higher BMR may therefore have less efficient sleep patterns. It follows that the evolution of monophasic sleep may hitherto be an unknown advantage of evolving larger mammalian body sizes and therefore lower BMR.\n", "Birds have both REM and NREM sleep, and the EEG patterns of both have similarities to those of mammals. Different birds sleep different amounts, but the associations seen in mammals between sleep and variables such as body mass, brain mass, relative brain mass, basal metabolism and other factors (see below) are not found in birds. The only clear explanatory factor for the variations in sleep amounts for birds of different species is that birds who sleep in environments where they are exposed to predators have less deep sleep than birds sleeping in more protected environments.\n", "The human organism physically restores itself during sleep, healing itself and removing metabolic wastes which build up during periods of activity. This restoration takes place mostly during slow-wave sleep, during which body temperature, heart rate, and brain oxygen consumption decrease. The brain, especially, requires sleep for restoration, whereas in the rest of the body these processes can take place during quiescent waking. In both cases, the reduced rate of metabolism enables countervailing restorative processes.\n", "BULLET::::- Sleep efficiency: the number of minutes of sleep divided by the number of minutes in bed. Normal is approximately 85 to 90% or higher.\n", "Excessive sleepiness can vary in severity, and it appears most commonly during monotonous situations that doesn’t require much interaction. Daytime naps may occur with little warning and may be physically irresistible. These naps can occur several times a day. They are typically refreshing, but only for a few hours or less. Vivid dreams may be experienced on a regular basis, even during very brief naps. Drowsiness may persist for prolonged periods or remain constant. In addition, night-time sleep may be fragmented, with frequent awakenings. A second prominent symptom of narcolepsy is abnormal REM sleep. Narcoleptics are unique in that they enter into the REM phase of sleep in the beginnings of sleep, even when sleeping during the day.\n", "There are two main characteristics of narcolepsy: excessive daytime sleepiness and abnormal REM sleep. The first, excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS), occurs even after adequate night time sleep. A person with narcolepsy is likely to become drowsy or fall asleep, often at inappropriate times and places, or just be very tired throughout the day. Narcoleptics are not able to experience the amount of restorative deep sleep that healthy people experience – they are not \"over-sleeping\". In fact, narcoleptics live their entire lives in a constant state of extreme sleep deprivation.\n", "REM sleep is considered closer to wakefulness and is characterized by rapid eye movement and muscle atonia. NREM is considered to be deep sleep (the deepest part of NREM is called slow wave sleep), and is characterized by lack of prominent eye movement or muscle paralysis. Especially during non-REM sleep, the brain uses significantly less energy during sleep than it does in waking. In areas with reduced activity, the brain restores its supply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the molecule used for short-term storage and transport of energy. (Since in quiet waking the brain is responsible for 20% of the body's energy use, this reduction has an independently noticeable impact on overall energy consumption.) During slow-wave sleep, humans secrete bursts of growth hormone. All sleep, even during the day, is associated with secretion of prolactin.\n", "Section::::Timing.:Genetics.\n\nIt is hypothesized that a considerable amount of sleep-related behavior, such as when and how long a person needs to sleep, is regulated by genetics. Researchers have discovered some evidence that seems to support this assumption. Monozygotic (identical) but not dizygotic (fraternal) twins tend to have similar sleep habits. Neurotransmitters, molecules whose production can be traced to specific genes, are one genetic influence on sleep which can be analyzed. The circadian clock has its own set of genes. Genes which may influence sleep include ABCC9, DEC2, and variants near PAX 8 and VRK2.\n\nSection::::Timing.:Quality.\n", "However, upon clinical observation, it is found that patients may severely overestimate the time they took to fall asleep—often reporting having slept half the amount of time indicated by polysomnogram or electroencephalography (EEG), which may record normal sleep. Observing such discrepancy between subjective and objective reports, clinicians may conclude that the perception of poor sleep is primarily illusionary.\n", "Sleep involves great changes in brain activity. Until the 1950s it was generally believed that the brain essentially shuts off during sleep, but this is now known to be far from true; activity continues, but patterns become very different. There are two types of sleep: \"REM sleep\" (with dreaming) and \"NREM\" (non-REM, usually without dreaming) sleep, which repeat in slightly varying patterns throughout a sleep episode. Three broad types of distinct brain activity patterns can be measured: REM, light NREM and deep NREM. During deep NREM sleep, also called slow wave sleep, activity in the cortex takes the form of large synchronized waves, whereas in the waking state it is noisy and desynchronized. Levels of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and serotonin drop during slow wave sleep, and fall almost to zero during REM sleep; levels of acetylcholine show the reverse pattern.\n", "Section::::Research findings and highlights.\n\nBULLET::::- 1987: Demonstrated that sleep timing can be shifted by bright light\n\nBULLET::::- 1988: Identified gender differences in human sleep\n\nBULLET::::- 1994/5: Characterized the circadian process regulating human sleep\n\nBULLET::::- 1999: Discovered how circadian regulation of sleep changes with ageing\n\nBULLET::::- 2004: Discovered melatonin's effects on human sleep timing\n\nBULLET::::- 2007: Demonstrated the effects of changes in a 'clock' gene on human sleep and performance\n\nBULLET::::- 2008: Conducted first large scale field trial to test the effect of blue light in the workplace\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03717	Olympics are almost never profitable, why would countries spend billions on it?	National pride is huge. And it's easy to sell it as a big, world shaping event. When done well, it can be profitable, but few places do it well. Toss in a good dose of bribes and political pandering and you've got yourself a recipe for economic disturbances of olympic proportions.	[ "Section::::Background.:National goals.\n\nThe sports funding agencies of some nations have set targets of reaching a certain rank in the medals table, usually based on gold medals; examples are Australia, Japan, France, and Germany. Funding is reduced for sports with low prospects of medals.\n", "Section::::Modern Games.:Cost of the Games.\n", "SKY Italia had reached an agreement to broadcast 2014 & 2016 Olympics, but later, it sold the second one to RAI, holding only the first one.\n\nIn Canada, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation were granted rights to the 2014 and 2016 games in July 2012 for an undisclosed sum.\n\nIn Australia, Network Ten achieved an agreement for 2014 Winter Games spending $20 million, while the 2016 Summer Games have been granted to Seven Network in a bundle with 2018 and 2020, for $150 million.\n\nSection::::2010s.:2018 Winter and 2020 Summer Games.\n", "The Oxford Olympics Study 2016 found that sports-related costs for the Summer Games since 1960 were on average US$5.2 billion and for the Winter Games $3.1 billion. This does not include wider infrastructure costs like roads, urban rail, and airports, which often cost as much or more than the sports-related costs. The most expensive Summer Games were Beijing 2008 at US$40–44 billion and the most expensive Winter Games were Sochi 2014 at US$51 billion. As of 2016, costs per athlete were, on average, US$599,000 for the Summer Games and $1.3 million for the Winter Games. For London 2012, cost per athlete was $1.4 million; for Sochi 2014, $7.9 million.\n", "For the Summer Olympics, there have been fourteen Olympic sports that have been discontinued from the program as of the 2012 Summer Olympics in London. For the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, golf and rugby union were reinstated as Olympic sports (though the latter was as rugby sevens). As of 2011, there have been eight baseball, two basque pelota, one cricket, one croquet, two golf, one jeu de paume, two lacrosse, five polo, one racquets, five rugby union (fifteen-a-side), four softball, five tug of war, and one water motorsports venues used for the Summer Olympics.\n", "“Having worked at the Games [for the Olympic News Service] the ideology of 'inspiring a generation' has become almost a cliche to some but for most who were directly involved, and certainly me personally, that has been a big focus since the Olympics and it is my intention to set something up that will benefit the local sport scene in a variety of ways.\n", "Indirect capital costs were \"not\" included, such as for road, rail, or airport infrastructure, or for hotel upgrades or other business investment incurred in preparation for the Games but not directly related to staging the Games. The Rio Olympics' cost of US$4.6 billion compares with costs of US$40–44 billion for Beijing 2008 and US$51 billion for Sochi 2014, the two most expensive Olympics in history. The average cost of the Summer Games since 1960 is US$5.2 billion.\n\nSection::::Broadcasting.\n", "A number of events reported low spectator attendance despite having acceptable ticket sales. Preliminary competition and locally less popular sports failed to attract capacity crowd as expected. Organizers explained this was because blocks of seats were reserved or purchased by sponsors and partners who later did not show up at the events.\n", "Various cultural happenings had been planned over the 10-day long event, including opening and closing ceremonies (which were cancelled less than 24 hours before the start of the opening ceremony); live entertainment and concerts; art exhibits; band competitions; choir competitions; community events; and a film festival. The cultural events went on as scheduled despite the cancellation of the sports programs, however many athletes did not take part as they were cleaning up what was left of their sport. The events were primarily attended by members of GLISA board. \n\nHuman Rights\n", "The Olympic Games programme consists of 35 sports, 30 disciplines and 408 events. For example, wrestling is a Summer Olympic sport, comprising two disciplines: Greco-Roman and Freestyle. It is further broken down into fourteen events for men and four events for women, each representing a different weight class. The Summer Olympics programme includes 26 sports, while the Winter Olympics programme features 15 sports. Athletics, swimming, fencing, and artistic gymnastics are the only summer sports that have never been absent from the Olympic programme. Cross-country skiing, figure skating, ice hockey, Nordic combined, ski jumping, and speed skating have been featured at every Winter Olympics programme since its inception in 1924. Current Olympic sports, like badminton, basketball, and volleyball, first appeared on the programme as demonstration sports, and were later promoted to full Olympic sports. Some sports that were featured in earlier Games were later dropped from the programme.\n", "Vast areas of unceded land that Indigenous communities depend on for hunting, fishing and general survival are at risk. Rivers, mountains and old-growth forests are being replaced by tourist resorts and highway expansions spurred by the 2010 games. Hundreds of millions of dollars have been spent to build new resorts and expand existing ones in order to attract and accommodate tourists, Olympic athletes and trainers.\n", "A number of the sports that were on the programme of The World Games have been discontinued because they are now included in the programme of the Olympic Games, for example badminton, beach volleyball, trampolining, rugby sevens, taekwondo, triathlon, and women's weightlifting. Other sports have been Olympic sports in the past (like tug of war).\n", "The IOC has stressed that the main goal of these games is not competition, but education based on Olympic values. The host city, therefore, should not have to build new venues for the occasion, but rather use existing infrastructure for the games. Still, the games would include an Olympic village and protocols which would prepare young athletes for future Olympic competition.\n", "The Summit is part of a series of international efforts which have sought to respond to the \"return of hunger\" \n", "began to run on 28 July 2012 and were still running as of February 2018, serving more destinations but at a lower frequency. Some station upgrades also occurred.\n\nChigwell Popchoir performed at the Olympic Park in 2014. \n\nSport relief occurred at the Olympic Park in 2013,\n\nWhen concert promoters Live Nation won the right to stage shows at the stadium and in the surrounding park during January, 2013, but only the park was used. The site of the former Riverbank Arena slated to be the stage for Hard Rock Calling, Wireless and Electric Daisy Carnival festivals in 2013.\n", "\"I feel very passionately about doing something community-focused that benefits grassroot clubs and local schools upwards, and not just in one sports code. Multi-sport disciplines are very common on the continent, as well as in America, and I've seen first-hand the additional benefits they offer a community.\n", "Cost per sporting event for Athens 2004 was US$9.8 million. This compares with US$14.9 million for Rio 2016, US$49.5 million for London 2012, and US$22.5 million for Beijing 2008. Average cost per event for the Summer Games since 1960 is US$19.9 million.\n\nCost per athlete for Athens 2004 was US$0.3 million. This compares with US$0.4 million for Rio 2016, US$1.4 million for London 2012, and US$0.6 million for Beijing 2008. Average cost per athlete for the Summer Games since 1960 is US$0.6 million.\n", "Previous Olympic Games included sports that are no longer included in the current program, such as polo and tug of war. Known as \"discontinued sports\", these have been removed due to either a lack of interest or the absence of an appropriate governing body for the sport. Some sports that were competed at the early Games and later dropped by the IOC, have managed to return to the Olympic program, for example Archery, which made a comeback in 1972, and tennis, which was reintroduced in 1988. The Olympics have often included one or more demonstration sports, normally to promote a local sport from the host country or to gauge interest in an entirely new sport. Some such sports, like baseball and curling, were added to the official Olympic program (in 1992 and 1998, respectively). Baseball was discontinued after the 2008 Olympics in Beijing, only to be revived again for the forthcoming 2020 Olympics in Tokyo, which will see the introduction of new disciplines within a number of existing Summer Olympics sports as well as several new sports, such as karate and skateboarding, making their Olympic debuts.\n", "The Olympics are a major factor in the globalization of sport.\n\nThe Olympic symbol is the most recognized symbol, and the Olympic Games are broadcast around the world. This represents 4.5 billion of people for the 2008 Summer Olympics.\n\nSection::::Olympic Games factor of the globalization of sports.:Olympic Games globalization.\n\nThe Olympic Games have also undergone globalization.\n", "The original estimated costs for running the Games were US$30 million for the Summer and $15 million to $20 million for Winter Games, these costs do not include infrastructure improvements for venue construction. The IOC has stipulated that costs for infrastructure and venues is to be paid by the host city. The IOC will pay travel costs to the host city and room and board for the athletes and judges, estimated at $11 million. The funding will come from IOC funds and not revenues. The budgets for the final two bids for the inaugural Summer Games as submitted by the IOC came in at $90 million, much higher than the estimated costs. The cost of the first games in Singapore escalated to an estimated S$387 million ($284 million). Sponsors have been slow to sign on for the YOG, due to the fact that it is a new initiative and corporations are not sure what level of exposure they will get. The budget for the inaugural Winter Games to be held in Innsbruck has been estimated at $22.5 million, which does not include infrastructure improvements and venue construction.\n", "Despite all predictions, traffic for Olympic in 2007 increased to a total of 5,977,104 passengers (3,115,521 in domestic and 2,681,583 in international flights) compared to approximately 5,500,000 passengers in 2006. It is estimated that OA earned approximately 780 million euro in 2007, 500 of which came from international flights. However, in 2008 due to lack of aircraft Olympic Airlines cancelled or merged a significant number of flights, about 6,000 according to their union (as of 26 August 2008). Olympic Airlines officials have declared that this is not the major problem since \"after all the income reduction is only 4–5 million euros compared to the initial budget plan\".\n", "Section::::Commercialisation.:Effect of television.\n", "By 2016, the Olympic Games will have been hosted by 44 cities in 23 countries. Since the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, South Korea, the Olympics have been held in Asia or Oceania four times, a sharp increase compared to the previous 92 years of modern Olympic history. The 2016 Games in Rio de Janeiro were the first Olympics for a South American country. No bids from countries in Africa have succeeded.\n", "In December 2018, the Japanese government chose to ban drones from flying over venues being used for the Olympic and Paralympic Games. A ban was also imposed for the 2019 Rugby World Cup.\n\nSection::::Development and preparation.:Volunteers.\n", "TfL have published information to encourage cycling as a mode of transport during the Games. Cyclists, like motorists, are not permitted to ride in the designated Olympic Lanes on London streets. Some designated cycle paths such as the Lea Valley towpath are closed to the public during the Olympics.\n\nSection::::Opinions and comments.:Financing.\n\nThe costs of mounting the Games are separate from those for building the venues and infrastructure, and redeveloping the land for the Olympic Park. While the Games are privately funded, the venues and Park costs are met largely by public money.\n" ]	[ "Countries should not spend money on olympics if it doesn't make money." ]	[ "Countries spend on olympics for other reasons including pride." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Countries should not spend money on olympics if it doesn't make money." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Countries spend on olympics for other reasons including pride." ]
2018-01932	How are cars in Google Maps perfectly positioned and photographed when the Google Map car moves?	You've seen photos from sporting events, right? Of athletes while they're moving? You just take the picture very quickly.	[ "Another type of feature recently made practical for structure from motion are general curves (e.g., locally an edge with gradients in one direction), part of a technology known as \"Pointless\" SfM, useful when point features are insufficient, common in man-made environments.\n\nThe features detected from all the images will then be matched. One of the matching algorithms that track features from one image to another is the Lukas–Kanade tracker.\n", "BULLET::::- Laser range scanners from Sick AG for the measuring of up to 50 meters 180° in the front of the vehicle. These are used for recording the actual dimensions of the space being photographed.\n\nBULLET::::- LIDAR scanners from Velodyne were added in the 2017 update. Mounted at 45° to capture 3D depth information, and used for additional positional information.\n\nBULLET::::- Air quality: In September 2018, Google announced it would integrate air quality sensors from Aclima into its global fleet of Street View vehicles.\n", "BULLET::::- On May 30, 2007, at the Where 2.0 Conference, Immersive Media was identified as the contractor that captured the imagery for four of the five cities initially mapped by Street View, using its patented dodecahedral camera array on a moving car. Immersive Media continued to do image capture for Street View until Google developed its own capability to do so. Since July 2007, Google has used imagery that belongs exclusively to Google.\n\nBULLET::::- On April 16, 2008, Street View was fully integrated into Google Earth 4.3.\n", "BULLET::::- On May 12, 2008, Google announced that it was testing face-blurring technology on its photos of the busy streets of Manhattan. The technology uses a computer algorithm to search Google's image database for faces and blurs them, according to John Hanke, director of Google Earth and Google Maps.\n", "In 2009, in a collaboration between Google and the Museo del Prado in Madrid, the museum selected 14 of its paintings to be photographed and displayed at the resolution of 14,000 megapixels inside the 3D version of the Prado in Google Earth and Google Maps.\n\nSection::::Imagery.:Street View.\n", "On April 15, 2008, with version 4.3, Google fully integrated Street View into Google Earth. Street View displays 360° panoramic street-level photos of select cities and their surroundings. The photos were taken by cameras mounted on automobiles, can be viewed at different scales and from many angles, and are navigable by arrow icons imposed on them.\n\nSection::::Imagery.:Water and ocean.\n", "BULLET::::2. The image must be projected back to a common plane to allow comparison of the image pairs, known as image rectification.\n\nBULLET::::3. An information measure which compares the two images is minimized. This gives the best estimate of the position of features in the two images, and creates a disparity map.\n\nBULLET::::4. Optionally, the received disparity map is projected into a 3d point cloud. By utilising the cameras' projective parameters, the point cloud can be computed such that it provides measurements at a known scale.\n\nSection::::Active stereo vision.\n", "The iPhone 3GS and iPhone 4 can orient the map with its digital compass. Apple also developed a separate application to view YouTube videos on the iPhone, which streams videos after encoding them using the H.264 codec. Simple weather and stock quotes applications also tap into the Internet.\n", "Users can select different video streams pulled from the WAMI system's vast field of view and, with the help of advanced data compression techniques, watch them live on their computer screens or handheld devices. In some systems, users can also designate \"watchboxes\" within the sensor's field of view to provide automated alerts should the system detect movement in the area.\n", "Once the images were captured, the team used Google Street View software and GPS data to seamlessly stitch the images and connect them to museum floor plans. Each image was mapped according to longitude and latitude, so that users can seamlessly transition to it from Google Maps, looking inside the partner museums’ galleries. Street View was also integrated with Picasa, for seamless transition from gallery view to microscope view.\n", "BULLET::::- In mid-June 2010, Google added blue dots to its maps that display user-submitted images in all locations around the world, including land areas where Street View is not available and bodies of water. These images can be pulled up on the screen in the same manner as a Street View image with the pegman by dragging it onto the blue dot.\n\nBULLET::::- On October 30, 2012, Google announced that users could contribute to Street View by creating a panorama-like image from the Galaxy Nexus smartphone to share on Google Maps.\n", "BULLET::::- 2017: Starting in August, Google allows users to create their own street view-like blue paths, for the connected photospheres that are sufficiently close to one another.\n\nBULLET::::- 2017: On September 5, Google announced that they are improving the quality of the street view panoramic photo revamping its mapping vehicles with all-new high resolution camera systems and AI to capture even better imagery. The new Google cars have been seen in various American cities since March 2017 as well as in Japan since August. The first images taken with the new generation of cameras were available online on September 13.\n", "After the first few sets of introductions, image collections from cities added were more detailed, often including every side street, especially in areas closer to the center of the city. More suburbs and other nearby cities were included.\n", "The dGPS output data is compatible with Google Maps. A miniature version of the Google Street View Car, which roams the streets to photograph them for Google Maps, was built by Mark Crosbie. He created his Street View car using Dexter Industries’ dGPS sensor to record coordinates and a small camera to take pictures as the vehicle drives down a street. The pictures from the camera can then be uploaded into Google Earth along with the coordinates. Using a KML format file, the Lego NXT can upload saved pictures, coordinates and data into a personal computer. Crosbie’s miniature Google Street Car can show the path that the car drove, and also shows pictures taken along the way in Google Earth.\n", "In June 2012, Google announced that it has captured 20 petabytes of data for Street View, comprising photos taken along 5 million miles of roads, covering 39 countries and about 3,000 cities. Coverage includes much of North and South America, from Cambridge Bay, Nunavut to Half Moon Island in the South Shetland Islands. Maps also include panoramic views taken under water such as in West Nusa Tenggara underwater coral, in the Grand Canyon, inside museums, and Liwa Desert in United Arab Emirates which are viewed from camelback. In a ten-day trek with Apa Sherpa, Google documented Khumbu, Nepal with its Mount Everest, Sherpa communities, monasteries and schools.\n", "Google Mars is an application within Google Earth that is a version of the program for imagery of the planet Mars. Google also operates a browser-based version, although the maps are of a much higher resolution within Google Earth, and include 3D terrain, as well as infrared imagery and elevation data. There are also some extremely-high-resolution images from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter's HiRISE camera that are of a similar resolution to those of the cities on Earth. Finally, there are many high-resolution panoramic images from various Mars landers, such as the Mars Exploration Rovers, \"Spirit\" and \"Opportunity\", that can be viewed in a similar way to Google Street View.\n", "BULLET::::- Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, Liechtenstein, Moldova and much of Germany and Austria in Europe\n\nBULLET::::- Asia except Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, Hong Kong, Japan, Macau, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, South Korea, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand, much of Indonesia, Kyrgyzstan, Laos, Mongolia and Russia\n\nBULLET::::- The Middle East except Israel, Jordan, Turkey and the United Arab Emirates\n\nBULLET::::- The South Pacific, except American Samoa, Australia, New Zealand and Pitcairn Islands (Pitcairn and Henderson Island)\n\nSection::::Data capturing equipment.\n", "Imagery resolution ranges from 15 meters of resolution to 15 centimeters. For much of the Earth, Google Earth uses digital elevation model data collected by NASA's Shuttle Radar Topography Mission. This creates the impression of three-dimensional terrain, even where the imagery is only two-dimensional.\n", "All WAMI is tagged for time and location before being stored in an airborne or ground-based database. Users can remotely access this database and, similar to DVR functionality, can speed through or rewind the imagery to find specific incidents. In addition, just as with the real-time imagery, WAMI users can pan, tilt, and zoom within the archived imagery.\n\nSection::::Evolution of WAMI systems.\n", "As far as resolution goes, WAMI systems usually have a 0.5 meter ground sample distance (GSD)—enough to detect and track moving targets throughout the scene. Should a user need to take a closer look at a subject, the WAMI system can cue other available sensors, such as hi-res full-motion video cameras, to make the identification.\n", "After the first few sets of introductions, image collections from cities added were more detailed, often including every side street, especially in areas closer to the center of the city. More suburbs and other nearby cities were included.\n", "BULLET::::- Vehicles: data recording equipment is usually mounted on the roof of a car. A Trike (tricycle) was developed to record pedestrian routes including Stonehenge, and other UNESCO World Heritage sites. In 2010 a snowmobile-based system captured the 2010 Winter Olympics sites. Trolleys have been used to shoot the insides of museums, and in Venice the narrow roads were photographed with backpack-mounted cameras, and canals were photographed from boats.\n\nBULLET::::- A portable back-pack Google Trekker is used in outdoor terrain. For instance, the six main paths up Snowdon were mapped by the Google Trekker in 2015.\n\nSection::::Privacy concerns.\n", "The coverage of various cities has in many cases, subsequently been enlarged and improved, but not necessarily on the same date as new cities have been added. Improvements have included the additions of streets in neighborhoods where previously only main roads had been covered, expansions to more suburbs, and views to the sky where previously only views to a certain height were provided.\n", "BULLET::::- On July 2, 2008, Google Street View was introduced in France and Italy, providing the first service outside the United States and the debut of Google's new 4th Generation Cameras. On this day, 19 camera icons were added, mostly showing small towns and areas along the Tour de France route and part of northwestern Italy.\n\nBULLET::::- On August 4, 2008, 28 icons of major metropolitan areas of both Australia and Japan were added to Google Street View. Included in the update were approximately 40 new U.S. hub cities.\n", "Google also added landmarks in Egypt, including the Pyramids of Giza, Cairo Citadel, Saqqara, Monastery of Saint Mina, and the Citadel of Qaitbay in the 9 September 2014 release.\n\nMany places still have limited or no coverage, including:\n\nBULLET::::- The Caribbean except Puerto Rico, limited coverage in the United States Virgin Islands and Martinique\n\nBULLET::::- Central America except Guatemala and some landmarks in Costa Rica\n\nBULLET::::- French Guiana, Guyana, Paraguay, Suriname and Venezuela in South America\n\nBULLET::::- Africa except Botswana, Ghana, Kenya, Lesotho, Nigeria, Réunion, Senegal, South Africa, Swaziland, Tunisia, Uganda and some city views in Madagascar\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-09072	Why does the UK use . URL_0 rather than just .uk?	When the country-specific top-level domains were created, the UK already had an academic network of its own (JANET) with its own naming scheme similar to DNS. Academic sites started URL_2 , commercial ones started URL_1 , and government ones UK.MOD (Ministry of Defence). The obvious thing to do was flip all the existing names around to create the equivalent DNS names. So Cambridge university was already known as URL_2 .CAM on JANET, and was assigned the domain URL_0 to match.	[ "The general form of the rules (i.e. which domains can be registered and whether to allow second level domains) was set by the Naming Committee. Nominet has not made major changes to the rules, although it has introduced a new second level domain .me.uk for individuals.\n\nUntil 10 June 2014 it was not possible to register a domain name directly under .uk (such as \"internet.uk\"); it was only possible as a third-level domain (such as \"internet.co.uk\").\n", "As with other ccTLDs in the early days it was originally delegated to an individual by Jon Postel. In time, it passed from Peter Kirstein at UCL to Willie Black at the UK Education and Research Networking Association (UKERNA). Originally, domain requests were emailed, manually screened by and then forwarded to the UK Naming Committee before being processed by UKERNA. Membership of this committee was restricted to a group of high-end ISPs who were part of a formal peering arrangement.\n", "In October 1984, RFC 920 set out the creation of ccTLDs generally using country codes derived from the corresponding two-letter code in the ISO 3166-1 list. \"GB\" is the UK's ISO 3166 country code. However, the .uk domain had been created separately a few months before the compilation of the ISO-derived list. Consequently, .gb was never widely used and it is no longer possible to register domains under that ccTLD.\n", "The intended restriction of .co.uk to companies is purely nominal; in practice it is open to any and all applicants. Likewise, whilst .org.uk is for organisations, there are no restrictions on registering domains. While .me.uk originally had no restrictions on registrants it has since been tightened up to require registrants to be natural persons (i.e. not companies, etc.).\n", ".net.uk is more open, but the Nominet regulations still mean that a registrant must be an ISP, or a similar body, and that the domain is not used for providing services to end-users. .nic.uk, however, is limited solely to domains operated by Nominet.\n\n.ac.uk domains are intended for the use of higher education institutions and further education colleges, and are also used by some academic support bodies such as the Universities and Colleges Admissions Service public research establishments, and learned societies such as the Royal Society. Primary and secondary education uses .sch.uk.\n\nSection::::sch.uk.\n", ".co.uk is by far the most used of the domains, followed by .org.uk then .me.uk. .plc.uk and .ltd.uk are only rarely used. The number of new registrations for each of the different .uk domains on a month by month basis can be seen on the Nominet UK website.\n", "BULLET::::- .mil.uk – the Ministry of Defence have always used .mod.uk for their external domain, but use .mil.uk on their private network. .mil.uk exists only as a CNAME for .mod.uk in the .uk zone file.\n\nSection::::Second-level domains.:Rejected.\n\nBULLET::::- .cym.uk – A second-level domain for Wales; it did not have support of the Welsh Internet community, with a .cym domain being proposed, though later rejected. Top-level domains of .cymru and .wales has since been delegated to the root in 2014.\n", "By the mid-1990s the growth of the Internet, and particularly the advent of the World Wide Web was pushing requests for domain name registrations up to levels that were not manageable by a group of part-time voluntary managers. Oliver Smith of Demon Internet forced the issue by providing the committee with a series of automated tools, called the \"automaton\", which formalised and automated the naming process end to end. This allowed many more registrations to be processed far more reliably and rapidly, and inspired individuals such as Ivan Pope to explore more entrepreneurial approaches to registration.\n", "The Naming Committee was organised as a mailing list to which all proposed names were circulated. The members would consider the proposals under a ruleset that insisted that all domain names should be very close if not identical to a registered business name of the registrant. Members of the Naming Committee could object to any name, and if at least a small number of objections were received, the name was refused.\n", "If a domain was registered before 23:59 UTC on 28 October 2013 the user had the rights to the equivalent .uk domain (providing there was no other corresponding .co.uk, .org.uk, me.uk, .ltd.uk, .plc.uk or .net.uk registered). For example, if ‘your-company.co.uk’ was held since 2 October 2013, the registrant of 'your-company.co.uk’ had the reserved right of registering ‘your-company.uk’, up until 06:00 BST on 25 June 2019.\n\nSection::::Second-level domains.\n\nSection::::Second-level domains.:Active.\n\nBULLET::::- .ac.uk – academic (tertiary education, further education colleges, research establishments (such as the British Antarctic Survey) and learned societies)\n\nBULLET::::- .co.uk – commercial and general\n", "However, some domains delegated before the creation of Nominet UK were in existence even before 10 June 2014, for example \"mod.uk\" (Ministry of Defence), \"parliament.uk\" (Parliament), \"bl.uk\" and \"british-library.uk\" (the British Library), \"nls.uk\" (the National Library of Scotland), \"nhs.uk\" (The National Health Service), and \"jet.uk\" (UKAEA as operator of the Joint European Torus experimental fusion tokamak).\n\nCurrently the rights to the .uk domain name are owned by Nominet UK. It is possible to directly register a domain name with Nominet UK, but it is faster and cheaper to do it via a Nominet-accredited domain registrar.\n\nSection::::.UK Right of Registration.\n", "However, registrants in .ltd.uk must be, and remain, private limited companies incorporated under the UK Companies Acts. In addition, names can only be registered if they correspond (in accordance with the algorithm in the rules of registration) with the exact company name, as recorded at the companies registry at Companies House. The same conditions apply for public limited companies which wish to use a .plc.uk domain name. Neither of these domains is widely used.\n", "BULLET::::- Common Domain Cookie Reading Service\n\nAs a hypothetical example of a \"Common Domain\", let's suppose Example UK (example.co.uk) and Example Deutschland (example.de) belong to the virtual organization Example Global Alliance (example.com). In this example, the domain example.com is the common domain. Both Example UK and Example Deutschland have a presence in this domain (uk.example.com and de.example.com, resp.).\n", "Most countries have their own Top Level Domain. The .uk TLD was first used in 1985, and at that time a voluntary group called the \"Naming Committee\" managed the registration of .uk domain names. This consisted of members of LINX as full members (the main ISPs in the UK), and their resellers as guest members. By the mid 1990s, Internet Service Providers (ISPs) who registered domains for their customers were joined by a new breed of domain name specialists who had an entrepreneurial attitude to domain names. The Naming Committee operated a ruleset that forced all name registrations to 'exactly' match the name of the registering company and also limited all companies to a single domain name. Although such rules were not exceptional for the time (Network Solutions operated a similar policy), the growth of a commercial internet soon brought these restrictions into close focus.\n", ".uk\n\n.uk is the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for the United Kingdom. , it is the fifth most popular top-level domain worldwide (after .com, .cn, .de and .net), with over 10 million registrations.\n", "The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) approved in November 1988 recommendation E.161 that put the pound sign on the right side of the 0 in the 4 x 3 button arrangement for push buttons on telephones. This same arrangement is still used today in most software phones (see Android dialer for example). The ITU recommendation had 2 design options for the pound sign: a European version where the hash sign was built with a 90-degree angle and a North-American version with an 80-degree angle. The North-American version seems to have prevailed as most pound signs in Europe now follow the 80-degree inclination.\n", "New registrations directly under .uk have been accepted by Nominet since 10 June 2014 08:00 BST, however there was a reservation period for existing customers who already had a .co.uk, .org.uk, .me.uk, .net.uk, .ltd.uk or .plc.uk domain to claim the corresponding .uk domain, which ran until 06:00 BST on 25 June 2019.\n\n.uk has used OpenDNSSEC since March 2010.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::United Kingdom-related top level domains (TLDs).\n\nSection::::United Kingdom-related top level domains (TLDs).:Country-Code TLDs (ccTLDs).\n\nBULLET::::- .ac –ccTLD for Ascension Island\n\nBULLET::::- .ai –ccTLD for Anguilla\n\nBULLET::::- .aq –ccTLD for Antarctica (including the British Antarctic Territory)\n\nBULLET::::- .bm –ccTLD for Bermuda\n\nBULLET::::- .eu –ccTLD for the European Union\n\nBULLET::::- .fk –ccTLD for the Falkland Islands\n\nBULLET::::- .gb –former ccTLD for the United Kingdom\n\nBULLET::::- .gg –ccTLD for the Bailiwick of Guernsey\n\nBULLET::::- .gi –ccTLD for Gibraltar\n\nBULLET::::- .gs –ccTLD for South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands\n\nBULLET::::- .ie –ccTLD for the Republic of Ireland\n\nBULLET::::- .im –ccTLD for the Isle of Man\n\nBULLET::::- .io –ccTLD for the British Indian Ocean Territory\n", "or registered company name) and a connection with the island of Ireland are required for registration.\n\nSection::::Second-level domains.\n\nThere is no official second-level domain policy. A number of domain names, typically those of other TLDs, two letter domains and potentially offensive domains are forbidden from being registered. Nevertheless, the Government of Ireland began using the codice_3 domain where once it used codice_4. Some government departments continue use their own non codice_5 domains.\n", "Advocates of the idea argue that it will be easier for parents and employers to block the entire TLD, rather than using more complex and error-prone content-based filtering, without imposing any restrictions on those who wish to access it. Editors of explicit content sites, however, were afraid that the use of a single TLD like codice_1 would also make it easier for search engines to block all of their content.\n", "In 2000, the Irish parliament enacted a law giving the Minister for Public Enterprise the power to make regulations regarding the registration of .ie domain names. In 2007 this power was transferred to the Commission for Communications Regulation (ComReg).\n\nSection::::Registration policy.\n", "An early (1993) draft of the HTML Specification referred to \"Universal\" Resource Locators. This was dropped some time between June 1994 (RFC 1630) and October 1994 (draft-ietf-uri-url-08.txt).\n\nSection::::Syntax.\n\nEvery HTTP URL conforms to the syntax of a generic URI. \n\nA web browser will usually dereference a URL by performing an HTTP request to the specified host, by default on port number 80. URLs using the codice_6 scheme require that requests and responses be made over a secure connection to the website.\n\nSection::::Internationalized URL.\n", "In May 2012, nine applicants including Google, Amazon and Famous Four Media applied to ICANN to operate the .shop registry. Commercial Connect was the only applicant who also applied for the .shop string in ICANN's year 2000 new-TLD round. Applications were also received for the extensions \".shopping\", \".store\", \".buy\", and names with similar meanings in non-Latin languages, and ICANN indicated that they would not create extensions that will confuse users. This so-called \"string similarity\" is an unresolved issue in the new gTLD process, and is to complement dispute resolution.\n", "In 1999, the Internet Engineering Task Force reserved the DNS labels , , , and so that they may not be installed into the root zone of the Domain Name System. \n", "Section::::History.\n\nIETF language tags were first defined in RFC 1766, edited by Harald Tveit Alvestrand, published in March 1995. The tags used ISO 639 two-letter language codes and ISO 3166 two-letter country codes, and allowed registration of whole tags that included variant or script subtags of three to eight letters.\n\nIn January 2001 this was updated by RFC 3066, which added the use of ISO 639-2 three-letter codes, permitted subtags with digits, and adopted the concept of language ranges from HTTP/1.1 to help with matching of language tags.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01437	What causes the bright white flash in your eye when it is poked?	Short answer; Pressure phosphenes are believed to be induced by stretch-induced activation of retinal ganglion cells. Background; Flashes of light (phosphenes) due to pressure on the eye ball are referred to as pressure phosphenes. Based on an electrophysiological study (Grüsser et al., 1989), eyeball indentation presumably tangentially stretches the retina locally, which variably depolarizes horizontal cells. This in turn depolarizes ON-bipolar ganglion cells, while hyperpolarizing OFF-bipolars. Some ON-center neurons also seem to respond to the removal of the deformation. Bipolar cells connect to the retinal ganglion cells. These ganglion cells carry visual information from the retina via their axons in the optic nerve to the brain. Hence, to answer your question: yes, pressure phosphenes are related to activity in the optic nerve. Source; URL_0 I was actually just researching this yesterday lol	[ "When this occurs there is a characteristic pattern of symptoms:\n\nBULLET::::- Flashes of light (photopsia)\n\nBULLET::::- A sudden dramatic increase in the number of floaters\n\nBULLET::::- A ring of floaters or hairs just to the temporal side of the central vision\n\nAs a posterior vitreous detachment proceeds, adherent vitreous membrane may pull on the retina. While there are no pain fibers in the retina, vitreous traction may stimulate the retina, with resultant flashes that can look like a perfect circle.\n", "The bright initial flash of a nuclear weapon is the first indication of a nuclear explosion, traveling faster than the blast wave or sound wave. \"A 1-megaton explosion can cause flash blindness at distances as great as on a clear day, or on a clear night. If the intensity is great enough, a permanent retinal burn (photic retinopathy) will result.\"\n\nSection::::Pain.\n", "Flash blindness\n\nFlash blindness is an either temporary or permanent visual impairment during and following exposure of a varying length of time to a light flash of extremely high intensity, such as a nuclear explosion, flash photograph, or extremely bright light, i.e. a searchlight or laser pointer. The bright light overwhelms the retinas of the eyes and generally gradually fades, lasting anywhere from a few seconds to a few minutes. However, if the eyes are exposed to a high enough level of light, such as a nuclear explosion, the blindness can become permanent. \n", "BULLET::::- Using bounce flash in which the flash head is aimed at a nearby pale colored surface such as a ceiling or wall or at a specialist photographic reflector. This both changes the direction of the flash and ensures that only diffused flash light enters the eye.\n", "Endophthalmitis\n\nEndophthalmitis is an inflammation of the interior of the eye. It is a possible complication of all intraocular surgeries, particularly cataract surgery, with possible loss of vision and the eye itself. Infectious cause is the most common and various bacteria and fungi have been isolated as the cause of the endophthalmitis. Other causes include penetrating trauma, allergic reaction, and retained intraocular foreign bodies. Intravitreal injections expose patients to the risk of endophthalmitis, but with an incidence rate usually less than .05%.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nPatients with ARN typically present\n\nBULLET::::- floaters\n\nBULLET::::- redness of the eye\n\nBULLET::::- flashes\n\nBULLET::::- decreased sharpness of vision\n\nBULLET::::- photophobia.\n", "BULLET::::- Temporary vasospasm leading to decreased blood flow can be a cause of amaurosis fugax. Generally, these episodes are brief, lasting no longer than five minutes, and have been associated with exercise. These vasospastic episodes are not restricted to young and healthy individuals. \"Observations suggest that a systemic hemodynamic challenge provoke[s] the release of vasospastic substance in the retinal vasculature of one eye.\"\n", "The reflex is mediated by:\n\nBULLET::::- the nasociliary branch of the ophthalmic branch (V) of the 5th cranial nerve (trigeminal nerve) sensing the stimulus on the cornea only (afferent fiber).\n\nBULLET::::- the temporal and zygomatic branches of the 7th cranial nerve (facial nerve) initiating the motor response (efferent fiber).\n\nBULLET::::- the center (nucleus) is located in the pons of the brainstem.\n\nUse of contact lenses may diminish or abolish the testing of this reflex.\n", "Symptoms of this disorder include floaters, blurred vision, photopsia (flashing lights in eyes), loss of color vision and nyctalopia. In an eye examination, light-colored spots on the retina are seen. Complete loss of visual acuity may happenThe name of the condition comes from the small light-colored fundus spots on the retina, scattered in a pattern like birdshot from a shotgun, but these spots might not be present in early stages.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "Flash blindness is caused by the initial brilliant flash of light produced by the nuclear detonation. More light energy is received on the retina than can be tolerated, but less than is required for irreversible injury. The retina is particularly susceptible to visible and short wavelength infrared light, since this part of the electromagnetic spectrum is focused by the lens on the retina. The result is bleaching of the visual pigments and temporary blindness for up to 40 minutes.\n", "It is unclear at this point why the retinoblastoma in humans is sensitive to RB1 inactivation.\n\nThe pupil may appear white or have white spots. A white glow in the eye is often seen in photographs taken with a flash, instead of the typical \"red eye\" from the flash, and the pupil may appear white or distorted. Other symptoms can include crossed eyes, double vision, eyes that do not align, eye pain and redness, poor vision or differing iris colors in each eye. If the cancer has spread, bone pain and other symptoms may occur.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Cone dystrophy\n", "Nuclear sclerosis is an age-related change in the density of the crystalline lens nucleus that occurs in all older animals. It is caused by compression of older lens fibers in the nucleus by new fiber formation. The denser construction of the nucleus causes it to scatter light. Although nuclear sclerosis may describe a type of early cataract in human medicine, in veterinary medicine the term is also known as lenticular sclerosis and describes a bluish-grey haziness at the nucleus that usually does \"not\" affect vision, except for unusually dense cases. Immature senile cataract has to be differentiated with nuclear sclerosis while making its diagnosis.\n", "As is the case with other manifestations of IgG4-related disease, a prompt response to steroid therapy is a characteristic feature of IgG4-ROD in most cases, unless significant fibrosis has already occurred.\n\nSection::::Symptoms.\n\nSymptoms, if any, can be mild even in the presence of significant swelling or masses.\n\nLacrimal gland involvement may cause swelling of the upper eyelid, or proptosis if there is severe swelling. Other orbital masses or inflammation can result in visual disturbance (blurred vision, double vision, visual field impairment), restricted eye movements, pain or discomfort, numbness in the distribution of the supraorbital and/or infraorbital nerves, or proptosis.\n", "Patients who do not respond to steroids may require revascularization, either via vascular bypass or angioplasty and stenting. Outcomes following revascularization vary depending on the severity of the underlying disease. \n\nSection::::History.\n\nThe first case of Takayasu’s arteritis was described in 1908 by Japanese ophthalmologist Mikito Takayasu at the Annual Meeting of the Japan Ophthalmology Society. Takayasu described a peculiar \"wreathlike\" appearance of the blood vessels in the back of the eye (retina). Two Japanese physicians at the same meeting (Drs. Onishi and Kagoshima) reported similar eye findings in individuals whose wrist pulses were absent.\n", "Diagnosis of PIC can be difficult because the appearance may be similar to other conditions and types of posterior uveitis, especially other forms of the so-called white dot syndromes. The diagnosis is made by eliminating all the other possibilities by careful examination by an experienced ophthalmologist, aided with visual field testing and Fluorescein angiography (an intravenous dye used to show the blood vessels at the back of the eye).\n\nIt is important that the correct diagnosis is made because treatment may be quite different for apparently similar conditions.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Natural course of the condition.\n", "If direct flash must be used, a good rule of thumb is to separate the flash from the lens by 1/20 of the distance of the camera to the subject. For example, if the subject is 2 meters (6 feet) away, the flash head should be at least 10 cm (4 inches) away from the lens.\n", "BULLET::::- very brief flashes of light (photopsia) in the extreme peripheral (outside of center) part of vision\n\nBULLET::::- a sudden dramatic increase in the number of floaters\n\nBULLET::::- a ring of floaters or hairs just to the temporal (skull) side of the central vision\n\nAlthough most posterior vitreous detachments do not progress to retinal detachments, those that do produce the following symptoms:\n\nBULLET::::- a dense shadow that starts in the peripheral vision and slowly progresses towards the central vision\n\nBULLET::::- the impression that a veil or curtain was drawn over the field of vision\n", "Optic nerve glioma\n\nOptic nerve glioma (or optic glioma), a form of glioma which affects the optic nerve, is often one of the central nervous system manifestations of neurofibromatosis 1.\n\nOptic gliomas are usually pilocytic tumors, and can involve the optic nerve or optic chiasm. Optic gliomas are usually associated with neurofibromatosis type 1 in 30% of patients.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "Section::::Transmission.\n\nVHSV can be spread from fish to fish through water transfer, as well as through contaminated eggs,\n\nand bait fish from infected waters. The emerald shiner is a particularly popular bait fish in the Great Lakes region, and is among the species afflicted.\n", "Uveitis\n\nUveitis is the inflammation of the uvea, the pigmented layer that lies between the inner retina and the outer fibrous layer composed of the sclera and cornea. The uvea consists of the middle layer of pigmented vascular structures of the eye and includes the iris, ciliary body, and choroid. Uveitis is an ophthalmic emergency and requires a thorough examination by an ophthalmologist or optometrist and urgent treatment to control the inflammation. It is often associated with other ocular problems.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Anterior uveitis.\n\nBULLET::::- Burning of the eye\n\nBULLET::::- Redness of the eye\n\nBULLET::::- Blurred vision\n", "Bokeh characteristics may be quantified by examining the image's circle of confusion. In out-of-focus areas, each point of light becomes an image of the aperture, generally a more or less round disc. Depending on how a lens is corrected for spherical aberration, the disc may be uniformly illuminated, brighter near the edge, or brighter near the center. A well-known lens that exhibited the latter \"soap-bubble\" characteristic was that produced by Hugo Meyer & Co., more recently revived by Meyer Optik Görlitz.\n", "The presence of retinal tears with new onset of floaters was surprisingly high (14%; 95% confidence interval, 12–16%) as reported in a meta-analysis published as part of the Rational Clinical Examination Series in the Journal of the American Medical Association. Patients with new onset flashes and/or floaters, especially when associated with visual loss or restriction in the visual field, should seek more urgent ophthalmologic evaluation.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "In time, the liquefied vitreous body loses support and its framework contracts. This leads to posterior vitreous detachment, in which the vitreous membrane is released from the sensory retina. During this detachment, the shrinking vitreous can stimulate the retina mechanically, causing the patient to see random flashes across the visual field, sometimes referred to as \"flashers\", a symptom more formally referred to as photopsia. The ultimate release of the vitreous around the optic nerve head sometimes makes a large floater appear, usually in the shape of a ring (\"Weiss ring\"). As a complication, part of the retina might be torn off by the departing vitreous membrane, in a process known as retinal detachment. This will often leak blood into the vitreous, which is seen by the patient as a sudden appearance of numerous small dots, moving across the whole field of vision. Retinal detachment requires immediate medical attention, as it can easily cause blindness. Consequently, both the appearance of flashes and the sudden onset of numerous small floaters should be rapidly investigated by an eye care provider.\n", "The increased pressure leads to papilledema, which is swelling of the optic disc, the spot where the optic nerve enters the eyeball. This occurs in practically all cases of IIH, but not everyone experiences symptoms from this. Those who do experience symptoms typically report \"transient visual obscurations\", episodes of difficulty seeing that occur in both eyes but not necessarily at the same time. Long-term untreated papilledema leads to visual loss, initially in the periphery but progressively towards the center of vision.\n", "It was described by Chuta Oguchi (1875-1945), a Japanese ophthalmologist, in 1907. The characteristic fundal appearances were described by Mizuo in 1913.\n\nTreatment of the disease is limited. In the People's Republic of China, high doses of Vitamin K and zinc are infused but thus treatment has been declared as quackery in the Republic of China (Taiwan) and by the Timor Leste Academy of Ophthalmology. In the U.S., afflicted persons have taken high doses of zinc (240 mg every two hours).\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-02284	How can people suddenly get a heritable disease/illness when no one in the family has it?	A genetic disorder is a disease caused in whole or in part by a change in the DNA sequence away from the normal sequence. Genetic disorders can be caused by a mutation in one gene (monogenic disorder), by mutations in multiple genes (multifactorial inheritance disorder), by a combination of gene mutations and environmental factors, or by damage to chromosomes (changes in the number or structure of entire chromosomes, the structures that carry genes). As we unlock the secrets of the human genome (the complete set of human genes), we are learning that nearly all diseases have a genetic component. Some diseases are caused by mutations that are inherited from the parents and are present in an individual at birth, like sickle cell disease. Other diseases are caused by acquired mutations in a gene or group of genes that occur during a person's life. Such mutations are not inherited from a parent, but occur either randomly or due to some environmental exposure (such as cigarette smoke). These include many cancers, as well as some forms of neurofibromatosis. Genetic disorders typically involve the inheritance of a particular mutated disease-causing gene, such as sickle cell disease, cystic fibrosis, and Tay-Sachs disease. The mutated gene is passed down through a family, and each generation of children can inherit the gene that causes the disease. Rarely, one of these monogenic diseases can occur spontaneously in a child when his/her parents do not have the disease gene, or there is no history of the disease in the family. This can result from a new mutation occurring in the egg or sperm that gave rise to that child. Most genetic disorders, however, are "multifactorial inheritance disorders," meaning they are caused by a combination of inherited mutations in multiple genes, often acting together with environmental factors. Examples of such diseases include many commonly-occurring diseases, such as heart disease and diabetes, which are present in many people in different populations around the world. Research on the human genome has shown that although many commonly occurring diseases are usually caused by inheritance of mutations in multiple genes at once, such common diseases can also be caused by rare hereditary mutations in a single gene. In these cases, gene mutations that cause or strongly predispose a person to these diseases run in a family, and can significantly increase each family member's risk of developing the disease.	[ "Despite these and other challenges in the identification of \"de novo\" gene birth events, there is now abundant evidence indicating that the phenomenon is not only possible, but has occurred in every lineage systematically examined thus far.\n\nSection::::Prevalence.\n\nSection::::Prevalence.:Estimates of numbers.\n", "As of June 2014 (the latest update on HFM in GeneReviews) a total of 32 families had been reported with a clinical diagnosis of HFM of which there was genotypic confirmation in 24 families. Since then, another two confirmed cases have been reported and an additional case was reported based on a clinical diagnosis alone. Most cases emerge from consanguineous parents with homozygous mutations. There are three instances of HFM from non-consanguineous parents in which there were heterozygous mutations. HFM cases are worldwide with mostly private mutations. However, a number of families of Puerto Rican ancestry have been reported with a common pathogenic variant at a splice receptor site resulting in the deletion of exon 3 and the absence of transport function. A subsequent population-based study of newborn infants in Puerto Rico identified the presence of the same variant on the island. Most of the pathogenic variants result in a complete loss of the PCFT protein or point mutations that result in the complete loss of function. However, residual function can be detected with some of the point mutants.\n", "The hereditary form of the disease is most common among those of Northern European ancestry, in particular those of Celtic descent. The disease is inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern, which means both copies of the gene in each cell have mutations. Most often, the parents of an individual with an autosomal recessive condition each carry one copy of the mutated gene, but do not show signs and symptoms of the condition.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "Once a mother has given birth to a child with iniencephaly, risk of reoccurrence increases to 1-5%.\n\nSection::::Pathogenesis.\n\nThe exact pathogenesis of iniencephaly is still unknown though there are proposed theories, most of which view the neural tube malformation from the primary neural anomaly standpoint.\n", "Missing heritability problem\n\nThe \"missing heritability\" problem is the fact that single genetic variations cannot account for much of the heritability of diseases, behaviors, and other phenotypes. This is a problem that has significant implications for medicine, since a person's susceptibility to disease may depend more on 'the combined effect of all the genes in the background than on the disease genes in the foreground', or the role of genes may have been severely overestimated.\n", "Two parents carrying a mutated gene and passing it on to their offspring cause the disease. Even with both parents carrying the disease in their genome, there is only a 25% chance that they will have a child containing the genetic coding for the disease (see figure right).\n", "BULLET::::4. Genetic effects are not due to the common SNPs examined in the candidate-gene studies & GWASes, but due to very rare mutations, copy-number variations, and other exotic kinds of genetic variants. These variants tend to be harmful and kept at low frequencies by natural selection. Whole-genome sequencing would be required to track down specific rare variants.\n\nBULLET::::5. Traits are all misdiagnoses: one person's 'schizophrenia' is due to entirely different causes than another schizophrenic, and so while there may be a gene involved in 1 case, it will not be involved in another, rendering GWASes futile\n", "Section::::Prevalence.:Dynamics.\n", "In most cases, \"MYH9\"-RD is caused by missense mutations affecting the head or tail domain of the NMHC IIA. Nonsense or frameshift alterations resulting in the deletion of a C-terminal fragment of the NMHC IIA (17 to 40 residues) are involved in approximately 20% of families. In-frame deletions or duplications have been identified in a few cases. The disease is transmitted as an autosomal-dominant trait, however, about 35% of index cases are sporadic. Sporadic forms mainly derive from \"de novo\" mutations; rare cases have been explained by germinal or somatic mosaicism.\n", "Historically CMTX could only be diagnosed through symptoms or measurement of the speed of nerve impulses. With the creation of genetic testing, 90% of CMTX cases are now diagnosed using the mutations of the GJB1 (Cx32) gene. The genetic screening of families has also become common after the diagnosis of CMTX in a patient, to further identify other family members that may be suffering from the disease. This screening is also used systematically by researchers to identify new mutations within the gene.\n\nSection::::Type X Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease.:Management.\n", "Hypertryptophanemia is believed to be inherited in an autosomal recessive manner. This means a defective gene responsible for the disorder is located on an autosome, and two copies of the defective gene (one inherited from each parent) are required in order to be born with the disorder. The parents of an individual with an autosomal recessive disorder both carry one copy of the defective gene, but usually do not experience any signs or symptoms of the disorder.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "The large number of autistic individuals with unaffected family members may result from copy number variations (CNVs)—spontaneous alterations in the genetic material during meiosis that delete or duplicate genetic material. Sporadic (non-inherited) cases have been examined to identify candidate genetic loci involved in autism. A substantial fraction of autism may be highly heritable but not inherited: that is, the mutation that causes the autism is not present in the parental genome.\n", "The heritability of sarcoidosis varies according to ethnicity. About 20% of African Americans with sarcoidosis have a family member with the condition, whereas the same figure for European Americans is about 5%. Additionally, in African Americans, who seem to experience more severe and chronic disease, siblings and parents of sarcoidosis cases have about a 2.5-fold increased risk for developing the disease. In Swedish individuals heritability was found to be 39%. In this group, if a first-degree family member was affected, a person has a four-fold greater risk of being affected.\n", "HLS is an autosomal recessive syndrome; development is only possible if both parents carry the defective gene, and in that instance, the risk of the foetus developing the syndrome is 25%. HLS is a member of the Finnish disease heritage, with incidences more common in Finland than the rest of the world; roughly 1 in 20,000 developing foetuses are affected in Finland. Rare cases in other regions have also been documented, often with less severe phenotypes as a result of allele variability across countries, allowing survival of affected offspring for up to several months. Individuals of Finnish descent are advised to undergo genetic testing before attempting to conceive.\n", "Penetrance for SCA1 is 100% for most alleles, so almost all individuals who have at least one copy of the mutated gene will eventually develop symptoms. At least one case has been reported where penetrance may have been incomplete in a woman with 44 glutamine repeats with histidine interruptions whose father had exhibited symptoms, but herself had not shown symptoms at the age of 66. Individuals with a low number of repeats, around 39 to 55, typically live past reproductive age and can pass on the disease to their children, while high repeats may express juvenile onset and fatality.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n", "The 'missing heritability' problem was named as such in 2008 (after the \"missing baryon problem\" in physics). The Human Genome Project led to optimistic forecasts that the large genetic contributions to many traits and diseases (which were identified by quantitative genetics and behavioral genetics in particular) would soon be mapped and pinned down to specific genes and their genetic variants by methods such as candidate-gene studies which used small samples with limited genetic sequencing to focus on specific genes believed to be involved, examining the SNP kinds of variants. While many hits were found, they often failed to replicate in other studies.\n", "A well-documented example is found in the Amish migration to Pennsylvania in 1744. Two members of the new colony shared the recessive allele for Ellis–van Creveld syndrome. Members of the colony and their descendants tend to be religious isolates and remain relatively insular. As a result of many generations of inbreeding, Ellis-van Creveld syndrome is now much more prevalent among the Amish than in the general population.\n", "Because Scheie syndrome is an autosomal recessive disorder, affected persons have two nonworking copies of the gene. A person born with one normal copy and one defective copy is called a carriers. They will produce less α-L-iduronidase than an individual with two normal copies of the gene. The reduced production of the enzyme in carriers, however, remains sufficient for normal function; the person should not show any symptoms of the disease.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Hemolytic disease of the newborn.\n\nIn theory, the maternal production of anti-H during pregnancy might cause hemolytic disease in a fetus who did not inherit the mother's Bombay phenotype. In practice, cases of HDN caused in this way have not been described. This may be possible due to the rarity of the Bombay phenotype but also because of the IgM produced by the immune system of the mother. Since IgMs are not transported across the microscopic placental blood vessels (like IgG are) they cannot reach the blood stream of the fetus to provoke the expected acute hemolytic reaction.\n", "The disease is caused in 60% of cases by a mutated gene called CIAS1 that is known to be involved in other syndromes that appear somewhat similar, such as Muckle–Wells syndrome and familial cold urticaria. In many patients, the parents do not have the same mutation, indicating the problem was not inherited, even though it is a genetic disease.\n\nCIAS1 is involved in controlling the immune system, which is why the mutation leads to out-of-control inflammation.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "Mutations in the \"MADH4\" gene is usually associated with juvenile polyposis, and detection of such a mutation would indicate a need to screen the patient and affected relatives for polyps and tumors of the large intestine.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Criteria.\n\nThe diagnosis can be made depending on the presence of four criteria, known as the \"Curaçao criteria\". If three or four are met, a patient has \"definite HHT\", while two gives \"possible HHT\":\n\nBULLET::::1. Spontaneous recurrent epistaxis\n\nBULLET::::2. Multiple telangiectasias in typical locations (see above)\n\nBULLET::::3. Proven visceral AVM (lung, liver, brain, spine)\n\nBULLET::::4. First-degree family member with HHT\n", "Every human being starts as a single cell the fusion of an egg and a sperm and progresses via cell division and cell death through development, birth, growth, and aging. Human health depends on maintaining a proper process of cell division, renewal and death, and humanity's most severe diseases, notably cancer, auto-immune diseases, diabetes, neuro-degenerative and cardiovascular disorders, and the multitude of inherited rare diseases are all the result of specific aberrations in this process.\n", "Expectant mothers with HVS have a 75% chance of at least one flare-up during their pregnancy. In limited studies it was found that infants in Africa born to mothers with malaria have a 7% of acquiring congenital malaria.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.:Early-onset infections.\n", "Ellis–van Creveld syndrome often is the result of founder effects in isolated human populations, such as the Amish and some small island inhabitants. Although relatively rare, this disorder does occur with higher incidence within founder-effect populations due to lack of genetic variability. Observation of the inheritance pattern has illustrated that the disease is autosomal recessive, meaning that both parents have to carry the gene in order for an individual to be affected by the disorder.\n", "Urbach–Wiethe disease is very rare; there are fewer than 300 reported cases in medical literature. Although Urbach–Wiethe disease can be found worldwide, almost a quarter of reported diagnoses are in South Africa. Many of these are in patients of Dutch, German, and Khoisan ancestry. This high frequency is thought to be due to the founder effect. Due to its recessive genetic cause and the ability to be a carrier of the disease without symptoms, Urbach–Wiethe disease often runs in families. In some regions of South Africa, up to one in 12 individuals may be carriers of the disease. Most of the case studies involving Urbach–Wiethe disease patients involve only one to three cases and these cases are often in the same family. Due to its low incidence, it is difficult to find a large enough number of cases to adequately study the disease.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-19677	How does a song/album debut at #1?	It would be quite inconvenient to measure on a steady sales/hour and deliver constant reports like that. If you'd measure like that, yes, an album would start at the bottom, before the first album is sold, then make a small jump, then up from there. Most of these numbers and charts are calculated in weeks, as far as I know. And if you're going to release a new Metallica album, you better believe that people are going to be ridiculously hyped for it, ready to buy it at stores the very moment it's released. A week is plenty time for an album of a well-known band to sell enough to overtake the sales of other albums. Even with lesser known bands, it's enough time to get a decent amount of traction via word of mouth and radio if it's a really good song. But you'll typically see that these songs can at times take a small while to rise to the top of the charts.	[ "BULLET::::- The first album to debut at number one was \"Captain Fantastic and the Brown Dirt Cowboy\" by Elton John. John repeated the same feat with the album \"Rock of the Westies\" – the second album to debut at number one – making John the first artist to have two consecutive studio albums debut at number one. Whitney Houston's second album \"Whitney\" was the first album by a female artist to debut at number one.\n", "BULLET::::- The first UK solo artist to debut at number one with a debut album is Leona Lewis on April 26, 2008 with the album \"Spirit\". The first UK group to debut at number one with a debut album is One Direction on March 31, 2012 with the album \"Up All Night\".\n", "One of the most controversial music events of 1990 had its origins in the 1989 debut album \"Girl You Know It's True\", by the pop group Milli Vanilli. The album spent 7 non-consecutive weeks in the top position.\n", "BULLET::::- 97–1 (96 positions) – Kelly Clarkson – \"My Life Would Suck Without You\" (February 7, 2009)\n\nBULLET::::- 96–1 (95 positions) – Britney Spears – \"Womanizer\" (October 25, 2008)\n\nBULLET::::- 94–3 (91 positions) – Beyoncé and Shakira – \"Beautiful Liar\" (April 7, 2007)\n\nBULLET::::- 94–4 (90 positions) – Maroon 5 featuring Cardi B – \"Girls Like You\" (June 16, 2018)\n\nBULLET::::- 95–7 (88 positions) – Akon featuring Eminem – \"Smack That\" (October 14, 2006)\n\nBULLET::::- 97–9 (88 positions) – Drake featuring Nicki Minaj – \"Make Me Proud\" (November 5, 2011)\n", "BULLET::::- From #8 – Prince – \"When Doves Cry\" (May 21, 2016)††, Bobby Helms – \"Jingle Bell Rock\" (January 12, 2019)†\n\nBULLET::::- From #9 – Soko – \"We Might Be Dead by Tomorrow\" (April 5, 2014), Brenda Lee – \"Rockin' Around the Christmas Tree\" (January 12, 2019)†\n\nBULLET::::- From #10 – Burl Ives – \"A Holly Jolly Christmas\" (January 12, 2019)†\n", "BULLET::::- One Direction became the first group to debut at No. 1 with its first three albums when \"Midnight Memories\" debuted at number one on the \"Billboard\" 200 dated December 14, 2013. They later became the first group to debut at No. 1 with their first four albums when \"Four\" debuted atop the chart on November 26, 2014.\n", "BULLET::::- The youngest artist to enter the chart is Willow, then age 10 when her song \"Whip My Hair\" debuted at #35 on chart week of December 11, 2010. (The song was recorded when she was 9.)\n", "BULLET::::- On December 4, 2010, Rihanna's \"Only Girl (In the World)\" reached the top spot two weeks after \"What's My Name?\", becoming the first time in Hot 100 history that an album's debut single hit #1 after the second single did.\n", "BULLET::::- 1–12 – Andy Kim – \"Rock Me Gently\" (October 5, 1974)\n\nBULLET::::- 1–12 – Stevie Wonder – \"You Haven't Done Nothin'\" (November 9, 1974)\n\nBULLET::::- 1–12 – Bachman–Turner Overdrive – \"You Ain't Seen Nothing Yet\" (November 16, 1974)\n\nBULLET::::- 1–12 – John Lennon and Plastic Ono Band – \"Whatever Gets You thru the Night\" (November 23, 1974)\n\nBULLET::::- 1–11 – Diana Ross – \"Theme from Mahogany (Do You Know Where You're Going To)\" (January 31, 1976)\n\nBULLET::::- 1–10 – Phil Collins – \"Two Hearts\" (February 4, 1989)\n\nSource:\n\nSection::::Song milestones.:Biggest single-week downward movements.\n", "BULLET::::- Jackie Gleason, at least for a time, held the record for the most albums to top the \"Billboard\" 200 without charting any songs in the top 40 of the \"Hot 100\"; five of Gleason's mood music albums topped the \"Billboard\" 200 in the mid-1950s.\n\nBULLET::::- As of December 18, 2013, Beyoncé became the only female artist to have her first 5 studio albums debut at No. 1 on the \"Billboard\" 200 chart, following the release of her self-titled album \"Beyoncé\".\n", "BULLET::::- Simple Minds (1)\n\nBULLET::::- Simply Red (2)\n\nBULLET::::- Frank Sinatra (3)°\n\nBULLET::::- Nancy Sinatra (2)\n\nBULLET::::- The Singing Nun (1)\n\nBULLET::::- Sir Mix-a-Lot (1)\n\nBULLET::::- Sisqó (1)\n\nBULLET::::- Percy Sledge (1)\n\nBULLET::::- Slim Thug (1)\n\nBULLET::::- Sly and the Family Stone (3)\n\nBULLET::::- Will Smith (2)\n\nBULLET::::- Snoop Dogg (3)\n\nBULLET::::- Snow (1)\n\nBULLET::::- Sonny and Cher (1)\n\nBULLET::::- David Soul (1)\n\nBULLET::::- Jimmy Soul (1)\n\nBULLET::::- Soulja Boy Tell 'Em (1)\n\nBULLET::::- Soulja Slim (1)\n\nBULLET::::- Britney Spears (5)\n\nBULLET::::- Spice Girls (1)\n\nBULLET::::- The Spinners (1)\n\nBULLET::::- Rick Springfield (1)\n\nBULLET::::- The Staple Singers (2)\n", "Number 1 Record\n\nBULLET::::1. 1 Record is the debut album by the American rock band Big Star. It was released in August 1972 by Memphis-based Ardent Records.\n", "BULLET::::- In 2001, Britney Spears became the first female artist to have her first three albums debut at number one. She broke this record two years later with a fourth number-one debut. With the number-one debut of her \"Circus\" album in 2008, Spears also became the youngest female artist to have five number-one albums. She later beat the record when her seventh studio album, \"Femme Fatale\" debuted at number one on April 2011.\n", "BULLET::::- In the early 1960s, Bob Newhart had the accomplishment of having the number-one and number-two albums simultaneously on the \"Billboard\" albums chart, with \"The Button-Down Mind of Bob Newhart\" and \"The Button-Down Mind Strikes Back!\" This feat was equaled by The Beatles multiple times. They did this twice in 1964 with \"Meet The Beatles!\" and \"Introducing... The Beatles\", and then with \"A Hard Day's Night\" and \"Something New\", followed in 1969 with the album \"The Beatles\" (commonly known as \"The White Album\") and the soundtrack for the film \"Yellow Submarine\". In 1991, Guns N' Roses held the top two with \"Use Your Illusion I\" and \"Use Your Illusion II\", in 2004, Nelly's \"Suit\" and \"Sweat\" and in 2017, Future's \"Future\" and \"Hndrxx\".\n", "BULLET::::- On May 1, 2016, Beyoncé broke the record she previously set in 2013, by becoming the only female artist to have her first 6 studio albums debut at No. 1 on the \"Billboard\" 200 chart, following the release of her sixth studio album \"Lemonade\". Beyoncé also becomes the first and only artist in \"Billboard\" chart history to have all of her studio albums debut at No. 1, breaking a tied record with DMX.\n", "BULLET::::- By a solo male act is Craig David with \"Born to Do It\", which sold 225,320 copies in 2000.\n\nSam Smith holds the record for most weeks spent in the Top 10 by a debut album with \"In the Lonely Hour\", with 76, surpassing a record previously held by Emeli Sandé and The Beatles.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- UK Singles Chart\n\nBULLET::::- List of UK Albums Chart Christmas number ones\n\nBULLET::::- List of UK Albums Chart number ones\n\nBULLET::::- List of artists by number of UK Albums Chart number ones\n", "BULLET::::- 1997 Single (UK) – \"Candle in the Wind 1997\" by Elton John selling 1.5 million copies in its first week.\n\nBULLET::::- 1997 Single (US) – \"Candle in the Wind 1997\" by Elton John selling 3.5 million copies in its first week.\n\nBULLET::::- 1990 Hip hop Album – \"To the Extreme\" by Vanilla Ice peaking at #1, staying on the charts for 16 weeks, and selling eleven million copies.\n", "BULLET::::- 21st week – Nick Gilder – \"Hot Child in the City\" (1978), Robert John – \"Sad Eyes\" (1979), Outkast – \"The Way You Move\" (2003–04), Adele – \"Set Fire to the Rain\" (2011–12)\n\nSection::::Song milestones.:Biggest drop from number one.\n\nBULLET::::- 1–15 – Billy Preston – \"Nothing from Nothing\" (October 26, 1974)\n\nBULLET::::- 1–15 – Dionne Warwicke and The Spinners – \"Then Came You\" (November 2, 1974)\n\nBULLET::::- 1–12 – Simon & Garfunkel – \"The Sound of Silence\" (January 29, 1966)\n\nBULLET::::- 1–12 – Barry White – \"Can't Get Enough of Your Love, Babe\" (September 28, 1974)\n", "BULLET::::- Three artists have 'bookended' the year-end countdown, being both the first and last chart positions on the show:\n\nBULLET::::- Stevie Wonder in 1986, with \"Go Home\" at #100 and the collaboration \"That's What Friends Are For\" with Dionne Warwick at #1.\n\nBULLET::::- Kesha in 2010, with \"Take It Off\" at #40 and \"Tik Tok\" at #1.\n\nBULLET::::- Twenty One Pilots in 2016, with \"Heathens\" at #40 and \"Stressed Out\" at #1.\n", "The artists with 150 or more consecutive weeks on the Hot 100:\n\nBULLET::::- 431 – Drake\n\nBULLET::::- 326 – Lil Wayne\n\nBULLET::::- 216 – Rihanna\n\nBULLET::::- 207 – Nicki Minaj\n\nBULLET::::- 166 – Future\n\nBULLET::::- 161 – Chris Brown\n\nBULLET::::- 159 – Jay-Z\n\nBULLET::::- 152 – Nelly\n\nBULLET::::- 150 – Justin Bieber\n\nSource:\n\nSection::::Artist achievements.:Self-replacement at number one.\n\nBULLET::::- The Beatles † – \"I Want to Hold Your Hand\" → \"She Loves You\" (March 21, 1964); \"She Loves You\" → \"Can't Buy Me Love\" (April 4, 1964)\n", "Before September 1995, singles were allowed to chart in the week they first went on sale based on airplay points alone. The policy was changed in September 1995, to only allow a single to debut after a full week of sales on combined sales and airplay points. This allowed several tracks to debut at number one.\n", "The Official Record Store Chart was first broadcast by British DJ Steve Lamacq on his eponymous radio programme on BBC 6 Music; the first number one was \"Boys & Girls\", the debut studio album by American band Alabama Shakes. Geoff Travis, founder of Rough Trade, the label that distributed \"Boys & Girls\", stated that he was \"very proud\" that his label had achieved this feat.\n", "List of Billboard 200 number-one albums\n\nThis is a partial list of number-one albums in the United States by year from the \"Billboard\" 200 albums chart. Each chart is on a week-ending format. \n\n\"Billboard magazine\" began publishing an album chart on March 24, 1945. The chart expanded to 200 positions on the week ending May 13, 1967, and adopted its current name on March 14, 1992. Since May 25, 1991, the \"Billboard\" 200's positions have been derived from Nielsen SoundScan sales data, currently contributed by approximately 14,000 music retailers.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Current \"Billboard\" 200 chart (top 100 positions)\n", "Section::::James Arthur version.:Chart performance and sales.\n", "BULLET::::- French-born Jordy Lemoine (age ) is the youngest artist to chart on the Hot 100. He established the record when his song \"Dur dur d'être bébé! (It's Tough to Be a Baby)\", where he is credited simply as Jordy, entered the chart on June 19, 1993.\n\nSection::::Artist achievements.:Gap records.\n\nBULLET::::- The longest gap between #1 hits on the Hot 100 for an artist is by Cher. Her single \"Believe\" hit #1 on March 13, 1999, her first time on top since \"Dark Lady\" on March 23, 1974.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-20039	How people made phone calls onboard airplanes on 9/11	Airphones. Satellite telephones, they've been on airliners since the late 90s. Usually cost a $fortune. Also depending on the altitude the plane is at you might get cellular connection.	[ "BULLET::::- October 13 David D. Meilahn made the first-ever commercial cell phone call from his 1983 Mercedes-Benz 380SL at Soldier Field on a Motorola DynaTAC. This is considered a major turning point in communications. The call was to Bob Barnett, the former president of Ameritech Mobile Communications, who then placed a call on a DynaTAC from inside of a Chrysler convertible to the grandson of Alexander Graham Bell who was in Germany.\n\nBULLET::::- Mount Carmel defeated Simeon 28–6 in the 1983 Prep Bowl.\n", "From 1969 through 1975, Paraskevakos was issued twenty separate patents related to automatic telephone line identification, and since they significantly predated all other similar patents, they appear as prior art in later United States patents issued to Kazuo Hashimoto and Carolyn A. Doughty. \n\nIn 1971, Paraskevakos, working with Boeing in Huntsville, Alabama, constructed and reduced to practice a transmitter and receiver, representing the world's first prototypes of caller-identification devices. They were installed at Peoples' Telephone Company in Leesburg, Alabama, and were demonstrated to several telephone companies. These original and historic working models are still in the possession of Paraskevakos.\n", "Before this project was completed, men and women with the necessary knowledge, skills, and experience were drawn from Bell Telephone companies in every state in the US, and many Canadian provinces. Much of the responsibility was delegated under close supervision to a vast number of subcontractors, suppliers, and US military units.\n", "Starting with the integration of faxing devices into computers via Fax modems the automated answering of voice calls by a computer went live via specific software, like e.g. TalkWorks. These systems allowed for quite elaborate voice box systems, navigated via dual-tone multi-frequency signaling, allowing a computer on a (single) telephony line to sound like a professional telephony system with hierarchical fax and message boxes with an automatic call distributor, where a caller might deposit his messages, leave his faxes behind, might listen to specific messages, or start a fax-back service.\n", "Typical CT2 users were sold a handset and base station which they could connect to their own home telephone system. Calls via the home base station would be routed via the home telephone line and in this configuration the system was identical to a standard cordless phone, for both incoming and outgoing calls.\n", "BULLET::::- 3 April 1973: Motorola employee Martin Cooper placed the first hand-held cell phone call to Joel Engel, head of research at AT&T's Bell Labs, while talking on the first Motorola DynaTAC prototype.\n\nBULLET::::- 1973: packet switched voice connections over ARPANET with Network Voice Protocol (NVP).\n\nBULLET::::- 1976: Kazuo Hashimoto invented Caller ID\n\nBULLET::::- 1978: Bell Labs launched a trial of the first commercial cellular network in Chicago using Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS).\n\nBULLET::::- 1978: World's first NMT phone call in Tampere, Finland.\n\nBULLET::::- 1979: VoIP – NVP running on top of early versions of IP\n", "On January 25, 1915, Alexander Graham Bell ceremonially sent the first transcontinental telephone call from 15 Dey Street in New York City, which was received by his former assistant Thomas A. Watson at 333 Grant Avenue in San Francisco. This process, nevertheless, involved five intermediary telephone operators and took 23 minutes to connect by manually \"patching in\" the route of the call.\n", "BULLET::::- In the famous opening credits to the 1960's T.V. satire comedy \"Get Smart\", Maxwell Smart (played by comedian Don Adams), a Bond-like secret agent a.k.a Agent 86, would go through a corridor, armed with steel doors which would close after his passage, to an American style phone booth in which he would enter, close its door, dial a special number on the rotary dial and, after hanging up, would get lowered into CONTROL's secret offices.\n", "In the UK in 2000 it was claimed that recordings of mobile phone conversations made on the day of the Omagh bombing were crucial to the police investigation. In particular, calls made on two mobile phones which were tracked from south of the Irish border to Omagh and back on the day of the bombing, were considered of vital importance.\n", "BULLET::::- October 13 David D. Meilahn made the first-ever commercial cell phone call from his 1983 Mercedes-Benz 380SL at Soldier Field on a Motorola DynaTAC. This is considered a major turning point in communications. The call was to Bob Barnett, the former president of Ameritech Mobile Communications, who then placed a call on a DynaTAC from inside of a Chrysler convertible to the grandson of Alexander Graham Bell who was in Germany.\n\nBULLET::::- The stadium was listed on the National Register of Historic Places beginning in 1984. Its National Historic Landmark status was removed in 2006.\n", "In May 1976, Kazuo Hashimoto, a prolific Japanese inventor with over one thousand patents worldwide, first built a prototype of a caller ID display device that could receive caller ID information. His work on caller ID devices and early prototypes was received in the Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of American History in 2000. U.S. patent 4,242,539, filed originally on May 8, 1976, and a resulting patent re-examined at the patent office by AT&T, was successfully licensed to most of the major telecommunications and computer companies in the world.\n", "The base station would signal the five digit sequence; any and all radios tuned to that base station would detect the sequence and compare it with their own; if it matched, the unit would signal its user with a bell or buzzer, and the user could then answer and announce the identity of their unit, similar to how a voice-call user would respond.\n", "Early telephones were locally powered, using either a dynamic transmitter or by the powering of a transmitter with a local battery. One of the jobs of outside plant personnel was to visit each telephone periodically to inspect the battery. During the 20th century, telephones powered from the telephone exchange over the same wires that carried the voice signals became common.\n", "The final document created by CSOBS was the Universal Service Order that was distributed by teletypewriters to many departments within telephone companies. CSOBS documented the customer name, address, type of service ordered, dates for disconnect or installation, telephone numbers, wiring points, plug-in equipment, and many more details. Many of these items were assigned a Universal Service Order Code or USOC that is still in use today in the United States. See the \"Bell System Technical Journal\" published during the early 1970s for more information.\n", "Mass call events can also be caused by planned events. In 1982, Eddie Murphy's Larry the Lobster shtick on Saturday Night Live resulted in record call volume, as Murphy held a live lobster and declared that the show's audience would determine whether he lived or died via telephone calls. The gathering in Washington, D.C. for the 2009 U.S. Presidential Inauguration of Barack Obama also created a MCE. In this case, network overload was avoided by deploying multiple cell-on-wheels (CoW) units with their own wireless backhauls. This was a particularly major situation for cell carriers because many attendees wanted to be live on the phone (via voice call or video chat) with others who could not attend the ceremony, further increasing network usage.\n", "AT&T provided phone service for both The Greenbrier Hotel and the bunker. All calls placed from the bunker were routed through the hotel's switchboard to make it appear as if they originated from the hotel. The communications center in the bunker today contains representatives of three generations of telephone technology that were used.\n", "Initially, communications between posts and controls were made using former Army-issue head-and-breast communication sets via above-ground telephone lines, these being manually switched by telephone engineers prior to use. Army head-and-breast sets were replaced in 1964 by metal housed \"Teletalk\" units which only permitted one-way communications when the push-to-talk switch was depressed. The Teletalk units also used manually switched telephone lines, but with integral transistorisation to boost transmission and reception power. In 1981 a new design of Teletalk (AD8010) was introduced by British Telecom together with underground, permanently wired, landline connections that were hardened against the effects of electromagnetic pulse (EMP) from nuclear bursts.\n", "Early voice loggers recorded POTS lines onto analog magnetic tape. As telephony became more digital, so did voice loggers, and starting in the 1990s, voice loggers digitized the audio using a codec and recorded to digital tape. With modern VoIP systems, many voice loggers now simply store calls to a file on a hard drive.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Recordings of prank phone calls became a staple of the obscure and amusing cassette tapes traded among musicians, sound engineers, and media traders in the United States from the late 1970s. Among the most famous and earliest recorded prank calls are the Tube Bar prank calls tapes, which centered on Louis \"Red\" Deutsch. Comedian Jerry Lewis was an incorrigible phone prankster, and recordings of his hijinks, dating from the 1960s and possibly earlier, still circulate to this day.\n", "KEK had four long wave receivers. Two for ship work and two for shortwave reception. Three of four signals from Federal's San Francisco operating room (KFS transmitter in Palo Alto, California) were picked up simultaneously by KEK and passed down to the main office in Portland where the operating room was located. The signals came in on a long wavelength automatically and were received on a paper tape. Operators then transcribed the signals from the tape directly on telegraph blank cards, ready for delivery at a speed of 40 to 80 words per minute over KGH. \n", "The usual seven-digit US telephone number consists of a three-digit office code and a four-digit line number within the given office. After a caller in a panel office dialed the office code, the sender looked up the type of the called office (panel, manual, etc.), and whether PCI was to be used. Then the sender found a trunk to the called office. Once a trunk had been found and the decision to use PCI had been made, the sender outpulsed the digits to the manual office where they were displayed for the operator.\n", "A controversially suppressed article \"How to Build a 'Phone Phreaks' box\" in Ramparts Magazine (June, 1972) touched off a firestorm of interest in phreaking. This article published simple schematic plans of a \"black box\" used to make free long-distance phone calls, and included a very short parts list that could be used to construct one. Bell sued Ramparts, forcing the magazine to pull all copies from shelves, but not before numerous copies were sold and many regular subscribers received them.\n\nSection::::History.:Computer hacking.\n", "BULLET::::- 1979 (Summer): Member of Technical Staff, Bell Telephone Laboratories, Naperville, Illinois. Computer-to-computer file transfer and micro-code distribution to remote switching systems.\n\nBULLET::::- 1977 (Summer): Assistant to the Director of Planning and Research, Oberlin College, Oberlin, Ohio. Developed institutional planning database.\n\nSection::::Awards and honors.\n", "The register then checked the connection to the subscriber and sent dial tone. Normally, the whole process took about one-fifth of a second, less than the time required for the subscriber to lift the handset to his ear. The MCU, having completed its immediate tasks for this call, was free to deal with other demands. It retained a record of the calling equipment number against the identity of the register and notes the stage, which had been reached in the progress of the call.\n", "BULLET::::- U.S. Patent #4,296,282 was granted to Joseph T. O'Neil, Thomas M. Quinn and Tse Lin Wang for \"Incoming Call Identification Arrangement\", more commonly known as \"Caller ID\"\n\nBULLET::::- Born: Nemanja Vidić, Serbian footballer, in Titovo Uzice.\n\nBULLET::::- Born: Edward Tombs, Cheeky Monkey, in England.\n\nSection::::October 22, 1981 (Thursday).\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-14957	Why are jeans traditionally blue?!	Jean denim is dyed with an indigo dye, which appears as the standard blue we see on most jeans. The reason this dye was used was due to its chemical properties. Most dyes permeate fabric in hot temperatures making the dye stick, however the traditional indigo dye would only dye the outside of threads. As this denim gets washed, the dye would partially wear off, creating that 'jean' feel of white/blue. This softness made blue jeans manufacturers main choice, especially as demand for blue jeans skyrocketed	[ "The term jeans appears first in 1795, when a Swiss banker by the name Jean-Gabriel Eynard and his brother Jacques went to Genoa and both were soon heading a flourishing commercial concern. In 1800 Massena's troops entered the town and Jean-Gabriel was entrusted with their supply. In particular he furnished them with uniforms cut from blue cloth called \"bleu de Genes\" whence later derives the famous garment known worldwide as \"blue jeans\".\n", "In 1873, a German immigrant in San Francisco, Levi Strauss, invented a sturdy kind of work trousers, made of denim fabric and coloured with indigo dye, called blue jeans. In 1935, they were raised to the level of high fashion by \"Vogue\" magazine. Beginning in the 1950s, they became an essential part of uniform of young people in the United States, Europe, and around the world.\n", "Davis and Strauss experimented with different fabrics. An early attempt was brown cotton duck, a bottom-weight fabric. Finding denim a more suitable material for work-pants, they began using it to manufacture their riveted pants. The denim used was produced by an American manufacturer. Popular legend incorrectly states that it was imported from Nimes, France. A popular myth is that Strauss initially sold brown canvas pants to miners, later dyed them blue, turned to using denim, and only after Davis wrote to him, added rivets.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Fabric.\n", "BULLET::::- Blue is also associated with labour and the working class. It is the common colour of overalls blue jeans and other working costumes. In the United States \"blue collar\" workers refers to those who, in either skilled or unskilled jobs, work with their hands and do not wear business suits (\"white collar\" workers).\n", "Blue jeans were popularized as work clothes in the 1850s by merchant Levi Strauss, a German-Jewish immigrant in San Francisco, and adopted by many American teenagers a century later. They are worn in every state by people of all ages and social classes. Along with mass-marketed informal wear in general, blue jeans are arguably one of US culture's primary contributions to global fashion.\n\nThough informal dress is more common, certain professionals, such as bankers and lawyers, traditionally dress formally for work, and some occasions, such as weddings, funerals, dances, and some parties, typically call for formal wear.\n\nSection::::Sports.\n", "The most common denim is indigo denim, in which the warp thread is dyed, while the weft thread is left white. As a result of the warp-faced twill weaving, one side of the textile is dominated by the blue warp threads and the other side is dominated by the white weft threads. This causes blue jeans to be white on the inside. The indigo dyeing process, in which the core of the warp threads remains white, creates denim's signature fading characteristics.\n\nSection::::Etymology and origin.\n\nThe name \"denim\" derives .\n", "Denim was traditionally colored blue with indigo dye to make blue jeans, although \"jean\" formerly denoted a different lighter, cotton fabric. The contemporary use of the word \"jeans\" comes from the French word for Genoa, Italy: Gênes. \n", "Blue jeans were popularized as work clothes in the 1850s by Levi Strauss, an American merchant of German origin in San Francisco, and were adopted by many American teenagers a century later. They are now widely worn on every continent by people of all ages and social classes. Along with mass-marketed informal wear in general, blue jeans are perhaps American culture's primary contribution to global fashion. Other fashion trends started in the US include sports wear as fashion along with athletic shoe wear like Converse or Nike. Athleisure was also popularized in the US around 2012, and as of 2017 the trend has all but dominated the US market. Athleisure has dominated the US market because of its ability to fill a gap in the market, as clothing wasn't usually both comfortable, stylish, and functional. \n", "Examples of intentional denim distressing strictly to make them more fashionable can be seen as early as 1935 in Vogue's June issue. Michael Belluomo, editor of \"Sportswear International Magazine\", Oct/Nov 1987, P. 45, wrote that in 1965, Limbo, a boutique in the New York East Village, was \"the first retailer to wash a new pair of jeans to get a used, worn effect, and the idea became a hit.\" He continued, \"[Limbo] hired East Village artists to embellish the jeans with patches, decals, and other touches, and sold them for $200.\" In the early 1980s the denim industry introduced the stone-washing technique developed by GWG also known as \"Great Western Garment Co.\" Donald Freeland of Edmonton, Alberta pioneered the method, which helped to bring denim to a larger and more versatile market. Acceptance of jeans continued through the 1980s and 1990s. Originally an esoteric fashion choice, in the 2010s jeans may be seen being worn by men and women of all ages. \n", "Jeans are a type of pants or trousers, typically made from denim or dungaree cloth. Often the term \"jeans\" refers to a particular style of trousers, called \"blue jeans\", which were invented by Jacob W. Davis in partnership with Levi Strauss & Co. in 1871 and patented by Jacob W. Davis and Levi Strauss on May 20, 1873. Prior to the Levi Strauss patented trousers, the term \"blue jeans\" had been long in use for various garments (including trousers, overalls, and coats), constructed from blue-colored denim. \"Jean\" also references a (historic) type of sturdy cloth commonly made with a cotton warp and wool weft (also known as \"Virginia cloth\"). Jean cloth can be entirely cotton as well, similar to denim. Originally designed for cowboys and miners, modern jeans became popular in the 1950s among teenagers, especially members of the greaser subculture. Jeans were a common fashion item in the 1960s hippie subculture and they continued to be popular in the 1970s and 1980s youth subcultures of punk rock and heavy metal. Nowadays, they are one of the most popular types of trousers, especially in Western culture. Historic brands include Levi's, Lee, and Wrangler.\n", "Section::::Manufacturing processes.\n\nSection::::Manufacturing processes.:Dyeing.\n\nTraditionally, jeans were dyed to a blue color using natural indigo dye. Most denim is now dyed using synthetic indigo. Approximately 20 thousand tons of indigo are produced annually for this purpose, though only a few grams of the dye are required for each pair. For other colors of denim other dyes must be used. Currently, jeans are produced in any color that can be achieved with cotton.\n\nFor more information on dyeing, refer to denim and the discussion there of using pigment dyes.\n\nSection::::Manufacturing processes.:Pre-shrinking.\n", "Through the decades of the past century, the cultural meaning of blue jeans has changed. For example, the 1930s were the times of western films, propelling the character of the American cowboy and their Wrangler jeans into the public limelight. The 1940s resulted in jeans being introduced to the world based on the start of globalization and World War II. In the 1950s, denim became a popular garment that symbolized rebellion, such as in James Dean’s movie Rebel Without a Cause. During this time, some public schools in the United States banned students from wearing blue jeans.\n", "Blue jeans were popularized as work clothes in the 1850s by merchant Levi Strauss, a Jewish-German immigrant in San Francisco, and adopted by many American teenagers a century later. They are now widely worn on every continent by people of all ages and social classes. Along with mass-marketed informal wear in general, blue jeans are arguably U.S. culture's primary contribution to global fashion. The country is also home to the headquarters of many leading designer labels such as Ralph Lauren and Calvin Klein. Labels such as Abercrombie & Fitch and Eckō Unltd. cater to various niche markets.\n\nSection::::Education.\n", "Blue denim jeans have become a product of excorporation. Levi Strauss was the founder of the garment. Strauss was a German Immigrant who immigrated to San Francisco during the California Gold Rush in 1853. He coined the blue denim jean due to a need from prospectors in the area for strong work pants in the mines. The material was used because it did not cause chafing, unlike the typical canvas pants that were worn during the time by workers.\n", "Section::::Possible sequel.\n", "Jeans are trousers generally made from denim. Jeans became popular among teenagers starting in the 1950s which remains as a distinct icon of American fashion. In 1873, Levi Strauss and Jacob Davis co-invented and co-patented the idea of using copper rivets at the stress points of sturdy work pants. After one of Davis' customers kept purchasing cloth to reinforce torn pants, he had an idea to use copper rivets to reinforce the points of strain, such as on the pocket corners and at the top of the button fly. Davis did not have the required money to purchase a patent, so he wrote to Strauss suggesting that they both go into business together. Early Levis, called \"waist overalls\", came in a brown canvas duck fabric and a heavy blue denim fabric. His business became extremely successful, revolutionizing the apparel industry.\n", "The 1960s and the 1970s were the start of crafting jeans for individual taste, based on the fashion and social movements at the time. Examples of these include embroidered jeans, painted jeans, and psychedelic jeans. John Fiske describes this as “the raggedness is the production of the choice of the user; it is an excorporation of the commodity into a subordinates subculture and a transfer of at least some of the power inherent in the commoditization process.” In the 1980s jeans became designer fashion, labels such as Guess jeans. More recently, the focus on personalization of jeans includes finish, styles, cuts, shapes, aged, authentic, and vintage jeans. John Fiske is quoted as saying “the wearer of torn jeans is, after all, wearing jeans and not, for instance the Buddhist derived robes of the orange people.\"\n", "Ian Said “Admittedly at the beginning I often used parts like the pockets and seams to kind of say, 'Hey look, it's denim,' but now I use all those parts in a way to not show it's denim. Sometimes, this has been too successful though. [It’s] maybe a compliment when people mistake it for a photo-realistic painting, but often people don’t get to the ‘aha!’ factor when the penny drops—it's denim!\"\n", "After James Dean popularized them in the movie \"Rebel Without a Cause\", wearing jeans became a symbol of youth rebellion during the 1950s. During the 1960s the wearing of jeans became more acceptable, and by the 1970s it had become general fashion in the United States for casual wear. However, the acceptance of jean to becoming casual wear is still relatively low in Japan.\n", "He started to think of his relationship with denim and remembered a time when he was 14 and had to wear chords at a family party, and when he got there everyone was wearing jeans and even now, its the only material he feel really comfortable wearing and so it became the only medium he felt comfortable using.\n\nSection::::Denim, The Material of Our Time.\n", "Old Blue\n\nOld Blue may refer to:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Old Blue\", an alumnus of Christ's Hospital\n\nBULLET::::- \"Old Blue\", an alumnus of the University of California, Berkeley\n\nBULLET::::- Old Blue (song), an old folk song, from which many variations have arisen\n\nBULLET::::- Old Blue (rugby club), a Rugby Super League (US) team based in New York City\n\nBULLET::::- The type of British passport issued before 1993\n\nBULLET::::- Old Blue (Black robin), the last remaining fertile female that saved the black robin from extinction\n\nBULLET::::- A conservation award given by Forest and Bird named after the black robin\n", "In 2013 Luxxotica launched a new Ray Ban Wayfarer, all made in denim and worked with Ian Berry. At a launch party in New York Blondie performed and as part of the show a portrait of its leading lady, Debbie Harry was unveiled. Ian wanted to do the commission as Debbie Harry was a big part of the CBGB bands down the Bowery in the 70's. It was this group of bands that changed the history of music, but also denim. Debbie harry was also one of the first to be seen to wear double denim The portrait got rave reviews and reactions from the media on the opening night.\n", "Section::::Trends.:Market-share shift to activewear.\n", "Section::::History.:Growth in popularity (1910s–1960s).\n\nModern jeans began to appear in the 1920s, but sales were largely confined to the working people of the western United States, such as cowboys, lumberjacks, and railroad workers. Levi's jeans apparently were first introduced to the East during the dude ranch craze of the 1930s, when vacationing Easterners returned home with tales (and usually examples) of the hard-wearing pants with rivets. Another boost came in World War II, when blue jeans were declared an essential commodity and were sold only to people engaged in defense work.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01603	How did the classic 5 point star come to be since actual stars aren’t that shape?	Stars appear to twinkle, having multiple points emerging out from a center. The class of polygons with such features are named "stars" for the similarity. The five pointed star is just one such example of this type of shape.	[ "The original Moravian star as manufactured in Herrnhut since 1897 exists only in a 25-point form, composed of eighteen square and seven triangular cone-shaped points. The 26th point is missing and used for mounting. This shape is technically known as an augmented rhombicuboctahedron. Each face of the geometric solid in the middle, the rhombicuboctahedron, serves as the base for one of the pyramid augmentations or starburst points. This is the most commonly seen and most widely available form of Christmas star. \n", "Other forms of Christmas stars exist, but are not to be confused with the original Herrnhut Moravian star. No matter how many points a star has, it has a symmetrical shape based on polyhedra. There are other stars with 20, 32, 50, 62 and 110 points that are commonly hand-made. The variety comes from various ways of forming the polyhedron that provides a base for the points—using an octagonal face instead of a square face, for example. The common original Herrnhut Moravian star becomes a 50-point star when the squares and triangles that normally make up the faces of the polyhedron become octagons and hexagons. This leaves a 4-sided trapezoidal hole in the corners of the faces which is then filled with an irregular four sided point. These 4-sided points form a \"starburst\" in the midst of an otherwise regular 26-point star.\n", "The American flag shown in the painting \"Surrender of Lord Cornwallis\" by John Trumbull (c. 1820, depicting an event of 1781) shows twelve stars arranged along the outline of a rectangle with an additional star in the center.\n\nFive-pointed stars became more frequently used in the 19th century.\n\nThe coat of arms of Valais, adopted for the Rhodanic Republic (1802), was designed with twelve five-pointed stars.\n\nThe flag of Chile, introduced in 1817, has a single five-pointed star known as \"La Estrella Solitaria\" (The Lone Star). The similar flag of Texas was introduced in 1839.\n", "The use of \"star\" for theatrical lead performers dates to 1824, giving rise to the concept of \"stardom\" in the film industry. The Hollywood Walk of Fame, where famous entertainers are honored with pink terrazzo five-pointed stars along Hollywood Boulevard, was introduced in 1958.\n", "Alpha Ursae Minoris (Polaris) was described as ἀειφανής \"always visible\" by Stobaeus in the 5th century, when it was still removed from the celestial pole by about 8°. It was known as \"scip-steorra\" (\"ship-star\") in 10th-century Anglo-Saxon England, reflecting its use in navigation. In the Hindu Puranas, it is personified under the name \"Dhruva\" (\"immovable, fixed\").\n\nIn the medieval period, Polaris was also known as \"stella maris\" \"star of the sea\" (from its use for navigation at sea), as in e.g. Bartholomeus Anglicus (d. 1272), in the translation of John Trevisa (1397): \n", "BULLET::::- The star with six (or less commonly five, sometimes seven) points is associated with law enforcement in the United States, and forms the basis of the sheriff's badge.\n\nSection::::Five-pointed stars.\n\nThe five-pointed star, if drawn with points of equal length and angles of 36° at each point, is sometimes termed a golden five pointed star. If the colinear edges are joined together, a pentagram is produced, which is the simplest of the unicursal star polygons, and a symbol of mystical and magical significance.\n", "Five-pointed star\n\nA five-pointed star (☆), geometrically a regular concave decagon, is a common ideogram in modern culture.\n\nComparatively rare in classical heraldry, it was notably introduced for the flag of the United States in the Flag Act of 1777 and since has become widely used in flags.\n\nIt has also become a symbol of fame or \"stardom\" in Western culture, among other uses.\n\nIf the collinear edges are joined together a pentagram is produced.\n\nSection::::History of use.\n\nSection::::History of use.:Early history.\n", "The French astronomer Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille first described the constellation in French as \"l'Atelier du Sculpteur\" (the sculptor's studio) in 1751–52, depicting a three-legged table with a carved head on it, and an artist's mallet and two chisels on a block of marble alongside it. De Lacaille had observed and catalogued almost 10,000 southern stars during a two-year stay at the Cape of Good Hope, devising fourteen new constellations in uncharted regions of the Southern Celestial Hemisphere not visible from Europe. He named all but one in honour of instruments that symbolised the Age of Enlightenment.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.\n", "The first Moravian star is known to have originated in the 1830s at the Moravian Boys' School in Niesky, Germany, most probably as a geometry lesson or project. The first mention is of a 110-point star for the 50th anniversary of the \"Paedagogium\" (classical school for boys) in Niesky. Around 1880, Peter Verbeek, an alumnus of the school, began making the stars and their instructions available for sale through his bookstore. His son Harry went on to found the Herrnhut Star Factory, which was the main source of stars until World War I. Although heavily damaged at the end of World War II, the Star Factory resumed manufacturing them. Briefly taken over by the East Germany government in the 1950s, the factory was returned to the Moravian Church-owned Abraham Dürninger Company, which continues to make the stars in Herrnhut. Other star-making companies and groups have sprung up since then. Some Moravian congregations have congregation members who build and sell the stars as fund raisers.\n", "The term \"mullet\" or \"molet\" refers to a star with straight sides, typically having five or six points, \n\nbut may have any number of points specified in the blazon. If the number of points is not specified, five points are presumed in Gallo-British heraldry, and six points are presumed in German-Nordic heraldry.\n\nUnlike estoiles, mullets have straight (rather than wavy) rays and may have originally represented the rowel of a spur, rather than a celestial star. \n", "Section::::Relation to the pentagram.\n\nAs a symbol or emblem, the five-pointed star, or \"mullet of five points\", arises from classical heraldry, and it shares none of the esoteric or occult associations given to the pentagram, or \"Seal of Solomon\", since at least the Renaissance period.\n\nThe two emblems are frequently associated, or identified, in contemporary conspiracy theories, especially referencing the use of five-pointed stars in the flags of the United States and European Union.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Pentagram\n\nBULLET::::- Star (polygon)\n\nBULLET::::- Mullet (heraldry)\n\nBULLET::::- Star (glyph)\n\nBULLET::::- Star polygons in art and culture\n\nBULLET::::- Sea star\n", " Sopdet, the Egyptian personification of the star Sirius, is always shown with the five-pointed star hieroglyph on her head.\n\nThe star (or \"mullet\") is comparatively rare in medieval heraldry, but from an early time, the five-pointed star was preferred in English and Scottish heraldry (e.g. in the Dering Roll, c. 1270), while the preferred number of points in German heraldry was six.\n\nThe star in the coat of arms of the De Vere family was in legend attributed to the First Crusade, when \n\n\"a white star [...] did light and arrest upon the standard of Aubre de Vere\".\n", "BULLET::::- The Great Seal of the United States contains a six-pointed star made up of 13 stars (representing the original 13 colonies).\n\nBULLET::::- The municipal flag of Chicago has four six-pointed stars.\n\nBULLET::::- German and German-American hex signs and barn stars often incorporate both five- and six-pointed stars as central themes.\n\nBULLET::::- The six-pointed star is used as the symbol for the Folk Nation alliance of gangs from Chicago. Crip gang members tend to use this symbol also.\n", "The constellation was known by other names. It was called \"Tubus Astronomicus\" in the eighteenth century, during which time three constellations depicting telescopes were recognised—Tubus Herschelii Major between Gemini and Auriga and Tubus Herschelii Minor between Taurus and Orion, both of which had fallen out of use by the nineteenth century. Johann Bode called it the \"Astronomische Fernrohr\" in his 1805 \"Gestirne\" and kept its size, but later astronomers Francis Baily and Benjamin Gould subsequently shrank its boundaries. The much-reduced constellation lost several brighter stars to neighbouring constellations: Beta Telescopii became Eta Sagittarii, which it had been before Lacaille placed it in Telescopium, Gamma was placed in Scorpius and renamed G Scorpii by Gould, Theta Telescopii reverted to its old appellation of d Ophiuchi, and Sigma Telescopii was placed in Corona Australis. Initially uncatalogued, the latter is now known as HR 6875. The original object Lacaille had named Eta Telescopii—the open cluster Messier 7—was in what is now Scorpius, and Gould used the Bayer designation for a magnitude 5 star, which he felt warranted a letter.\n", "Apart from the foresaid mentions, six-pointed star formations are rare as an ideograph in Western cultures except in the case of law enforcement badges. In astrology, some formations of a six-pointed star can signify fixed stars. In some rare instances, it can signify the date of birth on a gravestone, synonymous with the five-point star.\n\nSection::::Seven-pointed stars.\n\nSection::::Seven-pointed stars.:Political.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "The five-pointed star is a symbol of the Serer religion and the Serer people of West Africa. Called \"Yoonir\" in their language, it symbolizes the universe in the Serer creation myth, and also represents the star Sirius.\n\nSection::::History.:Other religious use.:Druze.\n\nA multicolored version is used as symbol of the Druze religion.\n\nSection::::History.:Other modern use.\n\nBULLET::::- The pentagram is featured on the national flags of Morocco (adopted 1915) and Ethiopia (adopted 1996 and readopted 2009)\n", "A seven-pointed star appears in the flag and heraldic symbolism of Australia. In the Australian context, the seven points (also known as the Commonwealth Star, the Federation Star, the Seven Point Star, or the Star of Federation) is a seven-pointed star symbolising the Federation of Australia which came into force on 1 January 1901. Six points of the Star represent the six original states of the Commonwealth of Australia, while the seventh point represents the territories.\n\nThe seven-pointed stars stand in contrast to the vexillologically more conventional five-pointed stars.\n", "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints began using both upright and inverted five-pointed stars in Temple architecture, dating from the Nauvoo Illinois Temple dedicated on 30 April 1846. Other temples decorated with five-pointed stars in both orientations include the Salt Lake Temple and the Logan Utah Temple. These usages come from the symbolism found in Revelation chapter 12: \"And there appeared a great wonder in heaven; a woman clothed with the sun, and the moon under her feet, and upon her head a crown of twelve stars.\"\n\nSection::::History.:Use in new religious movements.:Wicca.\n", "the official record from 1673 gives Murray of Ochtertyre \"azur three Starrs argent ...\" (Public Register, vol 1 p 188), while the Ordinary of Arms produced by a late 19th century Lyon King of Arms 'modernizes' the original as \"Az. three mullets arg. ...\". In Canadian heraldry the usual term is \"mullet\", but there is also the occasional six-pointed \"star\" (e.g. in Vol. IV, at p. 274 and in online version of the Canadian Public Register), which is what others would blazon as a six-pointed \"mullet\". The United States Army Institute of Heraldry, the official heraldic authority in the United States, uses the term \"mullet\" in its blazons, but elsewhere, as in US government documents describing the flag of the United States and the Great Seal of the United States, the term \"star\" is constantly used, and these nearly always appear with five straight-sided points.\n", "Caelum was first introduced in the eighteenth century by Nicolas Louis de Lacaille, a French astronomer who introduced thirteen other southern constellations at the same time.\n\nLacaille gave the constellation the French name \"Burin\", which was originally Latinized to \"Caelum Scalptorium\" (“\"The Engravers’ Chisel\"”).\n", "Starshot (target)\n\nStarshot is a huge \"half-circle target\" that was designed as a new way to enjoy clay target skeet shooting. Invented in Scotland in the 1980s, the structure stands almost 30 feet high and is divided into 12 scoring segments. Clay targets are released on command and the shooter's score is valued according to the zone in which the target is broken. Some Mobile units were made to be towed behind a vehicle and sold in the UK.\n", "The star and crescent used by the Ottoman Empire was shown with an eight-pointed stars in early forms (18th century), but was changed to a five-pointed star in the official flag in 1844.\n\nNumerous other national or regional flags adopted five-pointed star designs in the later 19th to early 20th century, including Venezuela (1859), Honduras (1866), Philippines (1898), Cuba (1902), Panama (1925) and Jordan (1928). The Flag of Minnesota and 1901 Maine Flag both utilized the 5-pointed design.\n\nThe five-pointed star also came to be widely used in military badges in the 19th century. \n", "Coincidentally, the Chinese also associated these stars with battle armor, incorporating them into the larger asterism known as \"Tien Pien\", i.e., the Heavenly Casque (or Helmet).\n\nSection::::Features.\n\nSection::::Features.:Stars.\n", "Originally, the five-pointed star (pentangle), forming a pentagram within it, represented the ten tribes of Israel that broke away from the ruling class of Judah, Benjamin, and the Priests. There are ten \"Vav\" or \"man\" that form the five points. A circle was also added around the Israelite Star because it was the letter \"Samek\" meaning, \"death\". Today's modern Pagans tend to use all three symbols, rather than making any distinction.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-19915	How do WiFi signals get transmitted and received by that specific device?	Every network device have a unique MAC address designated to it. Each transmission includes the MAC address of the sending device and the receiving device. If the receiving MAC address does not match the MAC address of the device it is ignored. You can get software that can, depending on the network interface, sniff all data and display it to you. If you are using encryption the data is also encrypted with a unique key for each device so that anyone else would just get encrypted traffic.	[ "After this communication of the device capabilities from both ends, the user initiates the actual protocol session. The session consists of eight messages that are followed, in the case of a successful session, by a message to indicate that the protocol is completed. The exact stream of messages may change when configuring different kinds of devices (AP or STA), or when using different physical media (wired or wireless).\n\nSection::::Band or radio selection.\n", "A typical Wi-Fi home network includes laptops, tablets and phones, devices like modern printers, music devices and televisions. The majority of Wi-Fi networks are set up in \"infrastructure mode\", where the access point acts as a central hub to which Wi-Fi capable devices are connected. The devices do not communicate directly with each other (that is, in \"\"ad-hoc\" mode\"), but they go through the access point. Wi-Fi Direct devices are able to communicate with each other without requiring a dedicated wireless access point. The Wi-Fi Direct devices negotiate when they first connect to determine which device shall act as an access point.\n", "A service set is the set of all the devices associated with a particular Wi-Fi network. The service set can be local, independent, extended or mesh.\n\nEach service set has an associated identifier, the 32-byte Service Set Identifier (SSID), which identifies the particular network. The SSID is configured within the devices that are considered part of the network, and it is transmitted in the packets. Receivers ignore wireless packets from networks with a different SSID.\n", "The WPS protocol consists of a series of EAP message exchanges that are triggered by a user action, relying on an exchange of descriptive information that should precede that user's action. The descriptive information is transferred through a new Information Element (IE) that is added to the beacon, probe response, and optionally to the probe request and association request/response messages. Other than purely informative type-length-values, those IEs will also hold the possible and the currently deployed configuration methods of the device.\n", "Channels can be established between a pair of Devices (inter-Device communication), or between one Device and many Devices (broadcast communication), or in the case of the Message Channel, from all devices to all other devices (shared).\n\nSection::::Channels.:Control Channels.\n\nControl Space is divided into three types of channels: Framing, Guide, and Message.\n", "An Extended Service Set may be formed by deploying multiple access points that are configured with the same SSID and security settings. Wi-Fi client devices will typically connect to the access point that can provide the strongest signal within that service set.\n\nSection::::Network security.\n", "The Miracast standard for the wireless connection of devices to displays is based on Wi-Fi direct.\n\nSection::::Technical description.\n\nWi-Fi Direct essentially embeds a software access point (\"Soft AP\"), into any device that must support Direct. The soft AP provides a version of Wi-Fi Protected Setup with its push-button or PIN-based setup.\n\nWhen a device enters the range of the Wi-Fi Direct host, it can connect to it, and then gather setup information using a Protected Setup-style transfer. Connection and setup is so simplified that it may replace Bluetooth in some situations.\n", "Wi-Fi\n\nWi-Fi () is a family of radio technologies that is commonly used for the wireless local area networking (WLAN) of devices which is based around the IEEE 802.11 family of standards. \"WiFi\" is a trademark of the Wi-Fi Alliance, which restricts the use of the term \"Wi-Fi Certified\" to products that successfully complete interoperability certification testing. Wi-Fi uses multiple parts of the IEEE 802 protocol family and is designed to seamlessly interwork with its wired sister protocol Ethernet.\n", "Many devices can share the same bus. Each device on the bus has a unique 64-bit serial number. The least significant byte of the serial number is an 8-bit number that tells the type of the device. The most significant byte is a standard (for the 1-wire bus) 8-bit CRC.\n\nThere are several standard broadcast commands, as well as commands used to address a particular device. The master can send a selection command, then the address of a particular device. The next command is executed only by the addressed device.\n", "When a device is plugged into the USB bus, the master device, or host, sets up communications with the device and handles service provisioning (the host's software enables or does the needed data-handling such as file managing or other desired kind of data communication or function). That allows the devices to be greatly simplified compared to the host; for example, a mouse contains very little logic and relies on the host to do almost all of the work. The host controls all data transfers over the bus, with the devices capable only of signalling (when polled) that they require attention. To transfer data between two devices, for example from a phone to a printer, the host first reads the data from one device, then writes it to the other.\n", "Wi-Fi Direct negotiates the link with a Wi-Fi Protected Setup system that assigns each device a limited wireless access point. The \"pairing\" of Wi-Fi Direct devices can be set up to require the proximity of a near field communication, a Bluetooth signal, or a button press on one or all the devices.\n\nSection::::Background.\n\nSection::::Background.:Basic Wi-Fi.\n\nConventional Wi-Fi networks are typically based on the presence of controller devices known as wireless access points. These devices normally combine three primary functions:Physical support for wireless and wired networking\n\nBULLET::::- Bridging and routing between devices on the network\n", "During USB communication, data is transmitted as packets. Initially, all packets are sent from the host via the root hub, and possibly more hubs, to devices. Some of those packets direct a device to send some packets in reply.\n", "An integrated circuit (IC) is located either within the printed material or within an enclosure that cradles the printed material. This IC receives a signal when a switch is innervated. The firmware located within the IC communicates via Universal Serial Bus (USB) either connected to a cable, or using a wireless protocol adapter to a reference database that can reside on media within a computer or appliance. Upon receipt of the coordinate structure from the firmware, the database correlates the position with a pre-determined link or pathway to digital content or execution command for an application. After correlating the link with the pathway, a signal is sent to retrieve and render the terminal of the path.\n", "Devices that can use Wi-Fi technologies include desktops and laptops, smartphones and tablets, smart TVs, printers, digital audio players, digital cameras, cars and drones. Compatible devices can connect to each other over Wi-Fi through a wireless access point as well as to connected Ethernet devices and may use it to access the Internet. Such an access point (or hotspot) has a range of about indoors and a greater range outdoors. Hotspot coverage can be as small as a single room with walls that block radio waves, or as large as many square kilometres achieved by using multiple overlapping access points.\n", "Increasingly in the last few years (particularly ), embedded Wi-Fi modules have become available that incorporate a real-time operating system and provide a simple means of wirelessly enabling any device which has and communicates via a serial port. This allows the design of simple monitoring devices. An example is a portable ECG device monitoring a patient at home. This Wi-Fi-enabled device can communicate via the Internet.\n\nThese Wi-Fi modules are designed by OEMs so that implementers need only minimal Wi-Fi knowledge to provide Wi-Fi connectivity for their products.\n", "Depending on the available information, device discovery may follow different methods. When the network address is known, the IEEE address can be requested using unicast communication. When it is not, petitions are broadcast (the IEEE address being part of the response payload). End devices will simply respond with the requested address while a network coordinator or a router will also send the addresses of all the devices associated with it.\n", "Section::::Hardware.:Embedded systems.\n\nThe security standard, Wi-Fi Protected Setup, allows embedded devices with limited graphical user interface to connect to the Internet with ease. Wi-Fi Protected Setup has 2 configurations: The Push Button configuration and the PIN configuration. These embedded devices are also called The Internet of Things and are low-power, battery-operated embedded systems. A number of Wi-Fi manufacturers design chips and modules for embedded Wi-Fi, such as GainSpan.\n", "Different competitive brands of access points and client network-interfaces can inter-operate at a basic level of service. Products designated as \"Wi-Fi Certified\" by the Wi-Fi Alliance are backward compatible. Unlike mobile phones, any standard Wi-Fi device will work anywhere in the world.\n\nSection::::Hardware.:Access point.\n\nA wireless access point (WAP) connects a group of wireless devices to an adjacent wired LAN. An access point resembles a network hub, relaying data between connected wireless devices in addition to a (usually) single connected wired device, most often an Ethernet hub or switch, allowing wireless devices to communicate with other wired devices.\n\nSection::::Hardware.:Wireless adapter.\n", "Addressing is also part of the application layer. A network node consists of an 802.15.4-conformant radio transceiver and one or more device descriptions (basically collections of attributes which can be polled or set, or which can be monitored through events). The transceiver is the base for addressing, and devices within a node are specified by an \"endpoint identifier\" in the range 1-240.\n\nSection::::Software.:Communication and device discovery.\n", "A WAP gateway sits between mobile devices using the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) and the World Wide Web, passing pages from one to the other much like a proxy. This translates pages into a form suitable for the mobiles, for instance using the Wireless Markup Language (WML). This process is hidden from the phone, so it may access the page in the same way as a browser accesses HTML, using a URL (for example, http://example.com/foo.wml), provided the mobile phone operator has not specifically prevented this. WAP gateway software that encodes and decodes request and response between the smartphones, microbrowser and internet. It decodes the encoded WAP requests from the microbrowser and send the HTTP requests to the internet or to a local application server. It also encodes the WML and HDML data returning from the web for transmission to the microbrowser in the handset.\n", "Once capabilities are exchanged and master/slave determination steps have completed, devices may then open \"logical channels\" or media flows. This is done by simply sending an Open Logical Channel (OLC) message and receiving an acknowledgement message. Upon receipt of the acknowledgement message, an endpoint may then transmit audio or video to the remote endpoint.\n\nSection::::Architecture.:H.323 network signaling.:H.245 call control.:Fast connect.\n\nA typical H.245 exchange looks similar to figure 5:\n", "Section::::Technologies.:Wireless broadband access.:Wireless ISP.\n\nWireless Internet service providers (WISPs) operate independently of mobile phone operators. WISPs typically employ low-cost IEEE 802.11 Wi-Fi radio systems to link up remote locations over great distances (Long-range Wi-Fi), but may use other higher-power radio communications systems as well.\n", "Routers that incorporate a digital subscriber line modem or a cable modem and a Wi-Fi access point, often set up in homes and other buildings, provide Internet access and internetworking to all devices connected to them, wirelessly or via cable.\n", "Section::::Technology.\n\nCell Broadcast allows a text or binary message to be defined and distributed to all mobile terminals connected to a set of cells.\n", "The most common operating system on such embedded devices is Linux. More seldomly, VxWorks is used. The devices are configured over a web user interface served by a light web server software running on the device. It is possible for a computer running a desktop operating system with appropriate software to act as a wireless router. This is commonly referred to as a SoftAP.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04055	Why do some women’s bodies get red after an orgasm?	After sexual release, as the body calms back down, there is a relaxation of the muscles in the walls of blood vessels, allowing a sudden rush of blood back to the skin. This, along with the flood of endorphins, causes the flushing to appear. The most common areas for this to be noticeable is the face and upper chest, though it can happen anywhere.	[ "Bloody show is another indication that the cervix is dilating. Bloody show usually comes along with the mucus plug, and may continue throughout labor, making the mucus tinged pink, red or brown. Fresh, red blood is usually not associated with dilation, but rather serious complications such as placental abruption, or placenta previa. Red blood in small quantities often also follows an exam.\n", "It progresses through three stages:\n\nBULLET::::1. Lochia rubra (or cruenta) is the first discharge, Composed of blood, shreds of fetal membranes, decidua, vernix caseosa, lanugo and membranes. It is red in color because of the large amount of blood it contains. It typically lasts no longer than 3 to 5 days after birth.\n", "After a period of sexual stimulation, the labia minora will become further engorged with blood approximately 30 seconds to 3 minutes before orgasm, causing them to redden further. In women who have had children, the labia majora may also swell significantly during this period, becoming dark red. Continued stimulation can result in an orgasm, and the orgasmic contractions help remove blood trapped in the inner and outer labia, as well as the clitoris and other parts of the vulva, which causes pleasurable orgasmic sensations.\n", "Section::::Hypothesis.:Social conditioning.\n\nFolklore, mythology and literature associate red with fertility, and women are thought to have worn the equivalent of a red lipstick as early as 10,000 B.C. and so sexual receptiveness and red may be a result of social conditioning. However, this social conditioning may have originated for biological and evolutionary reasons, and is simply an extension of our primal instincts. The human genitals, such as the vulva normally have hair that would hide any coloured skin underneath.\n\nSection::::Evidence for and against.\n", "During the female sex flush, pinkish spots develop under the breasts, then spread to the breasts, torso, face, hands, soles of the feet, and possibly over the entire body. Vasocongestion is also responsible for the darkening of the clitoris and the walls of the vagina during sexual arousal. During the male sex flush, the coloration of the skin develops less consistently than in the female, but typically starts with the epigastrium (upper abdomen), spreads across the chest, then continues to the neck, face, forehead, back, and sometimes, shoulders and forearms. The sex flush typically disappears soon after orgasm occurs, but this may take up to two hours or so and, sometimes, intense sweating will occur simultaneously. The flush usually diminishes in reverse of the order in which it appeared.\n", "BULLET::::- Mid-cycle or ovulatory bleeding is thought to result from the sudden drop in estrogen that occurs just before ovulation. This drop in hormones can trigger withdrawal bleeding in the same way that switching from active to placebo birth control pills does. The rise in hormones that occurs after ovulation prevents such mid-cycle spotting from becoming as heavy or long lasting as a typical menstruation. Spotting is more common in longer cycles.\n\nBULLET::::- A woman's vulva may swell just prior to ovulation, especially the side on which ovulation will occur.\n", "During the female sex flush, pinkish spots develop under the breasts, then spread to the breasts, torso, face, hands, soles of the feet, and possibly over the entire body. Vasocongestion is also responsible for the darkening of the clitoris and the walls of the vagina during sexual arousal. During the male sex flush, the coloration of the skin develops less consistently than in the female, but typically starts with the epigastrium (upper abdomen), spreads across the chest, then continues to the neck, face, forehead, back, and sometimes, shoulders and forearms.\n", "Section::::Mating behaviour.\n", "Section::::Physiology.:Human semen.:Appearance and consistency.\n\nSemen is typically translucent with white, grey or even yellowish tint. Blood in the semen can cause a pink or reddish colour, known as \"hematospermia\", and may indicate a medical problem which should be evaluated by a doctor if the symptom persists.\n", "Most unusual bleeding or irregular bleeding (metrorrhagia) in premenopausal women is caused by changes in the hormonal balance of the body. These changes are not pathological. Exceptionally heavy bleeding during menstruation is termed \"menorrhagia\" or \"hypermenorrhea\", while light bleeding is called \"hypomenorrhea\". Women on hormonal contraceptives can experience breakthrough bleeding and/or withdrawal bleeding. Withdrawal bleeding occurs when a hormonal contraceptive or other hormonal intake is discontinued.\n", "Several small studies have found that fertile women appear more attractive to men than women during infertile portions of her menstrual cycle, or women using hormonal contraception. It has also been suggested that a woman's voice may become more attractive to men during this time. Two small studies of monogamous human couples found that women initiated sex significantly more frequently when fertile, but male-initiated sex occurred at a constant rate, without regard to the woman's phase of menstrual cycle. It may be that a woman's awareness of men's courtship signals increases during her highly fertile phase due to an enhanced olfactory awareness of chemicals specifically found in men's body odor.\n", "Analyses of data provided by the post-1998 U.S. Demographic and Health Surveys found no variation in the occurrence of coitus in the menstrual phases (except during menstruation itself). This is contrary to other studies, which have found female sexual desire and extra-pair copulations (EPCs) to increase during the midfollicular to ovulatory phases (that is, the highly fertile phase). These findings of differences in woman-initiated versus man-initiated sex are likely caused by the woman's subconscious awareness of her ovulation cycle (because of hormonal changes causing her to feel increased sexual desire), contrasting with the man's inability to detect ovulation because of its being \"hidden\".\n", "Researchers have investigated the effect of hormonal contraceptive use in women on the frequency of sexual intercourse. Many of these contraceptives mimic a pregnancy state in females by altering hormone levels. Therefore, women who use these contraceptives do not experience the fertile phases of their cycles. In a systematic review, it appeared that the frequency of sexual intercourse was unaffected by contraceptive use in the majority of women. Although artificially created, this adds to the literature documenting the existence of copulation in humans during non-fertile periods.\n\nSection::::Occurrence.:Impact of concealed ovulation.\n", "Continuous female sexual receptivity suggests human sexuality is not solely defined by reproduction; a large part of it revolves around conjugal love and communication between partners. Copulations between partners while the woman is pregnant or in the infertile period of her menstrual cycle do not achieve conception, but do strengthen the bond between these partners. Therefore, the increased frequency of copulations due to concealed ovulation are thought to have played a role in fostering pair bonds in humans.\n", "Masters and Johnson were some of the first researchers to study the sexual response cycle in the early 1960s, based on the observation of 382 women and 312 men. They described a cycle that begins with excitement as blood rushes into the genitals, then reaches a plateau during which they are fully aroused, which leads to orgasm, and finally resolution, in which the blood leaves the genitals.\n", "A plant's entomophilous flowers make a display when fertile to attract pollinating insects, bats, birds or other animals. In the wild, when many species of non-human primate females become fertile, their estrogen level rises, which causes their blood vessels to open up, leading to redness on the skin, especially near the face, chest and genitalia. The color display on some female primates is called sexual swelling. This increase in redness has been shown to attract male counterparts, expressed by their increased activity in sex, self-stimulation, and attention towards the females. Therefore, there are reasons to believe in the existence of evolutionary instincts that associate red with fertility, assuming the animal in question can perceive colour with its eyes.\n", "Chromopertubation\n\nChromopertubation is a method for the study of patency of fallopian tube in suspected infertility in women. It is currently one of the standard procedures in this field.\n\nSection::::Procedure.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Other ovulation symptoms.\n\nWomen may notice other physical symptoms associated with their mittelschmerz, during or near ovulation. The most common sign is the appearance of fertile cervical mucus in the days leading up to ovulation. Cervical mucus is one of the primary signs used by various fertility awareness methods. Other symptoms are sometimes called \"secondary fertility signs\" to distinguish from the three primary signs.\n", "Commonly referred to as the sex flush, vasocongestion (increased blood flow) of the skin can occur during all four phases of the human sexual response cycle. Studies show that the sex flush occurs in approximately 50–75% of females and 25% of males, yet not consistently. The sex flush tends to occur more often under warmer conditions and may not appear at all under lower temperatures.\n", "Several other studies have since investigated the decreased incidence of pre-eclampsia in women who had received blood transfusions from their partner, those with long preceding histories of sex without barrier contraceptives, and in women who had been regularly performing oral sex.\n", "phase of the menstrual cycle, during which false positives can occur, but only if renin is measured as Direct renin concentration (DRC) and not as PRA (220).\n\nBULLET::::- Time of day, recent diet, posture, and length of time in that posture\n\nBULLET::::- State of water intake and hydration\n\nBULLET::::- Salt intake\n\nBULLET::::- Medications - Use of anti-hypertensive drugs, estrogen-containing forms of hormonal contraception, anti-anginals drugs, etc. (basically, most drugs that are active on the heart, blood vessels and/or the kidneys)\n\nBULLET::::- Level of potassium\n\nBULLET::::- Level of creatinine (renal failure can lead to false-positive ARR)\n", "Women's orgasms are preceded by erection of the clitoris and moistening of the opening of the vagina. Some women exhibit a sex flush, a reddening of the skin over much of the body due to increased blood flow to the skin. As a woman nears orgasm, the clitoral glans retracts under the clitoral hood, and the labia minora (inner lips) become darker. As orgasm becomes imminent, the outer third of the vagina tightens and narrows, while overall the vagina lengthens and dilates and also becomes congested from engorged soft tissue.\n", "Orgasms in females can vary widely from woman to woman. The overall sensation is similar to that of the male orgasm. They are commonly associated with an increase in vaginal lubrication, a tightening of the vaginal walls and overall pleasure.\n\nSection::::Resolution phase.\n\nThe resolution phase occurs after orgasm and allows the muscles to relax, blood pressure to drop and the body to slow down from its excited state. The refractory period, which is part of the resolution phase, is the time frame in which usually a man is unable to orgasm again, though women can also experience a refractory period.\n", "BULLET::::3. Under what we may now call the \"Fertiloscopy paradigm\" if the Dye test does not produce a good flow of dye into the pouch of Douglas, or if the mucosa show the characteristic staining patterns associated with damage, then the patient will rarely become pregnant using IUI.\n\nBULLET::::4. Similarly, patients with significant adhesions or endometriosis are unlikely to become pregnant using IUI.\n", "Section::::Stages of physiological arousal during sexual stimulation.\n\nThe physiological responses during sexual stimulation are fairly similar for both men and women and there are four phases.\n\nBULLET::::- During the excitement phase, muscle tension and blood flow increase in and around the sexual organs, heart and respiration increase and blood pressure rises. Men and women experience a \"sex flush\" on the skin of the upper body and face. Typically, a woman's vagina becomes lubricated and her clitoris becomes swollen. A man's penis will become erect.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-16884	Why does a nuclear bomb detonation emit an electromagnetic pulse that destroys electrical systems?	The chain reaction generates a huge amount of electrical current, because many of the fragments of the original atoms are charged. These fragments are moving super fast, and moving charged particles generate a magnetic field. It's only called a pulse because it doesn't last long.	[ "A nuclear electromagnetic pulse is the abrupt pulse of electromagnetic radiation resulting from a nuclear explosion. The resulting rapidly changing electric fields and magnetic fields may couple with electrical/electronic systems to produce damaging current and voltage surges.\n\nThe intense gamma radiation emitted can also ionize the surrounding air, creating a secondary EMP as the atoms of air first lose their electrons and then regain them.\n\nNEMP weapons are designed to maximize such EMP effects as the primary damage mechanism, and some are capable of destroying susceptible electronic equipment over a wide area.\n", "Many nuclear detonations have taken place using [[aerial bomb]]s. The [[B-29 Superfortress\|B-29]] aircraft that delivered the nuclear weapons at [[Hiroshima]] and [[Nagasaki]] did not lose power from electrical damage, because [[electron]]s (ejected from the air by gamma rays) are stopped quickly in normal air for bursts below roughly , so they are not significantly deflected by the Earth's magnetic field.\n", "Equipment that is running at the time of an EMP is more vulnerable. Even a low-energy pulse has access to the power source, and all parts of the system are illuminated by the pulse. For example, a high-current arcing path may be created across the power supply, burning out some device along that path. Such effects are hard to predict, and require testing to assess potential vulnerabilities.\n\nSection::::Effects.:On aircraft.\n", "During the Starfish Prime high-altitude nuclear test in 1962, an unexpected effect was produced which is called a nuclear electromagnetic pulse. This is an intense flash of electromagnetic energy produced by a rain of high energy electrons which in turn are produced by a nuclear bomb's gamma rays. This flash of energy can permanently destroy or disrupt electronic equipment if insufficiently shielded. It has been proposed to use this effect to disable an enemy's military and civilian infrastructure as an adjunct to other nuclear or conventional military operations against that enemy. Because the effect is produced by high altitude nuclear detonations, it can produce damage to electronics over a wide, even continental, geographical area.\n", "Large nuclear weapons detonated at high-altitudes also cause geomagnetically induced current in very long electrical conductors. The mechanism by which these geomagnetically induced currents are generated is entirely different from the gamma ray induced pulse produced by Compton electrons.\n\nSection::::Indirect effects.:Radar blackout.\n", "According to an internet primer published by the [[Federation of American Scientists]]\n\nThus, for equipment to be affected, the weapon needs to be above the [[Line-of-sight propagation\|visual horizon]].\n", "BULLET::::- In episode 12 of the 2010 anime series \"High School of the Dead\", in the confusion of a zombie apocalypse, Russia detonates a nuclear warhead over Japan causing an EMP.\n\nBULLET::::- In episode number 6 of the 2006-2008 CBS series, \"Jericho\", a missile launched by unknown agents from within the United States causes a high-altitude nuclear electromagnetic pulse. The episode was titled after the time at which all electric clocks stopped running.\n", "An ESD event can damage electronic circuitry by injecting a high-voltage pulse, besides giving people an unpleasant shock. Such an ESD event can also create sparks, which may in turn ignite fires or fuel-vapour explosions. For this reason, before refuelling an aircraft or exposing any fuel vapour to the air, the fuel nozzle is first connected to the aircraft to safely discharge any static.\n\nSection::::Types.:Switching pulses.\n\nThe switching action of an electrical circuit creates a sharp change in the flow of electricity. This sharp change is a form of EMP.\n", "Two of these effects are particularly notable. The first is due to the gammas, which arrive as a burst directly below the explosion and promptly ionize the air, causing a huge pulse of downward moving electrons. The neutrons, arriving slightly later and stretched out in time, cause similar effects but less intense and over a slightly longer time. These gammas and neutrons are the source of the nuclear electromagnetic pulse, or EMP, which can damage electronics that are not shielded from its effects.\n", "BULLET::::- In the 1983 made-for-television motion picture, \"The Day After\", the fictional Soviet nuclear attack on civilian targets begins with a nuclear EMP attack in order to disable as much of the United States' retaliatory capability as possible. This scenario accurately conforms to the Cold War nuclear attack scenarios as understood by military officials and nuclear weapons designers (although post-Cold War scenarios are generally much different). Such a scenario is also presented in the programme \"Threads\", again dealing with a fictional Soviet nuclear attack on Britain.\n", "For one of the K Project tests, Soviet scientists instrumented a section of telephone line in the area that they expected to be affected by the pulse. The monitored telephone line was divided into sub-lines of in length, separated by repeaters. Each sub-line was protected by fuses and by gas-filled overvoltage protectors. The EMP from the 22 October (K-3) nuclear test (also known as Test 184) blew all of the fuses and fired all of the overvoltage protectors in all of the sub-lines.\n", "Minor EMP events, and especially pulse trains, cause low levels of electrical noise or interference which can affect the operation of susceptible devices. For example, a common problem in the mid-twentieth century was interference emitted by the ignition systems of gasoline engines, which caused radio sets to crackle and TV sets to show stripes on the screen. Laws were introduced to make vehicle manufacturers fit interference suppressors.\n", "The three components of nuclear EMP, as defined by the IEC, are called \"E1\", \"E2\" and \"E3\".\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:E1.\n\nThe E1 pulse is the very fast component of nuclear EMP. E1 is a brief but intense electromagnetic field that induces high voltages in electrical conductors. E1 causes most of its damage by causing electrical breakdown voltages to be exceeded. E1 can destroy computers and communications equipment and it changes too quickly (nanoseconds) for ordinary surge protectors to provide effective protection from it. Fast-acting surge protectors (such as those using TVS diodes) will block the E1 pulse.\n", "Older, [[vacuum tube]] (valve) based equipment is generally much less vulnerable to nuclear EMP than [[Solid state (electronics)\|solid state]] equipment, which is much more susceptible to damage by large, brief voltage and current surges. [[Soviet Union\|Soviet]] [[Cold War]]-era military aircraft often had [[avionics]] based on vacuum tubes because solid-state capabilities were limited and vacuum-tube gear was believed to be more likely to survive.\n", "Section::::History.:Soviet Test 184.\n", "During the first United States nuclear test on 16 July 1945, electronic equipment was shielded because Enrico Fermi expected the electromagnetic pulse. The official technical history for that first nuclear test states, \"All signal lines were completely shielded, in many cases doubly shielded. In spite of this many records were lost because of spurious pickup at the time of the explosion that paralyzed the recording equipment.\" During British nuclear testing in 1952–1953, instrumentation failures were attributed to \"radioflash\", which was their term for EMP.\n", "NNEMP generators can be carried as a payload of bombs, cruise missiles (such as the CHAMP missile) and drones, with diminished mechanical, thermal and ionizing radiation effects, but without the consequences of deploying nuclear weapons.\n", "BULLET::::- In \"Battlefield 4\", during a mission in Shanghai, upon exiting the city, an EMP blast occurs darkening the city and causing a nearby helicopter to crash. It is later remarked by some fellow Marines on board a US navy vessel that the blast also disabled some of the ships in the U.S. Naval fleet engaged around the area. Some are still able to function due to operating on diesel fuel and having no spark plug within the engines.\n", "According to the United States EMP Commission, the main problem with E2 is that it immediately follows E1, which may have damaged the devices that would normally protect against E2.\n", "Nuclear and large conventional explosions produce radio frequency energy. The characteristics of the EMP will vary with altitude and burst size. EMP-like effects are not always from open-air or space explosions; there has been work with controlled explosions for generating electrical pulse to drive lasers and railguns.\n\nFor example, in a program called BURNING LIGHT, KC-135R tankers, temporarily modified to carry MASINT sensors, would fly around the test area, as part of Operation BURNING LIGHT. One sensor system measured the electromagnetic pulse of the detonation.\n", "Nuclear electromagnetic pulse\n\nA nuclear electromagnetic pulse (commonly abbreviated as nuclear EMP, or NEMP) is a burst of electromagnetic radiation created by a nuclear explosion. The resulting rapidly varying electric and magnetic fields may couple with electrical and electronic systems to produce damaging current and voltage surges. The specific characteristics of a particular nuclear EMP event vary according to a number of factors, the most important of which is the altitude of the detonation.\n", "BULLET::::- The 2014 anime series \"Terror in Resonance\" features a nuclear EMP that is detonated from high altitude that knocks out all of Japan's electronics for a year.\n\nBULLET::::- In the episode \"Terror in New York City\", fourth in the first series of \"Thunderbirds\" , Scott Tracy flies Thunderbird 1 over a vehicle containing an illicit video tape of Thunderbird 2 and uses a non-nuclear EMP (NNEMP) device to wipe the tape.\n", "BULLET::::- In \"\" and the expansion pack \"Zero Hour\", the Chinese 5-star General Power is an EMP bomb. Additionally, the U.S. Super weapons General may construct an alternate Patriot missile defense structure that fires warheads that release a localized electromagnetic pulse upon impact, temporarily disabling any manufactured vehicle they touch. In the case of aircraft, those struck with the missiles will be instantly destroyed.\n", "BULLET::::- Electromagnetic pulse is a very prominent concept in the novel \"Warday\", published in 1984. \"Warday\" is about a limited, but nevertheless devastating, nuclear war that occurs on a single day in October 1988. \"Warday\" contains a fictional government report, several pages long, about the fictional Soviet nuclear EMP attack of 28 October 1988 against the United States. The fictional government EMP report is titled, \"Summary of Effects Induced by Electromagnetic Pulse in the October 1988 Attack by the Soviet Union, and their Implications for Recovery.\" The war begins with six high-altitude nuclear EMP detonations over the United States, each with energy yields of 8 to 10 megatons. The six nuclear EMP weapons are detonated in two triangular patterns in order to cover both the eastern and western halves of the continental United States with fairly evenly spaced EMP detonations.\n", "Section::::Effects of nuclear war.:Electromagnetic pulse.\n\nAn electromagnetic pulse (EMP) is a burst of electromagnetic radiation. Nuclear explosions create a pulse of electromagnetic radiation called a nuclear EMP or NEMP. Such EMP interference is known to be generally disruptive or damaging to electronic equipment. If a single nuclear weapon \"designed to emit EMP were detonated 250 to 300 miles up over the middle of the country it would disable the electronics in the entire United States.\"\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04698	Why do rechargeable batteries become worse/less effective with time?	Batteries work by a chemical reaction that produces electricity. Rechargable batteries work by a reversible chemical reaction, but it isn't perfectly 100.0% reversible If it's 99.9% reversible then you're down to 74% capacity after 300 charge cycles and 54% after 600(about 2 years) People like to complain it's planned obsolescence but it's not planned for, it's planned around. You want something cheap that'll work for a couple years rather than something obscenely expensive that'll work for a few decades	[ "Even just a single string of batteries wired in series can have adverse interactions if new batteries are mixed with old batteries. Older batteries tend to have reduced storage capacity, and so will both discharge faster than new batteries and also charge to their maximum capacity more rapidly than new batteries.\n", "If batteries are used repeatedly even without mistreatment, they lose capacity as the number of charge cycles increases, until they are eventually considered to have reached the end of their useful life. Different battery systems have differing mechanisms for wearing out. For example, in lead-acid batteries, not all the active material is restored to the plates on each charge/discharge cycle; eventually enough material is lost that the battery capacity is reduced. In lithium-ion types, especially on deep discharge, some reactive lithium metal can be formed on charging, which is no longer available to participate in the next discharge cycle. Sealed batteries may lose moisture from their liquid electrolyte, especially if overcharged or operated at high temperature. This reduces the cycling life.\n", "Old rechargeable batteries self-discharge more rapidly than disposable alkaline batteries, especially nickel-based batteries; a freshly charged nickel cadmium (NiCd) battery loses 10% of its charge in the first 24 hours, and thereafter discharges at a rate of about 10% a month. However, newer low self-discharge nickel metal hydride (NiMH) batteries and modern lithium designs display a lower self-discharge rate (but still higher than for primary batteries).\n\nSection::::Lifetime.:Corrosion.\n\nInternal parts may corrode and fail, or the active materials may be slowly converted to inactive forms.\n\nSection::::Lifetime.:Physical component changes.\n", "The lithium-ion battery was introduced in the market in 1991, is the choice in most consumer electronics, having the best energy density and a very slow loss of charge when not in use. It does have drawbacks too, particularly the risk of unexpected ignition from the heat generated by the battery. Such incidents are rare and according to experts, they can be minimized \"via appropriate design, installation, procedures and layers of safeguards\" so the risk is acceptable.\n", "NiCd cells, if used in a particular repetitive manner, may show a decrease in capacity called \"memory effect\". The effect can be avoided with simple practices. NiMH cells, although similar in chemistry, suffer less from memory effect.\n\nSection::::Lifetime.:Environmental conditions.\n", "The active material on the battery plates changes chemical composition on each charge and discharge cycle; active material may be lost due to physical changes of volume, further limiting the number of times the battery can be recharged. Most nickel-based batteries are partially discharged when purchased, and must be charged before first use. Newer NiMH batteries are ready to be used when purchased, and have only 15% discharge in a year.\n", "Some deterioration occurs on each charge–discharge cycle. Degradation usually occurs because electrolyte migrates away from the electrodes or because active material detaches from the electrodes. Low-capacity NiMH batteries (1,700–2,000 mA·h) can be charged some 1,000 times, whereas high-capacity NiMH batteries (above 2,500 mA·h) last about 500 cycles. NiCd batteries tend to be rated for 1,000 cycles before their internal resistance permanently increases beyond usable values.\n\nSection::::Lifetime.:Charge/discharge speed.\n\nFast charging increases component changes, shortening battery lifespan.\n\nSection::::Lifetime.:Overcharging.\n\nIf a charger cannot detect when the battery is fully charged then overcharging is likely, damaging it.\n\nSection::::Lifetime.:Memory effect.\n", "Recent EVs are utilizing new variations on lithium-ion chemistry that sacrifice specific energy and specific power to provide fire resistance, environmental friendliness, rapid charging (as quickly as a few minutes), and longer lifespans. These variants (phosphates, titanates, spinels, etc.) have been shown to have a much longer lifetime, with A123 types using lithium iron phosphate lasting at least 10+ years and 7000+ charge/discharge cycles, and LG Chem expecting their lithium-manganese spinel batteries to last up to 40 years.\n", "Automotive lead–acid rechargeable batteries must endure stress due to vibration, shock, and temperature range. Because of these stresses and sulfation of their lead plates, few automotive batteries last beyond six years of regular use. Automotive starting batteries have many thin plates to maximize current. In general, the thicker the plates the longer the life. They are typically discharged only slightly before recharge.\n", "Section::::Lifetime.:Self-discharge.\n\nDisposable batteries typically lose 8 to 20 percent of their original charge per year when stored at room temperature (20–30 °C). This is known as the \"self-discharge\" rate, and is due to non-current-producing \"side\" chemical reactions that occur within the cell even when no load is applied. The rate of side reactions is reduced for batteries stored at lower temperatures, although some can be damaged by freezing.\n", "Which electrical practices, and so which charger, are best suited for use depending entirely on the type of battery. NiCd cells must be fully discharged occasionally, or else the battery loses capacity over time due to a phenomenon known as \"memory effect.\" Once a month (perhaps once every 30 charges) is sometimes recommended. This extends the life of the battery since memory effect is prevented while avoiding full charge cycles which are known to be hard on all types of dry-cell batteries, eventually resulting in a permanent decrease in battery capacity.\n", "How fast self-discharge in a battery occurs is dependent on the type of battery, state of charge, charging current, ambient temperature and other factors. Primary batteries aren't designed for recharging between manufacturing and use, thus have battery chemistry that has to have a much lower self-discharge rate than older types of Secondary cells, but they have lost that advantage with the development of rechargeable Secondary Cells with very low self discharge rates like Low Self Discharge NiMH cells.\n", "As with all lithium-ion batteries, electric vehicle batteries may degrade over long periods of time, especially if they are frequently overcharged, however, this may take at least several years before being noticeable.\n\nHowever, Nissan stated in 2015 that thus far only 0.01 percent of batteries had to be replaced because of failures or problems, and then only because of externally inflicted damage. The vehicles that had already covered more than , have no problems with the battery.\n\nSection::::Batteries.:Future.\n\nBULLET::::- Autonomous park-and-charge\n", "Battery life (and its synonym battery lifetime) has two meanings for rechargeable batteries but only one for non-chargeables. For rechargeables, it can mean either the length of time a device can run on a fully charged battery or the number of charge/discharge cycles possible before the cells fail to operate satisfactorily. For a non-rechargeable these two lives are equal since the cells last for only one cycle by definition. (The term shelf life is used to describe how long a battery will retain its performance between manufacture and use.) Available capacity of all batteries drops with decreasing temperature. In contrast to most of today's batteries, the Zamboni pile, invented in 1812, offers a very long service life without refurbishment or recharge, although it supplies current only in the nanoamp range. The Oxford Electric Bell has been ringing almost continuously since 1840 on its original pair of batteries, thought to be Zamboni piles.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Primary\" batteries are designed to be used until exhausted of energy then discarded. Their chemical reactions are generally not reversible, so they cannot be recharged. When the supply of reactants in the battery is exhausted, the battery stops producing current and is useless.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Secondary\" batteries can be recharged; that is, they can have their chemical reactions reversed by applying electric current to the cell. This regenerates the original chemical reactants, so they can be used, recharged, and used again multiple times.\n", "Some systems, operating at high temperature (Na-S) or using corrosive components are subject to failure even if they are not used (calendar ageing). Other technologies suffer from deterioration caused by charge-discharge cycles (cycle ageing), especially at high charging rates. These two types of ageing cause a loss of performance (capacity or voltage decrease), overheating and may eventually lead to critical failure (electrolyte leaks, fire, explosion). Some batteries can be maintained to prevent loss of performance due to ageing. For example, non-sealed lead-acid batteries produce hydrogen and oxygen from the aqueous electrolyte when overcharged. The water has to be refilled regularly to avoid damage to the battery and the inflammable gases have to be vented out to avoid explosion risks. However, this maintenance has a cost and recent batteries, such as Li-Ion, are designed to have a long lifespan without maintenance. Therefore, most of the current systems are composed of securely sealed battery packs which are electronically monitored and replaced once their performance falls below a given threshold. Sometimes battery storage power stations are built with flywheel storage power systems in order to conserve battery power. Flywheels may handle rapid fluctuations better than older battery plants.\n", "Many battery chemicals are corrosive, poisonous or both. If leakage occurs, either spontaneously or through accident, the chemicals released may be dangerous. For example, disposable batteries often use a zinc \"can\" both as a reactant and as the container to hold the other reagents. If this kind of battery is over-discharged, the reagents can emerge through the cardboard and plastic that form the remainder of the container. The active chemical leakage can then damage or disable the equipment that the batteries power. For this reason, many electronic device manufacturers recommend removing the batteries from devices that will not be used for extended periods of time.\n", "All rechargeable batteries have a finite lifespan and will slowly lose storage capacity as they age due to secondary chemical reactions within the battery whether it is used or not. Some cells may fail sooner than others, but the effect is to reduce the voltage of the battery. Lithium-based batteries have one of the longest idle lives of any construction. Unfortunately the number of operational cycles is still quite low at approximately 400-1200 complete charge/discharge cycles. The lifetime of lithium batteries decreases at higher temperature and states of charge (SoC), whether used or not; maximum life of lithium cells when not in use(storage) is achieved by refrigerating (without freezing) charged to 30%-50% SoC. To prevent overdischarge battery should be brought back to room temperature and recharged to 50% SoC once every six months or once per year\n", "The deep discharge testing is itself damaging to batteries due to the chemicals in the discharged battery starting to crystallize into highly stable molecular shapes that will not re-dissolve when the battery is recharged, permanently reducing charge capacity. In lead acid batteries this is known as sulfation but also affects other types such as nickel cadmium batteries and lithium batteries. Therefore, it is commonly recommended that rundown tests be performed infrequently, such as every six months to a year.\n\nSection::::Batteries.:Testing of strings of batteries/cells.\n", "Devices which use rechargeable batteries include automobile starters, portable consumer devices, light vehicles (such as motorized wheelchairs, golf carts, electric bicycles, and electric forklifts), tools, uninterruptible power supplies, and battery storage power stations. Emerging applications in hybrid internal combustion-battery and electric vehicles drive the technology to reduce cost, weight, and size, and increase lifetime.\n\nOlder rechargeable batteries self-discharge relatively rapidly, and require charging before first use; some newer low self-discharge NiMH batteries hold their charge for many months, and are typically sold factory-charged to about 70% of their rated capacity.\n", "Even though the recovery effect phenomenon is more prominent in the lead acid battery chemistry, its existence in alkaline, Ni-MH and Li-Ion batteries is still questionable. For instance, a systematic experimental case study shows that an intermittent discharge current in case of alkaline, Ni-MH and Li-Ion batteries results in a decreased usable energy output compared to a continuous discharge current of the same average value. This is primarily due to the increased overpotential experienced due to the high peak currents of the intermittent discharge over the continuous discharge current of same average value. \n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Capacity fading\n", "Specially designed deep-cycle cells are much less susceptible to degradation due to cycling, and are required for applications where the batteries are regularly discharged, such as photovoltaic systems, electric vehicles (forklift, golf cart, electric cars and other) and uninterruptible power supplies. These batteries have thicker plates that can deliver less \"peak current\", but can withstand frequent discharging.\n", "The battery survives thousands of charges/discharges cycles. Also it is possible to lower the memory effect by discharging the battery completely about once a month. This way apparently the battery does not \"remember\" the point in its charge cycle.\n", "Most battery chemistries have less dramatic, and less dangerous, failure modes. The chemicals in most batteries are often toxic to some degree, but are rarely explosive or flammable; many are corrosive, which accounts for advice to avoid leaving batteries inside equipment for long periods as the batteries may leak and damage the equipment. Lead acid batteries are an exception, for charging them generates hydrogen gas, which can explode if exposed to an ignition source (e.g., a lit cigarette or some such) and such an explosion will spray sulfuric acid in all directions. Since this is corrosive and potentially blinding, this is a particular danger.\n", "Batteries also have a small amount of internal resistance that will discharge the battery even when it is disconnected. If a battery is left disconnected, any internal charge will drain away slowly and eventually reach the critical point. From then on the film will develop and thicken. This is the reason batteries will be found to charge poorly or not at all if left in storage for a long period of time.\n\nSection::::Chargers and sulfation.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-15285	Why does normal skin get dirty but scars don’t?	Short answer: scars dont have hair follicles or sweat glands. So no holes or sweat for dirt to stick to.	[ "Section::::Periwound issues.:Risk factors.\n\nAmong risk factors that may contribute to degrading the periwound skin performance are:\n\nBULLET::::- Chronic wounds (excessive harmful exudate)\n\nBULLET::::- Old age (increased skin fragility, epidermal thinning, loss of elasticity)\n\nBULLET::::- Underlying disorders (congenital (epidermolysis bullosa), dermatological conditions (eczema), fungal or bacterial infections, lymphedema)\n\nBULLET::::- Environmental damage (UV radiation)\n\nBULLET::::- Inadequate wound care regimens\n\nSection::::Periwound issues.:Treatment and prevention.\n", "Skin scars occur when the dermis (the deep, thick layer of skin) is damaged. Most skin scars are flat and leave a trace of the original injury that caused them. \n\nWounds allowed to heal secondarily tend to scar worse than wounds from primary closure.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.:Collagen synthesis.\n", "Hypertrophic scars are uncommon, and are characterized by increased collagen content after the abnormal healing response. They are described as firm and raised from the skin. Hypertrophic scars remain within the original margins of the wound, whereas keloid scars can form scar tissue outside of these borders. Keloid scars from acne occur more often in men and people with darker skin, and usually occur on the trunk of the body.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Pigmentation.\n", "BULLET::::- Skin removal/skinning: Cutting in single lines produces relatively thin scars, and skin removal is a way to get a larger area of scar tissue. The outlines of the area of skin to be removed will be cut, and then the skin to be removed will be peeled away. Scars from this method often have an inconsistent texture, although this relies heavily on the experience of the artist and aftercare of the wound.\n", "Another major component of the ECM is hyaluronic acid (HA), a glycosaminoglycan. It is known that fetal skin contains more HA than adult skin due to the expression of more HA receptors. The expression of HA is known to down-regulate the recruitment of inflammatory cytokines interleukin-1 (IL-1) and tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α); since fetal wounds contain a reduced number of pro-inflammatory mediators than adult wounds it is thought that the higher levels of HA in the fetal skin aid in scar free healing.\n", "Section::::Fetal vs adult healing in humans.:Immune system cells and inflammatory response.\n\nOne of the major differences between embryonic scar-free healing wounds and adult scar-forming wounds is the role played by the cells of the immune system and the inflammatory response.\n\nTable 1: Summary of the major differences identified between fetal and adult wound healing.\n", "Scars can be formed by removing layers of skin through abrasion. This can be achieved using an inkless tattooing device, or any object that can remove skin through friction (such as sandpaper).\n\nChemical scarification uses corrosive chemicals to remove skin and induce scarring. The effects of this method are typically similar to other, simpler forms of scarification; as a result there has been little research undertaken on this method.\n\nSection::::Healing.\n\nThe common practice on healing a scarification wound is use of irritation.\n", "The tissue injury in SCARs is initiated principally by CD8 or CD4 T cells. Once drug-activated, these lymphocytes elicit immune responses to self tissues that can result in SCARs drug reactions by mechanisms which vary with the type of disorder that develops. Salient elements mediating tissue injury for each type of disorder include:\n", "Patients suffering from periwound issues may experience burning, itching, tenderness, and pain. Visible and measurable signs include rash, erythema, discoloration, changes in skin texture and temperature.\n\nSection::::Periwound issues.:Causes.\n\nThe most common cause of periwound issues is excessive moisture present in the area surrounding the wound. Exudate from heavily draining wounds causes irritation of the periwound that may lead to maceration, excoriation, and otherwise compromise skin integrity.\n", "Section::::Treatment.:Vitamins.\n\nResearch shows the use of vitamin E and onion extract (sold as Mederma) as treatments for scars is ineffective. Vitamin E causes contact dermatitis in up to 33% of users and in some cases it may worsen scar appearance and could cause minor skin irritations, but Vitamin C and some of its esters fade the dark pigment associated with some scars.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Other.\n\nBULLET::::- Cosmetics; Medical makeup can temporarily conceal scars. This is most commonly used for facial scars.\n\nBULLET::::- Dermabrasion involves the removal of the surface of the skin with special equipment, and usually involves a local anaesthetic.\n", "Individuals suffering autoimmune disorders such as systemic lupus erythematosus may have an increased incidence of developing SCARs. While the cause for this possible predilection has not been determined, the altered immune system and the excessive production of cytokines occurring in these disorders could be contributing factors.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.:Effectors of tissue injury.\n", "BULLET::::- Ink rubbing: Tattoo ink (or another sterile coloring agent) is rubbed into a fresh cut to add color to the scar. Most of the ink remains in the skin as the cut heals, and will have the same basic effect as a tattoo. As with tattoos, it is important not to pick the scabs as this will pull out the ink.\n", "BULLET::::- Keloids: Keloids are raised scars. Keloiding can be a result of genetics, skin colour (darker skin types are more prone to keloiding), or irritation. Keloids are often sought for a visual, 3-D effect and for tactile effects. If an enclosed area perimeter is cut or branded, the skin inside the closed space may die off and scar due to a lack of blood flow.\n\nBULLET::::- Touch-ups: If a scarification does not heal to yield a prescribed outcome, secondary scarifications may be conducted.\n\nSection::::Dangers/cautions.\n", "Section::::Fetal vs adult healing in humans.:Role of the extracellular matrix and its components.\n", "Section::::Fetal vs adult healing in humans.:Intrauterine environment.\n", "Section::::Scar versus scar free healing.\n\nScarring takes place in response to damaged or missing tissue following injury due to biological processes or wounding: it is a process that occurs in order to replace the lost tissue. The process of scarring is complex, it involves the inflammatory response and remodelling amongst other cell activities. Many growth factors and cytokines are also involved in the process, as well as extracellular matrix interactions. Mast cells are one cell type which act to promote scarring.\n", "Established soft tissue necrosis may require surgical removal of the dead tissue, fasciotomy, amputation or reconstructive surgery.\n\nSection::::Prognosis.\n\nPurpura fulminans lesions, once established, often progress within 24 to 48 hours to full-thickness skin necrosis or soft-tissue necrosis. Once purpura fulminans lesions progress to full-thickness skin necrosis, healing takes between 4–8 weeks and leaves large scars.\n", "Keratinocytes continue migrating across the wound bed until cells from either side meet in the middle, at which point contact inhibition causes them to stop migrating. When they have finished migrating, the keratinocytes secrete the proteins that form the new basement membrane. Cells reverse the morphological changes they underwent in order to begin migrating; they reestablish desmosomes and hemidesmosomes and become anchored once again to the basement membrane. Basal cells begin to divide and differentiate in the same manner as they do in normal skin to reestablish the strata found in reepithelialized skin.\n\nSection::::Proliferative phase.:Contraction.\n", "Section::::Fetal vs adult healing in humans.\n", "When a normal wound heals, the body produces new collagen fibres at a rate which balances the breakdown of old collagen. Hypertrophic scars are red and thick and may be itchy or painful. They do not extend beyond the boundary of the original wound, but may continue to thicken for up to six months. They usually improve over one or two years, but may cause distress due to their appearance or the intensity of the itching; they can also restrict movement if they are located close to a joint.\n", "Prolonged inflammation, as well as the fibroblast proliferation can occur. Redness that often follows an injury to the skin is not a scar, and is generally not permanent (see wound healing). The time it takes for this redness to dissipate may, however, range from a few days to, in some serious and rare cases, a few years. \n\nScars form differently based on the location of the injury on the body and the age of the person who was injured. \n\nThe worse the initial damage is, the worse the scar will generally be. \n", "Scarification\n\nScarifying (also scarification modification) involves scratching, etching, burning / branding, or superficially cutting designs, pictures, or words into the skin as a permanent body modification. In the process of body scarification, scars are formed by cutting or branding the skin by varying methods (sometimes using further sequential aggravating wound healing methods at timed intervals, like irritation), to purposely influence wound healing to scar \"more\" and not scar \"less\". Scarification is sometimes called \"cicatrization\" (from the French equivalent).\n\nSection::::Reasons.\n", "If the basement membrane is not breached, epithelial cells are replaced within three days by division and upward migration of cells in the stratum basale in the same fashion that occurs in uninjured skin. However, if the basement membrane is ruined at the wound site, reepithelization must occur from the wound margins and from skin appendages such as hair follicles and sweat and oil glands that enter the dermis that are lined with viable keratinocytes. If the wound is very deep, skin appendages may also be ruined and migration can only occur from wound edges.\n", "Atrophic acne scars have lost collagen from the healing response and are the most common type of acne scar (account for approximately 75% of all acne scars). They may be further classified as ice-pick scars, boxcar scars, and rolling scars. Ice-pick scars are narrow (less than 2 mm across), deep scars that extend into the dermis. Boxcar scars are round or ovoid indented scars with sharp borders and vary in size from 1.5–4 mm across. Rolling scars are wider than icepick and boxcar scars (4–5 mm across) and have a wave-like pattern of depth in the skin.\n", "Abrasion injuries most commonly occur when exposed skin comes into moving contact with a rough surface, causing a grinding or rubbing away of the upper layers of the epidermis.\n\nSection::::By degree.\n\nBULLET::::- A first-degree abrasion involves only epidermal injury.\n\nBULLET::::- A second-degree abrasion involves the epidermis as well as the dermis and may bleed slightly.\n\nBULLET::::- A third-degree abrasion involves damage to the subcutaneous layer and the skin and is often called an \"avulsion\".\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01577	What happens when a ship "runs aground" and why is it dangerous?	Running aground is when a ship hits the seabed or some outcropping under the surface. It's basically the ship crashing into the sea floor underneath it. As for why it's dangerous, grounding can damage the hull or even breach the hull, resulting in cargo spills, total loss of the vessel, and, in the worst cases, human casualties. Cargo spills, especially of chemicals or petroleum products, can be disastrous. One of the most well known incidents was when the Exon Valdez ran aground spilling nearly 11 million gallons of oil and created an environmental catastrophe.	[ "Ship grounding\n\nShip grounding is the impact of a ship on seabed or\n\nwaterway side. It may be intentional, as in beaching to land crew or cargo, and careening, for maintenance or repair, or unintentional, as in a marine accident. In accidental cases, it is commonly referred to as \"running aground.\"\n\nWhen unintentional, grounding may result simply in stranding, with or without damage to the submerged part of the ship’s hull. Breach of the hull may lead to significant flooding, which in the absence of containment in watertight bulkheads may substantially compromise the ship's structural integrity, stability, and safety. \n", "Today, ships (and other objects of similar size) are sometimes sunk to help form artificial reefs, as was done with the former in 2006. It is also common for military organizations to use old ships as targets, in war games, or for various other experiments. As an example, the decommissioned aircraft carrier was subjected to surface and underwater explosions in 2005 as part of classified research to help design the next generation of carriers (the ), before being sunk with demolition charges.\n", "BULLET::::- Being blown onto a beach, reef, or rocks during a storm, termed \"grounding\" (e.g., )\n\nBULLET::::- Collision with another ship (e.g., )\n\nBULLET::::- Catastrophic explosion (e.g., ), steamship boilers often explode when water covers them during the process of sinking\n\nBULLET::::- Fire that burns for a long time before the ship sinks (e.g., )\n\nBULLET::::- Foundering, i.e., taking in so much water that buoyancy is lost and the ship sinks (e.g., RMS \"Titanic\" and HMHS \"Britannic\"); some ships with a dense cargo (e.g., iron ore) may break up when sinking quickly and hitting a rocky seabed\n", "Section::::Notable historical examples.:Stone Fleet (1861–1862).\n\nIn December 1861 and January 1862, Union forces scuttled a number of former whalers and other merchant ships in an attempt to block access to Confederate ports during the American Civil War. Loaded with stone before being scuttled, the scuttled ships were known as the \"Stone Fleet.\" Those scuttled in December 1861 sometimes are called the \"First Stone Fleet,\" while those sunk in January 1862 sometimes are termed the \"Second Stone Fleet.\"\n\nSection::::Notable historical examples.:Peruvian fleet at El Callao (1881).\n", "BULLET::::- The financial consequences to ship-owners, due to ship loss or penalties. The grounding, depending on the maneuvers of the master before the impact, may result in the ship being stranded. Depending on the nature of the relief of the seabed at the location, i.e. being muddy or rocky, different measures have to be taken to release the ship and carry it to a safe harbor.\n\nSection::::Capsizing.\n", "Section::::Causes.:Fire.\n\nFire can cause the loss of ships in many ways. The most obvious way would be the loss of a wooden ship which is burned until watertight integrity is compromised (e.g. \"Cospatrick\"). The detonation of cargo or ammunition can cause the breach of a steel hull. An extreme temperature may compromise the durability properties of steel, causing the hull to break on its own weight. Often a large fire causes a ship to be abandoned and left to drift (e.g. MS \"Achille Lauro\"). Should it run aground beyond economic salvage, it becomes a wreck.\n", "Often, attempts are made to salvage shipwrecks, particularly those recently wrecked, to recover the whole or part of the ship, its cargo, or its equipment. An example was the salvage of the scuttled German High Seas Fleet at Scapa Flow in the 1920s and 1930s. The unauthorized salvage of wrecks is called wrecking.\n\nSection::::Salvage.:Legal aspects.\n", "The broken masts, sails, rigging, and spars can fall overboard and act as an enormous sea anchor. This creates heavy drag on the hull which, in combination with high winds, might capsize the ship. If possible, rigging would be cut free from a dismasted ship in order to stabilize the hull.\n", "A vessel's hulking may not be its final use. Scuttling as a blockship, breakwater, artificial reef, or recreational dive site may await. Some are repurposed, for example as a gambling ship; others are restored and put to new uses, such as a museum ship. Some even return revitalized to sea.\n\nWhen lumber schooner , \"one of only two Pacific Coast steam schooners to be powered by steam turbines,\"\n\nwas hulked in 1928, she was moored off Long Beach, California and used as a gambling ship, until a fire of unknown cause finished her off.\n", "Section::::Grounding.\n\nShip grounding is a type of marine accident that involves the impact of a ship on the seabed, resulting in damage of the submerged part of her hull and in particularly the bottom structure, potentially leading to water ingress and compromise of the ship's structural integrity and stability. Grounding induces extreme loads onto marine structures and is a marine accident of profound importance due to its impact:\n\nBULLET::::- The environmental impact, especially in the case where large tanker ships are involved.\n\nBULLET::::- The loss of human life.\n\nBULLET::::- Financial consequences to local communities close to the accident.\n", "Section::::Marine mishaps.\n", "Section::::As hazard.\n\nSevere grounding applies extreme loads upon ship structures. In less severe accidents, it might result only in damage to the hull; however, in most serious accidents, it might lead to hull breaches, cargo spills, total loss of the vessel, and, in the worst cases, human casualties.\n\nFrom a global perspective, grounding accounts for about one-third of commercial ship accidents, and ranks second in frequency, after ship-on-ship collision.\n\nSection::::As hazard.:Causes.\n\nAmong the causes of unintentional grounding are:\n\nBULLET::::- Current\n\nBULLET::::- Darkness\n\nBULLET::::- Tide\n\nBULLET::::- Visibility\n\nBULLET::::- Waves\n\nBULLET::::- Wind\n\nBULLET::::- Depth of waterway\n\nBULLET::::- Geometry of waterway\n", "There are a number of factors that contribute to the formation of a shipwreck, that can be divided into physical and cultural processes. A site can be affected by physical processes, that is, naturally occurring processes, such as the corrosion caused by salinity and ocean currents, or the growth of native and foreign marine organisms. It can also be affected by cultural processes, that is, by human interactions, such as adding or removing materials from the site of the wreck. Any archaeological activity, such as excavation, may also be considered invasive and tampering.\n", "The cruiser has a draft of and ran hard aground on a sand and rock ledge in an estimated 14 to 22 feet (5–7 m) of water. The salvage ship made three unsuccessful efforts to pull \"Port Royal\" off the sandbar on Friday, Saturday, and Sunday (6–8 February), despite and offloading of fuel and water, of raw sewage, and of crew members.\n", "Stabilization while not underway\n\nStabilisation while not underway, stabilisation at rest, zero-speed stabilisation or on-anchor stabilisation refers to the process of augmenting roll reduction for a vessel that is not underway. This process in some cases may be implemented through the use of equipment systems that are also used for roll stabilisation while underway.\n\nVessels at anchor, at moorings, adrift, or keeping station are subjected to roll and pitch generating forces similar to those that affect vessels underway. Different strategies for mitigating the effects of these forces have been adopted.\n", "Today \"Medina\"s wreck is upright with a 15 degree list to port. She is reasonably intact despite salvage of copper and passengers' baggage from forward holds. Her stern is most damaged and she is sinking into the mud of the seabed. Her bulkheads are collapsing and her compartments are folding down.\n", "Beaching (nautical)\n\nBeaching is the process in which a ship or boat is laid ashore, or grounded deliberately in shallow water. This is more usual with small flat-bottomed boats. Larger ships may be beached deliberately, for instance in an emergency, a damaged ship might be beached to prevent it from sinking in deep water. Some vessels are designed to be loaded and unloaded by beaching; vessels of this type used by the military to disembark troops under fire are called landing craft.\n", "The salvage of a vessel that is damaged but still afloat is called afloat salvage. This type of salvage is mostly unobtrusive and involves primarily damage control work such as hull welding, stabilization (rebalancing ballast tanks and shifting cargo) and structural bracing. In some cases, the vessel can remain underway with little disruption to its original purpose and crew.\n\nSection::::Classification of salvage.:Clearance salvage.\n", "In extreme cases, where the ship's cargo is either highly combustible (such as oil, natural gas or gasoline) or explosive (nitrates, fertilizers, ammunition) a fire onboard may result in a catastrophic conflagration or explosion. Such disasters may have catastrophic results, especially if the disaster occurs in a harbour, such as the Halifax Explosion.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Navigation errors.\n", "The vessel is in normal operational configuration. The hull is not breached in any compartment. The vessel will be expected to meet various stability criteria such as GMt (metacentric height), area under the GZ (righting lever) curve, range of stability, trim, etc.\n\nSection::::Intact stability.:Intact conditions.\n\nSection::::Intact stability.:Intact conditions.:Lightship or Light Displacement.\n\nThe vessel is complete and ready for service in every respect, including permanent ballast, spare parts, lubricating oil, and working stores but is without fuel, cargo, drinking or washing water, officers, crew, passengers, their effects, temporary ballast or any other variable load.\n", "Despite these inherent risks, the very high freeboard raises the seaworthiness of these vessels. For example, the car carrier listed 80 degrees to its port side in 2006, but did not sink, since its high enclosed sides prevented water from entering.\n\nIn late January 2016 MV Modern Express was listing off France after cargo shifted on the ship. Salvage crews secured the vessel and it was hauled into the port of Bilbao, Spain.\n\nSome RORO ship casualties are mentioned here.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Parbuckle salvage\n\nParbuckle salvage, or parbuckling, is the righting of a sunken vessel using rotational leverage. A common operation with smaller watercraft, parbuckling is also employed to right large vessels. In 1943, the was rotated nearly 180 degrees to upright after being sunk in the attack on Pearl Harbor, and the Italian cruise ship \"Costa Concordia\" was successfully parbuckled off the west coast of Italy in September 2013, the largest salvage operation of that kind to date.\n\nSection::::Mechanical advantage and difficulties.\n", "Wrecking (shipwreck)\n\nWrecking is the practice of taking valuables from a shipwreck which has foundered or run aground close to shore. Often an unregulated activity of opportunity in coastal communities, wrecking has been subjected to increasing regulation and evolved into what is now known as marine salvage. \n\nWrecking is no longer economically significant. However, as recently as the 19th century in some parts of the world, it was the mainstay of otherwise economically marginal coastal communities.\n", "Well known shipwrecks include the catastrophic , , , , , , or . There are also thousands of wrecks that were not lost at sea but have been abandoned or sunk. These abandoned, or derelict ships are typically smaller craft, such as fishing vessels. They may pose a hazard to navigation and may be removed by port authorities.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Tall ships are sometimes lost, such as by a storm at sea. Some examples of lost tall ships include:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bounty\", a full-rig ship lost off the North Carolina coast as Hurricane Sandy approached in 2012.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Concordia\", a triple mast barquentine built in 1992 and operated by Canada as a school ship; lost at sea in 2010, in a squall.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Asgard II\", an Irish national sail training ship, commissioned in 1982, was lost in 2008 off the French coast. The two-masted brigantine is thought to have collided with a submerged object.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04879	in the case of being on fire, how does rolling on the floor help extinguish the flames?	It's similar to covering it in a fire proof blanket, rolling chokes it of oxygen between the body and in this case the floor	[ "The effectiveness of stop, drop and roll may be further enhanced by combining it with other firefighting techniques, including the use of a fire extinguisher, dousing with water, or fire beating one's skin.\n", "Rollover (fire)\n\nRollover (also known as flameover) is a stage of a structure fire when fire gases in a room or other enclosed area ignite. Since heated fire gases, the product of pyrolysis, rise to the ceiling, this is where a rollover phenomenon is most often witnessed. Visually, this may be seen as flames \"rolling\" across the ceiling, radiating outward from the seat of the fire to the extent of gas spread.\n", "BULLET::::2. Drop – The fire affected person must drop to the ground, lying down if possible, covering their face with their hands to avoid facial injury.\n\nBULLET::::3. Roll – The fire affected person must roll on the ground in an effort to extinguish the fire by depriving it of oxygen. If the victim is on a rug or one is nearby, they can roll the rug around themselves to further extinguish the flame.\n", "Stop, drop and roll\n\nStop, drop and roll is a simple fire safety technique taught to children, emergency service personnel and industrial workers as a component of health and safety training in English-speaking North America, and most other English-speaking countries. It involves three steps a fire victim should follow to minimize injury in the event their clothing catches fire.\n\nSection::::Procedure.\n\nStop, drop and roll consists of three components.\n\nBULLET::::1. Stop – The fire affected person must stop, ceasing any movement which may fan the flames or hamper those attempting to put the fire out.\n", "Burn recovery bed\n\nA burn recovery bed or burn bed is a special type of bed designed for hospital patients who have suffered severe skin burns across large portions of their body.\n\nGenerally, concentrated pressure on any one spot of the damaged skin can be extremely painful to the patient, so the primary function of a burn bed is to distribute the weight of the patient so evenly that no single bed contact point is pressed harder than any other.\n\nSection::::Air-chamber burn bed.\n", "One type of weight-distributing burn bed uses a series of interlinked inflatable air chambers which have the surface appearance of an upside-down egg carton. Although inflatable, the air chambers are maintained in a partially deflated state so that the air pressure can freely distribute itself. Heavier parts of the patient's body can sink deeper into the grid of chambers and the air moves to chambers with less weight.\n", "Air volume in the chambers may be regulated so as to make the bed firmer when the patient is first being placed on the bed, and then air is released to allow for a more conformal shape once lying flat across the bed surface.\n\nSection::::Deep-floatation water burn bed.\n\nThis type of burn bed is similar in construction to a typical water bed, except the surface covering of the water pool has a large amount of slack and extra folds of material around the perimeter of the pool.\n", "BULLET::::- Flame retardancy does not have the same meaning as flameproofing. Fabric that contains a flame-retardant coating can withstand even a very hot point source. However, it can still burn if a large ignition source is present.\n\nBULLET::::- Free Form Tensile fabric allows one to use free form in building construction as it is flexible material.\n\nSection::::Structural properties.\n", "In 1736, Benjamin Franklin founded the Union Fire Company in Philadelphia, which became the standard for volunteer fire organizations. These firefighters had two critical tools: salvage bags and so-called bed keys. Salvage bags were used to quickly collect and save valuables, and bed keys were used to separate the wooden frame of a bed(often the most valuable item in a home at the time) into pieces for safe and rapid removal from the fire.\n", "However, where the destruction was extensive, additional fuel sources were involved, such as chair stuffing, floor coverings, the flooring itself, and the like. The investigators described how such materials helped to retain melted fat, which caused more of the body to be burned and destroyed, yielding still more liquified fat, in a cyclic process known as the \"wick effect\" or the \"candle effect\".\n", "Lighting fixtures and other devices installed in a dropped ceiling are required to be firmly secured to the dropped ceiling framework. In the event of a fire above a dropped ceiling it is often necessary for firemen to have to pull down the ceiling in a hurry to quickly gain access to the conflagration. Loose fixtures merely resting in the framework by force of gravity can become unseated and swing down on their armorflex power cables to hit the firemen below. Binding the fixtures to the framework assures that if the framework must be pulled down the fixture will come down with it and not become a pendulous swinging hazard to the firemen.\n", "Ignis suus\n\nIgnis suus (his fire; Latin), sometimes \"ignus suus\", is a common law principle relating to an occupier's liability over damage caused by the spread of fire. It traditionally imposes strict liability.\n", "Buildings that are made of flammable materials such as wood are different from building materials such as concrete. Generally, a \"fire-resistant\" building is designed to limit fire to a small area or floor. Other floors can be safe by preventing smoke inhalation and damage. All buildings suspected or on fire must be evacuated, regardless of fire rating.\n", "Alternating floor tiles can help stimulate kinesia paradoxa. If this method is effective for an individual it can make maneuvering about the house much easier. Individuals can focus on stepping specifically over one color tile.\n", "Those teaching the technique are advised to teach children the proper circumstances for its use. As such, some advice pamphlets regarding the technique suggest reminding children that this technique is only to be used in the event of catching on fire and not when a smoke alarm is sounding in a situation that requires immediate evacuation. Furthermore, some advice on the technique advises the procedure of \"stop, drop and roll and cover your face,\" as this will help to protect the face from any flames.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Alisa Ann Ruch Burn Foundation\n\nBULLET::::- Are you Prepared?\n", "Clark and Praimnath's descent through the floors of the impact was impeded by some debris and smoke, but by moving the debris, they made it passable. All the internal walls were made of light metal framework holding up thick drywall panels. These panels were fractured by the initial impacts and explosions, and their twisting and shaking blocked fire doors and stairwells and then shattered to make much of the dust after the buildings collapsed.\n", "BULLET::::- Hercules: Did community service with Damage Control before, but seen as a regular employee for Damage Control, after losing much of his godly riches to the Constrictor in an excessive force lawsuit. Hercules works on construction and demolition.\n", "The strategy of individuals in evacuating buildings was investigated by John Abrahams in 1994. The independent variables were the complexity of the building and the movement ability of the individuals. With increasing complexity and decreasing motion ability, the strategy changes from \"fast egress\", through \"slow egress\" and \"move to safe place inside building\" (such as a staircase), to \"stay in place and wait for help\". The third strategy is the notion of using a designated \"safe haven\" on the floor. This is a section of the building that is reinforced to protect against specific hazards, such as fire, smoke or structural collapse. Some hazards may have safe havens on each floor, while a hazard such as a tornado, may have a single safe haven or safe room. Typically persons with limited mobility are requested to report to a safe haven for rescue by first responders. In most buildings, the safe haven will be in the stairwell.\n", "Move over laws were originated in the United States after a South Carolina paramedic, James D. Garcia, was struck and injured at an accident scene January 28, 1994, in Lexington. Garcia was listed at fault, leading to his work to create a law for emergency responders. South Carolina's version (SC 56-5-1538) passed in 1996, and was revised in 2002.\n", "Currently, the technique preferred in firefighting involves dragging a person by the shoulders or upper clothing in a supine position across the floor or ground. This uses the rescuer's upper legs (the strongest muscles in the body) to push against the floor for leverage in order to pull the person towards an exit. This technique is also easier for rescuers who may be younger or of smaller size or stature. In addition, dragging, especially feet first, helps avoid stressing a potentially injured spine.Dragging feet first can cause head injuries due to the victim's head bouncing on the floor.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Section::::The Need for Sustainable Slip Resistance.\n\nThe widely accepted principle of safety by design, as well as U.S. laws and building codes, require that flooring be slip-resistant over its life cycle — not just at the time of installation. Safety criteria based solely on static coefficient of friction, often used in the U.S. for assessing safety, are too often misleading where flooring gets wet or otherwise lubricated in use.\n", "A person may have a duty to retreat to avoid violence if one can reasonably do so. Castle doctrines lessen the duty to retreat when an individual is assaulted within one's own home. Deadly force may either be justified, the burdens of production and proof for charges impeded, or an affirmative defense against criminal homicide applicable, in cases \"when the actor reasonably fears imminent peril of death or serious bodily harm to him or herself or another\". The castle doctrine is not a defined law that can be invoked, but a set of principles which may be incorporated in some form in many jurisdictions. Castle doctrines may not provide civil immunity, such as from wrongful death suits, which have a much lower burden of proof.\n", "In August 2006 at Hard Justice, a fire sparked in the rafters of the Impact Zone. The fire was the result of pyrotechnics igniting a burlap sandbag. The sound stage was evacuated for approximately 20 minutes while the Orlando Fire Department inspected the resultant damage and the building in general. Afterwards, the audience was allowed back in and the show resumed with only one match cancelled.\n", "In 2012, Kristof went as far as to write that flame retardants in furniture are \"a case study of everything that is wrong with money politics.\" He concluded that article, \"Are You Safe On That Sofa?\" by arguing that the United States needs not only safer couches but also a political system less distorted by what he calls \"toxic money.\"\n\nKristof's stances on flame retardants have come under fire from the chemical industry, who call his opeds \"overdramatic\" and \"misleading.\"\n\nSection::::Win-a-Trip with Nick Kristof contest.\n", "The remedy is available to the owner in respect of both movable and immovable property, taking, in the latter case, the form of an eviction order, and applying only to business or trade or industrial property.\n\nIt is important to note that the remedy merely restores proprietary interest; it does not award damages. The decision in \"Mlombo v Fourie\" has been criticised, accordingly, for blurring the distinction between the \"rei vindicatio\" and the \"actio ad exhibendum\". The former is a restorative proprietary remedy, whereas the latter is a delictual one.\n\nBULLET::::- Requirements\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00300	How does opening your eyes under water affect your eyes?	It depends, on the water. Water in a swimming pool is purified, so there are "anti-life" chemicals in it that can irritate your eyes. Most swimmers get used to it, because the benefits of seeing outweigh the sting, or they wear goggles. The ocean is full of salt, so the sting there tells you something different. There is more salt in the ocean that your body prefers. Polluted water can have very serious consequences for your eyes.	[ "Water in the eye can alter the optical properties of the eye and blur vision. It can also wash away the tear fluid—along with it the protective lipid layer—and can alter corneal physiology, due to osmotic differences between tear fluid and freshwater. Osmotic effects are made apparent when swimming in freshwater pools, because the osmotic gradient draws water from the pool into the corneal tissue (the pool water is hypotonic), causing edema, and subsequently leaving the swimmer with \"cloudy\" or \"misty\" vision for a short period thereafter. The edema can be reversed by irrigating the eye with hypertonic saline which osmotically draws the excess water out of the eye.\n", "Light rays bend when they travel from one medium to another; the amount of bending is determined by the refractive indices of the two media. If one medium has a particular curved shape, it functions as a lens. The cornea, humours, and crystalline lens of the eye together form a lens that focuses images on the retina. The human eye is adapted for viewing in air. Water, however, has approximately the same refractive index as the cornea (both about 1.33), effectively eliminating the cornea's focusing properties. When immersed in water, instead of focusing images on the retina, they are focused behind the retina, resulting in an extremely blurred image from hypermetropia.\n", "Light rays bend when they travel from one medium to another; the amount of bending is determined by the refractive indices of the two media. If one medium has a particular curved shape, it functions as a lens. The cornea, humours, and crystalline lens of the eye together form a lens that focuses images on the retina. Our eyes are adapted for viewing in air. Water, however, has approximately the same refractive index as the cornea (both about 1.33), so immersion effectively eliminates the cornea's focusing properties. When our eyes are in water, instead of focusing images on the retina, they now focus them far behind the retina, resulting in an extremely blurred image from hypermetropia.\n", "BULLET::::- Cold water may cause peripheral vasoconstriction and other neuro-humoral changes that contribute to central shift of the blood volume\n\nBULLET::::- Wetsuits may add additional extrinsic compression to the extremities.\n\nBULLET::::- Increased pressure somewhere in the pulmonary circulation (pulmonary artery hypertension, left heart diastolic dysfunction) leads to increased pressure gradient across the pulmonary capillaries\n\nBULLET::::- Capillary stress from oxidative or physical injury leads to breach\n\nSIPE is believed to arise from a \"perfect storm\" of some combination of these factors, which overwhelms the ability of the body to compensate, and leads to alveolar flooding.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "Where R is the recharge rate in meters, p is precipitation (m), and ET is evapotranspiration (m) of water. With higher amounts of recharge, the hydraulic head is increased and a thick freshwater lens is maintained through the dry season. Lower rates of precipitation or higher rates of interception and evapotranspiration will decrease the hydraulic head resulting in a thin lens.\n\nSection::::Models of freshwater lenses.\n\nSection::::Models of freshwater lenses.:Algebraic model.\n", "Most of the medical literature on the topic comes from case series in military populations and divers, and an epidemiological study in triathletes. A recent experimental study showed increased pulmonary artery pressure with cold water immersion, but this was done in normal subjects rather than in people with a history of SIPE. A study in SIPE-susceptible individuals during submersion in cold water showed that pulmonary artery and pulmonary artery wedge pressures were higher than in non-susceptible people. These pressures were reduced by sildenafil. SIPE may also be a cause of death during triathlons.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Section::::Focus.\n\nWater has a significantly different refractive index to air, and this affects the focusing of the eye. Most animals' eyes are adapted to either underwater or air vision, and do not focus properly when in the other environment.\n\nSection::::Focus.:Fish.\n\nThe crystalline lenses of fishes' eyes are extremely convex, almost spherical, and their refractive indices are the highest of all the animals. These properties enable proper focusing of the light rays and in turn proper image formation on the retina. This convex lens gives the name to the fisheye lens in photography.\n\nSection::::Focus.:Humans.\n", "Many freshwater aquifers on atolls and small rounded islands take on the form of a Badon Ghyben-Herzberg Lens. This relationship is described in the equation below:\n\nformula_11\n\nWhere H = the depth of the lens below sea level, formula_12 = the density of the freshwater aquifer, formula_13= density of saltwater, and formula_14 = thickness of lens above sea level.\n\nSection::::Effects of drought.\n", "Stereoscopic acuity, the ability to judge relative distances of different objects, is considerably reduced underwater, and this is affected by the field of vision. A narrow field of vision caused by a small viewport in a helmet results in greatly reduced stereoacuity, and associated loss of hand-eye coordination.\n", "There is some inconclusive research that indicates that exercise could possibly affect IOP (some positively and some negatively).\n\nSection::::Influencing factors.:Musical instruments.\n\nPlaying some musical wind instruments has been linked to increases in intraocular pressure. One 2011 study focused on brass and woodwind instruments observed \"temporary and sometimes dramatic elevations and fluctuations in IOP\".\n\nAnother study found that the magnitude of increase in intraocular pressure correlates with the intraoral resistance associated with the instrument, and linked intermittent elevation of intraocular pressure from playing high-resistance wind instruments to incidence of visual field loss.\n", "Applications of aquatic therapy include neurological disorders, spine pain, musculoskeletal pain, postoperative orthopedic rehabilitation, pediatric disabilities, and pressure ulcers.\n\nA 2006 systematic review of effects of aquatic interventions in children with neuromotor impairments found \"substantial lack of evidence-based research evaluating the specific effects of aquatic interventions in this population\".\n", "A 40 cm rise in sea level can have a drastic effect on the shape and thickness of the freshwater lens, reducing its size by up to 50% and encouraging the formation of brackish zones. Saline plumes can form at the bottom of the freshwater aquifer when the lens thickness is compromised by drought and saltwater intrusion. Even after a full year of groundwater recharge, the saline plume may not completely dissipate. Sea level rise will likely lead to sustained and possibly irreparable damage to freshwater lenses due to an increase in cyclone-generated wave washover, rendering many islands uninhabitable with the loss of potable water.\n", "Underwater, things are less visible because of lower levels of natural illumination caused by rapid attenuation of light with distance passed through the water. They are also blurred by scattering of light between the object and the viewer, also resulting in lower contrast. These effects vary with wavelength of the light, and color and turbidity of the water. The vertebrate eye is usually either optimised for underwater vision or air vision, as is the case in the human eye. The visual acuity of the air-optimised eye is severely adversely affected by the difference in refractive index between air and water when immersed in direct contact. provision of an airspace between the cornea and the water can compensate, but has the side effect of scale and distance distortion. Artificial illumination is effective to improve illumination at short range.\n", "BULLET::::- Snell's law - the index of refraction of water is similar to that of the cornea of the eye—30% greater than air. This is the reason a diver cannot see clearly underwater without a diving mask with an internal airspace.\n\nSection::::Physical characteristics of water most relevant to divers.\n\nThe physical effects of water or the underwater environment are:\n\nBULLET::::- Pressure - the overall pressure on a diver is the sum of the local atmospheric pressure and hydrostatic pressure.\n", "As with other forms of pulmonary edema, the hallmark of SIPE is a cough which may lead to frothy or blood-tinged sputum. Symptoms include:\n\nBULLET::::- Shortness of breath out of proportion to effort being expended.\n\nBULLET::::- Crackles, rattling or ‘junky’ feelings deep in the chest associated with breathing effort – usually progressively worsening with increasing shortness of breath and may be cause for a panic attack\n\nBULLET::::- Cough, usually distressing and productive or not of a little pink, frothy or blood-tinged sputum (hemoptysis)\n\nThe wetsuit may feel as though it is hindering breathing ability.\n\nSection::::Risk factors.\n", "The blood shift causes an increased respiratory and cardiac workload. Stroke volume is not greatly affected by immersion or variation in ambient pressure but slowed heartbeat reduces the overall cardiac output, particularly due to the diving reflex in breath-hold diving. Lung volume decreases in the upright position due to cranial displacement of the abdomen due to hydrostatic pressure, and resistance to air flow in the airways increases significantly because of the decrease in lung volume. There appears to be a connection between pulmonary edema and increased pulmonary blood flow and pressure which results in capillary engorgement. This may occur during higher intensity exercise while immersed or submersed.\n", "The blood shift causes an increased respiratory and cardiac workload. Stroke volume is not greatly affected by immersion or variation in ambient pressure, but slowed heartbeat reduces the overall cardiac output, particularly because of the diving reflex in breath-hold diving. Lung volume decreases in the upright position, owing to cranial displacement of the abdomen from hydrostatic pressure, and resistance to air flow in the airways increases because of the decrease in lung volume. There appears to be a connection between pulmonary edema and increased pulmonary blood flow and pressure, which results in capillary engorgement. This may occur during higher intensity exercise while immersed or submerged.\n", "Section::::Applications.\n\nBULLET::::- Seafloor Survey\n\nBULLET::::- Vehicle Navigation and Positioning\n\nBULLET::::- Biological monitoring\n\nBULLET::::- Video Mosaics as Visual Navigation Maps\n\nBULLET::::- Pipeline Inspection\n\nBULLET::::- Wreckage visualization\n\nBULLET::::- Maintenance of Underwater Structures\n\nSection::::Medium differences.\n\nSection::::Medium differences.:Illumination.\n\nIn air, light comes from the whole hemisphere on cloudy days, and is dominated by the sun. In water lightning comes from a finite cone above the scene. This phenomenon is called Snell's window.\n\nSection::::Medium differences.:Light Attenuation.\n", "Bone conduction plays a major role in underwater hearing when the head is in contact with the water (not inside a helmet), but human hearing underwater, in cases where the diver’s ear is wet, is less sensitive than in air.\n", "Underwater vision is affected by the clarity and the refractive index of the medium. Visibility underwater is reduced because light passing through water attenuates rapidly with distance, leading to lower levels of natural illumination. Underwater objects are also blurred by scattering of light between the object and the viewer, resulting in lower contrast. These effects vary with the wavelength of the light, and the colour and turbidity of the water. The human eye is optimised for air vision, and when it is immersed in direct contact with water, visual acuity is adversely affected by the difference in refractive index between water and air. Provision of an airspace between the cornea and the water can compensate, but causes scale and distance distortion. Artificial illumination can improve visibility at short range. Stereoscopic acuity, the ability to judge relative distances of different objects, is considerably reduced underwater, and this is affected by the field of vision. A narrow field of vision caused by a small viewport in a helmet results in greatly reduced stereoacuity, and an apparent movement of a stationary object when the head is moved. These effects lead to poorer hand-eye coordination.\n", "The film used aerial shots while flying over Lake Superior and Ouimet Canyon. The film begins with an aerial shot of flying over water, displayed on a small sub-section of the screen. After a few seconds, the image expands to the full six-storey height of the IMAX screen. The aerial shot, along with the large IMAX screen, induced the \"Kinesthetic effect\" which meant that viewers would experience the flying sensation due to eye perception over-ruling the inner ear balance. Viewers were warned to close their eyes if they experienced any discomfort.\n\nSection::::Production.\n", "Submerging the face in water cooler than about triggers the diving reflex, common to air-breathing vertebrates, especially marine mammals such as whales and seals. This reflex protects the body by putting it into \"energy saving\" mode to maximize the time it can stay under water. The strength of this reflex is greater in colder water and has three principal effects:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bradycardia\", a slowing of the heart rate by up to 50% in humans.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Peripheral vasoconstriction\", the restriction of the blood flow to the extremities to increase the blood and oxygen supply to the vital organs, especially the brain.\n", "Section::::Functions.\n\nThe nictitating membrane is normally translucent. In some diving animals, including sea lions, it is activated on land, to remove sand and other debris—its function in most animals. In crocodiles, it protects their eyes from water but also hinders their focus under water. In some diving animals, for example beavers and manatees, it is transparent and moves across the eye to protect it while under water.\n", "The clip is of the professor talking about how water is an object always in motion so to capture it on canvas is a hard task. Guitarist Vadim Taver said in an interview with http://silentstagnation.de/ \"This was a good analogy to our music because it's hard to capture the energy, power, and emotion of music on recordings. Sometimes people pull it off, but overall it's not the same as seeing a band perform live, and that was the meaning behind the quote.\"\n", "Freshwater lenses rely on seasonal rainfall to recharge the underground aquifer and can drastically change in thickness following drought or heavy rainfall. A USGS report following the 1997/1998 drought in the Marshall Islands observed a noticeable decline in the thickness of the lens. After the reservoirs of the public rainfall catchment system were rapidly depleted following several months of inadequate precipitation, the islands' population began increasing the rate of groundwater pumping to the point that groundwater supplied up to 90% of the island's drinking water during the drought.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-22523	What’s the purpose of having an outer ear instead of just a hole we can hear from like laptop mics?	Outer ears are useful in localization of sound. The inherent asymmetry contributed to a slight difference in the time sound reaches either ear if it emanates from a point not directly in the center, allowing the brain to sort of localize it in horizontal plane	[ "The mechanical role of the tectorial membrane in hearing is yet to be fully understood, and traditionally was neglected or downplayed in many models of the cochlea. However, recent genetic\n", "Section::::Definitive mammalian middle ear.\n", "In mammals (other than monotremes), the cochlea is extended still further, becoming a coiled structure in order to accommodate its length within the head. The organ of Corti also has a more complex structure in mammals than it does in other amniotes.\n\nThe arrangement of the inner ear in living amphibians is, in most respects, similar to that of reptiles. However, they often lack a basilar papilla, having instead an entirely separate set of sensory cells at the upper edge of the saccule, referred to as the papilla amphibiorum, which appear to have the same function.\n", "The middle ear contains three tiny bones known as the ossicles: \"malleus\", \"incus\", and \"stapes\". The ossicles were given their Latin names for their distinctive shapes; they are also referred to as the \"hammer\", \"anvil\", and \"stirrup\", respectively. The ossicles directly couple sound energy from the ear drum to the oval window of the cochlea. While the stapes is present in all tetrapods, the malleus and incus evolved from lower and upper jaw bones present in reptiles.\n", "Those with more natural ear shapes, like those of wild canids like the fox, generally hear better than those with the floppier ears of many domesticated species.\n\nSection::::Senses.:Smell.\n", "Two of the causes of hearing loss are lack of function in the inner ear (cochlea) and when the sound has problems in reaching the nerve cells of the inner ear. Example of the first include age-related hearing loss and hearing loss due to noise exposure. A patient born without external ear canals is an example of the latter for which a conventional hearing aid with a mould in the ear canal opening would not be effective. Some with this condition have normal inner ear function, as the external ear canal and the inner ear are developed at different stages during pregnancy. With normal inner anatomy, sound conducted by the skull bone improves hearing.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Aperture\" is the entrance to the ear canal\n\nBULLET::::- \"Auricular sulcus\" is the depression behind the ear next to the head\n\nBULLET::::- \"Concha\" is the hollow next to the ear canal\n\nBULLET::::- Conchal angle is the angle that the back of the \"concha\" makes with the side of the head\n\nBULLET::::- \"Crus\" of the helix is just above the \"tragus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cymba conchae\" is the narrowest end of the \"concha\"\n\nBULLET::::- External auditory meatus is the ear canal\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fossa triangularis\" is the depression in the fork of the \"antihelix\"\n", "The middle ear of tetrapods is analogous with the spiracle of fishes, an opening from the pharynx to the side of the head in front of the main gill slits. In fish embryos, the spiracle forms as a pouch in the pharynx, which grows outward and breaches the skin to form an opening; in most tetrapods, this breach is never quite completed, and the final vestige of tissue separating it from the outside world becomes the eardrum. The inner part of the spiracle, still connected to the pharynx, forms the eustachian tube.\n", "BULLET::::- Facing the outer ear, the lateral wall (or \"membranous wall\"), is formed mainly by the tympanic membrane, partly by the ring of bone into which this membrane is inserted. This ring of bone is incomplete at its upper part, forming a notch (notch of Rivinus), close to which are three small apertures: the \"iter chordæ posterius\", the petrotympanic fissure, and the \"iter chordæ anterius\". The iter chordæ posterius (apertura tympanica canaliculi chordæ) is situated in the angle of junction between the mastoid and \"membranous wall of tympanic cavity\" immediately behind the tympanic membrane and on a level with the upper end of the manubrium of the malleus; it leads into a minute canal, which descends in front of the canal for the facial nerve, and ends in that canal near the stylo-mastoid foramen. Through it the chorda tympani nerve enters the tympanic cavity. The petrotympanic fissure opens just above and in front of the ring of bone into which the tympanic membrane is inserted; in this situation it is a mere slit about 2 mm. in length. It lodges the anterior process and anterior ligament of the malleus, and gives passage to the anterior tympanic branch of the internal maxillary artery. The iter chordæ anterius (canal of Huguier) is placed at the medial end of the petrotympanic fissure; through it the chorda tympani nerve leaves the tympanic cavity.\n", "Mammals are unique in having evolved a three-ossicle middle-ear independently of the various single-ossicle middle ears of other land vertebrates, all during the Triassic period of geological history. Functionally, the mammalian middle ear is very similar to the single-ossicle ear of non-mammals, except that it responds to sounds of higher frequency, because these are better taken up by the inner ear (which also responds to higher frequencies than those of non-mammals). The malleus, or \"hammer\", evolved from the articular bone of the lower jaw, and the incus, or \"anvil\", from the quadrate. In other vertebrates, these bones form the primary jaw joint, but the expansion of the dentary bone in mammals led to the evolution of an entirely new jaw joint, freeing up the old joint to become part of the ear. For a period of time, both jaw joints existed together, one medially and one laterally. The evolutionary process leading to a three-ossicle middle ear was thus an \"accidental\" byproduct of the simultaneous evolution of the new, secondary jaw joint. In many mammals, the middle ear also becomes protected within a cavity, the auditory bulla, not found in other vertebrates. A bulla evolved late in time and independently numerous times in different mammalian clades, and it can be surrounded by membranes, cartilage or bone. The bulla in humans is part of the temporal bone.\n", "Section::::Evolution of the Ear from Saccule.\n", "BULLET::::1. more noticeable and not so comfortable to wear;\n\nBULLET::::2. due to the fact that the microphone is not located in the ear, it does not use the functional advantages of the auricle and the natural acoustics of the outer ear.\n\nAt the same time, HAAs has a number of great advantages:\n\nBULLET::::1. the large distance between the microphone and the speaker prevents the occurrence of acoustic feedback, which allows the use of large acoustic amplification and a simpler audio signal processing algorithm;\n", "A recently discovered intermediate form is the primitive mammal \"Yanoconodon\", from 125 million years ago in the Mesozoic, in which the ossicles have separated from the jaw and serve the hearing function in the middle ear, yet maintain a slender connection to the jaw via the ossified Meckel's cartilage, which in more advanced mammals dissolves during development. This intermediate middle ear phenotype is referred to as the partial (or transitional) mammalian middle ear. Maintaining a connection via the ossified Meckel's cartilage may have been evolutionary advantageous since the auditory ossicles were not connected to the cranium in \"Yanoconodon\" (as they are in extant mammals); Meckel's cartilage therefore provided essential support.\n", "This membrane consists of three layers: \n\nBULLET::::- an external, or mucous, derived from the mucous lining of the tympanic cavity;\n\nBULLET::::- an internal, from the lining membrane of the cochlea;\n\nBULLET::::- and an intermediate, or fibrous layer.\n\nThe membrane vibrates with opposite phase to vibrations entering the cochlea through the oval window as the fluid in the cochlea is displaced when pressed by the stapes at the oval window. This ensures that hair cells of the basilar membrane will be stimulated and that audition will occur.\n", "An endolymphatic duct runs from the saccule up through the head, and ending close to the brain. In cartilaginous fish, this duct actually opens onto the top of the head, and in some teleosts, it is simply blind-ending. In all other species, however, it ends in an endolymphatic sac. In many reptiles, fish, and amphibians this sac may reach considerable size. In amphibians the sacs from either side may fuse into a single structure, which often extends down the length of the body, parallel with the spinal canal.\n", "Section::::Evolutionary history.:Mammal-like jaws and ears.\n", "Epitympanic recess\n\nThe epitympanic recess is a hollow located on the superior/roof aspect of the middle ear.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.\n\nThis recess is a possible route of spread of infection to the mastoid air cells located in the mastoid process of the temporal bone of the skull. Inflammation which has spread to the mastoid air cells is very difficult to drain and causes considerable pain. Before the advent of antibiotics it could only be drained by drilling a hole in the mastoid bone, a process known as mastoidectomy.\n", "BULLET::::- Helix is the folded over outside edge of the ear\n\nBULLET::::- \"Incisura anterior auris\", or intertragic incisure, or intertragal notch, is the space between the \"tragus\" and \"antitragus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Lobe (lobule) – attached or free according to a classic single-gene dominance relationship\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scapha\", the depression or groove between the helix and the anthelix\n\nBULLET::::- Tragus\n\nSection::::Structure.:Development.\n", "Section::::Other animals.\n\nIn animals the function of the \"pinna\" is to collect sound, and perform spectral transformations to incoming sounds which enable the process of vertical localization to take place. It collects sound by acting as a funnel, amplifying the sound and directing it to the auditory canal. While reflecting from the pinna, sound also goes through a filtering process, as well as frequency dependent amplitude modulation which adds directional information to the sound (see sound localization, vertical sound localization, head-related transfer function, pinna notch). In various species, the pinna can also signal mood and radiate heat.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.\n", "BULLET::::- Cryptotia — The hidden ear features the rim of the helix cartilage buried under the skin of the scalp in the temporal region. After making an incision, the upper portion of the ear is exposed by outward traction on the pinna, after making an incision around the visible helical rim. Then, the medial surface of the freed helical-rim cartilage is resurfaced either with a skin graft or with a skin flap. In most cases of Cryptotia, the upper-ear cartilage that is buried under the scalp is developmentally normal, but occasionally, it is abnormal and might also require correction.\n", "The earliest mammals were generally small animals, probably nocturnal insectivores. This suggests a plausible evolutionary mechanism driving the change; for with these small bones in the middle ear, a mammal has extended its range of hearing for higher-pitched sounds which would improve the detection of insects in the dark. Natural selection would account for the success of this feature. There is still one more connection with another part of biology: genetics suggests a mechanism for this transition, the kind of major change of function seen elsewhere in the world of life being studied by evolutionary developmental biology.\n", "The malleus is unique to mammals, and evolved from a lower jaw bone in basal amniotes called the articular, which still forms part of the jaw joint in reptiles and birds.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Development.\n\nEmbryologically it is derived from the first pharyngeal arch along with the incus.\n\nSection::::Function.\n\nThe malleus is one of three ossicles in the middle ear which transmit sound from the tympanic membrane (ear drum) to the inner ear. The malleus receives vibrations from the tympanic membrane and transmits this to the incus.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Paleobiology.\n\nSection::::Paleobiology.:Hearing.\n", "In cases where a later surgical reconstruction of the external ear of the child might be possible, positioning of the BAHA implant is critical. It may be necessary to position the implant further back than usual to enable successful reconstructive surgery – but not so far as to compromise hearing performance. If the reconstruction is ultimately successful, it is easy to remove the percutaneous BAHA abutment. If the surgery is unsuccessful, the abutment can be replaced and the implant re-activated to restore hearing.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:External ear.\n", "BULLET::::- The retrolenticular part contains fibers from the optic system, coming from the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus. More posteriorly, this becomes the optic radiation. Some fibers from the medial geniculate nucleus (which carry auditory information) also pass in the retrolenticular internal capsule, but most are in the sublenticular part.\n\nBULLET::::- The sublenticular part contains fibers connecting with the temporal lobe. These include the auditory radiations and temporopontine fibers.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03617	How does the experience of pain go from the brain saying "that hurts, stop." to it actually hurting.	The brain actually does not cause you to move away from something hot. That takes way too much time. It happens at a local nervous level and your brain never gets involved. The brain is never the part that says something hurts and you need to stop. It only intervenes when the pain lasts long enough to suggest a real immediate problem. Pain is weird. Its not really a thing, but the name we gave a system. What you interpret as pain is a warning and a notification. It says "This area has a problem. You need to pay attention." The awareness of damage is what we call pain. The reason it feels so unpleasant is because it works really well at making you act. In the same way that a fire alarm gets your attention, even though its just a wave of pressure through the air.	[ "The ability to experience pain is essential for protection from injury, and recognition of the presence of injury. Episodic analgesia may occur under special circumstances, such as in the excitement of sport or war: a soldier on the battlefield may feel no pain for many hours from a traumatic amputation or other severe injury.\n", "William Kenneth Livingston advanced a summation theory in 1943, proposing that high intensity signals, arriving at the spinal cord from damage to nerve or tissue, set up a reverberating, self-exciting loop of activity in a pool of interneurons, and once a threshold of activity is crossed, these interneurons then activate \"transmission\" cells which carry the signal to the brain's pain mechanism; that the reverberating interneuron activity also spreads to other spinal cord cells that trigger a sympathetic nervous system and somatic motor system response; and these responses, as well as fear and other emotions elicited by pain, feed into and perpetuate the reverberating interneuron activity. A similar proposal was made by RW Gerard in 1951, who proposed also that intense peripheral nerve signalling may cause temporary failure of inhibition in spinal cord neurons, allowing them to fire as synchronized pools, with signal volleys strong enough to activate the pain mechanism.\n", "Section::::Historical theories.:Intensive theory.\n\nIn the first volume of his 1794 \"Zoonomia; or the Laws of Organic Life\", Erasmus Darwin supported the idea advanced in Plato's \"Timaeus\", that pain is not a unique sensory modality, but an emotional state produced by stronger than normal stimuli such as intense light, pressure or temperature. Wilhelm Erb, in 1874, also argued that pain can be generated by any sensory stimulus, provided it is intense enough, and his formulation of the hypothesis became known as the intensive theory.\n", "Section::::Mechanism.:Thalamic-convergence.\n\nThalamic convergence suggests that referred pain is perceived as such due to the summation of neural inputs in the brain, as opposed to the spinal cord, from the injured area and the referred area. Experimental evidence on thalamic convergence is lacking. However, pain studies performed on monkeys revealed convergence of several pathways upon separate cortical and subcortical neurons.\n\nSection::::Laboratory testing methods.\n", "Some areas of the brain that are correlated with the subjective experience of pain were activated in MCS patients when noxious stimulation was present. Positron emission tomography (PET) scans found increased blood flow to the secondary sensory cortex, posterior parietal cortex, premotor cortex, and the superior temporal cortex. The pattern of activation, however, was with less spatial extent. Some parts of the brain were less activated than normal patients during noxious stimulus processing. These were the posterior cingulate, medial prefrontal cortex, and the occipital cortex. Even though functional brain imaging can objectively measure changes in brain function during noxious stimulation, the role of different areas of the brain in pain processing is only partially understood. Furthermore, there is still the problem of the subjective experience. MCS patients by definition cannot consistently and reliably communicate their experiences. Even if they were able to answer the question \"are you in pain?\", there would not be a reliable response. Further clinical trials are needed to access the appropriateness of the use of analgesia in patients with MCS.\n", "These structural changes can be explained by the phenomenon known as neuroplasticity. In the case of chronic pain, the somatotopic representation of the body is inappropriately reorganized following peripheral and central sensitization. This maladaptive change results in the experience of allodynia or hyperalgesia. Brain activity in individuals with chronic pain, measured via electroencephalogram (EEG), has been demonstrated to be altered, suggesting pain-induced neuroplastic changes. More specifically, the relative beta activity (compared to the rest of the brain) is increased, the relative alpha activity is decreased, and the theta activity both absolutely and relatively is diminished.\n", "BULLET::::- In \"central sensitization,\" nociceptive neurons in the dorsal horns of the spinal cord become sensitized by peripheral tissue damage or inflammation. This type of sensitization has been suggested as a possible causal mechanism for chronic pain conditions. The changes of central sensitization occur after repeated trials to pain. Research from animals has consistently shown that when a trial is repeatedly exposed to a painful stimulus, the animal’s pain threshold will change and result in a stronger pain response. Researchers believe that there are parallels that can be drawn between these animal trials and persistent pain in people. For example, after a back surgery that removed a herniated disc from causing a pinched nerve, the patient may still continue to “feel” pain. Also, newborns who are circumcised without anesthesia have shown tendencies to react more greatly to future injections, vaccinations, and other similar procedures. The responses of these children are an increase in crying and a greater hemodynamic response (tachycardia and tachypnea).\n", "The use of fMRI to study brain activity confirms the link between visual perception and pain perception. It has been found that the brain regions that convey the perception of pain are the same regions that encode the size of visual inputs. One specific area, the magnitude-related insula of the insular cortex, functions to perceive the size of a visual stimulation and integrate the concept of that size across various sensory systems, including the perception of pain. This area also overlaps with the nociceptive-specific insula, part of the insula that selectively processes nociception, leading to the conclusion that there is an interaction and interface between the two areas. This interaction tells the individual how much relative pain they are experiencing, leading to the subjective perception of pain based on the current visual stimulus.\n", "Section::::Mechanism.:Convergent-projection.\n\nThis represents one of the earliest theories on the subject of referred pain. It is based on the work of W.A. Sturge and J. Ross from 1888 and later TC Ruch in 1961. Convergent projection proposes that afferent nerve fibers from tissues converge onto the same spinal neuron, and explains why referred pain is believed to be segmented in much the same way as the spinal cord. Additionally, experimental evidence shows that when local pain (pain at the site of stimulation) is intensified the referred pain is intensified as well.\n", "In 1968, three years after the introduction of the gate control theory, Ronald Melzack concluded that pain is a multidimensional complex with numerous sensory, affective, cognitive, and evaluative components. Melzack's description has been adapted by the International Association for the Study of Pain in a contemporary definition of pain. Despite flaws in its presentation of neural architecture, the theory of gate control is currently the only theory that most accurately accounts for the physical and psychological aspects of pain.\n", "Hyperexcitability hypothesizes that referred pain has no central mechanism. However, it does say that there is one central characteristic that predominates. Experiments involving noxious stimuli and recordings from the dorsal horn of animals revealed that referred pain sensations began minutes after muscle stimulation. Pain was felt in a receptive field that was some distance away from the original receptive field. According to hyperexcitability, new receptive fields are created as a result of the opening of latent convergent afferent fibers in the dorsal horn. This signal could then be perceived as referred pain.\n", "Neuroglia (\"glial cells\") may play a role in central sensitization. Peripheral nerve injury induces glia to release proinflammatory cytokines and glutamate—which, in turn influence neurons.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms.:Cellular.\n", "Recently this idea has regained some credibility under a new term, central sensitization. Central sensitization occurs when neurons in the spinal cord's dorsal horn or brainstem become more responsive after repeated stimulation by peripheral neurons, so that weaker signals can trigger them. The delay in appearance of referred pain shown in laboratory experiments can be explained due to the time required to create the central sensitization.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.:Axon-reflex.\n", "Pain motivates the individual to withdraw from damaging situations, to protect a damaged body part while it heals, and to avoid similar experiences in the future. Most pain resolves once the noxious stimulus is removed and the body has healed, but it may persist despite removal of the stimulus and apparent healing of the body. Sometimes pain arises in the absence of any detectable stimulus, damage or disease.\n", "Connor drew on the work of Eric Berne and Harris who researched the influences of past experiences on later behaviour, and O’Reilly (1994) and accepted the proposition of the neuro-physiological link between the brain and behaviour. \n\nConnor recognised, as far as learning was concerned, that there was little difference between the effect of physical pain and psychological pain. Both types of pain were debilitating and inhibited learning.\n", "Section::::Historical theories.:Middle ages.\n\nIn the 11th century, Avicenna theorized that there were a number of feeling senses including touch, pain and titillation.\n\nSection::::Historical theories.:Pain during the Renaissance.\n", "Section::::Historical theories.:Specificity theory.\n\nThe specificity theory, which states that pain is \"a specific sensation, with its own sensory apparatus independent of touch and other senses,\" emerged in the nineteenth century, but had been prefigured by the work of Avicenna and Descartes.\n", "Increased activation in the PFC has been correlated with chronic pain. In a study comparing the MRI scans of chronic lower back pain patients before and after treatment to their healthy counterparts, patients with chronic pain exhibited thinner PFCs than the control. After treatment, chronic lower back patients showed increased thickness in the PFC which decreased pain perception and physical disability. Additional brain regions are involved in pain perception in what is referred to as the 'pain matrix'. The pain matrix includes the primary somatosensory cortex (SI), insula, ACC, and thalamus. Reduction of pain perception via mediation is mediated by the interconnected brain pathways between pain perception and meditation. These intersections are what contribute to the reduction in perceived pain via mediation.\n", "From a stimulus-response perspective, the perception of physical pain starts with the nociceptors, a type of physiological receptor that transmits neural signals to the brain when activated. These receptors are commonly found in the skin, membranes, deep fascias, mucosa, connective tissues of visceral organs, ligaments and articular capsules, muscles, tendons, periosteum, and arterial vessels. Once stimuli are received, the various afferent action potentials are triggered and pass along various fibers and axons of these nociceptive nerve cells into the dorsal horn of the spinal cord through the dorsal roots. A neuroanatomical review of the pain pathway, \"Afferent pain pathways\" by Almeida, describes various specific nociceptive pathways of the spinal cord: spinothalamic tract, spinoreticular tract, spinomesencephalic tract, spinoparabrachial tract, spinohypothalamic tract, spinocervical tract, postsynaptic pathway of the spinal column.\n", "In 1975, well after the time of Descartes, the International Association for the Study of Pain sought a consensus definition for pain, finalizing \"an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage, or described in terms of such damage\" as the final definition. It is clear from this definition that while it is understood that pain is a physical phenomenon, the emotional state of a person, as well as the context or situation associated with the pain also impacts the perception of the nociceptive or noxious event. For example, if a human experiences a painful event associated with any form of trauma (an accident, disease, etc.), a reoccurrence of similar physical pain will not only inflict physical trauma but also the emotional and mental trauma first associated with the painful event. Research has shown that should a similar injury occur to two people, one person who associates large emotional consequence to the pain and the other person who does not, the person who associates a large consequence on the pain event will feel a more intense physical pain that the person who does not associate a large emotional consequence with the pain.\n", "Under normal conditions, pain conduction begins with some noxious signal followed by an action potential carried by nociceptive (pain sensing) afferent neurons, which elicit excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSP) in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. That message is then relayed to the cerebral cortex, where we translate those EPSPs into \"pain.\" Since the discovery of astrocytic influence, our understanding of the conduction of pain has been dramatically complicated. Pain processing is no longer seen as a repetitive relay of signals from body to brain, but as a complex system that can be up- and down-regulated by a number of different factors. One factor at the forefront of recent research is in the pain-potentiating synapse located in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord and the role of astrocytes in encapsulating these synapses. Garrison and co-workers were the first to suggest association when they found a correlation between astrocyte hypertrophy in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord and hypersensitivity to pain after peripheral nerve injury, typically considered an indicator of glial activation after injury. Astrocytes detect neuronal activity and can release chemical transmitters, which in turn control synaptic activity. In the past, hyperalgesia was thought to be modulated by the release of substance P and excitatory amino acids (EAA), such as glutamate, from the presynaptic afferent nerve terminals in the spinal cord dorsal horn. Subsequent activation of AMPA (α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid), NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartate) and kainate subtypes of ionotropic glutamate receptors follows. It is the activation of these receptors that potentiates the pain signal up the spinal cord. This idea, although true, is an oversimplification of pain transduction. A litany of other neurotransmitter and neuromodulators, such as calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), adenosine triphosphate (ATP), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), somatostatin, vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), galanin, and vasopressin are all synthesized and released in response to noxious stimuli. In addition to each of these regulatory factors, several other interactions between pain-transmitting neurons and other neurons in the dorsal horn have added impact on pain pathways.\n", "Additional research has shown that the experience of pain is shaped by a plethora of contextual factors, including vision. Researchers have found that when a subject views the area of their body that is being stimulated, the subject will report a lowered amount of perceived pain. For example, one research study used a heat stimulation on their subjects' hands. When the subject was directed to look at their hand when the painful heat stimulus was applied, the subject experienced an analgesic effect and reported a higher temperature pain threshold. Additionally, when the view of their hand was increased, the analgesic effect also increased and vice versa. This research demonstrated how the perception of pain relies on visual input.\n", "Janov describes \"Pain\" as the pain that does not hurt because, as soon as the person goes into it, it becomes simply feeling. Most of the suffering is in the blockage or repression, not the Pain itself.\n\nSection::::Concepts.:Consciousness and repression.\n\nIn primal theory, consciousness is not simply awareness but refers to a state of the entire organism, including the brain, in which there is \"fluid access\" between the parts. Using the triune brain work by Paul D. MacLean and adapting it to Primal Theory, three levels of consciousness are recognized in Primal Theory.\n", "Section::::The experience of pain.:Awareness of pain.\n\nNerve impulses from nociceptors may reach the brain, where information about the stimulus (e.g. quality, location, and intensity), and affect (unpleasantness) are registered. Though the brain activity involved has been studied, the brain processes underlying conscious awareness are not well known.\n\nSection::::Adaptive value.\n", "Section::::Theory.:Theory today.\n" ]	[ "Experience of pain goes from brain to an action." ]	[ "Brain is not involved in this. The nervous system does everything by itself without sending a signal to the brain. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Experience of pain goes from brain to an action." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Brain is not involved in this. The nervous system does everything by itself without sending a signal to the brain. " ]
2018-19713	Why are most animals symmetrical externally?	There is seldom any benefit to asymmetry, unless it’s something that serves a specific purpose. Like those crabs with the big claw.	[ "Developmental homeostasis is present not only in humans, but in animals as well. The choosing of symmetrical features over asymmetrical features have been observed in birds, lizards, Araneae,and even insects. For example, barn swallow females have been reported to prefer males whose long outer feathers are the same length on each side. Symmetrical males gain an reproductive advantage because of the female mate choice.\n", "Echinoderms are unique among animals in having bilateral symmetry at the larval stage, but fivefold symmetry (pentamerism, a special type of radial symmetry) as adults.\n", "List of animals featuring external asymmetry\n\nThis is a list of animals that markedly feature external asymmetry in some form. They are exceptions to the general pattern of symmetry in biology. In particular, these animals do not exhibit bilateral symmetry which permits streamlining and is common in animals.\n\nSection::::Birds.\n\nThe crossbill has an unusual beak in which the upper and lower tips cross each other.\n\nThe wrybill is the only species of bird in the world with a beak that is bent sideways (always to the right).\n", "Flowering plants show fivefold symmetry in many flowers and in various fruits. This is well seen in the arrangement of the five carpels (the botanical fruits containing the seeds) in an apple cut transversely.\n\nSection::::Spherical symmetry.\n\nSpherical symmetry occurs in an organism if it is able to be cut into two identical halves through any cut that runs through the organism's center. Organisms which show approximate spherical symmetry include the freshwater green alga \"Volvox\".\n\nSection::::Bilateral symmetry.\n", "The phylum Echinodermata, which includes starfish, sea urchins and sand dollars, is unique among animals in having bilateral symmetry at the larval stage, but pentamerism (fivefold symmetry) as adults.\n\nBilateral symmetry is not easily broken. In experiments using the fruit fly, \"Drosophila\", in contrast to other traits (where laboratory selection experiments always yield a change), right- or left-sidedness in eye size, or eye facet number, wing-folding behavior (left over right) show a lack of response.\n", "It is normal for essentially symmetric animals to show some measure of asymmetry. Usually in humans the left brain is structured differently to the right; the heart is positioned towards the left; and the right hand functions better than the left hand. The scale-eating cichlid \"Perissodus microlepis\" develops left or right asymmetries in their mouths and jaws that allow them to be more effective when removing scales from the left or right flank of their prey.\n", "Nature also provides several examples of handedness in traits that are usually symmetric. The following are examples of animals with obvious left-right asymmetries:\n\nBULLET::::- Most snails, because of torsion during development, show remarkable asymmetry in the shell and in the internal organs.\n\nBULLET::::- Fiddler crabs have one big claw and one small claw.\n\nBULLET::::- The narwhal's tusk is a left incisor which can grow up to 10 feet in length and forms a left-handed helix.\n\nBULLET::::- Flatfish have evolved to swim with one side upward, and as a result have both eyes on one side of their heads.\n", "BULLET::::2. Analogous structures - structures similar in different organisms because, in convergent evolution, they evolved in a \"similar environment\", rather than were inherited from a recent common ancestor. They usually serve the same or similar purposes. An example is the streamlined torpedo body shape of porpoises and sharks. So even though they evolved from different ancestors, porpoises and sharks developed analogous structures as a result of their evolution in the same aquatic environment. This is known as a homoplasy.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n", "The left lower quadrant includes the left iliac fossa and half of the flank. The equivalent in other animals is \"left anterior quadrant\". The left upper quadrant extends from the umbilical plane to the left ribcage. This is the \"left anterior quadrant\" in other animals. The right upper quadrant extends from umbilical plane to the right ribcage. The equivalent in other animals is \"right anterior quadrant\". The right lower quadrant extends from the umbilical plane to the right inguinal ligament. This in other animals is the \"right posterior quadrant\".\n", "The jaws of the scale-eating cichlid \"Perissodus microlepis\" occur in two distinct morphological forms. One morph has its jaw twisted to the left, allowing it to eat scales more readily on its victim’s right flank. The other morph has its jaw twisted to the right, which makes it easier to eat scales on its victim’s left flank. The relative abundance of the two morphs in populations is regulated by frequency-dependent selection.\n\nSection::::Mammals.\n", "The fin whale (\"Balaenoptera physalus\") has complex and asymmetrical coloration on its head. \n\nHoney badgers of the subspecies \"signata\" have a second lower molar on the left side of their jaws, but not the right.\n\nSection::::Reptiles.\n\nIwasaki's snail-eater snake (\"Pareas iwasakii\") is a snail-eating specialist; even newly hatched individuals feed on snails. It has asymmetric jaws, which facilitates feeding on snails with dextral (clockwise coiled) shells. A consequence of this asymmetry is that this snake is much less adept at preying on sinistral (counterclockwise coiled) snails.\n\nSection::::Invertebrates.\n", "The male waterfowl (Aves: Anatidae) evolution of a phallus to forcefully copulate with females has led to counteradaptations in females in the form of vaginal structures called dead end sacs and clockwise coils. These structures make it harder for males to achieve intromission. The clockwise coils are significant because the male phallus everts out of their body in a counter-clockwise spiral; therefore, a clockwise vaginal structure would impede forceful copulation. Studies have shown that the longer a male’s phallus is, the more elaborate the vaginal structures were.\n\nSection::::Consequences.:Speciation.\n", "The narwhal has a helical tusk on its upper left jaw. \"Odobenocetops\", an extinct toothed whale, may have possessed similar asymmetrical dentition, though it differed from the narwhal in possessing two erupted, rear-facing tusks with the right significantly longer than the left.\n", "Echinoderms are unique among animals in having bilateral symmetry at the larval stage, but fivefold symmetry (pentamerism, a special type of radial symmetry) as adults.\n", "Waterfowl males of the family Aves: Anatidae have evolved a phallus to aid in coercion. This phallus everts out of the male body (when it’s time to mate) in a counter-clockwise coil. As a response, females have developed vaginal structures called dead end sacs and clockwise coils to protect themselves from forceful intromission. Waterfowl females have evolved these “convoluted vaginal morphologies” to make it harder for males to insert themselves without the female’s consent.\n\nSection::::Female counter-adaptations.:Male avoidance/habitat change.\n", "Departures from bilateral symmetry are an unusual feature within \"Walliserops\" species, most clearly shown by the curved occipital spine of \"W. hammii\" taking a noticeable curl to one side. The regular development of these features in multiple specimens suggest a genetically controlled feature of the genus and not mutations or pathology. Most of the exceptions to bilateral symmetry noted (and also the absence of spines on the first two thoracic segments) can be explained by adaptations allowing the trident to be held off the sea floor while walking. Between the species there are variations in the extent of departure from bilateral symmetry: \"W. trifurcatus\", with a long trident that is curved away from the seabed, has less obvious departures from bilateral symmetry than \"W. hammii\", with a short trident close to the seabed.\n", "Many owl species, such as the barn owl, have asymmetrically positioned ears that enhance sound positioning.\n\nSection::::Fish.\n\nMany flatfish, such as flounders, have eyes placed asymmetrically in the adult fish. The fish has the usual symmetrical body structure when it is young, but as it matures and moves to living close to the sea bed, the fish lies on its side, and the head twists so that both eyes are on the top.\n", "Another theory says that \"testis\" is influenced by a loan translation, from Greek \"parastatēs\" \"defender (in law), supporter\" that is \"two glands side by side\".\n\nSection::::Other animals.\n\nSection::::Other animals.:External appearance.\n\nIn sharks, the testicle on the right side is usually larger, and in many bird and mammal species, the left may be the larger. The primitive jawless fish have only a single testis, located in the midline of the body, although even this forms from the fusion of paired structures in the embryo.\n", "For invertebrates, standard application of locational terminology often becomes difficult or debatable at best when the differences in morphology are so radical that common concepts are not homologous and do not refer to common concepts. For example, many species are not even bilaterally symmetrical. In these species, terminology depends on their type of symmetry (if any).\n\nSection::::Introduction.:Standard anatomical position.\n", "In bilateral symmetry (also called \"plane symmetry\"), only one plane, called the sagittal plane, divides an organism into roughly mirror image halves. Thus there is approximate reflection symmetry. Internal organs are however not necessarily symmetric.\n\nAnimals that are bilaterally symmetric have mirror symmetry in the sagittal plane, which divides the body vertically into left and right halves, with one of each sense organ and limb group on either side. At least 99% of animals are bilaterally symmetric, including humans, where facial symmetry influences people's judgements of attractiveness.\n", "The foramen magnum is a very important feature in bipedal mammals. One of the attributes of a bipedal animal’s foramen magnum is a forward shift of the anterior border; this is caused by the shortening of the cranial base. Studies on the foramen magnum position have shown a connection to the functional influences of both posture and locomotion. The forward shift of the foramen magnum is apparent in bipedal hominins, including modern humans, \"Australopithecus africanus\", and \"Paranthropus boisei\". This common feature of bipedal hominins is the driving argument used by Michel Brunet that \"Sahelanthropus tchadensis\" was also bipedal, and may be the earliest known bipedal ape. The discovery of this feature has given scientists another form of identifying bipedal mammals. \n", "The shape of the pelvis, most notably the orientation of the iliac crests and shape and depth of the acetabula, reflects the style of locomotion and body mass of an animal. In bipedal mammals, the iliac crests are parallel to the vertically oriented sacroiliac joints, where in quadrupedal mammals they are parallel to the horizontally oriented sacroiliac joints. In heavy mammals, especially in quadrupeds, the pelvis tend to be more vertically oriented because this allows the pelvis to support greater weight without dislocating the sacroiliac joints or adding torsion to the vertebral column. \n", "The approximately 400 species of flatfish also lack symmetry as adults, though the larvae are bilaterally symmetrical. Adult flatfish rest on one side, and the eye that was on that side has migrated round to the other (top) side of the body.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nSection::::See also.:Biological structures.\n\nBULLET::::- Standard anatomical position\n\nBULLET::::- Anatomical terms of motion\n\nBULLET::::- Anatomical terms of muscle\n\nBULLET::::- Anatomical terms of bone\n\nBULLET::::- Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy\n\nBULLET::::- Glossary of botanical terms\n\nBULLET::::- Glossary of plant morphology\n\nBULLET::::- Glossary of leaf morphology\n\nBULLET::::- Glossary of entomology terms\n\nBULLET::::- Plant morphology\n\nSection::::See also.:Terms of orientation.\n\nBULLET::::- Handedness\n", "The mammalian penis is a hydrostatic organ. The hydrostatic fluid, in this case blood, fills the penis during an erection. Unlike the hydrostatic skeletons of many invertebrates, which use the bending of the animal for locomotion, the penis must resist bending and shape changes during sexual intercourse. Instead of connective fibers arranged in a helical shape, the penis contains a layer called the corpus cavernosum. The corpus cavernosum contains connective fibers arranged both parallel and perpendicular to the longitudinal axis. These fibers remain folded when the penis is flaccid, but unfold as the penis fills with blood during an erection, which allows the penis to resist bending. The penises of turtles are structured similarly, although they evolved separately.\n", "According to Lamarck's long-discredited theory of evolution, anatomy will be structured according to functions associated with use; for instance, giraffes are taller to reach the leaves of trees. By contrast, in Darwinian evolution, form (variation) \"precedes\" function (as determined by selection). This is to say, in Lamarckian evolution the form is altered by the required function, whereas in Darwinian evolution small variations in form allow some parts of the population to function \"better\", and are therefore more successful reproductively.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Ornament and Crime\n\nBULLET::::- Aesthetics\n\nBULLET::::- Design science (methodology)\n\nBULLET::::- Separation of content and presentation\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04381	How do restaurants get that "taste" that you can't get at home?	Add fat and salt to everything until it tastes good. Restaurant kitchens get through a lot of butter.	[ "BULLET::::- In 2011, the concept of a Secret Restaurant was launched by the joint collaboration of Secret cinema and St John restaurant. Just like Secret Cinema did for film, the audience was immersed in a gastronomic evening within a specifically designed location, adapting its cinematographic concept to the culinary world.\n", "BULLET::::- Gooey butter cake\n\nBULLET::::- Gerber sandwich\n\nBULLET::::- Horseshoe sandwich\n\nBULLET::::- Hotdish\n\nBULLET::::- Italian beef\n\nBULLET::::- Jibarito\n\nBULLET::::- Johnny Marzetti\n\nBULLET::::- Jucy Lucy\n\nBULLET::::- Kansas City-style barbecue\n\nBULLET::::- Maxwell Street Polish\n\nBULLET::::- Michigan salad\n\nBULLET::::- Mother-in-law\n\nBULLET::::- Ohio Valley-style pizza\n\nBULLET::::- Pizza puff\n\nBULLET::::- Polish Boy\n\nBULLET::::- Pork steak\n\nBULLET::::- Pork tenderloin sandwich\n\nBULLET::::- Quad City-style pizza\n\nBULLET::::- Runza\n\nBULLET::::- Shaker Lemon Pie\n\nBULLET::::- Shrimp DeJonghe\n\nBULLET::::- Snickers salad\n\nBULLET::::- Steak de Burgo\n\nBULLET::::- St. Louis-style barbecue\n\nBULLET::::- St. Louis-style pizza\n\nBULLET::::- St. Paul sandwich\n\nBULLET::::- Sugar cream pie\n\nBULLET::::- Tavern sandwich\n\nBULLET::::- Toasted ravioli\n\nNortheast\n\nBULLET::::- American chop suey\n", "BULLET::::- New York-style pizza\n\nBULLET::::- New York System wiener\n\nBULLET::::- Parker House roll\n\nBULLET::::- Pepperoni roll\n\nBULLET::::- Philadelphia Pepper Pot\n\nBULLET::::- Pilgrim sandwich\n\nBULLET::::- Pizza bagel\n\nBULLET::::- Pork roll\n\nBULLET::::- Potatoes O'Brien\n\nBULLET::::- Ripper\n\nBULLET::::- Salt potatoes\n\nBULLET::::- Salt water taffy\n\nBULLET::::- Scrapple\n\nBULLET::::- Shoofly pie\n\nBULLET::::- Sloppy joe\n\nBULLET::::- Spiedie\n\nBULLET::::- Steak Diane\n\nBULLET::::- Steamed cheeseburger\n\nBULLET::::- Strawberry rhubarb pie\n\nBULLET::::- Stromboli\n\nBULLET::::- Stuffies\n\nBULLET::::- Submarine sandwich\n\nBULLET::::- Sugar on snow\n\nBULLET::::- Texas Tommy\n\nBULLET::::- Toll House cookie\n\nBULLET::::- Tomato pie\n\nBULLET::::- Utica greens\n\nBULLET::::- Vichyssoise\n\nBULLET::::- Waldorf salad\n\nBULLET::::- White hot\n\nBULLET::::- Whoopie pie\n\nSouth\n\nBULLET::::- Alabama-style barbecue\n", "According to the Los Angeles Times, “Campanile, which opened in 1989, helped to shape the culinary landscape of Los Angeles, influencing so many of today’s chefs (many of whom passed through its kitchen).”\n", "Section::::Similar styles in other countries.:North America and the United Kingdom.\n\nUpmarket tapas restaurants and tapas bars are common in many cities of the United States, Mexico, Canada, Ireland and the United Kingdom. As with any cuisine exported from its original country, there can often be significant differences between the original Spanish dishes and the dishes as they are served abroad. \n\nSection::::Similar styles in other countries.:Mexico.\n", "BULLET::::- 2011 US Airways Magazine 14 Most Trend Setting Restaurants in the US: The Passenger and Columbia Room\n\nBULLET::::- 2011 Garden & Gun Best New Bars: Columbia Room\n\nBULLET::::- 2011 Travel + Leisure America’s Best Cocktail Bars: Columbia Room\n\nBULLET::::- 2012 Food & Wine 50 Best Bars in America: The Passenger and Columbia Room\n\nBULLET::::- 2012 USA Today 10 Great Classic American Cocktail Bars: The Passenger and Columbia Room\n\nBULLET::::- 2012 James Beard Foundation Semi-finalist for Outstanding Bar Program: Columbia Room\n\nBULLET::::- 2012 Washington Post Dining Guide Critic's Rating 3 Stars: Columbia Room\n", "Section::::Immigrant influences.\n", "The food is inspired by Japanese dishes which is \"all about the ingredients, the freshness, and always very simple.\"\n\nThere are 24 courses, including canapés, cheeses, soups, and desserts. There is no choice of what the courses are. Chef's Table at Brooklyn Fare uses around 900 serving pieces each night. Ramírez introduces each course by listing the ingredients. When the food is served by the chefs, Ramírez watches the guests eat.\n", "Each restaurant offers cuisines from multiple countries including Italy, China, India, Mexico, the US and the United Kingdom. The restaurants all offer \"live cooking stations\" where food is cooked to order in front of the customer.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- The King Bar and Red Salt Room by David Burke, Garden City Hotel Garden City NY April 2018\n\nBULLET::::- David Burke Townhouse - (New York City, New York - closed) (Formerly David Burke and Donatella)\n\nBULLET::::- Fishtail - (New York City, New York - closed)\n\nBULLET::::- David Burke at Bloomingdale's - (Bloomingdale's], New York City, New York - closed)\n\nBULLET::::- David Burke Modern American Cuisine - (Las Vegas Valley, Las Vegas, Nevada - closed)\n\nBULLET::::- David Burke's Primehouse - (Chicago, Illinois - closed)\n\nBULLET::::- Fromagerie - (Rumson, New Jersey - closed)\n", "Locals will have their favorite restaurant with the best Francesinha in town, typically arguing about the quality of the sauce (a secret recipe that varies by restaurant) and the quality of the meats.\n\nSection::::Availability.\n", "Section::::Diners.\n\nBULLET::::- Cherry Bowl Drive-In Theatre & Diner\n\nBULLET::::- Cherry Hut\n\nBULLET::::- Dime Store, Portland, Oregon (2014–2015)\n\nBULLET::::- Diners of Allentown, Pennsylvania\n\nBULLET::::- Ellen's Stardust Diner\n\nBULLET::::- Empire Diner\n\nBULLET::::- Fair Deal Cafe\n\nBULLET::::- Fog City Diner\n\nBULLET::::- Franks Diner\n\nBULLET::::- Frazer Diner\n\nBULLET::::- Haven Brothers Diner\n\nBULLET::::- Moondance Diner\n\nBULLET::::- O'Rourke's Diner\n\nBULLET::::- Olga's Diner\n\nBULLET::::- Pamela's Diner\n\nBULLET::::- Red Arrow Diner\n\nBULLET::::- Roscoe Diner\n\nBULLET::::- Rosie's Diner\n\nBULLET::::- Ruby's Diner\n\nBULLET::::- Ski Inn\n\nBULLET::::- Summit Diner\n\nBULLET::::- Tastee Diner\n\nBULLET::::- Tom's Restaurant\n\nBULLET::::- Veggie Galaxy\n\nBULLET::::- Vicky's Diner\n\nBULLET::::- White Manna\n", "BULLET::::- Topolobampo won Outstanding Restaurant from the James Beard Foundation 2017\n\nSection::::Bibliography.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Authentic Mexican: Regional Cooking from the Heart of Mexico\" (1987)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rick Bayless's Mexican Kitchen: Capturing the Vibrant Flavors of a World-Class Cuisine\" (1996)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Salsas That Cook : Using Classic Salsas To Enliven Our Favorite Dishes\" (1998)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mexico: One Plate at a Time\" (book) (2000)\n\nBULLET::::- \"\" (television series) (2003–present)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rick and Lanie's Excellent Kitchen Adventures\" (2004)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mexican Everyday\" (2005)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fiesta at Rick's: Fabulous Food for Great Times with Friends\" (2010)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Frontera: Margaritas, Guacamoles, and Snacks\" (2012)\n", "Section::::Reviews.\n\nZagat gave the restaurant high marks and remarked on its '\"vibrant”, “modern” setting matched with a “lively bar scene”; “seamless”, “tag-team” service\".'\n\nSection::::Name change of certain locations.\n", "BULLET::::- 2017, SF Gate Most San Francisco Restaurants\n\nBULLET::::- 2017, American City Business Journals San Francisco's 5 favorite restaurants\n\nBULLET::::- 2017, Zagat 9 SF Bay Area Restaurant Families You Need to Know\n\nBULLET::::- 2017, PureWow Things Every San Franciscan Must Add to Their Foodie Bucket List\n\nBULLET::::- 2016, SF Weekly Eat: Original Joe's of Westlake\n\nBULLET::::- 2016, San Francisco Chronicle Top 10 new restaurants of 2016\n\nBULLET::::- 2016, Harpers Bazaar 88 Things to Do and See in San Francisco\n\nBULLET::::- 2016, Eater The Best Family-Owned Restaurants in the US\n\nBULLET::::- 2015, SF Gate Best dishes\n", "BULLET::::- Texas toast\n\nBULLET::::- Tipsy cake\n\nBULLET::::- Yaka mein\n\nWest\n\nBULLET::::- Arizona cheese crisp\n\nBULLET::::- California-style pizza\n\nBULLET::::- Carne asada fries\n\nBULLET::::- Chantilly cake\n\nBULLET::::- Chili burger\n\nBULLET::::- Cioppino\n\nBULLET::::- Cobb salad\n\nBULLET::::- Cowboy beans\n\nBULLET::::- Crab Louie\n\nBULLET::::- Denver sandwich\n\nBULLET::::- Dodger Dog\n\nBULLET::::- Finger steaks\n\nBULLET::::- Fool's Gold Loaf\n\nBULLET::::- French dip\n\nBULLET::::- Frito pie\n\nBULLET::::- Frogeye salad\n\nBULLET::::- Frozen banana\n\nBULLET::::- Funeral potatoes\n\nBULLET::::- Hangtown fry\n\nBULLET::::- Happy Cake\n\nBULLET::::- Haupia\n\nBULLET::::- Hawaiian haystack\n\nBULLET::::- Kulolo\n\nBULLET::::- Laulau\n\nBULLET::::- Loco moco\n\nBULLET::::- Mission burrito\n\nBULLET::::- Poke\n\nBULLET::::- Santa Maria-style barbecue\n\nBULLET::::- Seattle-style hot dog\n\nBULLET::::- Shrimp Louie\n", "While there are variations on the BLT, the essential ingredients are bacon, tomatoes and lettuce between two slices of bread, often toasted. The quantity and quality of the ingredients are matters of personal preference. The bacon can be well cooked or tender, but as it \"carries\" the other flavors, chefs recommend using higher quality meat; in particular, chef Edward Lee states \"Your general supermarket bacon is not going to cut the mustard.\"\n", "The models that emerge are quite diverse, ranging from the typical business set up in a family home, up to more elaborated variations including different types of cuisine in rooms specially designed or modified for the activity. Similarly, while most retailers offer Cuban food, and Italian food, which is very popular in Cuba, others have produced more ambitious projects combining local cuisine with Mediterranean and international elements.\n", "BULLET::::- Big Apple Bagels\n\nBULLET::::- Blue Chip Cookies\n\nBULLET::::- Boudin Bakery\n\nBULLET::::- Breadsmith\n\nBULLET::::- Brioche Dorée\n\nBULLET::::- Bruegger's\n\nBULLET::::- Butlers café\n\nBULLET::::- Café A Brasileira\n\nBULLET::::- Café de la Paix\n\nBULLET::::- Café du Monde\n\nBULLET::::- Café Landtmann\n\nBULLET::::- Café Procope\n\nBULLET::::- Cinnabon\n\nBULLET::::- Coco's Bakery\n\nBULLET::::- Corner Bakery Cafe\n\nBULLET::::- Délifrance\n\nBULLET::::- Dewey's Bakery\n\nBULLET::::- Dôme\n\nBULLET::::- East Beach Cafe\n\nBULLET::::- Einstein Bros. Bagels\n\nBULLET::::- Goldilocks Bakeshop\n\nBULLET::::- Gourmet Foods\n\nBULLET::::- Greggs\n\nBULLET::::- Gus's\n\nBULLET::::- Irani café\n\nBULLET::::- Italian Tomato\n\nBULLET::::- Joan's on Third\n\nBULLET::::- La Bou\n\nBULLET::::- La Brea Bakery\n\nBULLET::::- la Madeleine\n\nBULLET::::- Le Pain Quotidien\n", "BULLET::::- Zippin' Pastas (Episode 222)\n\nBULLET::::- Butterscotch Apple Leaf (Episode 223)\n\nBULLET::::- Lavender Poached Pear (Episode 224)\n\nBULLET::::- Stuffed Squab (Episode 225)\n\nBULLET::::- Potato Crusted Monkfish (Episode 226)\n\nSeason 3:\n\nBULLET::::- Maple Cured Hot Smoked Salmon (Episode 301)\n\nBULLET::::- Arctic Char (Episode 302)\n\nBULLET::::- Apple Tart (Episode 303)\n\nBULLET::::- Navy Picnic (Episode 304)\n\nBULLET::::- Lamb Shanks (Episode 305)\n\nBULLET::::- Roasted Strawberries (Episode 306)\n\nBULLET::::- Scallops (Episode 307)\n\nBULLET::::- Beef Tenderloin (Episode 308)\n\nBULLET::::- Tomato Water (Episode 309)\n\nBULLET::::- Black Olive Chicken (Episode 310)\n\nBULLET::::- Golden Blueberry Mousse (Episode 311)\n\nBULLET::::- Salmon (Episode 312)\n\nBULLET::::- Saffron Ratatouille Couscous (Episode 313)\n\nSection::::Books.\n", "\"Below is a list of dishes featured during the first season of\" Pass the Plate \"hosted by Brenda Song, with Wikilinks where appropriate.\"\n\nBULLET::::- Rice Episode\n\nBULLET::::- Congee (China)\n\nBULLET::::- Idli (India)\n\nBULLET::::- Rice Salad (Italy)\n\nBULLET::::- Onigiri (Japan)\n\nBULLET::::- California roll (US)\n\nBULLET::::- Mangoes Episode\n\nBULLET::::- Spinach, Mango and Chicken Salad (US)\n\nBULLET::::- Sliced Mango on a Stick (Mexico)\n\nBULLET::::- Mango Lassi (India)\n\nBULLET::::- Fruity Icy Pole (Australia)\n\nBULLET::::- Beef and Mango Stir-Fry (China)\n\nBULLET::::- Bananas Episode\n\nBULLET::::- Grilled Bananas (Australia)\n\nBULLET::::- Banana Smoothies (UK)\n\nBULLET::::- Durban Curried Banana Salad (South Africa)\n\nBULLET::::- Arroz com Feijao E Banana (Brazil)\n", "BULLET::::- \"é by José Andrés\" – Las Vegas – several chefs serve a \"prix fixe\" menu of about 25 small courses to nine diners at a time. Modeled after minibar and located inside \"Jaleo\".\n\nBULLET::::- \"Somni\" – Los Angeles – Small ten-seat dining room inside \"The Bazaar\", formerly known as \"SAAM\". Led by chef Aitor Zabala. Received two stars in the 2019 Michelin Guide for California.\n\nOther restaurants:\n\nBULLET::::- \"America Eats Tavern\" – Washington, DC – Traditional American dishes in conjunction with the Foundation for the National Archives.\n", "Section::::Design and ambiance.\n", "Section::::Diners.:Diners on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places.\n\nBULLET::::- 29 Diner\n\nBULLET::::- Agawam Diner\n\nBULLET::::- Al Mac's Diner-Restaurant\n\nBULLET::::- Al's Diner\n\nBULLET::::- Ann's Diner\n\nBULLET::::- Bill's Diner\n\nBULLET::::- Boulevard Diner\n\nBULLET::::- Burnett's Diner\n\nBULLET::::- Capitol Diner\n\nBULLET::::- Casey's Diner\n\nBULLET::::- Central Diner\n\nBULLET::::- Chadwick Square Diner\n\nBULLET::::- Corner Lunch\n\nBULLET::::- Dell Rhea's Chicken Basket\n\nBULLET::::- Jack's Diner\n\nBULLET::::- Landrum's Hamburger System No. 1\n\nBULLET::::- Lou Mitchell's\n\nBULLET::::- Mickey's Diner\n\nBULLET::::- Miss Albany Diner\n\nBULLET::::- Miss Bellows Falls Diner\n\nBULLET::::- Miss Florence Diner\n\nBULLET::::- Miss Toy Town Diner\n\nBULLET::::- Miss Worcester Diner\n\nBULLET::::- Modern Diner\n\nBULLET::::- Monarch Diner\n", "Section::::Technology trends.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Restaurants have a taste that you can't get at home." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "You can get that taste by adding more fat and salt to your food. " ]
2018-01088	Do meteors that burn up in atmosphere adding to the planet's mass?	Yes, they do. However, we are constantly losing some of our mass due to gas particles escaping. I am not familiar with the actual rates, so the Earth could be either gaining or losing mass right now.	[ "It is a well known fact that the earth is constantly acquiring mass through accumulation of rocks and dust from space, as are all other planetary bodies in our system. According to NASA, \"Every day about 100 tons of meteoroids -- fragments of dust and gravel and sometimes even big rocks – enter the Earth's atmosphere.\" The majority of this debris burns up in the atmosphere and lands as dust. Such accretion, however, is only a minuscule fraction of the mass increase required by the expanding Earth hypothesis.\n\nSection::::Different forms of the hypothesis.:Decrease of the gravitational constant.\n", "The main factor in mass gain is in-falling material, cosmic dust, meteors, etc. are the most significant contributors to Earth's increase in mass. The sum of material is estimated to be annually, although this can vary significantly; to take an extreme example, the Chicxulub impactor, with a midpoint mass estimate of , added 900 million times that annual dustfall amount to the Earth's mass in a single event.\n", "In turn, when there is more mass in the seasonal caps due to the more condensation of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, the mass of the atmosphere would drop. They have inverse relationship with each other. And the change in mass has direct effect towards the measured gravitational potential.\n", "Where a planet has natural satellites, its mass is usually quoted for the whole system (planet + satellites), as it is the mass of the whole system which acts as a perturbation on the orbits of other planets. The distinction is very slight, as natural satellites are much smaller than their parent planets (as can be seen in the table above, where only the largest satellites are even listed).\n", "The combined effect is a net loss of material, estimated at per year. This amount is of the total earth mass. The annual net loss is essentially due to 100,000 tons lost due to atmospheric escape, and an average of 45,000 tons gained from in-falling dust and meteorites. This is well within the mass uncertainty of 0.01% (), so the estimated value of Earth's mass is unaffected by this factor.\n\nMass loss is due to atmospheric escape of gases. About 95,000 tons of hydrogen per year () and 1,600 tons of helium per year are lost through atmospheric escape.\n", "Earth-grazing fireball\n\nAn Earth-grazing fireball (or Earth-grazer) is a fireball, a very bright meteor that enters Earth’s atmosphere and leaves again. Some fragments may impact Earth as meteorites, if the meteor starts to break up or explodes in mid-air. These phenomena are then called Earth-grazing meteor processions and bolides. Famous examples of Earth-grazers are the 1972 Great Daylight Fireball and the Meteor Procession of July 20, 1860.\n\nSection::::Overview.\n\nAs an Earth-grazer passes through the atmosphere its mass and velocity are changed, so that its orbit, as it re-enters space, will be different from its orbit as it encountered Earth's atmosphere.\n", "The meteorite argument was examined by the NRC in the context of back contamination. It is thought that all the Martian meteorites originate in relatively few impacts every few million years on Mars. The impactors would be kilometers in diameter and the craters they form on Mars tens of kilometers in diameter. Models of impacts on Mars are consistent with these findings.\n", "Many planets and moons have impact craters dating back large spans of time. But new craters, perhaps even related to meteor showers are possible. Mars, and thus its moons, is known to have meteor showers. These have not been observed on other planets as yet but may be presumed to exist. For Mars in particular, although these are different from the ones seen on Earth because the different orbits of Mars and Earth relative to the orbits of comets. The Martian atmosphere has less than one percent of the density of Earth's at ground level, at their upper edges, where meteoroids strike, the two are more similar. Because of the similar air pressure at altitudes for meteors, the effects are much the same. Only the relatively slower motion of the meteoroids due to increased distance from the sun should marginally decrease meteor brightness. This is somewhat balanced in that the slower descent means that Martian meteors have more time in which to ablate.\n", "Occasionally, a white dwarf gains mass from another source – for example, a binary star companion that is close enough for the dwarf star to siphon sufficient amounts of matter onto itself; or a collision with other stars, the siphoned matter having been expelled during the process of the companion's own late stage stellar evolution. If the white dwarf gains enough matter, its internal pressure and temperature will rise enough for carbon to begin fusing in its core. Carbon detonation generally occurs at the point when the accreted matter pushes the white dwarf's mass close to the Chandrasekhar limit of roughly 1.4 solar masses. This is the mass at which gravity can overcome the electron degeneracy pressure which had prevented the star from collapsing during its lifetime. The same also happens when two white dwarfs merge and the mass of the body formed is below the Chandrasekhar limit; if two white dwarves merge and the result is \"over\" the limit, a Type Ia supernova will occur.\n", "A dwarf planet, by definition, is not massive enough to have gravitationally cleared its neighbouring region of planetesimals: it is not known quite how large a planet must be before it can effectively clear its neighbourhood, but one tenth of the Earth's mass is certainly sufficient.\n\nThe smaller planets retain only silicates, and are terrestrial planets like Earth or Mars, though multiple-\"M\" super-Earths have been discovered. The interior structure of rocky planets is mass-dependent: for example, plate tectonics may require a minimum mass to generate sufficient temperatures and pressures for it to occur.\n", "During planetary-system formation, several small protoplanetary bodies may be ejected from the system. An ejected body would receive less of the stellar-generated ultraviolet light that can strip away the lighter elements of its atmosphere. Even an Earth-sized body would have enough gravity to prevent the escape of the hydrogen and helium in its atmosphere. In an Earth-sized object that has a kilobar atmospheric pressure of hydrogen and a convective gas adiabat, the geothermal energy from residual core radioisotope decay could maintain a surface temperature above the melting point of water, allowing liquid-water oceans to exist. These planets are likely to remain geologically active for long periods. If they have geodynamo-created protective magnetospheres and sea floor volcanism, hydrothermal vents could provide energy for life. These bodies would be difficult to detect because of their weak thermal microwave radiation emissions, although reflected solar radiation and far-infrared thermal emissions may be detectable from an object that is less than 1000 astronomical units from Earth. Around five percent of Earth-sized ejected planets with Moon-sized natural satellites would retain their satellites after ejection. A large satellite would be a source of significant geological tidal force heating.\n", "Other mechanisms that can cause atmosphere depletion are solar wind-induced sputtering, impact erosion, weathering, and sequestration—sometimes referred to as \"freezing out\"—into the regolith and polar caps.\n\nSection::::Terrain.\n\nAtmospheres have dramatic effects on the surfaces of rocky bodies. Objects that have no atmosphere, or that have only an exosphere, have terrain that is covered in craters. Without an atmosphere, the planet has no protection from meteoroids, and all of them collide with the surface as meteorites and create craters.\n", "Additional changes in mass are due to the mass–energy equivalence principal, although these changes are relatively negligible. Mass loss due to the combination of nuclear fission and natural radioactive decay is estimated to amount to 16 tons per year,\n\n, though these do not on their own change the total mass-energy of the earth.\n\nAn additional loss due to spacecraft on escape trajectories has been estimated at since the mid-20th century. Earth lost about 3473 tons in the initial 53 years of the space age, but the trend is currently decreasing.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Abundance of elements in Earth's crust\n", "BULLET::::- Are Planetary Systems Filled to Capacity? A Study Based on Kepler Results, Julia Fang, Jean-Luc Margot, February 28, 2013\n\nSection::::System architectures.:Orbital configurations.:Planet capture.\n", "All bodies accelerating in a fluid will be affected by added mass, but since the added mass is dependent on the density of the fluid, the effect is often neglected for dense bodies falling in much less dense fluids. For situations where the density of the fluid is comparable to or greater than the density of the body, the added mass can often be greater than the mass of the body and neglecting it can introduce significant errors into a calculation.\n", "Most systems that involve multiple gravitational attractions present one primary body which is dominant in its effects (for example, a star, in the case of the star and its planet, or a planet, in the case of the planet and its satellite). The gravitational effects of the other bodies can be treated as perturbations of the hypothetical unperturbed motion of the planet or satellite around its primary body.\n\nSection::::Mathematical analysis.\n\nSection::::Mathematical analysis.:General perturbations.\n", "Perturbation (astronomy)\n\nIn astronomy, perturbation is the complex motion of a massive body subject to forces other than the gravitational attraction of a single other massive body. The other forces can include a third (fourth, fifth, etc.) body, resistance, as from an atmosphere, and the off-center attraction of an oblate or otherwise misshapen body.\n\nSection::::Introduction.\n", "Zecharia Sitchin suggested that the goddess known to the Sumerians as Tiamat in fact relates to a planet that was destroyed by a rogue planet known as Nibiru, creating both Earth and the asteroid belt. His work is widely regarded as pseudoscience.\n", "The original mass of the Sun at the time it reached the main sequence remains uncertain. The early Sun had much higher mass-loss rates than at present, and it may have lost anywhere from 1–7% of its natal mass over the course of its main-sequence lifetime. The Sun gains a very small amount of mass through the impact of asteroids and comets. However, as the Sun already contains 99.86% of the Solar System's total mass, these impacts cannot offset the mass lost by radiation and ejection.\n\nSection::::Related units.\n\nOne solar mass, , can be converted to related units:\n", "Section::::Modern era.:Lines of evidence.:Cloud condensation.\n\nRecent research at CERN's CLOUD facility examined links between cosmic rays and cloud condensation nuclei, demonstrating the effect of high-energy particulate radiation in nucleating aerosol particles that are precursors to cloud condensation nuclei. Kirkby (CLOUD team leader) said, \"At the moment, it [the experiment] actually says nothing about a possible cosmic-ray effect on clouds and climate.\" After further investigation, the team concluded that \"variations in cosmic ray intensity do not appreciably affect climate through nucleation.\"\n", "According to the size criteria, the closest planetary mass objects by known radius or mass are:\n", "The energetic impacts of the smaller planetesimals (as well as radioactive decay) will heat up the growing planet, causing it to at least partially melt. The interior of the planet begins to differentiate by mass, developing a denser core. Smaller terrestrial planets lose most of their atmospheres because of this accretion, but the lost gases can be replaced by outgassing from the mantle and from the subsequent impact of comets. (Smaller planets will lose any atmosphere they gain through various escape mechanisms.)\n", "Collisions between ejecta escaping Earth's gravity and asteroids would have left impact heating signatures in stony meteorites; analysis based on assuming the existence of this effect has been used to date the impact event to 4.47 billion years ago, in agreement with the date obtained by other means.\n", "For the Solar System from its origins to the present, the current 10 kg biomass over the past four billion years gives a time-integrated biomass (\"BIOTA\") of 4·10 kg-years. In comparison, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and water in the 10 kg asteroids allows 6·10 kg biomass that can be sustained with energy for the 5 billion future years of the Sun, giving a \"BIOTA\" of 3·10 kg-years in the Solar System and 3·10 kg-years about 10 stars in the galaxy. Materials in comets could give biomass and time-integrated \"BIOTA\" a hundred times larger. \n", "Section::::Perihelion and aphelion.:Other planets.\n\nThe following table shows the distances of the planets and dwarf planets from the Sun at their perihelion and aphelion.\n\nSection::::Mathematical formulae.\n\nThese formulae characterize the pericenter and apocenter of an orbit:\n\nBULLET::::- Pericenter: Maximum speed, formula_1, at minimum (pericenter) distance, formula_2.\n\nBULLET::::- Apocenter: Minimum speed, formula_3, at maximum (apocenter) distance, formula_4.\n\nWhile, in accordance with Kepler's laws of planetary motion (based on the conservation of angular momentum) and the conservation of energy, these two quantities are constant for a given orbit:\n\nBULLET::::- Specific relative angular momentum: formula_5\n\nBULLET::::- Specific orbital energy: formula_6\n\nwhere:\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03981	how do radio towers create waves?	They use an antenna which is specially configured for the frequency they want to broadcast. They then generate electric fields in the antenna. Because of the configuration of the antenna, those fields begin to propagate some of their energy to the surrounding space, in the form of electromagnetic waves. The antenna is important, though. It has to be specially shaped and sized to do a good job of creating those waves.	[ "Lower power transmitters often use electrically short quarter wave monopoles such as inverted-L or T antennas, which are brought into resonance with a loading coil at their base.\n", "BULLET::::- Direct digital synthesis\n\nSection::::Determining the frequency.:Frequency multiplication.\n", "Many other types of modulation are also used. In some types a carrier wave is not transmitted but just one or both modulation sidebands. The modulated carrier is amplified in the transmitter, and applied to a transmitting antenna which radiates the energy as radio waves. The radio waves carry the information to the receiver location.\n", "These are the most used/important devices and items for most radio stations.\n\nSection::::Equipment.:Antennas.\n\nA microphone is used to capture the input of sound waves created by people speaking into the device. The sounds are then turned into electrical energy; this energy then flows along a metal antenna. As the electrons in the electric current move back and forth up the antenna, the current creates an invisible electromagnetic radiation in the form of radio waves. The waves travel at the speed of light, taking the radio program (voices recorded) with them.\n\nSection::::Equipment.:Transceiver.\n", "The most common antennas in this band are wire antennas such as wire dipoles and the rhombic antenna; in the upper frequencies, multielement dipole antennas such as the Yagi, quad, and log-periodic antennas. Powerful shortwave broadcasting stations often use large wire curtain arrays.\n", "Section::::Resonant antennas.\n", "Section::::Electric current.\n\nElectric currents that oscillate at radio frequencies (\"RF currents\") have special properties not shared by direct current or alternating current of lower frequencies.\n\nBULLET::::- Energy from RF currents in conductors can radiate into space as electromagnetic waves (radio waves). This is the basis of radio technology.\n\nBULLET::::- RF current does not penetrate deeply into electrical conductors but tends to flow along their surfaces; this is known as the skin effect.\n", "Processes, collectively known as particle acceleration, produce populations of relativistic and non-thermal particles that give rise to synchrotron and inverse-Compton radiation. Fermi acceleration is one plausible particle acceleration process in radio-loud active galaxies.\n\nSection::::Radio structures.\n", "Section::::Resonant antennas.:Arrays and reflectors.\n", "Section::::Adding modulation to the signal.\n", "Section::::Recording history.:\"Colony of Bees\".\n", "Section::::Technology.\n\nCell Broadcast allows a text or binary message to be defined and distributed to all mobile terminals connected to a set of cells.\n", "Section::::Radio and SFX.\n", "Section::::Reception.:Media reception.\n", "Section::::General purpose signal generators.:RF and microwave signal generators.\n", "BULLET::::- 1893: physicist W.B. Croft exhibits Branly's experiments at a meeting of the Physical Society in London. It is unclear to Croft and others whether the filings in the Branly filing tube are reacting to sparks or the light from the sparks. George Minchin notices the [Branly] tube may be reacting to Hertzian waves the same way his solar cell does and writes the paper \"\"The Action of Electromagnetic Radiation on Films containing Metallic Powders\"\". These papers are read by Lodge who sees a way to build a much improved Herzian wave detector.\n", "Electromagnetic waves are radiated by electric charges when they are accelerated. Radio waves, electromagnetic waves of radio frequency, are generated by time-varying electric currents, consisting of electrons flowing through a metal conductor called an antenna which are changing their velocity or direction and thus accelerating. An alternating current flowing back and forth in an antenna will create an oscillating magnetic field around the conductor. The alternating voltage will also charge the ends of the conductor alternately positive and negative, creating an oscillating electric field around the conductor. If the frequency of the oscillations is high enough, in the radio frequency range above about 20 kHz, the oscillating coupled electric and magnetic fields will radiate away from the antenna into space as an electromagnetic wave, a radio wave. \n", "through the lens of historical background. A detailed presentation of the historical stages of development of the DAA theory deserves standalone consideration.\n\nSection::::Advanced processing techniques.\n", "BULLET::::- Estimated Number of Sites.\n\nSection::::Phase 2: Detailed RF Propagation Modelling.\n", "Section::::Reception.\n", "BULLET::::- Solar flares produce a large increase in D region ionization so high, sometimes for periods of several minutes, all skywave propagation is nonexistent.\n\nSection::::Types of modulation.\n\nSeveral different types of modulation are used to incorporate information in a short-wave signal.\n\nSection::::Types of modulation.:Audio modes.\n\nBULLET::::- AM\n\nAmplitude modulation is the simplest type and the most commonly used for shortwave broadcasting. The instantaneous amplitude of the carrier is controlled by the amplitude of the signal (speech, or music, for example). At the receiver, a simple detector recovers the desired modulation signal from the carrier.\n\nBULLET::::- SSB\n", "Section::::Modes.:Tropospheric modes.:Rain scattering.\n", "Section::::Emission processes.\n", "Radio communication station\n\nA radio communication station is a set of equipment necessary to carry on communication via radio waves. Generally, it is a receiver or transmitter or transceiver, an antenna, and some smaller additional equipment necessary to operate them. They play a vital role in communication technology as they are heavily relied on to transfer data and information across the world.\n", "Section::::Linking the transmitter to the aerial.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-10207	How is 'I am.' a complete sentence while 'I'm.' is not?	The issue here comes down to the type of verb "am" is acting as in each context. "Am" is the present tense of the verb "to be". "To be" and all of its conjugate forms function differently than other verbs in the English language. To be can be an active verb, an inactive linking verb, or an auxiliary verb, depending on its form and context. In the sentence "I am.", the verb "am" is serving as an active verb, in the transitive, which means it links directly to the subject. In this context am is synonymous with "exist", and so the sentence is complete. However, in the contraction "I'm", the am is no longer synonymous with "exist" and so the sentence isn't complete. The contraction "I'm" uses the auxiliary form of the word am. Auxiliary verbs are verbs that require other verbs to form a complete sentence. In the colloquial usage, "I'm" almost always precedes an active verb and a direct object. "I'm going to the store." "I'm driving there later." "I'm thinking about what to make for dinner." This is why "I'm" cannot be a complete sentence on its own. Same verb base, different usage.	[ "BULLET::::- NKJV \"Most assuredly, I say to you, before Abraham was, I AM.\" (Good News Translation GNT; International Standard Version ISV; Phillips; Jubillee Bible 2000; Modern English Version MEV and other translations render it in capital letters \"I AM\" as well, to indicate the Title element)\n\nSection::::Grammatical issues.:Verbal tense and aspect.:\"...I have been\".\n\nHowever in John 8:58 a few Bibles have renderings of \"eimi\" in past tenses:\n\nBULLET::::- The United Bible Societies \"Hebrew New Testament\" has \"ani hayiti\" \"I was\" not \"ani hu\" \"I am\".\n", "BULLET::::- \"that I am\" without supplying a predicate in the absolute sense as the Jews (De 32:39) used the language of Jehovah (cf. Isa 43:10 where the very words occur; \"hina pisteusete hoti ego eimi\"). K. L. McKay considers the John \"I am\" statements to be primarily normal use with predicate, \"I am X\", \"I am the true vine\" etc.\n\nSection::::Grammatical issues.:Verbal tense and aspect.\n\nSection::::Grammatical issues.:Verbal tense and aspect.:\"...I am\".\n", "BULLET::::- Hebrew sentences do not have to include verbs; the copula in the present tense is omitted. For example, the sentence \"I am here\" ( ') has only two words; one for I () and one for here (). In the sentence \"I am that person\" ( '), the word for \"am\" corresponds to the word for \"he\" (). However, this may also be omitted. Thus, the sentence () is identical in meaning.\n", "But this is often seen as hypercorrect and may be unacceptable, as in:\n\nBULLET::::- * \"This one [photograph] is I as a baby.\n\n\"Me\" is usually preferred as a subjective predicate, especially in informal style:\n\nBULLET::::- \"This is me as a baby.\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"It's me!\"\n\nThe nominative \"I\" is more common in this role when it is followed by a relative clause:\n\nBULLET::::- \"It is I she loves.\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"It is I who love you.\"\n\nthough even here \"me\" is more common in non-formal style:\n\nBULLET::::- \"It's me she loves.\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"It's me who loves you.\"\n", "Some forms of the copula and auxiliaries often appear as contractions, as in \"I'm\" for \"I am\", \"you'd\" for \"you would\" or \"you had\", and \"John's\" for \"John is\". Their negated forms with following \"not\" are also often contracted (see below). For detail see English auxiliaries and contractions.\n\nSection::::Word classes and phrases.:Verbs.:Phrases.\n", "Writer and critic Henry Hitchings points to usage in William Congreve's \"The Double Dealer\" (1693) and in Mark Twain's letters. Otto Jespersen found similar examples (\"pronouns or nouns plus \"I\" after a preposition\", in Robert J. Menner's words) in Ben Jonson, John Bunyan, Charles Dickens, and Graham Greene, and Menner adds Noah Webster, Samuel Pepys, Thomas Middleton, and others.\n", "Forms such as \"I\", \"he\", and \"we\" are used for the subject (\"I kicked the ball\"), whereas forms such as \"me\", \"him\" and \"us\" are used for the object (\"John kicked me\").\n\nSection::::Word classes and phrases.:Declension.\n", "According to linguist Joshua Fishman the phrase is, in some circles, \"considered to be perfectly OK even in print\", while others accept it \"only in some contexts\", and yet others never accept it at all. Richard Redfern cites many examples of what is considered incorrect pronoun usage, many of which do not follow the \"preposition + you and I\" construction: \"for he and I\", \"between he and Mr. Bittman\". He argues that the \"error\" is widespread (Elizabeth II even committing it), and that it should become acceptable usage: \"The rule asks native speakers of English to stifle their instinctive way of expressing themselves\".\n", "The following contractions of auxiliary verbs (including forms of \"be\", whether as a strict auxiliary or as a copula) are used:\n\nBULLET::::- -'m for \"am\", in \"I'm\" (for \"I am\")\n\nBULLET::::- -'s for \"is\", as in \"it's\" (for \"it is\"), \"the man's\" (for \"the man is\", although the same form is used for the possessive), and \"she's\" (for \"she is\")\n\nBULLET::::- -'re for \"are\", mostly in \"we're\", \"you're\" and \"they're\"\n\nBULLET::::- -'ve for auxiliary \"have\", mostly in \"I've\", \"you've\", \"we've\" and \"they've\"\n", "Nissenbaum notes that the some kinds of language can lead one's analysis astray. For example, when the passive voice is used to describe the movement of data, it allows the speaker to gloss over the fact that there is an active agent performing the data transfer. For example, the sentence “Alice had her identity stolen” allows the speaker to gloss over the fact that someone or something did the actual stealing of Alice's identity. If we say that “Carol was able to find Bob’s bankruptcy records because they had been placed online”, we are implicitly ignoring the fact that someone or some organization did the actual collection of the bankruptcy records from a court and the placing of those records online.\n", "Following \"as\" or \"than\" (without a following explicit verb), the accusative form is common:\n\nBULLET::::- \"She is older than me.\"\n\nHowever, where it is possible to think of the pronoun as the subject of an implicit verb and \"than\" or \"as\" as a conjunction, the nominative \"I\" is found in formal style:\n\nBULLET::::- \"She is older than I [am].\"\n\nIn Australian English, British English and Irish English, many speakers have an unstressed form of \"my\" that is identical to \"me\" (see archaic and non-standard forms of English personal pronouns).\n", "In Hungarian, there is a word corresponding to \"have\": \"bír\"—but its use is quite scarce today, usually turning up in very formal and legal texts. It also sounds outdated, since it was used to translate the Latin \"habeo\" and the German \"haben\" possessive verbs when these languages had official status in Hungary. The general grammatical construction used is \"there is a(n) X of mine\". For example, the English sentence \"I have a car.\" translates to Hungarian as \"Van egy autóm.\" which would translate back to English word-by-word as \"There is a car of mine.\"\n", "In this sentence, the object of the verb is actually the action of coming performed by the speaker (\"geldiğimi\" \"my coming\"), but the object in the English sentence, \"me\", is indicated here by the possessive suffix -im \"my\" on the nominalised verb. Both pronouns can be explicitly indicated in the sentence for purposes of emphasis, as follows:\n\nSection::::Examples.:Swahili.\n\nIn Swahili, both subject and object pronouns can be omitted as they are indicated by verbal prefixes.\n\nSection::::Examples.:English.\n", "Literal translation: (I) think, therefore (I) am.\n\nIdiomatic translation: I think, therefore I am.\n\nIn Polish, the subject is omitted almost every time, although it can be present to put emphasis on the subject.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Russian.\n\n\"Пришёл, увидел, победил\" (\"Veni, vidi, vici\").\n\nLiteral translation: came, saw, conquered.\n\nIdiomatic translation: I came, I saw, I conquered.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Spanish.\n\nIn Spanish, as with Latin and most Romance languages, the subject is encoded in the verb conjugation. Pronoun use is not obligatory.\n\nBULLET::::- : I need help.\n\nBULLET::::- : You(infrm) are my friend.\n\nBULLET::::- : You(frm) see me.\n\nBULLET::::- : He is in his bedroom.\n", "Although there is no contraction for \"am not\" in standard English, there are certain colloquial or dialectal forms that may fill this role. These may be used in declarative sentences, whose standard form contains \"I am not\", and in questions, with standard form \"am I not?\" In the declarative case the standard contraction \"I'm not\" is available, but this does not apply in questions, where speakers may feel the need for a negative contraction to form the analog of \"isn't it\", \"aren't they\", etc. (see below).\n", "For example, the English object pronoun \"me\" is found in \"They see me\" (direct object), \"He's giving me my book\" (indirect object), and \"Sit with me\" (object of a preposition); this contrasts with the subject pronoun in \"I see them,\" \"I am getting my book,\" and \"I am sitting here.\"\n\nSection::::Modern English.\n\nThe English personal and interrogative pronouns have the following subject and object forms:\n\nSection::::Archaic second person forms.\n", "BULLET::::4. A copular construction involving \"it\" is frequently used. Thus \"I am an Irish person\" can be said ' and ' in Munster; there is a subtle difference in meaning, however, the first choice being a simple statement of fact, while the second brings emphasis onto the word \"Éireannach\". In effect the construction is a type of \"fronting\".\n", "Amharic is a pro-drop language: neutral sentences in which no element is emphasized normally omit independent pronouns: ' 'he's Ethiopian', ' 'I invited her'. The Amharic words that translate \"he\", \"I\", and \"her\" do not appear in these sentences as independent words. However, in such cases, the person, number, and (second- or third-person singular) gender of the subject and object are marked on the verb. When the subject or object in such sentences is emphasized, an independent pronoun is used: ' 'he's Ethiopian', ' 'I invited her', \" 'I invited her'.\n", "This is highly stigmatized.\n\nOn the other hand, the use of the nominative \"I\" in coordinative constructions like \"you and I\"where \"me\" would be used in a non-coordinative object is less stigmatized – and in some cases so widespread as to be considered a variety of standard English: \n\nBULLET::::- \"President Bush graciously invited Michelle and I to meet with him ...\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"All debts are cleared between you and I\".\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Between you and I\n\nSection::::Bibliography.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Etymology of I\". etymonline.com. Douglas Harper, n.d. Web. 12 Dec. 2010.\n", "BULLET::::- The contraction amn't (formed in the regular manner of the other negative contractions, as described above) is a standard contraction of \"am not\" in some dialects, mainly Hiberno-English (Irish English) and Scottish English. In Hiberno-English the question form (\"amn't I?\") is used more frequently than the declarative \"I amn't\". (The standard \"I'm not\" is available as an alternative to \"I amn't\" in both Scottish English and Hiberno-English.) An example appears in Oliver St. John Gogarty's impious poem \"The Ballad of Japing Jesus\": \"If anyone thinks that I amn't divine, / He gets no free drinks when I'm making the wine\". These lines are quoted in James Joyce's \"Ulysses\", which also contains other examples: \"Amn't I with you? Amn't I your girl?\" (spoken by Cissy Caffrey to Leopold Bloom in Chapter 15).\n", "Some languages do not use predicative adjectives with a linking verb; instead, adjectives can become stative verbs that replace the copula. For example, in Mandarin Chinese \"It is red\" is rendered as \"tā hóng\", which translates literally as \"It red\". However, Mandarin retains the copula when it is followed by a predicative nominal.\n\nSection::::Disputed pronoun forms.\n\nEighteenth-century grammarians such as Joseph Priestley justified the colloquial usage of \"it is me\" (and \"it is him\", \"he is taller than him\", etc.) on the grounds of good writers using it often: \n", "Since the embedded clauses are identical, the logic of this form is that the variable x must be bound to the same noun phrase in both cases. Therefore, “Betsy” is in the commanding position that determines the interpretation of the second clause.\n\nThe Pro → BV rule that converts pronouns into bound variables can be applied to all the pronouns.\n\nThis then allows for the sentence in 10.iii) to be:\n", "Section::::Clause and sentence structure.:Elliptical constructions.\n\nMany types of elliptical construction are possible in English, resulting in sentences that omit certain redundant elements. Various examples are given in the article on Ellipsis.\n\nSome notable elliptical forms found in English include:\n\nBULLET::::- Short statements of the form \"I can\", \"he isn't\", \"we mustn't\". Here the verb phrase (understood from the context) is reduced to a single auxiliary or other \"special\" verb, negated if appropriate. If there is no special verb in the original verb phrase, it is replaced by \"do/does/did\": \"he does\", \"they didn't\".\n", "Case in terms of reflexivity is overt in English for every person (see the table for Pronominal Case Forms in English):myself\", yourself\", himself, herself,yourselves, ourselves, themselvesThe pattern for the reflexive form of the third person masculine pronoun does not follow the same pattern of reflexivity as the other pronouns in terms of case form marking for pronominal English.\n", "Similar deviations from the grammatical norm are quite common in other examples where the pronoun does not stand alone as the subject or object, as in \"Who said us Yorkshiremen\" [grammatical: \"we Yorkshiremen\"] \"are tight?\"\n\nWhen a pronoun stands alone without an explicit verb or preposition, the objective form is commonly used, even when traditional grammarians might prefer the subjective: \"Who's sitting here? Me.\" (Here \"I\" might be regarded as grammatically correct, since it is short for \"I am (sitting here)\", but it would sound formal and pedantic, unless followed by \"am\".)\n" ]	[ "I am and I'm always mean the same thing.", "The verb \"am\" is always the same word. " ]	[ "They are different conjugate forms of the same verb, and in the auxiliary form the words are not synonymous with \"I exist.\"", "The verb \"am\" can be a different word due to context, which changes it's meaning." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "I am and I'm always mean the same thing.", "The verb \"am\" is always the same word. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "They are different conjugate forms of the same verb, and in the auxiliary form the words are not synonymous with \"I exist.\"", "The verb \"am\" can be a different word due to context, which changes it's meaning." ]
2018-03229	What makes the Parkland school shooting different from those before it? Why is this one the straw that broke the camel's back?	1) Students were able to communicate what was going on live via their social medias. That dials the emotions of the event up by several degrees. 2) More people died than is average for these kinds of events. 3) The FBI and local police were warned but failed to act upon those warnings.	[ "Section::::Shooting.\n", "Two suspects, who were students at the school, were taken into custody in two separate locations following the shooting. Local media outlets reported that the weapons used by the suspects were stolen from a parent, and that neither were known to law enforcement prior to the attack. Some media outlets made an effort to avoid reporting the suspect's identities, in an effort to take part in the #NoNotoriety campaign which seeks to avoid rewarding the shooters with attention.\n", "Section::::Victims.\n\nOne student was killed and eight others were injured in the shooting, two were in serious condition. On 12 June the last of wounded were release from the hospital. Officials told reporters that the youngest victim is 15 years old. There were no staff deaths or injuries; all victims were students.\n", "About 500–600 other students were in attendance at the time of the shooting. By about 12:00 p.m., they were all transported by bus to the CSUSB campus, then to the nearby Cajon High School.\n\nSection::::Aftermath.\n\nThe gun-control advocacy group Everytown for Gun Safety said that this shooting was the fourth intentional shooting in a K-12 campus in 2017, and the first to result in fatalities.\n", "At least 68 schools that experienced a school shooting employed a police officer or security guard; in all but a few, the shooting ended before any intercession. Security guards or resource officers were present during four of the five school shooting incidents with the highest number of dead or injured: the 1999 Columbine High School massacre in Colorado, the 2018 Stoneman Douglas High School shooting, the 2018 Marshall County High School shooting in Kentucky, and the 2001 Santana High School shooting in California.\n", "Two other people were detained by police as persons of interest. One was detained at the scene due to \"suspicious reactions\" after the shooting, and another was described as being interviewed.\n\nSection::::Victims.\n\nTen people were killed and thirteen people were injured. The eight students and two teachers killed were:\n\nSection::::Suspect.\n", "There were 11 firearm-related events that occurred at a school or campus in the first 23 days of 2018. As of May 2018, more people, including students and teachers, were killed in 2018 in schools in the United States than were killed in military service for the United States, including both combat and non-combat military service, according to an analysis by \"The Washington Post\". In terms of the year-to-date number of individual deadly school shootings incidents in the United States, early 2018 was much higher than 2017, with 16 in 2018 and four in 2017, through May; the year-to-day through May number of incidents was the highest since 1999. As of May 2018, thirteen school shootings took place on K–12 school property in 2018 that resulted in firearm-related injuries or deaths, including 32 killed and 65 injured, according to \"Education Week\". 22 school shootings where someone was hurt or killed occurred in the United States in the first 20 weeks of 2018, according to CNN.\n", "In March 2019, shortly after the first anniversary of the shooting, two Parkland survivors committed suicide: a former student who graduated the year before, and a student who was enrolled in the school year. Officials renewed their efforts to provide mental health support to the school community and families and noted the long-term effects of such trauma.\n\nSection::::Shooting.\n", "Section::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Nikole Howell as Devon\n\nBULLET::::- Andrew Phillips as Luke Dalton\n\nBULLET::::- Courtney Rood as Erin\n\nBULLET::::- Lindsay Lamb as Laura\n\nBULLET::::- Yasmine Soofi as Alex\n\nBULLET::::- Savannah Matlow as Jess Perkins (as Savvy Matlow)\n\nBULLET::::- Simone Wasserman as Dee Dee Perkins\n\nBULLET::::- Lonnie Alcide Gardner as Max (as Lonnie Gardner)\n\nBULLET::::- Nick Siniseas as Joel\n\nBULLET::::- Dawna Lee Heising as Karla Perkins\n\nBULLET::::- Steve Crestas as Officer Harris\n\nBULLET::::- Julia Faye West as Anny Briteheart\n\nBULLET::::- Kelly De Vries as Kara\n\nBULLET::::- Mindy Robinson as Linda\n\nBULLET::::- Art Roberts as Principal Wheatley\n\nBULLET::::- Kristyn Archibald as Shelly\n", "Other infamous school shootings that occurred in the United States include the 1966 University of Texas tower shooting in Austin in which 16 were killed, the 2001 Santana High School shooting in Santee, California in which 2 were killed, and the 2018 Marshall County High School shooting in Benton, Kentucky in which 2 were killed.\n\nSection::::By region.:United States.:Studies of United States school shootings.\n", "Charva parked his car near the school, leaving 160 rounds of ammunition, a bag and handcuffs behind. He then entered the building with two semi-automatic pistols, a 9×19mm Smith & Wesson Model 59 and a 7.65mm-caliber Astra, as well as seven additional magazines.\n", "Even though there were no fatalities besides that of the gunman, the shooting was at one point considered to be the worst school shooting in the history of Germany since the Erfurt massacre, in which 17 people, including the perpetrator, were killed. This position is now held by the 2009 Winnenden school shooting, which left 16 people dead, including the perpetrator.\n\nSection::::Details.\n\nSection::::Details.:Shooting.\n", "According to the probable cause affidavit and complaint filed by law enforcement, the shooter used a short-barreled 12-gauge Remington Model 870 pump-action shotgun and a Rossi .38-caliber snub-nosed revolver. Both firearms appear to have been legally owned by his father. Various types of explosive devices were found at the school and off campus, as well as a Molotov cocktail, and residents in the surrounding area were warned to be aware of all suspicious objects.\n", "Section::::Profiling.:Family dynamics.\n", "Section::::Response.:Vigils, rallies and memorials.\n", "Section::::Aftermath.\n\nAfter the shooting, all students were evacuated from class and Campbell County police used Alsatian police dogs to search the premises of Campbell County High School. The school was closed for the rest of the week and was reopened the following Monday.\n\nSection::::Aftermath.:Legal proceedings.\n", "According to survivors, the gunmen gathered the victims in a central location and then began shooting and throwing explosives. The assailants also brought fuel to set the school on fire. Six students who escaped were found hiding in the bushes with gunshot wounds and taken to the hospital. More than 100 others were missing as of 6 July.\n\nSection::::Reactions.\n", "On March 28, 2013, court documents released from the investigation showed that the school shooting had occurred in the space of less than five minutes with 156 shots fired. This comprised 154 shots from the rifle and two shots from the 10mm pistol. Lanza fired one shot from the Glock in the hallway and killed himself with another shot from the pistol to the head.\n\nSection::::Investigation.:Off-site.\n", "Many school shootings in the United States result in one non-fatal injury. The type of firearm most commonly used in school shootings in the United States is the handgun. Three school shootings (the 1999 Columbine High School massacre in Colorado, the 2012 Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting in Connecticut, and the 2018 Stoneman Douglas High School shooting in Florida), accounted for 43% of the fatalities; the type of firearm used in the most lethal school shootings was the rifle. High-capacity magazines, which allow the perpetrator to fire dozens of rounds without having to reload, were used in the Columbine High School massacre and the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting.\n", "Section::::College and university response and countermeasures.\n\nThe Massengill Report was an after-action report created in the wake of the Virginia Tech shooting, which brought national attention to the need for colleges and universities to take concerning behavior and threats seriously. It has led to the creation of hundreds of behavioral intervention teams which help access and coordinate institutional responses to behavioral concerns on college and university campuses.\n\nSection::::School countermeasures.\n\nSection::::School countermeasures.:Armed classrooms.\n", "A large quantity of unused ammunition was recovered inside the school along with three semi-automatic firearms found with Lanza: a .223-caliber Bushmaster XM15-E2S rifle, a 10mm Glock 20SF handgun, and a 9mm SIG Sauer P226 handgun. Outside the school, an Izhmash Saiga-12 shotgun was found in the car Lanza had driven.\n", "Section::::Details.:Victims.\n\nBosse was the only fatality in the shooting, while a total of 22 people were injured. Four students (three boys and one girl aged between 12 and 16 years) and the school janitor all suffered gunshot wounds, which were aimed towards the chest, stomach, arm, knee, and hand. A pregnant female teacher also suffered facial injuries when she was hit by a thrown smoke bomb. In addition, 16 police officers had to be treated for respiratory problems due to smoke inhalation, while 15 students suffered from shock.\n\nSection::::Details.:Weapons.\n", "Parents were kept off school grounds during the response to the shooting, with parents being directed to the Alamo gym by 8 AM. Students were then evacuated to the gym and reunited with their parents.\n\nThe shooter told police he meant to kill the classmates he shot and wanted to spare the students he liked, so he could \"have his story told.\" The shooting lasted about 25 minutes until he was arrested.\n", "Section::::Shooting.\n", "Section::::Aftermath.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00910	Why can't humans hold themselves perfectly still without twitching, hence the difficulty of the game "operation"?	Muscles are composed of many strands. When your arm is held up, not all fibers are being used simultaneously, as that would need you to carry an extra weight. Over time fibers get tenuous, needing to relax, so your they switch to other strands, and this switch is usually abrupt, so our arm twitches a bit.	[ "The game is fully controlled by the analog sticks. The left analog stick is touch-sensitive; through various degrees of holding, tapping or pressing along with other buttons allows the player character Nina Williams to walk, run or evade. The right analog stick is used for offensive moves.\n", "An initial version of \"Surgeon Simulator 2013\" was created for the Global Game Jam in which the team had 48 hours to make the game. The team took inspiration from the game \"\" for the control scheme, which also came about because teams in the jam would gain bonus points if a game used ten buttons on the keyboard. The team initially wanted to assign a finger to each button but soon realized this was impractical and instead only limited this style of control to one hand with the other being controlled by the mouse.\n", "In the 2D system, movement around the plane is achieved via commands from the agents such as \"move\", \"dash\", \"turn\" and \"kick\". The 3D system has fewer command choices for agents to send, but the mechanics of motion about the field are much more involved as the positions of 22 hinges throughout the articulated body must be simultaneously controlled.\n", "BULLET::::- Exoskeleton controllers use exoskeleton technology to provide the player with different responses based on the player’s body position, speed of movement, and other sensed data. In addition to audio and visual responses, an exoskeleton controller may provide a controlled resistance to movement and other stimuli to provide realism to the action. This not only lets players feel as if they are actually performing the function, but also helps reinforce the correct muscle pattern for the activity being simulated. The Forcetek XIO is an example of an exoskeleton video game controller.\n", "BULLET::::- Pest bot, is harmless to the touch, but rides around on the lifts, foiling the player's designs.\n\nBULLET::::- Squat bot, springs up from the floor, sending the player character onto a higher floor or crushing him against the ceiling.\n\nThe \"ball\" type robot is no longer present.\n", "Keep Talking and Nobody Explodes is a video game developed by Steel Crate Games and released in October 2015. The game tasks a player with disarming procedurally generated bombs with the assistance of other players who are reading a manual containing instructions. The game was designed around virtual reality support, with availability first on Microsoft Windows with later ports to supported devices on OS X, Linux, Android, and PlayStation 4, though could be played without virtual reality in some cases. An update for the game released in August 2018 removed the virtual reality requirement for these existing systems as well as included releases for the Nintendo Switch and Xbox One. Non-VR Ports for iOS and Android are planned for August 2019.\n", "The U.S. Army has deployed machines such as the PackBot and UAV vehicles, which make use of a game-style hand controller to make it more familiar for young people. According to research discussed at the 2008 Convention of the American Psychological Association, certain types of video games can improve the gamers' dexterity as well as their ability to do problem solving. A study of 33 laparoscopic surgeons found that those who played video games were 27 percent faster at advanced surgical procedures and made 37 percent fewer errors compared to those who did not play video games. A second study of 303 laparoscopic surgeons (82 percent men; 18 percent women) also showed that surgeons who played video games requiring spatial skills and hand dexterity and then performed a drill testing these skills were significantly faster at their first attempt and across all 10 trials than the surgeons who did not play the video games first.\n", "Section::::Gameplay.\n\n\"Suspended\" takes a novel approach in its game mechanics; rather than being free to move about and interact with the game world directly, the player's character spends the entire game in a state of suspended animation (hence the title) and can only interact by controlling the actions of a number of robot surrogates. Each robot has its own unique strengths and weaknesses, and describes the same rooms and objects in completely different terms based upon those specializations. The robots are:\n", "At certain points in the game \"Going Up?,\" one or all of Kwirk’s Veggie Friends will appear to help. They don’t have special abilities, but instead play exactly like Kwirk to allow maneuvers that weren't possible with only one character. The player switches between characters by pressing the select button and all of the Veggie Friends must be brought to the stairs to clear the floor.\n\nThe Veggie Friends:\n\nBULLET::::- Curly Carrot\n\nBULLET::::- Eddie Eggplant\n\nBULLET::::- Pete the Pepper\n\nBULLET::::- Sass the Squash\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "Section::::Gameplay.\n\n\"F.E.A.R.\" simulates combat from a first person perspective. The protagonist's body is fully present, allowing the player to see his or her character's torso and feet while looking down. Within scripted sequences, when rising from a lying position or fast-roping from a helicopter for example, or climbing ladders, the hands and legs of the protagonist can be seen performing the relevant actions.\n", "Occasionally, the game will be played solo, without a human partner, with the ESP Game itself acting as the opponent and delivering a series of pre-determined labels to the single human player (which have been harvested from labels given to the image during the course of earlier games played by real humans). This is necessary if there are an odd number of people playing the game.\n", "The difficulty lies in the fact that the programs are autonomous in the sense that submitted code will last for the duration of the competition (and across multiple matches) and you can not control or modify their execution. Additionally there is a limit on the programmable memory of the SPHERES, limiting the available coding practices.\n\nSection::::Physics.\n", "When the robot does a move, a \"Move Bar\" appears on the Rhythm Track. The Move Bar starts traveling left on the Rhythm Track after it appears. The player must then time their motion so that it is halfway completed by the time the center of the Move Bar passes by the halfway mark of the Rhythm Track. Once completing the motion, if the Move Bar turns green, the player has performed the gesture correctly, if it turns red, the move was performed incorrectly. In addition, like other music games, \"Helix\" also features a gauge that fills up with every successful move, and depletes with every failed move.\n", "In the game, the player can select between seven \"operatives\", which are the characters controlled throughout the playthrough. The skills varies depending on the character chosen to play. If the character dies, another operative can be selected with a different set of skills. When all characters had died, the game finishes. The player is also able to rescue operatives lost in the field, unlocking them for future playthroughs of the game or, alternatively, rescue a fallen agent who's just been killed.\n", "Enemies come in pairs, with first and second player colors respectively. Players have a wide variety of moves, which includes picking up and using objects and manipulating enemies, grabbing the enemy's arm and removing it,and swap it for the current arm, and if the enemy doesn't have a primary arm, then the next thing the player can grab is the body and tear the enemy in half, which can then be drained to replenish energy.\n", "The player controls Jill Valentine. When aiming specifically for an enemy's head or legs a small targeting reticule appears in front of the target and expands and contracts rhythmically. When the aim is as small as possible the chance of hitting the targeted area is greater. At the end of each mission a score is determined by time, kills, damage or a combination of the three along with item usage.\n\nSection::::\"Resident Evil: Confidential Report\".\n", "Players can activate each character's Healing Touch by drawing a star on screen using the Wii Remote. Using the Healing Touch during gameplay generates different effects depending on its user; Stiles can stop time, while Weaver can replenish a patient's health with each successful action. Some operations include environmental hazards, such as one level where an operation takes place on a plane, with vibration caused by turbulence. Levels are cleared when the patient is saved, and lost if the patient's heart rate drops to zero. At the end of each operation, the player is graded on time taken and the precision of movement.\n", "Enemy artificial intelligence varies slightly, causing them to occasionally move unpredictably and making it difficult to plan a perfect approach. To make up for this, \"Hotline Miami\" allows the player to restart each stage as soon as they die, allowing them to quickly fine-tune their approach over several attempts. At the end of each chapter, the game grades the player's performance based on factors such a speed, variation and recklessness, with high scores unlocking new weapons and additional masks.\n\nSection::::Synopsis.\n\nSection::::Synopsis.:Plot.\n", "Today's shooters still have scenarios where players will have a twitch reaction, but often even those scenarios can be avoided by taking one's time.\n\nEven highly skilled gamers still find themselves in twitch scenarios in shooters. Most are predominantly online, where the actions of the enemy team are unscripted and difficult to predict. Many skilled snipers in these games find themselves \"twitching\" when flanked; the instinctual reaction is for one to switch to a secondary weapon, which is most often an inaccurate handgun, and spray fire while attempting to find cover.\n", "Researchers from \"Helsinki School of Economics\" have shown that people playing a \"first-person shooter\" might secretly enjoy that their character gets killed in the game, although their expressions might show the contrary. The game used in the study was \"\".\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The real-time requirement limits the use of compute-heavy techniques such as Monte Carlo tree search. The branching factor at each move can be as large as 1,296, because all four agents act in each step, choosing among six possibilities. The agents choose by accounting for explosions, which have lifetimes of 10 steps. Explosions derail tree search techniques, as searchews with less than 10 levels ignore explosions while deeper searches consider too many choices (given the branching factor).\n", "The story takes place in a VR-MMORPG game called \"Neo Universe\" which has 7,000,000 people around the world participating. neither keyboard nor joystick are required to play this game. The players just need to connect a headphone to the game hardware and close their eyes. Then, they automatically enter the game, controlling the in-game character through their minds just like dreaming while asleep. Although this sounds dangerous, the game administrator guarantees that it is safe. The game became popular in a short period of time, with the number of players increasing daily.\n", "The first biometric analysis we ran on \"Gua-Le-Ni\" focused on its accessibility during the first few minutes of gameplay. The task that was assigned to the researchers was to determine biometrically the \"optimal speed of the game for the target audience indicated by the developers\" as soon as the player successfully completed the first tutorial. The game design goal in relation to the initial set of tests was that of achieving the feeling that the game was non-threatening and manageable at the most basic level of difficulty, hence likely resulting in an initially pleasant and positive experience for the casual audience the development team was designing for.\n", "SimSpark, the platform on top of which the 3D simulation sub-league is built, was registered with SourceForge in 2004. The platform itself is now well established with ongoing development. The ball and all players are represented as articulated rigid bodies within a system that enforces the simulation of physical properties such as mass, inertia and friction.\n", "Pulse Rope Walk: Four players had one hour to traverse a tightrope suspended high off the ground. Each player was hooked up to a heart monitor; whenever the player's pulse rate exceeded 130 beats per minute, the player had to stop immediately and wait for his/her pulse to lower in order to continue. The last player to cross had two different sets of ropes to traverse; the second set was narrower and higher off the ground. The game is a success if all four players complete their portion in under an hour total.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00905	how do rockets fly in space?	That don't push against the air. A rocket propelled by throwing mass behind. Actually the air reduces the efficency of the rocket engine. You can find out more about rocket physics here : URL_0	[ "Rocket\n\nA rocket (from Italian \"rocchetto\" \"bobbin\") is a missile, spacecraft, aircraft or other vehicle that obtains thrust from a rocket engine. Rocket engine exhaust is formed entirely from propellant carried within the rocket before use. Rocket engines work by action and reaction and push rockets forward simply by expelling their exhaust in the opposite direction at high speed, and can therefore work in the vacuum of space.\n", "Section::::Uses.:Science and research.\n\nSounding rockets are commonly used to carry instruments that take readings from to above the surface of the Earth.\n\nRocket engines are also used to propel rocket sleds along a rail at extremely high speed. The world record for this is Mach 8.5.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Spaceflight.\n", "A spaceflight typically begins with a rocket launch, which provides the initial thrust to overcome the force of gravity and propels the spacecraft from the surface of the Earth. Once in space, the motion of a spacecraft—both when unpropelled and when under propulsion—is covered by the area of study called astrodynamics. Some spacecraft remain in space indefinitely, some disintegrate during atmospheric reentry, and others reach a planetary or lunar surface for landing or impact.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nMany human cultures have built devices that fly, from the earliest projectiles such as stones and spears, the\n", "As well as these components, rockets can have any number of other components, such as wings (rocketplanes), parachutes, wheels (rocket cars), even, in a sense, a person (rocket belt). Vehicles frequently possess navigation systems and guidance systems that typically use satellite navigation and inertial navigation systems.\n\nSection::::Design.:Engines.\n", "Section::::Physics.:Forces on a rocket in flight.\n\nThe general study of the forces on a rocket is part of the field of ballistics. Spacecraft are further studied in the subfield of astrodynamics.\n\nFlying rockets are primarily affected by the following:\n\nBULLET::::- Thrust from the engine(s)\n\nBULLET::::- Gravity from celestial bodies\n\nBULLET::::- Drag if moving in atmosphere\n\nBULLET::::- Lift; usually relatively small effect except for rocket-powered aircraft\n", "Konrad Kyeser described rockets in his famous military treatise Bellifortis around 1405.\n\nKyeser describes three types of rockets, swimming, free flying and captive.\n\nJoanes de Fontana in \"Bellicorum instrumentorum liber\" (c. 1420) described flying rockets in the shape of doves, running rockets in the shape of hares, and a large car driven by three rockets, as well as a large rocket torpedo with the head of a sea monster.\n", "A mass driver uses some sort of repulsion to keep a payload separated from the track or walls. Then it uses a linear motor (an alternating-current motor such as in a coil gun, or a homopolar motor as in a railgun) to accelerate the payload to high speeds. After leaving the launch track, the payload would be at its launch velocity.\n\nSection::::Projectile launchers.:Electromagnetic acceleration.:StarTram.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Rocket vehicles are often constructed in the archetypal tall thin \"rocket\" shape that takes off vertically, but there are actually many different types of rockets including:\n\nBULLET::::- tiny models such as balloon rockets, water rockets, skyrockets or small solid rockets that can be purchased at a hobby store\n\nBULLET::::- missiles\n\nBULLET::::- space rockets such as the enormous Saturn V used for the Apollo program\n\nBULLET::::- rocket cars\n\nBULLET::::- rocket bike\n\nBULLET::::- rocket-powered aircraft (including rocket assisted takeoff of conventional aircraft – RATO)\n\nBULLET::::- rocket sleds\n\nBULLET::::- rocket trains\n\nBULLET::::- rocket torpedoes\n\nBULLET::::- rocket-powered jet packs\n", "In the mid-16th century, Conrad Haas wrote a book that described rocket technology that combined fireworks and weapons technologies. This manuscript was discovered in 1961, in the Sibiu public records (Sibiu public records \"Varia II 374\"). His work dealt with the theory of motion of multi-stage rockets, different fuel mixtures using liquid fuel, and introduced delta-shape fins and bell-shaped nozzles.\n", "Rockets are the only currently practical means of reaching space. Conventional airplane engines cannot reach space due to the lack of oxygen. Rocket engines expel propellant to provide forward thrust that generates enough delta-v (change in velocity) to reach orbit.\n\nFor manned launch systems launch escape systems are frequently fitted to allow astronauts to escape in the case of emergency.\n\nSection::::Phases.:Reaching space.:Alternatives.\n", "Electrical launch systems include mass drivers, railguns, and coilguns. All of these systems use the concept of a stationary launch track which uses some form of linear electrical motor to accelerate a projectile.\n\nSection::::Projectile launchers.:Electromagnetic acceleration.:Mass driver.\n", "Section::::Carrier rockets.\n", "Section::::Design.:Propellant.\n\nRocket propellant is mass that is stored, usually in some form of propellant tank or casing, prior to being used as the propulsive mass that is ejected from a rocket engine in the form of a fluid jet to produce thrust. For chemical rockets often the propellants are a fuel such as liquid hydrogen or kerosene burned with an oxidizer such as liquid oxygen or nitric acid to produce large volumes of very hot gas. The oxidiser is either kept separate and mixed in the combustion chamber, or comes premixed, as with solid rockets.\n", "Rocket engines employ the principle of jet propulsion. The rocket engines powering rockets come in a great variety of different types; a comprehensive list can be found in rocket engine. Most current rockets are chemically powered rockets (usually internal combustion engines, but some employ a decomposing monopropellant) that emit a hot exhaust gas. A rocket engine can use gas propellants, solid propellant, liquid propellant, or a hybrid mixture of both solid and liquid. Some rockets use heat or pressure that is supplied from a source other than the chemical reaction of propellant(s), such as steam rockets, solar thermal rockets, nuclear thermal rocket engines or simple pressurized rockets such as water rocket or cold gas thrusters. With combustive propellants a chemical reaction is initiated between the fuel and the oxidizer in the combustion chamber, and the resultant hot gases accelerate out of a rocket engine nozzle (or nozzles) at the rearward-facing end of the rocket. The acceleration of these gases through the engine exerts force (\"thrust\") on the combustion chamber and nozzle, propelling the vehicle (according to Newton's Third Law). This actually happens because the force (pressure times area) on the combustion chamber wall is unbalanced by the nozzle opening; this is not the case in any other direction. The shape of the nozzle also generates force by directing the exhaust gas along the axis of the rocket.\n", "BULLET::::- 1903 - Konstantin Tsiolkovsky begins a series of papers discussing the use of rocketry to reach outer space, space suits, and colonization of the Solar System. Two key points discussed in his works are liquid fuels and staging.\n\nBULLET::::- 1913 - Without knowing the work of Russian mathematician Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, French engineer Robert Esnault-Pelterie derived the equations for space flight, produced a paper that presented the rocket equation and calculated the energies required to reach the Moon and nearby planets.\n", "High-power rockets are constructed from materials such as phenolic resin, fiberglass, carbon fiber, and other composite materials and plastics. Motor casings are normally machined aluminium with ablative phenolic or paper liners and are reloadable, i.e. can be used multiple times.\n\nSection::::Propulsion.\n\nHigh-power rockets are predominantly powered by commercially available APCP-based motors or nitrous oxide-based hybrid motors.\n", "Rocket (firework)\n\nA rocket is a pyrotechnic firework made out of a paper tube packed with gunpowder that is propelled into the air. Types of rockets include the skyrockets, which have a stick to provide stability during airborne flight; missiles, which instead rotate for stability or are shot out of a tube; and bottle rockets, smaller fireworks – 1½ in (3.8 cm) long, though the attached stick extends the total length to approximately 12 in (30 cm) – that usually contain whistle effects.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Model rocket recovery methods.:Glide recovery.\n\nIn glide recovery, the ejection charge either deploys an airfoil (wing) or separates a glider from the motor. If properly trimmed, the rocket/glider will enter a spiral glide and return safely. In some cases, radio-controlled rocket gliders are flown back to the earth by a pilot in much the way as R/C model airplanes are flown.\n\nSome rockets (typically long thin rockets) are the proper proportions to safely glide to Earth tail-first. These are termed 'backsliders'.\n\nSection::::Model rocket recovery methods.:Helicopter recovery.\n", "Spacecraft propulsion is any method used to accelerate spacecraft and artificial satellites. There are many different methods. Each method has drawbacks and advantages, and spacecraft propulsion is an active area of research. However, most spacecraft today are propelled by forcing a gas from the back/rear of the vehicle at very high speed through a supersonic de Laval nozzle. This sort of engine is called a rocket engine.\n", "A model rocketry alternative to combustion is the water rocket, which uses water pressurized by compressed air, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, or any other readily available, inert gas.\n\nSection::::Principle of operation.:Propellant.\n\nRocket propellant is mass that is stored, usually in some form of propellant tank, or within the combustion chamber itself, prior to being ejected from a rocket engine in the form of a fluid jet to produce thrust.\n", "Section::::Early modern history.:Indian Mysorean rockets.\n", "Flight\n\nFlight is the process by which an object moves through an atmosphere (or beyond it, as in the case of spaceflight) without contact with the surface. This can be achieved by generating aerodynamic lift associated with propulsive thrust, aerostatically using buoyancy, or by ballistic movement.\n\nMany things can fly, from natural aviators such as birds, bats, and insects, to human inventions like aircraft, including airplanes, helicopters, balloons, and rockets which may carry spacecraft.\n", "The term \"transfer energy\" means the total amount of energy imparted by a rocket stage to its payload. This can be the energy imparted by a first stage of a launch vehicle to an upper stage plus payload, or by an upper stage or spacecraft kick motor to a spacecraft.\n\nSection::::Phases.:Reentry.\n", "Rocket cars are capable of very high speeds, and at one time held the land speed record (now held by a jet car). Rocket cars differ from jet-powered cars in that they carry both fuel and oxidizer on board, eliminating the need for an air inlet and compressor which add weight and increase drag. Rocket cars run their engines for relatively short periods of time, usually less than 20 seconds, but the acceleration levels that rocket cars can reach due to their high thrust-to-weight ratio are very high and high speeds are fairly easily achieved.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Rockets fly in space." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Rockets don't \"fly\" the same way planes do. Rockets expell mass out of the back which pushes the rocket itself forward. " ]
2018-01584	Why are some animals much more aggressive than others?	Different species have found different techniques for survival. Some get food by attacking, others by sneaking, others by just eating plants. Some defend themselves by fighting, others by fleeing, others by hiding. Using a technique different from your competitors can increase your survival odds.	[ "Section::::Examples.:The rough-skinned newt and the common garter snake.\n", "The asymmetries between individuals have been categorized into three types of interactions.\n\nBULLET::::1. Resource-holding potential: Animals that are better able to defend resources often win without much physical contact.\n\nBULLET::::2. Resource value: Animals more invested in a resource are likely to invest more in the fight despite potential for incurring higher costs.\n", "Another territorial lizard, the common collared lizard (\"Crotaphytus collaris\"), can individually recognize neighbours and will increase aggression towards them as the threat to territorial ownership increases. Resident males treat familiar neighbours that had been moved to the opposite boundary to the shared boundary as equally aggressive as strangers. However, residents responded more aggressively towards strangers than towards neighbours on natural territories and also in neutral arena encounters.\n\nIn the brown anole lizard (\"Anolis sagrei\"), dyads of males behave differently\n", "Winner and loser effects\n\nThe winner and loser effect is an aggression phenomenon where the winner effect is the increased probability that an animal will win future aggressive interactions after experiencing previous wins, while the loser effect is the increased probability that an animal will lose future aggressive interactions after experiencing previous losses. Overall these effects can either increase or decrease an animals aggressive behaviour, depending on what effect affects the species of concern. Animals such as \"Agkistrodon contortrix\", \"Rivulus marmoratus\", and \"Sula nebouxii\" show either both or one of these effects.\n", "Section::::Occurrence.:In reptiles.\n\nMales of a territorial lizard, the tawny dragon (\"Ctenophorus decresii\"), reduced their aggression levels in repeat interactions with familiar rivals and increased their aggression levels towards unfamiliar males. The time taken for interactions to be settled was also lower towards familiar than unfamiliar males.\n", "Among the most dramatic examples of intraguild predation are those between large mammalian carnivores. Large canines and felines are the mammal groups most often involved in IGP, with larger species such as lions and gray wolves preying upon smaller species such as foxes and lynx. In North America, coyotes function as intraguild predators of gray foxes and bobcats, and may exert a strong influence over the population and distribution of gray foxes. However, in areas where wolves have been reintroduced, coyotes become an intermediate predator and experience increased mortality and a more restricted range.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Aquatic and marine.\n", "Section::::Importance to management and conservation.\n\nThe presence and intensity of intraguild predation is important to both management and conservation of species. Human influence on communities and ecosystems can affect the balance of these interactions, and the direct and indirect effects of IGP may have economic consequences.\n", "Section::::Avoidance.\n\nPhysical fighting is actually rare between animals. It would seem that normally the more aggressive an animal is, the more it has to gain. However, in a normal scenario if an animal is too aggressive it might face an unacceptably high cost such as severe injury or death. Unless an animal has a sure indication that they will win without injury, or the resources are valuable enough for the risk of death, animals usually avoid fighting. An animal must weigh the relative costs and benefits of fighting. If the costs are too high, avoiding a fight is preferable.\n", "Section::::Behavioral neurogenetics.:Aggression.\n\nThere is also research being conducted on how an individual's genes can cause varying levels of aggression and aggression control . Throughout the animal kingdom, varying styles, types and levels of aggression can be observed leading scientists to believe that there might be a genetic contribution that has conserved this particular behavioral trait. For some species varying levels of aggression have indeed exhibited direct correlation to a higher level of Darwinian fitness.\n\nSection::::Development.\n", "Many prey animals are aposematically coloured or patterned as a warning to predators that they are distasteful or able to defend themselves. Such distastefulness or toxicity is brought about by chemical defences, found in a wide range of prey, especially insects, but the skunk is a dramatic mammalian example.\n\nSection::::Antipredator adaptations.:Avoiding an attack.:Forming groups.\n", "Section::::Siblicide.\n", "A good example of intrasexual selection, in which males fight for dominance over a harem of females, is the elephant seal – large, oceangoing mammals of the genus \"Mirounga\". There are two species: the northern (\"M. angustirostris\") and southern elephant seal (\"M. leonina\") – the largest carnivore living today. Both species show extreme sexual dimorphism, possibly the largest of any mammal, with southern males typically five to six times heavier than the females. While the females average and long, the bulls average and long.\n", "Sibling rivalry (animals)\n\nAnimals, including siblings, compete for resources such as food, territory, and potential mating partners. In animal sibling rivalry, individuals compete for parental care or limited resources, which can sometimes result in siblicide. Sibling rivalry occurs in many different forms. Siblings may compete for resources in a prenatal and/or post-birth environment. The degree of rivalry varies, ranging from a low level of violence in non-aggressive to the killing of kin in siblicide.\n\nSection::::Function of behavior.\n", "The most apparent type of interspecific aggression is that observed in the interaction between a predator and its prey. However, according to many researchers, predation is not aggression. A cat does not hiss or arch its back when pursuing a rat, and the active areas in its hypothalamus resemble those that reflect hunger rather than those that reflect aggression. However, others refer to this behavior as predatory aggression, and point out cases that resemble hostile behavior, such as mouse-killing by rats. In aggressive mimicry a predator has the appearance of a harmless organism or object attractive to the prey; when the prey approaches, the predator attacks.\n", "Section::::Examples.:Loser effects in copperhead snakes.\n\nCopperhead snakes rely on aggressive behaviours to fight for a prospective mate. Since aggressive behaviours in this species are selected for reproduction, winner and loser effects could have an effect on these aggressive behaviours and therefore the animals reproductive success. Male copperhead snakes, who have not had an aggressive interaction in months, when put in a situation to fight for a female is likely to win an encounter on the basis that his body size is larger than that of the other fighter.\n", "Aggressive encounters are potentially costly for individuals as they can get injured and be less able to reproduce. As a result, many species have evolved forms of ritualised combat to determine who wins access to a resource without having to undertake a dangerous fight. Male adders (\"Vipera berus\") undertake complex ritualised confrontations when courting females. Generally, the larger male will win and fights rarely escalate to injury to either combatant.\n", "The dear enemy effect has been observed in a wide range of animals including mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish and invertebrates. It can be modulated by factors such as the location of the familiar and unfamiliar animal, the season, and the presence of females.\n\nThe effect is the converse of the nasty neighbour effect, in which some species are more aggressive towards their neighbours than towards unfamiliar strangers.\n\nSection::::Function.\n", "Many researchers focus on the brain to explain aggression. Numerous circuits within both neocortical and subcortical structures play a central role in controlling aggressive behavior, depending on the species, and the exact role of pathways may vary depending on the type of trigger or intention.\n", "For example, the lizards \"Eulamprus heatwolei\" show a behavioral syndrome with two behavioral types. There is a correlated relationship between how territorial an individual is, how likely they are to explore their environment, and what strategy they use to avoid predation. This behavioral syndrome has also been shown to influence the mating system of this species; territorial males are more likely to sire offspring with territorial females, and larger territorial males compete less with other males for mates. However, less territorial, or \"floater\", males and females produce consistently larger offspring than territorial parents or hybrids.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Neonatal competition also exists among piglets as they directly compete against their siblings for their mother’s teats only hours after their birth. Competition is responsible for 43% of piglet neonatal death due to starvation. Under normal conditions (i.e. stable environment, average litter size), larger piglets appear to have an advantage in survival partially due to their ability to win more fights against smaller piglets over access to teats.\n", "Aggression between groups is determined partly by willingness to fight, which depends on a number of factors including numerical advantage, distance from home territories, how often the groups encounter each other, competitive abilities, differences in body size, and whose territory is being invaded. Also, an individual is more likely to become aggressive if other aggressive group members are nearby. One particular phenomenon – the formation of coordinated coalitions that raid neighbouring territories to kill conspecifics – has only been documented in two species in the animal kingdom: 'common' chimpanzees and humans.\n\nSection::::Ethology.:Within a group.\n", "Support for the challenge hypothesis has been found in continuous breeders. For example, research on chimpanzees demonstrated that males became more aggressive during periods when females displayed signs of ovulation. Moreover, male chimpanzees engaged in chases and attacks almost 2.5 times more frequently when in groups containing sexually receptive females.\n\nSection::::Continuous breeders.:Implications for humans.\n", "Section::::Evolution of bite inhibition in modern dogs.:Lorenz vs. Schenkel: Interpreting canine aggression.\n\nAustrian scientist Konrad Lorenz explains that the inferior animal shows its most vulnerable part to the superior animal as an act of submission. The superior animal could, in theory, kill the other immediately, but he instead shows mercy as the alpha. Submission was thought to reduce losses for an animal that knows it cannot challenge the other.\n", "Most ethologists believe that aggression confers biological advantages. Aggression may help an animal secure territory, including resources such as food and water. Aggression between males often occurs to secure mating opportunities, and results in selection of the healthier/more vigorous animal. Aggression may also occur for self-protection or to protect offspring. Aggression between groups of animals may also confer advantage; for example, hostile behavior may force a population of animals into a new territory, where the need to adapt to a new environment may lead to an increase in genetic flexibility.\n\nSection::::Ethology.:Between species and groups.\n", "Section::::Animals.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-06930	Classical music is still relevant es ever. Nevertheless how come there are no longer super star composers like in earlier times and how do you actually transcend undying music of genius composers to be relevant today?	Well, the landscape of classical music changed a lot over the course of the last hundred and fifty years because there are other means of entertainment. It used to be that classical music was the music of the common man, but now it has the appearance of an aristocratic activity. Composers writing academic art music aren’t necessarily writing for a wider audience, rather they’re writing for academically trained composers like themselves. That doesn’t mean that there aren’t composers that everyone knows these days, take John Williams or Hans Zimmer for example. They’re writing for the most popular media of today just like how Puccini, Verdi or Wagner wrote for opera, which was the most popular media in the 19th century.	[ "During the earlier part of the 20th century, new music was generally written for and performed by closed circles of musicians: Schoenberg founded the Society for Private Musical Performances a membership-only organization which deliberately kept out “sensation-seeking” members of the public, and other societies, such as the International Composers’ Guild founded by Varèse and championed by Carl Ruggles, were equally perceived as elitist. In the latter half of the century, this started to change as composers again started to embrace a wider public.\n", "Classical composers continue to write film music: Philip Glass (\"The Hours\", \"Naqoyqatsi\", and \"Notes on a Scandal\"), Michael Nyman (\"Everyday\"), John Williams (\"Harry Potter\" film series, \"Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull,\" and \"\") are some of the most notable.\n\nApart from film composers and Judith Weir, mentioned above, other composers have embraced the growing technological advances of the 21st century.\n", "A further impetus to the direction of music criticism was given by the changing nature of concert programming with the establishment of the European classical music canon; indeed it is at this period that the word 'classical' is first applied to a received musical tradition. At the same time, the proportion of new music to 'canonic' music in concert programming began to decline, meaning that living composers were increasingly in competition with their dead predecessors. This was particularly the case in respect of the rise of Beethoven's reputation in his last year and posthumously. This gave rise both to writings on the value of the 'canon' and also to writings by composers and their supporters defending newer music.\n", "Many of the key figures of the high modern movement are alive, or only recently deceased. Despite its decline in the last third of the 20th century, there remained at the end of the century an active core of composers who continued to advance the ideas and forms of modernism, such as Pierre Boulez, Pauline Oliveros, Toru Takemitsu, George Benjamin, Jacob Druckman, Brian Ferneyhough, George Perle, Wolfgang Rihm, Richard Wernick, Richard Wilson, and Ralph Shapey.\n", "BULLET::::- The jazz-based score for \"The Pink Panther\", by Henry Mancini, paves the \"way for a new generation of film composers\".\n\nBULLET::::- Claude V. Palisca of Yale University organizes a conference and report that criticizes the current methods of music education, leading to federal funding for research in the subject.\n\nBULLET::::- Robert Ashley's \"Wolfman\" is a \"shocking piece that uses extreme amplification and feedback to change both live speaking and tape\".\n\nBULLET::::- Tony Scott's \"Music for Zen Meditation\" is generally credited as the first new-age music to be commercially recorded.\n", "Like the term 20th-century classical music, \"21st-century classical music\" is defined entirely by the calendar and does not refer to a historical style period in music—in the sense that Baroque and Romantic do—but rather to all art music produced since the year 2000. Musicologists generally say that we are in the contemporary music period—a term which covers art music written from around 1975 or 1945, depending on the historian's perspective.\n\nSection::::Composition in the 21st century.:History.\n", "Some elements of the previous century have been retained, including postmodernism, polystylism and eclecticism, which seek to incorporate elements of all styles of music irrespective of whether these are \"classical\" or not—these efforts represent a slackening differentiation between the various musical genres. Important influences include rock, pop, jazz and the dance traditions associated with these. The combination of classical music and multimedia is another notable practice in the 21st century; the Internet, alongside its related technology, are important resources in this respect. Attitudes towards female composers are also changing.\n\nSection::::Composition in the 21st century.\n", "The increasing popularity of rock music through the late '50s and '60s led to a reduction in the amount of classical music played on the ABC and commercial radio stations in Australia. Up until the early 1950s most radio stations employed orchestras to play music which included classical music. By the 1960s, only the ABC supported its own orchestra. But even the ABC had dramatically reduced the amount of classical music on air.\n", "20th-century music brought a new freedom and wide experimentation with new musical styles and forms that challenged the accepted rules of music of earlier periods. The invention of musical amplification and electronic instruments, especially the synthesizer, in the mid-20th century revolutionized classical and popular music, and accelerated the development of new forms of music.\n\nAs for classical music, two fundamental schools determined the course of the century: that of Arnold Schoenberg and that of Igor Stravinsky. \n\nSection::::Classical music outside Europe.\n\nSection::::Classical music outside Europe.:Africa.\n", "Ottorino Respighi was also one of the precursors of neoclassicism with his \"Ancient Airs and Dances\" Suite No. 1, composed in 1917. Instead of looking at musical forms of the 18th century, Respighi, who, in addition to being a renowned composer and conductor, was also a notable musicologist, looked at Italian music of the 16th and 17th century. His fellow contemporary composer Gian Francesco Malipiero, also a musicologist, compiled a complete edition of the works of Claudio Monteverdi. Malipiero's relation with ancient Italian music was not simply aiming at a revival of antique forms within the framework of a \"return to order\", but an attempt to revive an approach to composition that would allow the composer to free himself from the constraints of the sonata form and of the over-exploited mechanisms of thematic development (, cited from ). \n", "Musical historicism—the use of historical materials, structures, styles, techniques, media, conceptual content, etc., whether by a single composer or those associated with a particular school, movement, or period—is evident to varying degrees in minimalism, post-minimalism, world-music, and other genres in which tonal traditions have been sustained or have undergone a significant revival in recent decades. Some post-minimalist works employ medieval and other genres associated with early music, such as the \"Oi me lasso\" and other laude of Gavin Bryars.\n", "In 1984, an edited restoration of \"Metropolis\" (1927) was released with a new rock music score by producer-composer Giorgio Moroder. Although the contemporary score, which included pop songs by Freddie Mercury, Pat Benatar, and Jon Anderson of Yes, was controversial, the door had been opened for a new approach to the presentation of classic silent films.\n", "Date ranges of classical music eras are therefore somewhat arbitrary, and are only intended as approximate guides. Scholars of music history do not agree on the start and end dates, and in many cases disagree whether particular years should be chosen at all.\n\nSection::::Graphical representation of commonly accepted dates.\n\nThe following graph depicts commonly accepted dates for major movements in classical music. \n\nNot shown on the chart:\n\nBULLET::::- Prehistoric music encompasses that music which existed prior to any historical record.\n\nBULLET::::- Ancient music extended from approximately 1500 BC until the fall of Rome in 476 AD.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Forbidden Planet\" becomes the first movie to have an all-electronic music soundtrack. This was the first widespread exposure to electronic music for ordinary Americans. The soundtrack's composers were the husband and wife team Bebe and Louis Barron.\n\nBULLET::::- \"My Fair Lady\" smashes Broadway records, and will run for six years and a total of 2,717 performances.\n\nBULLET::::- Nat King Cole becomes the first \"African-American to headline a TV network variety series\", \"The Nat King Cole Show\".\n", "21st-century classical music\n\n21st-century classical music is art music, in the contemporary classical tradition, that has been produced since the year 2000.\n", "However, Vienna's fall as the most important musical center for orchestral composition during the late 1820s, precipitated by the deaths of Beethoven and Schubert, marked the Classical style's final eclipse—and the end of its continuous organic development of one composer learning in close proximity to others. Franz Liszt and Frédéric Chopin visited Vienna when they were young, but they then moved on to other cities. Composers such as Carl Czerny, while deeply influenced by Beethoven, also searched for new ideas and new forms to contain the larger world of musical expression and performance in which they lived.\n", "Section::::Styles.:Neoclassicism.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Scarborough Fair\", 1968, Columbia CS 9623\n\nBULLET::::- \"For the Young at Heart\", 1968, Columbia CS 9691\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sounds of Love\", 1968, Columbia #194 Hot 200\n\nBULLET::::- \"Traces\", 1969, Columbia CS 9823 #200 Hot 200\n\nBULLET::::- \"Andre Kostelanetz Conducts Puccini's \"La Boheme\" for Orchestra\", 1969, Columbia Masterworks MS 7219\n\nBULLET::::- \"Greatest Hits of the '60s\", 1970, Columbia CS 9973\n\nBULLET::::- \"I'll Never Fall In Love Again\", 1970, Columbia CS 9998\n\nBULLET::::- \"Everything Is Beautiful\", 1970, Columbia 30037\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sunset\", 1970, Columbia Masterworks 30075\n\nBULLET::::- \"And God Created Great Whales\" (Hovhaness), 1971, Columbia 30390\n", "As time passes, even later recordings, made in the early stereo era are also being released as \"historical\" recordings, especially if they were never released or were dropped from the record catalogs due to loss of popularity or \"antiquated\" sound. Typically such recordings are of artists and performances that were particularly notable at the time they were first released, or were unavailable because they were private recordings made at concerts or radio broadcasts. The latter can be of rather high quality if the recording derives from tapes made and archived by the broadcaster or the organization mounting the performance.\n", "BULLET::::- The Esoterics, a vocal ensemble based in Seattle, Washington\n\nBULLET::::- Judd Greenstein, an American composer and promoter of new music in New York\n\nBULLET::::- Michael Gielen, Austrian conductor\n\nBULLET::::- Peter Hannan, Canadian recorder player\n\nBULLET::::- Oliver Knussen, British conductor\n\nBULLET::::- Kronos Quartet, a string quartet with over 750 new works written for them\n\nBULLET::::- International Contemporary Ensemble, or ICE, an ensemble that has premiered over 500 new works\n\nBULLET::::- Claire Chase, American flautist, founder of ICE (International Contemporary Ensemble)\n\nBULLET::::- Nicholas Isherwood, American-born bass singer\n\nBULLET::::- Reinbert de Leeuw, Dutch conductor, pianist, and composer\n\nBULLET::::- Christian Lindberg, Swedish trombonist\n", "The major time divisions of classical music up to 1900 are the Early music period, which includes Medieval (500–1400) and Renaissance (1400–1600) eras, and the Common practice period, which includes the Baroque (1600–1750), Classical (1750–1820) and Romantic (1810–1910) eras. The current period encompasses the 20th century (1901–2000) and includes most of the Early modern musical era (1890–1930), the entire High modern (mid 20th-century), and the first part of the Contemporary (1945 or 1975–current) or Postmodern musical era (1930–current). The 21st century has so far been a continuation of the same period and the same Contemporary/Postmodern musical era which both began mostly in the 20th-century.\n", "Section::::Relationship to other music traditions.\n\nSection::::Relationship to other music traditions.:Popular music.\n\nClassical music has often incorporated elements or material from popular music of the composer's time. Examples include occasional music such as Brahms' use of student drinking songs in his \"Academic Festival Overture\", genres exemplified by Kurt Weill's \"The Threepenny Opera\", and the influence of jazz on early and mid-20th-century composers including Maurice Ravel, exemplified by the movement entitled \"Blues\" in his sonata for violin and piano. Some postmodern, minimalist and postminimalist classical composers acknowledge a debt to popular music.\n", "In accordance with the name of the orchestra, contemporary, unknown or rarely heard compositions were performed regularly from the beginning, programmed alongside well known works. The quality of the orchestral playing and the openness to modern compositions allowed the orchestra to perform world and British premieres after only a few years of existence. The Oboe Concerto by Ruth Gipps, for example, received its world premiere by the Modern Symphony Orchestra in the 1941–42 concert season, and the orchestra gave the British premiere of Stravinsky's 1947 revision of Petrushka.\n", "BULLET::::- Ina Boyle (1889–1967), Irish composer of 3 symphonies\n\nBULLET::::- Rudolf Mauersberger (1889–1971), German composer of 1 symphony\n\nBULLET::::- Vilém Petrželka (1889–1967), Czech composer of 4 symphonies and 2 sinfoniettas\n\nBULLET::::- Levko Revutsky (1889–1977), Ukrainian composer of 2 symphonies\n\nBULLET::::- Francisco Santiago (1889–1947), Filipino composer of \"Taga-ilog\", in 1938\n\nBULLET::::- Vladimir Shcherbachov (1889–1952), Russian composer of 5 symphonies\n\nBULLET::::- Rudolph Simonsen (1889–1947), Danish composer of 2 symphonies\n\nBULLET::::- Luís de Freitas Branco (1890–1955), Portuguese composer of 4 symphonies\n\nBULLET::::- Hans Gál (1890–1987), Austrian composer of 4 symphonies\n", "BULLET::::- New Music and Listener Expectation: A commencement address given at San Francisco Conservatory of Music by George Perle\n\nBULLET::::- Reflections by George Perle\n\nBULLET::::- Those Were The Days. Or Were They?: Three Living Legends of Contemporary Music Compare Yesterday and Today by Mic Holwin (also George Crumb and David Diamond)\n\nBULLET::::- NewMusicBox In the 1st Person : Three Generations of Teaching Music Composition Part One: George Perle and Paul Lansky – February 19, 2002 – Upper West Side, New York, NY\n\nBULLET::::- Michael Brown plays George Perle's Six Celebratory Inventions on Classical Connect\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02115	Why internet companies don’t match upload speeds with download speeds.	Because that would be a waste of bandwidth for most users. Your common internet user is a consumer of the internet, they are watching videos, browsing websites, and downloading things. The average user is not hosting a website, uploading lots of things, etc. So they set upload speed high enough to more than handle common usage. If you have a business that does a lot of uploading or hosting of things there are business class packages that have high upload speeds.	[ "The higher data rate dial-up modems and many broadband services are \"asymmetric\"—supporting much higher data rates for download (toward the user) than for upload (toward the Internet).\n", "The marketing reasons for an asymmetric connection are that, firstly, most users of internet traffic will require less data to be uploaded than downloaded. For example, in normal web browsing, a user will visit a number of web sites and will need to download the data that comprises the web pages from the site, images, text, sound files etc. but they will only upload a small amount of data, as the only uploaded data is that used for the purpose of verifying the receipt of the downloaded data or any data inputted by the user into forms etc. This provides a justification for internet service providers to offer a more expensive service aimed at commercial users who host websites, and who therefore need a service which allows for as much data to be uploaded as downloaded. File sharing applications are an obvious exception to this situation. Secondly internet service providers, seeking to avoid overloading of their backbone connections, have traditionally tried to limit uses such as file sharing which generate a lot of uploads.\n", "Some ISPs estimate that a small number of their users consume a disproportionate portion of the total bandwidth. In response some ISPs are considering, are experimenting with, or have implemented combinations of traffic based pricing, time of day or \"peak\" and \"off peak\" pricing, and bandwidth or traffic caps. Others claim that because the marginal cost of extra bandwidth is very small with 80 to 90 percent of the costs fixed regardless of usage level, that such steps are unnecessary or motivated by concerns other than the cost of delivering bandwidth to the end user.\n", "With respect to Direct To Home TV systems using segmented uploading to outwit \"hackers\" — only SkyTV (UK) and DirecTV (USA) have been possibly linked to having the capability to do so or have done so in the past. However, one can assume that any modern MPEG2 DVB DTH mass subscriber system has the ability to accept software upgrades trickled to it at the rate of 8kb/day or less.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nBULLET::::- BitTorrent\n\nBULLET::::- Direct Connect (file sharing)\n\nBULLET::::- Download Manager\n\nBULLET::::- eMule\n\nBULLET::::- iMule\n\nBULLET::::- Swarmcast\n\nBULLET::::- KaZaA\n\nBULLET::::- RetroShare\n\nBULLET::::- RevConnect\n\nBULLET::::- Metalink\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Peercasting\n\nBULLET::::- Peer-to-peer\n", "Most IP networks are designed for users to download more than they upload, usually with an expected (Download:Upload) ratio of 3:1 or more.\n\nSegmented downloading, when used by only 20% of an ISP's user base, can upset the ISP's network to a point of requiring substantial reprogramming of routers and a rethink of network design.\n\nBULLET::::- Traditional \"web object\" caching technology (like the Squid proxy) is of no use here.\n", "The P2P industry also says that P4P may slow down transfers for some users. BitTorrent, for example, is designed to favor the fastest peers available – if that is changed to favor the closest peers instead then it must affect the speed. The equality and balance of peers would be lost – clients on networks with a good \"backbone\" but slow upload speeds would download slower, and clients using ISPs who do not support P4P would not benefit from using local peers.\n", "U.S. internet service providers have most recently asserted that data caps are needed in order to provide \"fair\", tiered services at different price points based on speed and usage.\n", "In 2006 the top three ISPs stated that they did not discriminate between peer-to-peer internet activity and normal internet activity. Peer-to-peer activity is counted towards a customer's limit and if the customer exceeds that limit then they will have their account shaped. However, Unwired and iBurst confirmed at the same time that they do shape peer-to-peer activity to \"smooth the flow of data\". In 2007 Optus changed their policy so that uploads as well as downloads would be counted towards the customers limit. This has been seen as a move to curb the amount of peer-to-peer activity, since other services which upload such as multiplayer computer games are not counted towards the limit if played through certain servers.\n", "BULLET::::- Universal adoption of IPv6 cannot help either, as it only allows all users to have fixed IP addresses. Fixed IP address don't fully address the routing table problems associated with segmented downloading.\n\nBULLET::::- Typical downloading configurations can have a single user in touch with up to \"10 to 30 ephemeral users per file\" scattered across the global internet.\n\nBULLET::::- IP router tables can become bloated with routes to these \"ephemeral users\" slowing down table lookups.\n\nSection::::Network advantages.\n\nBULLET::::- Large files can be made available efficiently to many other users by someone who does not have large upload bandwidth.\n", "In a group of users that has insufficient upload-bandwidth, with demand higher than supply. Segmented downloading can however very nicely handle traffic peaks, and it can also, to some degree, let uploaders upload \"more often\" to better utilize their connection.\n\nData integrity issues\n\nBULLET::::- Very simple implementations of segmented downloading technology can often result in varying levels of file corruption, as there often is no way of knowing if all sources are actually uploading segments of the same file.\n", "Generally, policies for sharing resources that are characterized by low level of fairness (see fairness measures) provide high average throughput but low stability in the service quality, meaning that the achieved service quality is varying in time depending on the behavior of other users. If this instability is severe, it may result in unhappy users that will choose another more stable communication service. \n", "A similar calculation can be performed using upstream bandwidths. Typically, advertised upload rates are 1/4 the download rates however the available upload bandwidth using DOCSIS 1.1 or 2.0 is also lower. If 100 users allocated 1.75 Mbit/s of upload bandwidth share a single DOCSIS 1.1 upstream, the upload oversubscription ratio is 17:1. One article found a typical DOCSIS download oversubscription ratio to be 28.125:1, while a best case oversubscription may be 12:1.\n", "BULLET::::- Take the sum(in, out) for each interval. This method is simple to implement and does account for symmetric traffic patters; some ISPs use this method to approximate total volume of data sent and received.\n\nCritics of the 95th percentile billing method usually advocate the use of a flat rate system or using the average throughput rather than the 95th percentile. Both those methods favour heavy users (who have interest in advocating for changes to billing method). Other critics call for billing per byte of data transferred, which is considered most accurate and fair.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Network hardware, software and specifications, as well as the expertise of network management personnel are important in ensuring that data follows the most efficient route, and upstream connections work reliably. A tradeoff between cost and efficiency is possible.\n\nSection::::Law enforcement and intelligence assistance.\n", "When streaming over-the-top (OTT) content and video on demand, systems do not typically recognize the specific size, type, and viewing rate of the video being streamed. Video sessions, regardless of the rate of views, are each granted the same amount of bandwidth. This bottlenecking of content results in longer buffering time and poor viewing quality. Some solutions, such as upLynk and Skyfire’s Rocket Optimizer, attempt to resolve this issue by using cloud-based solutions to adapt and optimize over-the-top content.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Content providers are actors who have specific interest in gaining as much Internet traffic as possible, but they also have other competitors from other content providers. Advocacy groups argue that content providers need regulated fair access, while some content providers support this, others recommend a free-market system as suggested by Free Press. Those who can afford to bypass any Internet bottleneck will then have an advantage in network speeds, but will have to pay for it.\n", "BULLET::::- Satellite direct to home subscription systems deployed in Europe and North America have employed an approach of upgrading software on customer devices by only sending a few bytes at a time (~2k or less) over a long period of time. Generally these segmented upload approaches are proprietary and related to the SIM card security and subscription mechanism.\n", "Space segment based telecom systems are the only widely known cases where segmented uploading technologies have emerged. This is mainly due to the limited bandwidth and other space segment constraints.\n\nBULLET::::- CCSDS software uploading protocols have the capability of segmented uploading, but current deployed systems have not been in need of the protocol being used in its most BitTorrent like capability.\n", "Fixed broadband Internet access is often sold under an \"unlimited\" or flat rate pricing model, with price determined by the maximum data rate chosen by the customer, rather than a per minute or traffic based charge. Per minute and traffic based charges and traffic caps are common for mobile broadband Internet access.\n\nInternet services like Facebook, Wikipedia and Google have built special programs to partner with mobile network operators (MNO) to introduce \"zero-rating\" the cost for their data volumes as a means to provide their service more broadly into developing markets.\n", "Both ratios are then compared and the lower one is used as the modifier. A few conditions exist:\n\nBULLET::::- If the Uploaded Total is less than 1 MB, then the modifier will remain at 1.\n\nBULLET::::- If the client uploads data but doesn't download any, the modifier will be fixed at 10.\n\nBULLET::::- The modifier can only be between 1 and 10.\n", "The new HTML5 features could be a good basis for implementing upload components with a sophisticated user interface and the ability to upload any amount of data. Unfortunately, at the moment browsers support those features partially and differently, which is a serious obstacle. The situation becomes worse if we remember that large numbers of users still use Windows XP (28%) and obsolete Internet Explorer versions (11%).\n\nSection::::Technologies for creating upload components.\n", "Plans offered by new entrant ISPs frequently have higher data caps than those offered by incumbent ISPs, with some new entrant plans offering unlimited bandwidth during times of the day when overall network use is lower. Some plans offered by new entrant carriers also feature no data cap at all, which is something not frequently offered in retail plans provided by incumbent ISPs.\n\nSection::::Connectivity gap.:Location.\n", "US cell phone ISP's have also increasingly resorted to bandwidth throttling in their networks. Verizon and AT&T even applied such throttling to data plans advertised as \"unlimited\", resulting in pushback from the FCC and the FTC respectively.\n\nSection::::ISP bandwidth throttling.:Uruguay.\n", "Home users tend to use shared satellite capacity to reduce the cost, while still allowing high peak bit rates when congestion is absent. There are usually restrictive time-based bandwidth allowances so that each user gets their fair share, according to their payment. When a user exceeds their allowance, the company may slow down their access, deprioritise their traffic or charge for the excess bandwidth used. For consumer satellite Internet, the allowance can typically range from 200 MB per day to 25 GB per month. A shared download carrier may have a bit rate of 1 to 40 Mbit/s and be shared by up to 100 to 4,000 end users.\n", "Since most networks are overprovisioned, there is often some room for some bursting without advanced planning (hence \"burstable billing\"). Ignoring the top 5% of the samples is a reasonable compromise in most cases (hence 95th percentile).\n\nMany sites have the majority of their traffic on Mondays, so the Monday traffic determines the rate for the whole month. Some providers offer billing on the 90th percentile as an incentive to attract customers with irregular bandwidth patterns.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-02446	How did someone with significantly less votes become president?	The president of the US is not elected by direct vote nationwide. Instead, most (except for two or so) states use what is essentially a winner-takes-all election at the state level. States also have a different weight in the nationwide election based upon their congressional representation (which only changes every 10 years). This could result in a situation where one candidate obtains a majority of the electoral college (state victories) by a narrow margin in each, while the other candidate recieved an overwhelming majority in states with a lesser amount of total electoral votes, and still loses the election.	[ "Under the U.S. Constitution, the president was chosen by the Electoral College, which consisted of electors selected by each state. Prior to the ratification of the Twelfth Amendment, each elector cast two votes; the individual who received the most electoral votes would become president, while the individual who received the second-most electoral votes would become vice president. If no individual received votes from a majority of the electors, or if two individuals tied for the most votes, then the House of Representatives would select the president in a contingent election. Under the Constitution, each state determines its own method of choosing presidential electors; in the 1788–1789 presidential election, many electors were appointed by state legislators, while others were chosen through elections. In the states that did hold elections, suffrage was generally restricted to white men who owned property.\n", "Section::::Other children's elections.\n\nThe \"Scholastic Election\" has been conducted by Scholastic Corporation Scholastic News every election year since 1940. It claims to have predicted the final election results correctly with three exceptions: Harry S. Truman's win over Thomas Dewey in the 1948 United States presidential election, John F. Kennedy's win over Richard Nixon in the 1960 United States presidential election, and Donald Trump's win over Hillary Clinton in the 2016 United States presidential election. \n", "BULLET::::- South Carolina, given seven representatives because of its total population (which was majority black), counted only 25,433 voters.\n\nBULLET::::- States with eight representatives:\n\nBULLET::::- States with ten representatives:\n\nBULLET::::- California, with eleven representatives, had a total vote of 644,790.\n\nBULLET::::- States with twelve representatives:\n\nBULLET::::- Indiana, with thirteen representatives, had a total vote of 565,216.\n", "Section::::Elections.:1888: Benjamin Harrison.\n\nIn the 1888 election, Grover Cleveland of New York, the incumbent president and a Democrat, tried to secure a second term against the Republican nominee Benjamin Harrison, a former U.S. Senator from Indiana. The economy was prosperous and the nation was at peace, but although Cleveland received 90,596 more votes than Harrison, he lost in the Electoral College. Harrison won 233 electoral votes, Cleveland only 168.\n", "Section::::Unpledged electors in the 20th century.\n\nSection::::Unpledged electors in the 20th century.:Background.\n", "Under the original system established by Article Two, electors could cast two votes to two different candidates for president. The candidate with the highest number of votes (provided it was a majority of the electoral votes) became the president, and the second-place candidate became the vice president. This presented a problem during the presidential election of 1800 when Aaron Burr received the same number of electoral votes as Thomas Jefferson and challenged Jefferson's election to the office. In the end, Jefferson was chosen as the president because of Alexander Hamilton's influence in the House of Representatives.\n", "Section::::Elections of from 1796 to 1820.\n\nIn the election of 1820, incumbent President James Monroe ran effectively unopposed, winning all eight of Tennessee's electoral votes, and all electoral votes nationwide except one vote in New Hampshire. To the extent that a popular vote was held, it was primarily directed to filling the office of Vice President.\n", "27 – 1896 election: The Democratic Party and the People's Party both ran William Jennings Bryan as their presidential candidate, but ran different candidates for Vice President. The Democratic Party nominated Arthur Sewall and the People’s Party nominated Thomas E. Watson. Although the Populist ticket did not win the popular vote in any state, 27 Democratic electors for Bryan cast their vice-presidential vote for Watson instead of Sewall.\n", "BULLET::::- Henry A. Wallace (inc.) - 473\n\nBULLET::::- Scott W. Lucas - 58\n\nBULLET::::- Alben W. Barkley - 40\n\nBULLET::::- J. Melville Broughton - 30\n\nBULLET::::- Paul V. McNutt - 28\n\nBULLET::::- Prentice Cooper - 26\n\nBULLET::::- John H. Bankhead - 23.5\n\nBULLET::::- Joseph C. O'Mahoney - 8\n\nBULLET::::- Robert S. Kerr - 1\n\nBULLET::::- Scattering - 11\n\n2nd ballot after shifts:\n\nBULLET::::- Harry S. Truman - 1,031\n\nBULLET::::- Henry A. Wallace - 105\n\nBULLET::::- Prentice Cooper - 26\n\nBULLET::::- Alben W. Barkley - 6\n\nBULLET::::- Paul V. McNutt - 1\n\nBULLET::::- Scatering - 7\n\n1944 United States presidential election:\n", "In the United States, the President is \"indirectly\" elected by the Electoral College made up of electors chosen by voters in the presidential election. In most states of the United States, each elector is committed to voting for a specified candidate determined by the popular vote in each state, so that the people, in voting for each elector, are in effect voting for the candidate. However, for various reasons the numbers of electors in favour of each candidate are unlikely to be proportional to the popular vote. Thus, in five close United States elections (1824, 1876, 1888, 2000, and 2016), the candidate with the most popular votes still lost the election.\n", "Section::::1932 vs. 1928.\n\nElectoral votes of the party that won in 1932: Democratic Party\n\nSection::::1936 vs. 1932.\n\nElectoral votes of the party that won in 1936: Democratic Party\n\nSection::::1940 vs. 1936.\n\nElectoral votes of the party that won in 1940: Democratic Party\n\nSection::::1944 vs. 1940.\n\nElectoral votes of the party that won in 1944: Democratic Party\n\nSection::::1948 vs. 1944.\n\nElectoral votes of the party that won in 1948: Democratic Party\n\n* \"Truman received only 11 out of Tennessee's 12 electoral votes\"\n\nSection::::1952 vs. 1948.\n\nElectoral votes of the party that won in 1952: Republican Party\n\nSection::::1956 vs. 1952.\n", "Theodore Roosevelt, before he became president in 1901, was deeply involved in New York City politics. He explains how the machine worked:\n\nSection::::Recruiting partisans.\n", "Excluding South Carolina, legislative appointment was used in only four situations after 1832:\n\nBULLET::::- In 1848, Massachusetts statute awarded the state's electoral votes to the winner of the at-large popular vote, but only if that candidate won an absolute majority. When the vote produced no winner between the Democratic, Free Soil, and Whig parties, the state legislature selected the electors, giving all 12 electoral votes to the Whigs.\n\nBULLET::::- In 1864, Nevada, having joined the Union only a few days prior to Election Day, had no choice but to legislatively appoint.\n", "Electoral votes of the party that won in 1972: Republican Party\n\n* \"Faithless elector in 1968\"\n\nSection::::1976 vs. 1972.\n\nElectoral votes of the party that won in 1976: Democratic Party\n\nSection::::1980 vs. 1976.\n\nElectoral votes of the party that won in 1980: Republican Party\n\n* \"Faithless elector in 1976\"\n\nSection::::1984 vs. 1980.\n\nElectoral votes of the party that won in 1984: Republican Party\n\nSection::::1988 vs. 1984.\n\nElectoral votes of the party that won in 1988: Republican Party\n\nSection::::1992 vs. 1988.\n\nElectoral votes of the party that won in 1992: Democratic Party\n", "On December 19, the day that the Electoral College convened in state capitols around the country, Sanders received one electoral vote for president, from David Mulinix, a faithless elector in Hawaii who also voted for Senator Elizabeth Warren for vice president. This was the first electoral vote ever cast for a Jewish American for president in United States electoral history. Two other faithless electors, David Bright in Maine and Muhammad Abdurrahman in Minnesota, attempted to cast their electoral votes for Sanders, but their votes were invalidated by their states' faithless elector laws. Bright subsequently switched his vote to Clinton as pledged, while Abdurrahman was replaced by another elector who voted for Clinton as pledged.\n", "Section::::Vice president (1869–1873).:Election of 1872.\n", "Section::::Elections from 1788-89 to 1820.\n\nIn the election of 1820, incumbent President James Monroe ran effectively unopposed, winning all 8 of Georgia's electoral votes, and all electoral votes nationwide except one vote in New Hampshire. To the extent that a popular vote was held, it was primarily directed to filling the office of Vice President.\n", "In the U.S. presidential election system, instead of the nationwide popular vote determining the outcome of the election, the President of the United States is determined by votes cast by electors of the Electoral College. Alternatively, if no candidate receives an absolute majority of electoral votes, the election is determined by the House of Representatives. These procedures are governed by the Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution.\n", "If there were more than one individual who received the same number of votes, and such number equaled a majority of the electors, the House of Representatives would choose one of them to be President. If no individual had a majority, then the House of Representatives would choose from the five individuals with the greatest number of electoral votes. In either case, a majority of state delegations in the House was necessary for a candidate to be chosen to be President.\n", "Section::::Elections.:1876: Rutherford B. Hayes.\n\nThe 1876 presidential election was one of the most contentious and controversial presidential elections in American history. The result of the election remains among the most disputed ever, although there is no question that Democrat Samuel J. Tilden of New York outpolled Ohio's Republican Rutherford B. Hayes in the popular vote, with Tilden winning 4,288,546 votes and Hayes winning 4,034,311. Tilden was, and remains, the only candidate in American history who lost a presidential election despite receiving a majority (not just a plurality) of the popular vote.\n", "Excluding penalized contests, only primary and caucuses votes:\n\nBULLET::::- Barack Obama - 16,706,853\n\nBULLET::::- Hillary Clinton - 16,239,821\n\nBULLET::::- John Edwards - 742,010\n\nBULLET::::- Bill Richardson - 89,054\n\nBULLET::::- Uncommitted - 82,660\n\nBULLET::::- Dennis Kucinich - 68,482\n\nBULLET::::- Joe Biden - 64,041\n\nBULLET::::- Mike Gravel - 27,662\n\nBULLET::::- Christopher Dodd - 25,300\n\nBULLET::::- Others - 22,556\n\nIncluding penalized contests:\n\nBULLET::::- Hillary Clinton - 18,225,175 (48.03%)\n\nBULLET::::- Barack Obama - 17,988,182 (47.41%)\n\nBULLET::::- John Edwards - 1,006,275 (2.65%)\n\nBULLET::::- Uncommitted - 299,610 (0.79%)\n\nBULLET::::- Bill Richardson - 106,073 (0.28%)\n\nBULLET::::- Dennis Kucinich - 103,994 (0.27%)\n\nBULLET::::- Joe Biden - 81,641 (0.22%)\n", "Section::::Election of 1868.\n", "Clinton had held the lead in nearly every pre-election nationwide poll and in most swing state polls, leading some commentators to compare Trump's victory to that of Harry S. Truman in 1948 as one of the greatest political upsets in modern U.S. history. While Clinton received 2.87 million more votes nationwide (the largest margin ever for a candidate who lost the electoral college), a margin of %, Trump won a majority of electoral votes, with a total of 306 electors from 30 states, including upset victories in the pivotal Rust Belt region. Ultimately, Trump received 304 electoral votes and Clinton garnered 227, as two faithless electors defected from Trump and five defected from Clinton. Trump is the fifth person in U.S. history to become president while losing the nationwide popular vote. He is the first president without any prior experience in public service or the military, the oldest at inauguration and is also the wealthiest. Trump flipped six statewide races from the 2012 election, those being Florida, Iowa, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania and Wisconsin. In addition, he also gained one electoral vote in Maine due to the state's split allocation between the two congressional districts.\n", "The one exception to this rule is the election of 1876, where the replacement of Independent Supreme Court justice David Davis with a Republican on the Electoral Commission of 1877 (thus giving the GOP a majority on that board) and a political deal (the Compromise of 1877) put Republican Rutherford B. Hayes in the White House in return for ending Reconstruction. This happened in spite of the fact that the Republican Party had 9 negative keys that year, that Hayes lost the popular vote by a substantial margin, and that at least three states had conflicting sets of election returns - any one of which could have thrown the electoral college to Samuel Tilden, who was declared to have lost the electoral college by a single vote by the majority-Republican Electoral Commission.\n", "Rather than voting for one candidate by marking an \"X\" on their ballots, electors ranked their choices for the candidates running in their constituency by placing numbers next to the names of the candidates on the ballot. If a candidate received a majority of votes cast, that candidate was elected. If not, the candidate with the fewest votes was dropped and the second choices were allocated among the remaining candidates. This procedure was repeated until a candidate received a majority of votes.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00045	How did the inventors of the defibrillator test the machine and determine the correct time for practical use?	Defibrillators were first demonstrated in 1899 by Jean-Louis Prévost and Frédéric Batelli, two physiologists from University of Geneva, Switzerland. They discovered that small electrical shocks could induce ventricular fibrillation in dogs, and that larger charges would reverse the condition. Basically they tested it on dogs before human use.	[ "The development of the ICD was pioneered at Sinai Hospital in Baltimore by a team including Michel Mirowski, Morton Mower, Alois Langer and William Staewen. Mirowski teamed up with Mower and Staewen and together they commenced their research in 1969 but it was 11 years before they treated their first patient.\n", "A major breakthrough was the introduction of portable defibrillators used out of the hospital. Already Peleška's Prema defibrillator was designed to be more portable than original Gurvich's model. In Soviet Union, a portable version of Gurvich's defibrillator, model ДПА-3 (DPA-3), was reported in 1959. In the west this was pioneered in the early 1960s by Prof. Frank Pantridge in Belfast. Today portable defibrillators are among the many very important tools carried by ambulances. They are the only proven way to resuscitate a person who has had a cardiac arrest unwitnessed by Emergency Medical Services (EMS) who is still in persistent ventricular fibrillation or ventricular tachycardia at the arrival of pre-hospital providers.\n", "Manual external defibrillators require the expertise of a healthcare professional. They are used in conjunction with an electrocardiogram, which can be separate or built-in. A healthcare provider first diagnose the cardiac rhythm and then manually determine the voltage and timing for the electrical shock. These units are primarily found in hospitals and on some ambulances. For instance, every NHS ambulance in the United Kingdom is equipped with a manual defibrillator for use by the attending paramedics and technicians. In the United States, many advanced EMTs and all paramedics are trained to recognize lethal arrhythmias and deliver appropriate electrical therapy with a manual defibrillator when appropriate. \n", "The external defibrillator as known today was invented by Electrical Engineer William Kouwenhoven in 1930. William studied the relation between the electric shocks and its effects on human heart when he was a student at Johns Hopkins University School of Engineering. His studies helped him to invent a device for external jump start of the heart. He invented the defibrillator and tested on a dog, like Prévost and Batelli.\n", "To extend the usefulness of early treatment, Pantridge went on to develop the portable defibrillator, and in 1965 installed his first version in a Belfast ambulance. It weighed 70 kg and operated from car batteries, but by 1968 he had designed an instrument weighing only 3 kg, incorporating a miniature capacitor manufactured for NASA.\n", "The automatic implantable cardioverter defibrillator is the size of a deck of cards and weighs nine ounces. Although these devices have become smaller since they were first patented, the technology from the original patent has not been replaced by new technology. The AICD patent (U.S. Patent 4,202,340), issued on May 13, 1980, is entitled “Method and Apparatus for Monitoring Heart Activity, Detecting Abnormalities, and Cardioverting a Malfunctiong Heart.”\n\nSection::::Inventions.:First Human Implantation.\n", "A standard logo is clearly advertised. The location is indicated in OpenStreetMap by the \"emergency=defibrillator\" tag.\n\nSection::::Usage.\n\nSection::::Usage.:Simplicity of use.\n", "Section::::History.:Portable units become available.\n", "In a study analyzing the effects of having AEDs immediately present during Chicago's Heart Start program over a two-year period, of 22 individuals, 18 were in a cardiac arrhythmia which AEDs can treat. Of these 18, 11 survived. Of these 11 patients, 6 were treated by bystanders with absolutely no previous training in AED use.\n\nSection::::Implementation.\n\nSection::::Implementation.:Placement and availability.\n", "The problems to be overcome were the design of a system which would allow detection of ventricular fibrillation or ventricular tachycardia. Despite the lack of financial backing and grants, they persisted and the first device was implanted in February 1980 at Johns Hopkins Hospital by Dr. Levi Watkins, Jr.\n\nThe first devices required the chest to be cut open and a mesh electrode sewn onto the heart; the pulse generator was placed in the abdomen.\n\nSection::::Working mechanism.\n", "Section::::Assessment of usefulness.\n", "The portable version of the defibrillator was invented in the mid-1960s by Frank Pantridge in Belfast, Northern Ireland.\n\nSection::::Indications.\n\nSection::::Indications.:Conditions that the device treats.\n\nAn automated external defibrillator is used in cases of life-threatening cardiac arrhythmias which lead to sudden cardiac arrest, 'w\"hich is not the same as a heart attack. The rhythms that the device will treat are usually limited to:\"\"\n\nBULLET::::1. Pulseless Ventricular tachycardia (shortened to VT or V-Tach)\n\nBULLET::::2. Ventricular fibrillation (shortened to VF or V-Fib)\n", "The results of a randomized controlled trial were presented at the American College of Cardiology’s 67th Annual Scientific Session (in the spring of 2018). The study results apparently did not show sufficient evidence to show the WCD reduced sudden cardiac arrest in post-heart attack patients. In the group that wore the WCD, 1.6% died from sudden cardiac arrest, and in the group that didn’t wear the WCD, 2.4% died, which is arguably not a statistically significant difference.\n\nSection::::References.\n", "As early defibrillation can significantly improve VF outcomes, AEDs have become publicly available in many easily accessible areas. AEDs have been incorporated into the algorithm for basic life support (BLS). Many first responders, such as firefighters, policemen, and security guards, are equipped with them.\n", "All manufacturers mark their electrode pads with an expiration date, and it is important to ensure that the pads are in date. This is usually marked on the outside of the pads. Some models are designed to make this date visible through a 'window', although others will require the opening of the case to find the date stamp.\n", "In January and February 2015, the FDA issued this news release: \"The FDA issued a final order that will require AED manufacturers to submit premarket approval applications (PMAs), which undergo a more rigorous review than what was required to market these devices in the past. The agency’s strengthened review will focus on the critical requirements needed to ensure the safety and reliability of AEDs and their necessary accessories, including batteries, pad electrodes, adapters and hardware keys for pediatric use.\" \n", "The first use on a human was in 1947 by Claude Beck, professor of surgery at Case Western Reserve University. Beck's theory was that ventricular fibrillation often occurred in hearts which were fundamentally healthy, in his terms \"Hearts that are too good to die\", and that there must be a way of saving them. Beck first used the technique successfully on a 14-year-old boy who was being operated on for a congenital chest defect. The boy's chest was surgically opened, and manual cardiac massage was undertaken for 45 minutes until the arrival of the defibrillator. Beck used internal paddles on either side of the heart, along with procainamide, an antiarrhythmic drug, and achieved return of normal sinus rhythm.\n", "Each key was supported by a metal plate that wrapped around it on three sides. This created a support that was used to block the key when the error detection mechanism was activated. The blocking mechanism was moved inside the box in the following models.\n\nSection::::Development.:Model F.\n\nThe production of this model started in 1915 and lasted five years. The error detection mechanism is moved inside the box and the release key is red. This machine is the last machine without the Comptometer logo inscribed on its front and back panels.\n\nSection::::Development.:Model H, J, ST.\n", "A further development in defibrillation came with the invention of the implantable device, known as an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (or ICD). This was pioneered at Sinai Hospital in Baltimore by a team that included Stephen Heilman, Alois Langer, Jack Lattuca, Morton Mower, Michel Mirowski, and Mir Imran, with the help of industrial collaborator Intec Systems of Pittsburgh. Mirowski teamed up with Mower and Staewen, and together they commenced their research in 1969 but it was 11 years before they treated their first patient. Similar developmental work was carried out by Schuder and colleagues at the University of Missouri.\n", "BULLET::::- With LVEF ≤ 35% due to prior Myocardial Infarction (MI) who are at least 40 days post-MI and are in NYHA Functional Class II or III\n\nBULLET::::- With LV dysfunction due to prior MI who are at least 40 days post-MI, have an LVEF ≤ 30%, and are in NYHA Functional Class I\n\nBULLET::::- With nonischemic DCM who have an LVEF ≤ 35% and who are in NYHA Functional Class II or III\n\nBULLET::::- With nonsustained VT due to prior MI, LVEF 40%, and inducible VF or sustained VT at electrophysiological study\n", "In 1986, M. Stephen Heilman and Larry Bowling founded Lifecor and along with a team of former Intec employees who developed the first implantable cardioverter defibrillator (ICD) began development of the WCD. The WCD was extensively tested for three years in 17 major medical centers across the United States and Europe. The clinical data collected from those trials allowed Lifecor to obtain FDA approval for use of the WCD in the United States.\n", "From 1980 to 1985, over 800 patients were treated with automatic implantable cardioverter defibrillators. By 1988, nearly 5,000 people had benefited from the device. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has estimated that 416,000 AICDs were implanted between 1990 and 2002 in the United States. The device is now implanted in over 300,000 people worldwide and is 99% effective in correcting heart rhythm abnormalities and cardiac arrest. United States Vice President Dick Cheney received an implantable defibrillator in 2002.\n\nSection::::Inventions.:Improvements to the Original Design.\n", "The Lown-Berkovits waveform, as it was known, was the standard for defibrillation until the late 1980s. Earlier in the 1980s, the \"MU lab\" at the University of Missouri had pioneered numerous studies introducing a new waveform called a biphasic truncated waveform (BTE). In this waveform an exponentially decaying DC voltage is reversed in polarity about halfway through the shock time, then continues to decay for some time after which the voltage is cut off, or truncated. The studies showed that the biphasic truncated waveform could be more efficacious while requiring the delivery of lower levels of energy to produce defibrillation. An added benefit was a significant reduction in weight of the machine. The BTE waveform, combined with automatic measurement of transthoracic impedance is the basis for modern defibrillators.\n", "In 1933, Dr. Albert Hyman, heart specialist at the Beth Davis Hospital of New York City and C. Henry Hyman, an electrical engineer, looking for an alternative to injecting powerful drugs directly into the heart, came up with an invention that used an electrical shock in place of drug injection. This invention was called the \"Hyman Otor\" where a hollow needle is used to pass an insulated wire to the heart area to deliver the electrical shock. The hollow steel needle acted as one end of the circuit and the tip of the insulated wire the other end. Whether the \"Hyman Otor\" was a success is unknown.\n", "Most manufacturers recommend checking the AED before every period of duty or on a regular basis for fixed units. Some units need to be switched on in order to perform a self check; other models have a self check system built in with a visible indicator.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00777	Why do different items usually have the same shipping price even if they're completely different in size, weight, shape, etc?	One reason is that the shipping company has price ranges to simplify billing. A small box that weighs next to nothing costs the same to ship as a box sized exactly the same but containing four books. If you look at the price ranges of shipping companies it usually says something like this: Size 1: not larger than AxBxC inches & not heavier than D ounce. And then they define size ranges. Your package costs as the first category it fits. Then, to simplify things further Amazon (or any other large retailer) goes I the shipping company and says “hey, we want to offer you the possibility of having five million packages of ours shipped yearly. We want them flat rate. Here is our statistics on the size and weight of all packages sent the last five years. What’s your offer?”	[ "However, there are a number of factors that limit the parcel size :\n\nBULLET::::- The stock level;\n\nBULLET::::- Available depth;\n\nBULLET::::- Decreasing economies of scale in larger ships.\n", "BULLET::::- The nature of the shipped product - shipping eggs and shipping shirts can require differing fulfillment processes\n\nBULLET::::- The nature of the orders - the number of differing items and quantities of each item in orders\n\nBULLET::::- The nature of the shipping packaging - cases, totes, envelopes, pallets can create process variations\n\nBULLET::::- Shipping costs - consolidation of orders, shipping pre-sort can change processing operations\n\nBULLET::::- Availability and cost and productivity of workforce - can create trade-off decisions in automation and manual processing operations\n", "Each product has particular parcel size in which may be transported in the most economical way. This is expressed as \"parcel size distribution\". Thus, the \"parcel size distribution\" size for coal it's completely different from the size used for ore, for grain or for sugar.\n", "In the case of a lot or batch of items that are not individually serialized, the entire lot or batch may have a unique identifier assigned. For example, a manufacturer might place a unique IUID physical mark on the exterior of a kit or container that holds a gross quantity of mission critical items. The government would refer to this IUID at the point of acceptance. The entire gross quantity in this case is treated as a single item. In this case, the IUID is no longer useful after the items are separated, and the individual items from the batch or lot are never uniquely identified.\n", "Normal value cannot be based on the price in the exporter's domestic market when there are no domestic sales. For example, if the products are only sold on the foreign market, the normal value will have to be determined on another basis. Additionally, some products may be sold on both markets but the quantity sold on the domestic market may be small compared to quantity sold on foreign market. This situation happens often in countries with small domestic markets like Hong Kong and Singapore, though similar circumstances may also happen in larger markets. This is because of differences in factors like consumer taste and maintenance.\n", "Comparability is best achieved where identical items are compared. However, in some cases it is possible to make reliable adjustments for differences in the particular items, such as differences in features or quality. For example, gold prices might be adjusted based on the weight of the actual gold (one ounce of 10 carat gold would be half the price of one ounce of 20 carat gold).\n\nSection::::Comparability.:Functions and risks.\n", "BULLET::::- Presence of small volume distribution\n\nBULLET::::- Minimization of shipping costs\n\nThis list is only a small sample of factors that can influence the choice of a distribution centers operational procedures. Because each factor has varying importance in each organization the net effect is that each organization has unique processing requirements.\n\nThe effect of Globalization has immense impacts on much of the order fulfillment but its impact is felt mostly in transportation and distribution.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Counter-to-counter package\n\nBULLET::::- Distribution center\n\nBULLET::::- Document automation\n\nBULLET::::- Shipping list\n\nBULLET::::- Warehouse\n\nBULLET::::- Warehouse management system\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Openbravo user guide\n", "Manner and terms of sale may have a material impact on price. For example, buyers will pay more if they can defer payment and buy in smaller quantities. Terms that may impact price include payment timing, warranty, volume discounts, duration of rights to use of the product, form of consideration, etc.\n\nSection::::Comparability.:Market level, economic conditions and geography.\n", "Section::::Identification conventions.\n\nIn some cases, the cost of goods sold may be identified with the item sold. Ordinarily, however, the identity of goods is lost between the time of purchase or manufacture and the time of sale. Determining which goods have been sold, and the cost of those goods, requires either identifying the goods or using a convention to assume which goods were sold. This may be referred to as a cost flow assumption or inventory identification assumption or convention. The following methods are available in many jurisdictions for associating costs with goods sold and goods still on hand:\n", "Shipping markets\n\nThe international shipping industry can be divided into four closely related shipping markets, each trading in a different commodity: the freight market, the sale and purchase market, the newbuilding market and the demolition market. These four markets are linked by cash flow and push the market traders in the direction they want.\n\nSection::::The freight market.\n", "Most businesses make more than one of a particular item. Thus, costs are incurred for multiple items rather than a particular item sold. Determining how much of each of these components to allocate to particular goods requires either tracking the particular costs or making some allocations of costs. Parts and raw materials are often tracked to particular sets (\"e.g.\", batches or production runs) of goods, then allocated to each item.\n", "BULLET::::- Zone pricing – Prices increase as shipping distances increase. This is sometimes done by drawing concentric circles on a map with the plant or warehouse at the center and each circle defining the boundary of a price zone. Instead of using circles, irregularly shaped price boundaries can be drawn that reflect geography, population density, transportation infrastructure, and shipping cost. (The term \"zone pricing\" can also refer to the practice of setting prices that reflect local competitive conditions, i.e., the market forces of supply and demand, rather than actual cost of transportation.)\n", "Shipping costs have historically been calculated based on weight alone. By charging only by weight, lightweight, low-density packages become unprofitable for freight carriers due to the amount of space they take up in trucks, aircraft, and ships in proportion to their actual weight. By using dimensioning technology to calculate an item's dimensional weight, carriers are able to charge based on either volume or weight, depending on which is greater.\n", "An example of how package design is affected by other factors is its relationship to logistics. When the distribution system includes individual shipments by a small parcel carrier, the sorting, handling, and mixed stacking make severe demands on the strength and protective ability of the transport package. If the logistics system consists of uniform palletized unit loads, the structural design of the package can be designed to meet those specific needs, such as vertical stacking for a longer time frame. A package designed for one mode of shipment may not be suited to another.\n", "BULLET::::- Uniform delivery pricing – (also called postage stamp pricing) – The same price is charged to all.\n", "Goods, services, or property may be provided to different levels of buyers or users: producer to wholesaler, wholesaler to wholesaler, wholesaler to retailer, or for ultimate consumption. Market conditions, and thus prices, vary greatly at these levels. In addition, prices may vary greatly between different economies or geographies. For example, a head of cauliflower at a retail market will command a vastly different price in unelectrified rural India than in Tokyo. Buyers or sellers may have different market shares that allow them to achieve volume discounts or exert sufficient pressure on the other party to lower prices. Where prices are to be compared, the putative comparables must be at the same market level, within the same or similar economic and geographic environments, and under the same or similar conditions.\n", "In the U.S. and Canada, the cost for long-distance moves is typically determined by the weight of the items to be moved, the distance, how quickly the items are to be moved, and the time of the year or month which the move occurs. In the United Kingdom and Australia, the price is based on the volume of the items rather than their weight. Some movers may offer flat rate pricing.\n", "Geographical pricing\n\nGeographical pricing, in marketing, is the practice of modifying a basic list price based on the geographical location of the buyer. It is intended to reflect the costs of shipping to different locations.\n\nThere are several types of geographic pricing: \n\nBULLET::::- FOB origin (Free on Board origin) – The shipping cost from the factory or warehouse is paid by the purchaser. Ownership of the goods is transferred to the buyer as soon as it leaves the point of origin. It can be either the buyer or seller that arranges for the transportation.\n", "Section::::Effect of object shape.\n\nThe particle volume fraction at RCP depends on the objects being packed. If the objects are polydispersed then the volume fraction depends non-trivially on the size-distribution and can be arbitrarily close to 1. Still for (relatively) monodisperse objects the value for RCP depends on the object shape; for spheres it is 0.64, for M&M's candy it is 0.68.\n\nSection::::Example.\n\nProducts containing loosely packed items are often labeled with this message: 'Contents May Settle During Shipping'. \n\nUsually during shipping, the container will be bumped numerous times, which will increase the packing density.\n", "If a sales team sells several products, it can often do so more efficiently than if it is selling only one product because the cost of travel would be distributed over a greater revenue base, thus improving cost efficiency. There can also be synergies between products such that offering a range of products gives the consumer a more desirable product offering than would a single product. Economies of scope can also operate through distribution efficiencies—i.e. it can be more efficient to ship to any given location a range of products than a single type of product.\n", "Since freight sent via LTL carriers is subject to misrouting or misleading, it is a good practice to put the tracking number on each side of each piece of freight. If the destination state and zipcode are affixed to each side as well, misloading is less likely to occur. Even though it is not required, it is good practice to affix a relatively large label including the four letter carrier code, tracking number, destination station, and destination zipcode of the shipment (i.e. ABFS123456789 GA 30301). The easier it is for dockworkers to identify an individual shipment, the less likely it is to be misrouted. The value or type of contents should not be advertised on the package to help reduce loss. If the only piece of identification is the tracking number, the dockworker will have more difficulty identifying the shipment's pieces, hence the chances of freight being loaded onto the wrong trailer are greater, increasing the transit time and increasing the probability of the shipment being lost. Proper labels, bar codes, and RFID are important for proper routing and delivery.\n", "This method is also very hard to use on interchangeable goods. For example, it is hard to relate shipping and storage costs to a specific inventory item. These numbers will need to be estimated, hence reducing the specific identification method's benefit of being extremely specific. Thus, this method is generally limited to large, high-ticket items which can be easily identified specifically (such as tract houses).\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Inventory\n\nBULLET::::- Weighted average cost\n\nBULLET::::- Moving-average cost\n\nBULLET::::- FIFO and LIFO\n\nSection::::References.\n", "For sea Bulk transport there are given some typical parcel sizes. For coal is between 20,000 and 160,000 tons, but for the majority of cargoes parcel sizes lie between 150,000 and 60,000 tons. Iron ore is transported especially in parcel sizes of 150,000 tons, while with grain sizes are between 60,000 and 25,000 tons. When transporting sugar the most common parcel sizes are around 25,000 tons.\n\nMaximizing parcels to the maximum possible size has helped the economies of scale. This has contributed to the economic growth of the use of great vessels after the World War II.\n", "Shipping costs have historically been calculated on the basis of gross weight in kilograms or pounds. By charging only by weight, lightweight, low density packages become unprofitable for freight carriers due to the amount of space they take up in the truck/aircraft/ship in proportion to their actual weight. The concept of dimensional weight has been adopted by the transportation industry worldwide as a uniform means of establishing a minimum charge for the cubic space a package occupies. In fact, UPS and FedEx both announced that starting 2015, shipping charges on all shipments (air and ground) will be determined by greater of the actual weight and dimensional weight of a package. Prior to this announcement, dimensional weight charges were only applicable to packages of a specific size range.\n", "The presence or lack of packaging affects the value of a model. A \"mint boxed\" model can in some cases be worth 50-100% more than the mint model without the box, depending on the age of the model, the condition of the box, and even the variations of the box.\n" ]	[ "All items should cost different amounts to ship." ]	[ "Companies can make long term flat rate offers based on statistics. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "All items should cost different amounts to ship." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Companies can make long term flat rate offers based on statistics. " ]
2018-00866	What is needed to get matter to being a Bose-Einstein condensate, the least known about state of matter?	You want bosons in a system(usually weakly or noninteracting- typically using a dilute gas) at a low enough temperature. At it's core, a BEC is a bunch of bosons sitting in the same ground state. You want bosons as opposed to fermions because Pauli exclusion won't allow fermions to all chill in the same ground state. > the least known about state of matter? I'm not sure I'd classify it as the least known about state of matter. There are many many new states of matter these days, that we know very little about. BECs aren't completely solved, but we do know quite a lot about them and how to make them. Especially the simpler cases- you can derive the critical temperature for the simplest case of a noninteracting boson gas with pretty standard quantum stat mech edit: As someone pointed out below, i assumed you had some background (or were willing to let some things be swept under the rug for the sake of simplicity) based on the way you worded your question. If you'd like BECs explained in much greater detail from scratch, I'd recommend these previous posts: URL_0 URL_1 They do go into much more detail (that i swept under the rug), but it's a lot to take in if you have no background.	[ "Researchers in the new field of atomtronics use the properties of Bose–Einstein condensates when manipulating groups of identical cold atoms using lasers.\n\nIn 1970, BECs were proposed by Emmanuel David Tannenbaum for anti-stealth technology.\n\nSection::::Current research.:Dark matter.\n\nP. Sikivie and Q. Yang showed that cold dark matter axions form a Bose–Einstein condensate by thermalisation because of gravitational self-interactions. Axions have not yet been confirmed to exist. However the important search for them has been greatly enhanced with the completion of upgrades to the Axion Dark Matter Experiment(ADMX) at the University of Washington in early 2018.\n\nSection::::Current research.:Isotopes.\n", "Another current research interest is the creation of Bose–Einstein condensates in microgravity in order to use its properties for high precision atom interferometry. The first demonstration of a BEC in weightlessness was achieved in 2008 at a drop tower in Bremen, Germany by a consortium of researchers led by Ernst M. Rasel from Leibniz University of Hanover. The same team demonstrated in 2017 the first creation of a Bose–Einstein condensate in space and it is also the subject of two upcoming experiments on the International Space Station.\n", "introduction of the weaker secondary optical lattice. Studies of vortices in nonuniform Bose–Einstein condensates as well as excitatons of these systems by the application of moving repulsive or attractive obstacles, have also been undertaken. Within this context, the conditions for order and chaos in the dynamics of a trapped Bose–Einstein condensate have been explored by the application of moving blue and red-detuned laser beams via the time-dependent Gross-Pitaevskii equation.\n\nBose–Einstein condensates composed of a wide range of isotopes have been produced.\n", "Starting with the 1980s BEC has become a subject of current interest in high-energy physics and at present meetings entirely dedicated to this subject take place. One reason for this interest is the fact that BEC are up to now the only method for the determination of sizes and lifetimes of sources of elementary particles. This is of particular interest for the ongoing search of quark matter in the laboratory: To reach this phase of matter a critical energy density is necessary. To measure this energy density one must determine the volume of the fireball in which this matter is supposed to have been generated and this means the determination of the size of the source; that can be achieved by the method of intensity interferometry. Furthermore, a phase of matter means a quasi-stable state, i.e. a state which lives longer than the duration of the collision that gave rise to this state. This means that we have to measure the lifetime of the new system, which can again be obtained by BEC only.\n", "Consider now a gas of particles, which can be in different momentum states labeled formula_23. If the number of particles is less than the number of thermally accessible states, for high temperatures and low densities, the particles will all be in different states. In this limit, the gas is classical. As the density increases or the temperature decreases, the number of accessible states per particle becomes smaller, and at some point, more particles will be forced into a single state than the maximum allowed for that state by statistical weighting. From this point on, any extra particle added will go into the ground state.\n", "1995 Bose–Einstein condensate\n\nBULLET::::- A Bose–Einstein condensate (BEC) is a state of matter of bosons confined in an external potential and cooled to temperatures very near to absolute zero (). Satyendra Nath Bose and Albert Einstein first conceptualized BEC in 1924–1925; in 1995 Wolfgang Ketterle at MIT and Eric Cornell and Carl Wieman at the University of Colorado at Boulder National Institute of Standards and Technology Laboratory produced a BEC.\n\n1995 Screenless hammer mill\n", "The effect has mainly been observed on alkaline atoms which have nuclear properties particularly suitable for working with traps. As of 2012, using ultra-low temperatures of formula_60 or below, Bose–Einstein condensates had been obtained for a multitude of isotopes, mainly of alkali metal, alkaline earth metal,\n", "In 2017, two research groups from ETH Zurich and from MIT reported on the first creation of a supersolid with ultracold quantum gases. The Zurich group placed a Bose-Einstein condensate inside two optical resonators, which enhanced the atomic interactions until they start to spontaneously crystallize and form a solid that maintains the inherent superfluidity of Bose-Einstein condensates. The MIT group exposed a Bose-Einstein condensate in a double-well potential to light beams that created an effective spin-orbit coupling. The interference between the atoms on the two spin-orbit coupled lattice sites gave rise to a density modulation that establishes a stripe phase with supersolid properties.\n", "Section::::Publications.\n\nBULLET::::- Creation of long-term coherent optical memory via controlled nonlinear interactions in Bose-Einstein condensates : Rui Zhang, Sean R. Garner, and Lene Vestergaard Hau\n\nBULLET::::- Coherent control of optical information with matter wave dynamics Naomi S. Ginsberg, Sean R. Garner, and Lene Vestergaard Hau\n\nBULLET::::- Force-gradient detected nuclear magnetic resonance : Garner, Sean R.; Kuehn, Seppe; Dawlaty, Jahan M.; Jenkins, Neil E.; Marohn, John A.\n", "In 1995, a gas of rubidium atoms cooled down to a temperature of 170 nK was used to experimentally realize the Bose–Einstein condensate, a novel state of matter originally predicted by S. N. Bose and Albert Einstein, wherein a large number of atoms occupy one quantum state.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n", "Since 1995, many other atomic species have been condensed, and BEC's have also been realized using molecules, quasi-particles, and photons.\n\nSection::::Critical temperature.\n\nThis transition to BEC occurs below a critical temperature, which for a uniform three-dimensional gas consisting of non-interacting particles with no apparent internal degrees of freedom is given by:\n\nwhere:\n\nInteractions shift the value and the corrections can be calculated by mean-field theory.\n\nThis formula is derived from finding the gas degeneracy in the Bose gas using Bose–Einstein statistics.\n\nSection::::Models.\n\nSection::::Models.:Bose Einstein's non-interacting gas.\n", "The problem with this continuum approximation for a Bose gas is that the ground state has been effectively ignored, giving a degeneracy of zero for zero energy. This inaccuracy becomes serious when dealing with the Bose–Einstein condensate and will be dealt with in the next section.\n\nSection::::Inclusion of the ground state.\n\nThe total number of particles is found from the grand potential by\n", "To calculate the transition temperature at any density, integrate, over all momentum states, the expression for maximum number of excited particles, :\n", "and lanthanide atoms (, , , , , , , , , , , , , , and ). Research was finally successful in hydrogen with the aid of the newly developed method of 'evaporative cooling'. In contrast, the superfluid state of below is not a good example, because the interaction between the atoms is too strong. Only 8% of atoms are in the ground state near absolute zero, rather than the 100% of a true condensate.\n", "where \"N\" is the number of particles in the ground state condensate:\n\nThis equation can now be solved down to absolute zero in temperature. Figure 1 shows the results of the solution to this equation for \"α\"=3/2, with \"k\"=\"ε\"=1 which corresponds to a gas of bosons in a box. The solid black line is the fraction of excited states \"1-N/N \" for \"N \"=10,000 and the dotted black line is the solution for \"N \"=1000. The blue lines are the fraction of condensed particles \"N/N \" The red lines plot values of the\n", "On June 5, 1995 the first gaseous condensate was produced by Eric Cornell and Carl Wieman at the University of Colorado at Boulder NIST–JILA lab, in a gas of rubidium atoms cooled to 170 nanokelvins (nK). Shortly thereafter, Wolfgang Ketterle at MIT realized a BEC in a gas of sodium atoms. For their achievements Cornell, Wieman, and Ketterle received the 2001 Nobel Prize in Physics. These early studies founded the field of ultracold atoms, and hundreds of research groups around the world now routinely produce BEC's of dilute atomic vapors in their labs.\n", "BULLET::::- Bose–Einstein condensate: a phase in which a large number of bosons all inhabit the same quantum state, in effect becoming one single wave/particle. This is a low energy phase that can only be formed in laboratory conditions and in very cold temperatures. It must be close to zero Kelvin, or absolute zero. Satyendra Bose and Albert Einstein predicted the existence of such a state in the 1920s, but it was not observed until 1995 by Eric Cornell and Carl Wieman.\n", "BULLET::::- In 2017, Cold Atom Laboratory (CAL), an experimental instrument is developed for launch to the International Space Station (ISS) in 2018. The instrument will create extremely cold conditions in the microgravity environment of the ISS leading to the formation of Bose Einstein Condensates that are a magnitude colder than those that are created in laboratories on Earth. In a space-based laboratory, up to 20 seconds interaction times and as low as 1 picokelvin (formula_3 K) temperatures are achievable, and it could lead to exploration of unknown quantum mechanical phenomena and test some of the most fundamental laws of physics.\n", "One can also calculate the fluctuations of the occupancy of the states. Below the transition, the fluctuations in the occupancy in the ground state become large. The magnitude however is ensemble-dependent. In the usual grand canonical ensemble treatment of the subject, the fluctuates become of the order of the number of particles. However, in the canonical ensemble, the fluctuations are much smaller.\n\nSection::::Thermodynamics.\n\nAdding the ground state to the equation for the particle number corresponds to adding the equivalent ground state term to the grand potential:\n", "The process of creation of molecular Bose condensate during the sweep of the magnetic field throughout the Feshbach resonance, as well as the reverse process, are described by the exactly solvable model that can explain many experimental observations.\n\nSection::::Current research.\n\nCompared to more commonly encountered states of matter, Bose–Einstein condensates are extremely fragile. The slightest interaction with the external environment can be enough to warm them past the condensation threshold, eliminating their interesting properties and forming a normal gas.\n", "BULLET::::- Rui Zhang, Sean R. Garner, and Lene Vestergaard Hau, \"Creation of long-term coherent optical memory via controlled nonlinear interactions in Bose–Einstein condensates\" (2009)\n\nBULLET::::- Naomi S. Ginsberg, Sean R. Garner, and Lene Vestergaard Hau, \"Coherent control of optical information with matter wave dynamics\" (2007).\n\nBULLET::::- Naomi S. Ginsberg, Joachim Brand, Lene Vestergaard Hau, \"Observation of Hybrid Soliton Vortex-Ring Structures in Bose–Einstein Condensates\" (2005).\n\nBULLET::::- Chien Liu, Zachary Dutton, Cyrus H. Behroozi, Lene Vestergaard Hau, \"Observation of coherent optical information storage in an atomic medium using halted light pulses\"\n", "Such unparticle stuff has not been observed, which suggests that if it exists, it must couple with normal matter weakly at observable energies. Since the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) team announced it will begin probing a higher energy frontier in 2009, some theoretical physicists have begun to consider the properties of unparticle stuff and how it may appear in LHC experiments. One of the great hopes for the LHC is that it might come up with some discoveries that will help us update or replace our best description of the particles that make up matter and the forces that glue them together.\n", "This last equation may lack a solution at low enough temperatures when for . In this case a critical temperature is found such that for the system is in a Bose-Einstein condensed phase and a finite fraction of the bosons are in the ground state.\n\nThe density of states depends on the dimensionality of the space. In particular formula_3 therefore for only in dimensions . Therefore, a Bose-Einstein condensation of an ideal Bose gas can only occur for dimensions .\n\nSection::::The concept.\n", "BULLET::::- 2017 - Cold Atom Laboratory (CAL), an experimental instrument being developed for launch to the International Space Station (ISS) in 2018. The instrument will create extremely cold conditions in the microgravity environment of the ISS leading to the formation of Bose Einstein Condensates that are a magnitude colder than those that are created in laboratories on Earth. In a space-based laboratory, up to 20 seconds interaction times and as low as 1 picokelvin (formula_1 K) temperatures are achievable, and it could lead to exploration of unknown quantum mechanical phenomena and test some of the most fundamental laws of physics.\n", "BULLET::::- First to create a new form of matter, the Bose–Einstein condensate, just seven hundred billionths of a degree above absolute zero.\n\nBULLET::::- First to observe a \"fermionic condensate\" formed from pairs of atoms in a gas.\n\nBULLET::::- Developed the \"FluChip\" to aid physicians in diagnosing respiratory illness and differentiating between three types of influenza and other viruses that cause similar symptoms.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Bose Einstein Condensates are the least known states of matter." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "There are other lesser known states of matter." ]
2018-01900	The human body is 70% water." - How did we find this out?	We have a pretty stong understanding of anatomy and cellular biology. Its not a big guess we just actually know what we are made up of... We gained that knowledge through centuries of medical science, chemistry and biology. So put more bluntly, we measured it.	[ "BULLET::::- blood plasma: Evans blue\n\nIntracellular fluid may then be estimated by subtracting extracellular fluid from total body water.\n\nSection::::Measurement.:Bioelectrical impedance analysis.\n", "Another method of determining total body water percentage (TBW%) is via Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis (BIA). In the traditional BIA method, a person lies on a cot and spot electrodes are placed on the hands and bare feet. Electrolyte gel is applied first, and then a weak current of frequency 50kHz is introduced. This AC waveform allows the creation of a current inside the body via the very capacitive skin without causing a DC flow or burns, and limited in the ~20mA range current for safety.\n", "The adult male body is about 60% water for a total water content of some 42 litres. This is made up of about 19 litres of extracellular fluid including about 3.2 litres of blood plasma and about 8.4 litres of interstitial fluid, and about 23 litres of fluid inside cells. The content, acidity and composition of the water inside and outside cells is carefully maintained. The main electrolytes in body water outside cells are sodium and chloride, whereas within cells it is potassium and other phosphates.\n\nSection::::Composition.:Cells.\n", "Prior to the HMP launch, it was often reported in popular media and scientific literature that there are about 10 times as many microbial cells and 100 times as many microbial genes in the human body as there are human cells; this figure was based on estimates that the human microbiome includes around 100 trillion bacterial cells and an adult human typically has around 10 trillion human cells. In 2014 the American Academy of Microbiology published a FAQ that emphasized that the number of microbial cells and the number of human cells are both estimates, and noted that recent research had arrived at a new estimate of the number of human cells at around 37 trillion cells, meaning that the ratio of microbial to human cells is probably about 3:1. In 2016 another group published a new estimate of ratio as being roughly 1:1 (1.3:1, with \"an uncertainty of 25% and a variation of 53% over the population of standard 70 kg males\").\n", "By weight, the average human adult male is approximately 60% water and the average adult female is approximately 55%. There can be considerable variation in body water percentage based on a number of factors like age, health, water intake, weight, and sex. In a large study of adults of all ages and both sexes, the adult human body averaged ~65% water. However, this varied substantially by age, sex, and adiposity (amount of fat in body composition). The figure for water fraction by weight in this sample was found to be 58 ±8% water for males and 48 ±6% for females. The body water constitutes as much as 93% of the body weight of a newborn infant, whereas some obese people are as little as 15% water by weight. This is due to how fat tissue does not retain water as well as lean tissue. These statistical averages will vary with factors such as type of population, age of people sampled, number of people sampled, and methodology. So there is not, and cannot be, a figure that is exactly the same for all people, for this or any other physiological measure.\n", "The resultant value is the approximate volume of free water required to correct a hypernatremic state. In practice, the value rarely approximates the actual amount of free water required to correct a deficit due to insensible losses, urinary output, and differences in water distribution among patients. \n\nSection::::Functions.\n\nWater in the animal body performs a number of functions: as a solvent for transportation of nutrients; as a medium for excretion; a means for heat control; as a lubricant for joints; and for shock absorption.\n\nSection::::Changes.\n", "As of 2014, it was often reported in popular media and in the scientific literature that there are about 10 times as many microbial cells in the human body as there are human cells; this figure was based on estimates that the human microbiome includes around 100 trillion bacterial cells and that an adult human typically has around 10 trillion human cells. In 2014, the American Academy of Microbiology published a FAQ that emphasized that the number of microbial cells and the number of human cells are both estimates, and noted that recent research had arrived at a new estimate of the number of human cellsapproximately 37.2 trillion, meaning that the ratio of microbial-to-human cells, if the original estimate of 100 trillion bacterial cells is correct, is closer to 3:1. In 2016, another group published a new estimate of the ratio being roughly 1:1 (1.3:1, with \"an uncertainty of 25% and a variation of 53% over the population of standard 70-kg males\").\n", "BULLET::::2. \"Extraneous data\": IMC records the aggregate net heat flow produced or consumed by all processes taking place within an ampoule. Therefore, in order to be sure what process or processes are producing the measured heat flow, great care must be taken in both experimental design and in the initial use of related chemical, physical and biologic assays.\n", "Total body water can be determined using Flowing afterglow mass spectrometry measurement of deuterium abundance in breath samples from individuals. A known dose of deuterated water (Heavy water, DO) is ingested and allowed to equilibrate within the body water. The FA-MS instrument then measures the deuterium-to-hydrogen (D:H) ratio in the exhaled breath water vapour. The total body water is then accurately measured from the increase in breath deuterium content in relation to the volume of DO ingested.\n\nDifferent substances can be used to measure different fluid compartments:\n\nBULLET::::- total body water: tritiated water or heavy water.\n\nBULLET::::- extracellular fluid: inulin\n", "Body fluid\n\nBody fluids, bodily fluids, or biofluids are liquids within the human body. In lean healthy adult men, the total body water is about 60% (60-67%) of the total body weight; it is usually slightly lower in women. The exact percentage \n\nof fluid relative to body weight is inversely proportional to the percentage of body fat. A lean 70 kg (160 pound) man, for example, has about 42 (42-47) liters of water in his body. \n", "BULLET::::- Intracellular fluid (2/3 of body water) is fluid contained within cells. In a 72-kg body containing 40 litres of fluid, about 25 litres is intracellular, which amounts to 62.5%. Jackson's texts states 70% of body fluid is intracellular.\n\nBULLET::::- Extracellular fluid (1/3 of body water) is fluid contained in areas outside of cells. For a 40-litre body, about 15 litres is extracellular, which amounts to 37.5%.\n\nBULLET::::- Plasma (1/5 of extracellular fluid). Of this 15 litres of extracellular fluid, plasma volume averages 3 litres, or 20%.\n\nBULLET::::- Interstitial fluid (4/5 of extracellular fluid)\n", "BULLET::::- TBW = Total body water before loss (approximately 60% of body weight, or using tritiated water or deuterium)\n\n2. The total amount of substance in the body after the loss is then estimated:\n\nformula_2\n\nwhere:\n\nBULLET::::- n = Total amount of substance after fluid loss\n\nBULLET::::- n = Total amount of substance before fluid loss\n\nBULLET::::- n = Amount of substance of lost sodium\n\nBULLET::::- n = Amount of substance of lost potassium\n\n3. The new osmolarity becomes:\n\nformula_3\n\nwhere:\n\nBULLET::::- Osm = Body osmolarity after loss\n\nBULLET::::- n = Total amount of substance after fluid loss\n", "Body water\n\nIn physiology, body water is the water content of an animal body that is contained in the tissues, the blood, the bones and elsewhere. The percentages of body water contained in various fluid compartments add up to total body water (TBW). This water makes up a significant fraction of the human body, both by weight and by volume. Ensuring the right amount of body water is part of fluid balance, an aspect of homeostasis.\n\nSection::::Location.\n", "Also the rate of metabolic heat production of e.g. a few thousand living cells, microorganisms or protozoa in culture in an IMC ampoule can be measured. The amount of such metabolic heat can be correlated (through experimentation) with the number of cells or organisms present. Thus, IMC data can be used to monitor in real time the number of cells or organisms present and the net rate of growth or decline in this number (Applications (Biology and Medicine)).\n", "BULLET::::- The density of water is approximately 1000 g/L and its molar mass is 18.02 g/mol (or 1/18.02=0.055 mol/g). Therefore, the molar concentration of water is:\n\nLikewise, the concentration of solid hydrogen (molar mass = 2.02 g/mol) is:\n\nThe concentration of pure osmium tetroxide (molar mass = 254.23 g/mol) is:\n\nBULLET::::- A typical protein in bacteria, such as \"E. coli\", may have about 60 copies, and the volume of a bacterium is about formula_23 L. Thus, the number concentration \"C\" is:\n\nThe molar concentration is:\n\nBULLET::::- Reference ranges for blood tests, sorted by molar concentration:\n\nSection::::Formal concentration.\n", "Section::::Methodologies.:Membrane filtration.\n\nMost modern laboratories use a refinement of total plate count in which serial dilutions of the sample are vacuum filtered through purpose made membrane filters and these filters are themselves laid on nutrient medium within sealed plates. The methodology is otherwise similar to conventional total plate counts. Membranes have a printed millimetre grid printed on and can be reliably used to count the number of colonies under a binocular microscope.\n\nSection::::Methodologies.:Pour plate method.\n", "Section::::Usability.:Caveats.:Extraneous data.\n\nIMC captures the \"aggregate\" heat production or consumption resulting from all processes taking place within a specimen, including for example\n\nBULLET::::- Possible changes in the physico-chemical state of the specimen ampoule itself; e.g. stress relaxation in metal components, oxidation of polymeric components.\n\nBULLET::::- Degradation of a culture medium in which metabolism and growth of living cells is being studied.\n", "The tests were carried out at the State University of New York in Fredonia as part of a project involving original research and reporting by the US-based journalism organization Orb Media. Using a dye called Nile Red, which binds to free-floating pieces of plastic, the university's Prof Sherri Mason found an average of 10 plastic particles per litre of water, each larger than the size of a human hair. Smaller particles assumed to be plastic but not positively identified were found as well - an average of 314 per litre.\n\nSection::::Concerns.:Safety.\n", "Most of animal body water is contained in various body fluids. These include intracellular fluid; extracellular fluid; plasma; interstitial fluid; and transcellular fluid. Water is also contained inside organs, in gastrointestinal, cerebrospinal, peritoneal, and ocular fluids. Adipose tissue contains about 10% of water, while muscle tissue contains about 75%.\n\nIn \"Netter's Atlas of Human Physiology\", body water is broken down into the following \"compartments:\"\n", "When the body loses fluids, the amount lost from ICF and ECF, respectively, can be estimated by measuring volume and amount of substance of sodium (Na) and potassium (K) in the lost fluid, as well as estimating the body composition of the person.\n\n1. To calculate an estimation, the total amount of substance in the body before the loss is first estimated:\n\nformula_1\n\nwhere:\n\nBULLET::::- n = Total amount of substance before fluid loss\n\nBULLET::::- Osm = Body osmolarity before loss (almost equal to plasma osmolality of 275-299 milli-osmoles per kilogram)\n", "Stool osmotic gap is calculated as 290 mOsm/kg − 2 × (stool Na + stool K). 290 mOsm/kg is the presumed stool osmolality, and the measured concentration of sodium and potassium cations is doubled to account for the corresponding anions which must be present.\n\nA normal gap is between 50 and 100 mOsm/kg, corresponding to the concentration of other solutes such as magnesium salts and sugars.\n", "Chemical and microbial analyses both indicate that a rare subglacial ecosystem of autotrophic bacteria developed that metabolizes sulfate and ferric ions. According to geomicrobiologist Jill Mikucki at the University of Tennessee, water samples from Blood Falls contained at least 17 different types of microbes, and almost no oxygen. An explanation may be that the microbes use sulfate as a catalyst to respire with ferric ions and metabolize the trace levels of organic matter trapped with them. Such a metabolic process had never before been observed in nature.\n", "From 242 healthy U.S. volunteers, more than 5,000 samples were collected from tissues from 15 (men) to 18 (women) body sites such as mouth, nose, skin, lower intestine (stool) and vagina. All the DNA, human and microbial, were analyzed with DNA sequencing machines. The microbial genome data were extracted by identifying the bacterial specific ribosomal RNA, 16S rRNA. The researchers calculated that more than 10,000 microbial species occupy the human ecosystem and they have identified 81 – 99% of the genera. In addition to establishing the human microbiome reference database, the HMP project also discovered several \"surprises\", which include:\n", "For healthful hydration, the current EFSA guidelines recommend total water intakes of 2.0 L/day for adult females and 2.5 L/day for adult males. These reference values include water from drinking water, other beverages, and from food. About 80% of our daily water requirement comes from the beverages we drink, with the remaining 20% coming from food. Water content varies depending on the type of food consumed, with fruit and vegetables containing more than cereals, for example. These values are estimated using country-specific food balance sheets published by the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations.\n", "Most animal studies involve capturing the subject animals and injecting them, then holding them for a variable period before the first blood sample has been collected. This period depends on the size of the animal involved and varies between 30 minutes for very small animals to 6 hours for much larger animals. In both animals and humans, the test is made more accurate if a single determination of respiratory quotient has been made for the organism eating the standard diet at the time of measurement, since this value changes relatively little (and more slowly) compared with the much larger metabolic rate changes related to thermoregulation and activity.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-13681	If Anxiety is just the response to danger manifested by producing adrenaline (Epinephrine), why is it not possible to create drugs that stops production of Epinephrine?	MD here. In general anxiety has lots of causes(genetic factors, substance abuse, injuty etc.) but all of them lead to neurotransmitters inbalance(norepinephrine, serotonin, dopamine). To treat this imbalance we use mainly antidepressants(they inhibit destroy of neurotransmitters therefore bringing back the balance). We also use bensodiasepines for acute panic attacks to slow down our central nervous system by increasing GABA in CNS(that's a type of slowing neurotransmitter). Cognitive behavioral therapy is the third(and effective) option of treatment. For your question. There are drugs that block epi receptors in tissues(blood vessels, heart, uterus, bronchi). But these receptors are crucial for survival(speeding up the heart, constricting blood vessels, dilating bronchi) so blocking them in otherwise healthy human can cause them to even die. So that's not an option. Sorry for my English(not native language).	[ "While EPM is the most commonly employed animal behavioral model of anxiety, there are several issues concerning the validity of the model. Classical clinical anxiolytics, such as benzodiazepines (e.g., Valium), do reduce measures of anxiety in EPM. However, more novel compounds, such as 5-HT agonists (e.g., Buspar) give mixed results. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and tricyclic antidepressants, which are commonly employed in clinical settings to treat anxiety disorders, also do not lead to a stable anxiolytic effect on EPM. This raises the possibility that EPM is a suitable model for testing GABA-related compounds, such as benzodiazepines or direct GABA agonists, but not for other drugs. Despite this, the model is commonly employed for screening putative anxiolytics and for general research into the brain mechanisms of anxiety, likely due to the ease of employment and the vast number of studies already in the literature.\n", "Researchers reported high degrees of anxiety sensitivity in patients with GAD, social phobia, and panic disorder. This led researchers to believe that there may be alternative treatment options involving IE therapy that would benefit these individuals. For example, for those with GAD, caffeine could be administered to make thoughts race and provoke worry about loss of cognitive control. Also individuals with social phobia could induce sweating before doing a speech challenge. Acknowledging these physical symptoms associated with high anxiety may be beneficial in reducing future anxiety when it does occur.\n\nSection::::Implementation differences.\n", "Prostatic hyperplasia can also be worsened by use, and chronic use can lead to rebound hyperemia. People with a history of anxiety or panic disorders, or on anticonvulsant medication for epilepsy should not take this substance. The drug interaction might produce seizures. Some patients have been shown to have an upset stomach, severe abdominal cramping, and vomiting issues connected to taking this drug.\n", "Recent findings suggest that systemically administered CNO does not readily cross the blood-brain-barrier in vivo and converts to clozapine which itself activates DREADDs. Clozapine is an atypical antipsychotic which has been indicated to show high DREADD affinity and potency. Subthreshold injections of clozapine itself can be utilised to induce preferential DREADD-mediated behaviors. Therefore when using CNO, care must be taken in experimental design and proper controls should be incorporated.\n", "Alarm pheromone-induced anxiety in rats has been used to evaluate the degree to which anxiolytics can alleviate anxiety in humans. For this the change in the acoustic startle reflex of rats with alarm pheromone-induced anxiety (i.e. reduction of defensiveness) has been measured. Pretreatment of rats with one of five anxiolytics used in clinical medicine was able to reduce their anxiety: namely midazolam, phenelzine (a nonselective monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitor), propranolol, a nonselective beta blocker, clonidine, an alpha 2 adrenergic agonist or CP-154,526, a corticotropin-releasing hormone antagonist.\n", "Anxiety and depression can be caused by alcohol abuse, which in most cases improves with prolonged abstinence. Even moderate, sustained alcohol use may increase anxiety levels in some individuals. Caffeine, alcohol, and benzodiazepine dependence can worsen or cause anxiety and panic attacks. Anxiety commonly occurs during the acute withdrawal phase of alcohol and can persist for up to 2 years as part of a post-acute withdrawal syndrome, in about a quarter of people recovering from alcoholism. In one study in 1988–1990, illness in approximately half of patients attending mental health services at one British hospital psychiatric clinic, for conditions including anxiety disorders such as panic disorder or social phobia, was determined to be the result of alcohol or benzodiazepine dependence. In these patients, an initial increase in anxiety occurred during the withdrawal period followed by a cessation of their anxiety symptoms.\n", "Benzodiazepines, such as alprazolam, are anxiolytic medications. Benzodiazepines have also shown to be beneficial in the treatment of stimuli-evoking anxiety, or phobias. One study on storm phobias found that 30 out of the 32 canines involved in the study had reductions in anxiety behavior after being treated with alprazolam. However, this study suggests that the best way to benefit from benzodiazepine treatment is when it is being used in conjunction with Behavior Modulation Treatment and an anti-depressant.\n", "Anti-anxiety and antidepressant medication is commonly prescribed for treatment of social anxiety disorder. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) such as sertraline, fluvoxamine and paroxetine are common medications which alleviate social phobia successfully in the short term but it is not certain if they are useful in the long-term. Also the MAOI moclobemide works well on treating social phobia in the short term. Patients who have avoided certain situations should make a big effort to become exposed to these situations while at the same time taking antidepressant medication. Anxiolytic medication aids a patient to handle social or professional situations before more lasting treatment has had an effect and therefore it is a provider of short term relief, but anxiolytics have a risk of dependence. Beta-adrenergic antagonists help to control palpitations and tremors unresponsive to the treatment of anxiolytic medication. One must read the precautions of these drugs outlined in the manufacturer's literature and be careful to watch out for the contraindications of these drugs.\n", "Many studies in the past used a candidate gene approach to test whether single genes were associated with anxiety. These investigations were based on hypotheses about how certain known genes influence neurotransmitters (such as serotonin and norepinephrine) and hormones (such as cortisol) that are implicated in anxiety. None of these findings are well replicated., with the possible exception of TMEM132D, COMT and MAO-A. The epigenetic signature of \"BDNF\", a gene that codes for a protein called \"brain derived neurotrophic factor\" that is found in the brain, has also been associated with anxiety and specific patterns of neural activity. and a receptor gene for \"BDNF\" called \"NTRK2\" was associated with anxiety in a large genome-wide investigation. The reason that most candidate gene findings have not replicated is that anxiety is a complex trait that is influenced by many genomic variants, each of which has a small effect on its own. Increasingly, studies of anxiety are using a hypothesis-free approach to look for parts of the genome that are implicated in anxiety using big enough samples to find associations with variants that have small effects. The largest explorations of the common genetic architecture of anxiety have been facilitated by the UK Biobank, the ANGST consortium and the CRC Fear, Anxiety and Anxiety Disorders.\n", "As exaggerated FPS responses can lend to the pathology associated with PTSD and other disorders of the anxiety disorder classification, decreasing the startle response in humans may be of benefit in the treatment of these psychological disorders. Several forms of medication acting on different neurotransmitters (e.g., GABA, dopamine) in the brain have been shown to cause significant reductions in startle response; the medications that are effective in treating conditioned fear are those typically used in the treatment of anxiety.\n", "Several drugs can cause or worsen anxiety, whether in intoxication, withdrawal or from chronic use. These include alcohol, tobacco, cannabis, sedatives (including prescription benzodiazepines), opioids (including prescription pain killers and illicit drugs like heroin), stimulants (such as caffeine, cocaine and amphetamines), hallucinogens, and inhalants. While many often report self-medicating anxiety with these substances, improvements in anxiety from drugs are usually short-lived (with worsening of anxiety in the long term, sometimes with acute anxiety as soon as the drug effects wear off) and tend to be exaggerated. Acute exposure to toxic levels of benzene may cause euphoria, anxiety, and irritability lasting up to 2 weeks after the exposure.\n", "In general medications are not seen as helpful in specific phobia but a benzodiazepine is sometimes used to help resolve acute episodes; as 2007 data were sparse for efficacy of any drug.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Alternative medicine.\n", "Some antidepressants function partly as selective alpha-2 blockers, but the best-known drug in that class is yohimbine, which is extracted from the bark of the African yohimbe tree. Yohimbine acts as a male potency enhancer, but its usefulness for that purpose is limited by serious side-effects including anxiety and insomnia. Overdoses can cause a dangerous increase in blood pressure. Yohimbine is banned in many countries, but in the United States, because it is extracted from a plant rather than chemically synthesized, it is sold over the counter as a nutritional supplement.\n\nSection::::Pharmacology.:Alpha-2 agonists.\n", "With this communication comes the potential to treat anxiety. Prebiotics and probiotics have been shown to reduced anxiety. For example, experiments in which mice were given fructo- and galacto-oligosaccharide prebiotics and \"Lactobacillus\" probiotics have both demonstrated a capability to reduce anxiety. In humans, results are not as concrete, but promising.\n\nSection::::Risk factors.:Genetics.\n", "Some people with a form of social phobia called performance phobia have been helped by beta-blockers, which are more commonly used to control high blood pressure. Taken in low doses, they control the physical manifestation of anxiety and can be taken before a public performance.\n", "Long-term use of benzodiazepines can worsen underlying anxiety, with evidence that reduction of benzodiazepines can lead to a diminishment of anxiety symptoms. Similarly, long-term alcohol use is associated with anxiety disorders, with evidence that prolonged abstinence can result in a disappearance of anxiety symptoms. However, it can take up to two years for anxiety symptoms to return to baseline in about a quarter of people recovering from alcoholism.\n", "With regards to benzodiazepine treatment, it has been found that canines can develop dependence to these types of medications and go through a similar withdrawal process as humans. For example, their seizure threshold is lowered and anxiety relapse can occur after stopping benzodiazepine treatment. Similarly to treatment of human anxiety disorders, benzodiazepines are a last resort treatment, due to their addiction potential.\n\nSection::::Other scientific findings.\n", "There is no current evidence of significant survival benefit with improved neurological outcomes in patients given combinations of both epinephrine and vasopressin during cardiac arrest. A systematic review from 2008 did, however, find one study that showed a statistically significant improvement in ROSC and survival to hospital discharge with this combination treatment; unfortunately, those patients that survived to hospital discharge had overall poor outcomes and many suffered permanent, severe neurological damage. A more recently published clinical trial out of Singapore has shown similar results, finding combination treatment to only improve the rate of survival to hospital admission, especially in the subgroup analysis of patients with longer \"collapse to emergency department\" arrival times of 15 to 45 minutes.\n", "He had luck in the latter statement. In most amphibian organs including the heart, the concentration of adrenaline far exceeds that of noradrenaline, and adrenaline is indeed the main transmitter. In mammals, however, difficulties arose. In a comprehensive structure-activity study of adrenaline-like compounds, Dale and the chemist George Barger in 1910 pointed out that Elliott's hypothesis assumed a stricter parallelism between the effects of sympathetic nerve impulses and adrenaline than actually existed. For example, sympathetic impulses shared with adrenaline contractile effects in the trigone but not relaxant effects in the fundus of the cat's urinary bladder. In this respect, ″amino-ethanol-catechol″ – noradrenaline – mimicked sympathetic nerves more closely than adrenaline did. The Harvard Medical School physiologist Walter Bradford Cannon, who had popularized the idea of a sympatho-adrenal system preparing the body for fight and flight, and his colleague Arturo Rosenblueth developed an elaborate but ″queer″ theory of two \"sympathins\", \"sympathin E\" (excitatory) and \"sympathin I\" (inhibitory). The Belgian pharmacologist Zénon Bacq as well as Canadian and US-American pharmacologists between 1934 and 1938 suggested that noradrenaline might be the – or at least one – postganglionic sympathetic transmitter. However, nothing definite was brought to light till after the war. In the meantime, Dale created a terminology that since has imprinted the thinking of neuroscientists: that nerve cells should be named after their transmitter, i.e. \"cholinergic\" if the transmitter was ″a substance like acetylcholine\", and \"adrenergic\" if it was ″some substance like adrenaline″.\n", "Officially, beta blockers are not approved for anxiolytic use by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. However, many controlled trials in the past 25 years indicate beta blockers are effective in anxiety disorders, though the mechanism of action is not known. The physiological symptoms of the fight-or-flight response (pounding heart, cold/clammy hands, increased respiration, sweating, etc.) are significantly reduced, thus enabling anxious individuals to concentrate on the task at hand.\n", "Phenytoin was once another first-line therapy, although the prodrug fosphenytoin can be administered three times as fast and with far fewer injection site reactions. If these or any other hydantoin derivatives are used, then cardiac monitoring is a must if they are administered intravenously. Because the hydantoins take 15–30 minutes to work, a benzodiazepine or barbiturate is often coadministered. Because of diazepam's short duration of action, they were often administered together anyway.\n\nSection::::Treatments.:Barbiturates.\n", "Panic disorder has been found to commonly co-occur with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). COPD is a serious lung disease that involves restriction of airways from chronic bronchitis and/or emphysema. Research suggests that IE breathing exercises are safe and similar to the existing exercises that are used to help COPD. CBT (cognitive behavioral therapy) is not commonly used to help treat COPD, but recent research has shown that CBT including interoceptive exposures could be extremely beneficial. Specifically, IE extinguishes the learned fear response paired with breathing difficulties and disconfirms the catastrophic cognitions connected with increased physiological arousal.\n\nSection::::Anxiety sensitivity.\n", "The C=O bond at the \"R\"-position (directly right of the phenyl ring) is slightly polar, and as a result the drug does not cross the lipid blood–brain barrier quite as well as amphetamine. Nevertheless, it is a potent CNS stimulant and dopamine reuptake inhibitor. Chronic high dosage use may result in acute mental confusion ranging from mild paranoia to psychosis. These symptoms typically disappear quickly if use is stopped.\n", "In one study in 1988–90, illness in approximately half of patients attending mental health services at British hospital psychiatric clinic, for conditions such as panic disorder or social phobia, was determined to be the result of alcohol or benzodiazepine dependence. In these patients, anxiety symptoms, while worsening initially during the withdrawal phase, disappeared with abstinence from benzodiazepines or alcohol. Sometimes anxiety pre-existed alcohol or benzodiazepine dependence, but the dependence was acting to keep the anxiety disorders going and could progressively make them worse. Recovery from benzodiazepines tends to take a lot longer than recovery from alcohol, but people can regain their previous good health.\n", "Benzodiazepines possess anti-anxiety properties and can be useful for the short-term treatment of severe anxiety. Like the anticonvulsants, they tend to be mild and well tolerated, although there is a risk of habit-forming. Benzodiazepines are usually administered orally for the treatment of anxiety; however, occasionally lorazepam or diazepam may be given intravenously for the treatment of panic attacks.\n" ]	[ "Anxiety is just the response to danger manifested by producing adrenaline (Epinephrine).", "It is not possible to create drugs that stop the production of epinephrine." ]	[ "Anxiety can have many causes, such as genetic factors, substance abuse, and injury, and it leads to an imbalance of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine..", "There are drugs that block epi receptors, but those receptors are crucial for survival so blocking them is not a good idea. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Anxiety is just the response to danger manifested by producing adrenaline (Epinephrine).", "It is not possible to create drugs that stop the production of epinephrine." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Anxiety can have many causes, such as genetic factors, substance abuse, and injury, and it leads to an imbalance of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine..", "There are drugs that block epi receptors, but those receptors are crucial for survival so blocking them is not a good idea. " ]
2018-14593	What makes gems (diamonds, in particular) so valuable?	Because people are vain and want shiny glittery things. And people are also suckers to marketing from de Beers saying that diamonds are rare.	[ "BULLET::::- Amber: Amber, an ancient organic gemstone, is composed of tree resin that has hardened over time. The stone must be at least one million years old to be classified as amber, and some amber can be up to 120 million years old.\n\nBULLET::::- Amethyst: Amethyst has historically been the most prized gemstone in the quartz family. It is treasured for its purple hue, which can range in tone from light to dark.\n", "Diamonds are used in engagement rings. The practice is documented among European aristocracy as early as the 15th century, though ruby and sapphire were more desirable gemstones. The modern popularity of diamonds was largely created by De Beers Consolidated Mines Ltd., which established the first large-scale diamonds mines in South Africa. Through an advertising campaign beginning in the 1930s and continuing into the mid-20th century, De Beers made diamonds into a key part of the betrothal process and a coveted symbol of status. The diamond's high value has been the driving force behind dictators and revolutionary entities, especially in Africa, using slave and child labor to mine blood diamonds to fund conflicts. Though popularly believed to derive its value from its rarity, gem-quality diamonds are quite common compared to rare gemstones such as alexandrite, and annual global rough diamond production is estimated to be about .\n", "Other characteristics also influence the value and appearance of a gem diamond. These include physical characteristics such as the presence of fluorescence as well as the diamond's source and which gemological institute evaluated the diamond. \"Cleanliness\" also dramatically affects a diamond's beauty.\n", "BULLET::::- Carolina Emperor, 310 carats uncut, 64.8 carats cut; discovered in the United States in 2009, resides in the North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences, Raleigh\n\nBULLET::::- Chalk Emerald\n\nBULLET::::- Duke of Devonshire Emerald\n\nBULLET::::- Emerald of Saint Louis, 51.60 carats cut; discovered in Austria, probably Habachtal, resides in the National Museum of Natural History, Paris\n\nBULLET::::- Gachalá Emerald\n\nBULLET::::- Mogul Mughal Emerald\n\nBULLET::::- Patricia Emerald, 632 carats uncut, dihexagonal (12 sided); discovered in Colombia in 1920, resides in the American Museum of Natural History, New York\n\nSection::::Opals.\n", "Some gemstones (like pearls, coral, and amber) are classified as organic, meaning that they are produced by living organisms. Others are inorganic, meaning that they are generally composed of and arise from minerals.\n\nSome gems, for example, amethyst, have become less valued as methods of extracting and importing them have progressed. Some man-made gems can serve in place of natural gems, such as cubic zirconia, which can be used in place of diamond.\n\nSection::::Materials and methods.:Metal finishes.\n", "Section::::Gemological characteristics.:Cleaning.\n", "Section::::Gemological characteristics.\n", "The hardness of diamond contributes to its suitability as a gemstone. Because it can only be scratched by other diamonds, it maintains its polish extremely well. Unlike many other gems, it is well-suited to daily wear because of its resistance to scratching—perhaps contributing to its popularity as the preferred gem in engagement or wedding rings, which are often worn every day.\n", "Section::::Mythological luminosity.:Light source legends.\n\nThe first theme is using legendary luminous gems to illuminate buildings, for navigation lights on ships, or sometimes as guiding lights for lost persons (Ball 1938: 498-500).\n", "Section::::Gemological characteristics.:Fluorescence.\n", "A chemically pure and structurally perfect diamond is perfectly transparent with no hue, or \"color\". However, in reality almost no gem-sized natural diamonds are absolutely perfect. The color of a diamond may be affected by chemical impurities and/or structural defects in the crystal lattice. Depending on the hue and intensity of a diamond's coloration, a diamond's color can either detract from or enhance its value. For example, most white diamonds are discounted in price when more yellow hue is detectable, while intense pink diamonds or blue diamonds (such as the Hope Diamond) can be dramatically more valuable. Of all colored diamonds, red diamonds are the rarest. The Aurora Pyramid of Hope displays a spectacular array of naturally colored diamonds, including red diamonds.\n", "Up until the 18th century, amethyst was included in the cardinal, or most valuable, gemstones (along with diamond, sapphire, ruby, and emerald). However, since the discovery of extensive deposits in locations such as Brazil, it has lost most of its value.\n", "Section::::Geology.:Origin in mantle.\n\nMost gem-quality diamonds come from depths of 150–250 km in the lithosphere. Such depths occur below cratons in \"mantle keels\", the thickest part of the lithosphere. These regions have high enough pressure and temperature to allow diamonds to form and they are not convecting, so diamonds can be stored for billions of years until a kimberlite eruption samples them.\n", "Red diamonds are known for their small sizes. The majority of red diamonds on the market are less than 1 carat in weight. Only 5 red diamonds are known to exceed 5 carats in weight, the largest being 5.11 carats. Only a handful of red diamonds are discovered on an annual basis throughout the world, and most of them do not exceed 1 carat. Red diamonds are priced per carat, as all diamonds, and their per carat price is 300–400% higher than the per carat prices of the next most expensive diamonds, pink diamonds and blue diamonds.\n\nSection::::Properties determining value.:Fluorescence.\n", "Section::::Gemological characteristics.:Cut.:Light performance.\n", "Diamonds become increasingly rare when considering higher clarity gradings. Only about 20% of all diamonds mined have a clarity rating high enough for the diamond to be considered appropriate for use as a gemstone; the other 80% are relegated to industrial use. Of that top 20%, a significant portion contains one or more visible inclusions. Those that do not have a visible inclusion are known as \"eye-clean\" and are preferred by most buyers, although visible inclusions can sometimes be hidden under the setting in a piece of jewelry.\n", "Physical characteristics that make a colored stone valuable are color, clarity to a lesser extent (emeralds will always have a number of inclusions), cut, unusual optical phenomena within the stone such as color zoning (the uneven distribution of coloring within a gem) and asteria (star effects). The Greeks, for example, greatly valued asteria gemstones, which were regarded as powerful love charms, and Helen of Troy was known to have worn star-corundum.\n", "Section::::Gemological characteristics.:Cut.:Process.\n", "Aside from the diamond, the ruby, sapphire, emerald, pearl (not, strictly speaking, a gemstone), and opal have also been considered to be precious. Up to the discoveries of bulk amethyst in Brazil in the 19th century, amethyst was considered a \"precious stone\" as well, going back to ancient Greece. Even in the last century certain stones such as aquamarine, peridot and cat's eye (cymophane) have been popular and hence been regarded as precious.\n", "The value of diamonds as an investment is of significant interest to the general public, because they are expensive gemstones, often purchased in engagement rings, due in part to a successful 20th century marketing campaign by De Beers. The difficulty of properly assessing the value of an individual gem-quality diamond complicates the situation. The end of the De Beers monopoly and new diamond discoveries in the second half of the 20th century have reduced the resale value of diamonds. Recessions have engendered greater interest in investments that exhibit safe-haven or hedging properties that are uncorrelated to investments in the equities markets. Academic studies have indicated that investments in physical diamonds exhibit greater safe-haven characteristics than investments in diamond indices.\n", "BULLET::::- Hardness: Diamonds in general, including the Hope Diamond, are considered to be the hardest natural mineral on the Earth, but because of diamond's crystalline structure, there are weak planes in the bonds which permit jewelers to slice a diamond and, in so doing, to cause it to sparkle by refracting light in different ways.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Geological beginnings.\n", "It is classified as a Type IIb diamond, and has changed hands numerous times on its way from India to France to Britain and eventually to the United States, where it has been regularly on public display since. It has been described as the \"most famous diamond in the world\".\n\nSection::::Physical properties.\n\nBULLET::::- Weight: In December 1988, the Gemological Institute of America's Gem Trade Lab determined that the diamond weighed .\n", "Diamonds prepared as gemstones are sold on diamond exchanges called \"bourses\". There are 28 registered diamond bourses in the world. Bourses are the final tightly controlled step in the diamond supply chain; wholesalers and even retailers are able to buy relatively small lots of diamonds at the bourses, after which they are prepared for final sale to the consumer. Diamonds can be sold already set in jewelry, or sold unset (\"loose\"). According to the Rio Tinto Group, in 2002 the diamonds produced and released to the market were valued at US$9 billion as rough diamonds, US$14 billion after being cut and polished, US$28 billion in wholesale diamond jewelry, and US$57 billion in retail sales.\n", "Section::::Properties determining value.:Clarity.\n", "The diamond, which had been owned by an American family for 15 years prior to its 2015 sale, is the largest cushion-shaped diamond classified by the Gemological Institute of America as \"fancy vivid\" ever to be sold at auction, regardless of color, and it is one of only three \"fancy\" pink diamonds weighing more than 10 carats to be sold in the previous 250 years.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-14133	What did former South Korean president Park Geun-hye do exactly to warrant huge protests and a long prison sentence?	There were a lot of things that made her unpopular and worthy of protest. The straw that broke the camel's back was her relationship with a cult leader. A news organization found a laptop in the trash. Files on the laptop proved that Park Geun-Hye was giving confidential information to a cult leader, asking for advice, and even allowing the cult leader to edit her speeches. The cult leader was not elected or part of the government, so giving her confidential data was illegal. That clearly illegal act started the impeachment process. Her approval rating dropped down to 1% and massive protests started. The Korean legislative body and the highest court both removed her from office (Korean law requires both the legislative and judicial branches to agree to an impeachment). After she was forced out as President, she could no longer continue covering up or blocking investigations into her other crimes, such as bribery. Charges continued piling up against her as investigations found more evidence of more illegal acts. It would be hard to give a list of every crime she committed to warrant a long prison sentence, but suffice it to say that she was accepting bribes often, She also stole public money and facilitated money laundering by organized crime. Two of her other crimes which have got a lot of attention: * The Sewol Ferry disaster. It was one of the biggest disasters in Korea's modern history. A large passenger ferry capsized, killing hundreds of high school students. The magnitude of the tragedy brought the entire nation together: the entire nation except Park Geun-Hye. Not only did she seem unaffected by the tragedy (going to a salon to get her hair done as soon as she heard about it), but she actively (and criminally) blocked investigation into its causes. There were a lot of things that went wrong to cause the disaster, but the government's unwillingness to enforce safety regulations was seen as a big one. * Blacklisting in the media. There had been rumours that journalists or comedians critical of Park Geun-Hye unfairly got blacklisted from television. It later came out that this was real, deliberate, and orchestrated by Park Geun-Hye herself in an attempt to control her image in the media.	[ "In the ensuing struggle for power, many of those that had been in positions of power during the reign of President Park now found themselves without position, power or influence. In many cases those that held positions under President Park were now singled out as targets for legal action, whether justified or not.\n", "On 4 November 2016, Park's ratings fell to 4–5% as details of her relationship with Choi Soon-sil were investigated and exposed in what became the 2016 South Korean political scandal.\n\nSection::::Arrest and detention.\n\nPark was arrested on 31 March 2017, and held in pre-trial detention at the Seoul Detention Center in Uiwang, Gyeonggi Province. On 17 April 2017, Park was formally charged with abuse of power, bribery, coercion and leaking government secrets. Park denied the charges during five rounds of interrogation while in prison.\n\nSection::::Arrest and detention.:Trial.\n", "On 31 October, Choi Soon-sil was arrested by prosecutors, having concluded that there was enough evidence for indictment. She was formally charged with abuse of power and fraud on 20 November.\n", "Park was formally sentenced to 24 years in prison on 6 April 2018 after being found guilty of abuse of power and coercion.\n\nSection::::Background.\n\nSection::::Background.:South Korean Constitution and Constitutional Court Act.\n\nThe procedure for impeachment is set out in the 10th Constitution of South Korea in 1987. And according to Article 65 Clause 1, if the President, Prime Minister, or other state council members violate the Constitution or other laws of official duty, the National Assembly can impeach them.\n", "Section::::Trial.\n", "The response to the \"Sewol\" ferry sinking accident that occurred on 16 April 2014 also contributed to Park's declining presidential ratings.\n\nSection::::Political developments.\n", "Park was finally ousted from office by the Constitutional Court on 10 March 2017. The decision was unanimous, 8–0 in favour of impeachment, as announced shortly thereafter. On 26 March 2017, South Korean prosecutors announced they were seeking an arrest warrant against Park. This warrant was granted by the Seoul Central District Court on 30 March 2017 and Park was arrested later that day.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Politics of South Korea\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Official website\n\nBULLET::::- Park Geun-hye addresses \"U.S.–Korea Relations in a Changing World\" at Stanford University, 6 May 2009\n", "BULLET::::- On April 6, 2018, former president Park Geun-hye was sentenced to 24 years in prison and ordered to pay a fine of 18 billion won. She was found guilty of 16 of 18 charges against her.\n", "U Sein Than has been arrested several times for his role in the Michaungkan protests. He was sentenced to three months' imprisonment on 26 November 2013 for protesting without permission, and given an additional sentence of six months on 9 December 2013 on a second charge. He was then released by presidential amnesty on 13 December 2013.\n", "Section::::Kidnapping.:Reactions.\n\nThe case proved to be politically highly charged, and indeed for two reasons: \n", "BULLET::::- On August 24, 2018 Park was sentenced to 25 years in prison, an increase of 1 year, for the main Choi Soon-sil related charges. This was due to an appeal filed by the prosecutors' office.\n\nSection::::Sentencing.:Other figures sentenced.\n\nBULLET::::- In June 2017, the former Minister of Health and Welfare and former National Pension Service Director Moon Hyung-pyo was sentenced to two and a half years in prison for his role in pressuring Samsung to approve a merger and abusing the power of his two offices. His charges were connected to the Samsung-Park scandal.\n", "Section::::Biography.:1990s, Demanded the death sentence, Sentenced to life imprisonment.\n", "The first trial focused on the whereabouts of Park Geun-hye seven hours after the Sewol ferry sinking. The administration's delayed response to the disaster led to widespread criticism in South Korea and forced Park to deny various rumors. Then, on 23 December the Justice Ministry of South Korea said that it has submitted its views on the recent parliamentary vote to impeach President Park Geun-hye to the Constitutional Court, adding that the process has met all the necessary legal requirements.\n", "On 21 January, South Koreans took to the streets Saturday to demand the arrest of the Samsung scion whose arrest warrant was rejected by a court last week, in the 13th candlelit protest calling for President Park Geun-hye to resign. Braving snow and cold, hundreds of thousands of protesters also demanded the Constitutional Court speed up reviewing President Park's impeachment.\n\nSection::::Protests against Park Geun-hye.:2017.:February.\n\nAs the Candlelight rallies reached 100th day, on 4 February, 400,000 people gathered at Gwanghwamun Square in Seoul, calling for an extension of the Special Prosecutor’s investigation and for Park to step down immediately.\n", "The Constitutional Court was to officially start the main hearings on Tuesday, 3 January 2017, and Park would not be required to appear for questioning. Park was absent at the first open hearing and the first session was closed after just nine minutes. The hearings were rescheduled to start on 5 January 2017. The trial heard arguments and evidence until 27 February.\n", "As of November 20, Choi Soon-sil was officially charged by the prosecutors for intervening in state affairs and forcing chaebols to donate tens of millions of dollars to foundations and businesses over which she had control.\n\nOn 23 June 2017, the Seoul Central District Court found Choi guilty and sentenced her to three years of imprisonment on charges on obstruction of duty by using her presidential ties to get her daughter admitted to Ewha Womans University and receive good grades.\n", "BULLET::::- 2016: 9 December: The impeachment vote of President Park Geun-hye took place, whilst 234 members in the 300-member National Assembly voting in favor of the impeachment and temporary suspension of her presidential powers and duties. Hwang Kyo-ahn, then prime minister, became acting president while the Constitutional Court of Korea was due to determine whether to accept the impeachment.\n\nBULLET::::- 2017: 10 March: The court upheld the impeachment in a unanimous 8–0 decision, removing Park from the office.\n", "On October 25, 2016, Park Geun-hye publicly acknowledged her close ties with Choi. On October 28, Park dismissed key members of her top office staff and Park's opinion rating dropped to 5%, the lowest ever for a sitting South Korean president. Her approval rating ranged from 1 to 3% for Korean citizens under 60 years of age, while it remained higher at 13% for over 60 years age group.\n", "Park made a second apology on 4 November, pledging to take responsibility if she was found guilty, and a third apology on 29 November, calling for the National Assembly to decide the manner of her departure, but this was rejected by the opposition-controlled legislature. Protests across South Korea began on 26 October with Park's approval rating dropping to 4%, and according to an opinion poll, as of 9 December 78% of South Koreans supported her impeachment. President Park appointed Park Young-soo, former head of the Seoul High Prosecutors' Office, as a special prosecutor to investigate the allegations on 30 November.\n", "BULLET::::- On July 20, 2018 Park was sentenced to 8 additional years in prison. This verdict was in relation to a separate trial but similar to the main trial due to it involving illegal money laundering and illegal favors. She was found guilty of money laundering and bribery related to the NIS scandal where three former NIS directors illegally funneled NIS funds to her personal office for her personal use without any oversight from the government.\n", "In the wake of the April 2014 capsize of the Sewol ferry, public outcry arose over the government's handling of the situation. In response, the Park administration established a commission to monitor and prosecute social media critics of Park.\n\nTatsuya Kato, Japanese journalist who was a Seoul Bureau chief of South Korea at \"Sankei Shimbun\" was indicted on charges of defamation for reporting the relationship of President Park Geun-hye and Choi Soon-sil's husband, Chung Yoon-hoi, by the Supreme Prosecutors' Office of the Republic of Korea after the MV \"Sewol\" sank.\n\nSection::::Controversies.:Controversy about violating Public Official Election Act.\n", "On 6 March, special prosecutor Park Young-soo announced the results of his probe into the Choi and Park allegations, finding evidence of collusion between Park and Choi to solicit bribes from Samsung Group and blacklisting more than 9,000 artists, authors and movie industry professionals from government assistance that constituted an abuse of power. This opened the possibility of Park's indictment if the Constitutional Court upheld the National Assembly's impeachment motion.\n\nSection::::Constitutional Court hearing and removal from office.:Verdict.\n", "Section::::Background.:Choi Soon-sil scandal.\n\nRevelations emerged in late October 2016, that President Park Geun-hye's aide, Choi Soon-sil, who did not have an official position in the government, had used her position to seek donations of money from several business conglomerates (known as \"chaebol\"), including Samsung, Hyundai, SK Group and Lotte, to two foundations she controlled. \n", "BULLET::::- On February 13, 2018, the Seoul Central District Court also found Choi guilty for abuse of power, bribery and interfering in government business and sentenced her to 20 years in prison and a fine of ₩18 billion ($16.6 million USD).\n\nBULLET::::- On July 27, 2017, former presidential chief of staff Kim Ki-Choon was sentenced to three years in prison for his involvement in blacklisting those who were deemed leftist artists. His prison term was increased to four years on 23 January 2018.\n", "On January 5, 2017, constitutional court began its first trial regarding President Park's impeachment. On January 16, 2017, Choi Soon-sil testified herself in the Constitutional Court and denied any wrongdoings. The Constitutional Court declared that it will hold the final pleading from President Park on Feb. 24, suggesting that the court will make a decision on the impeachment trial before March 13.\n\nOn March 10, the court issued a unanimous ruling, confirming the impeachment proposal and removing President Park from office.\n\nSection::::Sentencing.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-06527	What makes an object silver as opposed to white?	> Does it have something to do with how much the material scatters the light? Yes: There are two phenomenons at play here: * Very smooth surfaces will reflect light coherently producing sharp reflections while rough surfaces will reflect light in somewhat random directions producing blurry reflections. * Dielectric materials (ie: non metals) will absorb part of the light before re-emitting it in a random direction. This light is remitted uniformly in all directions and in all colors so it produce no reflection and appear uniform. This is called diffusion. (chalk is a good example of a mostly diffuse material) > why do some rough surfaces still look silver? Metals are not diffuse, they only reflect incoming light (creating more or less blurred reflections, depending on roughness), that's what give them their silvery look [Here is an illustration from a computer graphics book]( URL_0 )	[ "Section::::Applications.:Photography.\n", "Section::::Compounds.:Organometallic.\n", "Section::::Compounds.\n\nSection::::Compounds.:Oxides and chalcogenides.\n", "BULLET::::- When combined with silver, hydrogen sulfide gas creates a layer of black silver sulfide patina on the silver, protecting the inner silver from further conversion to silver sulfide.\n\nBULLET::::- Silver whiskers can form when silver sulfide forms on the surface of silver electrical contacts operating in an atmosphere rich in hydrogen sulfide and high humidity. Such atmospheres can exist in sewage treatment and paper mills.\n\nSection::::Structure.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Section::::Applications.:Electronics.\n", "When a silver halide crystal is exposed to light, a sensitivity speck on the surface of the crystal is turned into a small speck of metallic silver (these comprise the invisible or latent image). If the speck of silver contains approximately four or more atoms, it is rendered developable - meaning that it can undergo development which turns the entire crystal into metallic silver. Areas of the emulsion receiving larger amounts of light (reflected from a subject being photographed, for example) undergo the greatest development and therefore results in the highest optical density.\n", "All United States 1965-1970 and one half of the 1975-1976 Bicentennial San Francisco proof and mint set Kennedy half dollars are \"clad\" in a silver alloy and contain 40% silver.\n", "Silver is a metallic chemical element with the chemical symbol Ag (, from the Indo-European root \"*arg-\" for \"grey\" or \"shining\") and atomic number 47. A soft, white, lustrous transition metal, it has the highest electrical conductivity of any element and the highest thermal conductivity of any metal. The metal occurs naturally in its pure, free form (native silver), as an alloy with gold and other metals, and in minerals such as argentite and chlorargyrite. Most silver is produced as a byproduct of copper, gold, lead, and zinc refining.\n", "Gold and silver prices for the years 2016 to 2019 (in the table above) is based on information from www.macrotrends.net on the 10th of June 2019.\n", "\"Roman silver\", a blue-gray tone of silver, is one of the colors on the Resene Color List, a color list widely popular in Australia and New Zealand.\n\nSection::::Variations of silver.:Old silver.\n\nAt right is displayed the color old silver.\n\n\"Old silver\" is a color that was formulated to resemble tarnished silver.\n\nThe first recorded use of \"old silver\" as a color name in English was in 1905.\n\nSection::::Variations of silver.:Sonic silver.\n\nSonic silver is a tone of silver included in Metallic FX crayons, specialty crayons formulated by Crayola in 2001.\n\nSection::::Silver in nature.\n\nBULLET::::- Plants\n", "Section::::Applications.:Medicine.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Fine silver\" has a millesimal fineness of 999. Also called pure silver, or three nines fine, fine silver contains 99.9% silver, with the balance being trace amounts of impurities. This grade of silver is used to make bullion bars for international commodities trading and investment in silver. In the modern world, fine silver is understood to be too soft for general use.\n", "BULLET::::- Silver compounds such as silver nitrate and silver halides can produce a range of colors from orange-red to yellow. The way the glass is heated and cooled can significantly affect the colors produced by these compounds. Also photochromic lenses and photosensitive glass are based on silver.\n\nSection::::Colored inclusions.\n\nTin oxide with antimony and arsenic oxides produce an opaque white glass (milk glass), first used in Venice to produce an imitation porcelain. Similarly, some smoked glasses may be based on dark-colored inclusions, but with ionic coloring it is also possible to produce dark colors (see above).\n\nSection::::Color caused by scattering.\n", "Section::::Precautions.\n", "\"Fine silver\", for example 99.9% pure silver, is relatively soft, so silver is usually alloyed with copper to increase its hardness and strength. Sterling silver is prone to tarnishing, and elements other than copper can be used in alloys to reduce tarnishing, as well as casting porosity and firescale. Such elements include germanium, zinc, platinum, silicon, and boron. Recent examples of alloys using these metals include argentium, sterlium, sterilite and silvadium.\n\nSection::::Etymology.\n", "Chemically, silver is not very reactive—it does not react with oxygen or water at ordinary temperatures, so does not easily form a silver oxide. However, it is attacked by common components of atmospheric pollution: silver sulfide slowly appears as a black tarnish during exposure to airborne compounds of sulfur (byproducts of the burning of fossil fuels and some industrial processes), and low level ozone reacts to form silver oxide. As the purity of the silver decreases, the problem of corrosion or tarnishing increases because other metals in the alloy, usually copper, may react with oxygen in the air.\n", "The color name \"silver sand\" for this tone of silver has been in use since 2001, when it was promulgated as one of the colors on the Xona.com Color List.\n\nSection::::Variations of silver.:Silver chalice.\n\nAt right is displayed the color silver chalice.\n\nThe color name \"silver chalice\" for this tone of silver has been in use since 2001, when it was promulgated as one of the colors on the Xona.com Color List.\n\nSection::::Variations of silver.:Roman silver.\n\nAt right is displayed the color Roman silver.\n", "Section::::Applications.:Brazing alloys.\n\nSilver-containing brazing alloys are used for brazing metallic materials, mostly cobalt, nickel, and copper-based alloys, tool steels, and precious metals. The basic components are silver and copper, with other elements selected according to the specific application desired: examples include zinc, tin, cadmium, palladium, manganese, and phosphorus. Silver provides increased workability and corrosion resistance during usage.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Chemical equipment.\n", "Pure silver metal is used as a food colouring. It has the E174 designation and is approved in the European Union. Traditional Pakistani and Indian dishes sometimes include decorative silver foil known as \"vark\", and in various other cultures, silver \"dragée\" are used to decorate cakes, cookies, and other dessert items.\n", "Section::::Synthetic methods.:Wet chemistry.:Citrate reduction.\n", "Silver forms alloys with most other elements on the periodic table. The elements from groups 1–3, except for hydrogen, lithium, and beryllium, are very miscible with silver in the condensed phase and form intermetallic compounds; those from groups 4–9 are only poorly miscible; the elements in groups 10–14 (except boron and carbon) have very complex Ag–M phase diagrams and form the most commercially important alloys; and the remaining elements on the periodic table have no consistency in their Ag–M phase diagrams. By far the most important such alloys are those with copper: most silver used for coinage and jewellery is in reality a silver–copper alloy, and the eutectic mixture is used in vacuum brazing. The two metals are completely miscible as liquids but not as solids; their importance in industry comes from the fact that their properties tend to be suitable over a wide range of variation in silver and copper concentration, although most useful alloys tend to be richer in silver than the eutectic mixture (71.9% silver and 28.1% copper by weight, and 60.1% silver and 28.1% copper by atom).\n", "BULLET::::- The \"Silver Cord\" is a 1926 play by Sidney Howard about the emotional tie between a mother and a son and the term \"silver cord\" is sometimes used to represent this tie.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Silver Child\" is the first in \"The Silver Sequence\" is a fantasy brook trilogy by Cliff McNish consisting of \"Silver Child\", \"Silver City\" and \"Silver World\".\n\nBULLET::::- The Silver Chair is a book in C.S. Lewis's allegorical fantasy series \"The Chronicles of Narnia\".\n\nBULLET::::- Marriage\n", "The visual sensation usually associated with the metal silver is its metallic shine. This cannot be reproduced by a simple solid color, because the shiny effect is due to the material's brightness varying with the surface angle to the light source. In addition, there is no mechanism for showing metallic or fluorescent colors on a computer without resorting to rendering software which simulates the action of light on a shiny surface. Consequently, in art and in heraldry one would normally use a metallic paint that glitters like real silver. A matte grey color could also be used to represent silver.\n", "Section::::Development.:Appearance and style.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-17564	How are we able to make guesses and thoughts on what objects would look like in a 4th Dimension, if we cannot perceive it with our eyes?	It’s not guessing. We simply extend the exact same logic of Euclidean geometry to an additional dimension. Specifically Euclid established the following rules 1. A straight line segment can be drawn between two points. 2. A straight line segment can be extended indefinitely. 3. Given a straight line segment, a circle can always be drawn with it as the radius. 4. All right angles are equal to one another. 5. If a straight line falling on two straight lines make the interior angles on the same side less than two right angles, the two straight lines, if produced indefinitely, meet on that side on which the angles are less than two right angles. (This one basically establishes the difference between parallel and non-parallel lines). If these assumptions hold true for any set of geometric patterns, we call or Euclidean geometry. The rest of Euclidean geometry is a natural extension of these postulates, including the principle of dimensions. A dimension means how many lines it is possible to make intersect through a point such that they are all at right angles to each other. We extend everything here to the fourth dimension and the logic works out. Note that the Klein bottle is a bit misleading, that hole the tube goes through in the larger bottle is actually supposed to be found in the fourth dimension in such a way that the tube doesn’t touch the larger bottle. A Möbius strip is the 3D equivalent of a Klein bottle. An additional example is a tesseract, a 4D cube. The basis of these objects consists of a shape in a lower dimension, two of which are applied for every dimension. A square is a set of 4 identical line segments all connected at right angles to each other. A cube is 6 squares connected to each other at right angles. A tesseract is 8 cubes connected to eachother at right angles.	[ "Similarly, objects in the fourth dimension can be mathematically projected to the familiar three dimensions, where they can be more conveniently examined. In this case, the 'retina' of the four-dimensional eye is a three-dimensional array of receptors. A hypothetical being with such an eye would perceive the nature of four-dimensional objects by inferring four-dimensional depth from indirect information in the three-dimensional images in its retina.\n", "By applying dimensional analogy, one can infer that a four-dimensional being would be capable of similar feats from our three-dimensional perspective. Rudy Rucker illustrates this in his novel \"Spaceland\", in which the protagonist encounters four-dimensional beings who demonstrate such powers.\n\nSection::::Dimensional analogy.:Cross-sections.\n", "Hinton's ideas inspired a fantasy about a \"Church of the Fourth Dimension\" featured by Martin Gardner in his January 1962 \"Mathematical Games column\" in \"Scientific American\". In 1886 Victor Schlegel described his method of visualizing four-dimensional objects with Schlegel diagrams.\n", "Higher-dimensional objects can be visualized in form of projections (views) in lower dimensions. In particular, 4-dimensional objects are visualized by means of projection in three dimensions. The lower-dimensional projections of higher-dimensional objects can be used for purposes of virtual object manipulation, allowing 3D objects to be manipulated by operations performed in 2D, and 4D objects by interactions performed in 3D.\n\nSection::::Applications.:In the formal sciences.\n", "\"..I have a Euclidean earthly mind, and how could I solve problems that are not of this world? And I advise you never to think about it either, my dear Alyosha, especially about God, whether He exists or not. All such questions are utterly inappropriate for a mind created with an idea of only three dimensions.\"\n", "We spatially perceive ourselves as beings in a three-dimensional space, but visually we are restricted to one dimension less: we see the world with our eyes as projections to two dimensions, on the surface of the retina. Assuming a four-dimensional being were able to \"see\" his world in projections to a hypersurface, also just one dimension less, i.e., to three dimensions, it would be able to \"see\", e.g., all six sides of an opaque box simultaneously, and in fact, what is inside the box at the same time, just as we can see all four sides and simultaneously the interior of a rectangle on a piece of paper. The being would be able to discern all points in a 3-dimensional subspace simultaneously, including the inner structure of solid 3-dimensional objects, things obscured from our viewpoints in three dimensions on two-dimensional projections. Our brains receive images in two dimensions and use reasoning to help us \"picture\" three-dimensional objects.\n", "The perspective projection of three-dimensional objects into the retina of the eye introduces artifacts such as foreshortening, which the brain interprets as depth in the third dimension. In the same way, perspective projection from four dimensions produces similar foreshortening effects. By applying dimensional analogy, one may infer four-dimensional \"depth\" from these effects.\n\nAs an illustration of this principle, the following sequence of images compares various views of the three-dimensional cube with analogous projections of the four-dimensional tesseract into three-dimensional space.\n\nSection::::Dimensional analogy.:Shadows.\n\nA concept closely related to projection is the casting of shadows.\n", "Many more mathematical formulas describe shapes that are unfamiliar, or do not necessarily correspond to objects in the real world. For example, the Klein bottle is a one-sided, sealed surface with no inside or outside (in other words, it is the three-dimensional equivalent of the Möbius strip). Such objects can be represented by twisting and cutting or taping pieces of paper together, as well as by computer simulations. To hold them in the imagination, abstractions such as extra or fewer dimensions are necessary.\n\nSection::::Logical sequences.\n", "Research using virtual reality finds that humans, in spite of living in a three-dimensional world, can, without special practice, make spatial judgments about line segments, embedded in four-dimensional space, based on their length (one dimensional) and the angle (two dimensional) between them. The researchers noted that \"the participants in our study had minimal practice in these tasks, and it remains an open question whether it is possible to obtain more sustainable, definitive, and richer 4D representations with increased perceptual experience in 4D virtual environments\". In another study, the ability of humans to orient themselves in 2D, 3D and 4D mazes has been tested. Each maze consisted of four path segments of random length and connected with orthogonal random bends, but without branches or loops (i.e. actually labyrinths). The graphical interface was based on John McIntosh's free 4D Maze game. The participating persons had to navigate through the path and finally estimate the linear direction back to the starting point. The researchers found that some of the participants were able to mentally integrate their path after some practice in 4D (the lower-dimensional cases were for comparison and for the participants to learn the method).\n", "While the Professor tries to fix the problem, he has M.A.X. entertain the audience. When M.A.X. starts telling jokes, the Professor tells him to explain the difference between 2-D and 3-D, which he does, explaining that 3-D has depth to it unlike 2-D. After pictures from the stereographic archives are shown, the Professor tries his demonstration again, but this time the machines turn Elvira into cardboard. As he tries to fix this problem, he tells the audience about 3-D movies, and several clips are shown, particularly clips where objects or people are thrown at the camera.\n", "Section::::Dimensional analogy.\n\nTo understand the nature of four-dimensional space, a device called \"dimensional analogy\" is commonly employed. Dimensional analogy is the study of how (\"n\" − 1) dimensions relate to \"n\" dimensions, and then inferring how \"n\" dimensions would relate to (\"n\" + 1) dimensions.\n", "In the 1884 satirical novella \"Flatland\" by Edwin Abbott Abbott, the two-dimensional protagonist (a square) is introduced to the concept of the third-dimension by his mentor (a sphere). After initially struggling with the idea, the square starts to speculate upon yet higher dimensions. After envisioning a tesseract, the square asks:\n", "In Kurt Vonnegut's 1969 work \"Slaughterhouse-Five\", recurring character Kilgore Trout writes a book called \"Maniacs in the Fourth Dimension\" which relates how \"three-dimensional Earthling doctors\" were unable to cure people with mental diseases, \"as the causes.. ..were all in the fourth dimension.\" Trout also explains how \"..vampires and werewolves and goblins and angels\" reside in this alternative plane, alongside poet William Blake.\n\nThe book \"Surfing through Hyperspace\" by Clifford A. Pickover specifically deals with fourth spatial dimensional creatures and contains a story involving two FBI agents musing over the implications of such beings existing.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Flatland\"\n\nBULLET::::- Tesseract\n", "One of the first major expositors of the fourth dimension was Charles Howard Hinton, starting in 1880 with his essay \"What is the Fourth Dimension?\"; published in the Dublin University magazine. He coined the terms \"tesseract\", \"ana\" and \"kata\" in his book \"A New Era of Thought\", and introduced a method for visualising the fourth dimension using cubes in the book \"Fourth Dimension\".\n", "Dimensional analogy was used by Edwin Abbott Abbott in the book \"Flatland\", which narrates a story about a square that lives in a two-dimensional world, like the surface of a piece of paper. From the perspective of this square, a three-dimensional being has seemingly god-like powers, such as ability to remove objects from a safe without breaking it open (by moving them across the third dimension), to see everything that from the two-dimensional perspective is enclosed behind walls, and to remain completely invisible by standing a few inches away in the third dimension.\n", "Even in monocular vision, which physiologically has only two dimensions, cues of size, perspective, relative motion etc. are used to assign depth differences to percepts. Looked at as a mathematical/geometrical problem, expanding a 2-dimensional object manifold into a 3-dimensional visual world is \"ill-posed,\" i.e., not capable of a rational solution, but is accomplished quite effectively by the human observer.\n", "Single locations in 4D space can be given as vectors or \"n-tuples\", i.e. as ordered lists of numbers such as \"(t,x,y,z)\". It is only when such locations are linked together into more complicated shapes that the full richness and geometric complexity of 4D and higher dimensional spaces emerge. A hint to that complexity can be seen in the accompanying animation of one of simplest possible 4D objects, the 4D cube or tesseract.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The origins of 4D products are found in nature. Nature provides numerous living examples of creatures capable of transforming or adapting to their environment in real time, such as color changing chameleons, the skin texture-changing mutable rainfrog, and goose bumps which are a reflex in many animal species, causing hair to stand erect from the body in order to appear larger to potential threats.\n", "This technique is like what many museum visitors do when they encounter a complicated abstract sculpture: They walk around it to view it from all directions, in order to understand it better. The human visual system perceives visual information as a pattern on the retina, which is 2-dimensional. Thus walking around the sculpture to understand it better creates a temporal sequence of 2-dimensional images in the brain.\n", "Section::::Dimensional analogy.:Visual scope.\n", "4D films are distinct from four-dimensional space. Notable historical formats for providing different aspects of a \"fourth dimension\" to films include Sensurround, and Smell-O-Vision. As of June 2015, about 530 screens worldwide have installed some 4-D technology.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Early cubist Max Weber wrote an article entitled \"In The Fourth Dimension from a Plastic Point of View\", for Alfred Stieglitz's July 1910 issue of \"Camera Work\". In the piece, Weber states, \"In plastic art, I believe, there is a fourth dimension which may be described as the consciousness of a great and overwhelming sense of space-magnitude in all directions at one time, and is brought into existence through the three known measurements.\"\n", "Oscar Wilde's \"The Canterville Ghost (A Hylo-Idealistic Romance)\" published in 1887 was Wilde's parody of a \"haunted-house\" story. The tale uses the higher spatial dimension as a handy plot device allowing a magical exit for the ghost:\n\n\"There was evidently no time to be lost, so, hastily adopting the Fourth Dimension of Space as a means of escape, he vanished through the wainscoting, and the house became quite quiet.\"\n", "Published in 1962, Madeleine L'Engle's award-winning \"A Wrinkle in Time\" revolves around a girl called Meg whose scientist father disappears after working on a mysterious project. In a chapter entitled \"The Tesseract\", Mrs Whatsit and Mrs Who (both immortals) use the analogy of small insect making a long journey across a length of material in order to explain instantaneous travel across the universe: \"Swiftly Mrs Who brought her hands, still holding the skirt, together. 'Now you see.. ..he would \"be\" there.. ..that is how we travel.'\" Meg declares herself to be a \"moron\" for not understanding the concept (known in the book as \"tessering\"). Luckily, her telepathic younger brother clarifies the matter, by telling Meg that the fourth dimension of time and the fifth of the tesseract combine, enabling Euclidean geometry-contravening short-cuts to be taken through space.\n", "ForthDD's microdisplays can be found in various training and simulation applications across military and civilian environments within devices such as virtual binoculars, monocular viewers and most commonly, immersive HMDs (for example, in NVIS HMDs). By using HMDs to immerse the user in the virtual 3D environment, different scenarios, which may be too dangerous or expensive to replicate in the real world, can be explored.\n\nMedical systems\n" ]	[ "Our thoughts about what objects would look like in a 4th Dimension are guesses.", "We \"guess\" when we try to determine what an object would look like in a fourth dimension." ]	[ "Our thoughts about what objects would look like in a 4th Dimension are based on Euclidean geometry, and are not guesses.", "It's not guessing - we can use the logic of Euclidean geometry to add a dimension." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Our thoughts about what objects would look like in a 4th Dimension are guesses.", "We \"guess\" when we try to determine what an object would look like in a fourth dimension." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Our thoughts about what objects would look like in a 4th Dimension are based on Euclidean geometry, and are not guesses.", "It's not guessing - we can use the logic of Euclidean geometry to add a dimension." ]
2018-06353	Why do elements react to give compounds with completely different properties?	For 99% of chemical differences, electron shell is the relevant attribute. The chemical properties we observe are due to the electron shells and how they are seeking low-energy states. When something forms a compound, this is due to the electron shell interacting with another electron shell in a way that changes both shells.	[ "The same trend in stability is noted in groups 14, 15 and 16. The heaviest members of each group, i.e. lead, bismuth and polonium are comparatively stable in oxidation states +2, +3, and +4 respectively.\n", "Most (66 of 94) naturally occurring elements have more than one stable isotope. Except for the isotopes of hydrogen (which differ greatly from each other in relative mass—enough to cause chemical effects), the isotopes of a given element are chemically nearly indistinguishable.\n", "A covalent bond, also known as a molecular bond, involves the sharing of electrons between two atoms. Primarily, this type of bond occurs between elements that fall close to each other on the periodic table of elements, yet it is observed between some metals and nonmetals. This is due to the mechanism of this type of bond. Elements that fall close to each other on the periodic table tend to have similar electronegativities, which means they have a similar affinity for electrons. Since neither element has a stronger affinity to donate or gain electrons, it causes the elements to share electrons so both elements have a more stable octet.\n", "A compound can be converted to a different chemical composition by interaction with a second chemical compound via a chemical reaction. In this process, bonds between atoms are broken in both of the interacting compounds, and then bonds are reformed so that new associations are made between atoms. \n\nSection::::Definitions.\n", "The vast majority of important organic molecules contain heteroatoms, which polarize carbon skeletons by virtue of their electronegativity. Therefore, in standard organic reactions, the majority of new bonds are formed between atoms of opposite polarity. This can be considered to be the \"normal\" mode of reactivity.\n", "\"Reactivity\" is a somewhat vague concept in chemistry. It appears to embody both thermodynamic factors and kinetic factors—i.e., whether or not a substance reacts, and how fast it reacts. Both factors are actually distinct, and both commonly depend on temperature. For example, it is commonly asserted that the reactivity of group one metals (Na, K, etc.) increases down the group in the periodic table, or that hydrogen's reactivity is evidenced by its reaction with oxygen. In fact, the rate of reaction of alkali metals (as evidenced by their reaction with water for example) is a function not only of position within the group but particle size. Hydrogen does not react with oxygen—even though the equilibrium constant is very large—unless a flame initiates the radical reaction, which leads to an explosion.\n", "When different elements are chemically combined, with the atoms held together by chemical bonds, they form chemical compounds. Only a minority of elements are found uncombined as relatively pure minerals. Among the more common of such native elements are copper, silver, gold, carbon (as coal, graphite, or diamonds), and sulfur. All but a few of the most inert elements, such as noble gases and noble metals, are usually found on Earth in chemically combined form, as chemical compounds. While about 32 of the chemical elements occur on Earth in native uncombined forms, most of these occur as mixtures. For example, atmospheric air is primarily a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, and argon, and native solid elements occur in alloys, such as that of iron and nickel.\n", "Section::::Mechanistic inorganic chemistry.\n\nAn important and increasingly popular aspect of inorganic chemistry focuses on reaction pathways. The mechanisms of reactions are discussed differently for different classes of compounds.\n\nSection::::Mechanistic inorganic chemistry.:Main group elements and lanthanides.\n", "Note that if the reactant in elemental form is not the more reactive metal, then no reaction will occur. Some examples of this would be the reverse reactions to these:\n\nBULLET::::1. Ag + Cu(NO) → No reaction\n\nBULLET::::2. Au + HCl → No reaction\n\nSection::::ion replacement.\n\nOne ion replaces another. An ion is a negatively charged ion or a nonmetal. Written using generic symbol, it is:\n", "Section::::Reactivity and Applications.\n\nMost simple metallated compounds are commercially available in both the solid and solution phases, with solution phase metallated compounds available in a wide range of solvents and concentrations. These compounds may also be created in the laboratory as an \"in situ\" synthetic intermediate or separately in solution.\n\nSection::::Reactivity and Applications.:Reactivity of Metallated Compounds.\n", "When there is not equilibrium between phases or chemical compounds, \"kinetic fractionation\" can occur. For example, at interfaces between liquid water and air, the forward reaction is enhanced if the humidity of the air is less than 100% or the water vapor is moved by a wind. Kinetic fractionation generally is enhanced compared to equilibrium fractionation, and depends on factors such as reaction rate, reaction pathway and bond energy. Since lighter isotopes generally have weaker bonds, they tend to react faster and enrich the reaction products.\n", "There is some ambiguity at the borderlines between the groups. Magnesium, aluminium and zinc \"can\" react with water, but the reaction is usually very slow unless the metal samples are specially prepared to remove the surface layer of oxide which protects the rest of the metal. Copper and silver will react with nitric acid; but because nitric acid is an oxidizing acid, the oxidizing agent is not the H ion as in normal acids, but the NO ion.\n\nSection::::Defining reactions.:Single displacement reactions.\n", "Section::::Bonding and forces.\n\nCompounds are held together through a variety of different types of bonding and forces. The differences in the types of bonds in compounds differ based on the types of elements present in the compound.\n", "In intramolecular organic reactions, two reaction sites are contained within a single molecule. This creates a very high effective concentration (resulting in high reaction rates), and, therefore, many intramolecular reactions that would not occur as an intermolecular reaction between two compounds take place.\n\nExamples of intramolecular reactions are the Smiles rearrangement, the Dieckmann condensation and the Madelung synthesis.\n\nSection::::Relative rates.\n", "Element X has replaced Y in compound YZ to become a new compound XZ and the free element Y. This is an oxidation–reduction reaction wherein element Y is reduced from a cation into the elemental form and element X is oxidized from the elemental form into a cation.br\n\nSome examples are:\n\nBULLET::::1. Cu + 2AgNO3 -> 2Ag(v) + Cu(NO3)2\n\nBULLET::::2. Fe + Cu(NO3)2 -> Fe(NO3)2 + Cu(v)\n\nBULLET::::3. Ca + 2H2O -> Ca(OH)2 + H2 (^)\n\nBULLET::::4. Zn + 2HCl -> ZnCl2 + H2 (^)\n", "In general, a metal can displace any of the metals which are lower in the reactivity series: the higher metal reduces the ions of the lower metal. This is used in the thermite reaction for preparing small quantities of metallic iron, and in the Kroll process for preparing titanium (Ti comes at about the same level as Al in the reactivity series). For example, aluminium will reduce iron(III) oxide to iron, becoming aluminium oxide in the process:\n\nSimilarly, magnesium can be used to extract titanium from titanium tetrachloride, forming magnesium chloride in the process:\n", "Section::::In organic synthesis.:Conditions for side reactions.\n\nIn organic synthesis, elevated temperatures usually lead to more side products. Side products are usually undesirable, therefore low temperatures are preferred (\"mild conditions\"). The ratio between competing reactions may be influenced by a change in temperature because their activation energies are different in most cases. Reactions with high activation energy can be stronger accelerated by an increase in temperature than those with low activation energy. Also the state of equilibrium depends on temperature.\n\nDetection reactions can be distorted by side reactions.\n\nSection::::Kinetics.\n", "In redox-transmetalation/ligand exchange the ligands of two metal complexes switch places with each other, bonding with the other metal center. The R ligand can be an alkyl, aryl, alkynyl, or allyl group and the X ligand can be a halogen, pseudo-halogen, alkyl, or aryl group. The reaction can proceed by two possible intermediate steps. The first is an associative intermediate, where the R and X ligands bridge the two metals, stabilizing the transition state. The second and less common intermediate is the formation of a cation where R is bridging the two metals and X is anionic. The RTLE reaction proceeds in a concerted manner. Like in RT reactions, the reaction is driven by electronegativity values. The X ligand is attracted to highly electropositive metals. If M is a more electropositive metal than M, it is thermodynamically favorable for the exchange of the R and X ligands to occur.\n", "Moseley was just 26 when he completed this research. Aged 27 he was killed in action during the First World War – shot through the head by a sniper.\n\nSection::::Episode 3: The Power of the Elements.\n\nSection::::Episode 3: The Power of the Elements.:Introduction.\n\nJust 92 elements combine to form all the compounds on Earth. Iron, when combined with chromium, carbon and nickel makes stainless steel. Glass is made of silicon and oxygen.\n", "Due to the free state nature of A and B, all single displacement reactions are also oxidation-reduction reactions, where the key event is the movement of electrons from one reactant to another. When A and B are metals, A is always oxidized and B is always reduced. Since halogens prefer to gain electrons, A is reduced (from 0 to −1) and B is oxidized (from −1 to 0) when A and B represent those elements.\n", "An important class of redox reactions are the electrochemical reactions, where electrons from the power supply are used as the reducing agent. These reactions are particularly important for the production of chemical elements, such as chlorine or aluminium. The reverse process in which electrons are released in redox reactions and can be used as electrical energy is possible and used in batteries.\n\nSection::::Reaction types.:Complexation.\n", "List of inorganic reactions\n\nWell-known types of reactions that involve organic compounds include:\n\nBULLET::::- Acetylation\n\nBULLET::::- Alkylation\n\nBULLET::::- Alkyne trimerisation\n\nBULLET::::- Alkyne metathesis\n\nBULLET::::- Aminolysis\n\nBULLET::::- Amination\n\nBULLET::::- Arylation\n\nBULLET::::- Aufbau reaction\n\nBULLET::::- Barbier reaction\n\nBULLET::::- Beta-hydride elimination\n\nBULLET::::- Birch reduction\n\nBULLET::::- Bönnemann cyclization\n\nBULLET::::- Bromination\n\nBULLET::::- Buchwald–Hartwig coupling\n\nBULLET::::- Cadiot–Chodkiewicz coupling\n\nBULLET::::- Calcination\n\nBULLET::::- Carbometalation\n\nBULLET::::- Carbothermal reduction\n\nBULLET::::- Carbonation\n\nBULLET::::- Carbonylation\n\nBULLET::::- Cassar reaction\n\nBULLET::::- Castro–Stephens coupling\n\nBULLET::::- Clemmensen reduction\n\nBULLET::::- Chain walking\n\nBULLET::::- Chan–Lam coupling\n\nBULLET::::- Chlorination\n\nBULLET::::- Clusterification\n\nBULLET::::- Comproportionation\n\nBULLET::::- C–C coupling\n\nBULLET::::- C–H activation\n\nBULLET::::- Cyanation\n\nBULLET::::- Cyclometalation\n\nBULLET::::- Decarbonylation\n\nBULLET::::- Decarboxylation\n\nBULLET::::- Dehydration\n", "The mechanisms of main group compounds of groups 13-18 are usually discussed in the context of organic chemistry (organic compounds are main group compounds, after all). Elements heavier than C, N, O, and F often form compounds with more electrons than predicted by the octet rule, as explained in the article on hypervalent molecules. The mechanisms of their reactions differ from organic compounds for this reason. Elements lighter than carbon (B, Be, Li) as well as Al and Mg often form electron-deficient structures that are electronically akin to carbocations. Such electron-deficient species tend to react via associative pathways. The chemistry of the lanthanides mirrors many aspects of chemistry seen for aluminium.\n", "Over the years, a variety of methods have been developed to refine the use of solid-phase organic synthesis in combinatorial chemistry, including efforts to increase the ease of synthesis and purification, as well as non-traditional methods to characterize intermediate products. Although\n\nthe majority of the examples described here will employ heterogeneous reaction media in every reaction step, Booth and Hodges provide an early example of using solid-supported reagents only during the purification step of traditional solution-phase syntheses. In their view,\n", "In diagrams, contributing structures are typically separated by double-headed arrows (↔). The arrow should not be confused with the right and left pointing \"equilibrium arrow\" (). All structures together may be enclosed in large square brackets, to indicate they picture one single molecule or ion, not different species in a chemical equilibrium.\n\nAlternatively to the use of contributing structures in diagrams, a hybrid structure can be used. In a hybrid structure, pi bonds that are involved in resonance are usually pictured as curves\n\nSection::::History.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-10728	Why males are genetically taller than women?	Estrogen causes your epiphyseal growth plates in your long bones (like arms and legs) to seal, and women get a burst of estrogen earlier than men, so their growth plates fuse earlier.	[ "Females are taller, on average, than males in early adolescence, but males, on average, surpass them in height in later adolescence and adulthood. In the United States, adult males are, on average, 9% taller and 16.5% heavier than adult females. There is no comparative evidence of differing levels of sexual selection having produced sexual size dimorphism between human populations.\n", "It has been observed that first-born males are shorter than later-born males.\n\nHowever, more recently the reverse observation was made. The study authors suggest that the cause may be socio-economic in nature.\n\nSection::::Determinants of growth and height.:Nature versus nurture.\n", "Height is a sexually dimorphic trait in humans. A study of 20th century British natality trends indicated that while tall men tended to reproduce more than short men, women of below average height had more children than taller women. \n\nSection::::Determinants of growth and height.\n", "Section::::Songs.\n", "Moreover, the health of a mother throughout her life, especially during her critical period and pregnancy, has a role. A healthier child and adult develops a body that is better able to provide optimal prenatal conditions. The pregnant mother's health is important for herself but also for the fetus as gestation is itself a critical period for an embryo/fetus, though some problems affecting height during this period are resolved by catch-up growth assuming childhood conditions are good. Thus, there is a cumulative generation effect such that nutrition and health over generations influences the height of descendants to varying degrees.\n", "In the human brain, a difference between sexes was observed in the transcription of the PCDH11X/Y gene pair unique to \"Homo sapiens\". Sexual differentiation in the human brain from the undifferentiated state is triggered by testosterone from the fetal testis. Testosterone is converted to estrogen in the brain through the action of the enzyme aromatase. Testosterone acts on many brain areas, including the SDN-POA, to create the masculinized brain pattern. Brains of pregnant females carrying male fetuses may be shielded from the masculinizing effects of androgen through the action of sex-hormone binding globulin.\n", "Height will also affect the appearance of the figure. A woman who is 36–24–36 at height will look different from a woman who is 36–24–36 at height. Since the taller woman's figure has greater distance between measuring points, she will likely appear thinner or less curvaceous than her shorter counterpart, again, even though they both have the same BWH ratio. This is because the taller woman is actually thinner as expressed by her height to size ratio.\n", "Humans exhibit sexual dimorphism in many characteristics, many of which have no direct link to reproductive ability, although most of these characteristics do have a role in sexual attraction. Most expressions of sexual dimorphism in humans are found in height, weight, and body structure, though there are always examples that do not follow the overall pattern. For example, men tend to be taller than women, but there are many people of both sexes who are in the mid-height range for the species.\n\nExamples of typical human male secondary sexual characteristics include:\n\nBULLET::::- Pubic hair;\n\nBULLET::::- Facial hair;\n", "Section::::Research.:Genotypic and phenotypic adaptation in humans.:Short stature in western African pygmies.\n", "Research indicates that the human brain uses height as a measurement to determine social status and fitness. The brain automatically associates physical size with leadership potential, power, strength and intelligence, an effect which has been discovered in infants as young as 10 months old. Evolutionary psychologists theorise that this is due to height indicating that the individual had been better fed, indicating higher social status and thus resources available to them, as well as indicating general health and physical strength, the latter of which can be useful in asserting dominance. The automatic association between height and the aforementioned traits has also been found to be much stronger when it comes to assessing men than women.\n", "The age of the mother also has some influence on her child's height. Studies in modern times have observed a gradual increase in height with maternal age, though these early studies suggest that trend is due to various socio-economic situations that select certain demographics as being more likely to have a first birth early in the mother's life. These same studies show that children born to a young mother are more likely to have below-average educational and behavioural development, again suggesting an ultimate cause of resources and family status rather than a purely biological explanation.\n", "Long bones are generally larger in males than in females within a given population. Muscle attachment sites on long bones are often more robust in males than in females, reflecting a difference in overall muscle mass and development between sexes. Sexual dimorphism in the long bones is commonly characterized by morphometric or gross morphological analyses.\n\nSection::::Sex differences.:Pelvis.\n", "often seen in mammals. African elephants strongly promote male-male competition. Elephants continuously grow throughout their lifetime. As males grow older, they also experience increasing lapses of musth, a violent sexual excitement, and most reproductive success happens to males in musth as it helps them win fights. A fight between a male in musth and one not can result in the death of the latter.\n\nSpecies with intense male-male competition are known to exhibit the most size dimorphism. For example, female American black bears (\"Ursus americanus\") are 20–40% smaller than males.\n", "Section::::Kin selection.:Conflict over sex ratio.\n", "Men on average are taller and have a higher IQ than women however, women's IQ's have been rising significantly more over the years and have even surpassed men in other countries such as Iceland. This means that health and culture may be more of a factor to intelligence than height. The Trivers–Willard hypothesis suggests that female mammals are able to adjust offspring sex ratio in response to their maternal condition; a suggested generalization is that bigger and taller human parents are likely to have more sons than the average. As those traits are considered desirable in mates of those respective genders, they confer an evolutionary advantage to offspring. Height and intelligence may be genetically correlated as a result of this, because men tend to choose beautiful women as mates, and women tend to choose men who are either tall, intelligent, or both as mates. Over time this might lead to an increased average height and intelligence of the population that is primarily inherited by men.\n", "The majority of linear growth occurs as growth of cartilage at the epiphysis (ends) of the long bones which gradually ossify to form hard bone. The legs compose approximately half of adult human height, and leg length is a somewhat sexually dimorphic trait, with men having proportionately longer legs. Some of this growth occurs after the growth spurt of the long bones has ceased or slowed. The majority of growth during growth spurts is of the long bones. Additionally, the variation in height between populations and across time is largely due to changes in leg length. The remainder of height consists of the cranium. Height is sexually dimorphic and statistically it is more or less normally distributed, but with heavy tails. \n", "A 2004 report citing a 2003 UNICEF study on the effects of malnutrition in North Korea, due to \"successive famines,\" found young adult males to be significantly shorter. In contrast South Koreans \"feasting on an increasingly Western-influenced diet,\" without famine, were growing taller. The height difference is minimal for Koreans over forty years old, who grew up at a time when economic conditions in the North were roughly comparable to those in the South, while height disparities are most acute for Koreans who grew up in the mid-1990s – a demographic in which South Koreans are about taller than their North Korean counterparts – as this was a period during which the North was affected by a harsh famine where hundreds of thousands, if not millions, died of hunger. A study by South Korean anthropologists of North Korean children who had defected to China found that eighteen-year-old males were 5 inches (13 cm) shorter than South Koreans their age due to malnutrition.\n", "The development of human height can serve as an indicator of two key welfare components, namely nutritional quality and health. In regions of poverty or warfare, environmental factors like chronic malnutrition during childhood or adolescence may result in delayed growth and/or marked reductions in adult stature even without the presence of any of these medical conditions. Some research indicates that a greater height correlates with greater success in dating and earning in men, although other research indicates that this does not apply to non-white men.\n", "Nonetheless, on a cultural level in Post-industrial society, a sociological relationship between height and perceived attractiveness exists. This cultural characteristic, while applicable to the modernized world, is not a transcendental human quality. Quantitative studies of woman-for-men personal advertisements have shown strong preference for tall men, with a large percentage indicating that a man significantly below average height was unacceptable. A study produced by the Universities of Groningen and Valencia, has found that men who felt most anxious about attractive, physically dominant, and socially powerful rivals, were less jealous, the taller they were themselves. The study also found that women were most jealous of others' physical attractiveness, but women of medium height were the least jealous. The report, produced by Dutch and Spanish researchers, stated that because average height women tend to be the most fertile and healthy, they would be less likely to feel threatened by women with those similar features.\n", "The greater reproductive success of taller men is attested to by studies indicating that taller men are more likely to be married and to have more children, except in societies with severe sex imbalances caused by war. However, more recent research has drawn this theory into question, finding no correlation between height and offspring count. Moreover, research on leg length and leg-to-body ratio conflicts with the notion that there is a distinct preference for taller mates. A 2008 study found that both extremes, tall and short, reduced attractiveness, and a 2006 study found that a lower leg-to-body ratio in men and higher leg-to-body ratio in women increased aesthetic appeal. Biologically, from an evolutionary perspective, these findings are consistent with data relating height to human health. Therefore, a biological or, more specifically, an evolutionary argument for the preference of a taller mate is questionable, lacking definitive evidence. Nonetheless, research by Dan Ariely found that American women exhibit a marked preference for dating taller men, and that for shorter men to be judged attractive by women, they must earn substantially more money than taller men.\n", "Attributed as a significant reason for the trend of increasing height in parts of Europe are the egalitarian populations where proper medical care and adequate nutrition are relatively equally distributed. Average (male) height in a nation is correlated with protein quality. Nations that consume more protein in the form of meat, dairy, eggs, and fish tend to be taller, while those that attain more protein from cereals tend to be shorter. Therefore, populations with high cattle per capita and high consumption of dairy live longer and are taller. Historically, this can be seen in the cases of the United States, Argentina, New Zealand and Australia in the beginning of the 19th century. \n", "For boys, the androgen testosterone is the principal sex hormone; while testosterone is produced, all boys' changes are characterized as virilization. A substantial product of testosterone metabolism in males is estradiol. The conversion of testosterone to estradiol depends on the amount of body fat and estradiol levels in boys are typically much lower than in girls. The male \"growth spurt\" also begins later, accelerates more slowly, and lasts longer before the epiphyses fuse. Although boys are on average shorter than girls before puberty begins, adult men are on average about taller than women. Most of this sex difference in adult heights is attributable to a later onset of the growth spurt and a slower progression to completion, a direct result of the later rise and lower adult male levels of estradiol.\n", "Anatomical differences between human males and females are highly pronounced in some soft tissue areas, but tend to be limited in the skeleton. The human skeleton is not as sexually dimorphic as that of many other primate species, but subtle differences between sexes in the morphology of the skull, dentition, long bones, and pelvis are exhibited across human populations. In general, female skeletal elements tend to be smaller and less robust than corresponding male elements within a given population. It is not known whether or to what extent those differences are genetic or environmental.\n\nSection::::Sex differences.:Skull.\n", "Like most other male mammals, a man's genome typically inherits an X chromosome from his mother and a Y chromosome from his father. The male fetus produces larger amounts of androgens and smaller amounts of estrogens than a female fetus. This difference in the relative amounts of these sex steroids is largely responsible for the physiological differences that distinguish men from women.\n", "Humans grow fastest (other than in the womb) as infants and toddlers, rapidly declining from a maximum at birth to roughly age 2, tapering to a slowly declining rate, and then during the pubertal growth spurt, a rapid rise to a second maximum (at around 11–12 years for female, and 13–14 years for male), followed by a steady decline to zero. On average, female growth speed trails off to zero at about 15 or 16 years, whereas the male curve continues for approximately 3 more years, going to zero at about 18–19. These are also critical periods where stressors such as malnutrition (or even severe child neglect) have the greatest effect.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04072	Why does a dehydrated brain cause a headache?	Your body is filled with veins and arteries, including your brain. These veins and arteries can get wider or thinner depending on what’s going on (cold/hot, too much/too little water). If you have WAY too little water, the veins and arteries shrink so much that your brain shrinks, and tugs on your skull. Source: google why dehydration headache, website medicalnewstoday	[ "At the onset of this condition, fluid outside the cells has an excessively low amount of solutes, such as sodium and other electrolytes, in comparison to fluid inside the cells, causing the fluid to move into the cells to balance its concentration. This causes the cells to swell. In the brain, this swelling increases intracranial pressure (ICP), which leads to the first observable symptoms of water intoxication: headache, personality changes, changes in behavior, confusion, irritability, and drowsiness. These are sometimes followed by difficulty breathing during exertion, muscle weakness & pain, twitching, or cramping, nausea, vomiting, thirst, and a dulled ability to perceive and interpret sensory information. As the condition persists, papillary and vital signs may result including bradycardia and widened pulse pressure. The cells in the brain may swell to the point where blood flow is interrupted resulting in cerebral edema. Swollen brain cells may also apply pressure to the brain stem causing central nervous system dysfunction. Both cerebral edema and interference with the central nervous system are dangerous and could result in seizures, brain damage, coma or death.\n", "Normally, the osmolality of cerebral-spinal fluid (CSF) and extracellular fluid (ECF) in the brain is slightly lower than that of plasma. Plasma can be diluted by several mechanisms, including excessive water intake (or hyponatremia), syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion (SIADH), hemodialysis, or rapid reduction of blood glucose in hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS), formerly known as hyperosmolar non-ketotic acidosis (HONK). Plasma dilution decreases serum osmolality, resulting in a higher osmolality in the brain compared to the serum. This creates an abnormal pressure gradient and movement of water into the brain, which can cause progressive cerebral edema, resulting in a spectrum of signs and symptoms from headache and ataxia to seizures and coma.\n", "Section::::Cerebral edema.\n", "A number of different causes contribute to this class of headache. Several common chemicals may be the culprit. Nitrite compounds dilate blood vessels, causing dull and pounding headaches with repeat exposure. Nitrite is found in dynamite, heart medicine and it is a chemical used to preserve meat (ergo these being known as \"nitrite\" or \"hot dog\" headaches). Eating foods prepared with monosodium glutamate (MSG) may thus result in headache. Acetaldehyde from alcohol may also cause a headache either acutely or after a number of hours (hangover).\n", "BULLET::::15. Cerebral edema (swelling of the brain) occurs due to leakage of large molecules like albumins from blood vessels through the damaged blood brain barrier. These large molecules pull water into the brain tissue after them by osmosis. This \"vasogenic edema\" causes compression of and damage to brain tissue (Freye 2011; Acquired Mitochondropathy-A New Paradigm in Western Medicine Explaining Chronic Diseases).\n\nSection::::Mitigation of effects.\n", "The second theory posits that either increased blood flow to the brain or increase in the brain tissue itself may result in the raised pressure. Little evidence has accumulated to support the suggestion that increased blood flow plays a role, but recently Bateman et al. in phase contrast MRA studies have quantified cerebral blood flow (CBF) in vivo and suggests that CBF is abnormally elevated in many people with IIH. Both biopsy samples and various types of brain scans have shown an increased water content of the brain tissue. It remains unclear why this might be the case.\n", "The term dehydration has sometimes been used incorrectly as a proxy for the separate, related condition hypovolemia, which specifically refers to a decrease in volume of blood plasma. The two are regulated through independent mechanisms in humans; the distinction is important in guiding treatment.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "The large-scale inflammation that occurs in the subarachnoid space during meningitis is not a direct result of bacterial infection but can rather largely be attributed to the response of the immune system to the entry of bacteria into the central nervous system. When components of the bacterial cell membrane are identified by the immune cells of the brain (astrocytes and microglia), they respond by releasing large amounts of cytokines, hormone-like mediators that recruit other immune cells and stimulate other tissues to participate in an immune response. The blood–brain barrier becomes more permeable, leading to \"vasogenic\" cerebral edema (swelling of the brain due to fluid leakage from blood vessels). Large numbers of white blood cells enter the CSF, causing inflammation of the meninges and leading to \"interstitial\" edema (swelling due to fluid between the cells). In addition, the walls of the blood vessels themselves become inflamed (cerebral vasculitis), which leads to decreased blood flow and a third type of edema, \"cytotoxic\" edema. The three forms of cerebral edema all lead to increased intracranial pressure; together with the lowered blood pressure often encountered in acute infection, this means that it is harder for blood to enter the brain, consequently brain cells are deprived of oxygen and undergo apoptosis (programmed cell death).\n", "Dehydration can cause hypernatremia (high levels of sodium ions in the blood) and is distinct from hypovolemia (loss of blood volume, particularly blood plasma).\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "An increase in cerebral water content is called cerebral edema and it usually results from traumatic brain injury (TBI), subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH), intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH), subdural hematoma, ischemic stroke, brain tumors, infectious disorders and intracranial surgery. Cerebral edema may result in compromised regional cerebral blood flow (CBF) and intracranial pressure (ICP) gradients which could lead to death of the affected. Increased ICP leads to increased intracranial volume. Unmonitored ICP leads to brain damage by global hypoxic ischemic injury due to reduction in cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP) which is found by subtracting the ICP from mean arterial pressure(MAP), cerebral blood flow, and mechanical compression of brain tissue due to compartmentalized ICP gradients.\n", "The cause of DDS is currently not well understood. There are two theories to explain it; the first theory postulates that urea transport from the brain cells is slowed in chronic renal failure, leading to a large urea concentration gradient, which results in reverse osmosis. The second theory postulates that organic compounds are increased in uremia to protect the brain and result in injury by, like in the first theory, reverse osmosis. More recent studies on rats noted that brain concentrations of organic osmolytes were not increased relative to baseline after rapid dialysis. Cerebral edema was thus attributed to osmotic effects related to a high urea gradient between plasma and brain.\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Definition.\n\nDehydration occurs when water intake is not enough to replace free water lost due to normal physiologic processes, including breathing, urination, and perspiration, or other causes, including diarrhea and vomiting. Dehydration can be life-threatening when severe and lead to seizures or respiratory arrest, and also carries the risk of osmotic cerebral edema if rehydration is overly rapid.\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.\n\nClinical signs of cerebral edema, such as focal neurological deficits, papilledema and decreased level of consciousness, if temporally associated with recent hemodialysis, suggest the diagnosis. A computed tomography of the head is typically done to rule-out other intracranial causes.\n\nMRI of the head has been used in research to better understand DDS.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "BULLET::::- Generalized brain swelling can occur in ischemic-anoxia states, acute liver failure, hypertensive encephalopathy, hypercarbia (hypercapnia), and Reye hepatocerebral syndrome. These conditions tend to decrease the cerebral perfusion pressure but with minimal tissue shifts.\n\nBULLET::::- Increase in venous pressure can be due to venous sinus thrombosis, heart failure, or obstruction of superior mediastinal or jugular veins.\n", "With correction of the hyponatremia with intravenous fluids, the extracellular tonicity increases, followed by an increase in intracellular tonicity. When the correction is too rapid, not enough time is allowed for the brain's cells to adjust to the new tonicity, namely by increasing the intracellular osmoles mentioned earlier. If the serum sodium levels rise too rapidly, the increased extracellular tonicity will continue to drive water out of the brain's cells. This can lead to cellular dysfunction and CPM.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "Neurological symptoms typically occur with very low levels of plasma sodium (usually <115 mmol/L). When sodium levels in the blood become very low, water enters the brain cells and causes them to swell (cerebral edema). This results in increased pressure in the skull and causes \"hyponatremic encephalopathy\". As pressure increases in the skull, herniation of the brain can occur, which is a squeezing of the brain across the internal structures of the skull. This can lead to headache, nausea, vomiting, confusion, seizures, brain stem compression and respiratory arrest, and non-cardiogenic accumulation of fluid in the lungs. This is usually fatal if not immediately treated.\n", "Treatment for a current tension headache is to drink water and confirm that there is no dehydration. If symptoms do not resolve within an hour for a person who has had water, then stress reduction might resolve the issue.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Medications.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Medications.:Treatment of ETTH.\n", "Section::::Causes.:Other causes.\n\nCranial CSF leaks result from intracranial hypertension in a vast majority of cases. The increased pressure causes a rupture of the cranial dura mater, leading to CSF leak and intracranial hypotension. Patients with a \"nude nerve root\", where the root sleeve is absent, are at increased risk for developing recurrent CSF leaks. Lumbar disc herniation has been reported to cause CSF leaks in at least one case. Degenerative spinal disc diseases cause a disc to pierce the dura mater, leading to a CSF leak.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "Section::::Cause.:Normal blood volume (euvolemic).\n\nSome patients with hyponatremia have normal or slightly elevated blood volume. In those patients, the increased ADH activity and subsequent water retention may be due to \"physiologic\" causes of ADH release such as pain or nausea. \n", "The cause of IIH is not known. The Monro–Kellie rule states that the intracranial pressure is determined by the amount of brain tissue, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and blood inside the bony cranial vault. Three theories therefore exist as to why the pressure might be raised in IIH: an excess of CSF production, increased volume of blood or brain tissue, or obstruction of the veins that drain blood from the brain.\n", "The most frequent presenting symptoms are headache, drowsiness, confusion, seizures, hemiparesis or speech difficulties together with fever with a rapidly progressive course. Headache is characteristically worse at night and in the morning, as the intracranial pressure naturally increases when in the supine position. This elevation similarly stimulates the medullary vomiting center and area postrema, leading to morning vomiting. \n", "The veins of the brain, both the superficial veins and the deep venous system, empty into the dural venous sinuses, which carry blood back to the jugular vein and thence to the heart. In cerebral venous sinus thrombosis, blood clots usually form both in the veins of the brain and the venous sinuses. The thrombosis of the veins themselves causes venous infarction—damage to brain tissue due to a congested and therefore insufficient blood supply. This results in cerebral edema (both \"vasogenic\" and \"cytotoxic\" edema), and leads to small petechial haemorrhages that may merge into large haematomas. Thrombosis of the sinuses is the main mechanism behind the increase in intracranial pressure due to decreased resorption of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). The condition does not lead to hydrocephalus, however, because there is no difference in pressure between various parts of the brain.\n", "BULLET::::- Brain fog and fatigue are both common SCDS symptoms and are caused by the brain having to spend an unusual amount of its energy on the simple act of keeping the body in a state of equilibrium when it is constantly receiving confusing signals from the dysfunctional semicircular canal.\n\nBULLET::::- Headache and migraine are also often mentioned by patients showing other symptoms of SCDS due to the body overcompensating for poor hearing in the affected ear by tensing up nearby parts of the face, head, and neck and using them as almost a secondary eardrum.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Several complications can occur as a result of SCSFLS including decreased cranial pressure, brain herniation, infection, blood pressure problems, transient paralysis, and coma. The primary and most serious complication of SCSFLS is spontaneous intracranial hypotension, where pressure in the brain is severely decreased. This complication leads to the hallmark symptom of severe orthostatic headaches.\n", "For severe cases of dehydration where fainting, unconsciousness, or other severely inhibiting symptom is present (the patient is incapable of standing or thinking clearly), emergency attention is required. Fluids containing a proper balance of replacement electrolytes are given orally or intravenously with continuing assessment of electrolyte status; complete resolution is the norm in all but the most extreme cases.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Hydrational fluids\n\nBULLET::::- Terminal dehydration\n\nBULLET::::- Dryness (medical)\n\nBULLET::::- Oral Rehydration Therapy\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Definition of dehydration by the U.S. National Institutes of Health's MedlinePlus medical encyclopedia\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-02259	Why do people blame the NRA for mass shootings?	they’re a big part of the reason why gun control laws are so lax in the US, and give tons of money to politicians for their special interests. hence why it’s so easy to get a gun.	[ "The NRA has been criticized for their media strategy following mass shootings in the United States. After the Sandy Hook shooting the NRA released an online video which attacked Obama and mentioned Obama's daughters; New Jersey Governor Chris Christie called it \"reprehensible\" and said that it demeaned the organization. A senior lobbyist for the organization later characterized the video as \"ill-advised\".\n\nSection::::Criticism.:Mass shootings.:2017 Las Vegas shooting.\n", "During Ashby and Dickson’s meeting with NRA’s Public Relations team, Lars Dalseide (NRA Media Liaison), suggests to Jackson tactics to use in the wake of any mass shootings in Australia. In reply to Dalseide’s suggested line, “How dare you stand on the graves of those children and put forth your political agenda?” Jackson replies, “I love that.” Dalseide; “If your policy isn’t good enough to stand on its own, how dare you use their deaths to push that forward?” Ashby; “That’s really good. That’s really strong.”\n", "A survey of NRA members found that the majority support certain gun control policies, such as a universal background check:\n\nSection::::Criticism.:Gun manufacturing industry.\n\nCritics have charged that the NRA represents the interests of gun manufacturers rather than gun owners.\n\nSection::::Criticism.:Mass shootings.\n\nSection::::Criticism.:Mass shootings.:Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting.\n\nFollowing the high-profile 2012 shooting at the Sandy Hook Elementary School, the organization began to become the focus of intense criticism, due to its continued refusal to endorse any new restrictions on assault-style gun ownership, or to endorse any other types of new restrictions on gun ownership.\n", "The NRA offers corporate discounts to its members at various businesses through its corporate affiliate programs. For several years, and increasingly in the aftermath of the Stoneman Douglas High School shooting, \"affiliate companies\" have been targeted in social media as part of a boycott effort to terminate their business relationships with the NRA. As a result of this boycott movement, several major corporations such as Delta Air Lines, United Airlines, Hertz, Symantec, and MetLife have disaffiliated from the NRA, while others, such as FedEx have refused to disaffiliate.\n\nSection::::Criticism.:Media campaigns.\n", "During Ashby and Dickson's meeting with NRA's Public Relations team, Lars Dalseide (NRA Media Liaison), suggests to Dickson tactics to use in the wake of any mass shootings in Australia. In reply to Dalseide’s suggested line, \"How dare you stand on the graves of those children and put forth your political agenda?\" Dickson replies, \"I love that.\" Dalseide; \"If your policy isn’t good enough to stand on its own, how dare you use their deaths to push that forward?\" Ashby; \"That’s really good. That’s really strong.\"\n", "According to the authors of \"The Changing Politics of Gun Control\" (1998), in the late 1970s, the NRA changed its activities to incorporate political advocacy. Despite the impact on the volatility of membership, the politicization of the NRA has been consistent and the NRA-Political Victory Fund ranked as \"one of the biggest spenders in congressional elections\" as of 1998. According to the authors of \"The Gun Debate\" (2014), the NRA taking the lead on politics serves the gun industry's profitability. In particular when gun owners respond to fears of gun confiscation with increased purchases and by helping to isolate the industry from the misuse of its products used in shooting incidents.\n", "A February 2018 Quinnipiac poll found that 51% of Americans believe that the policies supported by the NRA are bad for the U.S., a 4% increase since October 2017.\n", "In 2017, Zack Beauchamp of Vox and Mark Sumner of Daily Kos criticized a video advertisement from the NRA. In the video, Dana Loesch runs through a list of wrongs committed by an unspecified \"they\":\n", "While supporters say the organization advances their rights to buy and own guns according to the constitution's Second Amendment, some critics have described it as a \"terrorist organization\" for advocating policies that enable and permit the widespread distribution and sale of assault-style weapons, and for its opposition to any other types of restrictions on gun sales or use.\n", "Besides the GOA, other national gun rights groups continue to take a stronger stance than the NRA. These groups include the Second Amendment Sisters, Second Amendment Foundation, Jews for the Preservation of Firearms Ownership, and the Pink Pistols. New groups have also arisen, such as the Students for Concealed Carry, which grew largely out of safety-issues resulting from the creation of gun-free zones that were legislatively mandated amidst a response to widely publicized school shootings.\n", "The NRA spent $40 million on US elections in 2008, including $10 million in opposition to the election of Senator Barack Obama in the 2008 presidential campaign.\n\nIn 2010, Citizens United v. FEC was decided by the U.S. Supreme Court, paving the way for dark money to flow into U.S. elections. As of mid-September 2018, the NRA has become one of just 15 groups which account for three-quarters of the anonymous cash.\n", "Section::::Criticism.:Lack of advocacy for black gun owners.\n\nThe NRA has been criticized for insufficient defense of African-American gun rights and providing muted and delayed responses in gun rights cases involving black gun owners. Others argue that the NRA's inaction in prominent gun rights cases involving black gun owners is a consequence of their reluctance to criticize law enforcement, noting NRA support for Otis McDonald and Shaneen Allen.\n", "A 2017 poll conducted by the political action committee Americans for Responsible Solutions, which supports gun control, exclusively questioned 661 gun owners. 26% of the respondents stated they were a member of the NRA. The ARS reported that less than 50% of gun owners polled believed the NRA represented their interests, while 67% of them somewhat or strongly agreed with the statement that it had been \"overtaken by lobbyists and the interests of gun manufacturers and lost its original purpose and mission.\" The NRA disputed the poll's veracity in an e-mail sent to \"Politico\", which had published the story.\n", "Section::::Criticism.:Gun control.\n\nIn February 2013, \"USA Today\" editors criticized the NRA for flip-flopping on expansion of universal background checks to private and gun show sales, which NRA now opposes.\n", "After Donald Trump's election, the NRA closely aligned with Trump. At an event in February 2018, Trump said that he was a \"big fan of the NRA\" but said that \"that doesn't mean we have to agree on everything.\"\n\nAlthough the NRA has previously donated to and endorsed Democratic candidates, it has become more closely affiliated with the Republican party since the 1990s. In 2016, only two Democratic House candidates received donations from the NRA, compared to 115 in the 1992 elections. Self-identified Republicans are far more likely to hold a positive view of the NRA than are Democrats.\n", "Pro-gun rights critics include Gun Owners of America (GOA), founded in the 1970s because some gun rights advocates believed the NRA was too flexible on gun issues. Jews for the Preservation of Firearms Ownership (JPFO) has also disagreed with NRA for what it perceives as a willingness to compromise on gun control. In June 2014, an open carry group in Texas threatened to withdraw its support of the NRA if it did not retract its statements critical of the practice. The NRA–ILA's Chris Cox said the statements were a staffer's personal opinion and a mistake.\n", "Section::::Background.\n\nAfter the Parkland shooting, there was an unprecedented upsurge of public support for gun control advocacy groups and significant backlash against the NRA for its response to the shooting, having argued that schools required more armed security to protect against the possibility of future attacks, and its continued calls to preserving the right to own semi-automatic firearms, such as those used in the shooting.\n", "In May 2018 the NRA ran an advertisement which criticized the media for giving too much coverage to school shooters by showing their faces and revealing their names, in effect causing a \"glorification of carnage in pursuit of ratings\", and satirically suggested that Congress pass legislation to limit such coverage in order to make provocative point about gun control. In response, critics suggested that this would violate the First Amendment right of free speech.\n\nSection::::Criticism.:Pro-gun rights criticism.\n", "BULLET::::- 90.7% of members favor \"Reforming our mental health laws to help keep firearms out of the hands of people with mental illness.\" (A majority of 86.4% believe that strengthening laws this way would be more effective at preventing mass murders than banning semi-automatic rifles.)\n\nBULLET::::- 92.2% of NRA members oppose gun confiscation via mandatory buy-back laws.\n\nBULLET::::- 88.5% oppose banning semi-automatic firearms, firearms that load a new cartridge automatically when discharged.\n\nBULLET::::- 92.6% oppose a law requiring gun owners to register with the federal government.\n\nBULLET::::- 92.0% oppose a federal law banning the sale of firearms between private citizens.\n", "Following the NRA's response, conservative commentators and gun rights supporters voiced opposition to the boycott, calling it \"mob justice\" and accusing supporters of silencing free speech. Tim Hentschel of HotelPlanner.com said he would not mix business and politics, and that his decision to maintain the company's relationship with the NRA was not based on money.\n", "Dick's also launched a corporate campaign for officials “to enact common sense gun reform” including regulations to require universal background checks, raise the age to purchase guns to 21, and ban the assault weapons and accessories that Dick's no longer sells.\n\nSince Dick's is a large gun dealer their moves were cited as \"one of the biggest steps taken by a US company\" after the Parkland shooting energized the gun control debate.\n", "The primary source of the tension has been reported as a difference in the lobbying tactics of the two groups. With NRA and its state affiliate Colorado State Shooting Association preferring a conventional lobbying or access-based approach, while RMGO electing to pursue a grassroots or confrontation-based approach. The group regularly accuses the NRA of not living up to its reputation.\n", "BULLET::::- MidwayUSA, saying \"no company in America is more dedicated to, and more supportive of, the goals of the National Rifle Association than MidwayUSA\"\n\nBULLET::::- ReliaStar\n\nBULLET::::- NetSpend\n\nBULLET::::- Omni Hotels\n\nBULLET::::- Vinesse Wine Clubs, the official wine club of the NRA\n\nBULLET::::- Wells Fargo\n\nSection::::Companies involved.:Affinity marketing.:FedEx.\n", "Section::::Aftermath.:Gun control debate.:Boycott of NRA and responses from businesses.\n\nFollowing the shooting, people boycotted the US gun rights advocacy group National Rifle Association (NRA) and its business affiliates. Many companies responded to the shooting by changing some of their business dealings and practices.\n\nCalls for companies to sever their ties to the NRA were heeded when several companies terminated their business relationships with the NRA.\n", "In May 2018, Cameron Kasky's father and other Parkland parents formed a super PAC, Families vs Assault Rifles PAC (FAMSVARPAC), with a stated goal of going \"up against NRA candidates in every meaningful race in the country\". The organization seeks federal legislation to ban \"the most dangerous firearms\", while not affecting the second amendment.\n\nSection::::Criticism.:Mass shootings.:Boycott.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02516	Why are we not aware of the passing of time when we sleep?	> Why are we not aware of the passing of time when we sleep? You're not aware of anything when you sleep. So you can't perceive the passage time as it happens, because you're not really perceiving things at all, other than at a very basic, "strong stimuli will wake you up" sense. And you can't perceive the passage of time after you wake up because forming memories that give order and sequence to what's happened to you is how you recall the passage of time of things in the past. When you're asleep, you're not forming new memories, so you have no way to judge the passage of time after the fact. Other things that prevent memory formation, like being put under for surgery, or being blackout drunk, will affect your ability to retroactively remember how much time has passed.	[ "The perception of time is temporarily suspended during sleep, or more often during REM sleep. This can be attributed to the altered state of consciousness associated with sleep where the person is kept unaware of their surroundings, which would make it difficult to remain informed of the passing of time. When the person awakes in the morning, they have the memory of going to bed the night before, but new memories are rarely made during sleep.\n", "The perception of time is temporarily suspended during sleep, or more often during REM sleep. This can be attributed to the altered state of consciousness associated with sleep that prevents awareness of the surroundings, which would make it difficult to remain informed of the passing of time — new memories are rarely made during sleep. Therefore, upon waking up in the morning a person subjectively feels no time has passed but reasons that many hours have elapsed simply because it is now light outside. The passing of time must be inferred by observations of objects (e.g., the sun’s location, the moon, a clock's time) relative to the previous evening. So, time may feel as passing \"faster\" during sleep due to the lack of reference points. Another experience sometimes reported is a long dream seeming to go on for hours when it actually lasted only a few seconds or minutes.\n", "Therefore, upon waking up the following morning it feels as if no time has passed, but the human mind reasons that many hours have elapsed simply because it is now light outside. The passing of time is a relative event brought about by observation of objects (the sun's location, the moon, a clock's time). Without a reference point there would be no context other than day or night. So, as far as time passing faster when during sleep may be due to the lack of reference points that convince the sleeper the time has passed quickly.\n\nSection::::Time dilation.:Drugs.\n", "According to Dunne, our wakeful attention prevents us from seeing beyond the present moment, whilst when dreaming that attention fades and we gain the ability to recall more of our timeline. This allows fragments of our future to appear in pre-cognitive dreams, mixed in with fragments or memories of our past. Other consequences include the phenomenon known as deja vu and the existence of life after death.\n\nSection::::Description.:Dreams and the experiment.\n", "One researcher has proposed that dogs perceive the passing of time through the dissipation of smells.\n\nSection::::Awareness.\n", "This biological evolution, and the different perceptions of time that it implies, are played out in every moment in our brain. Our brain functions in one sense as a unitary organ, but evolutionarily it contains different brains: one that controls autonomic function, one that perceives the world in the moment, and one that understands the world intellectually. By this understanding, the biological self that understands only the moment is in perpetual conflict with the intellectual self that conceives of past, present, future, and the possibility of eternity. This, then, at its root is the conflict that underlies the tension of time felt and time understood. People can never resolve the fact that we live in the moment, but dream of the eternal.\n", "Hades itself was free from the concept of time. The dead are aware of both the past and the future, and in poems describing Greek heroes, the dead helped move the plot of the story by prophesying and telling truths unknown to the hero. The only way for humans to communicate with the dead was to suspend time and their normal life to reach Hades, the place beyond immediate perception and human time.\n\nSection::::Greek attitudes.\n", "Some philosophers appeal to a specific theory that is \"timeless\" in a more radical sense than the rest of physics, the theory of quantum gravity. This theory is used, for instance, in Julian Barbour's theory of timelessness. On the other hand, George Ellis argues that time is absent in cosmological theories because of the details they leave out.\n\nRecently Hrvoje Nikolić has argued that a block time model solves the black hole information paradox.\n\nSection::::Objections.\n", "The artifact known as Paradox is known to have been discovered by Ruttledge, Kaminski, Parzen, and Lu-lan, but may have been discovered many times before. The interior of Paradox contains a powerful lotus field, which erases all memory of any biological or electronic device entering the field. Ruttledge and Kaminski were discovered by Parzen and Lu-lan a few days after entering malnourished and with the mental ability of a newborn infant. Lu-lan and Parzen chose to confirm what happened by sending in one more person. After drawing lots, Lu-lan returned after three days with his memory completely empty, though his somatic knowledge was intact. Paradox has since been declared off limits to all but specially trained investigators.\n", "We are not stuck in sequential time. We are able to remember the past and project into the future – we have a kind of random access to our representation of temporal existence; we can, in our thoughts, step out of (ecstasis) sequential time.\n", "Section::::Case studies.:\"Maison\" study.\n", "The second arrow is the psychological arrow of time. Our subjective sense of time seems to flow in one direction, which is why we remember the past and not the future. Hawking claims that our brain measures time in a way where disorder increases in the direction of time. We never observe it working in the opposite direction. In other words, the psychological arrow of time is intertwined with the thermodynamic arrow of time.\n", "The war years shadowed my youth. I was seventeen when the Russian planes started bombarding my home town of Wiborg on 30 November 1939, damaging it badly. At armistice, Wiborg had to be yielded, it remained behind the border – an endless source of nostalgia for one who had a catlike, persevering fondness for homestead. Even as a ten-year-old, I had spine-chilling dreams about the destruction of Wiborg, and from those times onwards I have been haunted by reflections about the nature and mystery of time. I believe that we have a false conception of time; everything has already happened somewhere in an unknown dimension.\n", "The madeleine episode reads:\n", "The static view is however commonly rejected for psychological, not scientific reasons, because it leads to a fatalistic or \"fixed\" conclusion about human existence – our 'past', 'present', and 'future' being what they are – there is no contingency in the world and no possibility of 'altering' or creating the future through some act of will – the future exists. It is simply that our consciousness has not yet reached it.\n\nSection::::Quotes.\n", "The English word \"clock\" comes from an Old French word for \"bell,\" for the striking feature of early clocks was a greater concern than their dials. Shakespeare's Sonnet XII begins, \"When I do count the clock that tells the time.\" Even after the introduction of the clock face, clocks were costly, and found mostly in the homes of aristocrats. The vast majority of urban dwellers had to rely on clock towers, and outside the sight of their dials or the sound of their bells, clock time held no sway. Clock towers did define the time of day, at least for those who could hear and see them. As the saying goes, \"a person with a clock always knows what time it is; a person with two clocks is never sure.\"\n", "Very young children literally \"live in time\" before gaining an awareness of its passing. A child will first experience the passing of time when he or she can subjectively perceive and reflect on the unfolding of a collection of events. A child's awareness of time develops during childhood when the child's attention and short-term memory capacities form — this developmental process is thought to be dependent on the slow maturation of the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus.\n", "Timepieces were formerly an apt reminder that your time on Earth grows shorter with each passing minute. Public clocks would be decorated with mottos such as \"ultima forsan\" (\"perhaps the last\" [hour]) or \"vulnerant omnes, ultima necat\" (\"they all wound, and the last kills\"). Even today, clocks often carry the motto \"tempus fugit\", \"time flees\". Old striking clocks often sported automata who would appear and strike the hour; some of the celebrated automaton clocks from Augsburg, Germany had Death striking the hour. The several computerized \"death clocks\" revive this old idea. Private people carried smaller reminders of their own mortality. Mary, Queen of Scots owned a large watch carved in the form of a silver skull, embellished with the lines of Horace, \"Pale death knocks with the same tempo upon the huts of the poor and the towers of Kings.\"\n", "Neither of the above criteria make reference to time or temporality; for while the ontological possibly of timeless knowledge must always remain, admission of this possibility begs the question (\"petitio principii\"): e.g., what form does timeless knowledge take? how would it come to us? how could we ever be separated from such knowledge to begin with? \"et cetera ad nauseam\". The admission is therefore a paradox (akin to Wittgenstein's seventh proposition in \"Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus\": \"Whereof one cannot speak, thereof one must be silent.\"). We must conclude that the proposal of the possibility of timeless knowledge is both necessary and senseless, a conceptual counterpart to the tautologous nature of the concept of time. Should we come to possess knowledge of that which is \"beneath\" or \"behind\" time (or, alternatively, conclude we could never have lost possession of it), there would be no discernible need for further chronosophical inquiry—in the face of such eternal truth, it would instead be chronosophy as currently conceived that would appear both necessary and senseless.\n", "BULLET::::- Archaeological remains and dating methods such as dendrochronology refute, rather than support, \"phantom time\".\n", "According to Presentism, time is an ordering of various realities. At a certain time some things exist and others do not. This is the only reality we can deal with and we cannot for example say that Homer exists because at the present time he does not. An Eternalist, on the other hand, holds that time is a dimension of reality on a par with the three spatial dimensions, and hence that all things—past, present and future—can be said to be just as real as things in the present. According to this theory, then, Homer really \"does\" exist, though we must still use special language when talking about somebody who exists at a distant time—just as we would use special language when talking about something far away (the very words \"near\", \"far\", \"above\", \"below\", and such are directly comparable to phrases such as \"in the past\", \"a minute ago\", and so on).\n", "Section::::Human disturbances.:Spatial disturbance.\n", "With the loss of self goes Eliezer's sense of time: \"I glanced at my father. How he had changed! ... So much had happened within such a few hours that I had lost all sense of time. When had we left our houses? And the ghetto? And the train? Was it only a week? One night – \"one single night\"?\"\n\nSection::::Synopsis.:Buna.\n", "Another solution to the problem of causality-based temporal paradoxes is that such paradoxes cannot arise simply because they have not arisen. As illustrated in numerous works of fiction, free will either ceases to exist in the past or the outcomes of such decisions are predetermined. As such, it would not be possible to enact the grandfather paradox because it is a historical fact that your grandfather was not killed before his child (your parent) was conceived. This view doesn't simply hold that history is an unchangeable constant, but that any change made by a hypothetical future time traveller would already have happened in his or her past, resulting in the reality that the traveller moves from. More elaboration on this view can be found in the Novikov self-consistency principle.\n", "Non-Archimedean future time would entail the existence of a future moment \"T\", such that for any finite duration \"y\" there exists a moment \"Now\" + \"y\" but less than \"T\". Note that if such a future moment \"T\" existed, there would exist an infinity of moments such that for all finite moments \"y' \", \"T\" − \"y' \" would be after every moment \"Now\" + \"y\" where \"y\" is a finite duration. Likewise, one may conceive of a non-archimedean past.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "We aware of things other than time when we sleep." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "We aren't aware of anything when we sleep." ]
2018-20070	How do stealth planes work? What makes them stealthy?	When they talk about stealth, they mean via RADAR. A quick breakdown of RADAR: Pretend it works like a dolphin's or bat's echolocation: we shoot radio waves in a direction and then those waves bounce off stuff and if the waves bounce back toward us, we can "see" whatever the radio wave bounced off of. Stealth planes use a combination of angular shapes and reflective materials to bounce RADAR off of the plane, but not back towards the "listening" location. Imaging a dolphin trying to look for fish with clicks, but every time a sound hits the fish, the sound bounces up or down instead back to the dolphin, making it so the dolphin doesn't detect that particular fish.	[ "Section::::Reception.\n", "Section::::Design.:Stealth.:Infrared.\n\nSome analysts claim infra-red search and track systems (IRSTs) can be deployed against stealth aircraft, because any aircraft surface heats up due to air friction and with a two channel IRST is a CO2 (4.3 µm absorption maxima) detection possible, through difference comparing between the low and high channel.\n", "Stealth aircraft\n\nStealth aircraft are designed to avoid detection using a variety of technologies that reduce reflection/emission of radar, infrared, visible light, radio frequency (RF) spectrum, and audio, collectively known as stealth technology. Well-known modern examples of stealth of U.S. aircraft include the United States' F-117 Nighthawk (1981–2008), the B-2 Spirit, the F-22 Raptor, and the F-35 Lightning II.\n", "Section::::Background.:Modern era.\n", "BULLET::::- F/A-18E/F Super Hornet – The F/A-18E/F's radar cross section was reduced greatly from some aspects, mainly the front and rear. RCS to about 20 dB lower as a F18 C/D\n\nBULLET::::- Northrop YB-49\n\nBULLET::::- Scaled Composites 401 – obvious stealth shaping plus composite materials\n\nBULLET::::- Messerschmitt Me 163B – Rocket-powered point defense interceptor aircraft.\n\nBULLET::::- Horten Ho 229 – Flying wing design and partially buried engines may have given a low RCS\n\nBULLET::::- Sukhoi Su-35 - Radar absorbent material on the engine inlets and compressor to halve its RCS\n\nBULLET::::- Tupolev Tu-160M2\n", "BULLET::::- Ryan AQM-91 Firefly engine on top of fuselage, fuselage with radar absorbent material, flat bottom and sloped sides, canted vertical stabilizers to conceal the exhaust stream.\n\nBULLET::::- Ryan Model 147 various RCS reduction measures, see article\n\nBULLET::::- CASC CH-7 obvious stealth shaping\n\nBULLET::::- CH-805 Flying wing target drone, RCS of 0.01 square meters, for simulating stealth aircraft\n\nBULLET::::- CK-20\n\nBULLET::::- CASIC Sky Hawk Tian Ying Flying wing version\n\nBULLET::::- FL-71 obvious stealth shaping\n\nBULLET::::- Sharp Sword – Shenyang Aircraft Corporation\n\nBULLET::::- Star UAV System Star Shadow obvious stealth shaping\n\nBULLET::::- Wind Blade – Shenyang Aircraft Corporation\n", "Reduced radar cross section is only one of five factors the designers addressed to create a truly stealthy design such as the F-22. The F-22 has also been designed to disguise its infrared emissions to make it harder to detect by infrared homing (\"heat seeking\") surface-to-air or air-to-air missiles. Designers also addressed making the aircraft less visible to the naked eye, controlling radio transmissions, and noise abatement.\n", "Section::::Design.:Stealth.\n", "The first combat use of purpose-designed stealth aircraft was in December 1989 during Operation Just Cause in Panama. On 20 December 1989, two United States Air Force F-117s bombed a Panamanian Defense Force barracks in Rio Hato, Panama. In 1991, F-117s were tasked with attacking the most heavily fortified targets in Iraq in the opening phase of Operation Desert Storm and were the only jets allowed to operate inside Baghdad's city limits.\n\nSection::::General design.\n", "Current Radar Warning Receivers look for the regular pings of energy from mechanically swept radars while fifth generation jet fighters use Low Probability of Intercept Radars with no regular repeat pattern.\n\nSection::::Limitations.:Vulnerable modes of flight.\n", "In circulation control, near the trailing edges of wings, aircraft flight control systems are replaced by slots which emit fluid flows.\n\nSection::::List of stealth aircraft.\n\nBULLET::::- F-117 Nighthawk\n\nBULLET::::- B-2 Spirit\n\nBULLET::::- F-22 Raptor\n\nBULLET::::- F-35 Lightning II\n\nBULLET::::- J-20\n\nBULLET::::- Su-57\n\nSection::::List of stealth ships.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Independence\"-class littoral combat ship\n\nBULLET::::- \"La Fayette\"-class frigate\n\nBULLET::::- \"Skjold\"-class corvette\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tuo Chiang\"-class Stealth Corvette\n\nBULLET::::- Type 055 destroyer\n\nBULLET::::- \"Zumwalt\"-class destroyer\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Horten brothers – German engineers whose planes were the models for the stealth bombers.\n\nBULLET::::- Multi-spectral camouflage\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Early developments: 1979–1997.\n", "There is ongoing research to apply track-before-detect across sensor fusion in the core CPU to allow fifth-generation fighters to engage targets that no single sensor has by itself detected. Probability theory is used to determine \"what data to believe, when to believe and how much to believe\".\n\nThese sensors produce too much data for the onboard computers to fully process so sensor fusion is achieved by comparing what is observed against preloaded threat libraries that contain known enemy capabilities for a given region. Items that do not match known threats are not even displayed.\n\nSection::::Common design elements.:Limits of stealth.\n", "BULLET::::- Dassault Rafale – RCS to about 0.20–0.75 m2\n\nBULLET::::- Eurofighter Typhoon – RCS to about 0.25–0.75 m2\n\nBULLET::::- HAL Tejas – Incorporates high degree of composites and radar absorbent material and a Y-duct inlet that shields the engine compressor face from probing radar waves.\n\nBULLET::::- Mitsubishi F-2– composite materials for reduced RCS\n\nSection::::List of stealth aircraft.:Unmanned reduced RCS designs.\n\nBULLET::::- Boeing Airpower Teaming System\n\nBULLET::::- Boeing MQ-25 Stingray\n\nBULLET::::- Boeing X-45 – Boeing, based on the manned Boeing Bird of Prey demonstrator (technology demonstrator)\n\nBULLET::::- General Atomics Avenger\n", "The term \"stealth\" in reference to reduced radar signature aircraft became popular during the late eighties when the Lockheed Martin F-117 stealth fighter became widely known. The first large scale (and public) use of the F-117 was during the Gulf War in 1991. However, F-117A stealth fighters were used for the first time in combat during Operation Just Cause, the United States invasion of Panama in 1989. \n\nSection::::Radar cross-section (RCS) reductions.:Vehicle shape.\n\nSection::::Radar cross-section (RCS) reductions.:Vehicle shape.:Aircraft.\n", "BULLET::::- JH-XX – Shenyang Aircraft Corporation - supersonic medium-range strike bomber to replace the JH-7.\n\nBULLET::::- Project-AZM - Pakistan Aeronautical Complex / Chengdu Aircraft Corporation\n\nBULLET::::- AMCA – ADA / HAL\n\nBULLET::::- B-21 Raider – Northrop Grumman\n\nBULLET::::- - BAE Systems Tempest\n\nBULLET::::- Flygsystem 2020 – Saab\n\nBULLET::::- HESA Shafaq – HESA / IAMI\n\nBULLET::::- KAI KF-X - Korea Aerospace Industries / Indonesian Aerospace\n\nBULLET::::- - New Generation Fighter – Tornado/Rafale replacement by Dassault Aviation and Airbus Defense and Space\n\nBULLET::::- TAI TFX – Turkish Aerospace Industries\n\nBULLET::::- Canceled\n\nBULLET::::- A-12 Avenger II – McDonnell-Douglas / General Dynamics\n", "Stealth aircraft will continue to play a valuable role in air combat with the United States using the F-22 Raptor, B-2 Spirit, and the F-35 Lightning II to perform a variety of operations. The F-22 made its combat debut over Syria in September 2014 as part of the US-led coalition to defeat ISIS.\n", "Ships have also adopted similar methods. Though the earlier Arleigh Burke-class destroyer incorporated some signature-reduction features. the Norwegian Skjold-class corvette was the first coastal defence and the French La Fayette-class frigate the first ocean-going stealth ship to enter service. Other examples are the Taiwanese Tuo Chiang stealth corvette, German Sachsen-class frigates, the Swedish Visby-class corvette, the USS \"San Antonio\" amphibious transport dock, and most modern warship designs.\n\nSection::::Radar cross-section (RCS) reductions.:Materials.\n\nSection::::Radar cross-section (RCS) reductions.:Materials.:Non-metallic airframe.\n", "During the postwar period, radar detection was a constant threat to the attacker. Attack aircraft developed the tactic of flying at low level, \"under the radar\" where they were hidden by hills and other obstacles from the radar stations. The advent of low-level radar chains, as a defence against cruise missiles, made this tactic increasingly difficult. At the same time, advances in electromagnetic radiation-absorbent materials (RAM) and electromagnetic modelling techniques offered the opportunity to develop \"stealthy\" aircraft which would be invisible to the defending radar. The first stealthy attack aircraft, the Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk entered service in 1983. Today, stealth is a requirement for any advanced attack aircraft.\n", "In addition to reducing infrared and acoustic emissions, a stealth vehicle must avoid radiating any other detectable energy, such as from onboard radars, communications systems, or RF leakage from electronics enclosures. The F-117 uses passive infrared and low light level television sensor systems to aim its weapons and the F-22 Raptor has an advanced LPI radar which can illuminate enemy aircraft without triggering a radar warning receiver response.\n\nSection::::Measuring.\n", "Another important factor is internal construction. Some stealth aircraft have skin that is radar transparent or absorbing, behind which are structures termed reentrant triangles. Radar waves penetrating the skin get trapped in these structures, reflecting off the internal faces and losing energy. This method was first used on the Blackbird series: A-12, YF-12A, Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird.\n", "BULLET::::- X-35 – JSF winning contender developed into F-35 Lightning II\n\nBULLET::::- X-32 – JSF losing contender\n\nBULLET::::- MiG 1.44 – Russian 5th generation fighter prototype\n\nBULLET::::- Sukhoi Su-47 – Russian technology demonstrator\n\nBULLET::::- Sukhoi T-50 - Prototype versions of the Su-57\n\nBULLET::::- Mitsubishi X-2 – Mitsubishi Heavy Industries\n\nSection::::List of stealth aircraft.:Manned.:Accidental or secondary function reduced cross section designs.\n\nBULLET::::- B-1B Lancer – RCS to about 1.0 m2\n\nBULLET::::- Boeing F-15SE Silent Eagle\n\nBULLET::::- F-16C/D and E/F Fighting Falcon – from Block 30 has got reduced RCS to about 1.2m\n", "The combination of stealthy airframes, stealthy sensors, and stealthy communications is designed to allow fifth-generation fighters to engage other aircraft before those targets are aware of their presence. Lt. Col. Gene McFalls of the USAF has said that sensor fusion will feed into inventory databases to precisely identify aircraft at a distance.\n", "Section::::Examples.\n\nThere have been a few stealth helicopters:\n\nBULLET::::- A modified Hughes 500P (1972), nicknamed \"The Quiet One\" had reduced noise operation capability and was used once by the CIA during the Vietnam War to deploy a wiretap.\n\nBULLET::::- The Boeing/Sikorsky RAH-66 Comanche (1996–2004) was a stealth helicopter project; the type was intended to be used for reconnaissance missions by the US Army, however the development project was cancelled during the prototype stage due to rising costs and considerable technical issues experienced.\n", "The general design of a stealth aircraft is always aimed at reducing radar and thermal detection. It is the designer's top priority to satisfy the following conditions, which ultimately decide the success of the aircraft:-\n\nBULLET::::- Reducing thermal emission from thrust\n\nBULLET::::- Reducing radar detection by altering some general configuration (like introducing the split rudder)\n\nBULLET::::- Reducing radar detection when the aircraft opens its weapons bay\n\nBULLET::::- Reducing infra-red and radar detection during adverse weather conditions\n\nSection::::Limitations.\n\nSection::::Limitations.:Instability of design.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-17317	Why do human ears have this weird shape, while many other animals' are just flat?	The outside of your ear is called the pinna and it serves a couple of purposes. The obvious one is to channel sound into your ear. That allows you to catch more sound, so you can hear very faint sounds better. Most animals that rely on sound have even better mechanisms to do this, like [a wolf's ear]( URL_2 ) or [owls' ears]( URL_0 ), which are hidden under the feathers but are really shaped almost like a parabolic dish. The reason our pinnas have all the weird bumps and ridges is for another purpose: they help us locate sound in three dimensions. Figuring out if a sound is coming from the left or the right is fairly easy. High frequencies can be located by analyzing which side is slightly louder. Low frequencies are a bit more complicated, but it has to do with the timing of the wavelengths. Up or down, and front or back are more challenging. Other animals accomplish this in a few ways. Dogs and cats will do a [head tilt]( URL_4 ) to locate sounds. Essentially, they rotate the "plane" of left/right so that it's also slightly up/down, and they will swivel their ears to see which direction catches the most sound without turning their heads, too. Owls have famously flexible necks and will completely turn their heads around, like a radar dish looking for a plane. Owls' ears are also [slightly offset]( URL_3 ), again making the left/right also slightly up/down. ([Here's what their skull looks like]( URL_1 ).) Humans can't swivel our ears, our heads don't turn around much, and we don't head tilt. Instead, the bumps and ridges in our pinnas very subtly alters a sound as it travels into our ears, depending on the direction the sound comes from. Different frequencies get emphasized or reduced. Every person's pinnas are unique, and over the course of our lives as we listen to things and then locate them, we learn how to recognize the direction a sound comes from based on how the pinna changes it. If you put clay into the ridges of your pinna and mess up the way sound flows into your ear, it completely destroys your ability to locate a sound in the up/down axis and doesn't help with the front/back, either. The final purpose of the pinna is to amplify the range of frequencies of typical human speech. The pinna resonates in those ranges, carrying those frequencies better, making it easier for us, as very social animals to communicate.	[ "Those with more natural ear shapes, like those of wild canids like the fox, generally hear better than those with the floppier ears of many domesticated species.\n\nSection::::Senses.:Smell.\n", "The ear, with its blood vessels close to the surface, is an essential thermoregulator in some land mammals, including the elephant, the fox, and the rabbit. There are five types of ear carriage in domestic rabbits, some of which have been bred for exaggerated ear length—a potential health risk that is controlled in some countries. Abnormalities in the skull of a half-lop rabbit were in 1868. In marine mammals, \"Earless seals\" are one of three groups of Pinnipedia.\n\nSection::::Other animals.:Invertebrates.\n", "Section::::Animals.:In the median plane (front, above, back, below).\n\nFor many mammals there are also pronounced structures in the pinna near the entry of the ear canal. As a consequence, direction-dependent resonances can appear, which could be used as an additional localization cue, similar to the localization in the median plane in the human auditory system.\n\nThere are additional localization cues which are also used by animals.\n\nSection::::Animals.:Head tilting.\n", "Section::::In animals.:Birds.\n\nHearing is birds' second most important sense and their ears are funnel-shaped to focus sound. The ears are located slightly behind and below the eyes, and they are covered with soft feathers – the auriculars – for protection. The shape of a bird's head can also affect its hearing, such as owls, whose facial discs help direct sound toward their ears.\n", "BULLET::::- \"A. m. sclateri\"\n\nSection::::Occurrence and environment.\n", "Can you use them as a mop?\n\nAre they stringy at the bottom?\n\nAre they curly at the top?\n\nCan you use them for a swatter?\n\nCan you use them for a blotter?\n\nDo your ears flip-flop?\n\nDo your ears stick out?\n\nCan you waggle them about?\n\nCan you flap them up and down\n\nAs you fly around the town?\n\nCan you shut them up for sure\n\nWhen you hear an awful bore?\n\nDo your ears stick out?\n\nDo your ears give snacks?\n\nAre they all filled up with wax?\n\nDo you eat it in the morning\n", "BULLET::::- Helix is the folded over outside edge of the ear\n\nBULLET::::- \"Incisura anterior auris\", or intertragic incisure, or intertragal notch, is the space between the \"tragus\" and \"antitragus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Lobe (lobule) – attached or free according to a classic single-gene dominance relationship\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scapha\", the depression or groove between the helix and the anthelix\n\nBULLET::::- Tragus\n\nSection::::Structure.:Development.\n", "The outer structure of the ear also shows some vestigial features, such as the node or point on the helix of the ear known as Darwin's tubercle which is found in around 10% of the population.\n\nSection::::Anatomical.:Eye.\n\nThe plica semilunaris is a small fold of tissue on the inside corner of the eye. It is the vestigial remnant of the nictitating membrane, an organ that is fully functional in some other species of mammals. Its associated muscles are also vestigial. Only one species of primate, the Calabar angwantibo, is known to have a functioning nictitating membrane.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Aperture\" is the entrance to the ear canal\n\nBULLET::::- \"Auricular sulcus\" is the depression behind the ear next to the head\n\nBULLET::::- \"Concha\" is the hollow next to the ear canal\n\nBULLET::::- Conchal angle is the angle that the back of the \"concha\" makes with the side of the head\n\nBULLET::::- \"Crus\" of the helix is just above the \"tragus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cymba conchae\" is the narrowest end of the \"concha\"\n\nBULLET::::- External auditory meatus is the ear canal\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fossa triangularis\" is the depression in the fork of the \"antihelix\"\n", "The first change he suggested in the appearance of machairodonts were lower ears, or rather the illusion of lower ears due to the higher sagittal crest. This claim has been generally discarded due to its unique nature: no other modern carnivores have these low-set ears for this reason, and Antón, García-Perea and Turner (1998) point out that the positioning of the ears is always similar in modern felids, the group's closest living relatives, even in individuals that have crests comparable in size to those of sabretooth cats. The positioning of the pinnae, or outer ears, along with fur color, are dependent on the individual doing the reconstruction. Large or small, pointed or rounded, high or low, fossils do not record these characteristics, leaving them open to interpretation.\n", "Human beings, along with Apes, are the only mammals that do not have high frequency (32 kHz) hearing. Humans have long cochleae, but the space devoted to each frequency range is quite large (2.5mm per octave), resulting in a comparatively reduced upper frequency limit. The human cochlea has approximately 2.5 turns around the modiolus (the axis). Humans, like many mammals and birds, are able to perceive auditory signals that displace the eardrum by a mere picometre.\n\nSection::::The ear.\n", "BULLET::::- Cat's ear — A defect characterized by the outer edges of the ears folded forward, away from the sides of the head, and towards the face; hence the person's feline appearance. The plastic correction anchors, and thus flattens, the ear against the head.\n", "There are various visible ear abnormalities:\n\nBULLET::::- traumatic injury\n\nBULLET::::- infection\n\nBULLET::::- wart, mole, birthmark\n\nBULLET::::- scars, including keloids\n\nBULLET::::- cyst\n\nBULLET::::- skin tag\n\nBULLET::::- sunburn, frostbite\n\nBULLET::::- pressure ulcer, often from a poorly fitting hearing aid\n\nBULLET::::- anotia, absent pinna\n\nBULLET::::- microtia, underdeveloped pinna\n\nBULLET::::- cryptotia, a pinna covered beneath the skin of the scalp\n\nBULLET::::- Stahl’s deformity, pointed pinna due to an extra fold of cartilage\n\nBULLET::::- cupped or constricted ear deformity, a hooded superior helix\n\nBULLET::::- preauricular pit\n\nBULLET::::- preauricular tag\n\nBULLET::::- Darwin's tubercle, protuberance on the anterior helix\n", "Ears: The ears of the Mini Lop carry as many points as the head. The ears should rise from a strong base ridge and then loop vertically on both sides of the head, thus giving a horseshoe appearance. The ears should lie close to the cheeks, with the ear openings turned toward the head. The ear length should be about below the jaw and balance with the size of the animal. The ears should be well furred and rounded on the ends.\n", "Like many areas in the neocortex, the functional properties of the adult primary auditory cortex (A1) are highly dependent on the sounds encountered early in life. This has been best studied using animal models, especially cats and rats. In the rat, exposure to a single frequency during postnatal day (P) 11 to 13 can cause a 2-fold expansion in the representation of that frequency in A1. Importantly, the change is persistent, in that it lasts throughout the animal's life, and specific, in that the same exposure outside of that period causes no lasting change in the tonotopy of A1.\n\nSection::::Function.\n", "Section::::Comparative anatomy.:Archosaurs.\n\nIn birds and crocodilians, the similarity of the structure of the basilar papilla betrays their close evolutionary relationship. The basilar papilla is up to about 10mm long and contains up to 16500 hair cells. While most birds have an upper hearing limit of only about 6 kHz, the barn owl can hear up to 12 kHz and thus close to the human upper limit.\n\nSection::::Comparative anatomy.:Mammals.\n", "Section::::The cone of confusion.\n\nMost mammals are adept at resolving the location of a sound source using interaural time differences and interaural level differences. However, no such time or level differences exist for sounds originating along the circumference of circular conical slices, where the cone's axis lies along the line between the two ears.\n", "(ii) Rear perspective. When the pinna is viewed from behind, the helical rim is straight, not bent, as if a \"letter-C\" (the middle-third to flat), or crooked, as if a hockey stick\" (the earlobe is insufficiently flat). If the helical rim is straight, the setback is harmonious; that is, the upper-, middle-, and lower-thirds of the pinna will be proportionately setback in relation to each other.\n\n(iii) Side perspective. The contours of the ear should be soft and natural, not sharp and artificial.\n", "For example, in the horse, the eyes are caudal to the nose and rostral to the back of the head.\n", "Section::::Evolutionary history.:Mammal-like jaws and ears.\n", "Section::::Significance of asymmetrical ears for localization of elevation.\n", "Section::::Biology.:Ears.\n", "The ears of a macaque monkey and most other monkeys have far more developed muscles than those of humans, and therefore have the capability to move their ears to better hear potential threats. Humans and other primates such as the orangutan and chimpanzee however have ear muscles that are minimally developed and non-functional, yet still large enough to be identifiable. A muscle attached to the ear that cannot move the ear, for whatever reason, can no longer be said to have any biological function. In humans there is variability in these muscles, such that some people are able to move their ears in various directions, and it can be possible for others to gain such movement by repeated trials. In such primates, the inability to move the ear is compensated mainly by the ability to turn the head on a horizontal plane, an ability which is not common to most monkeys—a function once provided by one structure is now replaced by another.\n", "Within placental mammals, the size and complexity of the neocortex increased over time. The area of the neocortex of mice is only about 1/100 that of monkeys, and that of monkeys is only about 1/10 that of humans. In addition, rats lack convolutions in their neocortex (possibly also because rats are small mammals), whereas cats have a moderate degree of convolutions, and humans have quite extensive convolutions. Extreme convolution of the neocortex is found in dolphins, possibly related to their complex echolocation.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Diseases.\n", "The earliest mammals were generally small animals, probably nocturnal insectivores. This suggests a plausible evolutionary mechanism driving the change; for with these small bones in the middle ear, a mammal has extended its range of hearing for higher-pitched sounds which would improve the detection of insects in the dark. Natural selection would account for the success of this feature. There is still one more connection with another part of biology: genetics suggests a mechanism for this transition, the kind of major change of function seen elsewhere in the world of life being studied by evolutionary developmental biology.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01924	Chicken pox. Why did my parents want my brother and I to get it at the same time?	Depending on your age, this was a thing that parents did prior to the vaccine. It was easier to just get it over with all at once instead of battling the illness multiple times. Contracting chicken pox was expected during childhood (and is more dangerous as you age). When I had chicken pox in the mid 80's, I was sent to play with some neighbor kids for the sole purpose of spreading the disease. Having the vaccine is a way better option.	[ "\"Parvovirus B19\" which causes fifth disease in humans, is a member of species \"Primate erythroparvovirus 1\" in the genus \"Erythroparvovirus\". It infects red blood cell precursors and was the first parvovirus shown to cause human disease. Some infections do not result in visible infection, while some manifest with visible effects, such as fifth disease (erythema infectiosum), which can give children a ‘slapped-cheek’ appearance.\n", "It has been found that \"Salmonella typhi\" persists in infected mice macrophages that have cycled from an inflammatory state to a non-inflammatory state. The bacteria remain and reproduce without causing further symptoms in the mice, and that this explains why carriers are asymptomatic.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Index case\n\nBULLET::::- Outbreak\n\nBULLET::::- Pandemic\n\nBULLET::::- Virulence\n\nBULLET::::- Epidemic model\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- WHO – Authoritative source of information about global health issues\n\nBULLET::::- Past pandemics that ravaged Europe\n\nBULLET::::- CDC: Influenza Pandemic Phases\n\nBULLET::::- European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control – ECDC\n", "Any living organism can contract a virus by giving parasites the opportunity to grow. Parasites feed on the nutrients of another organism which allows the virus to thrive. Once the human body detects a virus, it then creates fighter cells that attack the parasite/virus; literally, causing a war within the body. A virus can affect any part of the body causing a wide range of illnesses such as the flu, the common cold, and sexually transmitted diseases. The flu is an airborne virus that travels through tiny droplets and is formally known as Influenza. Parasites travel through the air and attack the human respiratory system. People that are initially infected with this virus pass infection on by normal day to day activity such as talking and sneezing. When a person comes in contact with the virus, unlike the common cold, the flu virus affects people almost immediately. Symptoms of this virus are very similar to the common cold but much worse. Body aches, sore throat, headache, cold sweats, muscle aches and fatigue are among the many symptoms accompanied by the virus. A viral infection in the upper respiratory tract results in the common cold. With symptoms like sore throat, sneezing, small fever, and a cough, the common cold is usually harmless and tends to clear up within a week or so. The common cold is also a virus that is spread through the air but can also be passed through direct contact. This infection takes a few days to develop symptoms; it is a gradual process unlike the flu.\n", "Section::::Intraspecies spillover.\n", "The initial outbreak of the disease took place in the Regency Park complex which had 69 apartment units organized in three groups each three stories in height, located in Kew Gardens, in the New York City borough of Queens. Physicians who had seen patients starting in early 1946 had assumed that they were dealing with an atypical form of chickenpox, but the realization was made that they were dealing with a localized epidemic of unknown origins starting in the summer of that year. Physicians canvassed the residents of the building and found that there had been 124 cases of this disease from January through October among the 2,000 people living in the complex, reaching a peak of more than 20 cases reported in July. Individuals afflicted with the condition ranged in age from 3 months to 71, males and females were equally affected and the incidence among adults (6.5% of the 1,400 above age 15) exceeded that of children 14 and under (5.3%).\n", "When Ray got home he slept until 12.35 in the day. His parents were out but Derek told him that they were round Grandma’s then they came back for lunch. Mum told Ray that someone had to go and see Grandma again but was concerned that Derek would get suspicious if his parents went twice in one day so she suggested that Ray went instead. The family car broke down so Ray had to take the bus to the hospital after lunch.\n", "In another case during this same outbreak, a 54-year-old male was admitted to a hospital with coronary heart disease, chronic renal failure and type two diabetes. He had been in contact with a patient known to have SARS. Shortly after his admission he developed fever, cough, myalgia and sore throat. The admitting physician suspected SARS. The patient was transferred to another hospital for treatment of his coronary artery disease. While there, his SARS symptoms became more pronounced. Later, it was discovered he had transmitted SARS to 33 other patients in just two days. He was transferred back to the original hospital where he died of SARS.\n", "Fifth disease is transmitted primarily by respiratory secretions (saliva, mucus, etc.), but can also be spread by contact with infected blood. The incubation period (the time between the initial infection and the onset of symptoms) is usually between 4 and 21 days. Individuals with fifth disease are most infectious before the onset of symptoms. Typically, school children, day-care workers, teachers, and parents are most likely to be exposed to the virus. When symptoms are evident, the risk of transmission is small; therefore, symptomatic individuals do not need to be isolated.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "Baculovirus infection can be divided to three distinct phases: \n\nBULLET::::- Early (0–6 h post-infection),\n\nBULLET::::- Late (6–24 h p.i.)\n\nBULLET::::- Very late phase (18–24 to 72 h p.i.)\n", "Many carriers are infected with persistent viruses such as Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV), a member of the herpes virus family. Studies show that about 95% of adults have antibodies against EBV, which means they were infected with the virus at some point in their life.\n\nSection::::Infectious diseases.:Clostridium difficile.\n\nClostridium difficile has also been shown to be spread by asymptomatic carriers, and poses significant problems in home-care settings. Reports indicating that over 50% of long-term patients present with fecal contamination despite a lack of symptoms have led many hospitals to extend the period of contact precautions until discharge.\n\nSection::::Infectious diseases.:Chlamydia.\n", "Diagnosis for the virus, particularly HHV-6B, is vital for the patient because of the infection’s adverse effects. Symptoms that point to this infection, such as rashes, go unnoticed in patients that receive antibiotics because they can be misinterpreted as a side-effect of the medicine. HHV-6B is known to be associated with the childhood disease roseola infantum, as well as other illnesses caused by the infection. These include hepatitis, febrile convulsions, and encephalitis. Children who suffer from exanthema subitum, caused by an HHV-6B infection, experience fevers lasting 3 to 5 days; rashes on the torso, neck, and face; and sometimes febrile convulsions, however, the symptoms are not always present together. Primary infections in adults are rare since most occurrences are in children. When the infection does occur for the first time in an adult the symptoms can be severe.\n", "Poliomyelitis is highly contagious via the fecal-oral (intestinal source) and the oral-oral (oropharyngeal source) routes. In endemic areas, wild polioviruses can infect virtually the entire human population. It is seasonal in temperate climates, with peak transmission occurring in summer and autumn. These seasonal differences are far less pronounced in tropical areas. The time between first exposure and first symptoms, known as the incubation period, is usually 6 to 20 days, with a maximum range of 3 to 35 days. Virus particles are excreted in the feces for several weeks following initial infection. The disease is transmitted primarily via the fecal-oral route, by ingesting contaminated food or water. It is occasionally transmitted via the oral-oral route, a mode especially visible in areas with good sanitation and hygiene. Polio is most infectious between 7 and 10 days before and after the appearance of symptoms, but transmission is possible as long as the virus remains in the saliva or feces.\n", "House and Wilson discuss the rat, which is on two weeks of antibiotics, and House remembers the fact that Kalvin's dad was sweating and they're from Montana. House cancels the biopsy and concludes Kalvin's illness is caused by Echinococcosis, a parasite native to Montana that infests foxes – Kalvin and Michael hunted in Montana. The parasites can stay in a host body for decades, causing cysts, and House has figured Michael has cysts in his liver. A blood test for Michael will confirm House's diagnosis and Michael is upset that Kalvin killed his mother. House aggravates both of them by accusing Kalvin's mother of killing herself. Michael takes a swing at him and then House cold cocks him in the gut, initiating anaphylactic shock and confirming his diagnosis the hard way.\n", "Tanapox\n\nTanapox (a virus from the genus \"Yatapoxvirus\"), was first seen among individuals in the flood plain of the Tana River in Kenya during two epidemics (1957 and 1962) of acute febrile illness accompanied by localized skin lesions.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nThe incubation period in human cases remains unknown, but in a person who underwent voluntary inoculation, erythema and central thickening appear by the fourth day. Most patients present a mild pre-eruptive fever that lasts 3–4 days, severe headaches and backaches, and often itching at the site where the skin lesion develops.\n", "During the 2009 flu pandemic in Canada, doctors noted an increase in what were termed \"flu parties\" or \"flu flings\". These gatherings, as with the pox parties, were designed explicitly to allow a parent's children to contract the \"swine flu\" influenza virus. Researchers such as Dr. Michael Gardam noted that because the pandemic was caused by a flu subtype that most people have had no exposure to, the parents would be just as likely to contract the disease and further its spread. Although these events were heavily discussed in the media, very few were confirmed to have happened.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "In many infections, the first symptom a person will have of their own infection is the horizontal transmission to a sexual partner or the vertical transmission of neonatal herpes to a newborn at term. Since most asymptomatic individuals are unaware of their infection, they are considered at high risk for spreading HSV. Many studies have been performed around the world to estimate the numbers of individuals infected with HSV-1 and HSV-2 by determining if they have developed antibodies against either viral species.\n", "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n", "Section::::Viral transmission.\n\nSection::::Viral transmission.:Horizontal transmission.\n\nHorizontal transmission plays an important role among livestock due to their often close quarters, especially during winter stabling. Free virus or virus infected cells are generally transferred in through inhalation of respiratory secretions. Additionally, fecal-oral transmission often occurs through contamination of drinking water. Sexual transmission has also been shown to be possible No link has yet been made between transmission and other excretory products such as saliva and urine.\n\nSection::::Viral transmission.:Vertical transmission.\n", "A minority of cases of infectious mononucleosis is caused by human cytomegalovirus (CMV), another type of herpes virus. This virus is found in body fluids including saliva, urine, blood, and tears. A person becomes infected with this virus by direct contact with infected body fluids. Cytomegalovirus is most commonly transmitted through kissing and sexual intercourse. It can also be transferred from an infected mother to her unborn child. This virus is often \"silent\" because the signs and symptoms cannot be felt by the person infected. However, it can cause life-threatening illness in infants, people with HIV, transplant recipients, and those with weak immune systems. For those with weak immune systems, cytomegalovirus can cause more serious illnesses such as pneumonia and inflammations of the retina, esophagus, liver, large intestine, and brain. Approximately 90% of the human population has been infected with cytomegalovirus by the time they reach adulthood, but most are unaware of the infection. Once a person becomes infected with cytomegalovirus, the virus stays in his/her body fluids throughout their lifetime.\n", "Any age may be affected, although it is most common in children aged 5 to 15 years. By the time adulthood is reached, about half the population will have become immune following infection at some time in their past. Outbreaks can arise especially in nursery schools, preschools, and elementary schools. Infection is an occupational risk for school and day-care personnel. No vaccine is available for human parvovirus B19, though attempts have been made to develop one.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Measles is a highly contagious, air-borne virus that reappears even among vaccinated populations. In one Finnish town in 1989, an explosive school-based outbreak resulted in 51 cases, several of whom had been previously vaccinated. One child alone infected 22 others. It was noted during this outbreak that when vaccinated siblings shared a bedroom with an infected sibling, seven out of nine became infected as well.\n\nSection::::Super-spreaders during outbreaks.:Typhoid fever.\n", "During pregnancy the dangers to the fetus associated with a primary VZV infection are greater in the first six months. In the third trimester, the mother is more likely to have severe symptoms.\n\nFor pregnant women, antibodies produced as a result of immunization or previous infection are transferred via the placenta to the fetus.\n", "Several theories were advanced to explain the emergence of the new virus. These included increased contact between humans and mice due to a \"bumper crop\" in the deer mouse population. Another theory was that something within the virus had changed, allowing it to jump to humans. A third theory was that nothing had changed, that hantavirus cases had in fact occurred previously but had not been properly diagnosed. This last theory turned out to be the correct one when it was discovered that the first known case had actually occurred in a 38-year-old Utah man in 1959.\n", "Clinically, TRIANGLE disease is characterized combined immunodeficiency, severe autoimmunity, and developmental delay. Patients typically present in early childhood with recurrent bacterial and viral infections of the middle ear and respiratory tract. Additionally, patients develop severe, difficult to treat autoimmunity. This autoimmunity includes auto-antibody mediated destruction of red blood cells, neutrophils, and platelets; central nervous system lupus erythematous with stroke; and hepatitis. Patients also have mild to moderate developmental delay.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Laboratory manifestations.\n", "Section::::Host interaction and disease.\n\nSection::::Host interaction and disease.:Ticks.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03032	Why do people yawn when they see someone else yawn?	I was told when I was young its because a yawn is the body's way of intaking a greater-than-normal breath, so we yawn as well because our body thinks there is a reason for it. In a sense, competing with that person. This could be totally false though.	[ "The yawn reflex has long been observed to be contagious. In 1508, Erasmus wrote, \"One man's yawning makes another yawn\", and the French proverbialized the idea to \"Un bon bâilleur en fait bâiller sept\" (\"One good gaper makes seven others gape\"). Often, if one person yawns, this may cause another person to \"empathetically\" yawn. Observing another person's yawning face (especially his/her eyes), reading or thinking about yawning, or looking at a yawning picture can cause a person to yawn. The proximate cause for contagious yawning may lie with mirror neurons in the frontal cortex of certain vertebrates, which, upon being exposed to a stimulus from conspecific (same species) and occasionally interspecific organisms, activates the same regions in the brain. Mirror neurons have been proposed as a driving force for imitation, which lies at the root of much human learning, such as language acquisition. Yawning may be an offshoot of the same imitative impulse.\n", "In a study involving gelada baboons, yawning was contagious between individuals, especially those that were socially close. This suggests that emotional proximity rather than spatial proximity is an indicator of yawn contagion.\n", "There is still substantial disagreement in the existing literature about whether or not yawn contagion is related to empathy at all. Empathy is a notoriously difficult trait to measure, and the literature on the subject is confused, with the same species sometimes displaying a connection between contagious yawning and social closeness, and sometimes not. Different experimenters typically use slightly different measures of empathy, making comparisons between studies difficult, and there may be a publication bias, where studies which find a significant correlation between the two tested variables are more likely to be published than studies which do not.\n\nSection::::Animal yawning.\n", "Gordon Gallup, who hypothesizes that yawning may be a means of keeping the brain cool, also hypothesizes that \"contagious\" yawning may be a survival instinct inherited from our evolutionary past. \"During human evolutionary history, when we were subject to predation and attacks by other groups, if everybody yawns in response to seeing someone yawn the whole group becomes much more vigilant and much better at being able to detect danger.\"\n", "A study by the University of London has suggested that the \"contagiousness\" of yawns by a human will pass to dogs. The study observed that 21 of 29 dogs yawned when a stranger yawned in front of them, but did not yawn when the stranger only opened his mouth. \n", "Another notion states that yawning is the body's way of controlling brain temperature. In 2007, researchers, including a professor of psychology from the University of Albany, proposed yawning may be a means to keep the brain cool. Mammalian brains operate best within a narrow temperature range. In two experiments, subjects with cold packs attached to their foreheads and subjects asked to breathe strictly-nasally exhibited reduced contagious-yawning when watching videos of people yawning. \n", "The relationship between yawn contagion and empathy is strongly supported by a 2011 behavioral study, conducted by Ivan Norscia and Elisabetta Palagi (University of Pisa, Italy). The study revealed that—among other variables such as nationality, gender, and sensory modality—only social bonding predicted the occurrence, frequency, and latency of yawn contagion. As with other measures of empathy, the rate of contagion was found to be greatest in response to kin, then friends, then acquaintances, and lastly strangers. Related individuals (r≥0.25) showed the greatest contagion, in terms of both occurrence of yawning and frequency of yawns. Strangers and acquaintances showed a longer delay in the yawn response (latency) compared to friends and kin. Hence, yawn contagion appears to be primarily driven by the emotional closeness between individuals.\n", "In certain neurological and psychiatric disorders, such as schizophrenia and autism, the patient has an impaired ability to infer the mental states of others. In such cases, yawn contagion can be used to evaluate their ability to infer or empathize with others. Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a developmental disorder which severely affects social and communicative development, including empathy. The results of various studies have showed a diminished susceptibility to contagious yawn compared to the control group of typically-developing children. Since atypical development of empathy is reported in autism spectrum disorder, results support the claim that contagious yawning and the capacity of empathy share common neural and cognitive mechanisms. Similarly, patients suffering neurological and psychiatric disorders, such as schizophrenia, have shown an impaired ability to empathize with others. Contagious yawning is one means of evaluating such disorders. The Canadian psychiatrist Heinz Lehmann claimed that increases in yawning could predict recovery in schizophrenia. The impairment of contagious yawning can provide greater insight into its connection to the underlying causes of empathy.\n", "Yawning (\"oscitation\") most often occurs in adults immediately before and after sleep, during tedious activities and as a result of its contagious quality. It is commonly associated with tiredness, stress, sleepiness, or even boredom and hunger. In humans, yawning is often triggered by others yawning (e.g. seeing a person yawning, talking to someone on the phone who is yawning) and is a typical example of positive feedback. This \"contagious\" yawning has also been observed in chimpanzees, dogs, cats, and reptiles (including birds), and can occur across species. Approximately 20 psychological reasons for yawning have been proposed by scholars, but there is little agreement on the primacy of any one.\n", "In a 2014 study, wolves were observed in an effort to answer this question. The results of the study showed that wolves are capable of yawn contagion. This study also found that the social bond strength between individuals affected the frequency of contagious yawning in wolves, supporting previous research which ties contagious yawning to emotional proximity.\n\nSome evidence for contagious yawning has also been found in budgerigars (\"Melopsittacus undulatus\"), a species of social parrots. This indicates that contagious yawning may have evolved several times in different lineages. In budgerigars, contagious yawning does not seem to be related to social closeness.\n", "Two classes of yawning have been observed among primates. In some cases, the yawn is used as a threat gesture as a way of maintaining order in the primates' social structure. Specific studies were conducted on chimpanzees and stumptail macaques. A group of these animals was shown a video of other members of their own species yawning; both species yawned as well. This helps to partly confirm a yawn's \"contagiousness\".\n", "The dog may yawn when someone bends over him, when you sound angry, when there is yelling and quarreling in the family, when the dog is at the vet's office, when someone is walking directly at the dog, when the dog is excited with happiness and anticipation – for instance by the door when you are about to go for a walk, when you ask the dog to do something he doesn´t feel like doing, when your training sessions are too long and the dog gets tired, when you have said NO for doing something you disapprove of, and in many other situations.\n", "Another proposal points out that animals subject to predation or other dangers must be ready to physically exert themselves at any given moment. At least one study suggests that yawning, especially psychological \"contagious\" yawning, may have developed as a way of keeping a group of animals alert. If an animal is drowsy or bored, it may not be as alert as it should be - to spring into action. Therefore, the \"contagious\" yawn could be an instinctual reaction to a signal from one member of the group reminding the others to stay alert.\n", "Research by Garrett Norris (2013) involving monitoring the behavior of students kept waiting in a reception area indicates a connection (supported by neuro-imaging research) between empathic ability and yawning. \"We believe that contagious yawning indicates empathy. It indicates an appreciation of other peoples' behavioral and physiological state,\" says Norris.\n", "The Discovery Channel's show \"MythBusters\" also tested this concept. In their small-scale, informal study they concluded that yawning is contagious, although elsewhere the statistical significance of this finding has been disputed.\n", "Section::::Culture.\n", "Section::::Neurological basis.\n\nVittorio Gallese posits that mirror neurons are responsible for intentional attunement in relation to others. Gallese and colleagues at the University of Parma found a class of neurons in the premotor cortex that discharge when macaque monkeys execute goal-related hand movements or when they watch others doing the same action. One class of these neurons fires with action execution and observation, and with sound production of the same action. Research in humans shows an activation of the premotor cortex and parietal area of the brain for action perception and execution.\n", "The behaviour has been found in humans, other primates, and dogs. One view developed by Elaine Hatfield, et al., is that this can be done through automatic mimicry and synchronization of one's expressions, vocalizations, postures and movements with those of another person. When people unconsciously mirror their companions' expressions of emotion, they come to feel reflections of those companions' emotions.\n\nSection::::Etymology.\n", "Section::::Episode Summaries.:Episode 3: Strength Part I.\n\nAbsentees: Kyuhyun and Heechul\n\nBULLET::::- Co-MC: Eunhyuk\n\nBULLET::::- Arm wrestling\n\nBULLET::::- Electronic muscle stimulation\n\nSection::::Episode Summaries.:Episode 4: Strength Part II.\n\nAbsentees: Kyuhyun, Heechul (first and last parts of the show) and Han Geng (last part of the show)\n\nBULLET::::- Co-MC: Eunhyuk\n\nBULLET::::- Weightlifting, the use of liquid Ammonia and Magnesium Carbonate\n\nBULLET::::- Long jumping; holding the golf balls and using tape on toe finger\n\nBULLET::::- Lifting person with your fingers\n\nSection::::Episode Summaries.:Episode 5: Laughter.\n\nAbsentees: Kyuhyun and Heechul\n\nBULLET::::- Co-MC: Siwon\n\nBULLET::::- laughing gas / Nitrous Oxide\n\nBULLET::::- why is laughter contagious?\n", "Evidence for the occurrence of contagious yawning linked to empathy is rare outside of primates. It has been studied in Canidae species, such as the domestic dog and wolf. Domestic dogs have shown the ability to yawn contagiously in response to human yawns. Domestic dogs have demonstrated they are skilled at reading human communication behaviors. This ability makes it difficult to ascertain whether yawn contagion among domestic dogs is deeply rooted in their evolutionary history or is a result of domestication. \n", "Section::::Mechanisms of action.:Recognizing familiar males.\n", "A 2007 study found that young children with autism spectrum disorders do not increase their yawning frequency after seeing videos of other people yawning, in contrast to typically developing children. In fact, the autistic children actually yawned less during the videos of yawning than during the control videos. This supports the claim that contagious yawning is related to empathic capacity.\n", "Yawning behavior may be altered as a result of medical issues such as diabetes, stroke, or adrenal conditions.\n\nSection::::Social function.\n\nTo look at the issue in terms of a possible evolutionary advantage, yawning might be a herd instinct. For example, theories suggest that the yawn serves to synchronize mood in gregarious animals, similar to the howling of the wolf pack. It signals tiredness to other members of the group in order to synchronize sleeping patterns and periods.\n", "One study states that yawning occurs when one's blood contains increased amounts of carbon dioxide and therefore becomes in need of the influx of oxygen (or expulsion of carbon dioxide) that a yawn can provide. Yawning may, in fact, reduce oxygen intake compared to normal respiration. However, neither providing more oxygen nor reducing carbon dioxide in air decreased yawning.\n", "Brain plateau wave changes are also associated with the Cushing reflex. These waves are characterized by acute rises of the ICP, and are accompanied by a decrease of the cerebral perfusion pressure. It has been found that if a Cushing reflex occurs, brain plateau wave changes can be erased due to disappearance of high ICP.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01424	When a clock is say, five minutes ahead of time and we reset it, why does it return to being five minutes ahead?	The timing mechanisms(?) are off, so a minute or an hour on your clock is not the same as a minute or hour in real life, so gradually over time it begins to get further and further out of sync. Then someone notices it is out of time, resets it and the process starts again.	[ "RTCs often have an alternate source of power, so they can continue to keep time while the primary source of power is off or unavailable. This alternate source of power is normally a lithium battery in older systems, but some newer systems use a supercapacitor, because they are rechargeable and can be soldered. The alternate power source can also supply power to battery backed RAM.\n\nSection::::Timing.\n", "Most digital clocks use electronic mechanisms and LCD, LED, or VFD displays; many other display technologies are used as well (cathode ray tubes, nixie tubes, etc.). After a reset, battery change or power failure, these clocks without a backup battery or capacitor either start counting from 12:00, or stay at 12:00, often with blinking digits indicating that the time needs to be set. Some newer clocks will reset themselves based on radio or Internet time servers that are tuned to national atomic clocks. Since the advent of digital clocks in the 1960s, the use of analog clocks has declined significantly.\n", "The edges of the signals can shift around in a real-world electronic system for various reasons. If the clock and the data signal are shifted relative to each other, this may increase or reduce the timing margin; as long as the data signal changes before the setup time is entered, the data will be interpreted correctly. If it is known from experience that the signals can shift relative to each other by as much as 2 microseconds, for instance, designing the system with at least 2 microseconds of timing margin will prevent incorrect interpretation of the data signal by the receiver.\n", "Generally, the model of a system uses many clocks. Those multiple clocks are required in order to track a bounded number of events. All of those clocks are synchronized. That means that the difference in value between two fixed clock is constant until one of them is restarted. In the language of electronics, it means that clocks's jitter is null.\n\nSection::::Example.\n", "In computers that are running operating systems, watchdog resets are usually invoked through a device driver. For example, in the Linux operating system, a user space program will kick the watchdog by interacting with the watchdog device driver, typically by writing a zero character to /dev/watchdog. The device driver, which serves to abstract the watchdog hardware from user space programs, is also used to configure the time-out period and start and stop the timer.\n\nSection::::Architecture and operation.:Single-stage watchdog.\n", "A GPS receiver can shorten its startup time by comparing the current time, according to its RTC, with the time at which it last had a valid signal. If it has been less than a few hours, then the previous ephemeris is still usable.\n\nSection::::Power source.\n", "Some digital data streams, especially high-speed serial data streams (such as the raw stream of data from the magnetic head of a disk drive and serial communication networks such as Ethernet) are sent without an accompanying clock signal. The receiver generates a clock from an approximate frequency reference, and then phase-aligns the clock to the transitions in the data stream with a phase-locked loop (PLL). This is one method of performing a process commonly known as \"clock and data recovery\" (CDR). Other methods include the use of a delay-locked loop and oversampling of the data stream. \n", "Computer systems normally avoid rewinding their clock when they receive a negative clock alteration from the master. Doing so would break the property of monotonic time, which is a fundamental assumption in certain algorithms in the system itself or in programs such as make. A simple solution to this problem is to halt the clock for the duration specified by the master, but this simplistic solution can also cause problems, although they are less severe. For minor corrections, most systems slow the clock (known as \"clock slew\"), applying the correction over a longer period of time.\n", "A software-based clock must be set each time its computer is turned on. Originally this was done by computer operators. When the Internet became commonplace, network time protocols were used to automatically set clocks of this type.\n\nIn Europe, North America and some other grids, this RTC works because the frequency of the AC mains is adjusted to have a long-term frequency accuracy as good as the national standard clocks. That is, in those grids this RTC is superior to quartz clocks and less costly. \n", "After a subframe has been read and interpreted, the time the next subframe was sent can be calculated through the use of the clock correction data and the HOW. The receiver knows the receiver clock time of when the beginning of the next subframe was received from detection of the Telemetry Word thereby enabling computation of the transit time and thus the pseudorange. The receiver is potentially capable of getting a new pseudorange measurement at the beginning of each subframe or every 6 seconds. \n", "Setting the time involves writing the appropriate BCD values into the registers. A write access to the hours register will completely halt the clock. The clock will not start again until a value has been written into the tenths register. Owing to the order in which the registers appear in the system's memory map, a simple loop is all that is required to write the registers in the correct order. It is permissible to write to only the tenths register to \"nudge\" the clock into action, in which following a hardware reset, the clock will start at 1:00:00.0.\n", "For instance, in Unix systems the \"make\" command is used to compile new or modified code and seeks to avoid recompiling unchanged code. The \"make\" command uses the clock of the machine it runs on to determine which source files need to be recompiled. If the sources reside on a separate file server and the two machines have unsynchronized clocks, the \"make\" program might not produce the correct results.\n\nSection::::Solutions.\n", "Oversampling can be done \"blind\" using multiple phases of a free-running clock to create multiple samples of the input and then selecting the best sample. Or, a counter can be used that is driven by a sampling clock running at some multiple of the data stream frequency, with the counter reset on every transition of the data stream and the data stream sampled at some predetermined count. These two types of oversampling are sometimes called \"spatial\" and \"time\" respectively.\n", "Section::::Formal description.:Minimizing the clock period with network flow.\n\nThe most common use of retiming is to minimize the clock period. A simple technique to optimize the clock period is to search for the minimum feasible period (e.g. using binary search).\n", "Older Datum Tymeserve 2100 GPS receivers and Symmetricom Tymeserve 2100 receivers also have a similar flaw to that of the older Trimble GPS receivers, with the time being off by one second. The advance announcement of the leap second is applied as soon as the message is received, instead of waiting for the correct date. A workaround has been described and tested, but if the GPS system rebroadcasts the announcement, or the unit is powered off, the problem will occur again.\n", "The specific processor configuration determines the behavior. Constant TSC behavior ensures that the duration of each clock tick is uniform and makes it possible to use of the TSC as a wall clock timer even if the processor core changes frequency. This is the architectural behavior for all later Intel processors.\n", "This type of clocking is common in high-speed interfaces between micro-chips, including DDR SDRAM, SGI XIO interface, Intel Front Side Bus for the x86 and Itanium processors, HyperTransport, SPI-4.2 and many others.\n\nSection::::Reasons for usage.\n", "BULLET::::- Reduction of the voltage swing of the clock signal\n\nBULLET::::- Reduction of the interconnects parasitic capacitance by rerouting interconnects\n\nBULLET::::- Increase of the substrate resistance by the buried N-well insulation, shallow trench isolation, or back-grinding\n\nBULLET::::- Use of the differential clocks to spread clock feedthrough signal across large bandwidth\n\nBULLET::::- Use of the differential signal lines where clock feedthrough appears as common-mode signal\n\nReferences\n\nClock feedthrough in CMOS analog transmission gate switches\n\nClock feedthrough example in digital circuits\n\nClock feedthrough compensation with phase slope control in SC circuits\n\nClock feedthrough cancellation with compensation for the current-switched systems\n", "Section::::Solutions.:Precision Time Protocol.\n\nPrecision Time Protocol (PTP) is a master/slave protocol for delivery of highly accurate time over local area networks\n\nSection::::Solutions.:Reference broadcast synchronization.\n\nThe Reference Broadcast Time Synchronization (RBS) algorithm is often used in wireless networks and sensor networks. In this scheme, an initiator broadcasts a reference message to urge the receivers to adjust their clocks.\n\nSection::::Solutions.:Reference Broadcast Infrastructure Synchronization.\n", "The software informs the watchdog at regular intervals that it is still working properly. If the watchdog is not informed, it means that the software is not working as specified any more. Then the watchdog resets the system to a defined state. During the reset, the device is not able to process data and does not react to calls.\n\nAs the strategy to reset the watchdog timer is very important, two requirements have to be attended:\n\nBULLET::::- The watchdog may only be reset if all routines work properly.\n\nBULLET::::- The reset must be executed as quickly as possible.\n", "Section::::Leap seconds.\n\nOn the day of a leap second event, ntpd receives notification from either a configuration file, an attached reference clock, or a remote server. Because of the requirement that time must appear to be monotonically increasing, a leap second is inserted with the sequence 23:59:59, 23:59:60, 00:00:00. Although the clock is actually halted during the event, any processes that query the system time cause it to increase by a tiny amount, preserving the order of events. If a negative leap second should ever become necessary, it would be deleted with the sequence 23:59:58, 00:00:00, skipping 23:59:59.\n", "When used to set the local system time, rdate operates by changing system time immediately to the time and date returned by the server. Abrupt changes of clock settings have been found to cause problems for software relying on timing. This led to the development of the Network Time Protocol, which gradually changes the system time and does not skip ticks.\n", "AMD processors up to the K8 core always incremented the time-stamp counter every clock cycle. Thus, power management features were able to change the number of increments per second, and the values could get out of sync between different cores or processors in the same system. For Windows, AMD provides a utility to periodically synchronize the counters on multiple core CPUs.\n\nSince the family 10h (Barcelona/Phenom), AMD chips feature a constant TSC, which can be driven either by the HyperTransport speed or the highest P state. A CPUID bit (codice_14) advertises this.\n\nSection::::Operating system use.\n", "After a subframe has been read and interpreted, the time the next subframe was sent can be calculated through the use of the clock correction data and the HOW. The receiver knows the receiver clock time of when the beginning of the next subframe was received from detection of the Telemetry Word thereby enabling computation of the transit time and thus the pseudorange. The receiver is potentially capable of getting a new pseudorange measurement at the beginning of each subframe or every 6 seconds. \n\nSection::::Legacy GPS signals.:Navigation message.:Time.\n", "Section::::Recent accuracy measurement.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-19420	What is happening when I'm peeing and I get the full body shakes?	So, as far as I know, it happens when you hold it in for awhile, then you urinate. And I believe it's because your body lost that rather large storage of heat that it had, and tries to compensate for the now relatively cold area by shivering.	[ "In order for Watsu to work, the therapist should be situated at the centre of the participants back, not too low that they are near their lumbar spine and not too high that they are near their cervical vertebrates. Watsu is heavily dependent on the therapist as no floaties are used. By using the “supine position”, the therapist literally holds or cradles the participant and glides him/her through the water. In Watsu, it is extremely important that while the body is moving, rhythmical breathing occurs.\n", "BULLET::::- Phase 1: Sodium channels close; this stops depolarization. Potassium channels open, leading to an outward current of K out of the cells.\n\nBULLET::::- Phase 2: Potassium channels remain open (outward current of K), and calcium channels now also open (inward current of Ca), resulting in a plateau state.\n", "In his freshman year at SMU, Milton saw the hardwood in 30 games (23 starts) to average 10.5 points, 3.0 boards and 2.7 assists a contest, while earning AAC All-Rookie Team distinction.\n\nIn the summer of 2016, he was a member of the US Select Team for the Goodwill Tour in Croatia.\n", "Section::::Acellular casts.:Crystal casts.\n\nThough crystallized urinary solutes, such as oxalates, urates, or sulfonamides, may become enmeshed within a ketanaline cast during its formation, the clinical significance of this occurrence is not felt to be great.\n\nSection::::Cellular casts.\n\nSection::::Cellular casts.:Red blood cell casts.\n", "Loughran (2002) found that 38 therapists out of 40 who had responded to a questionnaire (which was distributed to a sample of 124 therapists) on a therapist's use of body as a medium for transference and countertransference communication reported that they had experienced bodily sensations (nausea or churning stomach, sleepiness, shakiness, heart palpitations, sexual excitement, etc.) while in session with patients.\n\nSection::::The Irish experience.:Frequency of symptom occurrence.\n", "The accompanying music video for \"Rock Your Body\", which was directed by Francis Lawrence, features Timberlake with several back-up dancers performing choreography within a multi-color lighted cube. Timberlake performed the song live several times, including the highly controversial performance at the Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show with R&B singer Janet Jackson, referred to as a \"wardrobe malfunction\".\n\nSection::::Writing and recording.\n", "There can be many update messages during a session.\n\nFinally, the subscriber has ended the session, and the client sends a termination message to the server containing the last Used-Units. The server can use the termination message to clear any related reservations made in the back-end balance management system. If the subscriber did not terminate the session himself but instead depleted his balance then the server would have responded earlier with reject to an update message, possibly telling the client/control-point to redirect traffic (this normally only makes sense for HTTP/WAP traffic).\n\nSection::::Message flows.:AVP matrix.\n", "During stage 4 of an action potential, the inside of a cardiac muscle cell rests at −90 mV. As the inner muscle cell potential rises towards −60 mV, electrochemical changes begin to take place in the voltage-gated rapid sodium channels, which permit the rapid influx of sodium ions. When enough sodium channels are opened, so that the rapid influx of sodium ions is greater than the tonic efflux of potassium ions, then the resting potential becomes progressively less negative, more and more sodium channels are opened, and an action potential is generated. The electrical potential at which this occurs is called the threshold potential.\n", "On August 28 the singer said she had begun recording an English-language track, as yet untitled, for the new album: \"Wait, my first song in English is on the way, comes next week! I have done classes and studied long I am almost a native\". Only on October 20 announced the title of his new single, \"Shaking\", saying it would be released on December 2 and bring an overproduction and a video clip released the same month.\n", "On October 4, 2017, the band announced a U.S. tour, consisting of the group performing their seventh studio album \"Mothership\" in its entirety through December, with support from Polyphia, Icarus the Owl, and Wolf & Bear.\n\nSection::::History.:2018–present: \"Artificial Selection\" and ninth studio album.\n", "Jerks of muscle groups, much of the body, or a series in rapid succession, which results in the person jerking bolt upright from a more relaxed sitting position is sometimes seen in ambulatory patients being treated with high doses of morphine, hydromorphone, and similar drugs, and is possibly a sign of high and/or rapidly increasing serum levels of these drugs. Myoclonic jerks caused by other opioids, such as tramadol and pethidine, may be less benign. Medications unrelated to opioids, such as anticholinergics, are known to cause myoclonic jerks.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "The neuromuscular symptoms of hypocalcemia are caused by a positive bathmotropic effect (i.e. increased responsiveness) due to the decreased interaction of calcium with sodium channels. Since calcium blocks sodium channels and inhibits depolarization of nerve and muscle fibers, reduced calcium lowers the threshold for depolarization. The symptoms can be recalled by the mnemonic \"CATs go numb\" - convulsions, arrhythmias, tetany, and numbness in the hands and feet and around the mouth.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "BULLET::::- Psychogenic tremor (also called hysterical tremor) can occur at rest or during postural or kinetic movement. The characteristics of this kind of tremor may vary but generally include sudden onset and remission, increased incidence with stress, change in tremor direction and/or body part affected, and greatly decreased or disappearing tremor activity when the patient is distracted. Many patients with psychogenic tremor have a conversion disorder (see Posttraumatic stress disorder) or another psychiatric disease.\n", "A myoclonic seizure (\"myo\" \"muscle\", \"clonic\" \"jerk\") is a sudden involuntary contraction of muscle groups. The muscle jerks consist of symmetric, mostly generalized jerks, localized in the arms and in the shoulders and also simultaneously with a head nod; both the arms may fling out together and simultaneously a head nod may occur. Symptoms have some variability amongst subjects. Sometimes the entire body may jerk, just like a startle response. As is the case with all generalised seizures, the patient is not conscious during the event but the seizure is so brief that the person appears to remain fully conscious.\n", "The Shake (dance)\n\nThe Shake was a fad dance of mid-1960s, characteristic of \"tense jerkiness\" of limbs and head shaking, basically with no particular danced moves or steps. \n", "The existence of many pili pulling simultaneously on the cell body results in a balance of forces determining the movement of the cell body. This is known as the tug-of-war model of twitching motility. Sudden changes in the balance of forces caused by detachment or release of individual pili results in a fast jerk (or 'slingshot') that combines fast rotational and lateral movements, in contrast to the slower lateral movements seen during the longer periods between slingshots.\n\nSection::::Roles.\n\nSection::::Roles.:Pathogenesis.\n", "As various drugs and other factors act on the resting potential and bring it closer to the threshold potential, an action potential is more easily and rapidly obtained. Likewise, when the sodium channels are in a state of greater activation, then the influx of sodium ions that allows the membrane to reach threshold potential occurs more readily. In both instances, the excitability of the myocardium is increased.\n\nSection::::Drugs, ions and conditions.\n\nSection::::Drugs, ions and conditions.:Increasing bathmotropy.\n", "The song features Nate Dogg in a prominent vocal role, marking his sixth and final Eminem collaboration, following \"Bitch Please II\" from \"The Marshall Mathers LP\", \"Till I Collapse\" from \"The Eminem Show\", and \"Never Enough\" from \"Encore\", and the two collaborated on Xzibit's \"My Name\", from the album \"Man vs. Machine\" and Lloyd Banks' \"Warrior Part 2\" on the album \"The Hunger for More\". \"Shake That\" is the first of these songs to include Nate Dogg during a verse, whereas his contributions in the other works are limited to the refrain and the outro.\n", "The music video for \"Shake\" was filmed on October 26, 2010. The video is directed by Toben Seymour and choreographed Flii Stylz. In an interview, McCartney told MTV, \"It's gonna be cool. We wanted to create a video that wasn't necessarily a story, following the song. It didn't necessarily have to be on the nose. We wanted something that was visually stimulating, a lot of cool camera techniques that haven't been used, a lot of saturated colors and even a lot of sexy girls with beautiful features.\" The music video was premiered on E! News and E! Online on November 16, 2010.\n", "The B-side on the 7\" was \"That's What You Get (For Being Polite)\".\n\nSection::::Live performances.\n", "Section::::Terminology.\n\nThe terms “active fluids”, “active nematics” and “active liquid crystals” have been used almost synonymously to denote hydrodynamic descriptions of dense active matter. While in many respects they describe the same phenomenon, there are subtle differences between them. “Active nematics” and “active liquid crystals” refers to systems where the constituent elements have nematic order whereas “active fluids” is the more generic term combining systems with both nematic and polar interactions.\n\nSection::::Examples and observations.\n", "Paruresis is also known by many colloquial terms, including bashful bladder, bashful kidneys, stage fright, pee-shyness, and shy bladder syndrome.\n\nSection::::In popular culture.\n\nThe condition has been occasionally portrayed in popular culture, sometimes for comedic effect or parody. Examples of this include:\n\nBULLET::::- In the 1978 Cheech & Chong film \"Up in Smoke\", Cheech's character, Pedro, tells a police officer in a public restroom that he has \"stage fright\". He is then able to urinate after the police officer turns on a water faucet.\n", "Wilson moved to California at the age of four, eventually settling in Davis, California where he played at Davis Senior High School and was named a high school Honorable Mention All American his Senior year in 1975. Wilson then moved to Santa Barbara where he spent 2 years at Santa Barbara City College (they had no water polo program at this time) before transferring to the University of California, Santa Barbara.\n", "BULLET::::- Cerebral edema - intravenous furosemide can be combined with mannitol to initiate rapid diuresis. However, the optimum duration of such treatment remains unknown. Frequent fluid status monitoring is required to prevent intravascular volume depletion which leads to reduced cerebral perfusion. A bolus intravenous dose of 10 or 20 mg of furosemide can be administered and then followed by intravenous bolus of 2 or 3% hypertonic saline to increase the serum sodium level.\n", "It involves the application of pressure and movement (stretching, lifting, shaking, rotating and swinging) to the soft tissue of the body (skin, muscles, tendons, ligaments and fascia) within a continuous soft rhythmic rocking. The client is encouraged to be \"passive\" - in the sense of not \"trying\" to do anything, but allowing the body to relax into the movements. This in itself quickly highlights areas of muscular tension and holding. \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-13047	Why does the ground look wet when it’s hot, from certain angles?	It has to do with the air beeing hotter (and thus less dense) close to the ground. This changes the refractive index of the air which causes light to change direction when entering this hot region. This is however not stable, as the air is continuously moving around, and therefore it looks like it moves around a bit, kind of like water :) URL_0	[ "Wet floor effect\n\nWet floor effect is a graphic effects technique popular in conjunction Web 2.0 style pages, particularly in logos. The effect can be done manually or an auxiliary tool can be installed to create the effect automatically. Unlike a standard \"reflection\" (and the Java \"water\" effect popular in first-generation web graphics), the wet floor effect involves a gradient and often a slant in the reflection, so that the mirrored image appears to be hovering over or resting on a \"wet floor\". \n\nThe term was apparently coined by Nathan Steiner for Twinsparc in October 2005. \n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Rainfall/runoff relationship are well defined within the field of hydrology. Surface runoff in hydrologic systems is generally conceptualized as occurring from pervious and impervious areas. It is the pervious runoff that is affected by antecedent moisture conditions, as runoff from impervious surfaces such as roads, sidewalks, and roofs will not be significantly affected by preceding moisture levels. Pervious surfaces (such as fields, woods, grassed areas, and open areas) are highly affected by antecedent moisture conditions, as they will produce a greater rate of runoff when they are wet than when they are dry.\n", "Maude Barlow an environmental activist, head of the Council of Canadians, and founder of the Blue Planet Project has used the term 'hot stain' in regard to water resources. In 2005, Maude Barlow received Sweden's Right Livelihood Award.\n\nSection::::Water resources.\n", "In scuba diving, a thermocline where water drops in temperature by a few degrees Celsius quite suddenly can sometimes be observed between two bodies of water, for example where colder upwelling water runs into a surface layer of warmer water. It gives the water an appearance of wrinkled glass that is often used to obscure bathroom windows and is caused by the altered refractive index of the cold or warm water column. These same schlieren can be observed when hot air rises off the tarmac at airports or desert roads and is the cause of mirages.\n\nSection::::Other water bodies.\n", "When compared to the base angle reflectivity, the lowest angle of elevation sounding, the composite reflectivity, including higher elevation scan information, may appear to indicate more widespread rain. This could indicate one of two things:\n\nBULLET::::- Virga: the precipitation (rain or snow) is probably not reaching the ground but evaporating as it falls from very high in the atmosphere. This is a regular situation in winter as snowflakes can easily sublimate in dry air near the ground.\n", "BULLET::::- \"R\"elief. The differences in the elevation in land. As air is forced to rise over a piece of land (e.g. a mountain) the temperature decreases and condensation increases. As it condensates water droplets get bigger and heavier and are forced to fall. Once the air mass goes over the mountain the temperature and evaporation increases but condensation decreases, resulting in a halt in precipitation and rain shadows.\n", "BULLET::::- The deserts of the Basin and Range Province in the United States and Mexico, which includes the dry areas east of the Cascade Mountains of Oregon and Washington and the Great Basin, which covers almost all of Nevada and parts of Utah are rain shadowed. The Cascades also cause rain shadowed Columbia Basin area of Eastern Washington and valleys in British Columbia, Canada - most notably the Thompson and Nicola Valleys which can receive less than 10 inches of rain in parts, and the Okanagan Valley (particularly the south, nearest to the US border) which receives anywhere from 12-17 inches of rain annually.\n", "Section::::History.:Etymology.\n", "In geology, the effect is common in formerly glaciated areas such as New England and areas in regions of permafrost where the landscape is shaped into hummocks by frost heave — new stones appear in the fields every year from deeper underground. Horace Greeley noted \"Picking stones is a never-ending labor on one of those New England farms. Pick as closely as you may, the next plowing turns up a fresh eruption of boulders and pebbles, from the size of a hickory nut to that of a tea-kettle.\" A hint to the cause appears in his further description that \"this work is mainly to be done in March or April, when the earth is saturated with ice-cold water\". Underground water freezes, lifting all particles above it. As the water starts to melt, smaller particles can settle into the opening spaces while larger particles are still raised. By the time ice no longer supports the larger rocks, they are at least partially supported by the smaller particles that slipped below them. Repeated freeze-thaw cycles in a single year speeds up the process.\n", "Section::::The Wet Phase.\n", "Antecedent moisture\n\nIn hydrology and sewage collection and disposal, antecedent moisture is the relative wetness or dryness of a watershed or sanitary sewershed. Antecedent moisture conditions change continuously and can have a very significant effect on the flow responses in these systems during wet weather. The effect is evident in most hydrologic systems including stormwater runoff and sanitary sewers with inflow and infiltration. Many modeling and analysis challenges that are created by antecedent moisture conditions are evident within combined sewers and separate sanitary sewer systems. \n\nSection::::Definition.\n", "In this roofing investigation application, infrared thermographic data was collected during daytime hours, on both sunny and rainy days. This data collection time allowed for solar heating of the roof, and any entrapped water within the roofing system, during the daylight hours. IR data was observed until the roof had sufficiently warmed to allow detection of the entrapped wet areas because of their ability to collect and store more heat than the dry insulated areas. The wet areas would also transfer the heat at a faster rate than the dry insulated roof areas. At this point in time, the wet areas showed up as warmer roof surface temperatures than the surrounding dry background areas of the roof. \n", "BULLET::::- Wet deposition is the removal of pollution plume components by the action of rain. The wet deposition of radionuclides in a pollution plume by a burst of rain often forms so called \"hot spots\" of radioactivity on the underlying surface.\n", "water harvesting and keyline design, are examples of methods that might help prevent or lessen these drying effects.\n\nSection::::Mountain meteorological effects.\n\nSection::::Mountain meteorological effects.:Orographic lift.\n\nOrographic lift occurs when an air mass is forced from a low elevation to a higher elevation as it moves over rising terrain. As the air mass gains altitude it quickly cools down adiabatically, which can raise the relative humidity to 100% and create clouds and, under the right conditions, precipitation.\n\nSection::::Mountain meteorological effects.:Rain shadow.\n", "Leaf wetness\n\nLeaf wetness is a meteorological parameter that describes the amount of dew and precipitation left on surfaces. It is used for monitoring leaf moisture for agricultural purposes, such as fungus and disease control, for control of irrigation systems, and for detection of fog and dew conditions, and early detection of rainfall.\n\nLeaf wetness may be measured by various means:\n", "Air temperature variations close to the surface can give rise to other optical phenomena, such as mirages and Fata Morgana. Most commonly, air heated by a hot road on a sunny day deflects light approaching at a shallow angle towards a viewer. This makes the road appear reflecting, giving an illusion of water covering the road.\n\nSection::::Water waves.\n", "BULLET::::- In the South Island of New Zealand is to be found one of the most remarkable rain shadows anywhere on Earth. The Southern Alps intercept moisture coming off the Tasman Sea, precipitating about 6,300 mm (250 in) to 8,900 mm (350 in) liquid water equivalent per year and creating large glaciers. To the east of the Southern Alps, scarcely 50 km (30 mi) from the snowy peaks, yearly rainfall drops to less than 760 mm (30 in) and some areas less than 380 mm (15 in). (see Nor'west arch for more on this subject).\n", "Another instance when the diffusion-like term will be nearly zero is in the case of sharp wetting fronts, where the denominator of the diffusion-like term formula_42, causing the term to vanish. Notably, sharp wetting fronts are notoriously difficult to resolve and accurately solve with traditional numerical Richards' equation solvers.\n\nFinally, in the case of dry soils, formula_6 tends towards formula_44, making the soil water diffusivity formula_8 tend towards zero as well. In this case, the diffusion-like term would produce no flux.\n", "Rainbows can be caused by many forms of airborne water. These include not only rain, but also mist, spray, and airborne dew.\n\nSection::::Mirage.\n\nA mirage is a naturally occurring optical phenomenon in which light rays are bent to produce a displaced image of distant objects or the sky. The word comes to English via the French \"mirage\", from the Latin \"mirare\", meaning \"to look at, to wonder at\". This is the same root as for \"mirror\" and \"to admire\". Also, it has its roots in the Arabic \"mirage\".\n", "BULLET::::- Flowing water that drains from the springs deposits sinter, which can form fairly thick deposits and large aprons when sheet flow occurs, known as \"discharge deposits\"; sometimes terraces are developed instead. As in springs, oncoids and spicules are observed in channels. Much of the water evaporates and its temperature drops from to less than away from the springs; the low air temperatures cause it to freeze occasionally, resulting in frost weathering.\n", "BULLET::::- The Scandinavian Mountains create a rain shadow for lowland areas east of the mountain chain and prevents the Oceanic climate from penetrating further east; thus Bergen and a place like Brekke in Sogn, west of the mountains, receive an annual percipitation of 2,250 mm and 3575 mm respectively, while Oslo receives only 760 mm, and Skjåk, a municipality situated in a deep valley, receives only 280 mm.\n\nSection::::Regions of notable rain shadow.:Africa.\n", "Section::::Non-ideal rough solid surfaces.:Cassie–Baxter model.:\"Petal effect\" vs. \"lotus effect\".\n", "Section::::Formation.\n\nSeveral processes can cause the floor of a depression to become more resistant to erosion than its surrounding slopes and uplands: \n\nBULLET::::- First, coarse-grained sediment, such as gravel, accumulates in the depression, i.e., a stream valley or lake basin. Next, wind erosion removes fine-grained sediments in areas adjacent to the depression. This leaves behind the more resistant coarse-grained sediments as a hill or ridge, while the channel switches to a lower lying area.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Gloss\" (at least six types of \"gloss\" may be observed depending upon the character of the surface and the spatial (directional) distribution of the reflected light.)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Specular gloss\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Distinctness of image gloss\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sheen\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Reflection haze, H\" (for a specified specular angle), the ratio of (light) flux reflected at a specified angle (or angles) from the specular direction to the flux similarly reflected at the specular angle by a specified gloss standard.\n\nTransmissive objects \n\nBULLET::::- \"Transmittance, T\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Haze\" (turbidity)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Clarity\"\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Reflection (physics)\n\nBULLET::::- Shading\n\nBULLET::::- Transmittance\n\nSection::::References.\n", "Shepherds also paid attention to this area because of the amazing events. They noticed that in a place that was at a distance of about 3 km from the source of deer, grass was steady green, the snows never lie, and the earth was already dry in a few minutes after the rain. The veil of mystery of a magic glade was filmed in the 20th century when geologists discovered hot mineral water in the land.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02356	Why do some Asians only want crisp/new money bills?	> I constantly get requests for crisp, clean, new money bills from Asian people during withdraws or exchanges. No other ethnicity asks for perfect bills nearly as much. Why? Almost certainly this has to do with Asian traditions about gifting money. You probably ask this question because you are getting a flurry of requests, which only makes sense considering Chinese New Years is on February 16th where children will be given the traditional red envelope (hóng bāo) containing money as a New Years gift. Money is also given at weddings and birthdays. In all occasions the money should be crisp and new, as old or dirty money is in bad taste. Would you send someone a dirty Christmas card? Same idea.	[ "Back in the 1960s, children in Hong Kong used to say 恭喜發財,利是逗來,斗零唔愛 (Cantonese, Gung Hei Fat Choy, Lai Si Tau Loi, Tau Ling M Ngoi), which was recorded in the pop song Kowloon Hong Kong by Reynettes in 1966. Later in the 1970s, children in Hong Kong used the saying: 恭喜發財,利是逗來,伍毫嫌少,壹蚊唔愛 (Cantonese), roughly translated as, \"Congratulations and be prosperous, now give me a red envelope, fifty cents is too little, don't want a dollar either.\" It basically meant that they disliked small change – coins which were called \"hard substance\" (Cantonese: 硬嘢). Instead, they wanted \"soft substance\" (Cantonese: 軟嘢), which was either a ten dollar or a twenty dollar note.\n", "BULLET::::- Increasing bank reserve requirements and sterilization: some countries pursue a fixed exchange rate policy. In the face of large net capital inflow, those countries would intervene in the foreign exchange market to prevent exchange rate appreciation. Then sterilize the monetary impact of intervention through open market operations and through increasing bank reserves requirements. For example, when hot money originated from the U.S. enters China, investors would sell US dollars and buy Chinese yuan in the foreign exchange market. This would put upward pressure on the value of the yuan. In order to prevent the appreciation of the Chinese currency, the central bank of China print yuan to buy US dollars. This would increase money supply in China, which would in turn cause inflation. Then, the central bank of China has to increase bank reserve requirements or issue Chinese government bonds to bring back the money that it has previously released into the market in the exchange rate intervention operation. However, like other approaches, this approach has limitations. The first, the central bank can't keep increasing bank reserves, because doing so would negatively affect bank's profitability. The second, in the emerging market economies, the domestic financial market is not deep enough for open market operations to be effective.\n", "Stores that specialize in selling ritual items, such as the religious goods stores in Malaysia, also sell larger and elaborately decorated notes that have a larger denomination than the usual $10,000 note. Some bills do not portray the Jade Emperor, and portray other famous figures from Chinese mythology instead, such as the Eight Immortals, the Buddha, Yama, or images of dragons. Some even portray famous people who are deceased, such as US President John F. Kennedy, Albert Einstein and Marilyn Monroe.\n\nSection::::Customs.\n", "BULLET::::- In 1999, Indonesia for the first time issued a 100,000 rupiah polymer note for general circulation.\n\nBULLET::::- In June 1999, Taiwan issued a 50-dollar note to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the issuance of the New Taiwan dollar.\n\nBULLET::::- In 1999, the Northern Bank, one of five banknote-issuing authorities in Northern Ireland issued a 5-pound commemorative note celebrating the year 2000; this note was placed in circulation, and was also sold at a premium to collectors with a Y2K serial number prefix.\n\nSection::::Adoption.:Timeline of adoptions and withdrawals.:2000.\n", "BULLET::::- Security threads are put in the middle of the note's materials so horizontal and vertical lines are shown from top to bottom. The threads also can be made with many variations such as the materials, size, colour and design.\n\nBULLET::::- The 2010 10,000 rupiah, 2011 20,000, 50,000 and 100,000 rupiah introduced several new security features: use of EURion constellation rings, rainbow printing designed to change colour when viewed from different angles, and tactile features for blind people and those with visual difficulties to recognise the different denominations stated on the notes.\n", "BULLET::::- In 1996, Thailand issued both a 50 and a 500 bank note commemorating the 50th anniversary of the reign of Bhumibol Adulyadej.\n\nBULLET::::- In February 1996, Brunei issued 1, 5 and 10 ringgit/dollar banknotes. These were the first non-commemorative banknotes issued outside of Australia (and the 1982 issues).\n\nBULLET::::- In 1997, Thailand issued a 50 baht note as its first polymer note for general circulation.\n\nBULLET::::- In February 1998, Sri Lanka issued a 200 Rupee commemorative polymer banknote to celebrate Sri Lanka's 50 years of independence.\n", "BULLET::::- The Bank of Papua New Guinea issued a reduced size 50 kina banknote and a 100 kina bankote to commemorate the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC).\n\nBULLET::::- The Reserve Bank of Australia issued a new A$50 banknote on October 18, 2018 as part of its revised series.\n\nBULLET::::- The National Bank of Romania issued on December 1 a 100 lei polymer banknote to commemorate the 100th Anniversary of the Great Union.\n", "When their governments \"approached the IMF, the reserves of Thailand and South Korea were perilously low, and the Indonesian Rupiah was excessively depreciated. Thus, the first order of business was... to restore confidence in the currency. To achieve this, countries have to make it more attractive to hold domestic currency, which in turn, requires increasing interest rates temporarily, even if higher interest costs complicate the situation of weak banks and corporations...\n", "According to correspondent Leo Lewis's opinion from the Financial Times, the overall use of cash will not be \"broken easily\" in Japan. Lewis states the elderly portion of the population has not been eager for innovation, and conditions such as \"low street crime, low interest rates and a reduced threshold on inheritance tax\" remain in place that increase the appeal of carrying cash. One-yen coins have also seen non monetary usage; since all 1-yen coins weigh just one gram, they are sometimes used as weights. If placed carefully on the surface of still water, 1-yen coins will not break surface tension and thus can also float.\n", "BULLET::::- The Philippines has ceased 2 peso and 50 centavo coins of Flora and Fauna Series in 2000, due to overminting of the coins of BSP Series that has not included the 2 peso and 50 centavo coins of that series.\n", "Currency speculation is considered a highly suspect activity in many countries. While investment in traditional financial instruments like bonds or stocks often is considered to contribute positively to economic growth by providing capital, currency speculation does not; according to this view, it is simply gambling that often interferes with economic policy. For example, in 1992, currency speculation forced Sweden's central bank, the Riksbank, to raise interest rates for a few days to 500% per annum, and later to devalue the krona. Mahathir Mohamad, one of the former Prime Ministers of Malaysia, is one well-known proponent of this view. He blamed the devaluation of the Malaysian ringgit in 1997 on George Soros and other speculators.\n", "BULLET::::- The only polymer note for general circulation in Thailand, the 50 baht note issued in 1997, was reissued in paper format. Commemorative notes continue to be issued in polymer format.\n\nBULLET::::- The only polymer note for general circulation in Indonesia, the 100,000 rupiah note issued in 1999, was re-issued on paper.\n\nBULLET::::- In 2004 it was estimated that there were over 3 billion polymer notes in service.\n\nSection::::Adoption.:Timeline of adoptions and withdrawals.:2005.\n\nBULLET::::- Papua New Guinea issued the new 100 kina note, its first denomination that was never printed in paper format.\n", "Section::::Remodeled Bill.\n\nBank of Japan Convertible Silver Issue Bills\n\nBULLET::::- Face Value: One Yen (壹圓)\n\nBULLET::::- Inverse: Takenouchi no Sukune (武内宿禰)\n\nBULLET::::- Reverse: One Yen Silver Bill (一円銀貨)\n\nBULLET::::- Size: Vertical - 85mm, Horizontal - 145mm\n\nBULLET::::- First Printing: May 1, 1889 (Meiji 22)\n\nBULLET::::- Final Printing: October 1, 1958 (Shōwa 33)\n", "The current set includes banknotes for NT$100, NT$200, NT$500, NT$1000, and NT$2000. Note that the NT$200 and NT$2000 banknotes are not commonly used by consumers. This may be due to the tendencies of consumers to simply use multiple NT$100 or NT$500 bills to cover the range of the NT$200, as well as using NT$1000 bills or credit/debit cards instead of the NT$2000 bill. Lack of government promotion may also be a contributing factor to the general lack of usage.\n", "Odd and even numbers are determined by the first digit, rather than the last. Thirty and fifty, for example, are odd numbers and are thus appropriate as funeral cash gifts. However, it is common and quite acceptable to have cash gifts in a red packet using a single bank note – with ten or fifty yuan bills used frequently. It is customary for the bills to be brand new printed money. Everything regarding the New Year has to be new in order to have good luck and fortune.\n", "As the smallest current note is worth approximately US$0.07, even small transactions such as bus fares are typically conducted with notes, and the 1,000 rupiah coin is far more common than the 1,000 rupiah note. The government initially announced that this would change, with a 2,000 rupiah note to replace the 1,000 rupiah, with that denomination replaced by a coin. After a long delay, this proposal was revised so that the 2,000 rupiah banknotes were launched by BI (Bank Indonesia) on 9 July 2009, with the banknotes circulating as legal tender from 10 July 2009, but without withdrawing the 1,000 rupiah note.\n", "Section::::Selected works.:Monetary policy.\n", "Since the older banknotes were first issued in 1999, security features and the technology for designing and printing banknotes have all advanced considerably. And while counterfeiting rates in New Zealand are low compared to the rest of the world, the New Zealand public and government agree that it is in the best interest to \"stay one step ahead of the game\", hence the new notes.\n\nSection::::Banknotes.:Current circulating banknotes.\n", "The practice of creating cash coins with \"flower holes\" and \"turtle shell holes\" was also adopted by Japan, Korea, and Vietnam, however cash coins with these features are extremely rare in these countries despite using the same production techniques which further indicates that their addition was wholly intentional.\n\nSection::::Red cash coins.\n", "Asian economies suffered badly from the East Asian financial crisis in 1997 and subsequently academic research has identified the over-reliance on short term bank financing as a major cause of economic failure. Governments and central banks are keen to encourage the expansion of the Asian bond markets in order to reduce the reliance on short term bank loans and so avoid the economic catastrophe that occurred in 1997/1998.\n\nSection::::Investing in Asian Bonds.\n", "Osmeña first appeared on the fifty peso note upon the release of the \"Pilipino series\" notes in 1969.\n\nBULLET::::- 1951: \"English series\", Features the portrait of Antonio Luna, a general in the Philippine–American War. The reverse features a painting of his brother, Juan Luna, Blood Compact between Spanish explorer Miguel López de Legazpi and Datu Sikatuna, the chieftain of Bohol.\n", "BULLET::::- Hell money: Hell money is a form of joss paper printed to resemble fake legal tender bank notes. The notes are not an official form of recognized currency or legal tender since their sole intended purpose is to be offered as burnt offerings to the deceased as a superstitious solution to resolve their ancestors financial problems. This custom has been practiced by the modern Chinese and across East Asia since the late 19th century.\n", "In mid January 2013, Japan's central bank signaled the intention to launch an open ended bond buying programme which would likely devalue the yen. This resulted in short lived but intense period of alarm about the risk of a possible fresh round of currency war.\n", "BULLET::::- The Reserve Bank of India announced plans to introduce polymer banknotes on a pilot basis and improve security features to defeat the efforts of counterfeiters\n\nBULLET::::- The Bank of Lebanon (Banque du Liban) issued a 50,000 livres banknote in polymer to commemorate the 70th Anniversary of the Lebanese Army.\n\nBULLET::::- The Bank of Papua New Guinea issued 10 and 20 kina notes in polymer, one to commemorate the XV Pacific Games and the other to commemorate the 40th Anniversary of Papua New Guinean independence.\n", "BULLET::::- The 10,000 rupiah note of 2010 and the 20,000, 50,000 and 100,000 rupiah notes of 2011 introduced several new security features: use of EURion constellation rings, rainbow printing designed to change colour when viewed from different angles, and tactile features for blind people and those with visual difficulties to recognise the different denominations of the notes.\n\nSection::::History.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00331	What is the end goal of a bee colony supposed to look like?	When a colony runs out of space to expand, the queen will take half the worker bees with her and leave the colony to look for a new home. This is called swarming. The bees that are left behind in the original colony will raise a new queen from one of the eggs the original queen left behind. Then this cycle continues year after year. A beekeeper can recognize when a colony is preparing to swarm and prevent it by adding new hive boxes (for expansion) OR they can do what's called 'splitting' the hive to make two hives. They basically do a manual 'swarm' and retain the bees that would have been lost. When the bees do this themselves, it's how they propagate the species.	[ "Human intervention is not needed, and is not condoned. \"B. sylvestris\" has evolved naturally alongside its target species, such as \"B. pratorum\" and \"B. jonellus\".\"\", and presents the natural order of their existence. An alternative method to help bees is to ensure the bees have rich environments and habitats.\n\nSection::::Ecological summary.\n", "BULLET::::4. David W. Roubik is a senior staff scientist at the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute. He focuses on ecology, behavior, and evolution, and how tropical bees are agents of connectivity. His work addresses how to measure the abundance of natural pollinators and how to protect them, and how to understand the competition between plants and pollinators. More on his research and publications can be found on the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute webpage for Dr. Roubik.\n\nBULLET::::5. Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute's photos of \"Eulaema meriana\" can be found here.\n", "Section::::Formation of new colonies.\n\nSection::::Formation of new colonies.:Colony reproduction: swarming and supersedure.\n", "Section::::Impact on existing apiculture.:Queen management in Africanized bee areas.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Section::::Research.\n", "BULLET::::- The best food source found so far is registered.\n\nBULLET::::- UNTIL (requirements are met)\n", "To prevent the collapse of endangered bee colonies, a genetically engineered bee is kept in a test tube to be tested. During an interview, a man walks by and observes the bee. Shocked with the size of its eyes, the man aggressively snaps the test tube, causing the bee to eat nectar at first, but grows in size and eats gnats, apples, drones, then whole humans, trees, aircraft, buildings, hills, mountains, and islands. Finally, the bee consumes the continents, the Moon, and the Earth.\n\nSection::::\"Tasty Planet Forever\" (2018).:Plot.:Pacific Basking Shark.\n", "Section::::Human importance.\n\nSection::::Human importance.:Agriculture.\n", "BULLET::::- Wing-power - the ability to forage further can prove a material factor in the performance of a colony.\n\nBULLET::::- Keen sense of smell - without this a colony would not forage further, so it is closely linked with wing-power.\n\nBULLET::::- Instinct of defence - this is the most effective remedy against robbing (it is not to be confused with aggression against the beekeeper).\n\nBULLET::::- Hardiness and wintering ability - the ability to winter on stores of inferior quality for long periods without a cleansing flight.\n", "Section::::\"More than Honey\" movie.\n", "Section::::Impact on existing apiculture.\n", "Experiments in raising bees for longer durations indoors have looked into more detailed and varying environment controls. In 2015, MIT's \"Synthetic Apiary\" project simulated springtime inside a closed environment, for a number of hives over the course of a winter. They provided food sources and simulated long days, and saw activity and reproduction levels comparable to the levels seen outdoors in warm weather. They concluded that such an indoor apiary could be sustained year-round if needed.\n\nSection::::Bee colonies.\n\nSection::::Bee colonies.:Castes.\n\nA colony of bees consists of three castes of bee:\n", "The gut bacteria of \"B. bimaculatus\" was isolated and include \"Snodgrassella alvi\" and \"Gilliamella apicola\" strains. \"B. bimaculatus\" had more gut bacteria from environmental sources, and less core bacteria compared to other bumble bee species. \"B. bimaculatus\" had more core bacteria when collected from farms as opposed to collection from semi-natural habitats.\n\nSection::::Human importance.\n\nSection::::Human importance.:Pollinator.\n", "Section::::Qualities.\n\nSection::::Qualities.:Strengths.\n\nBULLET::::- defensive against invaders such as wasps\n\nBULLET::::- \"maritime\" brood cycle\n\nBULLET::::- good pollinators, as they visit a wide range of flowers.\n\nBULLET::::- higher longevity of the worker bees and queen\n\nBULLET::::- good flight strength even in cold weather\n\nSection::::Qualities.:Weaknesses.\n\nBULLET::::- susceptibility to acarine mites due to their larger tracheas\n\nBULLET::::- difficulty entering smaller flowers due to their larger size\n\nBULLET::::- difficulty collecting nectar from longer flowers due to their shorter tongues\n\nBULLET::::- poorer pollinators of fruit trees and bushes.\n\nSection::::Significance.\n", "Section::::CIBER outreach.\n", "Section::::Ecology.\n", "In 2014, Fairmont started building empty nesting sites, so-called \"bee hotels,\" to help attract wild mason bees. In 2015 Fairmont Waterfront partnered with Hives For Humanity to create a bee pollinator hotel. The practice may not be entirely beneficial as one biologist suggests bee hotels “favor non-native species of bees and wasps over our native species\".\n\nSection::::Urban beekeeping cities.:Hamburg.\n", "BULLET::::- When compared to the Italian honey bee, they are not as prone to rob honey\n\nBULLET::::- Able to overwinter in smaller numbers of winter bees\n\nBULLET::::- Honey stores are conserved\n\nBULLET::::- Able to quickly adapt to changes in the environment\n\nBULLET::::- Better for areas with long winters\n\nBULLET::::- Fast rhythm of brood production and then brood rearing reduction when available forage decreases\n\nBULLET::::- Low use of propolis\n\nBULLET::::- Resistant to brood diseases\n\nBULLET::::- For areas with strong spring nectar flow and early pollination\n\nBULLET::::- Forage earlier in the morning and later in the evening, and on cool, wet days\n", "BULLET::::- Determine and implement ways to remove feral Honeybees from nesting hollows\n\nBULLET::::- Produce an information kit to help eliminate illegal killing and distribute to the wider community\n\nBULLET::::- Prevent the spread of non-endemic Corella populations in south-west Western Australia\n\nBULLET::::- Collect DNA samples and analyse to determine the taxonomic status of \"Cacatua pastinator\" subspecies.\n\nSection::::Behaviour.\n", "Another proposed remedy for farmers of pollinated crops is simply to switch from using beekeepers to the use of native bees, such as bumble bees and mason bees. Native bees can be helped to establish themselves by providing suitable nesting locations and some additional crops the bees could use to feed from (e.g. when the pollination season of the commercial crops on the farm has ended).\n", "BULLET::::- Habitat loss\n\nBULLET::::- Changes in land use\n\nBULLET::::- Nest hollow shortage\n\nBULLET::::- Competition for available nest hollows and killing by feral Honeybees.\n\nRecovery actions identified for \"Cacatua pastinator pastinator\" are:\n\nBULLET::::- Seek the funding required to implement future recovery actions\n\nBULLET::::- Determine population numbers, distribution and movements\n\nBULLET::::- Identify factors affecting the number of breeding attempts and breeding success and manage nest hollows to increase recruitment\n\nBULLET::::- Map feeding and breeding habitat critical to survival of all wild and translocated populations, and prepare management guidelines for these habitats\n\nBULLET::::- Revegetate with favoured hollow-bearing trees\n", "BULLET::::- Northern Nectar Sources for Honey Bees - common names and descriptions of northern latitude nectar plants\n\nSection::::P.\n\nBULLET::::- Pesticide toxicity to bees\n\nBULLET::::- Piping queen - queens will make audible sounds at certain times\n\nBULLET::::- Pollinator decline - loss of bees and other pollinators is an environmental issue\n\nSection::::Q.\n\nBULLET::::- Queen bee - a single egg laying bee capable of producing workers, drones, and queens\n\nSection::::R.\n\nBULLET::::- Honey bee race\n\nBULLET::::- Russian honey bee\n\nSection::::S.\n\nBULLET::::- Stingless bees - \"Trigona\" and \"Melipona\" bees kept from ancient times in Central America and Australia\n", "Section::::Colony cycle.\n\nSection::::Colony cycle.:Initiation.\n\nWorker bee swarming initiates a new colony. These bees occasionally invade the nests of nearby bee species. New nests house up to three virgin queens during initiation. The queen arrives at the new colony within 5 days of the beginning of swarming. While there can be three virgin queens to begin a nest, the workers will kill two of them to leave a single, reproductive queen for the nest.\n\nSection::::Colony cycle.:Growth.\n", "Section::::Impact on existing apiculture.:Gentle Africanized bees.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-12974	Why do countries like China and Japan own so much of the United States Debt?	Because US Debt is an extremely safe investment. If you have a lot of money (and China and Japan have plenty), and want to ensure that you have it (plus some interest) in 20 years, investing in US debt is a great idea. The US government is happy to get money from these countries, as the US government believes that having their money now is more valuable to them than the money we'll give them back (plus interest) in 20 years.	[ "Historically, the share held by foreign governments had grown over time, rising from 13 percent of the public debt in 1988 to 34 percent in 2015. In more recent years, foreign ownership has retreated both in percent of total debt and total dollar amounts. China's maximum holding of 9.1% or $1.3 trillion of US debt occurred in 2011, subsequently reduced to 5% in 2018. Japan's maximum holding of 7% or $1.2 trillion occurred in 2012, subsequently reduced to 4% in 2018.\n", "The U.S. Treasury statistics indicate that, at the end of 2006, non-US citizens and institutions held 44% of federal debt held by the public. , China, holding $1.26 trillion in treasury bonds, is the largest foreign financier of the U.S. public debt.\n\nThe overall financial position of the United States as of 2014 includes $269.6 trillion of assets owned by households, businesses, and governments within its borders, representing more than 15.7 times the annual gross domestic product of the United States. Debts owed during this same period amounted to $145.8 trillion, about 8.5 times the annual gross domestic product.\n", "For countries like the United States, a large net external debt is created when the value of foreign assets (debt and equity) held by domestic residents is less than the value of domestic assets held by foreigners. In simple terms, as foreigners buy property in the US, this adds to the external debt. When this occurs in greater amounts than Americans buying property overseas, nations like the United States are said to be \"debtor nations\", but this is not conventional debt like a loan obtained from a bank.\n", "As of October 2018, foreigners owned $6.2 trillion of U.S. debt, or approximately 39 percent of the debt held by the public of $16.1 trillion and 28 percent of the total debt of $21.8 trillion. At the close of 2018, the largest foreign holders were China ($1.13 trillion), Japan ($1.02 trillion), Brazil ($313 billion), and Ireland ($287 billion).\n", "BULLET::::- To the extent the U.S. debt is owed to foreign investors (approximately half the \"debt held by the public\" during 2012), principal and interest are not directly received by U.S. heirs.\n\nBULLET::::- Higher debt levels imply higher interest payments, which create costs for future taxpayers (e.g., higher taxes, lower government benefits, higher inflation, or increased risk of fiscal crisis).\n\nBULLET::::- To the extent the borrowed funds are invested today to improve the long-term productivity of the economy and its workers, such as via useful infrastructure projects, future generations may benefit.\n", "The USA, as recently as 1960 the world's largest creditor, has now become the world's largest debtor, and since the 1980s, Japan has replaced USA as the world's largest creditor nation. Technically, Japan had passed up West Germany. With the rapid ascent of Hong Kong Monetary Authority's credit position since 2015, China (including HK and Macau) and Japan have been both flirting for the top creditor position.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Net foreign assets\n\nBULLET::::- List of countries by external debt\n\nBULLET::::- List of countries by public debt\n\nBULLET::::- List of countries by net international investment position per capita\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "According to Paul Krugman, \"America actually earns more from its assets abroad than it pays to foreign investors.\" Nonetheless, the country's net international investment position represents a debt of more than $9 trillion.\n\nSection::::Forecasting.\n\nSection::::Forecasting.:CBO ten-year outlook 2018–2028.\n\nThe CBO estimated the impact of the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act and separate spending legislation over the 2018–2028 period in their annual \"Budget & Economic Outlook\", released in April 2018:\n", "If the external debt represents foreign ownership of domestic assets, the result is that rental income, stock dividends, capital gains and other investment income is received by foreign investors, rather than by U.S. residents. On the other hand, when American debt is held by overseas investors, they receive interest and principal repayments. As the trade imbalance puts extra dollars in hands outside of the U.S., these dollars may be used to invest in new assets (foreign direct investment, such as new plants) or be used to buy existing American assets such as stocks, real estate and bonds. With a mounting trade deficit, the income from these assets increasingly transfers overseas.\n", "New evidence, however, suggests that while the U.S. has been experiencing large, persistent current account deficits, the assets U.S. investors hold overseas are gaining more in value compared to the value of U.S. assets held by foreign investors. These positive valuation effects represent financial gains for the U.S. (some attribute this phenomenon to exorbitant privilege). Economists at the Federal Reserve estimated that during 1994-2007, the U.S. valuation effects (in stocks and bonds) are about +$1.2 trillion, about 22% of the U.S. total current account deficits.\n", "The United States is the largest importer of goods and second-largest exporter, though exports per capita are relatively low. In 2010, the total U.S. trade deficit was $635 billion. Canada, China, Mexico, Japan, and Germany are its top trading partners. In 2010, oil was the largest import commodity, while transportation equipment was the country's largest export. Japan is the largest foreign holder of U.S. public debt. The largest holder of the U.S. debt are American entities, including federal government accounts and the Federal Reserve, who hold the majority of the debt.\n", "Section::::Debt.:Nonfinancial business.\n\nIn 1946, US nonfinancial businesses owed $63.9 billion of debt or 28.8% of GDP. By 2009 this figure had risen to $10.9 trillion or 76.4% of GDP.\n\nSection::::Debt.:State and local governments.\n\nIn 1946, US state and local governments owed $12.7 billion of debt or 5.71% of GDP. By 2009 this figure had risen to $2.4 trillion or 16.5% of GDP. \n\nIn 2016, state and local governments owed $3 trillion and have another $5 trillion in unfunded liabilities.\n", "The exact composition of the foreign-exchange reserves of China is a classified information. Foreign analysts agree that about two-thirds of Chinese foreign-exchange reserves are held in U.S. Dollars, approximately one-fifth in Euros, and almost all the rest in Japanese Yen and British pounds.\n\nMost of China's foreign-exchange reserves are held in U.S. dollar-denominated financial assets such as U.S. Treasury securities. Since 2008, when it overtook Japan in this respect, China is the largest foreign owner of U.S. Treasury securities, accounting for about 22 percent of all U.S. Treasuries held by non-Americans.\n\nSection::::Concerns over Chinese holdings of U.S. Debt.\n", "From 1947 until 1958, the U.S. deliberately encouraged an outflow of dollars, and, from 1950 on, the United States ran a balance of payments deficit with the intent of providing liquidity for the international economy. Dollars flowed out through various U.S. aid programs: the Truman Doctrine entailing aid to the pro-U.S. Greek and Turkish regimes, which were struggling to suppress communist revolution, aid to various pro-U.S. regimes in the Third World, and most important, the Marshall Plan. From 1948 to 1954 the United States provided 16 Western European countries $17 billion in grants.\n", "Two thirds of US public debt is owned by US citizens, banks, corporations, and the Federal Reserve Bank; approximately one third of US public debt is held by foreign countries – particularly China and Japan. Conversely, less than 5% of Italian and Japanese public debt is held by foreign countries.\n\nParticularly in macroeconomics, various debt-to-GDP ratios can be calculated. The most commonly used ratio is the government debt divided by the gross domestic product (GDP), which reflects the government's finances, while another common ratio is the total debt to GDP, which reflects the finances of the nation as a whole.\n", "have borrowed heavily from China and others. Any new FOCAC loan pledges will likely take Africa’s growing debt burden into account. \"\n\nSection::::China.\n", "BULLET::::- 2002: 3,938 (?) (Q4 2003 report)\n\nSection::::Levels.\n\nSection::::Levels.:Euro area.\n\nBULLET::::- Credit debt: ?\n\nBULLET::::- Households: 80.9% of households’ gross disposable income\n\nBULLET::::- Non-financial corporations: 78.9% of GDP\n\nBULLET::::- Government: 70.7% of GDP\n\nSection::::Levels.:Japan.\n\nBULLET::::- Credit debt: ?\n\nBULLET::::- Households: 110.5% of households’ gross disposable income\n\nBULLET::::- Non-financial corporations: 110.5% of GDP\n\nBULLET::::- Government: 141.3% of GDP\n\nSection::::Levels.:United States.\n\nDollar amounts are debt owed by each sector (amounts borrowed by each sector)\n\nBULLET::::- Credit debt: $35.8 trillion (303% of GDP) (35820.6/11809.9)\n\nBULLET::::- Households: 90% of GDP (67.5% of households’ gross disposable income)\n", "Over four fifths of China's investments are spent on infrastructure projects in underdeveloped and developing countries. Forecasts of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) show that economic growth rate of China will fall to around 6.2%, which is around 0.4% from 2018 of 6.6%. The reason for the possible decline is the increasing trade disputes of China and US. Another is the sudden increase of debts in the past decade, which was used to fuel infrastructure programs. Africa fears the slow growth of China, as this may result to impending government infrastructure projects.\n", "BULLET::::- According to the U.S. Department of Treasury Preliminary 2014 Annual Report on U.S. Holdings of Foreign Securities, the United States valued its foreign treasury securities portfolio at $2.7 trillion. The largest debtors are Canada, the United Kingdom, Cayman Islands, and Australia, whom account for $1.2 trillion of sovereign debt owed to residents of the U.S.\n\nBULLET::::- The entire public debt in 1998 was attributable to the cost of research, development, and deployment of U.S. nuclear weapons and nuclear weapons-related programs during the Cold War.\n", "In the academic literature, three waves of research trying to assess the existence of exorbitant privilege are distinguished by Curcuru et al. (2013). The first wave occurred during the pre-crisis Great Moderation and found, following the first research approach, significant annual return differentials favoring U.S. claims in a range between 2.7% and 3.7%, with Gourinchas and Rey (2007a) and Lane and Milesi-Ferretti (2005) finding particularly large differences for returns on both equity and debt assets. The first wave method consists of estimating capital gains by calculating the difference between the annual change in the U.S. international position and U.S. net capital outflows. The residual change not explained by capital flows is assumed to correspond to the capital gain.\n", "Fears of a fiscal crisis triggered by a significant selloff of U.S. Treasury securities by foreign owners such as China and Japan did not materialize, even in the face of significant sales of those securities during 2015, as demand for U.S. securities remained robust.\n\nSection::::Understanding deficits and debt.:Government budget balance as a sectoral component.\n", "Bonds and GSE/federal agency-backed issues represent all but 12% of financial sector debt in 2009.\n\nSection::::Debt.:Households and non-profits.\n", "Postwar world capitalism suffered from a huge dollar shortage. The United States was running huge balance of trade surpluses, and the U.S. reserves were immense and growing. It was necessary to reverse this flow. Even though all nations wanted to buy U.S. exports, dollars had to leave the United States and become available for international use so they could do so. In other words, the United States would have to reverse the imbalances in global wealth by running a balance of trade deficit, financed by an outflow of U.S. reserves to other nations (a U.S. financial account deficit). The U.S. could run a financial deficit by either importing from, building plants in, or donating to foreign nations. Recall that speculative investment was discouraged by the Bretton Woods agreement. Importing from other nations was not appealing in the 1950s, because U.S. technology was cutting edge at the time. So, multinational corporations and global aid that originated from the U.S. burgeoned.\n", "With the second highest gross domestic product at purchasing power parity, China poses a significant challenge to U.S. economic primacy especially with the expectation that U.S. national debt could explode to 717% of GDP by 2080 according to Congressional Budget office. Moreover, this debt is financed largely by China through the purchase of U.S. Treasury bonds. On the other hand, China's economic power, not limited to but including industrialization and modernization, is rapidly burgeoning with high consumption and increasing foreign investment. As Global Trends 2025 points out, the rise of China and India to great power status will restore each to \"the positions they held two centuries ago when China produced approximately 30 percent and India 15 percent of the world's wealth\" (p. 7).\n", "15.2% of all US debt is owed to foreigners. Of the $7.9 trillion Americans owe to foreigners, $3.9 trillion is owed by the federal government. 48% of US treasury securities are held by foreigners. Foreigners hold $1.28 trillion in agency- and government sponsored enterprise-backed securities, and another $2.33 trillion in US corporate bonds.\n\nForeigners hold 24% of domestic corporate debt and 17% of domestic corporate equity.\n\nSection::::Sectoral financial balances.\n", "BULLET::::- Public debt per person: $1,515.28\n\nBULLET::::- Population: 109,805,464\n\nBULLET::::- Public debt as % of GDP: 45.8%\n\nBULLET::::- Total annual debt change: 8.4%\n\nSection::::Debt process.\n\nDeveloping countries use external borrowing as a mechanism to address the gap between domestic savings and desired investment and the export-import gap.\n\nIn practice, debt management involves coordinating several major aspects of economic decision-making that have a bearing on loan contracting, utilization and the debt servicing needs and capabilities.\n\nSection::::Debt process.:Institutional creditors.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01998	Why does the colour red look so bad on TV and in compressed video?	You have good eyes. In the same way that dogs and cats can't see all the colors that the human eye can perceive, and in the same way that our eyes can't see color wavelengths that exist outside of what we call "the visible spectrum", our camera sensors and LCD screens can't sense or reproduce all the colors of the visible spectrum that the human eye can perceive. Our digital sensors are particularly "blind" to a range of colors in the red range. You can see a visual explanation of "color gamut" in this image search: URL_0	[ "Section::::Reception.:Impact on machinima.\n", "On August 19, 2013 Jim Jannard announced his retirement from RED, leaving Jarred Land the current president to take over in his absence.\n\nSection::::Cameras.\n\nSection::::Cameras.:Red One.\n", "The format video image also suffered from head-switching noise, a distortion of the image in which a section of video at the bottom of the video frame would be horizontally askew from the larger portion.\n\nThe format also had difficulty reproducing the colour red, and red images would be noisier than other colours in the spectrum. For this reason, on-camera talent was discouraged from wearing red clothing that would call attention to the technical shortcoming.\n", "Section::::Modern Red Wanting Blue recordings.:\"From The Vanishing Point\" (2011–2014).\n", "Section::::Reception.:Ratings.:Series 2.\n", "A standards converter was used to provide the 405 line service, but according to more than one former RTÉ engineering source the converter blew up and afterwards the 405 line service was provided by a 405 line camera pointing at a monitor. This is not the best conversion technique but it can work if one is going from a higher resolution to a lower one – at the same frame rate. Slow phosphors are required on both orthicons.\n", "In March 2007, director Peter Jackson completed a camera test of two prototype Red One cameras, which became the 12-minute World War I film \"Crossing the Line\". On seeing the short film, director Steven Soderbergh told Jannard: \"I am all in. I have to shoot with this.\" Soderbergh took two prototype Red Ones into the jungle to shoot his film, \"Che\". A short documentary, \"Che and the Digital Revolution\" was made about the Red camera technology that was used in the film's production. The Red One first shipped in August 2007. One of the first television programs to shoot with it was the medical drama \"ER\".\n", "Section::::Modern Red Wanting Blue recordings.:\"Little America\" (2014 – 2016).\n", "\"Oblivion\" was filmed with Sony's CineAlta F65 camera, which was shipped in January 2012. A Red Epic was also used for scenes that required going handheld or when body mount rigging was applied. The film was shot in 4K resolution in Sony's proprietary raw image format, but for cost reasons (and over Kosinski's protests), both the digital intermediate and final version were done at 2K resolution.\n", "\"Red\" was released to universal critical acclaim, and was nominated for three Academy Awards, including Best Director for Kieślowski. It was also selected as the Swiss entry for the Best Foreign Language Film at the 67th Academy Awards, but was disqualified for not being a majority-Swiss production.\n\nSection::::Plot.\n", "Episodes that have been made with the games starting with \"Halo 3\" have used the theater mode camera. The Forge Mode from \"Halo 4\" onward also helped by providing a green screen and the creation of entire areas for certain scenes.\n", "The result is a signal with considerably less content, one that would fit within existing 6 MHz black-and-white signals as a phase modulated differential signal. The average TV displays the equivalent of 350 pixels on a line, but the TV signal contains enough information for only about 50 pixels of blue and perhaps 150 of red. This is not apparent to the viewer in most cases, as the eye makes little use of the \"missing\" information anyway.\n\nSection::::Colour television.:PAL and SECAM.\n", "a) The algorithm used to capture analog video or audio in digital form. b) Used to implement the physical combination of the coding and decoding circuits. c) A device for converting signals from analog to coded digital and then back again for use in digital transmission schemes. Most codecs employ proprietary coding algorithms for data compression.\n\nSection::::C.:Color.\n\nA visual perception that humans correspond to the categories called red, green, blue and others.\n\nSection::::C.:Color Burst.\n", "Jack Webb explains how safe Jerry is in his world, but when Jerry goes to sleep, Webb looks grim and tells the audience Jerry is going to have a Red Nightmare.\n", "In 2017, Red announced its intention to enter the cellphone market. Planned features are a 5.7\" holographic display and integration with existing camera products. On May 18, 2018, Red announced the Hydrogen One, with a release date in August 2018. Promised features include a holographic display, spatial sound, modular add-ons, compatibility with the Red camera program, and the launch of a streaming service.\n\nSection::::Lawsuits.\n", "Panasonic's raw converter corrects geometric distortion and chromatic aberration on such cameras as the LX3, with necessary correction information presumably included in the raw. Phase One's raw converter Capture One also offers corrections for geometrical distortion, chromatic aberration, purple fringing and keystone correction emulating the shift capability of tilt-shift in software and specially designed hardware, on most raw files from over 100 different cameras. The same holds for Canon's DPP application, at least for all more expensive cameras like all EOS DSLRs and the G series of compact cameras.\n", "Section::::Production.:Filming.\n", "The codec operates on 4×4 blocks of pixels in the RGB colorspace. Each frame is segmented into 4×4 blocks in raster-scan order. Each block is coded in one of four coding modes: skip, single color, four color, or 16 color. Colors are represented by 16 bits with a bit-depth of 5 bit for each of the three components red, green, and blue, a format known as RGB555. Because Apple Video operates in the image domain without motion compensation, decoding is much faster than MPEG-style codecs which use motion compensation and perform coding in a transform domain. As a tradeoff, the compression performance of Apple Video is lower.\n", "The human eye sees red when it looks at light with a wavelength between approximately 625 and 740 nanometers. It is a primary color in the RGB color model and the light just past this range is called infrared, or below red, and cannot be seen by human eyes, although it can be sensed as heat. In the language of optics, red is the color evoked by light that stimulates neither the S or the M (short and medium wavelength) cone cells of the retina, combined with a fading stimulation of the L (long-wavelength) cone cells.\n", "A camera raw image file contains minimally processed data from the image sensor of either a digital camera, image or motion picture film scanner. Raw files are so named because they are not yet processed and therefore are not ready to be printed or edited with a bitmap graphics editor. Normally, the image is processed by a raw converter in a wide-gamut internal colorspace where precise adjustments can be made before conversion to a positive file format such as TIFF or JPEG for storage, printing, or further manipulation, which often encodes the image in a device-dependent colorspace.\n\nSection::::R.:Real-Time.\n", "When the broadcast format or media format is interlaced, real-time deinterlacing should be performed by embedded circuitry in a set-top box, television, external video processor, DVD or DVR player, or TV tuner card. Since consumer electronics equipment is typically far cheaper, has considerably less processing power and uses simpler algorithms compared to professional deinterlacing equipment, the quality of deinterlacing may vary broadly and typical results are often poor even on high-end equipment.\n", "In February 2013, Red filed for an injunction against Sony, claiming that several of its new CineAlta products, particularly the 4K-capable F65, infringed on patents the company held. They requested that Sony not only be forced to stop selling the cameras, but that they be destroyed as well. Sony filed a countersuit against Red in April 2013, alleging that Red's entire product line infringed on Sony patents. In July 2013, both parties filed jointly for dismissal, and as of July 20, 2013, the case is closed.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of large sensor interchangeable-lens video cameras\n", "Section::::Production.\n\nSection::::Production.:Development.\n", "As the camera player's view has a heads-up display (HUD), black bars are added in post-production to hide the top and bottom portions containing irrelevant in-game information, creating a letterbox effect. Most machinima is made with computer games, which often have HUDs that can be easily disabled in one way or another. Console games such as \"Halo\" and \"Halo 2\" are often more limited in this respect. In 2010, Rooster Teeth Productions released a remastered edition of \"The Blood Gulch Chronicles\" that removed the black bars and aiming reticle existent in previous versions of the series, which was done by re-shooting the first four seasons in the PC versions of \"Halo\" and \"Halo 2\".\n", "Problems have been encountered attempting to use LED lighting on film and video sets. The color spectra of LED lighting primary colors does not match the expected color wavelength bandpasses of film emulsions and digital sensors. As a result, color rendition can be completely unpredictable in optical prints, transfers to digital media from film (DI's), and video camera recordings. This phenomenon with respect to motion picture film has been documented in an LED lighting evaluation series of tests produced by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences scientific staff.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04359	when comedians have their own tv shows, why do they need writers?	If its a weekly show, even if its only half an hour, there's an amazing amount of work that needs to happen each and every week. The writing for each episode can only happen in 1-2 days - since the writing will dictate if there's any special props, sets, wardrobe, extras etc. that are required, special music, licensing/rights if there's to be a clip shown or played. Those things just don't show up overnight. So the script has to be in close to final form days before the show is recorded. That, and to come up with truly top notch stuff, consistently week after week? Thats hard. Podcasts are a little different. You're not expecting them to bring their A-game for an hour twice weekly... if they want to drone on about how the barista at Starbucks spelled their name wrong and you're willing to listen that's fine. But that's not the kind of content that can fill a weekly show that is broadcast on a major network or streaming platform and keep the audience coming back week after week or nightly. e.g. Seth Meyers is a funny guy and I'm loving his weeknight show. But to consistently come up with a funny (and topical!) 5-10 minute monologue plus another 10-15 minutes for "A Closer Look".... every night... That's too much for any person. Try it yourself. Go and write a 10 minute presentation. Keep track of all the time you spend polishing it and practicing it. I bet it will take several hours. Now try for an hour long presentation... it will be days/weeks of effort.	[ "Espenson notes that a recent trend has been to eliminate the role of the mid-level writer, relying on the senior writers to do rough outlines and giving the other writers a bit more freedom. Regardless, when the finished scripts are sent to the top writers, the latter do a final round of rewrites. Espenson also notes that a show that airs daily, with characters who have decades of history behind their voices, necessitates a writing staff without the distinctive voice that can sometimes be present in prime-time series.\n\nSection::::Types.:Television writing.:Writing for game shows.\n", "Script-doctoring can be quite lucrative, especially for the better-known writers. David Mamet and John Sayles, for instance, fund the movies that they direct themselves, usually from their own screenplays, by writing and doctoring scripts for others. In fact, some writers make very profitable careers out of being the ninth or tenth writer to work on a piece, and they often work on projects that never see exposure to an audience of any size. Many up-and-coming screenwriters also ghostwrite projects and allow more-established screenwriters to take public credit for the project to increase the chances of it getting picked up.\n", "When Jenkins wrote the pilot for People of Earth (originally titled The Group) on spec, he hadn’t met Wyatt Cenac, Conan O’Brien or Greg Daniels. He wrote the pilot with Cenac in mind, having been a fan of his work from The Daily Show. The script eventually made its way to Conan O’Brien, who said the spec was ’My favorite script that I've read in memory.’ Because Jenkins described the show as a “Greg Daniels’ style human comedy mixed with a J.J. Abrams magic box show,” O'Brien passed the script onto Greg Daniels, who was “impressed with the world that David created and all the possibilities.”\n", "Serling said of his time as a staff writer for radio, \"From a writing point of view, radio ate up ideas that might have put food on the table for weeks at a future freelancing date. The minute you tie yourself down to a radio or TV station, you write around the clock. You rip out ideas, many of them irreplaceable. They go on and consequently can never go on again. And you've sold them for $50 a week. You can't afford to give away ideas—they're too damn hard to come by. If I had it to do over, I wouldn't staff-write at all. I'd find some other way to support myself while getting a start as a writer.\"\n", "The game was originally written in 2015 by Matthew S. Burns and Tom Bissell. Bissell had previously worked on AAA franchises such as \"Gears of War\" and \"\". Burns aimed to explain to video gaming fans how chaotic and difficult a creative project can be, as he felt critics and fans would often wonder \"why didn't the devs just do this\" when he felt there were barriers that prevented that which would be explained through this behind-the-curtain look.\n", "From the Maximum Fun website, \"In Dead Pilots Society, scripts that were developed by studios and networks but were never produced are given the table reads they deserve. Starring actors you know and love from television and film, a live audience, and a good time in which no one gets notes, no one is fired, and everyone laughs. Presented by Andrew Reich (Friends; Worst Week) and Ben Blacker (The Writers Panel podcast; co-creator, Thrilling Adventure Hour).\"\n\nSection::::Shows.:Current.:\"Dead Pilots Society\".:Notable Pilots.\n\nBULLET::::- \"C-Compay\" by Steve Agee & Rob Schrab\n\nBULLET::::- \"Allah in the Family\" by Reza Aslan & Andrew Reich\n", "The MC is often the writer of the show, and by that I mean the person who selects the games, the actors, the background stories and the type of suggestions to ask the audiences. The members who most often write and MC the shows are Jenn Horne and Andy Davis. Recently more people have begun writing shows, particularly the parodies. Patrick Kilmer directed The Wizard of Oz, Alex Modic directed Harry Potter and Aaron Gilley directs Casino Royale\n\nSection::::Workshops.\n", "When established writers are called in to rewrite portions of a script late in the development process, they are commonly referred to as script doctors. Prominent script doctors include Christopher Keane, Steve Zaillian, William Goldman, Robert Towne, Mort Nathan, Quentin Tarantino and Peter Russell. Many up-and-coming screenwriters work as ghost writers.\n\nSection::::Types.:Television writing.\n\nA freelance television writer typically uses spec scripts or previous credits and reputation to obtain a contract to write one or more episodes for an existing television show. After an episode is submitted, rewriting or polishing may be required.\n", "Although Jim will play a comedian, a conscious decision was made not to regularly intersperse the narrative with his stand-up comedy, like in such popular shows as \"Seinfeld\" and \"Louie\". He said of this decision: \"I want this to be more about what happens off the stage. ... 'Stand-up comedian' is an occupation and, like our pilot, we're evolving into a much more mature show.\" Jim Gaffigan and Peter Tolan wrote the pilot together. The rest of the series is written by Jim and his wife Jeannie.\n\nSection::::Production.:Crew.\n", "Among those who served as writers on Lewis's radio programmes were playwright Neil Simon, author and dramatist Paddy Chayefsky, and radio comedy writer Goodman Ace. Simon, Chayevsky and Ace headed a CBS team of comedy writers that acted largely as \"script doctors\" for existing shows in need of fixing. Ace was frustrated over a CBS revamp of the show he assembled for Lewis, \"The Little Show\": \"I give them a good, tight, fifteen-minute comedy show\", Ace told \"Time\", \"and what do they do? Expand it to half an hour and throw in an orchestra and an audience. Who the hell said a comedy show had to be half an hour, Marconi? Ida Cantor?\"\n", "Section::::Career.:Working with writers.\n", "After several failed attempts to get into professional radio - which at the time was becoming less and less \"personality driven\", the two by chance took a course in TV writing at USC given by TV producer/writer Digby Wolfe, at the time producing a Tennessee Ernie Ford special for NBC. Wolfe decided to hire two students writers, and Bob and Jim, after writing a Tennessee Ernie Ford spec monologue, were selected. Their performer days ended when their radio show was \"canceled\" around this time, and they remained behind the scenes writers and producers, with occasional forays in front of the camera, or appearances at KPFK fundraisers.\n", "Writers choose from a range of literary genres to express their ideas. Most writing can be adapted for use in another medium. For example, a writer's work may be read privately or recited or performed in a play or film. Satire for example, may be written as a poem, an essay, a film, a comic play, or a piece of journalism. The writer of a letter may include elements of criticism, biography, or journalism.\n", "A staff writer for a TV show generally works in-house, writing and rewriting episodes. Staff writers—often given other titles, such as story editor or producer—work both as a group and individually on episode scripts to maintain the show's tone, style, characters, and plots.\n\nTelevision show creators write the television pilot and bible of new television series. They are responsible for creating and managing all aspects of a show's characters, style, and plots. Frequently, a creator remains responsible for the show's day-to-day creative decisions throughout the series run as showrunner, head writer or story editor.\n\nSection::::Types.:Television writing.:Writing for daily series.\n", "As part of this campaign, on September 20, 2006 the WGAw held a Los Angeles unity rally in support of the \"America's Next Top Model\" writers' strike. President Patric Verrone said, \"Every piece of media with a moving image on a screen or a recorded voice must have a writer, and every writer must have a WGA contract.\"\n", "After Joe and Sons went off the air, Bob and Jim travels as TV writers took them to programs as varied as The Love Boat, Steve Allen's Laughback, Steve Allen's 3rd Annual Miss Las Vegas Show Girl Pageant, Phyllis Diller's 102nd Birthday Party, (Dick) Van Dyke and Company (reunited with Bob Einstein and Steve Martin, and for which they received their second Emmy nomination), One Day at a Time, the classic Fernwood 2Night, starring Martin Mull and Fred Willard, renamed America 2Night (for which they received an Emmy nomination for Best Writing), What's Happening!!, The Captain and Tennille Show (where they were often on camera as comedy performers), and The Carol Burnett Show.\n", "The character Phil begins his career as a writer for \"The Larry Sanders Show\" under the then-head writer Jerry, played by Jeremy Piven. After Jerry was written off of the show, it went several episodes without having the head writer character. Phil then persuaded Artie to promote him to head writer and then wanted to demote himself because he felt that the work was not as enjoyable as it was before.\n", "Famous comedians may pay lesser comedians thousands of dollars for jokes and hire them on as writers, but many famous comedians do not reveal this, as it is considered a taboo to admit purchasing material for stand-up comedy sets. Mark Normand states that a set on Conan will pay \"a couple grand\" for five minutes.\n\nSection::::Other media.\n", "BULLET::::- September 20 – The Writers Guild of America, West, holds a Los Angeles rally in support of the \"America's Next Top Model\" writers' strike. President Patric Verrone says: \"Every piece of media with a moving image on a screen or a recorded voice must have a writer, and every writer must have a WGA contract.\"\n", "Marc Abrams of the TV series \"The Bernie Mac Show\" said, \"As you go from show to show you learn that each has its own temperature and its own etiquette. You recognize your role on that particular show. Certain show runners encourage the lower-level writers to pitch ideas, others don't. Some want ideas well thought out before they are presented, others like to hear the kernel of an idea that could be expanded.\"\n\nThis role often overlaps with that of the head writer.\n\nSection::::Notable story editors.\n\nBULLET::::- T. Rafael Cimino\n\nBULLET::::- Eli Talbert\n\nBULLET::::- Angela Kang\n\nBULLET::::- Josh Berman\n", "According to an interview with Fey in 2004, the three- to four-member dedicated Weekend Update writing team will write jokes throughout the week. The host(s) of Weekend Update will normally not work with, or read the scripts from, the team until Thursday evening, after the main show sketches have been finalized. The host(s) will then work on contributing to the script where necessary. As of Fall 2017, Weekend Update now has its own separate writing staff dedicated to writing news jokes.\n\nSection::::Production.:Post-production.\n", "Russell has often been asked the question, \"Do you have any writers?\" His standard response is \"Oh, yes. I have 535 writers. 100 in the Senate and 435 in the House of Representatives!\" When asked if his views on current events are too caustic, Russell replies, \"I follow the old newsman's adage. As they say, 'I don't make the news. I just report it.' And in my case, I don't even make the jokes. I just report them as they masquerade as news.\"\n", "Late night comedy shows such as \"The Tonight Show with Jay Leno\", \"Late Night with Conan O'Brien\", \"Jimmy Kimmel Live!\", \"Late Show with David Letterman\", \"The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson\", \"The Daily Show with Jon Stewart\", and \"Saturday Night Live\" began airing reruns immediately. \"Last Call\" resumed airing on December 3, with host Carson Daly explaining that if he did not do so, his staff would have been fired. On January 2, 2008, the Tonight Show and Late Night returned on NBC with new episodes. Conan O'Brien stated, \"An unwritten version of 'Late Night,' though not desirable, is possible -- and no one has to be fired.\"\n", "The show's chief writers, Bob Mosher and Joe Connelly, met while working in New York City for the J. Walter Thompson Agency. Once in Hollywood, the men became head writers for the radio show \"Amos 'n' Andy\" and continued to write the well-received show when it moved to CBS television in 1950. Although both men initially wrote all the scripts for earlier episodes of \"Leave It to Beaver\", after becoming executive producers they began accepting scripts from other writers, refining them, if necessary.\n", "BULLET::::- Beck Bennett, star of the AT&T \"It's Not Complicated\" commercials and Saturday Night Live cast member\n\nBULLET::::- Kyle Mooney, cast member of Saturday Night Live\n\nBULLET::::- Nick Rutherford, writer for Saturday Night Live\n\nAdditionally, the following comedy groups have been formed by alumni of the Commedus cast:\n\nBULLET::::- Good Neighbor\n\nBULLET::::- Trust Fall\n\nBULLET::::- Invisible Engine\n\nBULLET::::- Summer of Tears\n\nSection::::\"Saturday Night Live\".\n\nIn 2013, Commedus Interruptus Alumni Beck Bennett and Kyle Mooney were made featured players on the legendary New York-based sketch comedy show, \"Saturday Night Live\". Nick Rutherford joined the show as a writer in 2014.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04804	Why some mushrooms are so poisonous and deadly and some are perfectly edible?	Because that's how nature works? Some stuff is poisonous, some isn't, some will kill you, some won't. "Mushrooms" are a huge section of life. That's like asking "why do some snakes kill you and some don't"?	[ "Separating edible from poisonous species requires meticulous attention to detail; there is no single trait by which all toxic mushrooms can be identified, nor one by which all edible mushrooms can be identified. People who collect mushrooms for consumption are known as mycophagists, and the act of collecting them for such is known as mushroom hunting, or simply \"mushrooming\". Even edible mushrooms may produce allergic reactions in susceptible individuals, from a mild asthmatic response to severe anaphylactic shock. Even the cultivated \"A. bisporus\" contains small amounts of hydrazines, the most abundant of which is agaritine (a mycotoxin and carcinogen). However, the hydrazines are destroyed by moderate heat when cooking.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Poisonous mushrooms are brightly colored.\" – Indeed, fly agaric, usually bright-red to orange or yellow, is narcotic and hallucinogenic, although no human deaths have been reported. The deadly destroying angel, in contrast, is an unremarkable white. The deadly \"Galerinas\" are brown. Some choice edible species (chanterelles, \"Amanita caesarea\", \"Laetiporus sulphureus\", etc.) are brightly colored, whereas most poisonous species are brown or white.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Insects/animals will avoid toxic mushrooms.\" – Fungi that are harmless to invertebrates can still be toxic to humans; the death cap, for instance, is often infested by insect larvae.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Verpa bohemica\" is considered choice by some—it even can be found for sale as a \"morel\"—but cases of toxicity have been reported. Verpas contain toxins similar to gyromitrin and similar precautions apply.\n\nSection::::Nutrients.\n", "A number of species of mushrooms are poisonous; although some resemble certain edible species, consuming them could be fatal. Eating mushrooms gathered in the wild is risky and should only be undertaken by individuals knowledgeable in mushroom identification. Common best practice is for wild mushroom pickers to focus on collecting a small number of visually distinctive, edible mushroom species that cannot be easily confused with poisonous varieties.\n\nSection::::Human use.:Toxic mushrooms.\n", "BULLET::::- \"All mushrooms are safe if cooked/parboiled/dried/pickled/etc.\" – While it is true that some otherwise-inedible species can be rendered safe by special preparation, many toxic species cannot be made toxin-free. Many fungal toxins are not particularly sensitive to heat and so are not broken down during cooking; in particular, α-amanitin, the poison produced by the death cap (\"Amanita phalloides\") and others of the genus, is not denatured by heat.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Poisonous mushrooms will turn rice red when boiled.\" – A number of Laotian refugees were hospitalized after eating mushrooms (probably toxic \"Russula\" species) deemed safe by this folklore rule and this misconception cost at least one person her life.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Poisonous mushrooms have a pointed cap. Edible ones have a flat, rounded cap.\" – The shape of the mushroom cap does not correlate with presence or absence of mushroom toxins, so this is not a reliable method to distinguish between edible and poisonous species. Death cap, for instance, has a rounded cap when mature.\n", "Although usually not fatal, \"Omphalotus\" spp., \"Jack-o-lantern mushrooms,\" are another cause of sometimes significant toxicity. They are sometimes mistaken for chanterelles. Both are bright-orange and fruit at the same time of year, although \"Omphalotus\" grows on wood and has true gills rather than the veins of a \"Cantharellus\". They contain toxins known as illudins, which causes gastrointestinal symptoms.\n\nBioluminescent species are generally inedible and often mildly toxic.\n\n\"Clitocybe dealbata\", which is occasionally mistaken for an oyster mushroom or other edible species contains muscarine.\n", "Section::::Society and culture.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.:Folk traditions.\n\nMany folk traditions concern the defining features of poisonous mushrooms. However, there are no general identifiers for poisonous mushrooms, so such traditions are unreliable. Guidelines to identify particular mushrooms exist, and will serve only if one knows which mushrooms are toxic.\n\nExamples of erroneous folklore \"rules\" include:\n", "Many mushroom species produce secondary metabolites that can be toxic, mind-altering, antibiotic, antiviral, or bioluminescent. Although there are only a small number of deadly species, several others can cause particularly severe and unpleasant symptoms. Toxicity likely plays a role in protecting the function of the basidiocarp: the mycelium has expended considerable energy and protoplasmic material to develop a structure to efficiently distribute its spores. One defense against consumption and premature destruction is the evolution of chemicals that render the mushroom inedible, either causing the consumer to vomit the meal (see emetics), or to learn to avoid consumption altogether. In addition, due to the propensity of mushrooms to absorb heavy metals, including those that are radioactive, European mushrooms may, as late as 2008, include toxicity from the 1986 Chernobyl disaster and continue to be studied.\n", "Edible mushrooms include many fungal species that are either harvested wild or cultivated. Easily cultivated and common wild mushrooms are often available in markets, and those that are more difficult to obtain (such as the prized truffle, matsutake and morel) may be collected on a smaller scale by private gatherers. Some preparations may render certain poisonous mushrooms fit for consumption.\n", "Some mushrooms are deadly or extremely hazardous when consumed. Some that are not deadly can nevertheless cause permanent organ damage.\n\nCommon safety advice includes:\n\nBULLET::::- That only positively identified mushrooms should be eaten\n\nBULLET::::- That mushrooms be identified a second time during preparation and to cook them unless it can be verified that the species can be eaten raw\n\nBULLET::::- That mushroom types not be combined\n\nBULLET::::- That a sample of any mushroom not well-experienced will be retained for analysis in case of poisoning\n", "BULLET::::- \"Amanita rubescens\" (The Blusher) must be cooked before eating.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Coprinopsis atramentaria\" is edible without special preparation, however, consumption with alcohol is toxic due to the presence of coprine. Some other \"Coprinus\" spp. share this property.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gyromitra esculenta\" is eaten by some after it has been parboiled, however, mycologists do not recommend it. Raw \"Gyromitra\" are toxic due to the presence of gyromitrin, and it is not known whether all of the toxin can be removed by parboiling.\n", "Some mushrooms might concentrate toxins from their growth substrate, such as Chicken of the Woods growing on yew trees.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Poisonous mushrooms.\n\nOf the most lethal mushrooms, three—the death cap (\"A. phalloides\"), destroying angels (\"A. virosa\" and \"A. bisporigera\"), and the fool's mushroom (\"A. verna\")—belong to the genus \"Amanita\", and two more—the deadly webcap (\"C. rubellus\"), and the fool's webcap (\"C. orellanus\")—are from the genus \"Cortinarius\". Several species of Galerina, Lepiota, and Conocybe also contain lethal amounts of amatoxins. Deadly species are listed in the List of deadly fungi.\n", "A few poisonings are the result of misidentification while attempting to collect hallucinogenic mushrooms for recreational use. In 1981, one fatality and two hospitalizations occurred following consumption of \"Galerina autumnalis\", mistaken for a \"Psilocybe\" species. \"Galerina\" and \"Psilocybe\" species are both small, brown, and sticky, and can be found growing together. However, \"Galerina\" contains amatoxins, the same poison found in the deadly \"Amanita\" species. Another case reports kidney failure following ingestion of \"Cortinarius orellanus\", a mushroom containing orellanine.\n", "BULLET::::- Highly poisonous \"Conocybe filaris\" and some \"Galerina\" species can resemble \"Psilocybe\", and the species are observed growing alongside each other. Psilocybe species are not deadly but contain the alkaloids psilocybin and psilocin, known to cause hallucinogenic effects; therefore it is often sought for use as a recreational psychedelic drug.\n\nSection::::Guidelines for mushroom picking.:Eating poisonous species.\n", "BULLET::::- Consuming only a small amount the first time a new species is tried. People react differently to different mushrooms, and all mushroom species can cause an adverse reaction in a few individuals, even the common champignon.\n\nSection::::Identifying mushrooms.:Little brown mushrooms.\n", "As it is difficult to accurately identify a safe mushroom without proper training and knowledge, it is often advised to assume that a wild mushroom is poisonous and not to consume it.\n\nSection::::Human use.:Pest control.\n", "Before assuming that any wild mushroom is edible, it should be identified. Accurate determination and proper identification of a species is the only safe way to ensure edibility, and the only safeguard against possible accident. Some mushrooms that are edible for most people can cause allergic reactions in some individuals, and old or improperly stored specimens can cause food poisoning. Great care should therefore be taken when eating any fungus for the first time, and only small quantities should be consumed in case of individual allergies. Deadly poisonous mushrooms that are frequently confused with edible mushrooms and responsible for many fatal poisonings include several species of the genus \"Amanita\", in particular, \"Amanita phalloides\", the \"death cap\". It is therefore better to eat only a few, easily recognizable species, than to experiment indiscriminately. Moreover, even normally edible species of mushrooms may be dangerous, as mushrooms growing in polluted locations can accumulate pollutants such as heavy metals.\n", "Many mushroom species are poisonous to humans and cause a range of reactions including slight digestive problems, allergic reactions, hallucinations, severe organ failure, and death. Genera with mushrooms containing deadly toxins include \"Conocybe\", \"Galerina\", \"Lepiota\", and, the most infamous, \"Amanita\". The latter genus includes the destroying angel \"(A.virosa)\" and the death cap \"(A.phalloides)\", the most common cause of deadly mushroom poisoning. The false morel (\"Gyromitra esculenta\") is occasionally considered a delicacy when cooked, yet can be highly toxic when eaten raw. \"Tricholoma equestre\" was considered edible until it was implicated in serious poisonings causing rhabdomyolysis. Fly agaric mushrooms (\"Amanita muscaria\") also cause occasional non-fatal poisonings, mostly as a result of ingestion for its hallucinogenic properties. Historically, fly agaric was used by different peoples in Europe and Asia and its present usage for religious or shamanic purposes is reported from some ethnic groups such as the Koryak people of north-eastern Siberia.\n", "Many field guides on mushrooms are available and recommended to help safely distinguish edible from the many poisonous mushrooms.\n\nIdentification is not the only element of mushroom hunting that takes practice; knowing where and when to search does as well. Most mushroom species require very specific conditions. Some only grow at the base of a certain type of tree, for example. Finding a desired species that is known to grow in a certain region can be a challenge.\n\nSection::::Identifying mushrooms.:Safety issues.\n\nA Czech adage warns that \"\" Translated, that \"every mushroom is edible, but some only once.\"\n", "There are treatments to reduce or eliminate the toxicity of certain (but not all) poisonous species to the point where they may be edible. For instance, false morels are deadly poisonous when eaten raw or incorrectly prepared, but their toxins can be reduced by a proper method of parboiling. Prepared in this way, this mushroom is widely used and considered a delicacy in many European countries, although recent research suggests that there may still be long-term health consequences from eating it.\n\nSection::::Commonly gathered mushrooms.\n\nCommonly gathered species, grouped by their order taxa, are as follows:\n", "The \"Gyromitra esculenta\" is considered poisonous, but can be consumed if dried and stored for over a year, according to Slavic literature, and can be used to supplement or replace morel (see \"Morchellaceae\" below) mushrooms, while Western literature claims that even the fumes of the mushroom are dangerous. It is similar to morels both in appearance and palatability.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gyromitra esculenta\" (false morel, beefsteak morel, lorchel)\n\nSection::::Commonly gathered mushrooms.:Morchellaceae.\n", "The genus \"Xerocomus\" is generally considered a less desirable (though mostly edible) mushroom group, due to common abundant mould growth on their caps, which can make them poisonous. The \"Xerocomus badius\", however is an exception, being moderately sought after, especially in Europe. Some scientific classifications now consider species in the genus \"Xerocomus\" as members of \"Boletus\".\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xerocomus\" (mossiness mushroom)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xerocomus badius\" (\"hřib hnědý\")\n\nSection::::Commonly gathered mushrooms.:Cantharellaceae.\n", "New species of fungi are continuing to be discovered, with an estimated number of 800 new species registered annually. This, added to the fact that many investigations have recently reclassified some species of mushrooms from edible to poisonous has made older classifications insufficient at describing what now is known about the different species of fungi that are harmful to humans. Thus, contrary to what older registers state, it is now thought that of the approximately 100,000 known fungi species found worldwide, about 100 of them are poisonous to humans. However, by far the majority of mushroom poisonings are not fatal, and the majority of fatal poisonings are attributable to the \"Amanita phalloides\" mushroom.\n", "The situation is treated with black humor in some Russian jokes.\"\n\nSection::::Guidelines for mushroom picking.\n\nSection::::Guidelines for mushroom picking.:Poisonous mushrooms commonly confused with edible ones.\n\nMany mushroom guidebooks call attention to similarities between species, especially significant if an edible species is similar to, or commonly confused with, one that is potentially harmful.\n\nExamples:\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-03303	Why the armor of some tanks can ricochet tank shells?	The simple explanation is that the armor is at an angle relative to how the shell moves. The armour is hard and the shell is also hard so the initial hit might not dig down into the armour but bound off instead. Here is a profile with armour thickness if a Soves IS-2 heavy tank. URL_0 The front is 30 and 60 degrees from flat in the vertical planeso if you hit it from straight ahead you will hit thick plates with quite high angles so there is a high chance to ger the shell to bounce off compared to damaging the surface. You might not be straight a head so then the projectile will hit the Armour with a angle in horizontal plan so that make it. The projectile is hard but so is also the amour. If you try to stab a thick metal plate with a tool like a screwdriver you will notice the difference depending of the angle you hit it at. Straight down might damage is and the tool stay there but at a angel it is likely to just slide of. The design of tanks and shell have evolved over time so the modern anti tank projectile that are thin long uranium/tungsten rods are less likely to bound of compared to older designs.	[ "Section::::History and development.\n", "Section::::Design.\n", "Section::::Types.:Armor-piercing shells.:High-explosive anti-tank.\n", "Sloped armour can also cause projectiles to ricochet, but this phenomenon is much more complicated and as yet not fully predictable. High rod density, impact velocity, and length-to-diameter ratio are factors that contribute to a high critical ricochet angle (the angle at which ricochet is expected to onset) for a long rod projectile, but different formulae may predict different critical ricochet angles for the same situation.\n\nSection::::Deflection.:Basic physical principles of deflection.\n", "Section::::Combat history.:Operation Protective Edge.\n\nNo tanks were damaged during Operation Protective Edge, with the Trophy Active Protection system performing over a dozen interceptions of anti-tank weapons including Kornet, Metis and RPG-29. The system, by identifying the source of fire, on occasion also allowed tanks to kill the Hamas anti-tank team.\n", "Section::::Sabot discard.\n", "Gun shield\n\nA gun shield is a flat (or sometimes curved) piece of armor designed to be mounted on a crew-served weapon such as a machine gun or artillery piece, or, more rarely, to be used with an assault rifle.\n\nSection::::Military.\n\nSome mounted machine guns and artillery pieces are equipped with metal armor plates to protect the gunners from sniper fire and shrapnel from explosions. Salvaged metal plates can sometimes service as improvised gun shields; in the Vietnam War crews of armored fighting vehicles and patrol boats would attach metal plates to the machine guns.\n", "First used in World War I with tanks, rollers are designed to detonate mines; blast-resistant vehicles with steel wheels, such as the Casspir, serve a similar purpose. However, those used in humanitarian demining cannot withstand the blast from an anti-tank mine, so their use must be preceded by careful surveying. Unlike flails and tillers, they only destroy functioning mines, and even those do not always explode.\n", "Many modern tanks (for instance, the M1 Abrams, Leopard 2, Challenger 2 and Leclerc series, to name a few) feature ammunition compartments designed to fail safely under fire as a firepower kill—when damaged, vents open to channel ignited propellants and explosives away from the crew cabin. The intact crew can then return the tank to a maintenance center or, at least, escape their disabled vehicle.\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Eve of Destruction: The Untold Story of the Yom Kippur War\", Howard Blum, Harper Perennial, 2004\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tanks of World War II\"; Jane's Information Group, HarperResource, 1995\n", "Section::::Types.:Armor-piercing shot.:Armor-piercing composite non-rigid.\n", "The first British HEAT weapon to be developed and issued was a rifle grenade using a 2 1/2 inch cup launcher on the end of the barrel; the British No. 68 AT grenade issued to the British army in 1940. By 1943, the PIAT was developed; a combination of a HEAT warhead and a spigot mortar delivery system. While cumbersome, the weapon at last allowed British infantry to engage armour at range; the earlier magnetic hand-mines and grenades required them to approach suicidally close. During World War II, the British referred to the Munroe effect as the \"cavity effect on explosives\".\n", "A range of hand-thrown grenades have been designed for use against heavy armored vehicles. An early and unreliable example was the British Sticky bomb of 1940, which was too short-ranged to use effectively. Designs such as the German \"Panzerwurfmine\" (L) and the Soviet RPG-43, RPG-40, RPG-6 and RKG-3 series of grenades used a High Explosive Anti-Tank (HEAT) shaped charge warhead using a cone-shaped cavity on one end and some method to stabilize flight and increase the probability of right angle impact for the shaped charge's metal stream to effectively penetrate the tank armor.\n", "Section::::Types.:Armor-piercing shells.:High-explosive squash-head or high-explosive plastic.\n", "The charges are generally cylindrical, fabricated from commonly available metal pipe, with the forward end closed by a concave copper or steel disk-shaped liner to create a shaped charge. Explosive is loaded behind the metal liner to fill the pipe. Upon detonation, the explosive projects the liner to form a projectile.\n\nThe effects of traditional explosions like blast-forces and metal fragments seldom disable armored vehicles, but the explosively formed solid copper penetrator is quite lethal—even to the new generation of mine-resistant vehicles (which are made to withstand an anti-tank mine), and many tanks.\n", "Section::::Types.:Armor-piercing shot.:Armor-piercing composite rigid.\n", "Section::::Sub-projectile construction.\n", "One of the earliest uses of shaped charges was by German glider-borne troops against the Belgian Fort Eben-Emael in 1940. These demolition charges – developed by Dr. Wuelfken of the German Ordnance Office – were \"unlined\" explosive charges and didn't produce a metal jet like the modern HEAT warheads.\n\nDue to the lack of metal liner they shook the turrets but they did not destroy them, and other airborne troops were forced to climb on the turrets and smash the gun barrels.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Modern military.\n", "Section::::Types.\n\nSection::::Types.:Armor-piercing shells.\n", "It was because of this threat that some of the first successful mine protected vehicles were developed by South African military and police forces. Chief amongst these were the Buffel and Casspir armoured personnel carriers and Ratel armoured fighting vehicle. They employed v-shaped hulls that deflected the blast force away from occupants. In most cases occupants survived anti-tank mine detonations with only minor injuries. The vehicles themselves could often be repaired by replacing the wheels or some drive train components that were designed to be modular and replaceable for exactly this reason.\n", "Section::::Blowout panel.:Military applications.\n\nBlowout panels are installed in several modern tanks, including the M1 Abrams, and have in the past been considered as a possible solution to magazine explosions on battleships.\n", "SIM-EFPs are built from simple cut and bent steel bars, side by side, with explosives attached. Upon explosion it creates multiple projectiles spread out along the vehicles' length, which makes it more probable that the enemy troops inside the vehicle are hit. The construction also allows for longer timing errors, and makes it easier to hit fast moving vehicles.\n", "On 13 April 1972—during the Vietnam War—Americans Major Larry McKay, Captain Bill Causey, First Lieutenant Steve Shields, and Chief Warrant Officer Barry McIntyre became the first helicopter crewmen to destroy enemy armor in combat. A flight of two AH-1 Cobra helicopters, dispatched from Battery F, 79th Artillery, 1st Cavalry Division, were armed with the newly developed M247 HEAT rockets, which were yet untested in the theatre of war. The helicopters destroyed three T-54 tanks that were about to overrun a U.S. command post. McIntyre and McKay engaged first, destroying the lead tank.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- High-explosive squash head\n", "Section::::Types.:Armor-piercing shot.:Armor-piercing.\n", "BULLET::::2. The distance is critical because the stream disintegrates and disperses after a short distance, usually well under 2 meters. The stream material is formed by a cone of metal foil lining, usually copper, though ductile iron and tin foil was commonly used during World War II.\n", "Section::::World War I era.:Technical considerations.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-20754	Why does a VALID drivers license not fulfill the requirement of proof of citizenship if you had to have citizenship to get it in the first place?	You don't need to be a citizen to get a driver's license. A friend of mine is a legal resident from Costa Rica but not a citizen and she has a valid Illinois driver's license.	[ "In the state of California, obtaining a driver's license did not require proof of legal presence since the early 1990s. However, California blocked off this access in 1991, by asking all driver license applicants to provide proof of citizenship. Two years later, California explicitly committed to require proof of license to state issued driver's licenses by passing Senate Bill 976. Under SB 976 anyone requesting a driver's license from the Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) needed to provide proof of lawful presence in the United States.\n", "Restricting illegal immigrants or legal immigrants who are unable to prove their legal status, or lack social security numbers, from obtaining driver's licenses may keep them from obtaining liability insurance and from working, causing many immigrants and foreign nationals to lose their jobs or to travel internationally in order to renew their driver's license. Furthermore, for visitors on J-1 and H1B visas, the fact that visas may expire before their legal stay is over (this happens due to the fact that J-1 visas are issued with a one-year expiration date but visitors are allowed to stay for their \"duration of status\" as long as they have a valid contract) can make the process of renewing a driver's license extremely complex and, as mentioned above, force legal foreign citizens to travel abroad only to renew a visa which would not need to be renewed if it weren't for the need to renew one's driver's license. Although the new law does allow states to offer \"not for federal ID\" licenses in these cases, and that some states (e.g., Utah and Tennessee) have already started issuing such \"driving privileges certificates/cards\" in lieu of regular driver's licenses, allowing such applicants to be tested and licensed to drive and obtain liability insurance, the majority of U.S. states do not plan to offer \"not for federal ID\" licenses. In October 2007, then-governor of New York Eliot Spitzer announced that the state will adopt a similar \"multi-tiered\" licensing scheme in which the state will issue three different kinds of driver licenses, two of which comply with the Real ID security requirements and one which will be marked as \"not for federal ID\" purposes. However, following a political outcry, Spitzer withdrew his proposal to issue licenses to those unable to prove legal residence.\n", "On December 2, 2011, a Japanese Honda executive was stopped in Leeds, Alabama, at a checkpoint set up by police to catch unlicensed drivers. He was ticketed on the spot, despite the fact that he showed an International Driving Permit, a valid passport and a U.S. work permit.\n", "An exception is the EU, where permits do not need to be exchanged since the introduction of the \"common EU driving licence scheme\".\n\nSection::::International and interstate considerations.:Issues when moving permanently from one country or one state to another.:Australia.\n", "The DHS rule declines to implement as impractical the provision of the Act requiring verification of the validity of foreign passports presented by foreign driver's license applicants as proof of identity with the authorities that issued these foreign passports (page 5294 of the DHS final rule in the Federal Register).\n", "In the absence of a formal identity document, a driver's license may be accepted in many countries for identity verification. Some countries do not accept driver's licenses for identification, often because in those countries they do not expire as documents and can be old or easily forged. Most countries accept passports as a form of identification.\n", "When a person applies for a Real ID, either as a new driver license or ID card applicant or renewing a current license or ID card, they must present a citizenship document (US passport, certified birth certificate or citizenship certificate) or proof of legal immigrant status, proof of a Social Security number if they have been issued one, proof of any name changes if using birth certificate, and two proofs of residency in the state. The state then must verify the documents and store them either electronically or on paper. No one may have more than one Real ID at one time.\n", "Section::::New York.:First attempts to restore access to drivers licences for illegal immigrants.\n", "The Department of Homeland Security has the power through the Real ID Act of 2005 to set standards relating to identification of applicants and license design for state-issued driver licenses and identification cards. States are not required to comply with Real ID, but if a state does not comply, any driver licenses or ID cards issued by that state will not be valid for any official purpose with the federal government, meaning they will not be accepted for entering federal buildings or boarding airplanes.\n", "The more stringent requirements did not sit well with some of California's state legislators. Gil Cedillo, for example, chipped away at SB 976, an attempt to remove the legal presence requirement in California for state issued driver's licenses. In 2003, one of Cedillo's proposals (Senate Bill 60) gained significant support in California's State legislature, was signed by former Governor Gray Davis, but did not become a law\n", "In the state of New York, obtaining a driver's license did not require proof of legal presence; however, New York blocked off this access in 2002, by asking all driver license applicants to provide a valid social security number. In 2019, the legislature passed the \"Driver's License Access and Privacy Act\" restoring access to drivers licenses for the illegal immigrant population.\n", "Drivers' licenses issued in any state are recognized as valid identity documents in all other states under a variety of legal principles like comity and the Full Faith and Credit Clause of the United States Constitution. However, if a person permanently moves to another state as a resident, state laws usually give a period of time, such as 60 days, in which a person must surrender his out-of-state license for the license of his new home state.\n\nSection::::Requirement to carry identification.\n", "Many countries, including Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States, have no national identification cards. Since many people do have driving permits, they are often accepted as proof of identity. In some territories, non-drivers can apply for identification-only cards with a similar format to a driving permit. Most identity cards and driving permits are credit card size—the \"ID-1\" size and shape defined in ISO/IEC 7810.\n\nSection::::Use for identification purposes.:Asia.\n", "For a state to meet Real ID compliance, licenses and ID cards issued from that state must be approved by DHS in meeting Real ID requirements.\n\nStates can choose to issue both regular licenses and ID cards as well as Real IDs, but any non-Real ID must be marked \"Not for Federal Identification\". Real IDs are valid for 8 years.\n\nReal IDs are allowed to be issued only to legal immigrants and citizens of the United States.\n", "Section::::International and interstate considerations.:Issues when moving permanently from one country or one state to another.\n\nMost issuing authorities require holders of foreign permits taking up residence in their jurisdiction to obtain a local driving permit within a limited time, typically 6 months or 1 year. In most cases, the driver must follow the full local procedure for obtaining a permit, but some jurisdictions have mutual recognition agreements and will exchange the foreign permit for a local one without the need to undertake an additional driving test.\n", "On September 2002, former Governor of New York, George E. Pataki, issued an executive order directing the Department of Motor Vehicles to require a social security number before issuing a driver's license. The Pataki administration presented the measure as a \"crackdown on license fraud and as the kind of national security measure demanded by the Sept. 11 attacks.\" In 2004, under a policy instituted under former Governor of New York, George E. Pataki, the Department of Motor Vehicles began putting “temporary visitor” marks on licenses issued to individuals with temporary visas, along with the date that those visas expired. From 2002 to 2019, illegal immigrants had been unable to secure a New York Drivers License.\n", "In the United States, driver's licenses are issued by the states, not by the federal government. Additionally, because the United States has no national identification card and because of the widespread use of cars, driver's licenses have been used as a \"de facto\" standard form of identification within the country. For non-drivers, states also issue voluntary identification cards which do not grant driving privileges. Prior to the Real ID Act, each state set its own rules and criteria regarding the issuance of a driver's license or identification card, including the look of the card, what data is on the card, what documents must be provided to obtain one, and what information is stored in each state's database of licensed drivers and identification card holders.\n", "In 2017, New York began issuing REAL ID-compliant driver's licenses. The state now employs a multi-tier system, as permitted by federal law, and offers three licenses: (1) the \"enhanced\" license, (2) The \"REAL ID\" license, and (3) the \"standard\" license, which is used for identification purposes and for driving, but is not REAL ID-compliant. Displayed on its face are the words, \"NOT FOR FEDERAL PURPOSES.\"\n", "Section::::New York.:Reaction.\n", "Driver's licenses for illegal immigrants in the United States\n\nAs of June 2019, 13 U.S. states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico issue driver's licenses or permits to some or all of the population residing unlawfully in the United States. State laws permitting this are on the books in California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Hawaii, Illinois, Maryland, New Mexico, Nevada, New York, Utah, Vermont, and Washington. The issue is being debated in New Jersey, while Oregon issued such licenses until 2008 and briefly from 2013 until the 2014 Oregon Ballot Measure 88.\n\nSection::::California.\n", "National identity cards with similar utility are common inside the European Union countries for both national and international use, with the difference that such cards are often mandatory to carry in several of these countries. In contrast, there are only some states in the U.S. which have 'stop and identify statutes', and in these states, a driver license will always suffice.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Driver information.:Validation.\n\nAccording to the 1968 Vienna Convention, an IDP must have an expiration date of no more than three years from its issue date or until the expiration date of national driving permit, whichever is earlier, and it is valid for a period of one year upon the arrival in the foreign country. The previous convention (1949 Geneva Convention) stated that an IDP remains valid for one year from the date of issue, with a grace period of six months.\n", "From 2001 to 2019, undocumented immigrants were not eligible for driver's licenses in New York. Although there is nothing in New York law that requires legal status in order to obtain a standard driver's license, a 2001 executive order issued by then-Governor George Pataki created a rule that effectively prevents undocumented immigrants and other individuals without a Social Security number from obtaining licenses.\n\nSection::::New York.:Green Light New York Coalition.\n", "On October 28, 2015, Governor Jerry Brown signed a bill into law that automatically registers all citizen resident holders of a driver's license as a registered voter for all California ballots, including federal elections. Opponents expressed concern this could offer suffrage rights to noncitizen residents, since a January 2015 legislation decreed the right of a driver's license to noncitizens. However, as the \"Sacramento Bee\" pointed out, \"people will need to attest they're citizens before being able to register,\" \"undocumented immigrants applying for driver's licenses, a right they gained this year, will not be offered the option.\" Citizenship status is verified at the DMV when applying for a license.\n", "SEN. CLINTON: Well, you may say that, but what is the identification if somebody runs into you today who is an undocumented worker --\n\nSEN. DODD: There's ways of dealing with that.\n\nSEN. CLINTON: Well, but --\n\nSEN. DODD: This is a privilege, not a right.\n\nSEN. CLINTON: Well, what Governor Spitzer has agreed to do is to have three different licenses; one that provides identification for actually going onto airplanes and other kinds of security issues, another which is an ordinary driver's license, and then a special card that identifies the people who would be on the road.\n" ]	[ "You need to be a citizen in order to get a valid driver's license.", "A driver's license should be enough to provide proof of citizenship because you need to live in the area to receive one." ]	[ "You do not need to be a citizen to get a valid driver's license.", "A person does not need to live in an area in order to receive a license to drive within that area." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "You need to be a citizen in order to get a valid driver's license.", "A driver's license should be enough to provide proof of citizenship because you need to live in the area to receive one." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "You do not need to be a citizen to get a valid driver's license.", "A person does not need to live in an area in order to receive a license to drive within that area." ]
2018-02753	Why do pictures of a computer screen look much different than real life?	Your brain does an enormous amount of image processing what your eyes take in and shows the results as what you "see" (optical illusions are often designed to expose this image processing). The camera takes millions of tiny samples of what's actually there at one given instant in time. Most of the time these are close enough, but computer screens use some tricks in the image processing to display an image, so the camera can't show that. The big two are: * the screen is made up of one of three very tiny red, green or blue color spots, that end up being similar in size to the red, green, or blue samplers in the camera. That creates [moire]( URL_0 ). * Further, older screens updated via a line, so the camera only captured the parts of the screen lit by the line, while your brain remembers the prior image and smooths between the two.	[ "To create the illusion of movement, an image is displayed on the computer screen and repeatedly replaced by a new image which is similar to the previous image, but advanced slightly in the time domain (usually at a rate of 24 or 30 frames/second). This technique is identical to how the illusion of movement is achieved with television and motion pictures. This is not real.\n\nSection::::Virtual worlds.\n", "BULLET::::- 3D models can be created from collections of normal images. The resulting scene can be viewed from novel viewpoints, but creating the model is very computationally intensive. An example is Microsoft's Photosynth, which provided some models of famous places as examples.\n\nBULLET::::- Panoramic photographs can be created directly in camera without the need for any external processing. Some cameras feature a 3D Panorama capability, combining shots taken with a single lens from different angles to create a sense of depth.\n", "25 Hz material, for all practical purposes, looks and feels the same as 24 Hz material. 30 Hz material is in the middle, between 24 and 50 Hz material, in terms of \"fluidity\" of the motion it captures; but, in TV systems, it is handled similarly to 24 Hz material (i.e. displayed at least twice the capture rate).\n\nSection::::Capture.\n", "Professional photographers often use specially designed and calibrated monitors that help them to reproduce color accurately and consistently.\n\nSection::::Comparison with film photography.:Frame aspect ratios.\n", "To create the illusion of movement, an image is displayed on the computer screen then quickly replaced by a new image that is similar to the previous image, but shifted slightly. This technique is identical to the illusion of movement in television and motion pictures.\n\nSection::::Concepts and principles.\n\nImages are typically created by devices such as cameras, mirrors, lenses, telescopes, microscopes, etc.\n\nDigital images include both vector images and raster images, but raster images are more commonly used.\n\nSection::::Concepts and principles.:Pixel.\n", "Images with small-scale detail close to the resolution limit of the digital sensor can be a problem to the demosaicing algorithm, producing a result which does not look like the model. The most frequent artifact is Moiré, which may appear as repeating patterns, color artifacts or pixels arranged in an unrealistic maze-like pattern\n\nSection::::Artifacts.:False color artifact.\n", "The image change rate fundamentally affects how \"fluid\" the motion it captures will look on the screen. Moving image material, based on this, is sometimes divided into two groups: \"film-based\" material, where the image of the scene is captured by camera 24 times a second (24 Hz), and \"video-based\" material, where the image is captured roughly 50 or 60 times a second.\n", "BULLET::::- Photo realism in resembling real skin at the static level\n\nBULLET::::- Physical realism in resembling its movements\n\nBULLET::::- Function realism in resembling its response to actions.\n\nThe finest visible features such as fine wrinkles and skin pores are the size of about 100 µm or 0.1 millimetres. Skin can be modeled as a 7-dimensional bidirectional texture function (BTF) or a collection of bidirectional scattering distribution function (BSDF) over the target's surfaces.\n\nSection::::Interactive simulation and visualization.\n", "Section::::Related fields.:Distinctions.\n", "Motion segmentation is a field under research as there are many issues which provide scope of improvement. One of the major problems is of feature detection and finding correspondences. There are strong feature detection algorithms but they still give false positives which can lead to unexpected correspondences. Finding these pixel or feature correspondences is a difficult task. These mismatched feature points from the objects and the background often introduce outliers. The presence of image noise and outliers further affect the accuracy of structure from motion (SFM) estimation.\n", "According to Timur Bekmambetov, a computer screen film should take place on one specific screen, never move outside of the screen, the camerawork should resemble the behavior of the device's camera, all the action should take place in real time, without any visible transitions and all the sounds should originate from the computer.\n\nAfter producing one the first mainstream computer screen films, \"Unfriended\" in 2014, Bekmambetov started working on a whole series of films in this genre that he calls Screen Life.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Collingswood Story\", a 2002 American horror film\n", "Everyday personal laptops, family desktops, and company computers are able to handle photographic software. Our computers are more powerful machines with increasing capacities for running programs of any kind—especially digital imaging software. And that software is quickly becoming both smarter and simpler. Although functions on today’s programs reach the level of precise editing and even rendering 3-D images, user interfaces are designed to be friendly to advanced users as well as first-time fans.\n", "Suppose that for a desired motion, \"walk,\" there exist two example motions that convey different moods (e.g., happy and sad). A happy walking motion may be characterized by a simulated figure's posture being upright and its gait being energetic and fast-paced. A sad walking motion may be characterized by a slouched posture and a slow gait.\n", "BULLET::::- The 2001 film \"\", the first photorealistic computer-animated feature film, provoked negative reactions from some viewers due to its near-realistic yet imperfect visual depictions of human characters. \"The Guardian\" critic Peter Bradshaw stated that while the film's animation is brilliant, the \"solemnly realist human faces look shriekingly phoney precisely because they're almost there but not quite\". \"Rolling Stone\" critic Peter Travers wrote of the film, \"At first it's fun to watch the characters, […] But then you notice a coldness in the eyes, a mechanical quality in the movements\".\n", "The advent of virtual cinematography in the early 2000s (decade) has led to an explosion of movies that would have been impossible to shoot without it. Classic examples are the digital look-alikes of Neo, Smith and other characters in the Matrix sequels and the extensive use of physically impossible camera runs in The Lord of the Rings (film series) trilogy.\n", "A common problem with video recordings is the action jumps, instead of flowing smoothly, due to low frame rate. Though getting faster all the time, ordinary PCs are not yet fast enough to play videos and simultaneously capture them at professional frame rates, \"i.e.\" 30 frame/s. For many cases, high frame rates are not required. This is not generally an issue if simply capturing desktop video, which requires far less processing power than video playback, and it is very possible to capture at 30 frame/s. This varies depending on desktop resolution, processing requirements needed for the application that is being captured, and many other factors.\n", "BULLET::::- Late 2017 and early 2018 saw the surfacing of the deepfakes controversy where porn videos were doctored utilizing deep machine learning so that the face of the actress was replaced by the software's opinion of what another persons face would look like in the same pose and lighting.\n", "There are different optics and visual qualities that will affect how the individual views the image quality and how they experience the virtual world. The image will appear clearly due to the display resolution, optic quality, refresh rate, and the field of view.\n", "The human eye can perceive anywhere from 480fps to 4000fps , and see it as looking completely realistic or immersive naturally. While 120fps looks 'realistic', the stroboscopic look can still be seen, which also happens on 60 Hz monitors playing 60fps video and sometimes excessive motion blur, depending on the camera and shutter speed that was used when the video was recorded. Otherwise, videos over 200fps are more preferred, since they look more fluid and realistic naturally or by simply changing the shutter speed with an ND filter at frame rates between 50fps and 120fps.. \n", "Synthesis with an actor and suitable algorithms is applied using powerful computers. The actor's part in the synthesis is to take care of mimicking human expressions in still picture synthesizing and also human movement in motion picture synthesizing. Algorithms are needed to simulate laws of physics and physiology and to map the models and their appearance, movements and interaction accordingly.\n\nOften both physics/physiology based (i.e. skeletal animation) and image-based modeling and rendering are employed in the synthesis part. Hybrid models employing both approaches have shown best results in realism and ease-of-use.\n", "In cinema, most animated movies are CGI now; a great many animated CGI films are made per year, but few, if any, attempt photorealism due to continuing fears of the uncanny valley. Most are 3D cartoons.\n\nIn videogames, the Microsoft Xbox One, Sony PlayStation 4, and Nintendo Switch currently dominate the home space and are all capable of highly advanced 3D graphics; the Windows PC is still one of the most active gaming platforms as well.\n\nSection::::Image types.\n\nSection::::Image types.:Two-dimensional.\n", "Human image synthesis\n\nHuman image synthesis can be applied to make believable and even photorealistic renditions of human-likenesses, moving or still. This has effectively been the situation since the early 2000s. Many films using computer generated imagery have featured synthetic images of human-like characters digitally composited onto the real or other simulated film material.\n\nSection::::Timeline of human image synthesis.\n", "High-dynamic-range imaging uses differently exposed pictures of the same scene to extend dynamic range. Other examples include processing and merging differently illuminated images of the same subject matter (\"lightspace\").\n\nSection::::Computational optics.\n\nThis is capture of optically coded images, followed by computational decoding to produce new images.\n", "One particular drawback to the work of the digital matte artist is an occasional tendency of their output to look too realistic, which traditional artists avoided by using impressionistic elements or by suggesting details. What this means is that digital matte art is often characterized by an artificially perfect look. One of the modern approaches adopted to address this is the integration of details from a photograph, say, of real places to depict realistic scenes. It is this reason why some digital matte artists refer to their work as a combination of digital painting, photo manipulation, and 3D, for the purpose of creating virtual sets that are hard or impossible to find in the real world.\n", "Computer stereo vision with many cameras under fixed lighting is called structure from motion. Techniques using a fixed camera and known lighting are called photometric stereo techniques, or \"shape from shading\".\n\nSection::::Computer stereo display.\n" ]	[ "Pictures of a computer screen should look like they do in real life." ]	[ "Screens use a combination of tricks to make it look like there is an image and a camera cannot capture these." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Pictures of a computer screen should look like they do in real life." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Screens use a combination of tricks to make it look like there is an image and a camera cannot capture these." ]
2018-05243	Why do current video games need o be patched/updated constantly?	Because programming games is hard work and no amount of QA testing will catch every bug and every balancing problem	[ "Games developed for video game consoles have had almost no maintenance period in the past. The shipped game would forever house as many bugs and features as when released. This was common for consoles since all consoles had identical or nearly identical hardware; making incompatibility, the cause of many bugs, a non-issue. In this case, maintenance would only occur in the case of a port, sequel, or enhanced remake that reuses a large portion of the engine and assets.\n", "Once a game ships, the maintenance phase for the video game begins. Programmers wait for a period to get as many bug reports as possible. Once the developer thinks they've obtained enough feedback, the programmers start working on a patch. The patch may take weeks or months to develop, but it's intended to fix most bugs and problems with the game. Occasionally a patch may include extra features or content or may even alter gameplay.\n\nSection::::Development process.:Duration.\n", "On 30 June 2014 a new stable version, v1.80 was released, to replace 2012's v1.76.1. It adds many new features, including greatly improved AI, an updated core shipset and an Expansion Pack management system.\n", "Programmers wait for a period to get as many bug reports as possible. Once the developer thinks they've obtained enough feedback, the programmers start working on a patch. The patch may take weeks or months to develop, but it's intended to fix most accounted bugs and problems with the game that were overlooked past code release, or in rare cases, fix unintended problems caused by previous patches. Occasionally a patch may include extra features or content or may even alter gameplay.\n", "Video games receive patches to fix compatibility problems after their initial release just like any other software, but they can also be applied to change game rules or algorithms. These patches may be prompted by the discovery of exploits in the multiplayer game experience that can be used to gain unfair advantages over other players. Extra features and gameplay tweaks can often be added. These kinds of patches are common in first-person shooters with multiplayer capability, and in MMORPGs, which are typically very complex with large amounts of content, almost always rely heavily on patches following the initial release, where patches sometimes add new content and abilities available to players. Because the balance and fairness for all players of an MMORPG can be severely corrupted within a short amount of time by an exploit, servers of an MMORPG are sometimes taken down with short notice in order to apply a critical patch with a fix.\n", "In addition to the growing complexity of the build/release cycle, the typical release cycle for software projects continues to shrink radically. As agile methodologies have become more commonly practiced, the pace of integration and build has changed from once a day to every time there is a code change. According to agile software development, the main line of code should be ready to ship at any time; it may not be feature complete, but it must be of sufficient quality to be releasable.\n", "At this time features and levels are being finished at the highest rate and there is more new material to be tested than during any other time in the project. Testers need to carry out regression testing to make sure that features that have been in place for months still operate correctly. Regression testing is one of the vital tasks required for effective software development. As new features are added, subtle changes to the codebase can produce unexpected changes in different portions of the game. This task is often overlooked, for several reasons. Sometimes, when a feature is implemented and tested, it is considered \"working\" for the rest of the project and little attention is given to repeated testing. Also, features that are added late in development are prioritized and existing features often receive insufficient testing time. Proper regression testing is also increasingly expensive as the number of features increases and is often not scheduled correctly.\n", "In recent times popularity of online console games has grown, and online capable video game consoles and online services such as Xbox Live for the Xbox have developed. Developers can maintain their software through downloadable patches. These changes would not have been possible in the past without the widespread availability of the Internet.\n\nPC development is different. Game developers try to account for majority of configurations and hardware. However, the number of possible configurations of hardware and software inevitably leads to discovery of game-breaking circumstances that the programmers and testers didn't account for.\n", "On 16 August 2012, a trial deployment version of v1.76.1 was released. The purpose of the release is to evaluate \"Oolite's\" Deployment configuration, which is the way upcoming stable releases are expected to be made.\n\nOn 8 January 2013, a new test deployment version, v1.77, was released. This version comes with new features and improvements over previous releases.\n\nOn 1 October 2013 a new test deployment version, v1.77.1 was released. This is a bug-fix update to \"Oolite\" 1.77. It does not add new features.\n", "In the development branch, there is also support for \"Escape from Monkey Island\", which is completable with a few glitches, and The Longest Journey, which is completable with missing features.\n", "Numerous modifications for \"Oolite\" have expanded the gameplay by adding in new missions, new equipment, new ships, new stations, new trading locations and new open-ended career opportunities such as courier or hitman. Others offer improved graphics, visual and audio effects, or otherwise improve ambience. These modifications are usually called \"OXPs\" (Oolite eXpansion Pack). Currently, there are more than 500 OXPs available for Oolite.\n\nSection::::Modding.\n", "The development team should always be working on the latest version of the software. Since different team members may have versions saved locally with various changes and improvements, they should try to upload their current version to the code repository every few hours, or when a significant break presents itself. Continuous integration will avoid delays later on in the project cycle, caused by integration problems.\n\nSection::::Continuous process.:Design improvement.\n", "From a time standpoint, the game's first level takes the longest to develop. As level designers and artists use the tools for level building, they request features and changes to the in-house tools that allow for quicker and higher quality development. Newly introduced features may cause old levels to become obsolete, so the levels developed early on may be repeatedly developed and discarded. Because of the dynamic environment of game development, the design of early levels may also change over time. It is not uncommon to spend upwards of twelve months on one level of a game developed over the course of three years. Later levels can be developed much more quickly as the feature set is more complete and the game vision is clearer and more stable.\n", "During its supported lifetime, software is sometimes subjected to service releases, patches or service packs, sometimes also called \"interim releases\". For example, Microsoft released three major service packs for the 32-bit editions of Windows XP and two service packs for the 64-bit editions. Such service releases contain a collection of updates, fixes, and enhancements, delivered in the form of a single installable package. They may also implement new features. Some software is released with the expectation of regular support. Classes of software that generally involve protracted support as the norm include anti-virus suites and massively multiplayer online games. A good example of a game that utilizes this process is Minecraft, an indie game developed by Mojang, which features regular \"updates\" featuring new content and bug fixes.\n", "Game tools change very often during the development process. The look and facility of a tool from the beginning of a project to the end may change dramatically. Often features are added with very little testing to assist other developers as fast as possible. The use of a tool also changes so much that users may have difficulty operating it from one day to the next as late-added features change how it is to be used. Since facility is often the primary goal for tools, they may be very user-unfriendly, with little or no built-in help. For tools that are to be shipped with the game, often debugging and user-friendly features are done near the end of the development process.\n", "Section::::Development.:Post-release.\n\nFor the first 12 months of release from April 2010–11, \"Pocket Legends\" was updated over 200 times and patched on average 1.7 times daily. Such statistics include both iOS app store approval submissions, Android market updates and live patches for smaller updates directly using the Spacetime Engine. An example of the first four months post-release development includes: x4 New Maps, New game mode PvP, New Features: World Map, Townes, customization and optimizations and bug fixes.\n\nSection::::Development.:Technical requirements.\n", "Section::::Common practices.:Make it easy to get the latest deliverables.\n\nMaking builds readily available to stakeholders and testers can reduce the amount of rework necessary when rebuilding a feature that doesn't meet requirements. Additionally, early testing reduces the chances that defects survive until deployment. Finding errors earlier can reduce the amount of work necessary to resolve them.\n\nAll programmers should start the day by updating the project from the repository. That way, they will all stay up to date.\n\nSection::::Common practices.:Everyone can see the results of the latest build.\n", "In the latter parts of the game's development, the largest challenge was to coordinate Guasti's and his collaborators' work; when Guasti started working as a programmer, he learned about project management and applied it to \"AM2R\", but still found it challenging to have deadlines and keep people motivated, as everyone was working on the game free in their spare time. In late 2014, the project was ported to the newer version GameMaker Studio, which enabled improved loading times and performance, but required the complete rewriting of some features and changes to the designs of some levels. This move also made bugs faster to fix and new builds easier to make, leaving the development progress in a more expedient and productive state. Later in the same year, the developers worked on improving the visuals, giving the fourth area a new graphics tile set intended to give it more personality.\n", "Since the initial release, Maxis has distributed patches to the game via the in-game patching utility that automatically runs when the game is launched on a user's computer. These patches have addressed, though not entirely fixed, among many other things, issues such as traffic intelligence, game-save rollbacks, and emergency vehicle routing. Maxis has continued to update the game to improve gameplay quality and eliminate bugs.\n", "Companies sometimes release games knowing that they have bugs. \"Computer Gaming World\"s Scorpia in 1994 denounced \"companies—too numerous to mention—who release shoddy product knowing they can get by with patches and upgrades, and who make \"pay\"-testers of their customers\".\n\nSection::::In software development.\n\nPatches sometimes become mandatory to fix problems with libraries or with portions of source code for programs in frequent use or in maintenance. This commonly occurs on very large-scale software projects, but rarely in small-scale development.\n", "The size of patches may vary from a few bytes to hundreds of megabytes; thus, more significant changes imply a larger size, though this also depends on whether the patch includes entire files or only the changed portion(s) of files. In particular, patches can become quite large when the changes add or replace non-program data, such as graphics and sounds files. Such situations commonly occur in the patching of computer games. Compared with the initial installation of software, patches usually do not take long to apply.\n", "System-wide undo support should cover all aspects of the system. This includes hardware and software upgrades, configuration as well as application management. There are obviously limits to what can be undone, and these limits are currently being explored, tested and rated based on their tradeoffs.\n\nSection::::Integrated diagnostic support.\n", "A patching feature allows the user to apply game patches. Games that do not necessarily run properly, or even start at all, can be fixed and played via the use of ePSXe patch files in .ppf format. Not all games prone to bugs have ppf patches written for them.\n", "Part of the quality assurance process (as performed by game testers for video games) is locating and reproducing glitches, and then compiling reports on the glitches to be fed back to the programmers so that they can repair the bugs. Certain games have a cloud-type system for updates to the software that can be used to repair coding faults and other errors in the games.\n", "Section::::Development.:Release.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-17811	Why do flight trips have weird connections where you sometimes end up flying somewhere in the other direction before reaching your destination	Demand. Basically you need a specific number of people on a flight to make it profitable so if where you flight from does not have a normal amount of people flighting to the same destination to make the flight profitable they fly you to the closest location that does.	[ "BULLET::::- Airway(s) from origin to an ocean edge, then an ocean track, then airway(s) from ocean edge to destination. Most flights over northern oceans fall into this category.\n\nBULLET::::- Airway(s) from origin to an ocean edge, then a free-flight area across an ocean, then airway(s) from ocean edge to destination. Most flights over southern oceans fall into this category.\n\nBULLET::::- Free-flight area from origin to destination. This is a relatively uncommon situation for commercial flights.\n", "North–south flights that do not cross time zones do not cause jet lag. However, crossing of the Arctic Ocean or even the North Pole (often the shortest route between northeast Europe and Alaska or the Canadian West Coast and East Asia) does cause a significant time change. Jet travel from Alaska to northeast Europe causes a pattern of jet lag very similar to an eastward flight at lower latitudes. Also seasonal differences in sunlight if one crosses the equator may make a slightly disrupted sleeping pattern at the destination.\n", "Due to the particular types of stimuli and cues used to initiate vertical migration, anomalies can change the pattern drastically.\n", "Direct routing occurs when one or both of the route segment endpoints are at a latitude/longitude which is not located at a Navaid. Some flight planning organizations specify that checkpoints generated for a Direct route be a limited distance apart, or limited by time to fly between the checkpoints (i.e. direct checkpoints could be farther apart for a fast aircraft than for a slow one).\n\nSection::::SIDs and STARs.\n", "Historically, an interchange service in the scheduled passenger air transport industry involved a \"through plane\" flight operated by two or more airlines where a single aircraft was used with the individual airlines operating it with their own flight crews on their respective portions of a direct, no change of plane multi-stop flight. In the U.S., a number of air carriers including Alaska Airlines, American Airlines, Braniff International Airways, Continental Airlines, Delta Air Lines, Eastern Airlines, Frontier Airlines (1950-1986), Hughes Airwest, National Airlines (1934-1980), Pan Am, Trans World Airlines (TWA), United Airlines and Western Airlines previously operated such cooperative \"through plane\" interchange flights on both domestic and/or international services in the past with these schedules appearing in their respective system timetables.\n", "Jet lag\n\nJet lag is a physiological condition that results from alterations to the body's circadian rhythms caused by rapid long-distance trans-meridian (east–west or west–east) travel. For example, someone flying from New York to London, i.e. from west to east, feels as if the time were five hours \"earlier\" than local time, and someone travelling from London to New York, i.e. from east to west, feels as if the time were five hours \"later\" than local time. Jet lag was previously classified as one of the circadian rhythm sleep disorders.\n", "Hidden city ticketing or skiplagging is a variant of throwaway ticketing. The passenger books a ticket to a destination that they have no plans on traveling to (the \"hidden\" city) with a connection at the intended destination, walks away at the connection node, and discards the remaining segment. Flight fares are subject to market forces, and therefore do not necessarily correlate to the distance flown. As a result, a flight between point A to point C, with a connection node at point B, might be cheaper than a flight between point A and point B. It is then possible to purchase a flight ticket from point A to point C, disembark at the connection node (B), and discard the remaining segment (B to C).\n", "Section::::Route or flight paths.:Navaid.\n\nNavaid routing occurs between Navaids (short for Navigational Aids, see VOR) which are not always connected by airways. Navaid routing is typically only allowed in the continental U.S. If a flight plan specifies Navaid routing between two Navaids which are connected via an airway, the rules for that particular airway must be followed as if the aircraft was flying Airway routing between those two Navaids. Allowable altitudes are covered in Flight Levels.\n\nSection::::Route or flight paths.:Direct.\n", "Special routes known as \"ocean tracks\" are used across some oceans, mainly in the Northern Hemisphere, to increase traffic capacity on busy routes. Unlike ordinary airways, which change infrequently, ocean tracks change twice a day, so as to take advantage of favourable winds. Flights going with the jet stream may be an hour shorter than those going against it. Ocean tracks may start and finish about 100 miles offshore at named waypoints, to which a number of airways connect. Tracks across northern oceans are suitable for east–west or west–east flights, which constitute the bulk of the traffic in these areas.\n", "Interline agreements are directional. For example, it may be possible for American Airlines to issue the ticket on an American-United itinerary but United might not be able to be issuer on the same itinerary. Such a one-directional interline agreement is called a unilateral interline. The airlines may also agree to enter a bilateral interline agreement, where each airline can issue the ticket on the other airline.\n", "Transport Canada does not provide a definition of \"cross-country\" flight in the Canadian Aviation Regulations (CARs), however, a general consensus among pilots is that, in order to log \"cross-country time\" in a Pilot's Logbook, the pilot must have demonstrated some kind of navigational ability during the logged period of time. This is substantiated by references to:\n\nBULLET::::- the requirement to file a flight plan beyond 25 nautical miles of the departure aerodrome for \"cross-country flights,\"\n\nBULLET::::- the requirement to carry an Emergency Locator Transmitter for \"cross-country flights,\" and\n", "The term \"direct flight\" is not legally defined in the United States, but since the 1970s the \"Official Airline Guides\" have defined the term simply as a flight(s) with a single flight number. (In earlier years \"direct\" in the OAG did mean \"no plane change\".) While so-called \"direct\" flights may thus involve changes in aircraft (a \"change of gauge\"), or even airline at the intermediate point, they are typically—but not always—differentiated from \"connecting flights\" in that the airline will enforce a dependency between multiple legs of the flight, so that leg two cannot operate if leg one has failed to arrive at the departure airport. Direct flights involving aircraft changes typically change to planes at adjoining or nearby gates.\n", "Since airline reservation requests are often made by city-pair (such as \"show me flights from Chicago to Düsseldorf\"), an airline that can codeshare with another airline for a variety of routes might be able to be listed as indeed offering a Chicago–Düsseldorf flight. The passenger is advised however, that airline no. 1 operates the flight from say Chicago to Amsterdam, and airline no. 2 operates the continuing flight (on a different airplane, sometimes from another terminal) to Düsseldorf. Thus the primary rationale for code sharing is to expand one's service offerings in city-pair terms to increase sales.\n", "Where an aircraft changes its position horizontally from within the jet stream to outside the jet stream, or vice versa, a horizontal temperature gradient may be experienced. Because jet streams meander, such a change of position need not be the result of a change of course by the aircraft.\n\nBecause the altitude of the tropopause is not constant, an airplane that flies at a constant altitude would traverse it and encounter any associated CAT.\n", "Section::::Describing a route.:Complete routes.\n\nThere are a number of ways of constructing a route. All scenarios using airways use SIDs and STARs for departure and arrival. Any mention of airways might include a very small number of \"direct\" segments to allow for situations when there are no convenient airway junctions. In some cases, political considerations may influence the choice of route (e.g., aircraft from one country cannot overfly some other country).\n\nBULLET::::- Airway(s) from origin to destination. Most flights over land fall into this category.\n", "Section::::Effects of flight-to-quality on real sector.\n\nDuring a flight-to-quality episode external financing becomes harder for lower quality borrowers or riskier projects. Investors faced with tightened balance sheet and increased risk and uncertainty aversion reduce their investment and shift their portfolio only towards safer projects and high quality borrowers.\n", "Jet lag is a chronobiological problem, similar to issues often induced by shift work and the circadian rhythm sleep disorders. When travelling across a number of time zones, the body clock (circadian rhythm) will be out of synchronisation with the destination time, as it experiences daylight and darkness contrary to the rhythms to which it has grown accustomed. The body's natural pattern is upset, as the rhythms that dictate times for eating, sleeping, hormone regulation, body temperature variations, and other functions no longer correspond to the environment, nor to each other in some cases. To the degree that the body cannot immediately realign these rhythms, it is jet lagged.\n", "Section::::Conflicts.:Local conflict.\n\nA local conflict occurs if two or more aircraft pass a certain given point (in nearly all cases a certain town). A local conflict occurs, if at least one of the following conditions are met:\n\nBULLET::::- The distance in time is 4 minutes or less, and\n\nBULLET::::- The distance in space is 30 flight units or less.\n\nSection::::Conflicts.:Opposite conflict.\n\nAn opposite conflict occurs if two aircraft are flying towards each other from opposing directions. Looking at the information on the flight progress strips, a controller can detect an opposite conflict by checking:\n", "Each airway starts and finishes at a waypoint, and may contain some intermediate waypoints as well. Waypoints use five letters (e.g., PILOX), and those that double as non-directional beacons use three or two (TNN, WK). Airways may cross or join at a waypoint, so an aircraft can change from one airway to another at such points. A complete route between airports often uses several airways. Where there is no suitable airway between two waypoints, and using airways would result in a somewhat roundabout route, air traffic control may allow a direct waypoint-to-waypoint routing, which does not use an airway (often abbreviated in flight plans as \"DCT\").\n", "Even in a free-flight area, air traffic control still requires a position report about once an hour. Flight planning systems organise this by inserting geographic waypoints at suitable intervals. For a jet aircraft, these intervals are 10 degrees of longitude for eastbound or westbound flights and 5 degrees of latitude for northbound or southbound flights. In free-flight areas, commercial aircraft normally follow a \"least-time-track\" so as to use as little time and fuel as possible. A great circle route would have the shortest ground distance, but is unlikely to have the shortest air distance, due to the effect of head or tail winds. A flight planning system may have to perform significant analysis to determine a good free-flight route.\n", "As a hypothetical example, flight QQ1234 may fly from airport AAA to BBB to CCC. The AAA-BBB segment may be serviced by airline QQ, and the BBB-CCC segment by airline RR, on a different aircraft. The same flight may also be sold as RR3210, and by a third airline SS as SS2345. Also, the individual flight legs may have multiple flight numbers: AAA-BBB may be QQ12, RR23, and SS45.\n", "BULLET::::- formula_32 : the search tree in direction d. If formula_33, the root is formula_25, if formula_35, the root is formula_26\n\nBULLET::::- formula_37 : the leaves of formula_32 (sometimes referred to as formula_39). It is from this set that a node is chosen for expansion. In bidirectional search, these are sometimes called the search 'frontiers' or 'wavefronts', referring to how they appear when a search is represented graphically. In this metaphor, a 'collision' occurs when, during the expansion phase, a node from one wavefront is found to have successors in the opposing wavefront.\n", "Most waypoints are classified as compulsory reporting points; that is, the pilot (or the onboard flight management system) reports the aircraft's position to air traffic control as the aircraft passes a waypoint. There are two main types of waypoints:\n\nBULLET::::- A \"named waypoint\" appears on aviation charts with a known latitude and longitude. Such waypoints over land often have an associated radio beacon so that pilots can more easily check where they are. Useful named waypoints are always on one or more airways.\n\nNote that airways do not connect directly to airports.\n", "It is often considered a good idea to have the alternate some distance away from the destination (e.g., 100 miles) so that bad weather is unlikely to close both the destination and the alternate; distances of up to are not unknown. In some cases the destination airport may be so remote (e.g., a Pacific island) that there is no feasible alternate airport; in such a situation an airline may instead include enough fuel to circle for 2 hours near the destination, in the hope that the airport will become available again within that time.\n", "To mitigate the described problem, many recommend, as legally allowed in very limited authorized airspace, that planes fly one or two miles offset from the center of the airway (to the right side) thus eliminating the problem only in the head-on collision scenario. The International Civil Aviation Organization's (ICAO) \"Procedures for Air Navigation--Air Traffic Management Manual,\" authorizes lateral offset only in oceanic and remote airspace worldwide. However, this workaround for the particular case of a head-on collision threat on a common assigned airway fails to address the navigation paradox in general, and it fails to specifically address the inherent system safety fault intolerance inadvertently designed into international air traffic safety regulations. To be specific, in the cases of intersecting flight paths where either aircraft is not on an airway (for example, flying under a \"direct\" clearance, or a temporary diversion clearance for weather threats), or where intersecting aircraft flights are on deliberately intersecting airways, these more general threats receive no protection from flying one or two miles to the right of the center of the airway. Intersecting flight paths must still intersect somewhere. As with the midair collision over Germany, an offset to the right of an airway would have simply changed the impact point by a mile or two away from where the intersection actually did occur. Of the 342 deaths since 1997 so far caused by the lack of a linear cruising altitude rule (like ACCAR), only the head-on collision over the Amazon could have been prevented if either pilot had been flying an offset to the right of the airway centerline. In contrast, ACCAR systematically separates conflicting traffic in all airspace at all altitudes on any heading, whether over the middle of the ocean or over high-density multinational-interface continental airspace. Nothing about the Reduced Vertical Separation Minima (RVSM) system design addresses the inherent vulnerability of the air traffic system to expected faults in hardware and human performance, as experienced in the Namibian, German, Amazon and Japanese accidents.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00499	Why do tongues stick to frozen poles, while wet fingers do not?	My fingers have gotten stuck to frozen poles. That was in Michigan when the temperature was -30 with windchill.	[ "Warm and cold sensitive nerve fibers differ in structure and function. The cold-sensitive and warm-sensitive nerve fibers are underneath the skin surface. Terminals of each temperature-sensitive fiber do not branch away to different organs in the body. They form a small sensitive point which are unique from neighboring fibers. Skin used by the single receptor ending of a temperature-sensitive nerve fiber is small. There are 20 cold points per square centimeter in the lips, 4 in the finger, and less than 1 cold point per square centimeter in trunk areas. There are 5 times as many cold sensitive points as warm sensitive points.\n", "In 2005 he was elected as a Fellow of the Academy of Humanities and Social Sciences of The Royal Society of Canada. His citation stated:\n", "Only the serrated and often keratinized tip of the sublingua is free to move small distances along the underside of the tongue, while the majority of its length adheres to the underside of the tongue. These free-moving folds or filaments are called the plica fimbriata and attach to the base of the sublingua and are supported at the midline by the plica mediana. The plica fimbriata is highly developed and specialized in lemurs, and makes up the majority of the sublingua.\n", "Section::::Locale.\n\n\"Compsomyiops callipes\" is generally found where there are warm temperatures. It is prevalent in the southwestern United States, in states such as Texas, Arizona, New Mexico, and California. However this species has been reported all throughout the world in warmer climates. This species can also be found in Mexico, Australia, and Venezuela in montane savanna and cloud forest habitats. \"Compsomyiops callipes\" is more abundant in rural and riparian areas as opposed to urban settings.\n\nSection::::Feeding.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Teichichnus\" has a distinctive form produced by the stacking of thin 'tongues' of sediment, atop one another. They are again believed to be fodinichnia, with the organism adopting the habit of retracing the same route through varying heights of the sediment, which would allow it to avoid going over the same area. These 'tongues' are often quite sinuous, reflecting perhaps a more nutrient-poor environment in which the feeding animals had to cover a greater area of sediment, in order to acquire sufficient nourishment.\n", "Andrew Henderson and colleagues considered the distribution of the tribe to suggest that its origins lay in the southern hemisphere. However, the discovery of fossil remains of \"Trithrinax\" in Caribbean amber from the Tertiary indicates that this genus, now the southernmost member of the Cryosophileae, once existed further to the north. This, coupled with the presence of \"Thrinax\" fossils from the Tertiary in Europe, and \"Cryosophila\"-like fossil pollen from Central America in the same time period, led Stine Bjorholm and colleagues to conclude that the current distribution of these palms represents northern hemisphere origin and a north-to-south migration, instead of the reverse. Cryosophileae are found in France during Oligocene (Rupelian) and Miocene (Tortonian).\n", "The dynamics within floating ice streams such as the Erebus Ice Tongue are complex. For instance, typically ice streams such as the Erebus Ice Tongue, which ranges from 50 to 300 meters thick, contain smaller streams of ice. Each ice flow produces its own set of stress fields. Thus, throughout the ice tongue, different flow rates and tensions are present.\n", "Tongue's death in 1903 was unexpected, and was reported as heart failure. After Tongue's death, Binger Hermann, who Tongue succeeded in Congress, was elected to complete Tongue's term. Thomas Brackett Reed, Speaker of the House during Tongue's first two terms, considered Tongue \"one of the seven ablest men in the House.\"\n\nSection::::Family.\n", "Gries was a visiting professor at the 2007, 2011, 2013, 2015, and 2019 LSA Linguistic Institutes at Stanford University, the University of Colorado at Boulder, the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, the University of Chicago, and the University of California, Davis.\n\nSection::::Research.\n", "Section::::Causes.\n\nThe causes of TOTs are largely unknown but numerous explanations have been offered. These explanations mainly fall within the realms of two overarching viewpoints: the direct-access view and the inferential view.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Direct-access view.\n", "In 1933, he was appointed Envoy to London, Finland's most important diplomatic post. His term there lasted until diplomatic relations between the United Kingdom and Finland were broken during the Continuation War, following the British war declaration at the end of 1941.\n", "It is unknown whether other finfoots share this trait, as it does not persist in prepared skins and would be difficult to spot even in fresh specimens unless one knew to seek it out.\n", "During winter, their haemolymph contains low molecular weight cryoprotectants such as amino acids, especially proline (up to about 100 mM) and the disaccharide trehalose. These substances are synthesised during autumn and their concentration decreases again during spring and summer (proline concentration decreases to about 10 mM during summer). The amino acids and sugars presumably help to decrease the ice content colligatively; however, they probably also have a direct protective effect on membranes and proteins via direct interaction or by modifying the water layer with the closest proximity to the molecules. \n\nSection::::Behaviour.\n", "The members of the Cryosophileae form a sequence of species that extends from southern South America through Central America and into Mexico and the Caribbean. The southernmost genus, \"Trithrinax\", is found in subtropical parts of Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay, and includes some of the most cold-tolerant palms in the Americas. \"Chelyocarpus\" and \"Itaya\" are next in the sequence; \"Chelyocarpus\" and \"Itaya\" are found in the western Amazon basin—in Peru, Brazil and Ecuador—with one species of \"Chelyocarpus\" extending into the Pacific lowlands of Colombia. \"Sabinaria\" is restricted to the Colombia/Panama border. \"Cryosophila\" ranges from northern Colombia, through Central America into Mexico. \"Schippia\" is found in Belize and a small area of Guatemala. \"Thrinax\", \"Coccothrinax\" and \"Leucothrinax\" are widespread in the northern Caribbean; \"Zombia\" is restricted the island of Hispaniola and \"Hemithrinax\" to Cuba.\n", "Finger rafting\n\nFinger rafting develops in an ice cover as a result of a compression regime established within the plane of the ice. As two expanses of sea ice converge toward another, one of them slides smoothly on top of the other (it is overthrusted) along a given distance, resulting in a local increase in ice thickness. The term \"finger rafting\" refers to the systematic alternation of interlocking overthrusts and underthrusts involved in this process. Such a pattern derives its name from its resemblance to the interlocking of fingers.\n\nSection::::The process.\n", "After working in a variety of casual jobs, as an archivist, and studio director for the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, along with travel adventures such as working as a stand-in for Peter O'Toole in \"Lawrence of Arabia\" and hitchhiking through Scandinavia in mid-winter, he returned to graduate school and settled into an academic career at a series of universities, from Concordia University in Montreal to the University of British Columbia and Queen's in Kingston, and finally the University of Ottawa for a period of almost three decades, before retiring as professor emeritus in 2005.\n", "Section::::Pedigree/Appointments.\n\nJacoby earned his undergraduate degree at Washburn University, and his MA and PhD (in 1970) at Southern Illinois University under the supervision of Robert Radtke. His first academic post was at Iowa State University. He was on the faculty of McMaster University (Hamilton, Ontario, Canada) for many years, where he collaborated with colleagues Lee Brooks, Ian Begg, Betty Ann Levy, and Bruce Milliken and long-time research assistant Ann Hollingshead, and interacted with colleagues at University of Toronto-Erindale including Fergus Craik, Gordon Logan, Morris Moscovitch, and Endel Tulving.\n", "Skis designed for classic technique, both in track and in virgin snow, rely on a traction zone, called the \"grip zone\" or \"kick zone\", underfoot. This comes either from a) \"texture\", designed to slide forward but not backwards, that is built into the grip zone of waxless skis, or from applied devices, e.g. climbing skins, or b) from \"grip waxes\". Grip waxes are classified according to their hardness: harder waxes are for colder and newer snow. An incorrect choice of grip wax for the snow conditions encountered may cause ski slippage (wax too hard for the conditions) or snow sticking to the grip zone (wax too soft for the conditions). Grip waxes generate grip by interacting with snow crystals, which vary with temperature, age and compaction. Hard grip waxes don't work well for snow which has metamorphosed to having coarse grains, whether icy or wet. In these conditions, skiers opt for a stickier substance, called \"klister\".\n", "Avalanche boulder tongue\n\nAn avalanche boulder tongue is an accumulation of debris produced by snow avalanches. Well developed avalanche boulder tongue usually develop below avalanche gullies due to successive avalanches over a long time span. The avalanche boulder tongues were first intensively investigated by Anders Rapp in the areas of Abisko and Kebnekaise in Swedish Lappland.\n", "Galloway was born in Oakland, California, and received his B.A., C.Phil., and Ph.D. in linguistics at the University of California, Berkeley, in 1965, 1971, and 1977, respectively. He has done linguistic field work with the Haisla language, Upriver Halkomelem (from 1970), Nooksack (from 1974), the Samish dialect of Northern Straits Salish (from 1984), and Gullah (from 1994). In the case of Nooksack and Samish, he worked with the last surviving fluent speakers known then (one speaker has become a fluent speaker of Nooksack since 2002, and there may be 3 or 4 descendants who speak Samish).\n", "Section::::Freeze tolerance.:Ice nucleators.\n\nIn order for a body of water to freeze, a nucleus must be present upon which an ice crystal can begin to grow. At low temperatures, nuclei may arise spontaneously from clusters of slow-moving water molecules. Alternatively, substances that facilitate the aggregation of water molecules can increase the probability that they will reach the critical size necessary for ice formation.\n", "Pasloski ran for a seat to the Canadian House of Commons in the 2008 Canadian federal election under the Conservative banner. He finished second place to incumbent Larry Bagnell in a four way race in the Yukon electoral district.\n", "\"Rafting\", also called \"telescoped ice\", is most noticeable when it involves new and young ice, but also occurs in ice of all thicknesses. The process of finger rafting as such is commonly observed inside a lead, once a thin layer of ice (at the nilas stage) has formed. Although this ice is typically very weak (it is unable to support its own weight outside the water), it contains a lot of brine and is also relatively \"warm\", since being that thin, its temperature is near that of the water. Rafting is accompanied with rapid draining of the brine inside the overlying ice sheet. This brine acts as a lubricant, significantly reducing the friction between the two sheets during overthrusting. Such a mechanism, and the fact that the upper surface of nilas is already slippery, account for overthrust distances in excess of (a length-to-thickness ratio of 1000 to one).\n", "Some animals have tongues that are specially adapted for catching prey. For example, chameleons, frogs, and anteaters have prehensile tongues.\n", "Justice Tongue was born in Hillsboro, Oregon, on February 12, 1912, to the Tongue legal family. He began college in 1930 and graduated with his undergraduate degree from the University of Oregon in 1934. He then attended the School of Law at the University of Oregon, graduating with a J.D. in 1937. While at Oregon he served as class president as an undergrad, and finished first in his class in law school. Also as an undergraduate he was a member of the Chi Psi fraternity. After the University of Oregon he went on to earn an advanced degree from Yale Law School. At Yale he earned a Doctor of the Science of Law while on the Yale Sterling Fellowship that he had obtained with the assistance of Dean Wayne Morse of Oregon’s law school.\n" ]	[ "Wetfingers dont stick to poles." ]	[ "Wet fingers can stick to poles. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Wetfingers dont stick to poles." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Wet fingers can stick to poles. " ]
2018-21883	Why do potential employers often ask you to fill out a resume after you've already applied with a resume?	Because they probably have a system that needs applications in a certain format, they arent going to manually go through the work ti transfer your information.	[ "There are a number of red flags when looking at resumes that should, at the very least, be noted and questioned as part of any phone screen with the candidate. Gaps in employment and job hopping are often considered to be red flags, although a study conducted by company Evolv concluded that job hoppers and the long-term unemployed perform no worse than non-job hoppers and the currently employed. Other possible red flags include multiple moves to different states, using years instead of months/years for employment history and noting a college and degree program without indicating graduation. Others still are more subtle, like a significant drop in responsibility or a completely new career direction. While there are many valid reasons for some of these red flags, it should generate follow up questions if all other qualities of the resume are suitable for moving to further contact with the candidate.\n", "Once a resume has been initially screened for keywords, it needs a more careful review. This second pass is designed to verify some of the second order criteria of the job description are met. For instance, level of education, years of experience required by the position, salary range and current location. Other functions of this evaluation include a closer look at job functions performed by the candidate and comparing them to the job description.\n", "This step of the process can often be aided by computers. For example, if one has a resume database, these keywords are the search queries used to find potential candidates in the database.\n\nFurther, this step is sometimes delegated to a junior person who can be trained to look for keywords and perform the initial sort.\n\nSection::::Process.:Evaluation.\n", "For white collar jobs, particularly those requiring communication skills, the employer will typically require applicants to accompany the form with a cover letter and a résumé. However, even employers who accept a cover letter and résumé will frequently also require the applicant to complete a form application, as the other documents may neglect to mention details of importance to the employers. In some instances, an application is effectively used to dissuade \"walk-in\" applicants, serving as a barrier between the applicant and a job interview with the person with the authority to hire.\n", "BULLET::::- The technology helps prevent qualified candidates from slipping through the cracks. On average, a recruiter spends 6 seconds looking at a resume. When a recruiter is looking through hundreds or thousands of them, it can be easy to miss or lose track of potential candidates.\n\nBULLET::::- Once a candidate's resume has been analyzed, their information remains in the database. If a position comes up that they are qualified for, but haven't applied to, the company still has their information and can reach out to them.\n", "Many employers now find candidates' résumés through search engines, which makes it more important for candidates to use appropriate keywords when writing a résumé. Larger employers use Applicant Tracking Systems to search, filter, and manage high volumes of résumés. Job ads may direct applicants to email a résumé to a company or visit its website and submit a résumé in an electronic format.\n\nMany employers, and recruitment agencies working on their behalf, insist on receiving résumés in a particular file format. Some require Microsoft Word documents, while others will only accept résumés formatted in HTML, PDF, or plain ASCII text.\n", "Many USAJOBS announcements are time-sensitive. The process of creating your federal resume for the first time and gaining access to the various elements of the USAJOBS application system and any companion systems can take upwards of 2 hours. Successful candidates get familiar with the system and its components and have a basic resume built in the system that they can they adjust when they see a vacancy announcement of interest.\n", "In many cases, Applicant Tracking Systems filter candidate applications automatically based on given criteria such as keywords, skills, former employers, years of experience and schools attended. This has caused many to adapt resume optimization techniques similar to those used in search engine optimization when creating and formatting their résumé.\n\nSection::::Principle.\n", "After finding a desirable job, they would then apply for the job by responding to the advertisement. This may mean applying through a website, emailing or mailing in a hard copy of a résumé to a prospective employer. It is generally recommended that résumés be brief, organized, concise, and targeted to the position being sought. With certain occupations, such as graphic design or writing, portfolios of a job seeker's previous work are essential and are evaluated as much, if not more than the person's résumé. In most other occupations, the résumé should focus on past accomplishments, expressed in terms as concretely as possible (e.g. number of people managed, amount of increased sales or improved customer satisfaction).\n", "BULLET::::- Talks about the job interview process at Google and says that the best signal is if somebody has worked with one of their employees and they can vouch for the candidate. He also talks about \"resume predictor\" that takes resume attributes such as experience, winning a programming contest, working on open source project etc. and predicts fit. He also mentions assigning of scores 1 to 4 by interviewers and generally turning down candidates who get a 1 by any of the interviewers unless someone at Google fights for hiring them.\n\nBULLET::::9. Guy Steele\n", "This phase often requires a more in depth understanding of the job description and requirements. For instance to determine relevant years of experience, the reviewer must add the number of years at the relevant jobs to come up with the years' experience. It can often be a judgment call on which parts of a job history are relevant to a job search. This means the person performing this step must have a suitable depth of understanding about the job description and requirements for the position.\n\nSection::::Process.:Qualitative review.\n", "This trend has attracted criticism from human resources management professionals, who warn that this may be a passing fad and point out that multimedia-based résumés may be overlooked by recruiters whose workflow is designed only to accommodate a traditional résumé format. \n\nSection::::Résumé evaluation.\n", "Section::::Process.:Qualitative review.:Other factors.\n\nOther factors is a broad term that is somewhat subjective when it comes to reviewing resumes. Here are a couple of examples that may help give one candidate an edge over another in the review process.\n\nBULLET::::- Does the candidate have a history of advancement including more responsibility and challenge in each subsequent position?\n\nBULLET::::- Does the candidate have experience working at a company of similar size and resource?\n\nBULLET::::- Does the candidate have the correct industry experience?\n\nBULLET::::- If this person applied directly for the position, would it be a significant drop in responsibility or challenge?\n", "BULLET::::- The technology is extremely cost-effective and a resource saver. Rather than asking candidates to manually enter the information, which could discourage them from applying or wasting recruiter's time, data entry is now done automatically.\n\nBULLET::::- The contact information, relevant skills, work history, educational background and more specific information about the candidate is easily accessible.\n", "With the popularity of video hosting solutions there has been much debate in the usefulness of video resumes. Most recruiters feel that a video alone does not give an employer enough information about a candidate to make a proper evaluation of the applicant's potential and more importantly skills. One article suggests that\n", "The objective of screening resumes is to eliminate candidates which do not meet the job requirements. Today the act of screening a resume may generally be divided into three steps, the first pass or scanning for keywords, the second pass which includes reading the resume to evaluate the candidate against the job requirements and the final pass, a full review of the resume including a subjective qualitative review of the candidate's job history. Each step requires a more detailed review of the resume.\n\nSection::::Process.:Keywords.\n", "In a 2012 experiment, a resume for an ideal candidate was created based on the job description for a clinical scientist position. After going through the parser, one of the candidate's work experiences was completely lost due to the date being listed before the employer. The parser also didn't catch several educational degrees. The result was that the candidate received a relevance ranking of only 43%. If this had been a real candidate's resume, they wouldn't have moved on to the next step even though they were qualified for the position. It would be helpful if a similar study was conducted on current resume parsers to see if there have been any improvements over the past few years.\n", "Job Information (Announcement number, title, series and grade of job for which applying) \n\nPersonal Information (Full name, mailing address w/ zip code, day and evening phone numbers w/ area code, social security #, country of citizenship, veteran’s preference, reinstatement eligibility, highest Federal civilian grade held) \n\nEducation (High school: name, city, and state, date of diploma or GED, Colleges or universities: name, city and state, majors, type and year of any degrees received) \n", "Resumes that reach this step of the process are from candidates that meet many of the requirements of the job description. This final pass is to examine the more subtle subjective qualities of the candidate. The objective is remove candidates with red flags that could mean potential job fraud and to separate the top candidates from the remaining resumes.\n\nSection::::Process.:Qualitative review.:Resume red flags.\n", "BULLET::::- The applicant screening process is now significantly faster and more efficient. Instead of having to look at every resume, recruiters can filter them by specific characteristics, sort and search them. This allows recruiters to move through the interview process and fill positions at a faster rate.\n\nBULLET::::- One of the biggest complaints people searching for jobs have is the length of the application process. With resume parsers, the process is now faster and candidates have an improved experience.\n", "Application blanks are the second most common hiring instrument next to personal interviews. Companies will occasionally use two types of application blanks, short and long. They both help companies with initial screening and the longer form can be used for other purposes as well. The answers that applicants choose to submit are helpful to the company because they can become an interview question for that applicant at a future date.\n\nSection::::Standardization and Regulation.\n\nThe employment application is not a standardized form so every company may create its own as long as regulations set by the government are adhered. \n", "Studies have found that there is a gender discrepancy in video resumes as it is often detrimental for women to exhibit 'masculine' workplace characteristics such as assertiveness, confidence and self-promotion, whereas self-promotion was beneficial for male applicants. There is also an assumption that additional information on age, race, disability, gender and ethnicity provided by video resumes at an early stage in an application process could result in accusations of descrimination. As Heimstra (2012) states \"There is empirical evidence that e-recruitment practices that are perceived as unfair and intrusive lead to negative applicant reactions, possible legal action, and a tendency to ‘self-select out’.\"\n", "It has become commonplace for job-seekers to submit soft copies (electronic versions) of their resumès and CVs to recruiting agencies and online job portals. This is usually done over the Internet using e-mail or a pre-hosted web-based system.\n\nSection::::Submission management systems.\n", "Once an employer has received résumés, they will make a list of potential employees to be interviewed based on the résumé and any other information contributed. During the interview process, interviewers generally look for persons who they believe will be best for the job and work environment. The interview may occur in several rounds until the interviewer is satisfied and offers the job to the right applicant.\n\nSection::::Job hunting in economic theory.\n", "An \"application for employment\" is a standard business document which is prepared with questions deemed relevant by an [employer] in order for the employer to determine the best [candidate] I to be given the responsibility of fulfilling the work needs of the company. Most companies provide such forms to anyone upon request at which point it becomes the responsibility of the applicant to complete the document form and returning it to the employer at will for consideration. The completed and returned document notifies the company of the applicants availability and desire to be employed and their [wikt:qualification\|qualifications] and background so a determination can be made as to which candidate should be hired.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-09182	Why do so many Vietnamese people own nail salons?	Started out decades ago after an actress visited a Vietnamese refugee camp in California. She subsequently organised for them to be trained etc, and the rest is history. URL_0	[ "Generally, those working in nail salons are called nail technicians. In some areas throughout the UK and USA, districts require nail technicians to have formal, state recognised qualifications in order to be able to grant licenses to the salons. Also nail salons have always been mainly for women, but since then men have become more distant from them.\n\nCurrently, the industry estimates that almost 40% of nail salon technicians in the US are Vietnamese women. The highest density of Vietnamese nail technicians is in California, where it is roughly 59%-80%. The majority of these women are Vietnamese immigrants. \n", "Another reason nail salon workers join the industry is that they don't always have to become licensed. Depending on the state it can take hundreds of hours to get a license. Sometimes a worker has to have graduated high school, or have a certain level of English proficiency. Often the beauty schools only teach in English, making it difficult for immigrants to obtain their license. Despite this being illegal, many employers hire unlicensed workers anyway.\n\nIn some cases employers make new employees pay to get the job and to be taught how to do manicures.\n\nSection::::Ethnic hierarchies.\n", "The dominance of Vietnamese in the nail salon industry begun when many of them arrived in US in the aftermath of Vietnam war. Tippi Hedren, the Hollywood actress, as a part of charity working in Vietnamese refugee camp was trying to find vocations to help them integrate into U.S. society. She brought in her personal manicurist to teach a group of 20 wives of Vietnamese military office. The training required for nail salon work is short and inexpensive, the work does not require high English proficiency, and the work hours tend to be flexible enough to allow immigrant mothers to attend to family obligations. Also, the money involved in opening nail salon was small.\n", "It's not a choice for many workers to leave the nail salon business to improve their health. Being an immigrant woman who speaks little English impacts their ability to find other work. It's also difficult for them to receive medical treatment if their doctor doesn't speak their language, or if they are uninsured and undocumented.\n\nWhile the EU has banned more than 1,300 chemicals from being used in cosmetics, the U.S. has banned less than twelve, and despite there being around 10,000 chemicals in nail products, only eleven percent of those have been tested for safety by an independent agency.\n", "Section::::Aftermath of the \"New York Times\" exposé.\n\nThe majority of change in the nail salon industry has been in New York, largely because the \"Times\" article focused on corruption in New York.\n", "For Korean immigrant women entering the nail salon industry, it can be very helpful for them to have an employer who also speaks their language and sometimes it's the only way they can get work; but it often comes at a cost. A worker's inability to find another job because of their low English proficiency can get taken advantage of by employers because they know that their workers can't leave. So they will mistreat them, pay them low wages, and have them work for long hours.\n", "The president of the Korean Nail Salon Association of New York denied any widespread racial or ethnic prejudice from Korean business owners toward non-Korean workers.\n\nSection::::Language, employers, and customer service.\n", "Section::::Entry into the workforce.\n\nThere are several factors influencing why so many immigrant women work in Korean nail salons. It often has to do with the fact that they don't have to be proficient in English in order to do their jobs, they get paid in cash, the hours are somewhat flexible, and if they are undocumented they will struggle to get a job elsewhere. They are often introduced to this work through family, friends, church members, or neighbors, though some do find work through ad sections in Korean newspapers.\n", "Several advocate groups have formed in response to the lack of regulations regarding nail salon worker health, like the California Healthy Nail Salon Collaborative, the Safe Nail Salon Project, New York Healthy Nail Salons Coalition, and National Healthy Nail and Beauty Salon Alliance. Many of the activists that work in these groups are former nail salon workers themselves, who have experienced first hand the effects of working in nail salons. These organizations call for tighter government regulation of chemicals and ingredients, proper education for workers on how to handle certain chemicals, the circulation of translated materials, and the provision of masks, gloves, and proper ventilation.\n", "Section::::Income and wage theft.\n\nIt's common for nail salon workers to be misclassified by their employers as independent contractors, instead of employees. When a worker is classified as an independent contractor they are not covered by labor laws relating to overtime, breaks, minimum wage requirements, sick time, paid vacation, Social Security, harassment, or discrimination.\n", "Young Vietnamese Americans adults are well educated, and often provide professional services. Since older Vietnamese Americans have difficulty interacting with the non-Vietnamese professional class, many Vietnamese Americans provide specialized professional services to fellow immigrants. Of these, a small number are owned by Vietnamese Americans of Hoa ethnicity. In the Gulf Coast region (Louisiana, Texas, Mississippi and Alabama), Vietnamese Americans are involved with the fishing industry and account for 45 to 85 percent of the region's shrimp business. However, the dumping of imported shrimp from Vietnam has impacted their livelihood. Many remain employed in Silicon Valley's computer and networking industry, despite layoffs following the closure of various high-tech companies. Recent immigrants not yet proficient in English work in assembly, restaurants, shops and nail and hair salons. Eighty percent of California's nail technicians and 43 percent nationwide are Vietnamese Americans. Nail-salon work is skilled manual labor which requires limited English-speaking ability. Some Vietnamese Americans see the work as a way to accumulate wealth quickly, and many send remittances to family members in Vietnam. Vietnamese entrepreneurs from Britain and Canada have adopted the U.S. model and opened nail salons in the United Kingdom, where few had existed.\n", "The Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA), is responsible for inspections of worker health and safety. It is estimated 375,000 nail technicians work in nail salons in the United States. Yet in 2005, OSHA inspected only 18 nail salons because businesses are exempt from inspection if they have 10 employees or less. According to the Asian American Resource Workshop, Vietnamese nail salon workers hold 40% of nail technician licenses in the United States. \"It's long hours, low hourly pay, and fierce competition from every corner of the block\" and with such fierce competition between businesses, salaries are reduced even further. As a result, a majority of these immigrants are subject to low socioeconomic status; which subsequently reduces opportunity to be educated about the occupational chemicals they are exposed to in the workplace and reduces opportunity to seek health care if adverse health effects are experienced from chemical exposure.\n", "Hedren played a role in the development of Vietnamese-American nail salons in the United States. In 1975, while an international relief coordinator with Food for the Hungry, she began visiting with refugees at Hope Village outside Sacramento, California. When she learned the women were interested in her manicured nails, she employed her manicurist to teach them the skills of the trade and worked with a local beauty school to help them find jobs. Hedren's work with the Vietnamese-Americans was the subject of \"Happy Hands\", directed by Honey Lauren, which won Best Documentary Short at the Sonoma International Film Festival in 2014. CND and Beauty Changes Lives Foundation (BCL) have announced the BCL CND Tippi Hedren Nail Scholarship Fund to support professional nail education and will be administered starting January 1, 2014.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Because I am young and pregnant and I don't want to breathe in the dust and chemicals – I'm afraid that it might affect my child later on\"\n\nSection::::Wages and working conditions.:Work environment.:Chemical exposures.\n", "A Korean nail salon worker is a nail technician, manicurist, esthetician, or masseuse working in a Korean-owned nail salon in America. These workers are typically women who have immigrated from South Korea, though there are also Latina and Chinese immigrants employed by these shops. The majority of women who work in these nail salons are paid low wages, exposed to dangerous chemicals because of weak regulations, and develop complicated relationships with their clients, largely due to language differences and contradicting views on what constitutes quality customer service. Most Korean-owned nail salons are located in New York, and in reaction to a 2015 \"New York Times\" exposé documenting corruption within the state's nail salon industry, Gov. Andrew Cuomo created the New York State Nail Industry Enforcement Task Force, and signed into law stricter salon regulations and required the posting of wage bonds.\n", "In Brazil, studies found that more than a third of the profits generated from tourism were exported to absentee business owners. In Vietnam, the economic expansion of the 1990s was associated with a rise in absentee business owners. There has also been concern that tourism profits in Southern Africa go to absentee business owners. \n", "Working as a community legal worker at the Chinese & Southeast Asian Legal Clinic (CSALC), Yan collaborated with the Nail Technicians’ Network (NTN) to empower marginalized racialized women (mostly of Chinese and Vietnamese descent) to create better working conditions and rights at nail salons. Chen, as organizer for the initiative, informed the Star that salons evade minimum workplace standards. Her work involved outreaching to nail salon workers, organizing and facilitating immigration and employment workshops for workers to share their concerns, and \n", "In many large US cities there are Asian massage parlours, some advertising traditional Thai massage. In some cases these establishments are fronts for prostitution. As of 2005, more than forty Asian massage parlors (mostly Korean) operated as fronts for in-call brothels in Washington, D.C., and each earned an average of $1.2 million a year. More than 200 other massage parlors (that did not openly advertise and were operated largely out of private homes and apartments) serving mainly Latino clients made an average of at least $800,000 a year.\n", "There are also some Vietnamese who came to the Czech Republic (that time Czechoslovakia) during the communism. They are shopkeepers or pubkeepers, the others are occupied in their national friends´ firms.\n", "Section::::Wages and working conditions.:Work environment.\n", "There are varying reports on how much money workers make in Korean nail salons, though it's typically around $30.00 to $80.00 a day; they often work for ten hours a day, and almost every day of the week. Sometimes newcomers only earn $10.00 depending on their employer. When asked about wage theft and underpayment by Sarah Nir, the\"Times\" reporter who wrote the industry-changing exposé, Sangho Lee, the then president of the Korean American Nail Salon Association, refused to comment. He believed that to answer any questions would negatively impact Korean Nail Salons, because of how many owners didn't pay minimum wage. Korean nail salon owners subsequently denied that they were stealing money from their employees.\n", "According to an investigation by \"The New York Times\" in 2015, abuse by Korean nail salon owners in New York City and Long Island was rampant, with 70 to 80% of nail salon owners in New York being Korean, per the Korean American Nail Salon Association; with the growth and concentration in the number of salons in New York City far outstripping the remainder of the United States since 2000, according to the U.S. Census Bureau. Abuses routinely included underpayment and non-payment to employees for services rendered, exacting poor working conditions, and stratifying pay scales and working conditions for Korean employees above non-Koreans.\n", "BULLET::::- The fourth social center is being built in Krong No district, in Dak Nong province, Vietnam Central Highlands . The center is intended for severely handicapped or aging people, unable to take up paid employment despite the services offered by Maison Chance . They would be sent to the center in Dak Nong Province . Maison Chance social center in Dak Nong will offer types of therapy, still uncommon in Vietnam. These include equine-assisted therapy and horticultural therapy. The opening of the Dak Nong social center is planned for the year 2018\n\nSection::::Book.\n", "DEPDC started in 1989 by helping nineteen girls, founded as the Daughters Education Program, their program has now expanded to helping over 400 girls find alternatives to entering the sex trade. DEPDC works with community leaders to identify which girls are going to be at a higher level of risk to enter the sex trade, they then work with the family to gain their trust and support. Gaining the family's trust and support is crucial to the success of the girls; however, they program does offer alternative living arrangements for girls that are not allowed to stay with their family.\n", "Most fathers lose their masculine power and the children can gain more power if more responsibility is placed on them in the nonappearance of their mothers. The family should theoretically gain more power within their respected community due to the increase in wage earnings and newfound wealth due to the remittances sent by the mother—power in the sense of moving up of the social stratification \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-18028	why does meat shrink when cooked?	People are trying to answer you but they are a bit off-course. The meat lose water, but you are not boiling it away from inside and the loss is a consequence, not the reason why meat shrinks. The meat also lose some fat but there is not much of it inside to start with. Not enough to justify shrinkage. Meat is made of muscle. Muscle is made of long filaments called "fibers", that are actually bundles of cords made of cells. There is fluid between the cords, containing a red substance called "myoglobin" that ensures oxygen gets to the cells and CO2 is carried away (much like what haemoglobin does in the blood). This is what gives meat its red color. To keep the cords together, the fibers are wrapped with a tight blanket of proteins called "collagen" or "connective tissue". Mind you, there are many kinds of collagen in the body, this is just one kind. When you cook the meat a lot of things happen, but one thing is relevant to your question: those collagen wrappings works like some of those plastics, the ones that shrink a lot when heated. You know the kind I'm talking of? This is precisely what happens: you heat the meat, collagen shrinks, the meat visibly shrinks and most of the reddish water get squeezed out. Incidentally, to cook a good steak you'll want to avoid this shrinkage as much as possible, because of course it will make the meat dry, hard and somewhat flavorless. But it's not the meat's fault as many believe... it's the cook's (and/or the butcher's). This collagen wrappings can also be made in to a gelatin that will make meat moist and flavorful, but it takes a long time to do properly and can be tricky (it's what you do when cooking pulled pork, for example). It is not something you'll want to do with the cuts of meat that are used to make steaks. There is a lot more going on inside meat when cooking it. Feel free to ask if you want to know more.	[ "Toughness in meat is derived from several proteins, such as actin, myosin and collagen, that combined form the structure of the muscle tissue. Heating these proteins causes them to denature, or break down into other substances, which in turn changes the structure and texture of meat, usually reducing its toughness and making it more tender. This typically takes place between over an extended period of time.\n\nSection::::Theory.:Flavour.\n", "As the pH drops, proteins in the myofibers are denatured, leading to abnormal cell structure. The result is a pale tissue color, and a soft, almost mushy texture. The sarcomeres collapse excessively, and less water is held within the cell membrane and proteins. Subsequently, the myofibers will continue to lose water content as the meat is cooled and stored, leading to excessive drip loss.\n", "The interior of a cut of meat will still increase in temperature 3–5 °C (5–10 °F) after it is removed from an oven or other heat source. The meat should be allowed to \"rest\" for a suitable amount of time (depending on the size of the cut or steak) before being served, which makes the meat easier to carve and its structure firmer and more resistant to deformation; its water-holding capacity also increases and less liquid is lost from the meat during carving. The whole meat and the center will also continue to cook slightly as the hot exterior continues to warm the comparatively cooler interior. The exception is if the meat has been prepared in a sous-vide process, as it will already be at temperature equilibrium.\n", "Meat hanging allows processes to continue in the meat that would normally cease in dead animals. For example, the muscles in the meat continue to use the oxygen that is in the proteins of the blood. This normal biological process creates a chemical by-product known as lactic acid. Since the blood is no longer being circulated through the body, the lactic acid starts to break down the muscle and connective tissues around it.\n", "Escalope\n\nAn escalope is a piece of boneless meat that has been thinned out using a mallet, rolling pin or beaten with the handle of a knife, or merely butterflied. The mallet breaks down the fibers in the meat, making it more tender. But the thinner meat cooks faster with more moisture loss. The meat is then coated and fried.\n\nSection::::Common sizes.\n\nThe typical sizes of an escalope used in the food industry range from 110 to 225 g (4–8 oz).\n\nSection::::Paillard or scallop.\n", "Meat has usually been cooked in water which is just simmering, such as in stewing; higher temperatures make meat tougher by causing the proteins to contract. Since thermostatic temperature control became available, cooking at temperatures well below boiling, (sous-vide) to (slow cooking), for prolonged periods has become possible; this is just hot enough to convert the tough collagen in connective tissue into gelatin through hydrolysis, with minimal toughening.\n", "Meat with the fat content deposited within the steak to create a \"marbled\" appearance has always been regarded as more tender than steaks where the fat is in a separate layer. Cooking causes melting of the fat, spreading it throughout the meat and increasing the tenderness of the final product.\n\nSection::::Testing.\n", "Oxidative rancidity is associated with the degradation by oxygen in the air. The double bonds of an unsaturated fatty acid can be cleaved by free-radical reactions involving molecular oxygen. This reaction causes the release of malodorous and highly volatile aldehydes and ketones. Because of the nature of free-radical reactions, the reaction is catalyzed by sunlight. Oxidation primarily occurs with unsaturated fats. For example, even though meat is held under refrigeration or in a frozen state, the poly-unsaturated fat will continue to oxidize and slowly become rancid. The fat oxidation process, potentially resulting in rancidity, begins immediately after the animal is slaughtered and the muscle, intra-muscular, inter-muscular and surface fat becomes exposed to oxygen of the air. This chemical process continues during frozen storage, though more slowly at lower temperature. Oxidative rancidity can be prevented by light-proof packaging, oxygen-free atmosphere (air-tight containers) and by the addition of antioxidants.\n", "Section::::Cooking and preparation.:Moist heat.\n\nMoist heat cooking methods include braising, pot roasting, stewing and sous-vide. These techniques are often used for cuts of beef that are tougher, as these longer, lower-temperature cooking methods have time to dissolve connecting tissue which otherwise makes meat remain tough after cooking.\n\nBULLET::::- Stewing or simmering\n\nBULLET::::- Braising\n\nBULLET::::- Sous-vide\n", "The principal effect of cooking meat on the bone is that it alters the flavour and texture. Albumen and collagen in the bones release gelatin when boiled which adds substance to stews, stocks, soups and sauces. The bone also conducts heat within the meat so that it cooks more evenly and prevents meat drying out and shrinking during cooking.\n\nSection::::Eating meat on the bone.\n\nConsumption methods vary by size; smaller bones can be eaten whole, while larger ones can be broken or gnawed.\n", "When food is cooked, some of its proteins become denatured. This is why boiled eggs become hard and cooked meat becomes firm.\n", "BULLET::::- Zabaglione\n\nSection::::Physical-chemical properties.\n\nCooked (set) custard is a weak gel, viscous and thixotropic; while it does become easier to stir the more it is manipulated, it does not, unlike many other thixotropic liquids, recover its lost viscosity over time. On the other hand, a suspension of uncooked imitation custard powder (starch) in water, with the proper proportions, has the opposite rheological property: it is negative thixotropic, or dilatant, allowing the demonstration of \"walking on custard\".\n\nSection::::Chemistry.\n", "In butchery, butterflying transforms a thick, compact piece of meat into a thinner, larger one. The meat is laid out on a cutting board and cut in half parallel to the board almost all the way to the other, leaving a small \"hinge\", which is used to fold the meat out like a book. This technique is often used as an alternative to, or in conjunction with, pounding out the meat with a meat mallet to make it thinner.\n\nFor leg of lamb, it is generally followed by boning.\n", "The process changes beef by two means. Firstly, moisture is evaporated from the muscle. The resulting process of desiccation creates a greater concentration of beef flavour and taste. Secondly, the beef's natural enzymes break down the connective tissue in the muscle, which leads to more tender beef.\n", "Salt (sodium chloride) is the primary ingredient used in meat curing. Removal of water and addition of salt to meat creates a solute-rich environment where osmotic pressure draws water out of microorganisms, slowing down their growth. Doing this requires a concentration of salt of nearly 20%. In addition, salt causes the soluble proteins to come to the surface of the meat that was used to make the sausages. These proteins coagulate when the sausage is heated, helping to hold the sausage together.\n\nSection::::Chemical actions.:Sugar.\n", "Section::::Potential solutions.:Abbatoir chilling conditions.\n\nQuickly chilling pork and poultry meat, in order to bring the muscle temperature down to an acceptable level, will reduce myofibril glycolysis and stop muscle metabolism. Slower chilling results in a lower pH, lighter colored meat, and greater yield losses after cooking. \n", "The net dressed weight can vary dramatically from animals of the same type depending on how much fat is trimmed in the dressing process, how lean the animal is at butcher time, and if the animal has eaten shortly before slaughter. From the perspective of economics, understanding the average dressed weight as a ratio to the live weight is a necessary function of the cattle and other meat industries, as it allows a rough estimate of the available return for each animal. The dressed weight of an animal will still be higher than the net retail weight of final product at the market, as additional trimming and deboning generally take place for the individual cuts.\n", "The process of dry-aging usually also promotes growth of certain fungal (mold) species on the external surface of the meat. This does not cause spoilage, but rather forms an external \"crust\" on the meat's surface, which is trimmed off when the meat is prepared for cooking. These fungal species complement the natural enzymes in the beef by helping to tenderize and increase the flavor of the meat. The genus \"Thamnidium\", in particular, is known to produce collagenolytic enzymes which greatly contribute to the tenderness and flavor of dry-aged meat.\n", "Meat and bones (in a dry, ground state) are converted to \"meat and bone meal\". Health professionals believe that meat and bone meal in animal feed was the main route for the late-20th century spread of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (mad-cow disease, BSE), which is also fatal to human beings. Early in the 21st century, most countries tightened regulations to prevent this.\n", "Reduction (cooking)\n\nIn cooking, reduction is the process of thickening and intensifying the flavor of a liquid mixture such as a soup, sauce, wine, or juice by simmering or boiling.\n\nReduction is performed by simmering or boiling a liquid such as stock, fruit or vegetable juices, wine, vinegar, or a sauce until the desired concentration is reached by evaporation. This is done without a lid, enabling the vapor to escape from the mixture. Different components of the liquid will evaporate at slightly different temperatures, and the goal of reduction is to drive away those with lowest points of evaporation.\n", "Traditionally, \"galbi\" is cut to expose one smooth bone along the short edge with the meat uniformly filleted in flat layers.\n", "BULLET::::- The salt introduced into the cell denatures its proteins. The proteins coagulate, forming a matrix that traps water molecules and holds them during cooking. This prevents the meat from dehydrating.\n\nSection::::Fish.\n", "HCA formation during cooking depends on the type of meat, cooking temperature, the degree of browning and the cooking time. Meats that are lower in fat and water content show higher concentrations of HCAs after cooking. More HCAs are formed when pan surface temperatures are higher than 220C (428F) such as with most frying or grilling. However, HCAs also form at lower temperatures when the cooking time is long, as in roasting. HCA concentrations are higher in browned or burned crusts that result from high temperature. The pan drippings and meat bits that remain after meat is fried have high concentrations of HCAs. Beef, chicken and fish have higher concentrations than pork. Sausages are high in fat and water and show lower concentrations.\n", "Section::::Meat.\n\nBrining is typically a process in which meat is soaked in a salt water solution similar to marination before cooking. Meat is soaked anywhere from 30 minutes to several days. The amount of time needed to brine depends on the size of the meat: More time is needed for a large turkey compared to a broiler fryer chicken. Similarly, a large roast must be brined longer than a thin cut of meat.\n\nSection::::Meat.:Dry brining.\n", "BULLET::::- A low-temperature oven, , is best when cooking with large cuts of meat, turkey and whole chickens. This is not technically roasting temperature, but it is called slow-roasting. The benefit of slow-roasting an item is less moisture loss and a more tender product. More of the collagen that makes meat tough is dissolved in slow cooking. At true roasting temperatures, or more, the water inside the muscle is lost at a high rate.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03653	What exactly is a non-profit? How do they not make a profit?	A non-profit corporation is organized for a purpose other than making a profit. In this case, "profit" doesn't just mean revenue minus expenses, but the amounts that belong to the shareholders who own a business corporation. When a non-profit has more revenue than expenses, it will spend it (or save it for later) to further its mission. For example, a charity might be organized to operate a soup kitchen for the homeless. The more money it takes in and the less it spends on overhead, the more homeless people it can serve by expanding its operations. It's important to note that not all non-profits are charities. A credit union is a non-profit, but it wants to deliver the best service and interest rates to its members. The local chamber of commerce doesn't make any profit itself, but it does want to increase the profits of its members by encouraging local business.	[ "A charitable for-profit entity however differs from this as the organization will aim for a profit whilst still providing similar services as a charity. The for-profit entity may also be directed by a sole proprietor, while a non-profit organization needs a board of directors. Like any other for-profit organization it will base its accounting on the quarterly income, whereas a non-profit charity will purely focus on the activities carried out.\n", "Section::::Practitioners/sources of training and support.\n\nWhereas a for-profit business may have the budget to hire a full-time staff member or part-time consultant to help with computer and Internet technology use, nonprofit organizations usually have fewer financial resources and, therefore, may not be able to hire a full-time staff person to manage and support technology use. While there are nonprofits that can afford to pay staff devoted to managing and supporting the nonprofits technology needs, many of those who support nonprofits in their technology use are staff members who have different primary roles (called \"accidental techies\") and volunteers.\n", "Not-for-profit arts organization\n\nA not-for-profit arts organization usually takes the form of a not-for-profit corporation, association, or foundation. Such organizations are formed for the purpose of developing and promoting the work of artists in various visual and performing art forms such as film, sculpture, dance, painting, multimedia, poetry, and performance art.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Nonprofit and not-for-profit are terms that are used similarly, but do not mean the same thing. Both are organizations that do not make a profit, but may receive an income to sustain their missions. The income that nonprofit and not-for-profit organizations generate is used differently. Nonprofit organizations return their income back to the organization if they generate extra income. Not-for-profits use their excess money to pay their members who do work for them. Another difference between nonprofit organizations and not-for-profit organizations is their membership. Nonprofits have volunteers or employees who do not receive any money from the organization's fundraising efforts. They may earn a salary for their work that is independent from the money the organization has fundraised. Not-for-profit members have the opportunity to benefit from the organization's fundraising efforts.\n", "Nonprofit organizations also use both proprietary and open-source software, as well as various online tools (the World Wide Web, email, online social networking, wikis,volunteer web blogs micro-blogging, etc.), that are also used by for-profit businesses. Nonprofit groups may leverage web-based services in their media outreach, using online newswires such as Nonprofit Newswire.com to disseminate their press releases.\n", "Such a surplus — that is, whatever part of its income is left after its operating expenses are paid — which might be considered similar to \"profit\" — must be spent on the charitable or public purpose(s) for which it was organized, not paid as a dividend or benefit to anyone associated with running or organizing it.\n\nSection::::Taxation.:Federal taxes.\n", "The major distinction between these two organizations can be derived from their names as a non-profit organization does not seek any profit, does not pay any taxes as it works for the welfare of the society and reinvests any surpluses earned back to the business. In contrast a for-profit corporation has no legal duty/obligation of working for the welfare of anyone but itself. This is the reason why a for-profit organization is not exempted any tax. Subsequently, at times running a not-for-profit corporation can be more difficult. Although both for and not-for-profit need a good decision making body however the aspect of serving the public puts an extra responsibility on the members of the board.\n", "Those providing support to nonprofit organizations regarding their use of computers, the Internet and networking technologies are sometimes known as eRiders or circuit riders, or more broadly as NTAPs (nonprofit technology assistance providers).\n\nA membership association for people volunteering or working for pay to support nonprofit technology is .\n\nSection::::Sources of hardware and software.\n\nA variety of organizations support NPOs' acquisition of technology, either hardware or software.\n\nCertain NPOs (for example Free Geek or Nonprofit Technology Resources) support local NPOs with discounted refurbished personal computers.\n", "Because of their limited budgets, nonprofit organizations may not be able to upgrade their hardware or software, buy computers or Internet tools, or provide technology training for staff to the degree of for-profit businesses. This means that, often, nonprofit organizations can be on the wrong side of the digital divide.\n\nSection::::Benefits of technology.\n", "A large majority of businesses will usually concentrate on the financial benefits of its owners and shareholders when setting up a business. The main aim of most businesses, including Charitable for-profit entities, are to generate some sort of profit for the business. By producing profit, the charitable for-profit entity is able to continue its work to a high standard and also pay the stakeholders of the company. Charitable for-profit entities will however have to pay taxes on the profit that is made. This differs from a traditional (non-profit) charity because they do not have to pay taxes as no profit is generated for themselves.\n", "Section::::Legal forms.:Low-profit limited liability company.\n\nA Low-profit limited liability company (L3C) is a low limited liability company that has a set mission of being socially beneficial similarly to the way a non-profit company has also. However a non-profit company will not distribute its profits the way a for-profit company does. \n\nA limited liability company takes advantage of both non-profit and for profit sources of capital. An L3C can attract a diverse group of creditors to finance its operations, including private foundations and socially conscious for-profit entities.\n\nSection::::Differences between charitable for-profit entity and not-for-profit charities.\n", "Although there are many differences between charitable for-profit entities and traditional charities, they do hold some similarities that can be said to be quite major. Both will have a strong vision in what they want from the business overall. Both will therefore have similar strategic plans in order to get the best out of the business regardless of their aims and objectives being different to an extent. For-profit entities and non-profit charities will both strive to meet their objectives that are laid out on their mission statements. They are both given limited funds, so will therefore have to aim to meet their goals with the funds provided.\n", "Types of technology do not differ between nonprofit and for profit organizations. Nonprofit technology is differentiated by specific strategies and purposes. Numerous nonprofit organizations approach technology with an emphasis on cost effectiveness due to limited budgets. Information technology in particular offers low-cost solutions for non profits to address administrative, service and marketing needs. Technology deployment grants nonprofits the opportunity to better allocate staff resources away from administrative tasks to focus on direct services provided by the organization.\n\nSection::::Definitional Issues.\n", "In many countries, nonprofits may apply for tax exempt status, so that the organization itself may be exempt from income tax and other taxes. In the United States, to be exempt from federal income taxes, the organization must meet the requirements set forth in the Internal Revenue Code. Granting nonprofit status is done by the state, while applying for tax-exempt designation (such as 501(c)(3), the charitable tax-exemption) is granted by the federal government in the form of the IRS. ... This means that not all nonprofits are eligible to be tax-exempt. NPOs use the model of a double bottom line in that furthering their cause is more important than making a profit, though both are needed to ensure the organization's sustainability.\n", "Their status is actually issued by a non-profit organization called B-Labs. They are accepted as legal entities in several states of the United States and legislations have been passed to ensure their legal status.\n\nSection::::Popular models.:Proximity to LLCs.\n", "Nonprofit organizations use computers, Internet and other networking technology for a number of tasks, including volunteer management and support, donor management, client tracking and support, project management, human resources (paid staff) management, financial accounting, program evaluation, research, marketing, activism and collaboration. Nonprofit organizations that engage in income-generation activities, such as ticket sales, may also use technology for these functions.\n", "In the United States and Canada, a web-based membership association that provides non-profit organizations with discounts on products and services, including technology providers, is the Non-Profit Purchasing Group.\n\nFor developing areas or nations, technology may be available from organizations mentioned in Computer technology for developing areas.\n\nSection::::Best practices/guiding principles for effective adoption.\n", "Section::::Aims.\n\nUnlike non-profit organizations the policies of these organizations are usually profit oriented. Managers(corporate employees) here have a profit oriented mindset and aim at maximising the revenue of the firm which in turn contributes to the dividends (in case of public limited) or profits of the shareholders/owners. Their aim can be accompanied by a goal of serving the society however that usually happens in cases of B-corporations.\n\nSection::::Popular models.\n\nA for-profit corporation generally does mean an organization seeking profit however it has both modern forms and is also close to some other types of organizations as seen below.\n\nSection::::Popular models.:B-corporations.\n", "Charitable for-profit entity\n\nA charitable for-profit entity is an organization that exists to serve a charitable mission but is legally organized as a for-profit corporation. Both benefit corporations and Low-profit limited liability companies (L3C) fall under this category. As well as generating a profit, a charitable for-profit entity concentrates on setting a social objective. The business must achieve its social purpose as well as having a profit income if it is to be successful.\n", "Technology use associated with nonprofits is not dedicated in nature, that is, technologies and specific uses of such technology by nonprofits cannot be linked solely to the nonprofit sector. Because of this, constructing a definition of nonprofit technology is based in large part on use.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n", "If an organization is to qualify for tax exempt status, the organization's (a) \"charter\" — if a \"not-for-profit corporation\" — or (b) \"trust instrument\" — if a trust — or (c) \"articles of association\" — if an association — must specify that no part of its assets shall benefit any people who are members, directors, officers or agents (its principals). As well the organization must have a legal, charitable purpose, i.e. the organization must be created to support educational, religious, or charitable activities. These elements do not mean that the organization cannot pay employees or contractors for work or services they render to the organization. This limitation means that as long as the organization operates within its exempt purposes and it maintains an endowment or uses any excess revenue to further develop its activities it will not be taxed by the Internal Revenue Service.\n", "In the United States, both nonprofits and not-for-profits are tax exempt under IRS publication 557. Although they are both tax-exempt, each organization faces different tax code requirements. A nonprofit is tax exempt under 501(c)(3) requirements if it is either a religious, charitable, or educational based organizations that do not influence state and federal legislation. Not-for-profits are tax exempt under 501(c)(7) requirements if they are an organization for pleasure, recreation or another nonprofit purpose.\n", "For-profit corporation\n\nA for-profit corporation is an organization which aims to earn profit through its operations and is concerned with its own interests, unlike those of the public (non-profit corporation).\n\nSection::::Structure.\n\nA for-profit corporation is usually an organization operating in the private sector which sets aims that eventually help the organization itself.\n", "A mutual-benefit nonprofit corporation or membership corporation, in the United States, is a type of nonprofit corporation chartered by a state government that exists to serve its members in ways other than obtaining and distributing profits to them. Therefore, it cannot obtain IRS 501(c)(3) non-profit status as a charitable organization.\n", "Not only must the organization meet the requirements the state where it is organized sets for non-profits, but it must also meet complex IRS regulations. These regulations are used not only to determine if the organization is exempt from tax under the organization's activities as a non-profit organization. If the organization purpose is one of those described in §501(c)(3) of the \"Internal Revenue Code\", it may apply for a ruling that donations to it are tax deductible to the persons or business entities who make them. The organization itself will be exempt from taxation as long as it does not engage in unrelated business activities. Such organizations are then required to file Form 990.\n" ]	[ "Non profit means the business makes less than they spend." ]	[ "Non profit means that any extra revenue after expenses are spent on furthering the mission of the non profit. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Non profit means the business makes less than they spend." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Non profit means that any extra revenue after expenses are spent on furthering the mission of the non profit. " ]
2018-04735	Why do certain muscles (especially in the thigh) twitch sporadically after working out?	Need to hydrate and eat some bananas. Not sure why exactly, but it's due to overexertion or fatigue. Water, electrolytes and potassium will calm that down.	[ "Section::::Causes.\n\nITBS can result from one or more of the following: training habits, anatomical abnormalities, or muscular imbalances:\n\nTraining habits\n\nBULLET::::- Spending long periods of time/regularly sitting in lotus posture in yoga. Esp beginners forcing the feet onto the top of the thighs\n\nBULLET::::- Consistently running on a horizontally banked surface (such as the shoulder of a road or an indoor track) on which the downhill leg is bent slightly inward, causing extreme stretching of the band against the femur\n\nBULLET::::- Inadequate warm-up or cool-down\n\nBULLET::::- Excessive up-hill and down-hill running\n", "Changes in muscle performance can be broadly described as the upper motor neuron syndrome. These changes vary depending on the site and the extent of the lesion, and may include:\n\nBULLET::::- Muscle weakness. known as 'pyramidal weakness'\n\nBULLET::::- Decreased control of active movement, particularly slowness\n\nBULLET::::- Spasticity, a velocity-dependent change in muscle tone\n\nBULLET::::- Clasp-knife response where initial higher resistance to movement is followed by a lesser resistance\n", "Symptoms of iliotibial band syndrome may include pain on the outside of the knee at the beginning of exercise which persists through the exercise or specific movements like running downhill and having the knee bent for prolonged periods of time.\n", "Tics must also be distinguished from fasciculations. Small twitches of the upper or lower eyelid, for example, are not tics, because they do not involve a whole muscle. They are twitches of a few muscle fibre bundles, which can be felt but barely seen. Such eyelid twitches also differ from tics in that they are not suppressible, are strictly involuntary, and tend to fade after a day or two.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Section::::Electrolyte depletion and dehydration theory.\n\nIt is widely believed that excessive sweating due to strenuous exercise can lead to muscle cramps. Deficiency of sodium and other electrolytes may lead to contracted interstitial fluid compartments, which may exacerbate the muscle cramping. According to this theory, the increased blood plasma osmolality from sweating sodium losses causes a fluid shift from the interstitial space to the intervascular space, which causes the interstitial fluid compartment to deform and contributes to muscle hyperexcitability and risk of spontaneous muscle activity.\n\nSection::::Neuromuscular control.\n", "In mammals, electrical recordings from single afferent nerve fibres have shown that the responses of Merkel nerve endings are characterized by a vigorous response to the onset of a mechanical ramp stimulus (dynamic), and then continued firing during the plateau phase (static). Firing during the static phase can continue for more than 30 minutes. The inter-spike intervals during sustained firing are irregular, in contrast to the highly regular pattern of inter-spike intervals obtained from slowly adapting type II mechanoreceptors. \n", "Section::::Causes.:Weakness of the triceps surae muscle.\n", "Recent studies have shown that those subjects who have an extremely high occurrence of PVCs (several thousand a day) can develop dilated cardiomyopathy. In these cases, if the PVCs are reduced or removed (for example, via ablation therapy) the cardiomyopathy usually regresses.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n", "Benign fasciculation syndrome is a diagnosis of exclusion; that is, other potential causes for the twitching (mostly forms of neuropathy or motor neuron diseases such as ALS) must be ruled out before BFS can be assumed. An important diagnostic tool here is electromyography (EMG). Since BFS appears to cause no actual nerve damage (at least as seen on the EMG), patients will likely exhibit a completely normal EMG (or one where the only abnormality seen is fasciculations).\n", "Contracture\n\n\"This article refers to permanent shortening of muscles, tendons, or ligaments. For short-term contraction of muscles, see Muscle contraction.\"\n\nA muscle contracture is a permanent shortening of a muscle or joint. It is usually in response to prolonged hypertonic spasticity in a concentrated muscle area, such as is seen in the tightest muscles of people with conditions like spastic cerebral palsy.\n", "Premature ventricular contractions can occur in a healthy person of any age, but are more prevalent in the elderly and in men. In a very significant proportion of people they occur spontaneously with no known cause. Some possible underlying causes of PVCs include:\n\nBULLET::::- Adrenaline excess\n\nBULLET::::- High blood calcium\n\nBULLET::::- Cardiomyopathy, hypertrophic or dilated\n\nBULLET::::- Certain medicines such as digoxin, which increases heart contraction or tricyclic antidepressants\n\nBULLET::::- Chemical (electrolyte) problems in the blood\n\nBULLET::::- Contact with the carina (trachea/bronchi) when performing medical suctioning stimulates vagus nerve\n\nBULLET::::- Drugs such as:\n\nBULLET::::- Alcohol\n\nBULLET::::- Caffeine\n\nBULLET::::- Cocaine\n\nBULLET::::- Theobromine\n", "Although seemingly a modern phenomenon, RSIs have long been documented in the medical literature. In 1700, the Italian physician Bernardino Ramazzini first described RSI in more than 20 categories of industrial workers in Italy, including musicians and clerks. Carpal tunnel syndrome was first identified by the British surgeon James Paget in 1854. The April 1875 issue of \"The Graphic\" describes \"telegraphic paralysis.\"\n", "The most common causes of myalgia are overuse, injury, or strain. However, myalgia can also be caused by diseases, medications, or as a response to a vaccination. Dehydration at times results in muscle pain as well, for people involved in extensive physical activities such as workout. It is also a sign of acute rejection after heart transplant surgery.\n\nThe most common causes are: \n\nSection::::Causes.:Overuse.\n\nOveruse of a muscle is using it too much, too soon and/or too often. Examples are:\n\nBULLET::::- Repetitive strain injury.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Overuse.:Injury.\n\nThe most common causes of myalgia by injury are: sprains and strains.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Autoimmune.\n", "When the patellar tendon is tapped just below the knee, the tap initiates an action potential in a specialized structure known as a muscle spindle located within the quadriceps. This action potential travels to the L3 and L4 nerve roots of the spinal cord, via a sensory axon which chemically communicates by releasing glutamate onto a motor nerve. The result of this motor nerve activity is contraction of the quadriceps muscle, leading to extension of the lower leg at the knee (i.e. the lower leg kicks forward). Ultimately, an improper patellar reflex may indicate CNS injury.\n", "Health professionals' understanding of impairments in muscles after an upper motor neuron lesion has progressed considerably in recent decades. However, a diagnosis of \"spasticity\" is still often used interchangeably with upper motor neuron syndrome, and it is not unusual to see patients labeled as spastic who demonstrate an array of UMN findings.\n", "BULLET::::6. The muscle fiber is now prepared for the next contraction.\n\nSection::::Function.:Response to exercise.\n\nThe changes that occur to the myofilament in response to exercise have long been a subject of interest to exercise physiologists and the athletes who depend on their research for the most advanced training techniques. Athletes across a spectrum of sporting events are particularly interested to know what type of training protocol will result in maximal force generation from a muscle or set of muscles, so much attention has been given to changes in the myofilament under bouts of chronic and acute forms of exercise.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nLimited normal functions and movements are caused by osteochondromas growing slowly and inwardly. The majority of osteochondromas are symptomless and are found incidentally. Each individual with osteochondroma may experience symptoms differently and most of the time individuals will experience no symptoms at all. Some of the most common symptoms are a hard immobile painless palpable mass, adjacent muscle soreness, and pressure or irritation with heavy exercising.\n", "Spasticity is a common feature of muscle performance after upper motor neuron lesions, but is generally of much less clinical significance than other features such as decreased strength, decreased control and decreased endurance. The confusion in the use of the terminology complicates assessment and treatment planning by health professionals, as many confuse the other findings of upper motor neuron syndrome and describe them as spasticity. This confusion potentially leaves health professionals attempting to inhibit an exaggerated stretch reflex to improve muscle performance, potentially leaving more significant UMNS changes such as weakness unaddressed. Improved understanding of the multiple features of the upper motor neuron syndrome supports more rigorous assessment, and improved treatment planning.\n", "More specifically, patients with the autosomal dominant pure form of HSP reveal normal facial and extraocular movement. Although jaw jerk may be brisk in older subjects, there is no speech disturbance or difficulty of swallowing. Upper extremity muscle tone and strength are normal. In the lower extremities, muscle tone is increased at the hamstrings, quadriceps and ankles. Weakness is most notable at the iliopsoas, tibialis anterior, and to a lesser extent, hamstring muscles.\n", "For voluntary force production, action potentials occur in the cortex. They propagate in the spinal cord, the motor neurons and the set of muscle fibers they innervate. This results in a twitch which properties are driven by two mechanisms: motor unit recruitment and rate coding. Both mechanisms are affected with aging. For instance, the number of motor units may decrease, the size of the motor units, i.e. the number of muscle fibers they innervate may increase, the frequency at which the action potentials are triggered may be reduced. Consequently, force production is generally impaired in old adults.\n", "Neuromuscular diseases are those that affect the muscles and/or their nervous control. In general, problems with nervous control can cause spasticity or paralysis, depending on the location and nature of the problem. A large proportion of neurological disorders, ranging from cerebrovascular accident (stroke) and Parkinson's disease to Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease, can lead to problems with movement or motor coordination.\n", "BULLET::::- Rare hereditary defects of muscular ion channels and transporters that cause hypokalemic periodic paralysis can precipitate occasional attacks of severe hypokalemia and muscle weakness. These defects cause a heightened sensitivity to the normal changes in potassium produced by catecholamines and/or insulin and/or thyroid hormone, which lead to movement of potassium from the extracellular fluid into the muscle cells.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Other.\n", "A congenital abnormality caused by a deficiency in end-plate acetylcholine esterase (AChE) might be a pathophysiologic mechanism for myasthenic gravis. In a study on a patient with AChE deficiency, doctors noted that he had developed severe proximal and truncal muscle weakness with jittering in other muscles. It was found that a combination of the jitter and blocking rate of the acetylcholine receptors caused a reduced end-plate potential similar to what is seen in cases of myasthenia gravis.\n", "The nerve may become painful over a period of time as weight gain makes underwear, belting or the waistband of pants gradually exert higher levels of pressure. Pain may be acute and radiate into the rib cage, and into the groin, thigh, and knee. Alternately, weight loss or aging may remove protective fat layers under the skin, so the nerve can compress against underwear, outer clothing, and—most commonly— by belting. Long periods of standing or leg exercise that increases tension on the inguinal ligament may also cause pressure.\n", "When compartment syndrome is caused by repetitive use of the muscles, it is known as chronic compartment syndrome (CCS). This is usually not an emergency, but the loss of circulation can cause temporary or permanent damage to nearby nerves and muscles.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-21772	Why do our leg hairs stop growing at a certain point but will grow again if we cut them?	All mammalian hair falls out after a certain period of growth, then restarts it's growth. For human head hair, this period of growth is measured in several years, which is what allows it to get so long. For human leg hair, it's limited to a couple of months. In other words, leg hair never stops growing, it just falls out when it reaches a certain point and then restarts it's growth.	[ "The real action of leg hair takes place below the skin or the epidermis. The cells that are in the hair follicles divide and multiply. When the space fills up in the follicle it pushes older cells out and that is what becomes the leg hair. After the older cells become hard and leave the follicle, they form a hair shaft. The hair shaft is mostly made up of dead tissue and a protein that is known as keratin.\n", "It is said that hair growth occurs during the \"growing\" phase of the follicle, and then retained as dead club hair during the \"resting\" phase. The old club hair might be lost within the following \"growing\" phase.\n\nSection::::The difference between men and women.\n", "Every so often, the growth of claws stops and restarts, as does hair. In a hair, this results in the hair falling out and being replaced by a new one. In claws, this results in an abscission layer, and the old segment breaks off. This process takes several months for human thumbnails. Cats are often seen working old unguis layers off on wood or on boards made for the purpose. Ungulates' hooves wear or self-trim by ground contact. Domesticated equids (horses, donkeys and mules) usually need regular trimming by a farrier, as a consequence of reduced activity on hard ground.\n", "The catagen phase, also known as the transitional phase, allows the follicle to, in a sense, renew itself. During this time, which lasts about two weeks, the hair follicle shrinks due to disintegration and the papilla detaches and \"rests,\" cutting the hair strand off from its nourishing blood supply. Signals sent out by the body (that only selectively affect 1 percent of all hair of one's body at any given time) determine when the anagen phase ends and the catagen phase begins. The first sign of catagen is the cessation of melanin production in the hair bulb and apoptosis of follicular melanocytes. Ultimately, the follicle is 1/6 its original length, causing the hair shaft to be pushed upward. While hair is not growing during this phase, the length of the terminal fibers increase when the follicle pushes them upward.\n", "BULLET::::- Hair and fingernails do not continue to grow after a person dies. Rather, the skin dries and shrinks away from the bases of hairs and nails, giving the appearance of growth.\n\nBULLET::::- Hair care products cannot actually \"repair\" split ends and damaged hair. They can prevent damage from occurring in the first place, and they can also smooth down the cuticle in a glue-like fashion so that it appears repaired, and generally make hair appear in better condition.\n", "Leg hair\n\nLeg hair is hair that grows on the legs of humans, generally appearing after the onset of puberty. For hygienic or aesthetic reasons and for some sports, people shave, wax, or use hair removal creams to remove the hair from their legs: see leg shaving.\n\nThe current Guinness World Record for world's longest leg hair belongs to Jason Allen of Tucson, Arizona at 8.84 inches (22.46 cm).\n\nSection::::Growth.\n", "BULLET::::- The pluck test is conducted by pulling hair out \"by the roots\". The root of the plucked hair is examined under a microscope to determine the phase of growth, and is used to diagnose a defect of telogen, anagen, or systemic disease. Telogen hairs have tiny bulbs without sheaths at their roots. Telogen effluvium shows an increased percentage of hairs upon examination. Anagen hairs have sheaths attached to their roots. Anagen effluvium shows a decrease in telogen-phase hairs and an increased number of broken hairs.\n", "At some point, the follicle will begin to grow again, softening the anchor point of the shaft initially. The hair base will break free from the root and the hair will be shed. Within two weeks the new hair shaft will begin to emerge once the telogen phase is complete. The process results in normal hair loss known as shedding.\n\nSection::::Growth inhibitors and disorders.\n", "Follicular unit extraction takes considerable time and expense to learn and to develop skills to a high standard.\n\nThe survival of follicular units upon extraction from the scalp is one of the key variables of successful hair transplantation. If follicular units are transected in the extraction process, there is a greater likelihood that they will not survive the transplant, and the hair transplant will fail. While FUT procedures using strip-harvesting of follicular units typically guarantees a large number of non-transected follicular units, FUE procedures can, and often do, transect grafts, rendering them useless in a transplant.\n", "Depending upon the strength and brittleness of the hair, some may snap off rather than being pulled out. Because those hairs snap off just above the skin surface, they can look somewhat like stubble from shaving, but are far more sparsely spread because the other hairs have been pulled out entirely. As with waxing, because of the phases of growth that occur with hair, there is not as much regrowth following the first epilation. Regular epilation of regrowth is less painful than the initial epilation and the number of broken off hairs diminishes with regular epilation.\n\nSection::::Types.:Wet use type.\n", "Affenpinschers often appear on lists of dogs that allegedly do not shed (moult). Every hair in the dog coat grows from a hair follicle, which has a three phase cycle, as do most mammals. These cycles are: \"anagen\", growth of normal hair; \"catagen\", growth slows, and hair shaft thins; \"telegen\", hair growth stops, follicle rests, and old hair falls off—is shed. At the end of the telegen phase, the follicle begins the cycle again. The length of time of the growing and shedding cycle varies by breed, age, and by whether the dog is an inside or outside dog.\n", "Section::::Protein involved in hair growth.\n\nFibroblast growth factor 5 (FGF5) is a secreted signaling protein. The expression of this protein is detected in hair follicles from the mice that scientists have experimented on. The hair follicles are localized to the outer root sheath during one of the phases of the hair growth cycle. Such experiments conclude that the protein FGF5 functions as an inhibitor when pertaining to hair elongation.\n", "Frictional alopecia\n\nFrictional alopecia is the loss of hair that is caused by rubbing of the hair, follicles, or skin around the follicle. The most notorious example of this is the loss of ankle hair among people who wear socks constantly for years. The hair may not grow back even years after the source of friction has ended.\n\nSection::::Cause.\n", "As hair grows, the natural protective oils of the scalp can fail to reach the ends of the hair. The ends are considered old once they reach about 10 centimeters since they have had long exposure to the sun, gone through many shampoos and may have been overheated by hair dryers and hot irons. This all results in dry, brittle ends which are prone to splitting. Infrequent trims and lack of hydrating treatments can intensify this condition.\n\nSection::::Treatment of damage.:Breakage and other damage.\n", "Structural follicular dysplasia varies by breed but all involve weakened hairs that break easily. Hair loss is originally seen in areas of repeated grooming or trauma, for instance the neck because of contact with a collar. Hair regrowth may occur, but the hair will be even weaker and the pattern will repeat. The dogs are affected between the ages of two to four years, and it is most commonly seen on the back towards the tail. Progression of the hair loss to cover the trunk can occur.\n\nSection::::Structural follicular dysplasia.:Commonly affected breeds.\n\nBULLET::::- Irish Water Spaniel\n\nBULLET::::- Portuguese Water Dog\n", "Other common causes of hair damage include the use of relaxers and other harsh chemicals; use of a razor to cut curly hair, which weakens the hair cuticle and promotes frizz; and harsh shampoos that strip the hair of its natural oils.\n\nHaving some hairs that are shorter than others is not necessarily a sign of breakage. Hair naturally sheds as it reaches the end of its growth cycle, and a new hair grows in its place; the average lifespan is about six years.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Humidity.\n", "Willier (1974), related citations quoted Danforth as stating that 'the hair follicle is a kind of biological microcosm in which almost any problem relating to growth, differentiation, decline and rejuvenescence of tissue can be studied to advantage...' While riding on a streetcar in Wilkes-Barre one summer, Danforth observed, in his own words, that 'a man in front of me draped his arm over the back of the seat and I noticed that while his arm was very hairy the middle segments of his fingers were free of hair and so, I observed, were my own; but I knew this was not generally true.' So far as he was aware, no one before had recognized this variation as possibly hereditary.\n", "One way of rephrasing the Beckman–Quarles theorem is that, for the unit distance graph whose vertices are all of the points in the plane, with an edge between any two points at unit distance, the only graph automorphisms are the obvious ones coming from isometries of the plane. For pairs of points whose distance is an algebraic number , there is a finite version of this theorem: Maehara showed that there is a finite rigid unit distance graph in which some two vertices and must be at distance from each other, from which it follows that any transformation of the plane that preserves the unit distances in must also preserve the distance between and .\n", "Men generally do not shave their legs in any culture. However, leg-shaving is a generally accepted practice in modeling. It is also fairly common in sports where the hair removal makes the athlete appreciably faster by reducing drag; the most common case of this is competitive swimming. It is also practiced in other sports such as cycling, in which skin injuries are common: the absence of grown hair makes nicks, scratches and bruises heal faster because of the reduced microbial population on shaved skin.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Distraction osteogenesis (leg lengthening)\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Interactive images at InnerBody\n", "The resultant scar from hairline advancement is typically hidden by regrowth of hair, in some cases with cowlicks, the scar can be seen. In such cases hair transplants can totally disguise the scar. In males with progressive baldness, the surgical scar may become more visible as balding advances. Hair thinning from “shock loss” can occur and is usually temporary. Infections are rare. Follicular unit hair transplants can be done as an alternative treatment although the results take up to 2 years to get enough hair length and density to compare with the near instantaneous results of the hairline lowering operation.\n", "BULLET::::1. Apolysis—moulting hormones are released into the haemolymph and the old cuticle separates from the underlying epidermal cells. The epidermis increases in size due to mitosis and then the new cuticle is produced. Enzymes secreted by the epidermal cells digest the old endocuticle, not affecting the old sclerotised exocuticle.\n", "BULLET::::- Traction alopecia is most commonly found in people with ponytails or cornrows who pull on their hair with excessive force. In addition, rigorous brushing and heat styling, rough scalp massage can damage the cuticle, the hard outer casing of the hair. This causes individual strands to become weak and break off, reducing overall hair volume.\n\nBULLET::::- Frictional alopecia is hair loss caused by rubbing of the hair or follicles, most infamously around the ankles of men from socks, where even if socks are no longer worn, the hair often will not grow back.\n", "Section::::Hair growth.:Anagen phase.\n\nAnagen is the active growth phase of hair follicles during which the root of the hair is dividing rapidly, adding to the hair shaft. During this phase the hair grows about 1 cm every 28 days. Scalp hair stays in this active phase of growth for 2–7 years; this period is genetically determined. At the end of the anagen phase an unknown signal causes the follicle to go into the catagen phase.\n\nSection::::Hair growth.:Catagen phase.\n", "Arm hair grows on a human's forearms, sometimes even on the elbow area. Terminal arm hair is concentrated on the wrist end of the forearm, extending over the hand. Terminal hair growth in adolescent males is often much more intense than that in females, particularly for individuals with dark hair. In some cultures, it is common for women to remove arm hair, though this practice is less frequent than that of leg hair removal.\n", "In most people, scalp hair growth will halt due to follicle devitalization after reaching a length of generally two or three feet. Exceptions to this rule can be observed in individuals with hair development abnormalities, which may cause an unusual length of hair growth.\n\nSection::::Growth inhibitors and disorders.:Chemotherapy.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-07941	How scents are derived from different woods and used in fragrances	In general you put wood in some kind of carrier for fragrances. It may be oil or another liquid which suits you. “Fragrance” flows from wood to your oil. Oil (another liquid) smells. Thats it. You can later purify it, extract certain chemicals from your oil etc.	[ "BULLET::::- \"Dry/destructive distillation\": The raw materials are directly heated in a still without a carrier solvent such as water. Fragrant compounds that are released from the raw material by the high heat often undergo anhydrous pyrolysis, which results in the formation of different fragrant compounds, and thus different fragrant notes. This method is used to obtain fragrant compounds from fossil amber and fragrant woods where an intentional \"burned\" or \"toasted\" odor is desired.\n", "Also known as \"rectification\", the raw materials are directly heated in a still without a carrier solvent such as water. Fragrant compounds that are released from the raw material by the high heat often undergo anhydrous pyrolysis, which results in the formation of different fragrant compounds, and thus different fragrant notes. This method is used to obtain fragrant compounds from fossil amber and fragrant woods (such as birch tar) where an intentional \"burned\" or \"toasted\" odour is desired.\n\nSection::::Distillation.:Fractionation distillation.\n", "BULLET::::- Roots, rhizomes and bulbs: Commonly used terrestrial portions in perfumery include iris rhizomes, vetiver roots, various rhizomes of the ginger family.\n\nBULLET::::- Seeds: Commonly used seeds include tonka bean, carrot seed, coriander, caraway, cocoa, nutmeg, mace, cardamom, and anise.\n\nBULLET::::- Woods: Highly important in providing the base notes to a perfume, wood oils and distillates are indispensable in perfumery. Commonly used woods include sandalwood, rosewood, agarwood, birch, cedar, juniper, and pine. These are used in the form of macerations or dry-distilled (rectified) forms.\n\nBULLET::::- Rom terpenes. Orchid scents\n\nSection::::Aromatics sources.:Animal sources.\n", "One of the most commonly used classes of synthetic aromatics by far are the white musks. These materials are found in all forms of commercial perfumes as a neutral background to the middle notes. These musks are added in large quantities to laundry detergents in order to give washed clothes a lasting \"clean\" scent.\n\nThe majority of the world's synthetic aromatics are created by relatively few . They include:\n\nBULLET::::- International Flavors and Fragrances (IFF)\n\nBULLET::::- Givaudan\n\nBULLET::::- Firmenich\n\nBULLET::::- Takasago\n\nBULLET::::- Symrise\n\nEach of these companies patents several processes for the production of aromatic synthetics annually.\n\nSection::::Aromatics sources.:Characteristics.\n", "Enfleurage\n\nEnfleurage is a process that uses odorless fats that are solid at room temperature to capture the fragrant compounds exuded by plants. The process can be \"cold\" enfleurage or \"hot\" enfleurage.\n\nSection::::Process.\n\nThere are two types of processes:\n", "Most floral VOCs belong to three main chemical classes. VOCs in the same chemical class are synthesized from a shared precursor, but the biochemical pathway is specific for each VOC and often varies from a plant species to the other.\n\nTerpenoids (or isoprenoids) are derived from isoprene and synthesized via the mevalonate pathway or the erythrol phosphate pathway. They represent the majority of floral VOCs, and are often the most abundant compounds in floral scent blends.\n", "BULLET::::- Leaves and twigs: Commonly used for perfumery are lavender leaf, patchouli, sage, violets, rosemary, and citrus leaves. Sometimes leaves are valued for the \"green\" smell they bring to perfumes, examples of this include hay and tomato leaf.\n", "In this classification scheme, \"Chanel No.5\", which is traditionally classified as an aldehydic floral, would be located under the Soft Floral sub-group, and amber scents would be placed within the Oriental group. As a class, chypre perfumes are more difficult to place since they would be located under parts of the Oriental and Woody families. For instance, Guerlain's \"Mitsouko\" is placed under Mossy Woods, but Hermès \"Rouge\", a chypre with more floral character, would be placed under Floral Oriental.\n\nSection::::Aromatics sources.\n\nSection::::Aromatics sources.:Plant sources.\n", "BULLET::::- Chypre (): Meaning \"Cyprus\" in French, this includes fragrances built on a similar accord consisting of bergamot, oakmoss, and labdanum. This family of fragrances is named after the eponymous 1917 perfume by François Coty, and one of the most famous extant examples is Guerlain's \"Mitsouko\".\n", "Historical scents of all the countries of the world, culturally significant in medicine, mythology, the arts, anthropology, spiritual practices, diet and memory were identified based on survey research to obtain quantitative information that supplied the raw data for the creation of the scent, establishing the constituent natural plant oils “from tree, flower, grass or herb”. \n", "BULLET::::- \"Supercritical fluid extraction\": A relatively new technique for extracting fragrant compounds from a raw material, which often employs Supercritical CO. Due to the low heat of process and the relatively nonreactive solvent used in the extraction, the fragrant compounds derived often closely resemble the original odor of the raw material.\n", "Section::::Maceration/solvent extraction.:Ethanol extraction.\n\nEthanol extraction is a type of solvent extraction used to extract fragrant compounds directly from dry raw materials, as well as the impure oils or concrete resulting from organic solvent extraction, expression, or enfluerage. Ethanol extracts from dry materials are called \"tinctures\", while ethanol washes for purifying oils and concretes are called \"absolutes\".\n", "Distillation is a common technique for obtaining aromatic compounds from plants, such as orange blossoms and roses. The raw material is heated and the fragrant compounds are re-collected through condensation of the distilled vapor. Distilled products, whether through steam or dry distillation are known either as \"essential oils\" or \"ottos\".\n\nToday, most common essential oils, such as lavender, peppermint, and eucalyptus, are distilled. Raw plant material, consisting of the flowers, leaves, wood, bark, roots, seeds, or peel, is put into an alembic (distillation apparatus) over water.\n\nSection::::Distillation.:Steam distillation.\n", "BULLET::::- Woody: Fragrances that are dominated by woody scents, typically of agarwood, sandalwood, cedarwood, and vetiver. Patchouli, with its camphoraceous smell, is commonly found in these perfumes. A traditional example here would be Myrurgia's \"Maderas De Oriente\" or Chanel \"Bois des Îles\". A modern example would be Balenciaga \"Rumba\".\n\nBULLET::::- Leather: A family of fragrances which features the scents of honey, tobacco, wood and wood tars in its middle or base notes and a scent that alludes to leather. Traditional examples include Robert Piguet's \"Bandit\" and Balmain's \"Jolie Madame\".\n", "BULLET::::- \"Ethanol extraction\": A type of solvent extraction used to extract fragrant compounds directly from dry raw materials, as well as the impure oily compounds materials resulting from solvent extraction or enfleurage. Ethanol extraction from fresh plant materials contain large quantities of water, which will also be extracted into the ethanol.\n\nBULLET::::- Distillation: A common technique for obtaining aromatic compounds from plants, such as orange blossoms and roses. The raw material is heated and the fragrant compounds are re-collected through condensation of the distilled vapor.\n", "BULLET::::- Pomade: A fragrant mass of solid fat created from the \"enfleurage\" process, in which odorous compounds in raw materials are adsorbed into animal fats. Pommades are found in the form of an oily and sticky solid.\n\nBULLET::::- Tincture: Fragrant materials produced by directly soaking and infusing raw materials in ethanol. Tinctures are typically thin liquids.\n", "The four standard families are Floral, Oriental, Woody and Fresh. These are in turn divided into three sub-groups (e.g. in the Floral Family: Floral, Soft Floral, Floral Oriental) and arranged in a circle, each group being related to the next. Each of the subclasses were in turn divided into \"Fresh\", \"Crisp\", \"Classical\", and \"Rich\" compositions. Prior to 2010 \"Fougère\" family was placed at the center of this wheel since they are a large family of scents that usually contain fragrance elements from each of the other four families; citrus from the \"fresh\" family, oak moss and woods from the \"woody\" family, coumarin and incense from the \"Oriental\" family, and lavender from the \"floral\" family.\n", "On July 22, 1914, in a letter to William Scheele and the CPC, Henderson described the \"process of Perfumery and extracting odors from flowers\". In this letter Henderson said, \"It is these pomades which we import direct from Grasse for the making of our perfumes, and thus we have the true flower base which makes our floral odors so true to natural flowers and so lasting.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Soft Oriental (Oriental + Floral Notes). Main notes include incense and amber.\n\nBULLET::::- Oriental (Oriental Notes). Main notes include oriental resins such as frankincense, and vanilla.\n\nBULLET::::- Woody Oriental (Oriental + Woody Notes). Main notes include sandalwood and patchouli.\n\nBULLET::::- Woods Main notes include aromatic woods and vetiver.\n\nBULLET::::- Mossy Woods (Woody + Oriental Notes). Main notes include oakmoss and amber.\n\nBULLET::::- Dry Woods (Woody Notes). Main notes include dry woods and leather.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Fixatives\": Used to support the primary scent by bolstering it. Many resins, wood scents, and amber bases are used as fixatives.\n\nThe top, middle, and base notes of a fragrance may have separate primary scents and supporting ingredients. The perfume's fragrance oils are then blended with ethyl alcohol and water, aged in tanks for several weeks and filtered through processing equipment to, respectively, allow the perfume ingredients in the mixture to stabilize and to remove any sediment and particles before the solution can be filled into the perfume bottles.\n\nSection::::Composing perfumes.:Technique.:Fragrance bases.\n", "BULLET::::- Bark: Commonly used barks include cinnamon and cascarilla. The fragrant oil in sassafras root bark is also used either directly or purified for its main constituent, safrole, which is used in the synthesis of other fragrant compounds.\n", "For several years Nicolas de Barry has devoted himself entirely to the research and creation of natural perfumes. For example, Aloes (also called Aquilaria, Agarwood, Kyara, Oud) is found in South Thailand, the blue Lotus comes from Thailand too, the Rose from Grasse has a limited production since it is grown on less than 7 acres, the Osmanthus, Jasmin Sambac and Chinese rose from Guilin…\n\nBULLET::::- Historical perfumes\n\nFor each of his specialties de Barry did extensive historical research including archival correspondence which allowed him to recreate these authentic fragrances.\n", "BULLET::::- Duff, Gail, \"Natural Fragrances: Outdoor Scents for Indoor Uses\", Storey Publishing, LLC, 1991,\n\nBULLET::::- Fettner, Ann Tucker, \"Potpourri, incense, and other fragrant concoctions,\" Workman Pub. Co., 1977,\n\nBULLET::::- Fleming Charles, \"Royal dictionary, English and French and French and English,\" Volume 2, Firmin-Didot and Company, 1885\n\nBULLET::::- Foster, Steven, \"National Geographic Desk Reference to Nature's Medicine\", National Geographic Books, 2008,\n\nBULLET::::- Freeman, Sally, \"Ageless Natural Beauty\", Barnes & Noble Publishing, 2002,\n\nBULLET::::- Garland, Sarah, \"The Complete Book of Herbs and Spices\", frances lincoln ltd, 2004,\n", "BULLET::::2. A base may be better scent approximations of a certain thing than the extract of the thing itself. For example, a base made to embody the scent for \"fresh dewy rose\" might be a better approximation for the scent concept of a rose after rain than plain rose oil. Flowers whose scents cannot be extracted, such as gardenia or hyacinth, are composed as bases from data derived from headspace technology.\n", "Products from different extraction methods are known under different names even though their starting materials are the same. For instance, orange blossoms from \"Citrus aurantium\" that have undergone solvent extraction produces \"orange blossom absolute\" but that which have been steam distilled is known as \"neroli oil\".\n\nSection::::Composing perfumes.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04236	Why does saying “woooo” brings out cold air in our mouth and “haaaaa” brings out hot air?	The air isn't actually changing temperature. It's an illusion that happens do to the evaporation of moisture in your skin. If wind if faster is evaporating more moisture and "feels" colder, if that same stream of air is slowed down then less air will be flowing over your skin so less moisture will evaporate and it won't feel as cold. Just for a test get a regular fan from around the house, make sure it has air speed settings, turn it in the the different setting and compare how they feel. Faster wind will feel colder. Edit: Just to further explain the "evaporation" reasoning. That's the reason we sweat, the water we release is the same temp as our bodies but when air passes over it it removes the heat and cools us down in the process.	[ "Human sounds sometimes provide instances of onomatopoeia, as when \"mwah\" is used to represent a kiss.\n\nFor animal sounds, words like \"quack\" (duck), \"moo\" (cow), \"bark\" or \"woof\" (dog), \"roar\" (lion), \"meow\"/\"miaow\" or \"purr\" (cat), \"cluck\" (chicken) and \"baa\" (sheep) are typically used in English (both as nouns and as verbs).\n", "BULLET::::- Japanese \"Hé?\" () is a common exclamation in Japanese and is used to express surprise. It is also used when the listener did not fully understand or hear what the speaker said. It can be lengthened to show greater surprise (e.g. Heeeeee?!). \"Ne\" and \"naa\" are extremely similar to the Canadian \"eh\", being statement ending particles which solicit or assume agreement, confirmation, or comprehension on the part of the listener.\n", "It would also be possible to analyze English in this way as well, where the alternation of \"goose/geese\" could be explained as a basic discontinuous root \"g-se\" that is filled out with an infix \"-oo-\" \"(singular)\" or \"-ee-\" \"(plural)\". Many would consider this type of analysis for English to be less desirable as this type of infixal morphology is not very prevalent throughout English and the morphemes \"-oo-\" and \"-ee-\" would be exceedingly rare.\n\nSection::::Replacive morphemes.\n", "Section::::Examples in media.\n\nBULLET::::- James Joyce in \"Ulysses\" (1922) coined the onomatopoeic \"tattarrattat\" for a knock on the door. It is listed as the longest palindromic word in \"The Oxford English Dictionary\".\n\nBULLET::::- \"Whaam!\" (1963) by Roy Lichtenstein is an early example of pop art, featuring a reproduction of comic book art that depicts a fighter aircraft striking another with rockets with dazzling red and yellow explosions.\n\nBULLET::::- In the 1960s TV series \"Batman\", comic book style onomatopoeic words such as \"wham!\", \"pow!\", \"biff!\", \"crunch!\" and \"zounds!\" appear onscreen during fight scenes.\n", "Uh Oh\n\nUh Oh or variants may refer to:\n\nSection::::Books.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Uh-Oh: Some Observations from Both Sides of the Refrigerator Door\", a book by Robert Fulghum\n\nBULLET::::- Uh! Oh! (children's book series), a children's book series about Jewish holidays\n\nSection::::Film and TV.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Uh-Oh!\" (film), a 2003 film written and directed by Jon Cope\n\nBULLET::::- \"Uh Oh!\" (game show), a Canadian children's show\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vacation\" or \"the 'uh-oh' episode\", an episode of the TV series \"Sealab 2021\"\n\nSection::::Brands.\n\nBULLET::::- Uh-Oh! Oreo, a type of Oreo cookie\n\nSection::::Music.\n\nSection::::Music.:Albums.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Uh-Oh\" (Cowboy Mouth album), or the title song\n", "A further issue is onomatopoeia. Saussure recognised that his opponents could argue that with onomatopoeia there is a direct link between word and meaning, signifier and signified. However, Saussure argues that, on closer etymological investigation, onomatopoeic words can, in fact, be unmotivated (not sharing a likeness), in part evolving from non-onomatopoeic origins. The example he uses is the French and English onomatopoeic words for a dog's bark, that is \"ouaoua\" and \"Bow Wow\".\n", "Cross-linguistic onomatopoeias\n\nBecause of the nature of onomatopoeia, there are many words which show a similar pronunciation in the languages of the world. The following is a list of some conventional examples:\n\nSection::::Collisions, bursts, and strikes.\n\nSection::::Collisions, bursts, and strikes.:Balloon or bubble bursting.\n\nBULLET::::- In Albanian, \"pau, puf\"\n\nBULLET::::- In Arabic, \"pakh, poof\"\n\nBULLET::::- In batak. \"tak\"\n\nBULLET::::- In Bemba, \"pobo\"\n\nBULLET::::- In Bengali, \"phat, phatash\"\n\nBULLET::::- In Bulgarian, \"puc\" пук, \"pa\" па\n\nBULLET::::- In Croatian, \"puk\"\n\nBULLET::::- In Czech, \"puf\"\n\nBULLET::::- In Danish, \"bang\", \"knald\"\n\nBULLET::::- In Dutch, \"pang\", \"pof\", \"paf\"\n\nBULLET::::- In English, \"pop\", \"bang\"\n", "\"Howgh\", \"Uff!\", Manitou and Lakota \"Hoka Hey\" have had a major influence on the popular image of Native Americans in German-speaking countries. \"Howgh\" gained popularity as symbols of Native Americans through Cooper's and Parkman's books. By 1917 it was so stereotypically accepted that it found its way into US World War I propaganda depicting Native American soldiers.By 1953 it was so completely accepted that in Walt Disney's Peter Pan movie, the song \"What Made the Red Man Red?\" uses \"How\" and \"Ugh\" with the strong assumption that the contemporary audience would understand them as standard Native American speech.\n", "Dakota–Lakota specialists state that the word \"Ski-U\" or \"Ski-yoo\" or \"Ski-oo\" are not Sioux victory cries or the Sioux word for winning. What Adams heard on Lake Pepin, \"sky-yoo,\" may have just been an interjection, similar to \"woo hoo.\"\n\nOther Dakota-Lakota words or phrases that have been suggested for what Adams heard include:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Schkee ooh poh!\" or \"Scheee ooh!\"\n\nBULLET::::- Scheeh/scheen-shay, which means \"Try Hard\"\n\nBULLET::::- Oh-hee-yah, which means \"To win\"\n\nBULLET::::- Oh-hee-un-yum, oh-hee-oohn-yum, which means \"We won\"\n", "\"Eh\" is also used in situations to describe something bad or mediocre, in which case it is often pronounced with a short \"e\" sound and the \"h\" may even be noticeable. In addition, many Italian Americans, especially in the New York area, use the term \"eh\" as a general substitute for such basic greetings, such as \"hey\" or \"hello\". This behavior was prominently displayed in the TV show \"Happy Days\", having its character \"The Fonz\" constantly use this phrase.\n\nSection::::English.:Canada.\n", "\"Woof\" is the conventional representation in the English language of the barking of a dog. As with other examples of onomatopoeia or imitative sounds, other cultures \"hear\" the dog's barks differently and represent them in their own ways. Some of the equivalents of \"woof\" in other languages are as follows:\n\nBULLET::::- English – woof woof; ruff ruff; arf arf (large dogs and also the sound of sea lions); yap yap; yip yip (small dogs), bow wow, bork bork\n\nBULLET::::- Afrikaans – blaf; woef woef; kef (small dogs)\n\nBULLET::::- Albanian – ham ham\n\nBULLET::::- Arabic – hau hau; how (هو, هو)\n", "\"Eh?\" used to solicit agreement or confirmation is also heard regularly amongst speakers in Australia and the United Kingdom (where it is sometimes spelled \"\" on the assumption that \"eh\" would rhyme with \"\" or \"\"). In the Caribbean island of Barbados the word \"nuh\" acts similarly, as does \"noh\" in Surinamese Dutch and Sranantongo. The usage in New Zealand is similar, and is more common in the North Island. It is also heard in the United States, especially Minnesota, Wisconsin, the Upper Peninsula of Michigan (although the Scandinavian-based Yooperism \"ya\" is more common), Oklahoma and the New England region. In New England and Oklahoma, it is also used as a general exclamation as in Scotland and the Channel Islands of Jersey and Guernsey.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Buzz Loses his Zip\"\n\nThere was also a set of 'Timbuctoo Shape Books' released, including Oink, Neigh, Growl, Roar, Squeak, Trumpet, Cluck and Puff\n\nSection::::Books.:1997.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bray\" (a donkey)\n\nBray was released as an addition to the reprint of all the previous stories in the original set, which were printed, with new illustrations, to accompany the TV series.\n\nSection::::Television adaptation.\n", "Section::::In other languages.:Japanese.\n\nThe Japanese language has a large inventory of ideophone words that are symbolic sounds. These are used in contexts ranging from day to day conversation to serious news. These words fall into four categories:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Giseigo\": mimics humans and animals. (e.g. \"wanwan\" for a dog's bark)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Giongo\": mimics general noises in nature or inanimate objects. (e.g. \"zaazaa\" for rain on a roof)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gitaigo\": describes states of the external world\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gijōgo\": describes psychological states or bodily feelings.\n", "Any of the three initiators − diaphragm, glottis or tongue − may act by either increasing or decreasing the pressure generating the airstream. These changes in pressure often correspond to outward and inward airflow, and are therefore termed \"egressive\" and \"ingressive\" respectively.\n\nOf these six resulting airstream mechanisms, four are found lexically around the world:\n\nBULLET::::- \"pulmonic egressive,\" where the air is pushed out of the lungs by the ribs and diaphragm. All human languages employ such sounds (such as vowels), and nearly three out of four use them exclusively.\n", "BULLET::::- \"may- i oyok'- eʔ\"brwho - NOM win - DURbr\"who’s winning?\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"thal-i čhuya-cawote-cewte-khiʔ\"br what - NOM house - on:top DIR - fall - STATbr\"what fell on the roof?\"\n\nQuestion words can also be used as indefinite pronouns.\n\nBULLET::::- \"cephi thal t'um'i - khiʔ\"br3SG:NOM what go:buy - STAT br\"s/he went to buy something\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"may- i i naw- ta -lahkhiʔ\"brwho-NOM 1SG see -PST- NEGbr\"nobody saw me\"\n\nSection::::Language Contact and Influence.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Snap\" (a crocodile)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hiss\" (a snake)\n\nFour of the books (\"Woof\", \"Trumpet\", \"Buzz\" and \"Oink\") were republished in 1993.\n\nSection::::Books.:1979.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cluck\" (a chicken)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Growl\" (a tiger)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Honk\" (a seal)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chatter\" (a monkey)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Quack\" (a duck)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sniff\" (a rabbit)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bleat\" (a goat)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hoot\" (an owl)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Grizzle\" (a bear)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Puff\" (a panda)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Squawk\" (a parrot)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Baa\" (a sheep)\n\nBULLET::::- \"An Apple for Oink\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hiss and the Storm\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Moo's Fancy Hats\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Neigh Moves House\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Roar's Day of Mistakes\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Snap's Big Surprise\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Trumpet's Trunk\"\n", "\"Okay\" may be Wolof waaw-kay, “yes,” with a suffix of emphasis, becoming “I agree,\" or \"I will comply.” Wolof is reputed to have been a lingua franca among slaves in the USA, and to have had a strong influence on colloquial American English. Significantly, the emergence of “okay” in the vocabulary of Euro-Americans dates from a period when many refugees from Southern slavery were arriving in the North, and this is where the word was first documented. The words banana, jive, dig (meaning \"appreciate\"), yam and sock (meaning \"to hit\") are Wolof. It has been suggested that \"hep cat\" may also be of Wolof origin.\n", "For instance, oamajda\" vs. wuamajda\" (\"frybread\"; the spellings \"oamacda\" and \"wuamacda\" are also seen) derives from \"oam\" (a warm color roughly equivalent to yellow or brown). Some believe it should be spelled phonetically as \"wuamajda\", reflecting the fact that it begins with , while others think its spelling should reflect the fact that it is derived from \"oam\" (\"oam\" is itself a form of \"s-oam\", so while it could be spelled \"wuam\", it is not since it is just a different declension of the same word).\n\nSection::::Grammar.\n\nSection::::Grammar.:Syntax.\n", "Section::::Uses.:Cross-cultural differences.\n\nAlthough a particular sound is heard similarly by people of different cultures, it is often expressed through the use of different consonant strings in different languages. For example, the \"snip\" of a pair of scissors is ' in Italian, ' in Spanish, ' or ' in Portuguese, ' in modern Greek, ' in Albanian, and ' in Hindi. Similarly, the \"honk\" of a car's horn is ' (Han: ) in Mandarin, ' in French, ' in Japanese, ' in Korean, ' in Norwegian, ' in Portuguese and ' in Vietnamese.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Onomatopoeic effect without onomatopoeic words.\n", "\"Eh\" can also be added to the end of a declarative sentence to turn it into a question. For example: \"The weather is nice.\" becomes \"The weather is nice, eh?\" This same phrase could also be taken as \"The weather is nice, don't you agree?\". In this usage, it is similar to Scots \"eh no?\", English \"isn't it?\", Portuguese \"né?\", \"Dutch \"hè?\", Japanese \"ne?\", Mandarin \"bā\" or French \"hein?\" (which differs from the French usage of \"n'est-ce pas?\" (\"Is it not?\") in that it does not use a (technically double or emphatic) negative).\n", "BULLET::::- In English, \"boom\", \"bam\", \"wham\", \"slam\", \"bang\", \"crash\", \"clash\", \"pow\", \"thonk\", \"thud\", \"clang\"\n\nBULLET::::- In Estonian, \"prõmm\", \"pauh\", \"piraki\", \"karpauh\"\n\nBULLET::::- In Tagalog, \"ka-boom\"\n\nBULLET::::- In Finnish, \"pam\", \"pum\", \"ryskis\", \"kolin\", \"räiskis\"\n\nBULLET::::- In French, \"bing\", \"bang\", \"boum\", \"bam\", \"vlan\"\n\nBULLET::::- In German, \"rumms\", \"bumms\", \"bauz\", \"krach\"\n\nBULLET::::- In Gilbertese, \"beeku\"\n\nBULLET::::- In Greek, \"bam\" μπαμ, \"gcup\"\n\nBULLET::::- In Haitian Creole, \"bip\"\n\nBULLET::::- In Hebrew, \"bum\" בּוּם, \"trax\" טְרַאח\n\nBULLET::::- In Hindi, \"dhishumm\" धिशुम्म, \"dhishum\" धिशुम\n\nBULLET::::- In Hungarian, \"dzzs\", \"bumm\", \"bamm\", \"puff\", \"paff\", \"csatt\", \"nyekk\"\n\nBULLET::::- In Indonesian, \"buk\", \"brekk\", \"j'derr\"\n\nBULLET::::- In Italian, \"bum, badabeu, patatraf\"\n", "Some speakers make liberal use of profanity, with varying degrees of creativity. A couple of commonly heard phrases elsewhere unused are \"Jeezlus\" and \"un-fuckin-real\". In jest, friends will often inquire to their peers as to whether or not they \"are fucked\", usually when chirping. Profanity is commonly used to indicated the intensity of an opinion; many Martime English speakers would be quick to understand that the sentence \"Some jeezlus hot, wha?\" means \"It is currently very hot outside\".\n\nSection::::Spelling.\n\nCanadian English shows a more balanced mixture of American and British standards is spelling.\n", "In the case of \"p\", \"qw\" is often substituted, as in the name of the Cherokee , \"Wiɣiqwejdiʃ\". Some words may contain sounds not reflected in the given phonology: for instance, the modern Oklahoma use of the loanword \"automobile\", with the and sounds of English.\n\nSection::::Phonology.:Consonants.\n", "BULLET::::- y not as strong as English 'y' in \"yes\"; for most speakers of the language the only difference between y and short i is that y is much shorter — \"ya\" 'speech, talk, language', \"aye\", KKY \"aya\" 'come!', \"máy\" 'well, spring; tears; pearl-shell, nacre'\n\nBULLET::::- z most commonly like English 'z' in \"zoo\", or English 's' in \"has\"; sometimes like English 'j' in \"jump\", or 'dg' in \"budge\" when at the beginning or in the middle of a word — \"zázi\" 'grass skirt', \"za\" 'thing, object', \"zizi\" 'crackle, crack, rustling noise'\n" ]	[ "woo makes cold air and haaa makes hot air." ]	[ "The air is the same temperature it just feels different because it evaporates different amounts of water. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "woo makes cold air and haaa makes hot air." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The air is the same temperature it just feels different because it evaporates different amounts of water. " ]
2018-11689	Why are martial arts practitioners taught to say "hi-ya!" or a similar phrase with every strike?	There are a lot of mystical/spiritual reasons for it, but mechanically speaking, it teaches breath control in an easy-to-remember way.	[ "BULLET::::2. Breath control: Practitioners may include a \"kiai\" or shout, to help tense the muscles at impact and distract or frighten the opponent. Strikers generally exhale as the strike nears the target. Breath control is also important to relax the body when not attacking; novice strikers often waste significant energy because they are tense at inappropriate times .\n", "Kiai\n\nTraditional Japanese dojo generally use single syllables beginning with a vowel. The concept has become a notable part of Asian martial arts in popular culture, especially in martial arts films, in writing often rendered in variants such as \"Hi-yah!\", \"Aiyah!\", \"Eeee-yah!\", or \"Hyah!\".\n", "Voiced calls or shouts called kakegoe and kiai are also common in taiko performance. They are used as encouragement to other players or cues for transition or change in dynamics such as an increase in tempo. In contrast, the philosophical concept of ma, which superficially describes the space between drum strikes, is also important in shaping rhythmic phrases and creating appropriate contrast.\n\nSection::::Performance.:Clothing.\n", "BULLET::::- / / breathing is important in the execution of all aikido techniques. Here \"breathing\" has an additional meaning of \"match with\" or \"accord,\" as the efforts of \"tori\" must agree with the direction and strength with which his wrists are held by \"uke\".\n\nSection::::Initial attacks.\n", "In practical use this often refers to the scream or shout made during an attack, used for proper breathing as well as debilitating or distracting the enemy.\n\nSection::::Philosophical and strategic concepts.:Hard and soft methods.\n\nThere are two underlying strategic methodologies to the application of force in Japanese martial arts. One is the , and the other is the . Implicit in these concepts is their separate but equal and interrelated nature, in keeping with their philosophical relationship to the Chinese principles of yin and yang (Jap.: \"in\" and \"yō\").\n", "For both the attacker and receiver, posture must be kept proper and footwork and movement should be smooth for this practice to facilitate the weeding out of bad habits. If kirikaeshi is practiced regularly, the application will benefit the practitioner from the improvement of basic skills to the perfect execution in combat.\n\nSection::::Technique.\n", "The ridge hand technique is very swift and when mastered can be a formidable technique, it was used successfully by Ian Fergusson (currently 7th degree Tae Kwon Do Master) in the 1981 Tae Kwon Do championships in Argentina earning him an individual Bronze Medal and contributed to the team international Gold Medal.\n\nSection::::Hands and arms.:Open-hand.:Spear hand.\n", "At some Kendo dojo, the practice of kirikaeshi is performed at the start and end of kendo practice sessions.\n\nSection::::Overview.\n", "Rapid-fire pump-kicking seen in American freestyle point sparring is sometimes used in Tang Soo Do competition. However, in order to score, the final kick in the pump-kick combination should be delivered from a solid base (with erect posture) and with sufficient power, or the technique is not considered decisive. Consequently, the pace of a Tang Soo Do match can be somewhat slower than would be seen at a typical NASKA-type tournament, but the techniques, theoretically, should be somewhat more recognizable as linear, powerful blows that are delivered from reliably stable stances and body positions.\n", "BULLET::::- The pattern of tapak silat in self-defense moves is based on geometrical line such as straight line, horizontal line, triangle, rectangular, circle and star shapes. When a silat exponents master all of these step patterns, they can easily receive any fast fists, unlock any locking techniques such as wrist lock and release from any catching technique that are very popular in other martial arts such as aikido, jujitsu or judo.\n\nBuah Silat\n", "Students of Japanese martial arts such as aikido, karate, kobudo, kendo, or judo (or related arts such as taiko drumming) use kiai to startle an opponent, intimidate, express confidence, or express victory. In kendo, for example, a point is only given by the Shinpan (referees) if the hit is accompanied by a strong, convincing kiai. A kiai can also be used in addition with tightening the core muscles to prevent damage to the stomach. The physical aspects of a kiai are often thought to teach a student proper breathing technique when executing an attack which is a common trait adopted by many other foreign martial arts and combat sports.\n", "Section::::Related practices.:Cakalele.\n", "BULLET::::- At the end of the kata, one can do a hidden spiritual movement called Shin Shin Taisha. A Shin Shin Taisha or 'dead breath' is done by exhaling for fifteen seconds straight. At the end of the Shin Shin Taisha the body should vibrate from stored tension. This technique used since the body is hard during the 7–13 second range and can take lots of damage (such as getting hit with Bo's).\n", "Some modern martial arts, such as Krav Maga, Aikido, Hapkido, deliver this strike to the back of the hand while being held. It puts pressure on the small bones in the opponent's hand, causing them to loosen up their fingers in the grip. This lets the practitioner transition smoothly into a small joint manipulation technique. However, its effectiveness after the opponent is reasonably aware of the fight in occurrence has been disputed with evidence hard to obtain due to the nature of the art and its disuse in sport combat sparring or matches.\n\nSection::::Hands and arms.:Elbow.\n", "Kihon techniques tend to be practiced often, in many cases during each practice session. They are considered fundamental to mastery and improvement of all movements of greater complexity. Kihon in martial arts can be seen as analogous to basic skills in, for example, basketball. Professional NBA players continue to practice dribbling, passing, free throws, jump shots, etc. in an effort to maintain and perfect the more complex skills used during a basketball game.\n", "Forms or jurus are a series of prearranged meta-movements practised as a single set. Their main function is to pass down all of a style's techniques and combat applications in an organised manner, as well as being a method of physical conditioning and public demonstration. While demonstrating a form, silat practitioners often use the open hand to slap parts of their own body such the shoulder, elbow, thigh or knee. This reminds the pesilat that when an opponent comes close there may be an opportunity to trap their attacking limbs. Aside from solo forms, they may also be performed with one or more partners. Routines pitting one fighter against several opponents are common in silat. Partnered forms are useful for teaching the application of techniques, particularly those attacks which are too dangerous to be used in a sparring match.\n", "BULLET::::- Combat sets meant to teach the application of techniques. Buah Silat or Buah Pukul is a self-defense technique or the most important skill in silat that required one to receive the attack first (either by avoiding, blocking, or catching) followed by counterattack with fist to the opponent either using bare hand or weapon.\n\nBULLET::::- Buah pukul can be done with two or more opponent in any silat training.\n\nTempur Seni Silat\n", "A more common example is \"Matte\" (pronounced \"mah-teh\", meaning \"Wait!\") in most Japanese martial arts including judo, which indicates surrender, usually due to an arm lock or a choke. In professional competition, saying \"stop\" or \"help\" does not indicate surrender and the opponent may continue combat.\n", "Section::::Related practices.:Kabasaran.\n", "Sikaran has its own distinct kicking styles. The signature \"Biakid\" kick is executed by pivoting to the back in a complete turn, much like a spinning hook kick or a reverse round house in other martial arts styles and targets the side or back of the head while the practitioner is in mid to punching range.\n", "The Shanghai Wu-style Fast Form kept the original Fa-jing 發勁 (release of power), jumping, attacking and stamping movements to be studied by those eager to advance their T'ai Chi practice. This advanced form was not yet taught openly.\n", "Section::::Related practices.:Payuq.\n", "BULLET::::- In the episode \"Chapter 5: Do Your Job\" of \"Barry\", Taylor ignores Barry's plans and jumps into a room of henchmen while yelling \"Leeroy Jenkins!\"\n\nBULLET::::- The United States Air Force Pararescue (PJs) use this sound bite to notify them of an upcoming medevac mission on the show \"Inside Combat Rescue\".\n\nBULLET::::- In the episode Murtaugh of How I Met Your Mother, Barney yells \"Alright chums, let's do this. Barney Stinson!\" (mimicking the Leeroy war cry) after shaking on the gentleman's agreement with Ted.\n", "Chinul described Hwadu (Hua Tou) in his treatise \"Dharma Collection and Special Practice Record\" () as a practice that leads to the very limits of speech and acts as a purification device. Because the practice leads students beyond conceptual understanding, Chinul considered an advanced practice for those of particular talent, or those who had already advanced through other practices first.\n", "Performance in some groups is also guided by principles based on Zen Buddhism. For instance, among other concepts, the San Francisco Taiko Dojo is guided by emphasizing communication, respect, and harmony. The way the \"bachi\" are held can also be significant; for some groups, \"bachi\" represent a spiritual link between the body and the sky. Some physical parts of taiko, like the drum body, its skin, and the tacks also hold symbolic significance in Buddhism.\n\nSection::::Performance.:Instrumentation.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-15470	Why every government employee with access to sensitive information gets psychologically tested, yet the President (US), who has the option to launch nukes, does not have to prove his/her mental stability?	> Why every government employee with access to sensitive information gets psychologically tested This is a 100% completely untrue statement. All persons who are granted a security clearance go through a fairly standard process, it it really doesn't involve a psychological test, except in some specific cases. (It's mostly about your background, friends/associates, foreign travel, and drugs). > the President (US), who has the option to launch nukes, does not have to prove his/her mental stability Technically, the President is the one with the actual authority to grant those security clearances! As such, he is the authority, and would not be subject to have to go through the process, since he is the one who decides security clearances anyways. In a work sense, its like the CEO of a company doesn't have to approve his own vacation time. He's the CEO.	[ "In 1978, journalist Ron Rosenbaum wrote a 15,000-word article in \"Harper's Magazine\" about the nuclear command and control system in which he publicized the case of Hering. Rosenbaum later wrote that Hering's question exposed a flaw in the very foundation of this doctrine, and asked \"What if [the president's] mind is deranged, disordered, even damagingly intoxicated? ... Can he launch despite displaying symptoms of imbalance? Is there anything to stop him?\" Rosenbaum says that the answer is that launch would indeed be possible: to this day, the nuclear fail-safe protocols for executing commands are entirely concerned with the president's \"identity\", not his sanity. The President alone authorizes a nuclear launch and the two-man rule does not apply to him.\n", "Journalist Ron Rosenbaum has pointed out that the operational plan for nuclear strike orders is entirely concerned with the identity of the commanding officer and the authenticity of the order, and there are no safeguards to verify that the person issuing the order is actually sane. Notably, Major Harold Hering was discharged from the air force in late 1973 for asking the question \"How can I know that an order I receive to launch my missiles came from a sane president?\".\n", "Previously, psychologists Major Thomas Brigham and Captain Alan London at Fairchild AFB had found him unfit for duty, which resulted in a transfer to the Wilford Hall Medical Center at Lackland AFB for further psychological examination. With Congressional pressure brought by Mellberg's mother, Airman Mellberg was found to be fit for military service. Airman Mellberg then was reassigned to Cannon Air Force Base where similar events led to him being returned to psychologists for evaluation. After this evaluation, he was discharged from Cannon AFB as being unfit for military service; he had been diagnosed with mild autism, generalized anxiety disorder and paranoid personality disorder. He traveled to Spokane, Washington, near Fairchild AFB, where he purchased a rifle and planned his attack on the base.\n", "According to the U.S. Attorney's Manual, \"Of the individuals who come to the Secret Service's attention as creating a possible danger to one of their protectees, approximately 75 percent are mentally ill.\" The Secret Service notes, \"These are probably Secret Service's most serious cases because it must be determined whether the person making the threat really wants to hurt [Secret Service protectees] or whether they may have some medical problems of their own, for which they need help.\" It is not uncommon for judges to order psychological evaluations of defendants charged under this statute in accordance with United States federal laws governing offenders with mental diseases or defects. Psychiatrists divide people who threaten the President into three classes: Class 1 includes persons who have expressed overt threatening statements but have made no overt action, Class 2 comprises individuals who have a history of assaultive behaviors toward authority figures, and Class 3 includes person who are considered dangerous and typically have been prosecuted under Section 871.\n", "Dilemmas related to patient confidentiality sometimes arise when a mentally ill subject makes a threat against the President. The termination of nurse Linda Portnoy was upheld after she reported such a statement to the Secret Service. The court noted that the patient was restrained and unable to act on his threats, so he wasn't an immediate safety risk. It also considered the patient's psychiatrist, not Portnoy, the appropriate person to assess the gravity of his threats. In a study found that in those who threaten the President, the primary differentiating variable related to lethality was \"opportunity and happenstance\". Conversely, a defendant's writings in his anger management workbook threatening to kill the President upon the defendant's release from the penitentiary were ruled to have fallen within the dangerous patient exception to psychotherapist-patient privilege.\n", "Federal law provides that the director of the facility in which a person is hospitalized due to being found incompetent to stand trial or not guilty only by reason of insanity of a Section 871 violation shall prepare annual or semiannual reports concerning the mental condition of the person and containing recommendations about the need for his continued hospitalization; a copy of the reports shall be submitted to the Director of the United States Secret Service to assist it in carrying out its protective duties. The Ninth Circuit ruled that it is constitutional to hold a presidential threatener beyond Section 871's prescribed five-year statutory maximum if he is found to be dangerous and mentally ill. It is possible under federal law to hold some presidential threateners indefinitely.\n", "Consequently, they claim, Trump's presidency represents an emergency not only allowing, but perhaps also requiring, psychiatrists in the United States to raise alarms. While it has been repeatedly claimed that they have broken the American Psychiatric Association's Goldwater rule, which holds that it is unethical for psychiatrists to give professional opinions about public figures without examining them in person, the authors maintain that pointing out danger and calling for an evaluation is different from diagnosis. They have rather criticized the APA for changing professional norms and standards, stating that it is dangerous to turn reasonable ethical guidelines into a gag rule under political pressure.\n", "When President Reagan was shot in 1981 there was confusion about where the \"nuclear football\" was, and who was in charge.\n\nIn 1975 a launch crew member, Harold Hering, was dismissed from the Air Force for asking how he could know whether the order to launch his missiles came from a sane president. It has been claimed that the system is not foolproof.\n", "Carlos Lozada in \"The Washington Post\" wrote that many politicians and commentators referred to Trump as \"crazy\" or doubted his mental health. In this book, mental health professionals examine that claim. They conclude that \"anyone as mentally unstable as Mr. Trump simply should not be entrusted with the life-and-death powers of the presidency.\" Lozada wrote that these conclusions are \"compelling,\" but presidents with mental illness, like depression, can be effective, and presidents without mental illness can still be dangerous.\n\nSection::::Book evaluations.\n", "In February 1993, a man drove his car past a checkpoint at the Three Mile Island Nuclear plant, then broke through an entry gate. He eventually crashed the car through a secure door and entered the Unit 1 reactor turbine building. The intruder, who had a history of mental illness, hid in a building and was not apprehended for four hours. Stephanie Cooke asks: \"What if he'd been a terrorist armed with a ticking bomb?\"\n", "Detecting other vulnerabilities may come from things that are simply good management. If someone is constantly clashing with colleagues, it is good people management, not uniquely security management, for a manager to talk with the individual, or have them talk to an Employee Assistance Program. It is not considered a disqualification to seek mental health assistance; it may be considered excellent judgement. For people with especially high security access, it may be requested that they see a therapist from a list of professionals with security clearance, so there is not a problem if something sensitive slips or they need to discuss a conflict.\n", "However, that apparent perfect rationality criticism is countered and so not inconsistent with current deterrence policy. In \"Essentials of Post-Cold War Deterrence\", the authors detail an explicit advocation of ambiguity regarding \"what is permitted\" for other nations and its endorsement of \"irrationality\" or, more precisely, the perception thereof as an important tool in deterrence and foreign policy. The document claims that the capacity of the United States, in exercising deterrence, would be hurt by portraying US leaders as fully rational and cool-headed: \n", "James responded by saying, \"this was a failure of some of our Airmen; it was not a failure of the nuclear mission.\" Over the next year, James visited the three Air Force bases that operate intercontinental ballistic missiles, or ICBMs, to work with both airmen and senior Air Force officers to provide fixes to the challenges faced. James has cited USAF's inattention to the nuclear mission, to the point of using a simple test score as, \"a top differentiator, if not the sole differentiator on who gets promoted,\" as one of the reason of morale's deterioration in the ICBM force.\n", "Journalist Ron Rosenbaum has pointed out that, once the order is issued, the process is entirely concerned with authenticating the identity of the commanding officers and the authenticity of the order, and there are no safeguards to verify that the order or the person issuing it is actually sane. Notably, Major Harold Hering was discharged from the Air Force for asking the question, \"How can I know that an order I receive to launch my missiles came from a sane President?\"\n", "On June 5, 2008, Robert Gates announced that he had accepted the resignation of Michael Wynne as Secretary of the Air Force because of \"a decline in the Air Force's nuclear mission focus and performance\" and \"lack of a critical self-assessment culture\". Gates specifically cited two incidents in which the Air Force had lost track of nuclear weapons or parts; in one incident, nuclear weapons fuses had been mistakenly sent to Taiwan when helicopter batteries had been ordered, and in the other, the 2007 United States Air Force nuclear weapons incident, a B-52 bomber had been flown across the country armed with six nuclear-armed cruise missiles that no one realized were on board.\n", "Miller has argued that the President has almost single authority to initiate a nuclear attack since the Secretary of Defense is required to verify the order, but cannot legally veto it.\n", "There has been some controversy among the federal appellate courts as to how the term \"willfully\" should be interpreted. Traditional legal interpretations of the term are reflected by \"Black's Law Dictionary\"s definition, which includes descriptions such as \"malicious, done with evil intent, or with a bad motive or purpose,\" but most courts have adopted a more easily proven standard. For instance, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit held that a threat was knowingly made if the maker comprehended the meaning of the words uttered by him. It was willingly made, if in addition to comprehending the meaning of his words, the maker voluntarily and intentionally uttered them as a declaration of apparent determination to carry them into execution. According to the U.S. Attorney's Manual, \"Of the individuals who come to the Secret Service's attention as creating a possible danger to one of their protectees, approximately 75 percent are mentally ill.\"\n", "Section::::Testing and measurement.\n\nThere are several measures that can be employed to assess the executive functioning capabilities of an individual. Although a trained non-professional working outside of an institutionalized setting can legally and competently perform many of these measures, a trained professional administering the test in a standardized setting will yield the most accurate results.\n\nSection::::Testing and measurement.:Clock drawing test.\n", "Shortly thereafter an NSA security officer ordered Tice to report for a \"psychological evaluation\", even though he had done so only nine months earlier. The psychologist from the Department of Defense concluded that Tice suffered from psychotic paranoia. In a statement written to the Inspector General, Tice stated that the psychologist \"did this even though he admitted that I did not show any of the normal indications of someone suffering from paranoia\". Tice said that three other psychiatric evaluations, including two at the NSA, showed he was normal and just two found him mentally unbalanced. Tice would later say that \"I knew from that day that my career was over.\" Tice's security clearance was suspended and he was reassigned to maintaining vehicles in the motor pool for 8 months in what Tice considered \"administrative punishment.\"\n", "Then-administrator Vern Miyagi said the Hawaii Emergency Management Agency suspended tests while assessing what had happened following the incident. He also announced the agency immediately changed its procedures to require two people, instead of just one, to send out both test alerts and actual alerts. HI-EMA employees will be \"counseled and drilled so this never happens again\", Miyagi said January 14.\n", "In February 1993, a man drove his car past a check point the Three Mile Island Nuclear plant, then broke through an entry gate. He eventually crashed the car through a secure door and entered the Unit 1 reactor turbine building. The intruder, who had a history of mental illness, hid in a building and was not apprehended for four hours. Stephanie Cooke asks: \"What if he'd been a terrorist armed with a ticking bomb?\"\n", "On April 12, 2008, at a Northern Kentucky Lincoln Day dinner, Davis compared the campaign slogans of Barack Obama to the sales pitch of a \"snake oil salesman\". He said in his remarks at the GOP dinner that he participated in a \"highly classified, national security simulation\" with Obama.\n\n\"I'm going to tell you something: That boy's finger does not need to be on the button,\" Davis added. \"He could not make a decision in that simulation that related to a nuclear threat to this country.\" \n", "BULLET::::- “The 2018 Nuclear Posture Review: Signaling Restraint with Stipulations,” Foreign Policy Research Institute e-note, February 2018\n\nBULLET::::- “New Technology and World Order,” in \"Strategic Latency: Managing the National and International Security Consequences of Disruptive Technologies\" (Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 2018)\n\nBULLET::::- “Stress Testing the World Nuclear System,” \"The Strategist\" (Canberra) January 2018\n\nBULLET::::- “The Cyber Threat to Nuclear Stability,” \"Orbis\" Summer 2016\n\nBULLET::::- \"Managing to Fail, Why Strategy is Disjointed,\" \"The American Interest\", Fall, 2007\n\nBULLET::::- \"Financial Warfare\" \"Orbis\", Fall 2007\n\nBULLET::::- \"Net Assessment: A Practical Guide\" \"Parameters\", Spring 2006\n\nBULLET::::- \"Business War Gaming\" \"Scenario & Strategy Planning\", 2001\n", "All these are argued by Lifton to be beneficial at times, however rather inadequate for helping people feel better about the ubiquity of nuclear weapons and potential warfare. There needs to be a sense of control in order to comprehend the consequences of nuclear warfare as well as strategies to combat the psychological grip it has on individuals.\n", "It has been our experience as writers that DOD reviews are painfully long and typically are more concerned with removing information that might make senior leadership look bad than with ensuring operational security [OPSEC]. Such a review would have come with intense scrutiny and put the integrity of the story at risk. In October 2012, the DoD informed Stanley A. McChrystal that its security review of his forthcoming memoir, \"My Share of the Task\", which had been under DoD review for 22 months, was not yet complete. The book's publisher was forced to postpone the book's release from its previously planned publication date of November 12, 2012.\n" ]	[ "Every government employee with access to sensitive information is psychologically tested, but the president is not." ]	[ "Government employees are only psychologically tested in specific cases." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Every government employee with access to sensitive information is psychologically tested, but the president is not." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Government employees are only psychologically tested in specific cases." ]
2018-11902	What happens if you are morbidly obese (1000 pounds) and starve yourself?	There was a study where a man who was morbidly obese took supplements and didn't eat for a very long time. He eventually got skinny, then died in his 40s. Moral being proper diet and exercise is the better route	[ "BULLET::::- Series 3. Episode 2. John Harrison: Lost 56 lbs. Average 7.0 lbs per week. 14.8% of bodyweight lost.\n", "One study found that the vast majority of people labelled 'overweight' and 'obese' according to current definitions do not in fact face any meaningful increased risk for early death. In a quantitative analysis of a number of studies, involving more than 600,000 men and women, the lowest mortality rates were found for people with BMIs between 23 and 29; most of the 25–30 range considered 'overweight' was not associated with higher risk.\n\nSection::::Limitations.:Relationship to health.\n", "In April 2007, Dr. Ian Smith launched the 50 Million Pound Challenge. The challenge is a national health initiative encouraging people to come together and take control of their health by getting fit, losing excess weight and turning back the deadly toll of weight-related diseases that threaten nearly half of Americans. The Challenge is a free campaign supported by national civic and health organizations. It is helping cities, civic groups, friends and families team up to help reverse the epidemic of excess weight and create a culture of healthier living.\n", "The Chinese government has introduced a number of \"fat farms\" where obese children go for reinforced exercise, and has passed a law which requires students to exercise or play sports for an hour a day at school (see Obesity in China).\n\nIn a structured setting, 67% of people who lost greater than 10% of their body mass maintained or continued to lose weight one year later. An average maintained weight loss of more than or 3% of total body mass could be sustained for five years.\n\nSection::::Medication.\n", "Section::::Health effects.\n\nObesity increases health risks, including diabetes, cancer, cardiovascular disease, high blood pressure, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, to name a few. Reduction of obesity lowers those risks.\n\nA 1-kg loss of body weight has been associated with an approximate 1-mm Hg drop in blood pressure.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Anorexia\n\nBULLET::::- Anti-obesity medication\n\nBULLET::::- Cigarette smoking for weight loss\n\nBULLET::::- Dieting\n\nBULLET::::- Enterostatin\n\nBULLET::::- Failure to thrive\n\nBULLET::::- Physical exercise\n\nBULLET::::- Weight gain\n\nBULLET::::- Weight loss effects of water\n\nBULLET::::- Prenatal nutrition\n\nBULLET::::- Bulimia nervosa\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Health benefits of losing weight By IQWiG at PubMed Health\n", "If an individual is overweight and has excess body fat it can create or lead to health risks. Reports are surfacing, however, that being mildly overweight to slightly obese – BMI being between 24 and 31.9 – may be actually beneficial and that people with a BMI between 24 and 31.9 could actually live longer than normal weight or underweight persons.\n\nSection::::Health effects.\n", "This series was originally a five-part miniseries involving four morbidly obese patients. Because of its popularity, new episodes were filmed, including a \"Where Are They Now?\" retrospective in Season 4 that follows up on previous patients to track their weight-loss journey months or years after bariatric surgery.\n\nIn Season 1, patients were filmed over a period of seven years (2004–2011). Beginning with Season 2, patients were filmed for only one year.\n", "On March 2, Spurlock makes it to day 30 and achieves his goal. In thirty days, he has \"Supersized\" his meals nine times along the way (five of which were in Texas, four in New York City). His physicians are surprised at the degree of deterioration in Spurlock's health. He notes that he has eaten as many McDonald's meals as most nutritionists say the ordinary person should eat in 8 years (he ate 90 meals, which is close to the number of meals consumed once a month in an 8-year period).\n\nSection::::Synopsis.:Findings.\n", "BULLET::::- Weight reduction – through physical activity and dietary modification, as obesity is a risk factor for heart failure and left ventricular hypertrophy.\n\nBULLET::::- Monitor weight – this is a parameter that can easily be measured at home. Rapid weight increase is generally due to fluid retention. Weight gain of more than 2 pounds is associated with admission to the hospital for heart failure\n\nBULLET::::- Sodium restriction – excessive sodium intake may precipitate or exacerbate heart failure, thus a \"no added salt\" diet (60–100 mmol total daily intake) is recommended for patients with CHF.\n\nSection::::Lifestyle changes.:Fluid restriction.\n", "In a study with a middle-aged to elderly sample, personal recollection of maximum weight in their lifetime was recorded and an association with mortality was seen with 15% weight loss for the overweight. Moderate weight loss was associated with reduced cardiovascular risk amongst obese men. Intentional weight loss was not directly measured, but it was assumed that those that died within 3 years, due to disease etc., had not intended to lose weight. This may reflect the loss of subcutaneous fat and beneficial mass from organs and muscle in addition to visceral fat when there is a sudden and dramatic weight loss.\n", "After the shooting of the film, Leto quickly went on a liquid diet. He explained, \"I've been fasting ever since. I've been doing this very strange, like, lemon and cayenne pepper and water fast. I didn't eat any food for 10 days straight; I think I lost 20 pounds that first 10 days.\" Losing the excess weight after \"Chapter 27\" proved a challenge. \"It took about a year to get back to a place that felt semi-normal,\" he said; \"I don't know if I'll ever be back to the place I was physically. I'd never do it again; it definitely gave me some problems.\"\n", "Each 60-minute episode chronicles six months in the lives of two people who are facing life-threatening health consequences as a result of their obesity. In episodes 1 through 5, the individuals are sent to a fitness camp in Texas for the first month, undergoing a strict program of diet and exercise and learning to change their attitudes about food. For the remaining five months they continue to lose weight at home, with the help of personal trainers, but can be called back to the camp if periodic weigh-ins reveal that they are not making progress. There are no weigh-ins during the sixth month except for the last day, with the goal of encouraging the participants to make the transition back to daily life outside of the weight loss program.\n", "As the film begins, Spurlock is in physically above average shape according to his personal trainer. He is seen by three physicians (a cardiologist, a gastroenterologist, and a general practitioner), as well as a nutritionist and a personal trainer. All of the health professionals predict the \"McDiet\" will have unwelcome effects on his body, but none expected anything too drastic, one citing the human body as being \"extremely adaptable\". Prior to the experiment, Spurlock ate a varied diet but always had vegan evening meals to appease his girlfriend, Alexandra, a vegan chef. At the beginning of the experiment, Spurlock, who stood tall, had a body weight of .\n", "Section::::Dieting as an engineering problem.\n\nWalker describes the diet as approaching weight loss \"as an engineering problem\", claiming that his approach enabled him to reduce his weight from 98kg to 66kg in a year, and keep it stable afterwards.\n", "The title is based on the American film \"Super Size Me\" where the author consumes McDonald's daily for a month.\n\nSection::::Content.\n\nSection::::Content.:Experiment.\n", "I'd spent a month preparing for that by starving myself. I was 8st 5lbs. When I look at pictures I wince at the sight of the jutting collarbone. I can see I looked too thin, but at the time I was delighted by my protruding bones and concave stomach.\n\nEating so little wasn't good for my health. For six months my periods packed up completely, a sure sign of starvation.\n", "My 600-lb Life\n\nMy 600-lb Life is a reality television series that has aired on the TLC television network since 2012. Each episode follows a year in the life of morbidly obese individuals, who begin the episode weighing at least , and documents their attempts to reduce their weight to a healthy level. Update episodes, called \"Where Are They Now?\", feature one or more previous patients, picking up a year or more after their original episodes aired.\n", "The predicted value of FRC was measured for large populations and published in several references. FRC was found to vary by a patient's age, height, and sex. Functional residual capacity is directly proportional to height and indirectly proportional with obesity. It is reduced in the setting of obesity primarily due to a reduction in chest wall compliance. An online calculator exists that will calculate FRC for a patient using these references.\n", "Section::::Weight problems.\n", "Section::::Global nutrition challenges.:Adult overweight and obesity.\n", "Beginning with Season 5, new episodes began filming as 2-hour episodes instead of 1-hour. This was previously done with Melissa's Story (split into two parts) and Lupe's Story. Recap episodes titled under \"Supersized\" and \"Extended\", which include additional facts and footage respectively, also aired during this season.\n\nSection::::Subject outcomes.\n\nSix patients have died since appearing on the show.\n\nBULLET::::- Henry Foots, who was featured in season one, died of an illness unrelated to his weight loss surgery on May 16, 2013.\n", "In Australia malnutrition or risk of malnutrition occurs in 80 percent of elderly people presented to hospitals for admission. Malnutrition and weight loss can contribute to sarcopenia with loss of lean body mass and muscle function. Abdominal obesity or weight loss coupled with sarcopenia lead to immobility, skeletal disorders, insulin resistance, hypertension, atherosclerosis, and metabolic disorders. A paper from the \"Journal of the American Dietetic Association\" noted that routine nutrition screenings represent one way to detect and therefore decrease the prevalence of malnutrition in the elderly.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Action Against Hunger\n\nBULLET::::- \"A Place at the Table\"\n\nBULLET::::- Agrobiodiversity\n", "Section::::Safety.:Other precautions.\n\nAnyone beginning an intensive physical training program is typically advised to consult a physician, because of possible undetected heart or other conditions for which such activity is contraindicated.\n", "According to the World Health Organization (WHO), Overweight and Obesity pose the fifth leading risk for global deaths. A person whose Body Mass Index (BMI) – the individual’s weight in kilograms divided by the square of his height in meters – is greater than or equal to 25 is Overweight. A person whose BMI is greater than or equal to 30 is considered Obese.\n", "Overweight and obese – begin slowly working up to 60 minutes per day of moderate to vigorous activity being sure to not overdo it to cause injury, then increase to 60–90 minutes to avoid weight gain\n\nOlder people – Should follow Adult guidelines – strength and balance training also recommended\n\nSection::::Diseases.\n\nHigh blood pressure, hypertension - One-third of all cases of high blood pressure are associated with obesity. High blood pressure is twice as common in adults who are obese than in those who are at a healthy weight.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-23521	Why do cookies become soft after you put a slice of bread with them?	Breads and cookies hold moisture in them, to some degree, depending on how soft the cookies or bread are. Cookies have lots of sugar, and sugar is hygroscopic, meaning it abroad moisture from the air! Keeping a more moist pieces of break with your cookies allows for the moisture from said bread (less sugar) to transfer to your cookies (more sugar), thus making them softer.	[ "When rolling fondant, a silicone mat or parchment will eliminate the need for dusting the rolling surface with powdered sugar, and this will make it easier to lift and transfer the cut pieces to the cookies.\n", "Cookies are most commonly baked until crisp or just long enough that they remain soft, but some kinds of cookies are not baked at all. Cookies are made in a wide variety of styles, using an array of ingredients including sugars, spices, chocolate, butter, peanut butter, nuts, or dried fruits. The softness of the cookie may depend on how long it is baked.\n", "A general theory of cookies may be formulated this way. Despite its descent from cakes and other sweetened breads, the cookie in almost all its forms has abandoned water as a medium for cohesion. Water in cakes serves to make the base (in the case of cakes called \"batter\") as thin as possible, which allows the bubbles – responsible for a cake's fluffiness – to better form. In the cookie, the agent of cohesion has become some form of oil. Oils, whether they be in the form of butter, vegetable oils, or lard, are much more viscous than water and evaporate freely at a much higher temperature than water. Thus a cake made with butter or eggs instead of water is far denser after removal from the oven.\n", "Oils in baked cakes do not behave as soda tends to in the finished result. Rather than evaporating and thickening the mixture, they remain, saturating the bubbles of escaped gases from what little water there might have been in the eggs, if added, and the carbon dioxide released by heating the baking powder. This saturation produces the most texturally attractive feature of the cookie, and indeed all fried foods: crispness saturated with a moisture (namely oil) that does not sink into it.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Bar cookies\" consist of batter or other ingredients that are poured or pressed into a pan (sometimes in multiple layers) and cut into cookie-sized pieces after baking. In British English, bar cookies are known as \"tray bakes\". Examples include brownies, fruit squares, and bars such as date squares.\n", "In most English-speaking countries outside North America, including the United Kingdom, the most common word for a crisp cookie is biscuit. The term cookie is normally used to describe chewier ones. However, in many regions both terms are used.\n\nIn Scotland the term cookie is sometimes used to describe a plain bun.\n\nCookies that are baked as a solid layer on a sheet pan and then cut, rather than being baked as individual pieces, are called in British English bar cookies or traybakes.\n\nSection::::Etymology.\n", "For example, to create a lace heart, a patch of white fondant is rolled out first on a silicone mat. Then an embossed fondant roller is slowly rolled across the surface of the fondant. A heart shaped cookie cutter is used to cut out the fondant hearts. The heart shaped fondant is then peeled off the silicone mat carefully so as not to mar the embossed design. Next, the fondant is trimmed and placed on top of the cookie. Finally the fondant-covered cookie may be brushed with a light dusting of pearl luster dust.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Drop cookies\" are made from a relatively soft dough that is dropped by spoonfuls onto the baking sheet. During baking, the mounds of dough spread and flatten. Chocolate chip cookies (Toll House cookies), oatmeal raisin (or other oatmeal-based) cookies, and rock cakes are popular examples of drop cookies. This may also include \"thumbprint cookies\", for which a small central depression is created with a thumb or small spoon before baking to contain a filling, such as jam or a chocolate chip. In the UK, the term \"cookie\" often refers only to this particular type of product.\n", "The rolled out fondant may be cut into shapes with the same cookie cutters used to cut the cookies. Once cut out, the fondant is placed on top of the cookie. Some types of fondant will adhere right away to the cookie. If the fondant doesn't stick well, the cookie surface may be brushed with a little vanilla extract, corn syrup or piping gel to provide more sticking power.\n", "BULLET::::- The \"creaming method\" is frequently used for cake batters. The butter and sugar are \"creamed\", or beaten together until smooth and fluffy. Eggs and liquid flavoring are mixed in, and finally dry and liquid ingredients are added in. The creaming method combines rise gained from air bubbles in the creamed butter with the rise from the chemical leaveners. Gentle folding in of the final ingredients avoids destroying these air pockets.\n", "The baked biscuits are hard, and are packed away to ripen for two or four weeks. During this time, they become tender.\n", "BULLET::::- \"vaníliás kifli\" is a small soft cookie made from a dough of ground nuts, instead of flour. It is usually made with walnuts but almonds are more often used outside of Hungary. Once baked they are rolled in vanilla flavored confectioners' sugar before allowed to cool.\n", "Fondant covered cookies, just like plain or icing covered cookies, lend themselves well to embellishments such as silver dragees and other shiny decorations. Tweezers can be a great help in positioning the tiny ornaments.\n\nSection::::Decorating the fondant.\n\nAn impression mat can be used with fondant to add design and/or texture. First the fondant is rolled out and then the mat is placed face down on the fondant. Finally, by gently but firmly going over the mat with the rolling pin, the impression is made in the fondant. Then the shapes are cut out.\n", "Traditionally, a mixture of sugar and water is heated to the hard crack stage corresponding to a temperature of approximately , although some recipes also call for ingredients such as corn syrup and salt in the first step. Nuts are mixed with the caramelized sugar. At this point spices, leavening agents, and often peanut butter or butter are added. The hot candy is poured out onto a flat surface for cooling, traditionally a granite or marble slab. The hot candy may be troweled to uniform thickness. When the brittle cools, it is broken into pieces.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Almond Roca\n", "Mix water and sugar and let them boil while mixing continuously. Next, add saffron and stop heating the syrup. Mix the syrup in a way that it loses the glass-like appearance. Add almond powder little by little to the syrup while mixing it. Stop adding the powder once the mixture forms a paste similar to a viscous pulp that doesn't stick. Unfold waxed paper into baking tray and evenly pour the pulp, then sprinkle nuts on the surface of the Lovz and push them down. Refrigerate for about three to four hours. Then, cut the Lovz cookies in diamond shapes.\n", "BULLET::::- \"No-bake cookies\" are made by mixing a filler, such as cereal or nuts, into a melted confectionery binder, shaping into cookies or bars, and allowing to cool or harden. Oatmeal clusters and Rum balls are no-bake cookies.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pressed cookies\" are made from a soft dough that is extruded from a cookie press into various decorative shapes before baking. Spritzgebäck is an example of a pressed cookie.\n", "Biscuits, (from the Old French word \"bescuit\" originally meaning \"twice-baked\" in Latin, also known as \"cookies\" in North America, are flattish bite-sized or larger short pastries generally intended to be eaten out of the hand. Biscuits can have a texture that is crispy, chewy, or soft. Examples include layered bars, crispy meringues, and soft chocolate chip cookies.\n\nSection::::Varieties.:Cakes.\n", "The dry heat of baking changes the form of starches in the food and causes its outer surfaces to brown, giving it an attractive appearance and taste. The browning is caused by caramelization of sugars and the Maillard reaction. Maillard browning occurs when \"sugars break down in the presence of proteins. Because foods contain many different types of sugars and proteins, Maillard browning contributes to the flavour of a wide range of foods, including nuts, roast beef and baked bread.\" The moisture is never entirely \"sealed in\"; over time, an item being baked will become dry. This is often an advantage, especially in situations where drying is the desired outcome, like drying herbs or roasting certain types of vegetables.\n", "Blanched almonds are fried in oil, then crushed finely and mixed with powdered sugar and cinnamon. In a round baking pan several pieces of the thin werga or filo dough are layered, each brushed with melted butter, and overhanging the edge of the pan. The cook adds the egg mixture, places another buttered sheet of dough over it, adds the shredded meat, also covered with a sheet of dough, and then the almond mixture is added. The overlapping pieces of dough are folded over the filling, and another 2 pieces of buttered dough are added and tucked in around the edges of the pie. The pie is baked until heated through, and the layers of dough are brown. Powdered sugar and cinnamon are sprinkled over the top before serving hot.\n", "The data show that the yield of good cookies is best when either (i) temperature is high and time in the oven is short, or (ii) temperature is low and time in the oven is long. If the cookies are left in the oven for a long time at a high temperature, there are burnt cookies and the yield is low.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Filled cookies\" are made from a rolled cookie dough filled with a fruit or confectionery filling before baking. Hamantashen are a filled cookie.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Molded cookies\" are also made from a stiffer dough that is molded into balls or cookie shapes by hand before baking. Snickerdoodles and peanut butter cookies are examples of molded cookies. Some cookies, such as hermits or biscotti, are molded into large flattened loaves that are later cut into smaller cookies.\n", "Section::::Thin film textures.\n", "Cookies or biscuits may be mass-produced in factories, made in small bakeries or homemade. Biscuit or cookie variants include sandwich biscuits, such as custard creams, Jammie Dodgers, Bourbons and Oreos, with marshmallow or jam filling and sometimes dipped in chocolate or another sweet coating. Cookies are often served with beverages such as milk, coffee or tea. Factory-made cookies are sold in grocery stores, convenience stores and vending machines. Fresh-baked cookies are sold at bakeries and coffeehouses, with the latter ranging from small business-sized establishments to multinational corporations such as Starbucks.\n\nSection::::Terminology.\n", "The texture of a chocolate chip cookie is largely dependent on its fat composition and the type of fat used. A study done by Kansas State University showed that carbohydrate based fat-replacers were more likely to bind more water, leaving less water available to aid in the spread of the cookie while baking. This resulted in softer, more cake-like cookies with less spread.\n\nSection::::Composition and variants.:Common variants.\n\nBULLET::::- The \"M&M cookie\", or \"party cookie\", replaces the chocolate chips with M&M's. This recipe originally used shortening as the fat, but has been updated to use butter.\n", "Cookie\n\nA cookie is a baked or cooked food that is typically small, flat and sweet. It usually contains flour, sugar and some type of oil or fat. It may include other ingredients such as raisins, oats, chocolate chips, nuts, etc.\n\nIn most English-speaking countries except for the United States and Canada, crisp cookies are called biscuits. Chewier biscuits are sometimes called \"cookies\" even in the United Kingdom. Some cookies may also be named by their shape, such as date squares or bars.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Moisture will transfer from any bread to any cookie." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Moisture will only transfer to cookies if the bread has less sugar. " ]
2018-03696	Why do Dryer Sheets work so well at negating Static Cling?	The dryer sheet has chemicals which are attracted to the electrically charged fibers; once a particle of fabric "clings" to a particle of the chemical, the two together have a neutral charge, so they won't cling to other fabric particles.	[ "BULLET::::- Plates feeding\n\nSection::::Typical applications.\n\nBelt dryers are predominantly used in the following industries:\n\nBULLET::::- Biomass\n\nBULLET::::- Pelleting\n\nBULLET::::- Anaerobic digestate\n\nBULLET::::- Chemical industry\n\nBULLET::::- Pharmaceutical industry\n\nBULLET::::- Food and feeding-stuff industry\n\nBULLET::::- Non-metallic minerals industry\n\nBULLET::::- Plastics industry\n\nBULLET::::- Wood industry\n\nBULLET::::- Ceramics industry\n\nSection::::Typical applications.:Product examples.\n", "Some manufacturers, Namely LG Electronics, have introduced hybrid dryers, that offer the user the option of using either a heat pump or a traditional electric heating element for drying the user's clothes.\n\nSection::::Static electricity.\n\nClothes dryers can cause static cling, through the triboelectric effect. This can be a minor nuisance and is often a symptom of over-drying textiles to an extremely low humidity level. Fabric conditioners and dryer sheets are marketed to correct this condition.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The sheet is usually held against the dryers by long felt loops on the top and bottom of each dryer section. The felts greatly improve heat transfer. Dryer felts are made of coarse thread and have a very open weave that is almost see through, It is common to have the first bottom dryer section unfelted to dump broke on the basement floor during sheet breaks or when threading the sheet.\n", "PTC rubber sheets can be used as thin flexible PTC heaters. These heaters will provide high power when they are cold and rapidly heat up themselves to a constant temperature and remain there virtually unaffected by changes in the ambient conditions. They can be powered with any voltage between 5 and 230 V, AC or DC.\n", "Section::::Effect on environment.\n", "BULLET::::- Julian Vincent drew from the study of pinecones when he developed in 2004 \"smart\" clothing that adapts to changing temperatures. \"I wanted a nonliving system which would respond to changes in moisture by changing shape\", he said. \"There are several such systems in plants, but most are very small — the pinecone is the largest and therefore the easiest to work on\". Pinecones respond to higher humidity by opening their scales (to disperse their seeds). The \"smart\" fabric does the same thing, opening up when the wearer is warm and sweating, and shutting tight when cold.\n", "Section::::Ventless dryers.:Ultrasonic dryers.\n\nUltrasonic dryers use high-frequency signals to drive piezoelectric actuators in order to mechanically shake the clothes, releasing water in the form of a mist which is then removed from the drum. They have the potential to significantly cut energy consumption while needing only one-third of the time needed by a conventional electric dryer for a given load. They also don't have the same issues related with lint in most other types of dryers. \n\nSection::::Ventless dryers.:Hybrid dryers.\n", "formula_1\n\nWhere\n\nformula_2 is the elastocapillary length of sheets\n\nw is the distance between two parallel sheets\n\nThis L sets the minimum length for parallel sheets to collapse, sheets spontaneously coalesce if they are longer than L.\n\nAbove result can be generalized to multiple parallel plates when N elastic plates were used. By assuming these N sheets is N times more rigid than single sheet, such system can be treated as two bundles of N/2 sheets with a distance Nw/2. Thus the dry length can be written as:\n\nformula_3\n\nSection::::Capillary origami.\n", "Wood chip, Veneers, wood fiber insulating boards, paints, molding materials, synthetic rubber, superabsorbent polymer, stearate, catalysts, coke, fruits, vegetables, cereals, Woodchip, Wood shavings, Wood pellets, Other feed pellets, Saw dust, Biomass straw, Miscanthus and bagasse, Herbs, Combinable crops, Beans and soya beans, Shredded recycled matter, Sewerage sludge & digestate, Flaked maize, Nuts, Fruit and fruit slices, Compost, Cotton rejects, Extruded pet foods, Finely ground wet chips, Grass, Grass seed, Orange peel, Pulp granulates, Solid shredded waste, Granular & shredded plastic, Poultry manure\n\nSection::::Sources and further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Sattler, Klaus: Thermische Trennverfahren. 3. Aufl. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH, 2001\n", "Lamina emergent mechanism\n\nLamina Emergent Mechanisms (also known as LEMs) are more commonly referred to as \"Pop-up Mechanisms\" as seen in \"pop-up-books\". LEM is the technical term of such mechanisms or engineering. LEMs are a subset of compliant mechanisms fabricated from planar materials (lamina) and have motion emerging from the fabrication plane. LEMs use compliance, or the deflection of flexible members to achieve motion.\n\nSection::::Background.\n", "With the exception of structural metals, such as steel, all structural materials creep over time. In the case of SIPs, the creep potential of OSB faced SIPs with EPS or polyurethane foam cores has been studied and creep design recommendations exist. The long-term effects of using unconventional facing and core materials require material specific testing to quantify creep design values.\n\nSection::::Dimensions and characteristics.\n", "The hot drying gas can be passed in as a co-current, same direction as sprayed liquid atomizer, or counter-current, where the hot air flows against the flow from the atomizer. With co-current flow, particles spend less time in the system and the particle separator (typically a cyclone device). With counter-current flow, particles spend more time in the system and is usually paired with a fluidized bed system. Co-current flow generally allows the system to operate more efficiently.\n\nAlternatives to spray dryers are:\n", "Section::::Applications.\n\nThe PTC rubber can be rolled into thin sheets and laminated with copper. The copper is in turn connected to a voltage to provide the electrical field inside the material necessary to trigger the tunneling effect. The sheets can be formed into any shape and size.\n", "Drying is an important step in the formulation and development of a pharmaceutical product. It is important to keep the residual moisture low enough to prevent product deterioration and ensure free flowing properties. The commonly used dryers include Fluidized – bed dryer, Vacuum tray dryer, Microwave dryer, Spray dryer, Freeze dryer, Turbo - tray dryer, Pan dryer, etc.\n\nSection::::Tablet compression.\n", "Because the heat exchange process simply cools the internal air using ambient air (or cold water in some cases), it will not dry the air in the internal loop to as low a level of humidity as typical fresh, ambient air. As a consequence of the increased humidity of the air used to dry the load, this type of dryer requires somewhat more time than a tumble dryer. Condenser dryers are a particularly attractive option where long, intricate ducting would be required to vent the dryer.\n\nSection::::Ventless dryers.:Heat pump dryers.\n", "Since the 1920s, development of the hair dryer has mainly focused on improving the wattage and superficial exterior and material changes. In fact, the mechanism of the dryer has not had any significant changes since its inception. One of the more important changes for the hair dryer is to be made of plastic, so that it is more lightweight. This really caught on in the 1960s with the introduction of better electrical motors and the improvement of plastics. Another important change happened in 1954 when GEC changed the design of the dryer to move the motor inside the casing.\n", "Marketed by some manufacturers as a \"static clothes drying technique\", convectant dryers simply consist of a heating unit at the bottom, a vertical chamber, and a vent at top. The unit heats air at the bottom, reducing its relative humidity, and the natural tendency of hot air to rise brings this low-humidity air into contact with the clothes. This design is slow, but relatively energy-efficient. It is only marginally faster than line-drying.\n\nSection::::Ventless dryers.:Solar clothes dryer.\n", "In recent years, some companies in Europe, Australia and Canada have developed a new type of drywall joint compound called tapeless joint compound. It can be applied to the joints directly without either paper tape or fibreglass mesh tape. It can save about 30% of labour time for finishing the drywall joints.\n\nSo far, every tapeless joint compound is setting compound. There are two type of tapeless setting compound: one is setting compound reinforced by some very strong chemical glues. The other is fibre reinforced setting compound.\n\nSection::::Usage.\n", "Solar dryer\n\nSolar dryers are devices that use solar energy to dry substances, especially food. There are two general types of solar dryers: Direct and indirect.\n\nSection::::Direct.\n", "In general there are two ways of gas flow pattern. The drying air can flow, according to the treatment process, either through or over the product.\n\nSection::::Design features.:Heat Sources.\n\nHEAT EXCHANGERS:\n\nBULLET::::- These are commonly used for application where a biomass heat source is available such as woodchip boilers to produce hot water or if there is a steam heat source available.\n\nOIL OR GAS FIRED BURNERS:\n", "BULLET::::- Sha'at, A. A., A. E. Long, P. A. M. Basheer and F. R. Montgomery, \"The influence of controlled permeability formwork on chloride ion penetration in concrete, Report to DuPont Nemours (Luxembourg)\", Report No. SMRG-11-1993, Structural Materials Research Group, Department of Civil Engineering, The Queen's University of Belfast, Belfast, 1993, October, 14 pp\n", "Section::::Forming limits for sheet forming.\n\nOne main failure mode is caused by tearing of the material. This is typical for sheet-forming applications.\n", "Section::::Functional principle.\n\nThe functional principle is basically the same as with normal spray dryers. There are just different technologies that are used to do similar things.\n", "Uncoated LED tape is not considered to have any resistance to water ingress, but may be rated as IP20 for some physical ingress resistance. Such tapes are generally low voltage and safe for skin to touch but can be shorted by fine metal objects. Water resistant strip lighting is covered in a heat conducting epoxy or silicone to protect the circuitry from direct contact with water, and can be rated IP65, IP67, or with suitable sealed connections IP68. Both coated and uncoated LED tapes have a two sided adhesive backing to stick to walls, desks, doors, etc.\n", "BULLET::::- Sha'at, A. A., A. E. Long, P. A. M. Basheer and F. R. Montgomery, \"The influence of Zemdrain as a permeable formwork liner on the quality of cover concrete, Report for DuPont Nemours (Germany)\", Report No. SMRG- 09-1992, Structural Materials Research Group, Department of Civil Engineering, The Queen's University of Belfast, Belfast, 1992, May, 83 pp\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-12909	Why do certain foods like pancakes or cake icing taste amazing at first but quickly become disgusting after I've had a certain amount?	Food scientists have found there is a "bliss point" at which food tastes the best. It's a particular amount of sugar and fat. If you consume it for a certain amount of time, then you'll become sated and not want any more. This is not good from the perspective of food companies, who want you to keep eating more and more. So they've found that they can increase the amount you consume in several ways, one of which is that you can endure sweeter foods for longer at the bliss point if there is more fat in the food. So if you want to eat more pancakes, drink whole milk with it. Cake icing already has a lot of fat in it so that won't be a help. But a palate cleanser might help--something not sweet or fat.	[ "It was quite by accident as I worked in front of a chafing dish that the cordials caught fire. I thought it was ruined. The Prince and his friends were waiting. How could I begin all over? I tasted it. It was, I thought, the most delicious medley of sweet flavors I had ever tasted. I still think so. That accident of the flame was precisely what was needed to bring all those various instruments into one harmony of taste ... He ate the pancakes with a fork; but he used a spoon to capture the remaining syrup. He asked me the name of that which he had eaten with so much relish. I told him it was to be called Crêpes Princesse. He recognized that the pancake controlled the gender and that this was a compliment designed for him; but he protested with mock ferocity that there was a lady present. She was alert and rose to her feet and holding her little skirt wide with her hands she made him a curtsey. \"Will you,\" said His Majesty, \"change Crêpes Princesse to Crêpes Suzette?\" Thus was born and baptized this confection, one taste of which, I really believe, would reform a cannibal into a civilized gentleman. The next day I received a present from the Prince, a jeweled ring, a panama hat and a cane.\n", "Section::::Processing in the cerebral cortex.\n\nThe primary taste perception areas in the cerebral cortex are located in the insula and regions of the somatosensory cortex; the nucleus of the solitary tract located in the brainstem also plays a major role in taste perception. These regions were identified when human subjects were exposed to a taste stimulus and their cerebral blood flow measured with magnetic resonance imaging. Although these regions have been identified as the primary zones for taste processing in the brain, other cortical areas are also activated during eating, as other sensory inputs are being signaled to the cortex.\n", "Section::::Temporal taste perception.:Variability of human taste perception.\n", "BULLET::::- Layer cake\n\nBULLET::::- Lekach\n\nBULLET::::- Linzer torte\n\nM\n\nBULLET::::- Madeira cake\n\nBULLET::::- Madeleine\n\nBULLET::::- Malt loaf\n\nBULLET::::- Marble cake\n\nBULLET::::- Mazurek\n\nBULLET::::- Međimurska gibanica\n\nBULLET::::- Molten chocolate cake\n\nO\n\nBULLET::::- Ontbijtkoek\n\nBULLET::::- Opera\n\nP\n\nBULLET::::- Pain d'épices\n\nBULLET::::- Pandan cake\n\nBULLET::::- Panforte\n\nBULLET::::- Panettone\n\nBULLET::::- Panpepato\n\nBULLET::::- Parkin\n\nBULLET::::- Parrozzo\n\nBULLET::::- Pastiera\n\nBULLET::::- Petit four\n\nBULLET::::- Pinca\n\nBULLET::::- Ploatz\n\nBULLET::::- Pound cake\n\nBULLET::::- Prekmurska gibanica\n\nBULLET::::- Princess cake\n\nBULLET::::- Prinzregententorte\n\nBULLET::::- Punschkrapfen\n\nBULLET::::- Put chai ko\n\nR\n\nBULLET::::- Red bean cake\n\nBULLET::::- Red velvet cake\n\nBULLET::::- Rigó Jancsi\n\nBULLET::::- Rock cake\n\nBULLET::::- Rosca de reyes\n\nBULLET::::- Rum baba\n", "No sooner had the warm liquid mixed with the crumbs touched my palate than a shudder ran through me and I stopped, intent upon the extraordinary thing that was happening to me. An exquisite pleasure had invaded my senses, something isolated, detached, with no suggestion of its origin. And at once the vicissitudes of life had become indifferent to me, its disasters innocuous, its brevity illusory—this new sensation having had on me the effect which love has of filling me with a precious essence; or rather this essence was not in me it was me. ... Whence did it come? What did it mean? How could I seize and apprehend it? ... And suddenly the memory revealed itself. The taste was that of the little piece of madeleine which on Sunday mornings at Combray (because on those mornings I did not go out before mass), when I went to say good morning to her in her bedroom, my aunt Léonie used to give me, dipping it first in her own cup of tea or tisane. The sight of the little madeleine had recalled nothing to my mind before I tasted it. And all from my cup of tea.\n", "Section::::Distinguishing aftertaste and flavor.\n\nFlavor is an emergent property that is the combination of multiple sensory systems including olfaction, taste, and somatosensation. How the flavor of a food is perceived, whether it is unpleasant or satisfying, is stored as a memory so that the next time the same (or a similar) food is encountered, the previous experience can be recalled and a decision made to consume that food. This process of multisensory inputs to the brain during eating, followed by learning from eating experiences is the central idea of flavor processing.\n", "Experimenting with salty ingredients and chocolate around the turn of the century, Heston Blumenthal, the chef of The Fat Duck, discovered that caviar and white chocolate are a perfect match. To find out why, he contacted François Benzi of Firmenich, the largest privately owned flavor house in the world. By comparing the flavor analysis of both foods, they found that caviar and white chocolate had major flavor components in common. At that time, they created the hypothesis that different foods will combine well together when they share major flavor components, and Foodpairing was born. In 2009, the Flanders Taste foundation organized a gastronomic symposium, \"The Flemish Primitives\", completely dedicated to Foodpairing.\n", "BULLET::::- Rum cake\n\nBULLET::::- Ruske kape\n\nS\n\nBULLET::::- Sachertorte\n\nBULLET::::- Šakotis\n\nBULLET::::- Šampita\n\nBULLET::::- Sesame seed cake\n\nBULLET::::- Sfouf\n\nBULLET::::- Sheet cake\n\nBULLET::::- Simnel cake\n\nBULLET::::- Snack cake\n\nBULLET::::- Sno Balls\n\nBULLET::::- Song gao\n\nBULLET::::- Spanische Windtorte\n\nBULLET::::- Spekkoek\n\nBULLET::::- Spice cake\n\nBULLET::::- Sponge cake\n\nBULLET::::- St. Honoré cake\n\nBULLET::::- Stack cake\n\nBULLET::::- Stollen\n\nBULLET::::- Streuselkuchen\n\nBULLET::::- Swiss roll\n\nT\n\nBULLET::::- Tahinopita\n\nBULLET::::- Taiyaki\n\nBULLET::::- Tarta de Santiago\n\nBULLET::::- Tea loaf\n\nBULLET::::- Teacake\n\nBULLET::::- Tin roof pie\n\nBULLET::::- Tipsy cake\n\nBULLET::::- Tiramisu\n\nBULLET::::- Torta alla Monferrina\n\nBULLET::::- Torta caprese\n\nBULLET::::- Torta de nata\n\nBULLET::::- Torta Maria Luisa\n", "Section::::Further sensations and transmission.:Coolness.\n\nSome substances activate cold trigeminal receptors even when not at low temperatures. This \"fresh\" or \"minty\" sensation can be tasted in peppermint, spearmint, menthol, ethanol, and camphor. Caused by activation of the same mechanism that signals cold, TRPM8 ion channels on nerve cells, unlike the actual change in temperature described for sugar substitutes, this coolness is only a perceived phenomenon.\n\nSection::::Further sensations and transmission.:Numbness.\n", "Icing (food)\n\nIcing, or frosting, is a sweet, often creamy glaze made of sugar with a liquid, such as water or milk, that is often enriched with ingredients like butter, egg whites, cream cheese, or flavorings. It is used to cover or decorate baked goods, such as cakes or cookies. When it is used between layers of cake, it is called filling.\n", "One of the most important attributes of fudge is its texture. The end-point temperature separates hard caramel from fudge. The higher the peak temperature, the more sugar is dissolved and the more water is evaporated, resulting in a higher sugar-to-water ratio. Before the availability of cheap and accurate thermometers, cooks would use the ice water test, also known as the cold water test, to determine the saturation of the confection. Fudge is made at the \"soft ball\" stage, which varies by altitude and ambient humidity from to . Butter is added, and then the fudge is cooled and beaten until it is thick and small sugar crystals have formed. The warm fudge is sometimes poured onto a marble slab to be cooled and shaped.\n", "BULLET::::1. Chemicals in food interact with receptors on the taste receptor cells located on the tongue and the roof of the mouth. These interactions can be affected by temporal and spatial factors like the time of receptor activation or the particular taste receptors that are activated (sweet, salty, bitter, etc.).\n\nBULLET::::2. The chorda tympani (cranial nerve VII), the glossopharyngeal nerve (cranial nerve IX), and the vagus nerve (cranial nerve X) carry information from the taste receptors to the brain for cortical processing.\n", "BULLET::::- Torta Tre Monti\n\nBULLET::::- Torte\n\nBULLET::::- Tottenham cake\n\nBULLET::::- Tres leches cake\n\nBULLET::::- Tu\n\nBULLET::::- Tula pryanik\n\nBULLET::::- Tunis cake\n\nBULLET::::- Tunnock's teacake\n\nU\n\nBULLET::::- Upside-down cake\n\nW\n\nBULLET::::- Wacky cake\n\nBULLET::::- Wafer\n\nBULLET::::- Waffle\n\nBULLET::::- Wedding cake\n\nBULLET::::- Welsh cake\n\nBULLET::::- White sugar sponge cake\n\nBULLET::::- Wine cake\n\nY\n\nBULLET::::- Yule log\n\nZ\n\nBULLET::::- Zuger Kirschtorte\n\nBULLET::::- Zwetschgenkuchen\n\nSection::::By type.:Confectionery and candies.\n", "Pancakes are associated with the day preceding Lent, because they are a way to use up rich foods such as eggs, milk, and sugar, before the fasting season of the 40 days of Lent. The liturgical fasting emphasizes eating simpler food, and refraining from food that would give undue pleasure: in many cultures, this means no meat, dairy products, or eggs.\n", "BULLET::::- Maple taffy\n\nBULLET::::- Marron glacé\n\nBULLET::::- Marshmallow\n\nBULLET::::- Marshmallow creme\n\nBULLET::::- Marzipan\n\nBULLET::::- Mendiant\n\nBULLET::::- Milk chocolate\n\nBULLET::::- Mint\n\nBULLET::::- Misri\n\nBULLET::::- Modjeska\n\nBULLET::::- Mooncake\n\nBULLET::::- Moustalevria\n\nBULLET::::- Mozartkugel\n\nN\n\nBULLET::::- Noghl\n\nBULLET::::- Nonpareils\n\nBULLET::::- Nougat\n\nO\n\nBULLET::::- Oblaat\n\nBULLET::::- Orange jelly candy\n\nP\n\nBULLET::::- Paçoca\n\nBULLET::::- Pashmak\n\nBULLET::::- Pastila\n\nBULLET::::- Pastille\n\nBULLET::::- Peanut butter cup\n\nBULLET::::- Pecan log roll\n\nBULLET::::- Penuche\n\nBULLET::::- Pepero\n\nBULLET::::- Persipan\n\nBULLET::::- Pirate coins\n\nBULLET::::- Pirulín\n\nBULLET::::- Polkagris\n\nBULLET::::- Pontefract cake\n\nBULLET::::- Poolaki\n\nBULLET::::- Ptasie mleczko\n\nQ\n\nBULLET::::- Queijadinha\n\nR\n\nBULLET::::- Ribbon candy\n\nBULLET::::- Rock\n\nBULLET::::- Rock candy\n\nBULLET::::- Rocky road\n\nBULLET::::- Royal icing\n", "BULLET::::- Chiffon cake\n\nBULLET::::- Chocolate cake\n\nBULLET::::- Chokladboll\n\nBULLET::::- Chongyang Cake\n\nBULLET::::- Chorley cake\n\nBULLET::::- Christmas cake\n\nBULLET::::- Coconut cake\n\nBULLET::::- Coffee cake\n\nBULLET::::- Cupcake\n\nBULLET::::- Cupcone\n\nD\n\nBULLET::::- Dacquoise\n\nBULLET::::- Depression cake\n\nBULLET::::- Devil's food cake\n\nBULLET::::- Dirt cake\n\nBULLET::::- Doberge cake\n\nBULLET::::- Dobos torte\n\nBULLET::::- Donauwelle\n\nBULLET::::- Dundee cake\n\nE\n\nBULLET::::- Eccles cake\n\nBULLET::::- Eggies\n\nBULLET::::- Eierschecke\n\nBULLET::::- Erotic cake\n\nBULLET::::- Esterházy torte\n\nF\n\nBULLET::::- Fat rascal\n\nBULLET::::- Financier\n\nBULLET::::- Flourless chocolate cake\n\nBULLET::::- Foam cake\n\nBULLET::::- Frankfurter Kranz\n\nBULLET::::- Friand\n\nBULLET::::- Frog cake\n\nBULLET::::- Fruitcake\n\nBULLET::::- Funing big cake\n\nG\n\nBULLET::::- Garash cake\n\nBULLET::::- Genoa cake\n", "The popularity of pancakes in Australia has spawned the Pancake Parlour and Pancakes on the Rocks franchised restaurants. In British Columbia and Alberta, Canada, the restaurant chain De Dutch serves Dutch and Flemish-style pannenkoeken.\n\nSection::::Pancake syndrome.\n\nPancake syndrome is an allergic reaction which some people have after eating pancakes in tropical regions where certain mites can contaminate the flour in pancakes.\n\nSection::::Pancake Day.\n", "Pungency is not considered a taste in the technical sense because it is carried to the brain by a different set of nerves. While taste nerves are activated when consuming foods like chili peppers, the sensation commonly interpreted as \"hot\" results from the stimulation of somatosensory fibers in the mouth. Many parts of the body with exposed membranes that lack taste receptors (such as the nasal cavity, genitals, or a wound) produce a similar sensation of heat when exposed to pungent agents.\n", "BULLET::::- Norman Tart\n\nBULLET::::- Ozark pudding\n\nBULLET::::- Pączki\n\nBULLET::::- Pastel de nata\n\nBULLET::::- Pasticciotto\n\nBULLET::::- Pio Quinto\n\nBULLET::::- Pot de crème\n\nBULLET::::- Profiterole\n\nBULLET::::- Pumpkin pie\n\nBULLET::::- Queen of Puddings\n\nBULLET::::- Quindim\n\nBULLET::::- Rožata\n\nBULLET::::- Salzburger Nockerl\n\nBULLET::::- Semifreddo\n\nBULLET::::- Skolebrød\n\nBULLET::::- Soufflé\n\nBULLET::::- St. Honoré cake\n\nBULLET::::- Sweet potato pie\n\nBULLET::::- Tarte à la Bouillie\n\nBULLET::::- Tipsy cake\n\nBULLET::::- Tiramisu\n\nBULLET::::- Tompouce\n\nBULLET::::- Torta de nata\n\nBULLET::::- Trifle\n\nBULLET::::- Vla\n\nBULLET::::- Watalappam\n\nBULLET::::- Wuzetka\n\nBULLET::::- Yema\n\nBULLET::::- Zabaione\n\nBULLET::::- Zeppole\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Blancmange - made without egg yolks\n\nBULLET::::- Bavarian cream - made without egg yolks\n", "BULLET::::- Genoise\n\nBULLET::::- German chocolate cake\n\nBULLET::::- Gingerbread\n\nBULLET::::- Gingerbread house\n\nBULLET::::- Gooey butter cake\n\nBULLET::::- Groom's cake\n\nBULLET::::- Gugelhupf\n\nH\n\nBULLET::::- Happy Cake\n\nBULLET::::- Heavy cake\n\nBULLET::::- Herman cake\n\nBULLET::::- Hot milk cake\n\nBULLET::::- Hummingbird cake\n\nI\n\nBULLET::::- Ice cream cake\n\nBULLET::::- Imagawayaki\n\nJ\n\nBULLET::::- Jaffa Cakes\n\nBULLET::::- Jewish apple cake\n\nBULLET::::- Joffre cake\n\nK\n\nBULLET::::- Kalathappam\n\nBULLET::::- Kek Lapis Sarawak\n\nBULLET::::- Kentucky jam cake\n\nBULLET::::- Kiev cake\n\nBULLET::::- King cake\n\nBULLET::::- Kladdkaka\n\nBULLET::::- Kornigou\n\nBULLET::::- Kouign-amann\n\nBULLET::::- Krakow gingerbread\n\nBULLET::::- Kransekake\n\nBULLET::::- Kuchen\n\nBULLET::::- Kue cubit\n\nL\n\nBULLET::::- Ladyfinger\n\nBULLET::::- Lamington\n\nBULLET::::- Lane cake\n\nBULLET::::- Lardy cake\n", "Section::::Taste receptor dynamics.\n\nBecause a lingering taste sensation is intrinsic to aftertaste, the molecular mechanisms that underlie aftertaste are presumed to be linked to either the continued or delayed activation of receptors and signaling pathways in the mouth that are involved in taste processing. The current understanding of how a food's taste is communicated to the brain is as follows:\n", "The cause of this heightened response is unknown, although it is thought to be related to the presence of the TAS2R38 gene, the ability to taste PROP and PTC, and, at least in part, due to an increased number of fungiform papillae. Any evolutionary advantage to supertasting is unclear. In some environments, heightened taste response, particularly to bitterness, would represent an important advantage in avoiding potentially toxic plant alkaloids. In other environments, increased response to bitterness may have limited the range of palatable foods.\n\nSection::::Cause.:TAS2R38.\n", "Typically, the cake consists of very thin layers of sponge cake, each approximately in diameter, with chocolate buttercream on each side. Apricot jam may be added to the topmost layer, and the whole cake is covered in dark chocolate.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Doberge cake\n\nBULLET::::- Dobos Torte\n\nBULLET::::- Rigo Jancsi, another famous Hungarian dessert created in the same era\n\nBULLET::::- Smith Island cake, official dessert of the state of Maryland.\n\nBULLET::::- Spekkoek, a Dutch layered cake\n\nBULLET::::- List of cakes\n\nBULLET::::- List of desserts\n\nBULLET::::- List of German desserts\n\nSection::::References.\n", "Section::::Appearance of warmed-over flavor.\n", "BULLET::::- Crema de fruta\n\nBULLET::::- Crème anglaise\n\nBULLET::::- Crème brûlée\n\nBULLET::::- Crème caramel\n\nBULLET::::- Cremeschnitte\n\nBULLET::::- Custard pie\n\nBULLET::::- Custard tart\n\nBULLET::::- Éclair\n\nBULLET::::- Egg tart\n\nBULLET::::- Far Breton\n\nBULLET::::- Flanby\n\nBULLET::::- Flapper pie\n\nBULLET::::- Flaugnarde\n\nBULLET::::- Floating island\n\nBULLET::::- Flourless chocolate cake\n\nBULLET::::- Frangipane\n\nBULLET::::- Frozen custard\n\nBULLET::::- Galaktoboureko\n\nBULLET::::- Karpatka\n\nBULLET::::- Kissel\n\nBULLET::::- Kogel mogel\n\nBULLET::::- Kremówka (napoleonka)\n\nBULLET::::- Krofne\n\nBULLET::::- Leche flan\n\nBULLET::::- Lemon meringue pie\n\nBULLET::::- Maids of honour tart\n\nBULLET::::- Malvern pudding\n\nBULLET::::- Manchester tart\n\nBULLET::::- Mató de Pedralbes\n\nBULLET::::- Melktert\n\nBULLET::::- Miguelitos\n\nBULLET::::- Mille-feuille\n\nBULLET::::- Nanaimo bar\n\nBULLET::::- Natillas\n\nBULLET::::- Neenish tart\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-09292	How do electronics accurately know time?	Things like digital watches and computers have an internal oscillator (quartz chip). When an electric current is applied it vibrates with a known frequency, this frequency will be converted then into hours/minutes/seconds. It can drift over time as not perfectly accurate. Phones and computers using a network time application will get their time from the network. This is provided by atomic clocks which vibrate much faster than quartz and are incredibly accurate.	[ "To reduce the problem, many devices designed to operate on household electricity incorporate a battery backup to maintain the time during power outages and during times of disconnection from the power supply. More recently, some devices incorporate a method for automatically setting the time, such as using a broadcast radio time signal from an atomic clock, getting the time from an existing satellite television or computer connection, or by being set at the factory and then maintaining the time from then on with a quartz movement powered by an internal rechargeable battery.\n", "Electronic time clock machines are manufactured in many designs by companies in China and sold under various brand names in places around the world, with accompanying software to extract the data from a single time clock machine, or several machines, and process the data into reports. In most cases local suppliers offer technical support and in some cases installation services.\n", "Today, GPS navigation radio signals are used to precisely distribute time signals over much of the world. There are many commercially available radio controlled clocks available to accurately indicate the local time, both for business and residential use. Computers often set their time from an Internet atomic clock source. Where this is not available, a locally connected GPS receiver can precisely set the time using one of several software applications.\n\nSection::::Audible and visible time signals.\n", "Section::::Accuracy.:Internal adjustment.\n\nSome premium movement designs self-rate and self-regulate. That is, rather than just counting vibrations, their computer program takes the simple count and scales it using a ratio calculated between an epoch set at the factory, and the most recent time the clock was set. These clocks become more accurate as they age.\n", "BULLET::::- In electric clocks, the power source is either a battery or the AC power line. In clocks that use AC power, a small backup battery is often included to keep the clock running if it is unplugged temporarily from the wall or during a power outage. Battery powered analog wall clocks are available that operate over 15 years between battery changes.\n\nSection::::Operation.:Oscillator.\n\nThe timekeeping element in every modern clock is a harmonic oscillator, a physical object (resonator) that vibrates or oscillates repetitively at a precisely constant frequency.\n", "With current technology, most modern computers keep track of local civil time, as do many other household and personal devices such as VCRs, DVRs, cable TV receivers, PDAs, pagers, cell phones, fax machines, telephone answering machines, cameras, camcorders, central air conditioners, and microwave ovens.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Synchronous clocks\" rely on the 50 or 60 Hz utility frequency of the AC electric power grid as a timing source, by driving the clock gears with a synchronous motor. They essentially count cycles of the power supply. While the actual frequency may vary with loading on the grid, the total number of cycles per 24 hours is maintained rigorously constant, so that these clocks can keep time accurately for long periods, barring power cuts; over months they are more accurate than a typical quartz clock. This was the most common type of clock from the 1930s but has now been mostly replaced by quartz clocks.\n", "BULLET::::- 1949 - Harold Lyons develops an atomic clock based on the quantum mechanical vibrations of the ammonia molecule\n\nBULLET::::- 1982 - The Federation of the Swiss Watch Industry FH is founded by the merger of two previous organisations\n\nBULLET::::- 1983 - Radio-controlled clocks become common place in Europe\n\nBULLET::::- 1983 - First collection of 12 Swatch models went on sale on March 1, in Zurich - the first fashion watch\n\nBULLET::::- 1994 - Radio-controlled clocks become common place in USA\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- History of timekeeping devices\n\nBULLET::::- History of watches\n\nBULLET::::- Time standard\n\nBULLET::::- Horology\n", "GPS Time (GPST) is a continuous time scale and theoretically accurate to about 14 ns. However, most receivers lose accuracy in the interpretation of the signals and are only accurate to 100 ns.\n", "Time measurement has played a crucial role in the understanding of nature from the earliest times. Starting with sun, sand or water driven clocks we are able to use clocks today, based on the most precise caesium resonators.\n\nThe first direct predecessor of a TDC was invented in the year 1942 by Bruno Rossi for the measurement of muon lifetimes. It was designed as a time-to-amplitude-converter, constantly charging a capacitor during the measured time interval. The corresponding voltage is directly proportional to the time interval under examination.\n", "RTCs often have an alternate source of power, so they can continue to keep time while the primary source of power is off or unavailable. This alternate source of power is normally a lithium battery in older systems, but some newer systems use a supercapacitor, because they are rechargeable and can be soldered. The alternate power source can also supply power to battery backed RAM.\n\nSection::::Timing.\n", "Section::::Era of precision timekeeping.:Atomic clock.\n\nAtomic clocks are the most accurate timekeeping devices in practical use today. Accurate to within a few seconds over many thousands of years, they are used to calibrate other clocks and timekeeping instruments.\n", "Most digital computers depend on an internal signal at constant frequency to synchronize processing; this is referred to as a clock signal. (A few research projects are developing CPUs based on asynchronous circuits.) Some equipment, including computers, also maintains time and date for use as required; this is referred to as time-of-day clock, and is distinct from the system clock signal, although possibly based on counting its cycles.\n", "BULLET::::- In digital clocks a series of integrated circuit counters or dividers add the pulses up digitally, using binary logic. Often pushbuttons on the case allow the hour and minute counters to be incremented and decremented to set the time.\n\nSection::::Operation.:Indicator.\n\nThis displays the count of seconds, minutes, hours, etc. in a human readable form.\n\nBULLET::::- The earliest mechanical clocks in the 13th century didn't have a visual indicator and signalled the time audibly by striking bells. Many clocks to this day are striking clocks which strike the hour.\n", "Some older computer designs such as Novas and PDP-8s used a real-time clock that was notable for its high accuracy, simplicity, flexibility and low cost. The computer's power supply produces a pulse at logic voltages for either each half-wave or each zero crossing of AC mains. A wire carries the pulse to an interrupt. The interrupt handler software counts cycles, seconds, etc. In this way, it can provide an entire clock and calendar.\n", "Most digital clocks use electronic mechanisms and LCD, LED, or VFD displays; many other display technologies are used as well (cathode ray tubes, nixie tubes, etc.). After a reset, battery change or power failure, these clocks without a backup battery or capacitor either start counting from 12:00, or stay at 12:00, often with blinking digits indicating that the time needs to be set. Some newer clocks will reset themselves based on radio or Internet time servers that are tuned to national atomic clocks. Since the advent of digital clocks in the 1960s, the use of analog clocks has declined significantly.\n", "Many integrated circuit manufacturers make RTCs, including Epson, Intersil, IDT, Maxim, NXP Semiconductors, Texas Instruments, STMicroelectronics and Ricoh. A common RTC used in single-board computers is the Maxim Integrated DS1307.\n\nThe RTC was introduced to PC compatibles by the IBM PC/AT in 1984, which used a Motorola MC146818 RTC. Later, Dallas Semiconductor made compatible RTCs, which were often used in older personal computers, and are easily found on motherboards because of their distinctive black battery cap and silkscreened logo.\n\nIn newer systems, the RTC is integrated into the southbridge chip.\n", "It was possible to generate relatively long timing intervals by programming timer B to count timer A underflows. If both timers were loaded with the maximum interval value of 65,535, a timing interval of one hour, 11 minutes, 34 seconds would result.\n\nSection::::Time-of-Day (TOD) Clock.\n", "In 2013 Bathys Hawaii introduced their Cesium 133 Atomic Watch the first watch to keep time with an internal atomic clock. Unlike the radio watches described above, which achieve atomic clock accuracy with quartz clock circuits which are corrected by radio time signals received from government atomic clocks, this watch contains a tiny cesium atomic clock on a chip. It is reported to keep time to an accuracy of one second in 1000 years.\n", "Often, one standard is used to fix another. For example, some commercial applications use a rubidium standard periodically corrected by a global positioning system receiver (see GPS disciplined oscillator). This achieves excellent short-term accuracy, with long-term accuracy equal to (and traceable to) the U.S. national time standards.\n", "The clock also usually formed the basis of computers' software timing chains; e.g. it was usually the timer used to switch tasks in an operating system. Counting timers used in modern computers provide similar features at lower precision, and may trace their requirements to this type of clock. (e.g. in the PDP-8, the mains-based clock, model DK8EA, came first, and was later followed by a crystal-based clock, DK8EC.) \n", "Standardized time measurements are made using a clock to count periods of some period changes, which may be either the changes of a natural phenomenon or of an artificial machine.\n", "Consider two radio transmitters located at a distance of from each other, which means the radio signal from one will take 1 millisecond to reach the other. One of these stations is equipped with an electronic clock that periodically sends out a trigger signal. When the signal is sent, this station, the \"master\", sends out its transmission. 1 ms later that signal arrives at the second station, the \"slave\". This station is equipped with a receiver, and when it sees the signal from the master arrive, it triggers its own transmitter. This ensures that the master and slave send out signals precisely 1 ms apart, without the slave needing to have an accurate timer of its own. In practice, a fixed time is added to account for delays in the electronics.\n", "Section::::Calibration.:Tip calibration.\n", "BULLET::::- Computer real time clocks keep time with a quartz crystal, but can be periodically (usually weekly) synchronized over the Internet to atomic clocks (UTC), using the Network Time Protocol (NTP). Sometimes computers on a local area network (LAN) get their time from a single local server which is maintained accurately.\n\nBULLET::::- Radio clocks keep time with a quartz crystal, but are periodically synchronized to time signals transmitted from dedicated standard time radio stations or satellite navigation signals, which are set by atomic clocks.\n\nSection::::Operation.:Controller.\n" ]	[ "All electronics accurately know time." ]	[ "Time kept by computers and digital watches can drift over time thus is not perfectly accurate." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "All electronics accurately know time.", "All electronics accurately know time." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Time kept by computers and digital watches can drift over time thus is not perfectly accurate.", "Time kept by computers and digital watches can drift over time thus is not perfectly accurate." ]
2018-03390	How do doctors amputate limbs?	Kind of depends on the type/level of the amputation. Typically you identify the major nerves and vascular structures and tie them off, followed by cutting all the soft tissue with the bone being last.	[ "BULLET::::- Amputation is used as a legal punishment in a number of countries, among them Saudi Arabia, Yemen, United Arab Emirates, and Iran.\n\nSection::::Surgery.\n\nSection::::Surgery.:Method.\n\nThe first step is ligating the supplying artery and vein, to prevent hemorrhage (bleeding). The muscles are transected, and finally, the bone is sawed through with an oscillating saw. Sharp and rough edges of the bone(s) are filed down, skin and muscle flaps are then transposed over the stump, occasionally with the insertion of elements to attach a prosthesis.\n", "A neuroscientist, Silas Weir Mitchell, specialized in examining amputees and was fascinated with them. He examined patients who complained of pain or discomfort in their phantom arms, legs, and genitals. Here, Kean ties the motor and sensory cortexes in. When something is amputated, the respective part of the brain for controlling that part goes black (figuratively). The now obsolete part of the brain is quickly taken over by neighboring brain areas, such as the face or arms.\n", "Amputation is the removal of a limb by trauma, medical illness, or surgery. As a surgical measure, it is used to control pain or a disease process in the affected limb, such as malignancy or gangrene. In some cases, it is carried out on individuals as a preventative surgery for such problems. A special case is that of congenital amputation, a congenital disorder, where fetal limbs have been cut off by constrictive bands. In some countries, amputation of the hands, feet or other body parts is or was used as a form of punishment for people who committed crimes. Amputation has also been used as a tactic in war and acts of terrorism; it may also occur as a war injury. In some cultures and religions, minor amputations or mutilations are considered a ritual accomplishment.\n", "A study found that the patented method called Circulator Boot achieved significant results in prevention of amputation in patients with diabetes and arterioscleorosis. Another study found it also effective for healing limb ulcers caused by peripheral vascular disease. The boot checks the heart rhythm and compresses the limb between heartbeats; the compression helps cure the wounds in the walls of veins and arteries, and helps to push the blood back to the heart.\n\nFor victims of trauma, advances in microsurgery in the 1970s have made replantations of severed body parts possible.\n", "When done by a person, the person executing the amputation is an amputator. The amputated person is called an amputee.\n", "Section::::Types.\n\nSection::::Types.:Leg.\n\nLower limb amputations can be divided into two broad categories: minor and major amputations. Minor amputations generally refer to the amputation of digits. Major amputations are commonly below-knee- or above-knee amputations Common partial foot amputations include the Chopart, Lisfranc, and ray amputations.\n\nCommon forms of ankle disarticulations include Pyrogoff, Boyd, and Syme amputations. A less common major amputation is the Van Nes rotation, or rotationplasty, i.e. the turning around and reattachment of the foot to allow the ankle joint to take over the function of the knee.\n\nTypes of amputations include:\n", "Hemicorporectomy, or amputation at the waist, and decapitation, or amputation at the neck, are the most radical amputations.\n\nGenital modification and mutilation may involve amputating tissue, although not necessarily as a result of injury or disease.\n\nSection::::Types.:Self-amputation.\n", "Section::::Accident.:After amputation.\n", "In 2008, Mr. David Nott, a British vascular surgeon in the Democratic Republic of the Congo with Médecins Sans Frontières performed a forequarter amputation to save the life of a 16-year-old boy, whose arm had been severed by an injury. He was left with a gangrenous stump and had a few days to live. \n", "Guillotine amputation\n\nIn surgery, a guillotine amputation is an amputation performed without closure of the skin in an urgent setting. Typical indications include catastrophic trauma or infection control in the setting of infected gangrene. A guillotine amputation is typically followed with a more time-consuming, definitive amputation such as an above or below knee amputation.\n", "Another side effect can be heterotopic ossification, especially when a bone injury is combined with a head injury. The brain signals the bone to grow instead of scar tissue to form, and nodules and other growth can interfere with prosthetics and sometimes require further operations. This type of injury has been especially common among soldiers wounded by improvised explosive devices in the Iraq War.\n", "Limb-sparing techniques\n\nLimb-sparing techniques, also known as limb-saving or limb-salvage techniques, are performed in order to give patients an alternative to amputation. There are many different types of limb-sparing techniques, including arthrodesis, arthroplasty, alloprosthetic composite, endoprosthetic reconstruction, prosthetic implants, and rotationplasty.\n\nSection::::Arthrodesis.\n", "Start on clavicle. Remove middle third. Control and divide subsc art and vein. Divide large nerve trunks around these as prox as poses. Then come onto chest wall immed anterior and divide Pec maj origin from remaining clav. Divide pec minor insertion and (very imp) divide origin and get deep to serrates anterior. Your hand sweeps behind scapula. Divide all muscles attached to scapula. Stop muscle bleeding with count suture. Easy! Good luck. Meirion\"\n", "BULLET::::- trans-pelvic disarticulation: amputation of the whole lower limb together with all or part of the pelvis, also known as a hemipelvectomy or hindquarter amputation\n\nSection::::Types.:Arm.\n\nTypes of upper extremity amputations include:\n\nBULLET::::- partial hand amputation\n\nBULLET::::- wrist disarticulation\n\nBULLET::::- trans-radial amputation, commonly referred to as below-elbow or forearm amputation\n\nBULLET::::- elbow disarticulation\n\nBULLET::::- trans-humeral amputation, commonly referred to as above-elbow amputation\n\nBULLET::::- shoulder disarticulation\n\nBULLET::::- forequarter amputation\n\nA variant of the trans-radial amputation is the Krukenberg procedure in which the radius and ulna are used to create a stump capable of a pincer action.\n\nSection::::Types.:Other.\n", "Many of these lower extremity amputations can be prevented through an interdisciplinary approach to treatment involving a variety of advanced therapies and techniques, such as debridement, hyperbaric oxygen treatment therapy, dressing selection, special shoes, and patient education. When wounds persist, a specialized approach is required for healing.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n\nTo heal a wound, the body undertakes a series of actions collectively known as the wound healing process.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n\nA wound may be recorded for follow-up and observing progress of healing with different techniques which include:\n\nBULLET::::- Photographs, with subsequent area quantification using computer processing\n\nBULLET::::- Wound tracings on acetate sheets\n", "Section::::Further reading.:Books.\n\nBULLET::::- Murdoch, George and Wilson, A. Bennett (1998) \"A primer on amputations and artificial limbs\" C. Thomas, Springfield, Illinois,\n\nBULLET::::- Pitkin, Mark R. (2009) \"Biomechanics of Lower Limb Prosthetics\" Springer verlag, New York,\n\nBULLET::::- Seymour, Ron (2002) \"Prosthetics and orthotics: lower limb and spinal\" Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,\n\nBULLET::::- Warren, D. W. (2001) \"James Gillingham: surgical mechanist & manufacturer of artificial limbs\" Somerset Industrial Archaeology Society, Taunton, England,\n\nSection::::Further reading.:Articles.\n", "BULLET::::- Building doors and car doors\n\nBULLET::::- Animal attacks\n\nBULLET::::- Gas cylinder explosions\n\nBULLET::::- Other rare accidents\n\nSection::::Trauma.:Treatment.\n\nThe development of the science of microsurgery over last 40 years has provided several treatment options for a traumatic amputation, depending on the patient's specific trauma and clinical situation:\n\nBULLET::::- 1st choice: Surgical amputation - break - prosthesis\n\nBULLET::::- 2nd choice: Surgical amputation - transplantation of other tissue - plastic reconstruction.\n\nBULLET::::- 3rd choice: Replantation - reconnection - revascularisation of amputated limb, by microscope (after 1969)\n\nBULLET::::- 4th choice: Transplantation of cadaveric hand (after 2000),\n\nSection::::Trauma.:Epidemiology.\n", "Methods in preventing amputation, limb-sparing techniques, depend on the problems that might cause amputations to be necessary. Chronic infections, often caused by diabetes or decubitus ulcers in bedridden patients, are common causes of infections that lead to gangrene, which would then necessitate amputation.\n\nThere are two key challenges: first, many patients have impaired circulation in their extremities, and second, they have difficulty curing infections in limbs with poor vasculation (blood circulation).\n", "It is also important to collect and to preserve those amputates which do not look \"replantable.\" A microsurgeon needs all available parts of human tissue to cover the wound at the stump and thus to prevent further shortening of the stump. In some cases (e.g. forearm) the task of an important joint (e.g. elbow) can be conserved for improved prosthetic success.\n", "Section::::Notable cases.\n\nBULLET::::- Lisa Bufano\n\nBULLET::::- Terry Fox\n\nBULLET::::- Bethany Hamilton\n\nBULLET::::- Oscar Pistorius\n\nBULLET::::- Frida Kahlo\n\nBULLET::::- Amy Purdy\n\nBULLET::::- Pete Gray\n\nBULLET::::- Aimee Mullins\n\nBULLET::::- Rick Allen\n\nBULLET::::- Aron Ralston\n\nBULLET::::- Hugh Herr\n\nBULLET::::- Robert David Hall\n\nBULLET::::- Douglas Bader\n\nBULLET::::- Shaquem Griffin\n\nBULLET::::- Tammy Duckworth\n\nBULLET::::- Hans-Ulrich Rudel\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Adapted automobile\n\nBULLET::::- Prosthesis\n\nBULLET::::- Acrotomophilia\n\nBULLET::::- Robotic prosthesis control\n\nBULLET::::- Flail limb\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Miller, Brian Craig. \"Empty Sleeves: Amputation in the Civil War South\" (University of Georgia Press, 2015). xviii, 257 pp.\n", "Replantation requires microsurgery and must be performed within several hours of the part's amputation, at a center with specialized equipment, surgeons and supporting staff. To improve the chances of a successful replantation, it is necessary to preserve the amputate as soon as possible in a cool (close to freezing, but not at or below freezing) and sterile or clean environment. Parts should be wrapped with moistened gauze and placed inside a clean or sterile bag floating in ice water. Dry ice should not be used as it can result in freezing of the tissue. There are so called sterile \"Amputate-Bags\" available which help to perform a dry, cool and sterile preservation. Parts without major muscles such as fingers can be preserved for as long as 94 hours (typically 10–12 hours), while major muscle containing parts such as arms need to be re-attached and revascularized within 6–8 hours to have a viable limb.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Amputation:\" Similar to, but distinct from, an avulsion. Whereas an avulsion is characterized by a \"flap\" of skin being removed, an amputation is characterized by a complete loss of a limb. This can occur at any point on the extremity, and is usually followed by significant arterial bleeding. However, as serious as this injury is, an amputated limb that is cooled and transported to the hospital can sometimes be surgically reattached.\n\nSection::::Blood vessels affected.\n\nExternal bleeding is generally described in terms of the origin of the blood flow by vessel type. The basic categories of external bleeding are:\n", "Trepanation involves drilling a hole in the skull. The most famous instances of self-trepanation are those of Amanda Feilding, Joey Mellen (Feilding's domestic partner), and Bart Huges (who influenced Mellen and Feilding).\n\nSection::::Amputation of trapped limbs.\n\nBULLET::::- In 1993, Donald Wyman amputated his leg with his pocketknife after it was pinned by a tree.\n", "\"The first thing I realised when I saw J was that he was dying. All that remained of this 16-year-old's arm was six inches of skin; the rest had been shot off when he became caught in gunfire between the Congolese army and rebel forces. A further amputation had left him open to infection, and now he was facing the prospect of an awful, agonising death over a period of several days – hallucinations, dehydration, his kidneys packing up, his breathing going and then, finally, his heart.\"\n", "The most popular method of treatment for congenital amputation is having the child be fit for a prosthesis which can lead to normal development, so the muscles don't atrophy. If there is congenital amputation of the fingers, plastic surgery can be performed by using the big toe or second toes in place of the missing fingers of the hand.\n\nIn rare cases of amniotic banding syndrome, if diagnosed \"in utero\", fetal surgery may be considered to save a limb which is in danger of amputation.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-08527	Did the US actually plan to detonate a bomb on the Moon?	It depends on what you mean by "plan"; the space programs of the 50's and 60's had tons of crazy ideas proposed, and almost all of them got a fully-fledged action plan of how you would do these things, including test plans and whatnot. But most of them were nixed before there were any concrete "we will do this by X date" commitments made. I don't know of any specific plans to detonate a bomb on the moon, but IMO the craziest bit of almost-happened space tech is Project Orion or the Orion Drive, which planned to detonate nuclear bombs under/behind the spacecraft and use a big metal plate to "ride" the shockwave of the atomic explosion to propel the craft upwards. So in theory, if Project Orion made it to the moon, they'd be detonating a bunch of nukes on the moon to make it lift back off.	[ "A similar idea had been put forward by Edward Teller, the \"father of the H-bomb\", who, in February 1957, proposed the detonation of nuclear devices both on and some distance from the lunar surface to analyze the effects of the explosion.\n\nSection::::Project.:Research.\n", "Section::::Consequences.\n\nThe signing of the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in 1963 and the Outer Space Treaty in 1967 prevented future exploration of the concept of detonating a nuclear device on the Moon. By this time both the United States and the Soviet Union had performed several high-altitude nuclear explosions, including those of Operation Hardtack I, Operation Argus, Operation Dominic I and II, and The K Project.\n", "BULLET::::- In the \"Teen Titans Go!\" episode \"Starfire the Terrible,\" Starfire says she has rigged the Moon to explode, which Cyborg dismisses. Cut to the Moon covered in dynamite seconds before it explodes, shocking the other Titans Starfire laughs/gargles before she really does down the milk carton, telling them that she only did it because Robin loved the Moon so much.\n", "BULLET::::- Active Lunar Seismic Experiment: Stanford University, R. L. Kovach; United States Geological Survey, J. S. Watkins.\n\nBULLET::::- SNAP-27 isotopic power system: Sandia National Laboratories, Jim Leonard\n", "Section::::Project.\n\nIn 1949, the Armour Research Foundation (ARF), based at the Illinois Institute of Technology, began studying the effects of nuclear explosions on the environment. These studies continued until 1962. In May 1958, ARF began covertly researching the potential consequences of an nuclear explosion on the Moon. The main objective of the program, which ran under the auspices of the United States Air Force, which had initially proposed it, was to cause a nuclear explosion that would be visible from Earth. It was hoped that such a display would boost the morale of the American people.\n", "Project A119, also known as A Study of Lunar Research Flights, was a top-secret plan developed in 1958 by the United States Air Force. The aim of the project was to detonate a nuclear bomb on the Moon, which would help in answering some of the mysteries in planetary astronomy and astrogeology. If the explosive device detonated on the surface, not in a lunar crater, the flash of explosive light would have been faintly visible to people on Earth with their naked eye, a show of force resulting in a possible boosting of domestic morale in the capabilities of the United States, a boost that was needed after the Soviet Union took an early lead in the Space Race and was also working on a similar project.\n", "BULLET::::- Citing U.S. Congressman Chet Holifield of California as their source, \"Miami News\" columnists Robert S. Allen and Paul Scott, broke the frightening story that the Soviet Union planned to explode a nuclear warhead on the Moon. Firing nuclear-tipped rockets at Earth's satellite in 1961 and 1962, according to the story, the Soviets planned to use the explosions on the lunar surface for scientific purposes, with the goal of landing a Soviet cosmonaut on the Moon by 1965.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Sonic Adventure 2\" - Dr. Eggman destroyed half the Moon with the ARK's Eclipse Cannon.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Strikers 1945\" - In the original Japanese release of the game, players are rocketed towards the enemy's real headquarters situated on the Moon's surface for the last two levels.\n", "By 1969, the United States had achieved a considerable victory in the Space Race after the success of the Apollo 11 mission. In December that year, Apollo scientist Gary Latham suggested detonating a \"smallish\" nuclear device on the Moon in order to facilitate research into its geologic make-up. The idea was dismissed, as it would interfere with plans to measure the Moon's natural background radiation.\n", "BULLET::::- After Apollo 12 placed the second of several seismometers on the Moon, the jettisoned LM ascent stages on Apollo 12 and later missions were deliberately crashed on the Moon at known locations to induce vibrations in the Moon's structure. The only exceptions to this were the Apollo 13 LM which burned up in the Earth's atmosphere, and Apollo 16, where a loss of attitude control after jettison prevented making a targeted impact.\n\nBULLET::::- As another active seismic experiment, the S-IVBs on Apollo 13 and subsequent missions were deliberately crashed on the Moon instead of being sent to solar orbit.\n", "Scientists initially considered using a hydrogen bomb for the project, but the United States Air Force vetoed this idea due to the weight of such a device, as it would be too heavy to be propelled by the missile which would have been used. It was then decided to use a W25 warhead, a small, lightweight warhead with a relatively low 1.7 kiloton yield. By contrast, the Little Boy bomb dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima in 1945 had a yield of 13–18 kilotons. The W25 would be carried by a rocket toward the dark side of the Moon where it would detonate on impact. The dust cloud resulting from the explosion would be lit by the Sun and therefore visible from Earth. According to Reiffel, the Air Force's progress in the development of intercontinental ballistic missiles would have made such a launch feasible by 1959.\n", "Section::::July 22, 1967 (Saturday).\n\nBULLET::::- An 7.1 magnitude earthquake struck Turkey at 4:57 in the afternoon local time, with an epicenter at the village of Mudurnu\n\nBULLET::::- Explorer 35, launched by the United States to study and measure \"the shadowing effect of the moon on solar electrons\", entered lunar orbit and began sending back data. Although its instruments would be switched off by 1973, Explorer 35 would still be orbiting the Moon half a century later.\n", "BULLET::::- 1961 – The United States Air Forces begins Operation Looking Glass, and over the next 30 years, a \"Doomsday Plane\" is always in the air, with the capability of taking direct control of the United States' bombers and missiles in the event of the destruction of the SAC's command post.\n\nBULLET::::- 1966 – The Soviet Union's Luna 9 becomes the first spacecraft to make a soft landing on the Moon, and the first spacecraft to take pictures from the surface of the Moon.\n", "At the time of the project's conception, newspapers were reporting a rumor that the Soviet Union was planning to detonate a hydrogen bomb on the Moon. According to press reports in late 1957, an anonymous source had divulged to a United States Secret Service agent that the Soviets planned to commemorate the anniversary of the October Revolution by causing a nuclear explosion on the Moon to coincide with a lunar eclipse on 7 November. News reports of the rumored launch included mention of targeting the dark side of the terminator—Project A119 would also consider this boundary as the target for an explosion. It was also reported that a failure to hit the Moon would likely result in the missile returning to Earth.\n", "Dr. David Lowry, a nuclear historian from the United Kingdom, has called the project's proposals \"obscene\", adding: \"had they gone ahead, we would never have had the romantic image of Neil Armstrong taking 'one giant leap for mankind.\n\nSection::::Explosions in lunar science.\n\nA vacuum stable chemical explosive filled the \"seismic source\" mortar ammunition canisters used as part of the Apollo Lunar Active Seismic Experiments. These explosive experiments investigated the composition of the Lunar mantle during the Apollo Program, analogous to the exploration geophysics practice of mineral prospecting with chemical explosives in \"deep seismic sounding\" reflection seismology.\n", "Project A119, proposed in the 1960s, which as Apollo scientist Gary Latham explained, would have been the detonating of a \"smallish\" nuclear device on the Moon in order to facilitate research into its geologic make-up. Analogous in concept to the comparatively low yield explosion created by the water prospecting (LCROSS) Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite mission, which launched in 2009 and released the \"Centaur\" kinetic energy impactor, an impactor with a mass of 2,305 kg (5,081 lb), and an impact velocity of about , releasing the kinetic energy equivalent of detonating approximately 2 tons of TNT (8.86 GJ).\n\nSection::::Propulsion use.\n", "The scientific objectives of Project A119 would have been the detonating of a \"smallish\" nuclear device (1.7+ kilotons of TNT) on the Moon in order to facilitate research into its geologic make-up\". This, in principle, can be attempted by non-nuclear means, for example, using the much lower impact energy released by the water prospecting Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS) mission, which was launched in 2009 and released the \"Centaur\" kinetic energy impactor, with a mass of and an impact velocity of about .\n", "BULLET::::- Apollo 13's S-IVB third stage was the first to be purposely crashed into the lunar surface, as an \"active seismic\" experiment which measured its impact with a seismometer left on the lunar surface by the crew of Apollo 12. (The S-IVBs from the previous four lunar missions were sent into solar orbit by ground control after use.)\n\nSection::::Mission notes.:\"Towing fees\".\n", "Former United States Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara stated that several unspecified officials (\"Chiefs\") within The Pentagon were opposed to a Nuclear Test Ban Treaty between the United States and the Soviet Union, on the premise that the Soviets would continue nuclear weapons testing on the far side of the Moon, far from the observations of American observers. McNamara considered this premise \"absurd\" and that \"[they were] out of [their] minds,\" but he believed that it was an example of the state of mind of some Pentagon officials during the Cold War. Ironically, it was later revealed that the Pentagon had their own plan to detonate a nuclear weapon on the Moon as part of the experiment Project A119. The project was created not only to help in answering some of the mysteries in planetary astronomy and astrogeology, but also as a show of force intended to boost domestic confidence in the astro-capabilities of the United States, a boost that was thought to be needed after the Soviet Union took an early lead in the Space Race and who were thought by some to be working on a similar project.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Smart 1\" — European Lunar orbital (2003)\n\nBULLET::::- \"SELENE\" — Japanese lunar orbiter (2007)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chang'e 1\" — Chinese lunar orbiter (2007)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chandrayaan 1\" — Indian lunar orbiter (2008)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter\" — US Lunar orbiter (2009)\n\nBULLET::::- \"LCROSS\" — US Lunar hard-landing probe (2009)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chang'e 2\" — Chinese lunar orbiter (2010)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory\" — US Lunar orbiters (2011)\n\nSection::::Examples.:Mars probes.\n\nBULLET::::- Zond program — failed USSR flyby probe\n\nBULLET::::- Mars probe program — USSR orbiters and landers\n\nBULLET::::- Viking program — two NASA orbiters and landers (1974)\n", "Apollo 11 had left a seismometer on the Moon, but the solar-powered unit did not survive its first two-week-long lunar night. The Apollo 12 astronauts also left one as part of its ALSEP installation of nuclear-powered scientific instruments. At the First Lunar Science Conference in January 1970, it was revealed that while there were almost daily impacts of objects onto the Moon, none had been as large as the impact of Apollo 12's LM, \"Intrepid\", which had been deorbited after being jettisoned. In the hope larger impacts would allow scientists on Earth to probe the structure of the Moon's crust, it was decided that beginning with Apollo 13, the launch vehicle's S-IVB stage would be crashed into the Moon instead of being sent into solar orbit as in earlier missions. \n", "Section::::Specification.\n", "Section::::Specification.\n", "BULLET::::- Stepped onto Moon: 14:54 UTC\n\nBULLET::::- LM ingress: 19:22 UTC\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mitchell\" – EVA 1\n\nBULLET::::- Stepped onto Moon: 14:58 UTC\n\nBULLET::::- LM ingress: 19:18 UTC\n\nBULLET::::- End: February 5, 19:30:50 UTC\n\nBULLET::::- Duration: 4 hours, 47 minutes, 50 seconds\n\nBULLET::::- EVA 2\n\nBULLET::::- Start: February 6, 1971, 08:11:15 UTC\n\nBULLET::::- \"Shepard \" – EVA 2\n\nBULLET::::- Stepped onto Moon: 08:16 UTC\n\nBULLET::::- LM ingress: 12:38 UTC\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mitchell\" – EVA 2\n\nBULLET::::- Stepped onto Moon: 08:23 UTC\n\nBULLET::::- LM ingress: 12:28 UTC\n\nBULLET::::- End: February 6, 12:45:56 UTC\n\nBULLET::::- Duration: 4 hours, 34 minutes, 41 seconds\n\nSection::::Mission highlights.\n", "This peace-time testing of the bomb was far more extensive than could be carried out prior to its wartime deployment. A total of 76 Disneys were dropped on Heligoland, loaded with a variety of explosive charges, composed of shellite, RDX, TNT or Picratol. Thirty-four Disneys were dropped on Valentin, 12 with the rockets inactivated and 22 with the rockets firing. A further four had been previously dropped on a bomb range at Orford Ness to test their accuracy, and to make sure none would land outside the safety exclusion zone that was set up around Valentin during the trials.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-07909	Why are movies filmed in much wider aspect ratios than TV?	Part of the answer to this is the existence of TV. Films used to be shot in much more square aspect ratios, but when TV hit the scene, the studios wanted to come up with ways to differentiate their product from what you could just stay home and watch on TV. Because television sets were small (and the tube technology meant they needed to have a relatively square aspect ratio), studios began to experiment with wider aspect ratios, huge screens, color, and projects that emphasized all of the above. You couldn't see anything like Lawrence of Arabia or The Sound Of Music on TV. So the idea was that these huge spectacles would pull people away from their living rooms and get them out to the theaters. After awhile, people got used to the widescreen effect and basically all films switched over to that format.	[ "By 1932, the Great Depression had forced studios to cut back on needless expense and it was not until 1953 that wider aspect ratios were again used in an attempt to stop the fall in attendance due, partially, to the emergence of television in the U.S. However, a few producers and directors, among them Alfred Hitchcock, have been reluctant to use the anamorphic widescreen size featured in such formats as Cinemascope. Hitchcock alternatively used VistaVision, a non-anamorphic widescreen process developed by Paramount Pictures and Technicolor which could be adjusted to present various flat aspect ratios.\n\nSection::::Film.:Types.\n", "In the early 1950s, movie studios moved towards widescreen aspect ratios such as CinemaScope in an effort to distance their product from television. Although this was initially just a gimmick, widescreen is still the format of choice today and 4:3 aspect ratio movies are rare.\n", "A common compromise is to shoot or create material at an aspect ratio of 14:9, and to lose some image at each side for 4:3 presentation, and some image at top and bottom for 16:9 presentation. In recent years, the cinematographic process known as Super 35 (championed by James Cameron) has been used to film a number of major movies such as \"Titanic\", \"Legally Blonde\", \"Austin Powers\", and \"Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon\". This process results in a camera-negative which can then be used to create both wide-screen theatrical prints, and standard \"full screen\" releases for television/VHS/DVD which avoid the need for either \"letterboxing\" or the severe loss of information caused by conventional \"pan-and-scan\" cropping.\n", "While the CGI shots were mastered in a 16:9 aspect ratio for future applications, they were initially broadcast in the U.S. and Canada – along with the live-action footage – in a 4:3 aspect ratio to respect the show's original composition. If the producers were to choose to reformat the entire show for the 16:9 ratio, live-action footage would be cropped, significantly reducing the height of the original image.\n", "Section::::Problems in film and television.\n", "Aware of Fox's upcoming CinemaScope productions, Paramount introduced this technique in March's release of \"Shane\" with the 1.66:1 aspect ratio, although the film was not shot with this ratio originally in mind. Universal-International followed suit in May with a 1.85:1 aspect ratio for \"Thunder Bay\". By summer of 1953, Paramount, Universal, MGM, Columbia, and even Fox's B-unit contractors, under the banner of \"Panoramic Productions\" had switched from filming flat shows in a 1.37:1 format, and used variable flat wide-screen aspect ratios in their filming, which would become the standard of that time.\n", "However, films shot at aspect ratios of 2.20:1, 2.35:1, 2.39:1, 2.55:1, and especially 2.76:1 (\"Ben-Hur\" for example) might still be problematic when displayed on televisions of any type. But when the DVD is \"anamorphically enhanced for widescreen\", or the film is telecast on a high-definition channel seen on a widescreen TV, the black spaces are smaller, and the effect is still much like watching a film on a theatrical wide screen. Though 16:9 (and occasionally 16:10, mostly for computers and tablets) remain standard as of 2018, wider-screen consumer TVs in 21:9 have been released to the market by multiple brands.\n", "Section::::Current video standards.:1.85:1.\n\nWhen cinema attendance dropped, Hollywood created widescreen aspect ratios in order to differentiate the film industry from TV, with one of the most common being the 1.85:1 ratio.\n\nSection::::Current video standards.:2:1.\n\nThe 2:1 aspect ratio was first used in the 1950s for the RKO Superscope format.\n", "There were various extended TV versions each broadcast in various countries. Most of these are in pan and scan, as they were made in the 1980s, when films were not letterboxed to preserve the theatrical aspect ratio on old TVs.\n", "Section::::Television.\n\nThe original screen ratio for television broadcasts was 4:3 (1.33:1). This was the same aspect ratio as most cinema screens and films at the time television was first sold commercially. Earlier 4:3 films such as \"Gone With The Wind\" have always been displayed on television in full frame, though color television was invented later.\n", "BULLET::::- 2.76:1 (~11:4): Ultra Panavision 70/MGM Camera 65 (65 mm with 1.25× anamorphic squeeze). Used only on a handful of films between 1957 and 1966 and two films in the 2010s, for some sequences of \"How the West Was Won\" (1962) with a slight crop when converted to three strip Cinerama, and films such as \"It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World\" (1963) and \"Ben-Hur\" (1959). Quentin Tarantino used it for The Hateful Eight (2015), Gareth Edwards for Rogue One (2016), Kirill Serebrennikov for Summer (2018).\n", "When preparing a film that was originally intended to be displayed in widescreen for television broadcast the material was often edited with the sides truncated, using techniques such as Center cut or pan and scan. Sometimes, in the case of Super 35, the full film negative was shown unmasked on TV (i.e., with the hard matte removed), however this causes the 4:3 image not to be what the director intended the audience to see—and sometimes boom mikes, edited out of the shot when the picture is matted, can be visible. Modern widescreen televisions feature a 16:9 (and occasionally 16:10) aspect ratio, allowing them to display a 16:9 widescreen picture without letterboxing (or with a minimal letterbox in the case of 16:10).\n", "Concerns about aspect ratios are a major issue in filmmaking. Rather than cropping, the cinematographer usually uses mattes to increase the latitude for alternative aspect ratios in projection and broadcast. Anamorphic optics (such as Panavision lenses) produce a full-frame, horizontally compressed image from which broadcasters and projectionists can matte a number of alternative aspect ratios without cropping relevant image detail. Without this, widescreen reproduction, especially for television broadcasting, is dependent upon a variety of soft matting techniques such as letterboxing, which involves varying degrees of image cropping (see figures 2, 3 and 4).\n", "For the first several decades of television broadcasting, sets displayed images with a 4:3 aspect ratio in which the width is 1.33 times the height—similar to most theatrical films prior to 1960. This was fine for pre-1953 films such as \"The Wizard of Oz\" or \"Casablanca\". Meanwhile, in order to compete with television and lure audiences away from their sets, producers of theatrical motion pictures began to use \"widescreen\" formats such as CinemaScope and Todd-AO in the early to mid-1950s, which enable more panoramic vistas and present other compositional opportunities. Films with these formats might be twice as wide as a TV screen when televised. To present a widescreen movie on such a television requires one of two techniques to accommodate this difference: One is \"letterboxing\", which preserves the original theatrical aspect ratio, but is not as tall as a standard television screen, leaving black bars at the top and bottom of the screen; the other technique is to \"pan and scan\", filling the full height of the screen, but cropping it horizontally. Pan and scan cuts out as much as half of the image.\n", "Currently, with the advent of widescreen HDTV units in almost every household, very few films are being offered in 4:3 and pan-and-scan releases today, except for older material shot in 4:3 only such as TV shows, made for TV productions, and pre-1953 films. Some titles that were previously released in full screen only on VHS and DVD are now being issued in their original widescreen ratio on recent DVDs and Blu-rays.\n\nSection::::On television.\n", "A letterboxed compromise ratio was often broadcast in analogue transmissions in European countries making the transition from 4:3 to 16:9. In addition, recent years have seen an increase of \"fake\" letterbox mattes on television to give the impression of a cinema film, often seen in adverts, trailers or television programmes such as \"Top Gear\".\n\nCurrent high-definition television (HDTV) systems use video displays with a wider aspect ratio than older television sets, making it easier to accurately display widescreen films. In addition to films produced for the cinema, some television programming is produced in high definition and therefore widescreen.\n", "For years, mainstream cinematographers were limited to using the Academy ratio, but in the 1950s, thanks to the popularity of Cinerama, widescreen ratios were introduced in an effort to pull audiences back into the theater and away from their home television sets. These new widescreen formats provided cinematographers a wider frame within which to compose their images.\n", "Full Screen aspect ratios in standard television has been in use since the invention of moving picture cameras. Older computer monitors employed the same aspect ratio. 4:3 was the aspect ratio used for 35 mm films in the silent era. It is also very close to the 1.375:1 Academy ratio, defined by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences as a standard after the advent of optical sound-on-film. By having TV match this aspect ratio, movies originally photographed on 35 mm film could be satisfactorily viewed on TV in the early days of the medium (i.e. the 1940s and the 1950s). When cinema attendance dropped, Hollywood created widescreen aspect ratios (such as the 1.85:1 ratio mentioned earlier) in order to differentiate the film industry from TV. However, since the start of the 21st century broadcasters worldwide are phasing out the 4:3 standard entirely, as manufacturers started to favor the 16:9/16:10 aspect ratio of all modern high-definition television sets, broadcast cameras and computer monitors.\n", "Other studios followed suit with aspect ratios of 1.75:1 up to 2:1. For a time, these various ratios were used by different studios in different productions, but by 1956, the aspect ratio of 1.85:1 became the \"standard\" US format. These \"flat\" films are photographed with the full Academy frame, but are matted (most often with a mask in the theater projector, not in the camera) to obtain the \"wide\" aspect ratio. The standard, in some European countries, became 1.66:1 instead of 1.85:1, although some productions with pre-determined American distributors composed for the latter to appeal to US markets.\n", "In the 1990s (before Blu-ray Disc or HDTV), when so-called televisions offered a wider 16:9 aspect ratio (1.78 times the height instead of 1.33), they allowed films made at 1.66:1 and 1.85:1 to fill most or all of the screen, with only small letterboxing or cropping required. DVD packaging began to use the expression, \"16:9 – Enhanced for Widescreen TVs.\"\n", "Many different proprietary photographic systems were invented and utilized in the 1950s to create widescreen movies, but one dominated film: the anamorphic process, which optically squeezes the image to photograph twice the horizontal area to the same size vertical as standard \"spherical\" lenses. The first commonly used anamorphic format was CinemaScope, which used a 2.35 aspect ratio, although it was originally 2.55. CinemaScope was used from 1953 to 1967, but due to technical flaws in the design and its ownership by Fox, several third-party companies, led by Panavision's technical improvements in the 1950s, dominated the anamorphic cine lens market. Changes to SMPTE projection standards altered the projected ratio from 2.35 to 2.39 in 1970, although this did not change anything regarding the photographic anamorphic standards; all changes in respect to the aspect ratio of anamorphic 35 mm photography are specific to camera or projector gate sizes, not the optical system. After the \"widescreen wars\" of the 1950s, the motion-picture industry settled into 1.85 as a standard for theatrical projection in the United States and the United Kingdom. This is a cropped version of 1.37. Europe and Asia opted for 1.66 at first, although 1.85 has largely permeated these markets in recent decades. Certain \"epic\" or adventure movies utilized the anamorphic 2.39 (often incorrectly denoted '2.40')\n", "Most televisions were built with an aspect ratio of 4:3 until the early 2010s, when widescreen TVs with 16:9 displays became the standard. This aspect ratio was chosen as the geometric mean between 4:3 and 2.35:1, an average of the various aspect ratios used in film. While 16:9 is well-suited for modern HDTV broadcasts, older 4:3 video has to be either padded with bars on the left and right side (pillarboxed), cropped or stretched, while movies shot with wider aspect ratios are usually letterboxed, with black bars at the top and bottom.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Computer monitor\n\nBULLET::::- Display resolution\n", "As a response, Paramount Pictures devised their own system the following month to augment their 3-D process known as Paravision. This process utilized a screen size that yielded an aspect ratio of 5 units wide by 3 units high, or 1.66:1. By using a different sized aperture plate and wider lens, a normal Academy ratio film could be soft matted to this or any other aspect ratio. Shortly thereafter, it was announced that all of their productions would be shot in this ratio.\n", "Some film directors and enthusiasts disapprove of pan and scan cropping, because it can remove up to 45% of the original image on 2.35:1 films or up to 53% on earlier 2.55:1 presentations, changing the director or cinematographer's original vision and intentions. The most extreme examples remove up to 75% of the original picture on such aspect ratios as 2.76:1 in epics such as \"Ben-Hur\" and \"It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World\". \"Lawrence of Arabia\" is an exception to the 75% rule, because its aspect ratio is 2.20:1.\n", "20th Century Fox insisted that \"The Innocents\" be shot in CinemaScope, while Clayton wanted to shoot it in standard academy ratio, feeling that he would be unable to make use of the additional space on both sides of the frame. Cinematographer Freddie Francis insisted that he could work with the CinemaScope aspect ratio, having shot \"Sons and Lovers\" (1960) for director Jack Cardiff in the format. Francis won the Oscar for Best Cinematographer for his work on the earlier film. He used colour filters and used the lighting rig to create darkness consuming everything at the edge of the frame. As the shoot progressed, Clayton found uses for the edges of the screen and began composing for the CinemaScope format. Francis used deep focus and narrowly aimed the lighting towards the centre of the screen. It was so bright on set in that area that actress Kerr arrived to the set wearing sunglasses one day. Francis and Clayton framed the film in an unusually bold style, with characters prominent at the edge of the frame and their faces at the centre in profile in some sequences, which, again, created both a sense of intimacy and unease, based on the lack of balance in the image. For many of the interior night scenes, Francis painted the sides of the lenses with black paint to allow for a more intense, \"elegiac\" focus, and used candles custom-made with four to five wicks twined together to produce more light.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00639	What does it mean when a recipe or something of that nature calls for “1 part ____ and 3 parts______”?	However much you use of the one part ingredient, you use three times that amount for the three parts one. Example, one part sugar, three parts flour is one cup sugar and three cups of flour. Or two and six, etc	[ "Process refers to a \"set of activities that results in delivery of the product benefits\". A process could be a sequential order of tasks that an employee undertakes as a part of their job. It can represent sequential steps taken by a number of various employees while attempting to complete a task. Some people are responsible for managing multiple processes at once. For example, a restaurant manager should monitor the performance of employees, ensuring that processes are followed. They are also expected to supervise while customers are promptly greeted, seated, fed, and led out so that the next customer can begin this process.\n", "In most patent laws, unity of invention is a formal administrative requirement that must be met by a patent application to become a granted patent. Basically, a patent application can relate only to one invention or a group of closely related inventions. The purpose of this requirement is administrative, as well as financial. That is, the requirement serves to preclude the option of filing one patent application for several inventions, while paying only one set of fees (filing fee, search fee, examination fee, renewal fees, and so on). Unity of invention also makes the classification of patent documents easier.\n", "The origins of the 4 Ps can be traced to the late 1940s. The first known mention of a mix has been attributed to a Professor of Marketing at Harvard University, Prof. James Culliton. In 1948, Culliton published an article entitled, \"The Management of Marketing Costs\" in which Culliton describes marketers as 'mixers of ingredients'. Some years later, Culliton's colleague, Professor Neil Borden, published a retrospective article detailing the early history of the marketing mix in which he claims that he was inspired by Culliton's idea of 'mixers', and credits himself with popularising the concept of the 'marketing mix'. According to Borden's account, he used the term, 'marketing mix' consistently from the late 1940s. For instance, he is known to have used the term 'marketing mix' in his presidential address given to the American Marketing Association in 1953.\n", "Although the idea of marketers as 'mixers of ingredients' caught on, marketers could not reach any real consensus about what elements should be included in the mix until the 1960s. The 4 Ps, in its modern form, was first proposed in 1960 by E. Jerome McCarthy; who presented them within a managerial approach that covered analysis, consumer behavior, market research, market segmentation, and planning. Phillip Kotler, popularised this approach and helped spread the 4 Ps model. McCarthy's 4 Ps have been widely adopted by both marketing academics and practitioners.\n", "Half and half\n\nHalf and half is the name of various beverages and foods made of an equal-parts mixture of two substances, including dairy products, alcoholic beverages, and soft drinks.\n\nSection::::Alcoholic beverages.\n\nSection::::Alcoholic beverages.:Belgium.\n\nIn some cafés in Brussels, a \"half en half\", Dutch for \"half and half\", is a mixture of white wine and champagne.\" Originally, it was a mixture of two different typical beer types from Brussels: 50% lambic and 50% faro.\"\n\nSection::::Alcoholic beverages.:Denmark.\n", "In marketing, a whole product is a generic product (or core product) augmented by everything that is needed for the customer to have a compelling reason to buy. The core product is the tangible product that the customer experiences. The whole product typically augments the core product with additional elements required for the product to have compelling value to a customer. For example, if a personal computer is the core product, then whole product would include software applications, training classes, peripheral devices (mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.), and internet service. Without these additional product components, the core product would not be very useful.\n", "While the laws governing this principle are complex, some of its basic rules are straightforward. It pertains only to foods eaten in a combined form. One who has a cookie and tea must make two blessings, one on each of the items. It is when one is eating something akin to apple pie, beef stew or stuffed cabbage, which are foods consisting of multiple parts (crust and pie, beef and potatoes or meat and cabbage, respectively) that the principle of \"ikar v'tafel\" is applied (Aruch Hashulchan\" 212:1, 2).\n", "Slogans, film titles and a variety of other things have been structured in threes, a tradition that grew out of oral storytelling. Examples include the Three Little Pigs, Three Billy Goats Gruff, and the Three Musketeers. Similarly, adjectives are often grouped in threes to emphasize an idea.\n\nThe Latin phrase \"\"omne trium perfectum\"\" (everything that comes in threes is perfect, or, every set of three is complete) conveys the same idea as the rule of three.\n\nSection::::Meaning.\n", "A milkette, (also referred to as dairy milker, creamette or creamers) is a single serving of milk (2%) or cream (10% and 18%) in or containers used for coffee and tea. They are a common condiment at coffee shops, cafeterias and on airlines in Canada and the United States.\n", "A hendiatris is a figure of speech where three successive words are used to express a single central idea. As a slogan or motto, this is known as a tripartite motto.\n\nSection::::Slogans and catchphrases.\n", "In some cases, the doubling (or even tripling) of constituent parts in these meristic constructions arose as a result of the transition of legal discourse from Latin to French, and then from French to English. During such periods, key terms were paired with synonyms from multiple languages in an attempt to prevent ambiguity and ensure hermeneutic consistency.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Synecdoche, referring to a whole by the name of one of its parts (or vice versa).\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "Despite its connection to an art format, the term is sometimes used more generally to connote anything with three parts, particularly if they are integrated into a single unit.\n\nSection::::In art.\n", "In comedy, it is also called a \"comic triple\", and is one of the many comedic devices regularly used by humorists, writers, and comedians. The third element of the triple is often used to create an effect of surprise with the audience, and is frequently the punch line of the joke itself. For instance, jokes might feature three stereotyped individuals—such as an Englishman, an Irishman and a Scotsman; or a blonde, a brunette, and a redhead—where the surprise or punch line of the joke comes from the third character.\n", "The product is essentially what the student produces at the end of the lesson to demonstrate the mastery of the content: tests, evaluations, projects, reports, or other activities. Based on students' skill levels and educational standards, teachers may assign students to complete activities that demonstrate mastery of an educational concept (writing a report), or in a method the student prefers (composing an original song about the content, or building a 3-dimensional object that explains mastery of concepts in the lesson or unit). The product is an integral component of the differentiated model, as preparation of the assessments determines both the ‘what' and ‘how' of instruction delivery.\n", "It is common in the engineering of parts, subassemblies, and higher assemblies to treat the definition of a certain part as a \"very\" well-defined concept, with every last detail controlled by the engineering drawing or its accompanying TDP documents. This is necessary because of the separation of concerns that often exists in production, in which the maker of each part (whether an in-house department or a vendor) does not have all the information needed to decide whether any particular small variation is acceptable or not (that is, \"whether the part will still work\" or \"whether it will still fit into the assembly\" interchangeably). The sizes of fillets and edge breaks are common examples of such details where production staff must say, \"it may easily be trivial, but it could possibly matter, and we're not the ones who can tell which is true in this case\".\n", "Section::::History.\n\nThe term marketing mix was developed by Neil Borden who first started using the phrase in 1949. “An executive is a mixer of ingredients, who sometimes follows a recipe as he goes along, sometimes adapts a recipe to the ingredients immediately available, and sometimes experiments with or invents ingredients no one else has tried.\" (Culliton, J. 1948)\n", "\"Pola pola\" (\"half and half\") is a slang term for the drink spritzer, made out of equal parts of white wine or rosé wine and carbonated water. Different ratios of wine and carbonated water are named with various slang terms, depending on the region. \"Pola pola\" is also known as \"litra i voda\" (one bottle of wine and one bottle of carbonated water), as well as \"Litar-litar\" (as in 1 liter of wine, 1 liter of water) and \"Gemišt\".\n\nSection::::Alcoholic beverages.:Switzerland.\n", "A \"heterogeneous mixture\" is a mixture of two or more chemical substances (elements or compounds). Examples are: mixtures of sand and water or sand and iron filings, a conglomerate rock, water and oil, a portion salad, trail mix, and concrete (not cement). A mixture of powdered silver metal and powdered gold metal would represent a heterogeneous mixture of two elements.\n", "BULLET::::- In Shakespeare's \"Julius Caesar\", Mark Antony starts his speech by using the rule of three: Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears, to which the commoners start to listen.\n\nSection::::Rhetoric and public speaking.\n\nThe use of a series of three elements is also a well-known feature of public oratory. Max Atkinson, in his book on oratory entitled \"Our Masters' Voices\", gives interesting examples of how public speakers use three-part phrases to generate what he calls 'claptraps', evoking audience applause.\n", "The concept of a Core Product originates from Philip Kotler, in his 1967 book - \"Marketing Management: Analysis, Planning and Control\". It forms the first level of the concept of \"Three Levels of a Product\".\n", "MECE principle\n\nThe MECE principle, pronounced to rhyme with \"geese\", is a grouping principle for separating a set of items into subsets that are mutually exclusive (ME) and collectively exhaustive (CE). It was developed in the late 1960s by Barbara Minto at McKinsey & Company and underlies her Minto Pyramid Principle, but is based on ideas going back as far as Aristotle. \n", "In the German-speaking part of Switzerland, especially in the north-eastern part, a mixture of apple and orange juice is known as \"halb halb\" (\"half half\", sometimes written 1+1).\n\nSection::::Dairy product.\n\n\"Half and half\" or \"Half-and-half\" is a mixture of milk and cream, which is often used in coffee. In the United States, half and half is a common liquid product produced by dairy companies in premixed form. It was invented by William A. Boutwell of Boutwell Dairy in Lake Worth Beach, Florida, which distributed the blend regionally between 1927 and 1956. \n", "In musical forms, a part may refer to a subdivision in the structure of a piece. Sometimes \"part\" is a title given by the composer or publisher to the main sections of a large-scale work, especially oratorios. For example, Handel's \"Messiah\", which is organized into Part I, Part II, and Part II, each of which contains multiple scenes and one or two dozen individual arias or choruses.\n", "In English culture the term does not refer to a single recipe, but describes the grand presentation of a large plated salad comprising many disparate ingredients. These can be arranged in layers or geometrical designs on a plate or mixed. The ingredients are then drizzled with a dressing. The dish aims to produce wide range of flavours and colours and textures on a single plate. Often recipes allow the cook to add various ingredients which may be available at hand, producing many variations of the dish. Flowers from broom and sweet violet were often used.\n", "It is possible that O. Henry arrived at his final composition independently of the Stone Soup tradition. Unlike many other examples, it does not involve an element of trickery. Instead, the emphasis is on companionship: it may be argued that the \"third ingredient\" is heart (as it is literally in Smith's description above), which could explain the departure from tradition.\n\nSection::::Plot summary.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04000	How does cancer kill?	Tumor cells need energy too, and they ravenously divert nutrients from the nearby healthy cells to themselves. In small numbers or when localized in a single out-of-the-way tumor this is relatively harmless, but cancerous cells multiply endlessly. Eventually they start crowding out other cells, spreading to other organs, and sucking you dry. They starve your organs and themselves until tissue starts to die. If the organ failure didn't kill you, the infection from dying flesh in and around the tumor(s) will.	[ "There are several possibilities: the infectious complications related to the immunodepression due to the disease and the treatments, the attack of a vital organ like the lungs invaded by so many metastases that the breathing becomes impossible, the thrombotic complications like a pulmonary embolism, an end of life precipitated by analgesic treatments whose doses are increased. But behind all these causes is the diversion of energy by cancer that behaves like a parasite that kills its host. In some particularly local cancers, such as pancreatic cancer, this is particularly noticeable: the patient dies of cachexia, that is to say of great malnutrition.\n", "If this process of continuous growth, local invasion, and regional and distant metastasis is not halted via a combination of stimulation of immunological defenses and medical treatment interventions, the end result is that the host suffers a continuously increasing burden of tumor cells throughout the body. Eventually, the tumor burden increasingly interferes with normal biochemical functions carried out by the host's organs, and death ultimately ensues.\n", "Like any cancer, metastasization affects many areas of the body, as the cancer spreads from cell to cell and organ to organ. For example, if it spreads to the bone marrow, it will prevent the body from producing enough red blood cells and affects the proper functioning of the white blood cells and the body's immune system; spreading to the circulatory system will prevent oxygen from being transported to all the cells of the body; and throat cancer can throw the nervous system into chaos, making it unable to properly regulate and control the body.\n\nSection::::Prognosis.:Treatment side effects.\n", "The meningeal covering of the central nervous system may be the site of tumor growth. Breast cancer, lung cancer and melanoma are the most common tumors.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nColorectal cancer patients with peritoneal involvement can be treated with Oxaliplatin- or Irinotecan-based chemotherapy. Such treatment is not expected to be curative, but can extend the lives of patients. Some patients may be cured through Hyperthermic intraperitoneal chemotherapy, but the procedure entails a high degree of risk for morbidity or death.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Carcinosis entry in the public domain NCI Dictionary of Cancer Terms\n", "Section::::Staging.:Five-year survival rates.\n\nThe survival rates for stages I through IV decrease significantly due to the advancement of the disease. For stage I, the five-year survival rate is 47%, stage II is 30%, stage III is 10%, and stage IV is 1%.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "BULLET::::- Regional: the cancer has spread to lymph nodes (or glands) within the chest (between limited and extensive stage SCLC). Lymph nodes act as a filtering system outside the lung, collecting cancer cells that are beginning to migrate out of the lung.\n\nBULLET::::- Distant: the cancer has spread (or metastasized) to other parts of the body (aka: extensive stage SCLC).\n\nSmall-cell carcinoma is an undifferentiated neoplasm composed of primitive-appearing cells.\n", "Section::::Mechanism.\n", "The most common metastasis sites for colorectal cancer are the liver, the lung and the peritoneum.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Tumor budding.\n", "The hallmark of a malignant tumor is its tendency to invade and infiltrate local and adjacent structures and, eventually, spread from the site of its origin to non-adjacent regional and distant sites in the body, a process called metastasis. If unchecked, tumor growth and metastasis eventually creates a tumor burden so great that the host succumbs. Carcinoma metastasizes through both the lymph nodes and the blood.\n\nSection::::Pathogenesis.:Mutation.\n\nWhole genome sequencing has established the mutation frequency for whole human genomes. The mutation frequency in the whole genome between generations for humans (parent to child) is about 70 new mutations per generation.\n", "Section::::Treatment.:Chemoradiotherapy.\n", "Fractality is a means that evolution has found to minimize the energy used to distribute resources. Remember that cancer uses a source of energy different from other tissues, less efficient in yield.\n\nSection::::The death of the patient.\n\nWhat is a cancer patient dying of?\n", "Section::::The medical problem.:Metastatic colorectal cancer.\n\nColorectal cancer (CRC), also called colon cancer or large bowel cancer, is the third leading cause of cancer-related death in the western world. An estimated 1.6 million people are diagnosed with the disease worldwide every year. An estimated 50% of CRC patients will show liver metastases. It is this form of metastatic colorectal cancer (mCRC) Sirtex targets with SIR-Spheres microspheres. It has been estimated that in 30-40% of patients with advanced disease, the liver is the only site of spread.\n", "BULLET::::- An undifferentiated pleomorphic sarcoma was transmitted from a patient to a surgeon when he injured his hand during an operation.\n\nSection::::Other animals.\n", "SCL show intense immune infiltration which is predominantly neutrophillic. However the tumors evade the immune system by increased expression of a negative regulator of T-cells mainly programmed death ligand-1.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Classification.\n", "Solid tumors, in contrast to normal tissues, grow rapidly. As a result, the cancerous tissues may suffer from inadequate blood and oxygen supply. Therefore, clostridia can grow in tumor and destroy it specifically. (Originally, Parker and co-workers showed that the injection of \"Clostridium histolyticum\" spores to the transplanted sarcomas of mice results in significant tumour lysis. Soon after, it was shown that a direct injection is not necessary, and that tumour colonization was readily obtained after intravenous administration of spores).\n", "Treatment and survival is determined, to a great extent, by whether or not a cancer remains localized or spreads to other locations in the body. If the cancer metastasizes to other tissues or organs it usually dramatically increases a patient's likelihood of death. Some cancers—such as some forms of leukemia, a cancer of the blood, or malignancies in the brain—can kill without spreading at all.\n", "The incidence of MCC is increased in conditions with defective immune functions such as malignancy, HIV infection, and organ transplant patients, etc. Mutations in MCC occur more frequently than would otherwise be expected among immunosuppressed patients, such as transplant patients, AIDS patients, and the elderly, suggesting that the initiation and progression of the disease is modulated by the immune system. While infection with MCV is common in humans, In addition, an high incidence of this tumor has been observed in autoimmune disease affected patients treated with immunosuppresants, such as TNF inhibitors.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "The development of donor-derived tumors from organ transplants is exceedingly rare. The main cause of organ transplant associated tumors seems to be malignant melanoma, that was undetected at the time of organ harvest. There have also been reports of Kaposi's sarcoma occurring after transplantation due to tumorous outgrowth of virus-infected donor cells.\n\nSection::::Rare causes.:Trauma.\n", "The treatment is done to reduce pressure on the brain caused by any cerebrospinal fluid buildup and to reduce the number of cancer cells causing the pressure. For the best care, patients should see a physician who regularly treats leptomeningeal cancer and is most up-to-date on medicines that penetrate the blood-brain barrier, how to treat the symptoms, and clinical trials that might include patients with leptomeningeal cancer.\n\nSection::::Prognosis.\n", "Section::::Treatment.:Advanced/metastatic NSCLC.\n", "Despite maximum treatment, the cancer usually recurs. The most common length of survival following diagnosis is 12 to 15 months, with fewer than 3% to 5% of people surviving longer than five years. Without treatment, survival is typically three months. It is the most common cancer that begins within the brain and the second most common brain tumor, after meningioma. About 3 per 100,000 people develop the disease a year. It most often begins around 64 years of age and occurs more commonly in males than females. Immunotherapy is being studied.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "Section::::Management.:Surgery.\n\nSurgery as a treatment is frequently used in most types of head and neck cancer. Usually the goal is to remove the cancerous cells entirely. This can be particularly tricky if the cancer is near the larynx and can result in the person being unable to speak. Surgery is also commonly used to resect (remove) some or all of the cervical lymph nodes to prevent further spread of the disease.\n", "Section::::Treatment.:Early/non-metastatic NSCLC.\n\nNSCLCs are usually \"not\" very sensitive to chemotherapy and/or radiation, so surgery (lung resection to remove the tumor), remains the treatment of choice if patients are diagnosed at an early stage.\n", "BULLET::::- Bronchioloalveolar carcinoma (BAC) of the lung is the only form of CIS that can kill directly because, in rare cases (the \"pneumonic form\"), it expands greatly and fills the lungs, preventing breathing and causing other dire effects on the host. Thus, the pneumonic form of BAC is a true malignant entity, but is not \"invasive\" in the classical sense. For this reason, it is considered a form of CIS by pathologists, but not by oncologists or surgeons, and inclusion of this form of cancer among the types of CIS is controversial.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Systemic symptoms.\n\nGeneral symptoms occur due to effects that are not related to direct or metastatic spread. These may include: unintentional weight loss, fever, excessive fatigue and changes to the skin. Hodgkin disease, leukemias and cancers of the liver or kidney can cause a persistent fever.\n\nSome cancers may cause specific groups of systemic symptoms, termed paraneoplastic syndrome. Examples include the appearance of myasthenia gravis in thymoma and clubbing in lung cancer.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Metastasis.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Cancer itself kills you." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "The cancer doesn't kill you, it diverts energy away from healthy cells which causes them and the organs they support to fail, which causes your death. " ]
2018-03966	Why can’t we capitalize numbers like how we capitalize letters?	There is no point or meaning to do so. Numbers are exactly what they are. Letters are to build up a language created locally (and spread) and then interact with others. Maths / numbers are universal.	[ "Some style manuals also base the letters' case on their number. \"The New York Times\", for example, keeps \"NATO\" in all capitals (while several guides in the British press may render it \"Nato\"), but uses lower case in \"UNICEF\" (from \"United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund\") because it is more than four letters, and to style it in caps might look ungainly (flirting with the appearance of \"shouting capitals\").\n\nSection::::Orthographic styling.:Numerals and constituent words.\n", "Most typefaces, especially modern designs, include a complementary set of numeric digits.\n\nNumbers can be typeset in two main independent sets of ways: \"lining\" and \"non-lining figures\", and \"proportional\" and \"tabular\" styles.\n\nMost modern typefaces set numeric digits by default as lining figures, which are the height of upper-case letters. Non-lining figures, styled to match lower-case letters, are often common in fonts intended for body text, as they are thought to be less disruptive to the style of running text. They are also called \"lower-case numbers\" or \"text figures\" for the same reason.\n", "In some contexts, numbers and letters are used not so much as a basis for establishing an ordering, but as a means of labeling items that are already ordered. For example, pages, sections, chapters, and the like, as well as the items of lists, are frequently \"numbered\" in this way. Labeling series that may be used include ordinary Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, ...), Roman numerals (I, II, III, ... or i, ii, iii, ...), or letters (A, B, C, ... or a, b, c, ...). (An alternative method for indicating list items, without numbering them, is to use a bulleted list.)\n", "Capital letters are typically treated as equivalent to their corresponding lowercase letters. (For alternative treatments in computerized systems, see Automated collation, below.)\n\nCertain limitations, complications, and special conventions may apply when alphabetical order is used:\n", "BULLET::::- In English, the names of days of the week, months and languages are capitalized, as are demonyms like \"Englishman\", \"Arab\". In other languages, practice varies, but most languages other than German (which capitalizes all nouns) do not.\n\nBULLET::::- In English-language addresses, the noun following the proper name of a street is capitalized, whether or not it is abbreviated: \"Main Street\", \"Fleming Ave.\", \"Montgomery Blvd.\", but in French, street names are capitalized when they are proper names; the noun itself (, ) is normally not capitalized: , .\n", "Other languages may capitalize the initial letter of the orthographic word, even if it is not present in the base, as with definite nouns in Maltese that start with certain consonant clusters. For example, (the United States) capitalize the epenthetic , even though the base form of the word — without the definite article — is .\n\nSection::::Special cases.:Case-sensitive English words.\n\nIn English, there are a few capitonyms, which are words whose meaning (and sometimes pronunciation) varies with capitalization. For example, the month \"August\", versus the adjective \"august\". Or the verb \"polish\", versus the adjective \"Polish\".\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- CamelCase\n", "Before the early 1960s, computers were mainly used for number-crunching rather than for text, and memory was extremely expensive. Computers often allocated only 6 bits for each character, permitting only 64 characters—assigning codes for A-Z, a-z, and 0-9 would leave only 2 codes: nowhere near enough. Most computers opted not to support lower-case letters. Thus, early text projects such as Roberto Busa's Index Thomisticus, the Brown Corpus, and others had to resort to conventions such as keying an asterisk preceding letters actually intended to be upper-case.\n", "In most languages that use diacritics, these are treated the same way in uppercase whether the text is capitalized or all-uppercase. They may be always preserved (as in German) or always omitted (as in Greek) or often omitted (as in French). Some attribute this to the fact that diacritics on capital letters were not available earlier on typewriters, and it is now becoming more common to preserve them in French and Spanish (in both languages the rule is to preserve them, although in France and Mexico, for instance, schoolchildren are often erroneously taught that they should not add diacritics on capital letters).\n", "There is no universal convention to use lowercase or uppercase for the letter digits, and each is prevalent or preferred in particular environments by community standards or convention.\n\nSection::::Representation.:History of written representations.\n\nThe use of the letters \"A\" through \"F\" to represent the digits above 9 was not universal in the early history of computers.\n\nBULLET::::- During the 1950s, some installations favored using the digits 0 through 5 with an overline to denote the values 10–15 as , , , , and .\n", "Adding encryption to such applications might be challenging if data models are to be changed, as it usually involves changing field length limits or data types. For example, output from a typical block cipher would turn credit card number into a hexadecimal (e.g.codice_2, 34 bytes, hexadecimal digits) or Base64 value (e.g. codice_3, 24 bytes, alphanumeric and special characters), which will break any existing applications expecting the credit card number to be a 16-digit number.\n", "One of the drawbacks of the Roman numeral system is that it is not always immediately obvious which of two numbers is the smaller. On the other hand, with the positional notation of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, comparing numbers is easy, because the natural order on nonnegative integers is the same as the variant shortlex of the lexicographic order. In fact, with positional notation, a nonnegative integer is represented by a sequence of numerical digits, and an integer is larger than another one if either it has more digits (ignoring leading zeroes) or the number of digits is the same and the first digit which differs is larger.\n", "Capitalisation is the writing of a word with its first letter in uppercase and the remaining letters in lowercase. Capitalisation rules vary by language and are often quite complex, but in most modern languages that have capitalisation, the first word of every sentence is capitalised, as are all proper nouns. \n", "BULLET::::- In nearly all European languages, single-word proper nouns, including personal names, are capitalized (like \"France\" or \"Moses\"). Multiple-word proper nouns usually follow the traditional English rules for publication titles (as in \"Robert the Bruce\").\n\nBULLET::::- Where placenames are merely preceded by the definite article, this is usually in lower case (as in \"the Philippines\").\n", "Numeral-phrases of the ciphered alphabetic numeral systems became more concise than cumulative-additive ones – e.g. roman numerals, attic numerals – but it requires their users to be familiar with many more signs.\n\nIn S. Chrisomalis multidimensional categorization the cumulative-additive acrophonic numerals – roman numerals, attic numerals – don’t belong to this group of systems, since their letter-numerals don’t follow the order of an alphabet. Furthermore, these are not strictly acrophonic, while not all of their letter-digits are the first letter of the numeral’s name. \n", "BULLET::::- For some items, many style guides recommend that initial capitalization be avoided by not putting the item at the beginning of a sentence, or by writing it in lowercase even at the beginning of a sentence. Such scientific terms have their own rules about capitalization which take precedence over the standard initial capitalization rule. For example, \"pH\" would be liable to cause confusion if written \"PH\", and initial \"m\" and \"M\" may even have different meanings, milli and mega, for example 2 MA (megamperes) is a billion times 2 mA (milliamperes). Increasingly nowadays, some trademarks and company names start with a lowercase letter, and similar considerations apply.\n", "In the case of capitalization in SMS language, there are three scenarios:\n\nSMS messages with:\n\nBULLET::::- No capitalization\n\nBULLET::::- Capitalization of only the first word\n\nBULLET::::- Full capitalization as appropriate that conforms to all grammatical rules\n\nMost SMS messages have done away with capitalization. Use of capitalizations on the first word of a message may in fact, not be intentional, and may likely be due to the default capitalization setting of devices.\n\nCapitalization too may encode prosodic elements, where copious use may signify the textual equivalent of raised voice to indicate heightened emotion.\n", "Today there is no widely accepted rule in English on whether or not to use reverential capitalization. Different house styles have different rules given by their style manuals. Reverential capitalization is not to be used, for example, according to the style guidelines set by the Chicago Manual of Style or the Associated Press Stylebook. It is prescribed, for example, by the US Government Printing Office Style Manual (2008).\n", "In some languages, \"Nr.\", \"nr.\" or \"nr\" is used instead, reflecting the abbreviation of the language's word for 'number'. German ' is represented this way, and this language capitalises all nouns and abbreviations of nouns. Lithuanian uses it as well, and it is usually capitalised in bureaucratic contexts, especially with the meaning 'reference number' (such as ', 'contract No.') but in other contexts it follows the usual sentence capitalisation (such as \"tel. nr.\", abbreviation for \"\", 'telephone number'). It is most commonly lowercase in other languages, such Dutch, Danish, Norwegian, Polish, Romanian, Estonian and Swedish. Some languages, such as Polish, omit the dot in abbreviations, if the last letter of the original word is present in the abbreviation.\n", "Some older house styles specify that front matter (title page, abstract, table of content, etc.) must use a separate page number sequence from the main text, using Roman numerals. The relevant international standard and many newer style guides recognize that this book design practice can cause confusion where electronic document viewers number all pages of a document continuously from the first page, independent of any printed page numbers. They, therefore, avoid the traditional separate number sequence for front matter and require a single sequence of Arabic numerals starting with 1 for the first printed page (the recto of the title page).\n", "Fonts intended for professional use in documents such as business reports may also make the bold-style tabular figures take up the same width as the regular (non-bold) numbers, so a bold-style total would appear just as wide as the same sum in regular style.\n\nSection::::Style of typefaces.\n", "In certain applications when a numeral with a fixed number of positions needs to represent a greater number, a higher number-base with more digits per position can be used. A three-digit, decimal numeral can represent only up to 999. But if the number-base is increased to 11, say, by adding the digit \"A\", then the same three positions, maximized to \"AAA\", can represent a number as great as 1330. We could increase the number base again and assign \"B\" to 11, and so on (but there is also a possible encryption between number and digit in the number-digit-numeral hierarchy). A three-digit numeral \"ZZZ\" in base-60 could mean . If we use the entire collection of our alphanumerics we could ultimately serve a base-\"62\" numeral system, but we remove two digits, uppercase \"I\" and uppercase \"O\", to reduce confusion with digits \"1\" and \"0\".\n", "BULLET::::- Italian also capitalizes its formal pronouns, and , and their cases (even within words, e.g. \"goodbye\", formal). This is occasionally also done for the Dutch , though this is formally only required when referring to a deity and may be considered archaic.\n\nBULLET::::- In Spanish, the abbreviations of the pronouns and , , , , and , are usually written with a capital.\n", "BULLET::::- Most English honorifics and titles of persons, e.g. \"Sir\", \"Dr Watson\", \"Mrs Jones\", \"His Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh\". This does not apply where the words are not titles; e.g. \"Watson is a doctor, Philip is a duke.\"\n\nSection::::Parts of speech.:Adjectives.\n", "The titles of many English-language artistic works (plays, novels, essays, paintings, etc.) capitalize the first word and the last word in the title. Additionally, most other words within a title are capitalized as well; articles and coordinating conjunctions are not capitalized. Sources disagree on the details of capitalizing prepositions. For example, the Chicago Manual of Style recommends rendering all prepositions in lowercase, whereas the APA style guide instructs: \"Capitalize major words in titles of books and articles within the body of the paper. Conjunctions, articles, and short prepositions are not considered major words; however, capitalize all words of four letters or more.\"\n", "Geographic numbers are also sometimes displayed in a format with a dash separating the code and number; this was formerly the recommended format for six major metropolitan areas in the UK, e.g. \"01x1-AAA BBBB\". They are sometimes also shown in a format with a space between the code and number, similar to the non-geographic format, e.g. \"01x1 AAA BBBB\".\n" ]	[ "Capitilizing numbers should be possible.", "We should be able to capitalize numbers in the way we capitalize letters." ]	[ "Capitilizing numbers does not have a meaning because we didn't make it have a meaning like with language. ", "There is no point in capitalizing numbers in the way we capitalize letters." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Capitilizing numbers should be possible.", "We should be able to capitalize numbers in the way we capitalize letters." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Capitilizing numbers does not have a meaning because we didn't make it have a meaning like with language. ", "There is no point in capitalizing numbers in the way we capitalize letters." ]
2018-01590	How does a fetus receive oxygen in the womb and when do they make the transition to breathing in oxygen?	The fetus gets oxygen via the placenta. They make the transition to oxygen breathing at birth... when they start breathing.	[ "A fetus, receiving oxygen via the placenta, is exposed to much lower oxygen pressures (about 21% of the level found in an adult's lungs), so fetuses produce another form of hemoglobin with a much higher affinity for oxygen (hemoglobin F) to function under these conditions.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Carbon dioxide transport.\n", "In addition to differences in circulation, the developing fetus also employs a different type of oxygen transport molecule in its hemoglobin from that when it is born and breathing its own oxygen. Fetal hemoglobin enhances the fetus' ability to draw oxygen from the placenta. Its oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve is shifted to the left, meaning that it is able to absorb oxygen at lower concentrations than adult hemoglobin. This enables fetal hemoglobin to absorb oxygen from adult hemoglobin in the placenta, where the oxygen pressure is lower than at the lungs. Until around six months' old, the human infant's hemoglobin molecule is made up of two alpha and two gamma chains (2α2γ). The gamma chains are gradually replaced by beta chains until the molecule becomes hemoglobin A with its two alpha and two beta chains (2α2β).\n", "Section::::Physiology.\n\nThe core concept behind fetal circulation is that fetal hemoglobin (HbF) has a higher affinity for oxygen than does adult hemoglobin, which allows a diffusion of oxygen from the mother's circulatory system to the fetus.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Blood pressure.\n\nIt is the fetal heart and not the mother's heart that builds up the fetal blood pressure to drive its blood through the fetal circulation.\n\nIntracardiac pressure remains identical between the right and left ventricles of the human fetus.\n", "A variant hemoglobin, called fetal hemoglobin (HbF, αγ), is found in the developing fetus, and binds oxygen with greater affinity than adult hemoglobin. This means that the oxygen binding curve for fetal hemoglobin is left-shifted (i.e., a higher percentage of hemoglobin has oxygen bound to it at lower oxygen tension), in comparison to that of adult hemoglobin. As a result, fetal blood in the placenta is able to take oxygen from maternal blood.\n", "For fetuses at high risk for developing coarctation, a novel experimental treatment approach is being investigated, wherein the mother inhales 45% oxygen three times a day (3 x 3–4 hours) beyond 34 weeks of gestation. The oxygen is transferred via the placenta to the fetus and results in dilatation of the fetal lung vessels. As a consequence, the flow of blood through the fetal circulatory system increases, including that through the underdeveloped arch. In suitable fetuses, marked increases in aortic arch dimensions have been observed over treatment periods of about two to three weeks.\n", "At birth, the baby's lungs are filled with fluid secreted by the lungs and are not inflated. After birth the infant's central nervous system reacts to the sudden change in temperature and environment. This triggers the first breath, within about 10 seconds after delivery. Before birth, the lungs are filled with fetal lung fluid. After the first breath, the fluid is quickly absorbed into the body or exhaled. The resistance in the lung's blood vessels decreases giving an increased surface area for gas exchange, and the lungs begin to breathe spontaneously. This accompanies other changes which result in an increased amount of blood entering the lung tissues.\n", "Section::::Respiratory.\n", "Section::::Changes in neonatal care.:Respiratory care.\n", "Hypoxia a condition of inadequate oxygen supply can be a serious consequence of a preterm or premature birth.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Aorta-gonad-mesonephros\n\nBULLET::::- CDX2\n\nBULLET::::- Development of the reproductive system\n\nBULLET::::- Development of the urinary system\n\nBULLET::::- Developmental biology\n\nBULLET::::- Drosophila embryogenesis\n\nBULLET::::- Embryomics\n\nBULLET::::- Gonadogenesis\n\nBULLET::::- Human tooth development\n\nBULLET::::- List of human cell types derived from the germ layers\n\nBULLET::::- Potential person\n\nBULLET::::- Recapitulation theory\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Photo of blastocyst in utero\n\nBULLET::::- Slideshow: In the Womb\n\nBULLET::::- Online course in embryology for medicine students developed by the universities of Fribourg, Lausanne and Bern\n", "Section::::Causes.:Pre- and postnatal.\n\nHypoxic-anoxic events may affect the fetus at various stages of fetal development, during labor and delivery and in the postnatal period. Problems during pregnancy may include preeclampsia, maternal diabetes with vascular disease, congenital fetal infections, drug/alcohol abuse, severe fetal anemia, cardiac disease, lung malformations, or problems with blood flow to the placenta.\n", "In regards to the diagnosis of pulmonary atresia the body requires oxygenated blood for survival. pulmonary atresia is not threatening to a developing fetus however, because the mother's placenta provides the needed oxygen since the baby's lungs are not yet functional. Once the baby is born its lungs must now provide the oxygen needed for survival, but with pulmonary atresia there is no opening on the pulmonary valve for blood to get to the lungs and become oxygenated. Due to this, the newborn baby is blue in color and pulmonary atresia can usually be diagnosed within hours or minutes after birth.\n", "In their book, \"When Does Human Life Begin?\", John L. Merritt, MD and his son J. Lawrence Meritt II, MD, present the idea that if \"the breath of life\" (Genesis 2:7) is oxygen, then a blastocyst starts taking in the breath of life from the mother's blood the moment it successfully implants in her womb, which is about a week after fertilization. If the end-point to human life is the moment the body stops using oxygen, then it may follow that the corresponding starting-point is the moment the body starts using oxygen.\n\nSection::::Fetal personhood in law.:Segmentation.\n", "and their appearance around the seventh month marks the point at which limited respiration would be possible, and the premature baby could survive.\n\nSection::::Development.:Vitamin A deficiency.\n", "Pregnancy tends to increase ventilation (lowering plasma carbon dioxide tension below normal values). This is due to increased progesterone levels and results in enhanced gas exchange in the placenta.\n\nSection::::Control of respiratory rhythm.:Feedback control.\n\nReceptors play important roles in the regulation of respiration and include the central and peripheral chemoreceptors, and pulmonary stretch receptors, a type of mechanoreceptor.\n\nBULLET::::- Central chemoreceptors of the central nervous system, located on the ventrolateral medullary surface, are sensitive to the pH of their environment.\n", "Although in adult life, the lung is the only major respiratory organ, in case of fetal life such is not the case though the fetal lung is known to expand and contract in the last phase of development. Both the weight of the right and left lungs are normally assessed at different periods of gestation and is expressed as a function of the total body weight.\n", "For mothers to deliver oxygen to a fetus, it is necessary for the fetal hemoglobin to extract oxygen from the maternal oxygenated hemoglobin across the placenta. The higher oxygen affinity required for fetal hemoglobin is achieved by the protein subunit γ (gamma), instead of the β (beta) subunit. Because the γ subunit has fewer positive charges than the (adult) β subunit, 2,3-BPG is less electrostatically bound to fetal hemoglobin compared to adult hemoglobin. This lowered affinity allows for adult hemoglobin (maternal hemoglobin) to readily transfer its oxygen to the fetal bloodstream.\n\nSection::::Distribution.\n", "At birth, when the infant breathes for the first time, there is a decrease in the resistance in the pulmonary vasculature, which causes the pressure in the left atrium to increase relative to the pressure in the right atrium. This leads to the closure of the foramen ovale, which is then referred to as the fossa ovalis. Additionally, the increase in the concentration of oxygen in the blood leads to a decrease in prostaglandins, causing closure of the ductus arteriosus. These closures prevent blood from bypassing pulmonary circulation, and therefore allow the neonate's blood to become oxygenated in the newly operational lungs.\n", "The circulatory system of the mother is not directly connected to that of the fetus, so the placenta functions as the respiratory center for the fetus as well as a site of filtration for plasma nutrients and wastes. Water, glucose, amino acids, vitamins, and inorganic salts freely diffuse across the placenta along with oxygen. The uterine arteries carry blood to the placenta, and the blood permeates the sponge-like material there. Oxygen then diffuses from the placenta to the chorionic villus, an alveolus-like structure, where it is then carried to the umbilical vein.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Before birth.\n", "Administration of oxygen assists and generates oxygen intake for neonates. Oxygen administration began with a metal forked device in the nostrils, and it is now administered through thin plastic tubes in the nostrils, also known as nasal cannula. The first ventilation of an infant was in 1961 in a positive pressure situation, and mechanical ventilation was improved in 1971. Mechanical ventilation is the process in which a machine, attached to the patient, regulates breathing by pumping air in and out of the lungs. Another type of breathing mechanism used is the continuous positive airway pressure mask which attaches to the face to help with breathing. These masks were first used in 1973 as an alternate less invasive form of support. \n", "In 1997 a summary of studies of neonatal intensive care units in industrialised countries showed that up to 60% of low birth weight babies developed retinopathy of prematurity, which rose to 72% in extremely low birth weight babies, defined as less than at birth. However, severe outcomes are much less frequent: for very low birth weight babies—those less than at birth—the incidence of blindness was found to be no more than 8%.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Treatment aims to increase the amount of oxygen in the blood and reverse any causes of hypoxia. \n\nBULLET::::- oxygen therapy\n\nBULLET::::- mechanical ventilation\n\nBULLET::::- Nitrous Oxide (NO·) Inhalation\n\nBULLET::::- Prostaglandins (intravenous)\n", "Oxygenated blood is delivered to the fetus via the umbilical vein from the placenta, which is anchored to the wall of the mother's uterus. The chorion acts as a barrier between the maternal and fetal circulation so that there is no admixture of maternal and fetal blood. Blood in the maternal circulation is delivered via open ended arterioles to the intervillous space of the chorionic plate, where it bathes the chorionic villi that carry umbilical capillary beds, thereby allowing gas exchange to occur between the maternal and fetal circulation. Deoxygenated maternal blood drains into open ended intervillous venules to return to maternal circulation. Due to the admixture of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood, maternal blood in the intervillous space is lower in oxygen than arterial blood. As such, fetal hemoglobin must be able to bind oxygen with greater affinity than adult hemoglobin in order to compensate for the relatively lower oxygen tension of the maternal blood supplying the chorion.\n", "Section::::Reproductive system.:Placental mammals.:Male placental mammals.:Birth.\n\nOnce the fetus is sufficiently developing, chemical signals start the process of birth, which begins with contractions of the uterus and the dilation of the cervix. The fetus then descends to the cervix, where it is pushed out into the vagina, and eventually out of the female. The newborn, which is called an infant in humans, should typically begin respiration on its own shortly after birth. Not long after, the placenta is passed as well.\n\nSection::::Reproductive system.:Monotremes.\n", "Fetal hemoglobin\n\nFetal hemoglobin, or foetal haemoglobin, (also hemoglobin F, HbF, or αγ) is the main oxygen transport protein in the human fetus during the last seven months of development in the uterus and persists in the newborn until roughly 2-4 months old. Functionally, fetal hemoglobin differs most from adult hemoglobin in that it is able to bind oxygen with greater affinity than the adult form, giving the developing fetus better access to oxygen from the mother's bloodstream.\n", "In humans, the fetal stage commences at the beginning of the ninth week, fertilisation age or eleventh week gestational age. At the start of the fetal stage, the fetus is typically about in length from crown-rump, and weighs about 8 grams. The head makes up nearly half of the size of the fetus. Breathing-like movements of the fetus are necessary for the stimulation of lung development, rather than for obtaining oxygen. The heart, hands, feet, brain and other organs are present, but are only at the beginning of development and have minimal operation. The genitalia of the fetus starts to form and placenta becomes fully functional during week 9.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-17232	A technician is coming to our house next week to increase our internet speed. If our internet is already set up and we aren’t changing providers, why can’t the company do this instantly and remotely?	Often they can. If they have to send a technician, it's because either (A) you need a faster modem, or (B) the physical wire coming into your house isn't good enough, or (C) the line approaching your house is shared with another building and needs to be separated.	[ "BULLET::::- On-site setup by a technician. Sending a technician on-site is the most reliable approach from the provider’s point of view, as the person ensures that the internet access is working, before leaving the customer’s premises. This advantage comes at high costs – either for the provider or the customer, depending on the business model. Furthermore, it is inconvenient for customers, as they have to wait until they get an installation appointment and because they need to take a day off from work. For repairing an internet connection on-site or phone support will be needed again.\n", "Once the farm is able to deliver the data to the network, then the provider has limited control over the speed to the user. Since the network path to each user is different, some users will have good routes and the data will flow quickly. Other users will have overloaded routers between them and the provider which will cause delays. About all a provider can do in that case is try moving the traffic through a different route. If the ISP has limited connectivity to the network, routing changes may have little effect.\n", "There are four approaches to provisioning an internet access:\n\nBULLET::::- Hand out manuals. Manuals are a great help for experienced users, but inexperienced users will need to call the support hotline several times until all internet services are accessible. Every unintended change in the configuration, by user mistake or due to a software error, results in additional calls.\n", "Installers as of November 2011 had no way to test latency before asking for customer sign-off and final installation, meaning that any user whose latency needs could not be met would not know that until after they had agreed the service was adequate, based only on raw signal strength.\n", "As with all DSL connections, the further the distance from the DSLAM (usually located at the telephone exchange) the customer site is, the slower the line speed will be. Sky uses DLM (Dynamic Line Management) over the first 10 days of a new connection to set the line at an acceptable downstream and upstream speed in order for the connection to remain stable.\n\nLines are initially connected at 4Mbit/s and gradually increased over the 10-day \"training period\" until the line shows signs of instability, this allows Sky to know what speeds the line can handle whilst remaining stable.\n", "Section::::Other concerns.\n\nSection::::Other concerns.:Bundle protocols.\n", "Section::::Other concerns.:Security issues.\n\nAddressing security issues has been a major focus of the bundle protocol. Possible attacks take the form of nodes behaving as a \"black hole\" or a \"flooder\".\n", "The company's first employee was Steve Fuller, who had previously been an executive manager at Telecom. Fuller is to this day Enable Networks' chief executive. Construction under the contract with the Crown started in November 2011. The 50% completion mark was hit in October 2014. In April 2015, uptake was just under 15% of the possible connections. By mid-2016, 67% of the network had been built. Of the 118,000 homes and businesses that could connect to the network, 22% have chosen to do so, and this update is above the expectations.\n", "Content providers are actors who have specific interest in gaining as much Internet traffic as possible, but they also have other competitors from other content providers. Advocacy groups argue that content providers need regulated fair access, while some content providers support this, others recommend a free-market system as suggested by Free Press. Those who can afford to bypass any Internet bottleneck will then have an advantage in network speeds, but will have to pay for it.\n", "BULLET::::- In some cases these links cannot be re-established without shutting down the services.\n\nBULLET::::- Rerouting functions in the network may take place\n\nBULLET::::- Streaming applications can collapse and cause more issues.\n\nBULLET::::2. Some layer 1 information is not transported over a copper tap (e.g. pause frames)\n\nBULLET::::3. The clock synchronization is affected. Sync-E over a standard Gbit copper tap is impossible and IEEE 1588 is affected, because of the additional delay a copper tap produces.\n\nSection::::Comparison to other monitoring technologies.\n\nVarious monitoring approaches can be used, depending on the network technology and the monitoring objective:\n", "BULLET::::- Improved Customer Satisfaction: A higher level of customer satisfaction is achieved.\n\nObstacles have also been investigated.\n\nBULLET::::- Customer preferences: Some customers do not want continuous updates to their systems. This is especially true at the critical stages in their operations.\n\nBULLET::::- Domain restrictions: In some domains, such as telecom and medical, regulations require extensive testing before new versions are allowed to enter the operations phase.\n\nBULLET::::- Lack of test automation: Lack of test automation leads to a lack of developer confidence and can prevent using continuous delivery.\n", "There are many software products available to automate the provisioning of servers, services and end-user devices. Examples: BMC Bladelogic Server Automation, HP Server Automation, IBM Tivoli Provisioning Manager, Redhat Kickstart, xCAT, HP Insight CMU, etc. Middleware and applications can be installed either when the operating system is installed or afterwards by using an Application Service Automation tool. Further questions are addressed in academia such as when provisioning should be issued and how many servers are needed in multi-tier, or multi-service applications.\n", "BULLET::::- In 2009, BT announced that its internal network division, Openreach, would connect 2.5 million British homes to ultra-fast FTTP by 2012 and 25% of UK premises following that. However, by the end of September 2015 only 250,000 homes had been connected; the full rollout has not yet happened. Later, in 2014, Openreach began offering installation of a 330Mbit/s FTTP service called Fibre On Demand (\"FTTPoD\") to most UK premises, but soon stopped taking orders for the product as orders were proving to take far more time and cost far more money than had been planned. Openreach started favouring FTTC and G.Fast technology (which is constrained to a maximum of 330Mbit/s download, at short distances in optimum conditions, by the copper/aluminium telephone lines used), due to the significantly lower costs. In 2017 it reopened ordering for FTTPoD and expanded availability to virtually all premises connected to a telephone exchange which supports FTTC; however, given the pricing was nearly an order of magnitude higher than previously, and contract terms were extremely lengthy at 36 months, this made it virtually impossible to obtain for consumers.\n", "\"Table 6: Stabilization activities\"\n\nThe main activities are the testing and resolving of bugs. Once a build version is considered stable enough for a pilot a pilot version is created and deployed. From this pilot it will either go back into the testing/stabilizing loop or it will be approved and reviewed.\n\n\"Table 7: Concepts in Stabilization phase\"\n\nSection::::The phases of Internet-Speed Development.:deployment phase.\n\n\"Figure 6: Deployment phase process/data model\"\n\n\"Table 8: Deploying activities\"\n", "FTTN, widely used where copper facilities exist in established neighborhoods, uses an Alcatel-Lucent 7330 Intelligent Services Access Manager (ISAM) shelf, which uses the existing copper wiring to customers' homes, leading to distance limitations from the VRAD cabinet to the customer's home. The 7330 ISAM is an internet protocol DSL access multiplexer that supports VDSL and ADSL protocols.\n", "BULLET::::- The ISP has already submitted a cease request for the broadband service\n\nBULLET::::- The underlying broadband network communications provider used by the ISP is unable to generate a MAC. In the UK the underlying broadband network communications provider is generally BT as they own the majority of the telecoms infrastructure.\n\nBULLET::::- If the service is provided over an MPF or \"fully unbundled\" network (where the ISP provides Broadband, Line Rental and Calls together)\n\nBULLET::::- Ofcom regulations only apply to individuals and businesses with fewer than 15 employees. The MAC request must be made by the end user.\n\nSection::::Problems.\n", "From a technical perspective, the new IP-based networks are also far more difficult to plan. The self-routing nature of IP networks requires planners to determine how the network will behave under normal, overloaded, and failure scenarios. The fact that IP can drop or delay packets during overload conditions introduces new complexity to the system. Interactive services such as voice, two-way video, and gaming are particularly susceptible to the resultant digital jitter and delay. Under these circumstances, the network planners need to know how these services will be affected under varying conditions. In addition, they need to know how the network can be configured to provide the best quality of service at the least cost.\n", "It is the latency of response to requests to change channel, display an EPG, etc. that most affects customers’ perceived quality of service, and these problems affect satellite IPTV no more than terrestrial IPTV. Command latency problems, faced by terrestrial IPTV networks with insufficient bandwidth as their customer base grows, may be solved by the high capacity of satellite distribution.\n", "Overall, CO engineers have seen new challenges emerging in the CO environment. With the advent of Data Centers, Internet Protocol (IP) facilities, cellular radio sites, and other emerging-technology equipment environments within telecommunication networks, it is important that a consistent set of established practices or requirements be implemented.\n\nInstallation suppliers or their sub-contractors are expected to provide requirements with their products, features, or services. These services might be associated with the installation of new or expanded equipment, as well as the removal of existing equipment.\n\nSeveral other factors must be considered such as:\n\nBULLET::::- Regulations and safety in installation\n", "Some ISPs have been criticized for implementing bandwidth throttling to intentionally slow down a user's internet service at various points on the network. The key problem at peak hour is however the peering capacity: it represents the size of the doors between two networks. If everyone wants to go through the door at the same time, it gets jammed. The constant increase in Internet traffic requires regular increases in the size of the peering points and there is a dispute as to who is going to cover the cost of these increases. For instance, Netflix and Google are reported to represent more than 50% of peak hour downstream traffic in the US in a study by Sandvine (figures for October 2013). There is a commercial and legal battle in progress to determine who will pay for the costs induced by peak hour traffic. Three positions exist:\n", "Before a cable company can deploy DOCSIS 1.1 or above, it must upgrade its hybrid fiber-coaxial (HFC) network to support a return path for upstream traffic. Without a return path, the old DOCSIS 1.0 standard still allows use of data over cable system, by implementing the return path over the plain old telephone service (POTS). If the HFC is already \"two-way\" or \"interactive\", chances are high that DOCSIS 1.1 or higher can be implemented.\n", "In most residential broadband technologies, such as cable Internet, DSL, satellite internet, or wireless broadband, a population of users share the available bandwidth. Some technologies share only their core network, while some including cable internet and passive optical network (PON) also share the access network. This arrangement allows the network operator to take advantage of statistical multiplexing, a bandwidth sharing technique which is employed to distribute bandwidth fairly, in order to provide an adequate level of service at an acceptable price. However, the operator has to monitor usage patterns and scale the network appropriately, to ensure that customers receive adequate service even during peak-usage times. If the network operator does not provide enough bandwidth for a particular neighborhood, the connection would become saturated and speeds would drop if many people are using the service at the same time, or drop out completely. Operators have been known to use a bandwidth cap, or other bandwidth throttling technique; users' download speed is limited during peak times, if they have downloaded a large amount of data that day.\n", "Dial-up connections usually have latency as high as 150 ms or even more; this is longer than for many forms of broadband, such as cable or DSL, but typically less than satellite connections. Longer latency can make video conferencing and online gaming difficult, if not impossible. An increasing amount of Internet content such as streaming media will not work at dial-up speeds.\n", "When getting a user / customer online, beyond user provisioning and network provisioning, the client system must be configured. This process may include many steps, depending on the connection technology in question (DSL, Cable, Fibre, etc.). The possible steps are:\n\nBULLET::::- modem configuration\n\nBULLET::::- authentication with network\n\nBULLET::::- install drivers\n\nBULLET::::- setup Wireless LAN\n\nBULLET::::- secure operating system (primarily for Windows only)\n\nBULLET::::- configure browser provider-specifics\n\nBULLET::::- e-mail provisioning (create mailboxes and aliases)\n\nBULLET::::- e-mail configuration in client systems\n\nBULLET::::- install additional support software\n\nBULLET::::- install add-on packages purchased by the customer\n\nBULLET::::- etc.\n", "FTTC (where fiber transitions to copper in a street cabinet) is generally too far from the users for standard ethernet configurations over existing copper cabling. They generally use very-high-bit-rate digital subscriber line (VDSL) at downstream rates of 80 Mbit/s, but this falls extremely quickly over a distance of 100 meters.\n\nSection::::Fiber to the premises.\n" ]	[ "Company cannot do a remote speed-up of internet speed because the technician is coming to the house.", "Technicians are unable to connect a client to the internet remotely if the clients connection has already been pre-set up. " ]	[ "Often internet speed can be increased remotely.", "The technician actually can set up the internet remotely, so if a technician is being sent out, it's likely to address something else." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Company cannot do a remote speed-up of internet speed because the technician is coming to the house.", "Technicians are unable to connect a client to the internet remotely if the clients connection has already been pre-set up. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Often internet speed can be increased remotely.", "The technician actually can set up the internet remotely, so if a technician is being sent out, it's likely to address something else." ]
2018-13008	How can a human stomach realistically hold 74 hot dogs and buns?	The stomach is not a stiff organ. Its due to it's elasticity, the material / tissue of the stomach is pretty elastic, allowing it to hold a lot of solids/liquids without "exploding" or breaking up. It pretty much acts as a bag. Without counting the digestion that "liquidifies" aliments and reduces their volume... But i didnt know it could hold 74 hotdogs and buns, that's impressive	[ "Section::::Weighted version.\n\nThere is a weighted version of the set packing problem in which each subset is assigned a real weight and it is this weight we wish to maximize: formula_15\n\nIn our simple example above, we might weight the recipes according to the number of friends that love the resulting dishes, so that our dinner will please the largest number of friends. \n\nThis seems to make the problem harder, but most known results for the unweighted problem apply to the weighted problem as well.\n\nSection::::Heuristics.\n", "BULLET::::- On February 20, 2006, a hot dog and bun measuring was made by the Department of Sport and Recreation of WA at the Curtin University in Perth to obtain the world record. It required of sausage meat, of dough, of tomato sauce and mustard, and \"enough onions to fill a Honda Civic.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Hot Dogs: Nathan's Famous Hot Dogs and buns (HDB): 74 HDB in 10 minutes (Coney Island, New York on July 4, 2018) at the Nathan's Hot Dog Eating Contest.\n\nBULLET::::- Ice cream sandwiches: 25.5 sandwiches in 6 minutes (Petco Park in San Diego, California on June 3, 2018) at The Baked Bear World Ice-Cream Sandwich Eating Championship\n\nBULLET::::- Mutton Sandwich: 81 mutton sandwiches in 10 minutes (International Bar-B-Q Festival in Owensboro, Kentucky on May 12, 2018) at The Owensboro International Bar-B-Q Festival World Mutton Sandwich-Eating Championship\n", "In adult humans, the stomach has a relaxed, near empty volume of about 75 millilitres. Because it is a organ, it normally expands to hold about one litre of food. The stomach of a newborn human baby will only be able to retain about 30 millilitres. The maximum stomach volume in adults is between 2 and 4 litres.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Sections.\n\nIn classical anatomy the human stomach is divided into four sections, beginning at the cardia, each of which has different cells and functions. \n\nBULLET::::- The \"cardia\" is where the contents of the esophagus empty into the stomach.\n", "It is possible to adapt the model such that each data point is no longer uniquely associated with a class (i.e., we are no longer constructing a partition), but may be associated with any combination of the classes. This strains the restaurant-tables analogy and so is instead likened to a process in which a series of diners samples from some subset of an infinite selection of dishes on offer at a buffet. The probability that a particular diner samples a particular dish is proportional to the popularity of the dish among diners so far, and in addition the diner may sample from the untested dishes. This has been named the Indian buffet process\n", "BULLET::::- In two reported cases, prompted by patients' reporting an absence of appetite suppression and of weight loss, investigation revealed that the band had not enclosed the stomach at all, instead enclosing only perigastric fat, with the effect that the passage of food was not restricted at all. In these cases, the patients experienced no additional adverse symptoms.\n", "The Nathan's Hot Dog Eating Contest has been held annually at the original location on Coney Island since the early 1970s on the 4th of July. Contestants try to consume as many hot dogs as possible in 10 minutes. Winners include Takeru Kobayashi (2001–2006), Joey Chestnut (2007–2014, 2016–2018) and Miki Sudo (women's 2014–2018). In 2008, Chestnut tied Kobayashi after eating 59 hot dogs and buns in 10 minutes. The tie resulted in a five hot dog eat-off, which Chestnut won by consuming all five before Kobayashi. In 2018, Chestnut consumed 74 hot dogs and buns for a new world record.\n", "BULLET::::- the input is a random permutation, chosen uniformly from the set of all possible permutations of \"n\" elements,\n\nit is impossible to determine which order the input is in with fewer than comparisons on average.\n", "TNO intestinal model\n\nTNO (gastro-) Intestinal Models (“TIM”) are model systems mimicking the digestive tract. The models are dynamic computer controlled multi-compartmental systems with adjustable parameters for the physiological conditions of the stomach and intestine. Temperature, peristalsis, bile secretion, secretion of saliva, stomach and pancreas enzymes are all fully adjustable. \n", "At point 9 ordinary food (beginning as Do) is eaten and enters the body and digestion begins. The \"density\" of human food is assigned a number, 768.\n\nAt point 1 it is said to be processed in the gut as Re and is refined to a \"density\" of 384 the same \"density\" as water.\n\nAt point 2 the food is further refined to Mi and assigned a density of 192, the same density as air. It is ready to enter the blood stream.\n", "Section::::Design.:Feeding.\n", "The placement of the band creates a small pouch at the top of the stomach. This pouch holds approximately ½ cup of food, whereas the typical stomach holds about 6 cups of food. The pouch fills with food quickly, and the band slows the passage of food from the pouch to the lower part of the stomach. As the upper part of the stomach registers as full, the message to the brain is that the entire stomach is full, and this sensation helps the person to be hungry less often, feel full more quickly and for a longer period of time, eat smaller portions, and lose weight over time.\n", "On October 28, 2007, between 2:33 and 2:41, Chestnut ate 103 Krystal burgers in the Krystal Square Off World Hamburger Eating Championship in Chattanooga, Tennessee. This was Chestnut's personal best, and is the new world record.\n\nSection::::History.:2008.\n", "BULLET::::- On October 18, 2003, a hot dog and bun measuring was made by students from the University of Pretoria and displayed at the Sonop Hostel, Pretoria, South Africa, to obtain the world record.\n\nBULLET::::- On July 1, 2004, a hot dog and bun measuring was made by Vienna Beef and Rosen's Bakery for the Taste of Chicago, in celebration of National Hot Dog Month, to obtain the world record. The bun used more than 200,000 poppy seeds.\n", "BULLET::::- Cow brains: 57 Cow Brains (17.7 pounds) in 15 minutes \"Glutton Bowl\" Fox\n\nBULLET::::- Hamburgers: 93 hamburgers in 8 minutes at the Krystal Square Off World Hamburger Eating Championship in Chattanooga (No Dunking World Record)\n\nBULLET::::- Tacos: 159 tacos in 10 minutes at the Gringo Bandito Taco Challenge on April 8, 2017\n\nBULLET::::- Pizza: 62 slices of pizza (15 and a half pizzas) in 12 minutes in Canada\n\nBULLET::::- Chicken satay: 11.92 pounds of chicken satay at Robertson Walk, Singapore on 27 July 2008\n\nBULLET::::- Lamb hot pot: 55 lamb hot pots in 24 minutes in Taichung, Taiwan\n", "At the start of cribbage, a standard set of fifteen pool balls are racked at the end of a pool table, with the of the rack centered over the and the 15 ball placed at the rack's center. All other balls are placed randomly except that no two of the three corner balls may total to fifteen. Such an open-ended racking rule is unusual in that most pool games require particular balls to be placed at the corners of the rack and sometimes in fixed positions inside the rack as well. The arrangement thus results in 134,120,448,000 possible racking patterns (14 × 12 × 10 × 2 × 11!).\n", "Section::::Function.\n\nSection::::Function.:Digestion.\n", "The human gastrointestinal tract is around 9 meters long. Food digestion physiology varies between individuals and upon other factors such as the characteristics of the food and size of the meal, and the process of digestion normally takes between 24 and 72 hours.\n", "Three IMPs (breakfast, lunch and dinner) provide approximately , enough to nourish a soldier undergoing strenuous physical activity. The meals are precooked and can therefore be safely consumed either heated or unheated. Under ideal circumstances the entrees are generally consumed heated.\n", "Chestnut qualified for the 2006 Nathan's Contest by eating 50 hot dogs with buns (HDB). As July 4 approached, there was speculation that 2006 might be the year when Kobayashi would be beaten. It was not to be, however. Although Chestnut turned in a great performance, leading Takeru Kobayashi through most of the contest, the final tally put Chestnut at 52 and Kobayashi at (a new world record).\n\nChestnut lost to Kobayashi in the Johnsonville World Bratwurst Eating Championship in Sheboygan, Wisconsin. He ate 41 bratwurst sausages in 10 minutes. Kobayashi ate 58.\n\nSection::::History.:2007.\n", "The world record for the largest bowl of spaghetti was set in March 2009 and reset in March 2010 when a Buca di Beppo restaurant in Garden Grove, California, filled a swimming pool with more than of pasta.\n\nSection::::In popular culture.\n\nSpaghetti Westerns have little to do with spaghetti other than using the name as a shorthand for Italian.\n\nThe BBC television program \"Panorama\" featured a hoax program about the spaghetti harvest in Switzerland on April Fools' Day, 1957.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of pasta\n\nBULLET::::- Spaghetti alla chitarra\n\nBULLET::::- Spaghetti sandwich\n\nBULLET::::- Spaghetti squash\n\nBULLET::::- Spaghettieis\n\nBULLET::::- SpaghettiOs\n", "In 2007, Tim was a test subject in a documentary, \"The Science of Speed Eating\" from National Geographic. He underwent an upper gastrointestinal series and was shown to have a stomach that expands four times larger than a normal stomach. His digestive rate of the stomach was also slower than a normal human.\n", "\"3.- 12 people are done shopping in a supermarket where 4 cashiers are working at the moment. In how many different ways can they be distributed into the checkouts?\"\n", "Section::::Components.:Stomach.\n\nThe stomach is a major organ of the gastrointestinal tract and digestive system. It is a consistently J-shaped organ joined to the esophagus at its upper end and to the duodenum at its lower end.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Orbera\" consists of a single balloon device. The Orbera system also reduced weight significantly when combined with exercise and diet over a six months span.\n" ]	[ "It is improbable for a human stomach to realistically hold 74 hot dogs and buns.", "It is very unlikely that a human's stomach should be able to hold 74 hot dogs and buns.", "It is improbable that a human stomach should be able to realistically hold 74 hot dogs and buns." ]	[ "The stomach is elastic and will stretch to hold a lot of solids and liquids without breaking up.", "The stomach is elastic and will stretch to hold a lot of solids and liquids without breaking up.", "The stomach is elastic and will stretch to hold a lot of solids and liquids without breaking up." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "It is improbable for a human stomach to realistically hold 74 hot dogs and buns.", "It is very unlikely that a human's stomach should be able to hold 74 hot dogs and buns.", "It is improbable that a human stomach should be able to realistically hold 74 hot dogs and buns.", "The human stomach has a defined volume of space in which to hold food." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "The stomach is elastic and will stretch to hold a lot of solids and liquids without breaking up.", "The stomach is elastic and will stretch to hold a lot of solids and liquids without breaking up.", "The stomach is elastic and will stretch to hold a lot of solids and liquids without breaking up.", "The stomach is elastic and will stretch to hold a lot of solids and liquids without breaking up." ]
2018-02427	Why was the latest rocket launch so exciting that everyone now speaks of a new era in space travel?	It's mainly due to the fact that the rocket that was tested is currently the strongest one available (as in, can lift more than all other currently used rockets) and more importantly, parts of the rocket used to propel it into space can land back on earth and be reused, in the past those parts would just fall down somewhere on earth and be lost forever.	[ "BULLET::::- 2008 – Chinese space program launches its third manned space flight carrying its first three-person crew and conducts its first spacewalk that makes China the third nation after Russia and USA to do that, \"Shenzhou 7\", on September 25.\n\nBULLET::::- 2008 – \"Phoenix\" discovers water ice on Mars.\n\nBULLET::::- 2009 – Iran launches its first satellite, \"Omid\", on February 2.\n\nBULLET::::- 2009 – The Indian Space Research Organisation discovers water on the Moon.\n\nBULLET::::- 2011 – NASA retires the last Space Shuttle, \"Atlantis\", marking an end to its three-decade shuttle program.\n", "BULLET::::- 2001 – Dennis Tito becomes the first space tourist by paying $19 million to board the International Space Station.\n\nBULLET::::- 2003 – Space Shuttle \"Columbia\" disaster February 1.\n\nBULLET::::- 2003 – The Chinese space program launches its first manned space flight, \"Shenzhou 5\", on October 15. This made China the third country in the world to have indigenous manned space capability.\n\nBULLET::::- 2004 – Mars Exploration Rovers land on Mars; \"Opportunity\" discovers evidence that an area of Mars was once covered in water.\n\nBULLET::::- 2004 – \"SpaceShipOne\" makes the first privately funded human spaceflight, June 21.\n", "BULLET::::- 2015: SpaceX's Falcon 9 rocket successfully landed after a launch, making it the first rocket to successfully return and perform a vertical landing.\n\nBULLET::::- 2016: The ESA and Roscosmos launched the joint ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter on a mission to Mars.\n\nBULLET::::- 2016: Diwata-1 was launched to the International Space Station (ISS) aboard the Cygnus spacecraft on a supply mission.\n\nBULLET::::- 2016: NASA's Juno spacecraft enters orbit around Jupiter and begins a 20-month survey of the planet.\n\nBULLET::::- 2016: Solar Impulse 2 becomes the first solar-powered aircraft to circumnavigate the Earth.\n", "BULLET::::- 2012 – The 50th successful launch in a row for the European launcher Ariane 5, on August 2.\n\nBULLET::::- 2012 – SpaceX successfully delivers cargo to the International Space Station.\n\nBULLET::::- 2012 – NASA successfully lands the \"Curiosity\" rover on the surface of Mars.\n\nBULLET::::- 2014 – India's Mars Orbiter Mission, the nation's first attempt to send a spacecraft to Mars, successfully entered orbit on September 24, making India the fourth nation in the world to reach that goal.\n", "BULLET::::- 2010 – With the second launch of the SpaceX Falcon 9 and the first launch of the SpaceX Dragon, SpaceX becomes the first private company to successfully launch, orbit and recover a spacecraft.\n\nBULLET::::- 2010 – The Japanese solar-sail spacecraft IKAROS passes the planet Venus at a distance of about 80,800 km.\n\nBULLET::::- 2013 – Riots break out in Singapore after a fatal accident in Little India.\n\nBULLET::::- 2013 – Metallica performs a show in Antarctica, making them the first band to perform on all 7 continents.\n", "BULLET::::- 1986 – Seattle, Washington\n\nBULLET::::- 1987 – Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania\n\nBULLET::::- 1988 – Denver, Colorado\n\nBULLET::::- 1989 – Chicago, Illinois\n\nBULLET::::- 1990 – Anaheim, California\n\nBULLET::::- 1991 – San Antonio, Texas\n\nBULLET::::- 1992 – Washington, D.C.\n\nBULLET::::- 1993 – Huntsville, Alabama\n\nBULLET::::- 1994 – Toronto, Canada\n\nBULLET::::- 1995 – Cleveland, Ohio\n\nBULLET::::- 1996 – New York City, New York\n\nBULLET::::- 1997 – Orlando, Florida\n\nBULLET::::- 1998 – Milwaukee, Wisconsin\n\nBULLET::::- 1999 – Houston, Texas\n\nBULLET::::- 2000 – Tucson, Arizona\n\nBULLET::::- 2001 – Albuquerque, New Mexico\n\nBULLET::::- 2002 – Denver, Colorado\n\nBULLET::::- 2003 – San Jose, California\n", "The second LAUNCH forum, LAUNCH: Health, took place in October of that same year, also at the Kennedy Space Center. This challenge highlighted innovations in optimal nutrition (access, choice, and quality of nutritious food and required nutrients), primary preventive health care, and ways to improve fitness and lifestyle choices.\n\nSection::::History.:2011: LAUNCH Energy.\n\nThe LAUNCH: Energy forum took place in November 2011 at the Kennedy Space Center and highlighted innovations in sustainable energy systems. The forum featured innovations in fuel cell technology, electricity management, and clean cookstoves.\n\nSection::::History.:2012: LAUNCH Beyond Waste.\n", "Section::::Improved technologies and methodologies.:Improved rocket concepts.:Fission powered rockets.\n\nThe electric propulsion missions already flown, or currently scheduled, have used solar electric power, limiting their capability to operate far from the Sun, and also limiting their peak acceleration due to the mass of the electric power source. Nuclear-electric or plasma engines, operating for long periods at low thrust and powered by fission reactors, can reach speeds much greater than chemically powered vehicles.\n\nSection::::Improved technologies and methodologies.:Improved rocket concepts.:Fusion rockets.\n", "BULLET::::- 2004 – Oklahoma City, Oklahoma\n\nBULLET::::- 2005 – Washington, D.C.\n\nBULLET::::- 2006 – Los Angeles, California\n\nBULLET::::- 2007 – Addison, Texas\n\nBULLET::::- 2008 – Washington, D.C.\n\nBULLET::::- 2009 – Orlando, Florida 2009 conference website\n\nBULLET::::- 2010 - Chicago, Illinois\n\nBULLET::::- 2011 - Huntsville, Alabama\n\nBULLET::::- 2012 - Washington, D.C.\n\nBULLET::::- 2013 - San Diego, California\n\nBULLET::::- 2014 - Los Angeles, California\n\nBULLET::::- 2015 - Toronto, Ontario\n\nBULLET::::- 2016 - San Juan, Puerto Rico\n\nBULLET::::- 2017 - St. Louis, Missouri\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 - Los Angeles, California\n\nBULLET::::- 2019 - Arlington, Virginia\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- According to a study published in \"PNAS\", the introduction of non-native snakes into southern Florida swamps has devastated the population of small mammals in the region, with sightings of species such as raccoons declining by 99% since 2000. (Davidson Herpetology Laboratory)\n\nBULLET::::- 22 December\n\nBULLET::::- China conducts its 18th successful orbital launch of 2011, marking the first year that more Chinese than American spacecraft were launched. (\"Wired\")\n", "BULLET::::- 2010 – A bomb explodes in the city of Pune, Maharashtra, India, killing 17 and injuring 60 more.\n\nBULLET::::- 2011 – For the first time in more than 100 years the Umatilla, an American Indian tribe, are able to hunt and harvest a bison just outside Yellowstone National Park, restoring a centuries-old tradition guaranteed by a treaty signed in 1855.\n\nBULLET::::- 2012 – The European Space Agency (ESA) conducted the first launch of the European \"Vega\" rocket from Europe's spaceport in Kourou, French Guiana.\n", "BULLET::::- Researchers at the University of Pittsburgh develop a robotic arm that can be precisely controlled by paralyzed patients using a set of motor cortex implants. (Gizmodo)\n\nBULLET::::- NASA's twin GRAIL lunar satellites deorbit and are intentionally crashed into the surface of the Moon, marking the end of their year-long gravity research mission. (\"The Register\")\n\nBULLET::::- The Terrafugia Transition flying car begins flight certification tests, in preparation for its planned commercial release in 2013. (\"Sun Daily\")\n\nBULLET::::- 19 December\n", "2014\n\n2014 was designated as:\n\nBULLET::::- International Year of Crystallography\n\nBULLET::::- International Year of Family Farming\n\nBULLET::::- International Year of Small Island Developing States\n\nBULLET::::- International Year of Solidarity with the Palestinian People\n\nSection::::Events.\n\nSection::::Events.:January.\n\nBULLET::::- January 1 – Latvia officially adopts the euro as its currency and becomes the 18th member of the Eurozone.\n\nBULLET::::- January 5 – A launch of the communication satellite GSAT-14 aboard the GSLV Mk.II D5 marks the first successful flight of an Indian cryogenic rocket engine.\n", "LAUNCH Beyond waste took place in 2012 at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California. This cycle highlighted nine innovations in the fields of waste-to-energy, ‘eWaste’, ‘upcycling’ and recycling, agricultural waste and conservation, medical waste, sustainable chemicals and materials, and improved sanitation. The forum also included sessions about how to accelerate these innovations towards real-world implementation.\n", "NASA Administrator Charlie Bolden visited the Kennedy Space Center site.\n\nSection::::Years.:2014.\n\nMain Stage in New York City\n\n45 Challenges focus on 5 mission areas: \n\nBULLET::::- Asteroids\n\nBULLET::::- Earth Watch\n\nBULLET::::- Human Spaceflight\n\nBULLET::::- Robotics\n\nBULLET::::- Space Technology\n\nData & Education were cross-cutting for all mission areas. Additionally, 27 projects from 2013 could also be built upon.\n\nSection::::Years.:2015.\n", "The year 2012 saw a number of significant events in spaceflight. In May and October, the first Commercial Orbital Transportation Services resupply missions took place, during which the SpaceX Dragon became the first private spacecraft to dock with the International Space Station (ISS). In June, China launched the manned Shenzhou 9 orbital mission, and North Korea achieved its first successful orbital launch in December. 2012 also saw China's first successful asteroid exploration mission, and the landing of NASA's \"Curiosity\" rover on Mars. The Vega and Unha-3 rockets made their maiden flights in 2012, while the Proton-K made its last.\n", "BULLET::::- 14 September – The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) has launched its first Epsilon rocket, a new generation of smaller and cheaper launch vehicles.\n\nBULLET::::- 18 September – Orbital Sciences launches the first Cygnus spacecraft. It is designed to transport supplies to the International Space Station (ISS).\n", "In the early 2010s, privately developed launch vehicle systems and space launch service offerings emerged. Companies now faced economic incentives rather than the principally political incentives of the earlier decades. The space launch business experienced a dramatic lowering of per-unit prices along with the addition of entirely new capabilities, bringing about a new phase of competition in the space launch market.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Jet aircraft\n\nBULLET::::- Rocket\n\nBULLET::::- Rocket engine\n\nSection::::Bibliography.\n\nBULLET::::- .\n\nBULLET::::- .\n\nBULLET::::- .\n", "The model finally developed into SpaceShipTwo, Virgin Galactic's second generation suborbital vehicle. On 10 October 2010, VSS \"Enterprise\", the first SpaceShipTwo spaceplane, made its first crewed gliding test flight. By October 2014 SpaceShipTwo had conducted 54 test flights. On October 31, 2014, SpaceShipTwo VSS \"Enterprise\" suffered an in-flight breakup during a powered flight test, resulting in a crash killing one pilot and injuring the other. The second SpaceShipTwo, VSS Unity, made first flight tests in 2016.\n\nSection::::Successful space station programs.\n\nSection::::Successful space station programs.:Salyut stations (USSR, 1971–1986).\n", "From 2004–2013, total orbital launches by country/region were: Russia: 270, US: 181, China: 108, Europe: 59, Japan: 24, India: 19 and Brazil: 1.\n\nRelevant trends in the 2008–2009 for the space industry have been described as:\n\nBULLET::::- the appearance of new satellite operators;\n\nBULLET::::- a growing demand for Fixed Service Satellites and developing market for Mobile Satellite Services;\n\nBULLET::::- a steady amount of commercial satellite orders;\n\nBULLET::::- steady performance of the launch sector;\n\nBULLET::::- resilience to the financial crisis;\n\nBULLET::::- maturing markets for services like Ka-band and remote sensing.\n", "BULLET::::- 2018: Diwata-2, the second microsatellite under the Philippine Scientific Earth Observation Microsatellite (PHL-Microsat) program has deployed to space.\n\nBULLET::::- 2018: NASA's \"Kepler\" mission ends after the spacecraft runs out of fuel.\n\nBULLET::::- 2018: NASA's \"Dawn\" mission concludes after it runs out of hydrazine fuel.\n\nBULLET::::- 2019: Chinese probe Chang'e 4 becomes the first human-made object to land on the far side of the Moon.\n\nBULLET::::- 2019: NASA concludes the 15-year Opportunity rover mission after being unable to wake the rover from hibernation.\n", "BULLET::::- List of Atlas launches\n\nBULLET::::- List of Long March launches\n\nBULLET::::- List of Black Brant launches\n\nBULLET::::- List of Titan launches\n\nBULLET::::- List of Ariane launches\n\nBULLET::::- List of GPS satellite launches\n\nBULLET::::- Skylab\n\nBULLET::::- History of the International Space Station\n\nBULLET::::- Origins of the International Space Station\n\nBULLET::::- Assembly of the International Space Station\n\nBULLET::::- List of ISS spacewalks\n\nBULLET::::- List of spacewalks and moonwalks\n\nBULLET::::- List of cumulative spacewalk records\n\nSection::::Future of aerospace.\n\nSection::::Future of aerospace.:United States.\n\nVision for Space Exploration\n\nBULLET::::- Develop Shuttle-Derived Launch Vehicles\n", "2012 in science\n\nThe year 2012 involved many significant scientific events and discoveries, including the first orbital rendezvous by a commercial spacecraft, the discovery of a particle highly similar to the long-sought Higgs boson, and the near-eradication of guinea worm disease. A total of 72 successful orbital spaceflights occurred in 2012, and the year also saw numerous developments in fields such as robotics, 3D printing, stem cell research and genetics. Over 540,000 technological patent applications were made in the United States alone in 2012.\n", "BULLET::::- (2010) The Space Game, an html5 web game developed by ACT researchers (also featured in Chromium experiments), is the most visited event of the 2010 World Space Week.\n\nBULLET::::- (2011) Esa Summer of Code pilot project is invented, organized and successfully run by the team, proving the value of open source initiatives and tools for software development related to space.\n\nBULLET::::- (2011) Evolutionary Robotics first time use in a space related application. The ACT successfully trained an artificial neural network to steer attitude and positions of the three MIT SPHERES on board the ISS.\n", "BULLET::::- 2011: NASA announced that its Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter captured photographic evidence of possible liquid water on Mars during warm seasons.\n\nBULLET::::- 2011: The United States' Space Shuttle program officially ended following its last mission, STS-135, flown by Space Shuttle \"Atlantis\".\n\nBULLET::::- 2012: SpaceX's Dragon spacecraft became the first private commercial spacecraft to successfully attach to the International Space Station, the first commercial spacecraft to rendezvous with another spacecraft.\n\nBULLET::::- 2012: NASA landed the \"Curiosity\" rover in Gale crater on Mars.\n\nBULLET::::- 2013: The Chinese Chang'e 3 landed on the Moon, the first Lunar landing in 37 years.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-23645	How does our brain choose what memories to keep and which ones to forget?	Crash course in neuroscience time! The brain is a very complex organ ^[citation ^needed] but there are some basics that give us a general understanding of what goes on. Memories are generally not considered to be stored in a particular section of the brain, or as a unit housed inside a single neuron. You can certainly lose memories from brain damage, but not in a way that's particularly predictable (eg. we cannot excise that one part of your brain that happens to hold the memory of the most embarrassing moment in your life). What we do know are a few parts of the brain implicated in memory, and the various types of memory available. You have multiple forms of memory, [which are subject to academic debate and theory]. Generally accepted are that you have working memory, which consists of the information you use or recall at a given moment to complete whatever task you have at hand; declarative memory, consisting of information you can actively at one point recall consciously (eg. the title of a song you once played in 5th grade, or its melody); and procedural memory, consisting of information gained from learning and sometimes termed "muscle memory" (eg. the fingerings for that song you played in 5th grade). The processing for memory can vary depending on the type, and these present interesting discussions on the nature of memory. For instance, the patient Henry Molaisson (sp?) had both his hippocampus lobes removed in an effort to treat his severe seizures (an ethical nightmare by modern standards), and could consequently no longer form new declarative memories (anterograde amnesia). However, he COULD add to his procedural memory, as be could get better at new tasks, and was able to hold new memories for about 15 minutes after learning things. It gave new insights into memory that (thankfully) have not been replicated since. For our intents and purposes, however, we do have a general mechanistic theory of how memory is stored and discarded. It is thought that in the plastic areas of the brain where neurons deal with memory, the creation and weakening of synapses provide a way to lock in or "forget" memories. Essentially, the theory is that the more a person thinks about a certain memory, the stronger the synaptic connections. Links to subjects that are not thought about will gradually degrade, leading to a loss of memory. To be clear, loss of memories isn't universally a bad thing. The brain's capacity for information isn't well defined, but it is thought that the breakdown of memories is necessary to allow proper growth and development over time. Other pathways present from infancy/childhood would otherwise interfere with adult life and make it difficult to think clearly and function. However (big however!), there is always new research that can contradict older information. Recent publications indicate the mechanism might not be quite as cut and dry, seeing as some mouse studies indicated that even in the absence of these connections the memory could be induced in the animal. It's an ever changing field, and honestly we may not be certain on this topic for a long time.	[ "In the expectancy heuristic, items that reach beyond a level of distinctiveness (the likelihood an item would later be recognized in a recognition test) elicit a remember response. Items that do not reach this level of distinctiveness elicit a know response. The level of distinctiveness is determined by the context in which items are studied and/or tested. In a given context, there is an expected level of distinctiveness; in contexts where subjects expect many distinct items, participants give fewer remember responses than when they expect few distinct items. Therefore, remember responses are affected by the expected strength of distinctiveness of items in a given context.\n", "In addition, context can affect remember and know responses while not affecting recollection and familiarity processes. Remember and know responses are subjective decisions that can be affected by underlying memory processes. While changing recollection and familiarity processes can influence remember and know judgments, context can affect how items are weighted for remember-know decisions.\n", "Section::::Influences on remembering and knowing.:Factors that influence remember responses but not know responses are.:Generation effects.\n", "Section::::Influence of age.\n\nStudies now show that as people age, their process of memory retrieval changes. Although general memory problems are common to everyone because no memory is perfectly accurate, older adults are more likely than younger adults to show choice-supportive biases.\n\nSection::::Influence of age.:Aging of the brain.\n\nNormal aging may be accompanied by neuropathy in the frontal brain regions. Frontal regions help people encode or use specific memorial attributes to make source judgments, controls personality and the ability to plan for events. These areas can attribute to memory distortions and regulating emotion.\n\nSection::::Influence of age.:Regulation of emotion.\n", "According to this theory, recognition decisions are based on the strength of a memory trace in reference to a certain decision threshold. A memory that exceeds this threshold is perceived as old, and trace that does not exceed the threshold is perceived as new. According to this theory, remember and know responses are products of different degrees of memory strength. There are two criteria on a decision axis; a point low on the axis is associated with a know decision, and a point high on the axis is associated with a remember decision. If memory strength is high, individuals make a \"remember\" response, and if memory strength is low, individuals make a \"know\" response.\n", "Human beings are blessed with having an intelligent and complex mind, which allows us to remember our past, be able to optimize the present, and plan for the future. Remembering involves a complex interaction between the current environment, what one expects to remember, and what is retained from the past. The mechanisms of the brain that allow memory storage and retrieval serves us well most of the time, but occasionally gets us into trouble.\n\nSection::::Memory storage.:Memories change over time.\n", "Section::::Influences on remembering and knowing.:Factors that influence remember responses but not know responses are.:Divided attention.\n", "Section::::Influences on remembering and knowing.:Factors that influence both remember and know responses are.:Aging.\n", "BULLET::::- True versus False Memories: One study asked subjects to remember a series of events while being monitored by an fMRI to see which areas \"light up.\" When an individual remembered a greater number of true memories than false memories, it showed a cluster spanning the right superior temporal gyrus and lateral occipital cortex. However, when the reverse occurred (when an individual remembered a greater number of false memories than true) the brain area that showed activation was the left insula. These findings may provide some insight as to which areas of the brain are involved with storing memories and later retrieving them.\n", "The remember-know paradigm began its journey in 1985 from the mind of Endel Tulving. He suggested that there are only two ways in which an individual can access their past. For instance, we can recall what we did last night by simply traveling back in time through memory and episodically imagining what we did (remember) or we can know something about our past such as a phone number, but have no specific memory of where the specific memory came from (know). Recollection is based on the episodic memory system, and familiarity is based on the semantic memory system. Tulving argued that the remember-know paradigm could be applied to all aspects of recollection.\n", "Section::::Influences on remembering and knowing.:Factors that influence both remember and know responses are.:Word vs. non-word memory.\n\nWhen words are used as stimuli, more remember responses and fewer know responses are produced in comparison to when nonwords are used as stimuli.\n\nSection::::Influences on remembering and knowing.:Factors that influence both remember and know responses are.:Gradual vs. rapid presentation.\n\nGradual presentation of stimuli causes an increase in familiarity and thus an increase in associated know responses; however, gradual presentation causes a decrease in remember responses.\n\nSection::::Influences on remembering and knowing.:Role of emotion.\n", "There is now abundant evidence that memory content can undergo systematic changes. After some period of time and if the memory is not used often, it may become forgotten.\n", "Section::::Influences on remembering and knowing.:Factors that influence remember responses but not know responses are.:Depth of processing.\n\nWhen more detailed, elaborate encoding and associations are made, more remember responses are reported than know responses. The opposite occurs with shallow, surface encoding which results in fewer remember responses.\n\nSection::::Influences on remembering and knowing.:Factors that influence remember responses but not know responses are.:Serial position.\n", "BULLET::::- Memory retention: It is recognized that retention is best for experiences that are pleasant, intermediate for experiences that are unpleasant, and worst for experiences that are neutral. Generic memories provide the basis for inferences that can bring about distortions. These distortions in memory do not displace an individual's specific memories, but they supplement and fill in the gaps when the memories are lost. It has been shown that a wide variety of strategic and systematic processes are used to activate different areas of the brain in order to retrieve information.\n", "The functional account of remembering states that remember responses are determined by the context in which they're made; in general, recollection is based on the type of info that was encouraged by the deeper level processing task. Remember responses occur when retrieved information allow subjects to finish a memory test. The same item may elicit a remember response or a know response, depending on the context in which it is found.\n", "Section::::Important variables.:Confidence (or lack thereof).\n", "Remember and know responses are quite often differentiated by their functional correlates in specific areas in the brain. For instance, during \"remember\" situations it is found that there is greater EEG activity than \"knowing\", specifically, due to an interaction between frontal and posterior regions of the brain. It is also found that the hippocampus is differently activated during recall of \"remembered\" (vs. familiar) stimuli. On the other hand, items that are only \"known\", or seem familiar, are associated with activity in the rhinal cortex.\n\nSection::::Origins.\n", "Section::::Preferences-as-memory approach.:Impact of memory on decisions.:Hierarchal structure of memory.\n", "Section::::Influences on remembering and knowing.\n\nSection::::Influences on remembering and knowing.:Factors that influence remember responses but not know responses are.\n\nSection::::Influences on remembering and knowing.:Factors that influence remember responses but not know responses are.:Frequency.\n", "The remember-know paradigm has been used in studies that focus on the idea of a reminiscence bump and the age effects on autobiographical memory. Previous studies suggested old people had more \"know\" than \"remember\" and it was also found that younger individuals often excelled in the \"remember\" category but lacked in the \"know\".\n", "Effects of stress-related hormones, such as epinephrine and glucocorticoids are mediated by influences involving the amygdala. It has been shown in experiments with rats that when they are given systemic injections of epinephrine while being trained to perform a task, they show an enhanced memory of performing the task. In effect the stronger the emotion that is tied to the memory, the more likely the individual is to remember. Therefore, if the memory is stored and retrieved properly it is less likely to be distorted.\n\nSection::::Brain mapping.\n", "Remembering (recollection) accesses memory for separate contextual details (e.g. screen location and font size); i.e. involves retrieval of a particular context configuration.\n\nSection::::Testing methods and models.:Signal detection model.\n", "Section::::Testing methods and models.:Remember-know models as decision strategies in two experimental paradigms.\n", "There is extensive evidence that the amygdala is involved in effectively influencing memory. Emotional arousal, usually fear based, activates the amygdala and results in the modulation of memory storage occurring in other brain regions.\n\nThe forebrain is one of the targets of the amygdala. The forebrain receives input from amygdala and calculates the emotional significance of the stimulus, generates an emotional response, and transmits it to cerebral cortex. This can alter the way neurons respond to future input, and therefore cognitive biases, such as choice-supportive bias can influence future decisions.\n\nSection::::Brain areas of interest.:Stress hormones affect memory.\n", "The primacy effect is related to enhanced remembering. In a study, a free recall test was conducted on some lists of words and no test on other lists of words prior to a recognition test. They found that testing led to positive recency effects for remembered items; on the other hand, with no prior test, negative recency effects occurred for remembered items. Thus, both primary and recency effects can be seen in remember responses.\n\nSection::::Influences on remembering and knowing.:Factors that influence know responses but not remember responses are.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02672	How is it possible for humans to "lose" or destroy the technology that sent men to the moon?	He means the US doesn't have a ready-to-go Apollo rocket + command module + lander. The last of those contained 70's technology. They were serviced in engineering hangers geared up for 70's technology, running software probably initially written with pencil, probably using communication systems that were turned off in the early 80's. Both the rocket itself and all the infrastructure to support it are long gone. He doesn't mean the US couldn't build the same thing again (well.. he might mean _some_ of the old engineering specs are literally missing) but it would take an immense amount of time and money to get a 21st century version designed and built.	[ "Section::::Rocket development.\n", "\"I wouldn't want to be quoted on this... We've spent $35 or $40 billion on the space program. And if nothing else had come out of it except the knowledge that we gained from space photography, it would be worth ten times what the whole program has cost. Because tonight we know how many missiles the enemy has and, it turned out, our guesses were way off. We were doing things we didn't need to do. We were building things we didn't need to build. We were harboring fears we didn't need to harbor.\"\n\nSection::::Effects.\n", "Section::::Consequences.\n\nThe signing of the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in 1963 and the Outer Space Treaty in 1967 prevented future exploration of the concept of detonating a nuclear device on the Moon. By this time both the United States and the Soviet Union had performed several high-altitude nuclear explosions, including those of Operation Hardtack I, Operation Argus, Operation Dominic I and II, and The K Project.\n", "A 1980 NASA study entitled \"Advanced Automation for Space Missions\" proposed a complex automated factory on the Moon that would work over several years to build 80% of a copy of itself, the other 20% being imported from Earth since those more complex parts (like computer chips) would require a vastly larger supply chain to produce. Exponential growth of factories over many years could refine large amounts of lunar (or asteroidal) regolith. Since 1980 there has been major progress in miniaturization, nanotechnology, materials science, and additive manufacturing, so it may be possible to achieve 100% \"closure\" with a reasonably small mass of hardware, although these technology advancements are themselves enabled on Earth by expansion of the supply chain so it needs further study. A NASA study in 2012 proposed a \"bootstrapping\" approach to establish an in-space supply chain with 100% closure, suggesting it could be achieved in only two to four decades with low annual cost. A study in 2016 again claimed it is possible to complete in just a few decades because of ongoing advances in robotics, and it argued it will provide benefits back to the Earth including economic growth, environmental protection, and provision of clean energy while also providing humanity protection against existential threats.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Gravity's Rainbow\" by Thomas Pynchon. The novel involves British intelligence attempting to avert and predict V-2 rocket attacks. The work even includes a gyroscopic equation for the V2. The first portion of the novel, \"Beyond The Zero\", begins with a quotation from von Braun: \"Nature does not know extinction; all it knows is transformation. Everything science has taught me, and continues to teach me, strengthens my belief in the continuity of our spiritual existence after death.\"\n", "A famous example from Apollo was the Apollo 13 mission, where limited battery power and inability to use the spacecraft's high-gain antennas reduced signal levels below the capability of the MSFN, and the use of the biggest DSN antennas (and the Australian Parkes Observatory radio telescope) was critical to saving the lives of the astronauts.\n", "Section::::Avoidance and reduction.\n\nDesigners of a new vehicle or satellite are frequently required to demonstrate that it can be safely disposed of at the end of its life, for example by use of a controlled atmospheric reentry system or a boost into a graveyard orbit. \n", "Human heritage in outer space also includes satellites like Vanguard 1 and Asterix-1 which, though nonoperational, remain in orbit.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Accordingly, most space-borne proposals which would traditionally be considered \"weapons\" (a communications or reconnaissance satellite may be useful in warfare but isn't generally classified as a weapon) are designed to jam, sabotage, and outright destroy enemy satellites, and conversely to protect friendly satellites against such attacks. To this end, the US (and presumably other countries) is researching groups of small, highly mobile satellites called \"microsats\" (about the size of a refrigerator) and \"picosats\" (approximately 1 cubic foot (≈27 litres) in volume) nimble enough to maneuver around and interact with other orbiting objects to repair, sabotage, hijack, or simply collide with them. \n", "In 1986, Honda began its humanoid research and development program to create robots capable of interacting successfully with humans. A hexapodal robot named Genghis was revealed by MIT in 1989. Genghis was famous for being made quickly and cheaply due to construction methods; Genghis used 4 microprocessors, 22 sensors, and 12 servo motors. Rodney Brooks and Anita M. Flynn published \"Fast, Cheap, and Out of Control: A Robot Invasion of The Solar System\". The paper advocated creating smaller cheaper robots in greater numbers to increase production time and decrease the difficulty of launching robots into space.\n\nSection::::Modern history.:1990s.\n", "Section::::MIRACL Experiment.\n\nIn October of 1997, William Cohen, the Secretary of Defense, approved of a plan to use the MIRACL chemical laser to target the sensors on the MSTI-3 spacecraft. The experiment was carried out on October 17th. The results were not successful with the Army stating that the satellite malfunctioned and did not transmit all of the data needed to evaluate the test. While the Defense Department labeled the project as a research experiment there was much controversy about the apparent development of a weapon to blind or damage satellites.\n", "BULLET::::- Three of the five Lunar Landing Research and Training vehicles (LLRV and LLTV) were destroyed in crashes near Houston, Texas:\n\nBULLET::::- 1968 May 6: LLRV No. 1 crashed at Ellington AFB, Texas, caused by loss of helium pressure that controlled the steering jets. Neil Armstrong ejected safely.\n\nBULLET::::- 1968 December 8: LLTV No. 1 crashed at Ellington AFB, Texas, caused by failure of the fly-by-wire control system. MSC test pilot Joseph Algranti ejected safely.\n", "James Stevens, Chief Engineer of North American Power-Air (NAPA), is desperate to discover what is causing vehicles driven by broadcast power to cease functioning. Society has harnessed cheap atomic power, broadcast by NAPA, to run homes, factories, ground vehicles, and even personal aircraft which can travel into space. If the failures continue, not only will he lose his job but the entire power system of the country could collapse.\n", "Some results of these tests, Dominic's 1962 Starfish Prime test in particular, presented concerns throughout the program's existence. In addition to the widespread effects of the nuclear explosion's electromagnetic pulse, which inadvertently damaged many satellites as well as land based electronics as far as 1500 km away, a large amount of charged particle radiation was released by the nuclear explosion. This radiation became trapped by the Earth's magnetic field, creating artificial belts of radiation 100 to 1,000 times stronger than background levels. The heightened levels of radiation eventually crippled one-third of all satellites in low orbit, while rendering seven others completely useless, including the first commercial communication satellite ever, Telstar.\n", "After a demonstration of this apparatus so unnerves visitors to an Italian resort that they are unable to enjoy their lunch, a frenzied search for plans to the 17th-century Moon-ship ends in frustration, a short scrap of Wilkinsese being all that is found once the plans' hiding place is discovered.\n", "FLPP addresses the problem that in many cases, promising new technologies for future launcher applications possess a low TRL. At this stage, an implementation of such a technology into a development programme poses a significant risk. If it turns out, that the technology does not perform as expected in the later stages of the development or the concept using that technology is not feasible, a redesign of the complete system often has severe impacts on time, quality and cost. \n", "1969 Lunar Module\n", "These systems were used to launch satellites, such as Sputnik, and to propel the Space Race, but they were primarily developed to create Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs) that could deliver nuclear weapons anywhere on the globe. Development of these systems continued throughout the Cold War—though plans and treaties, beginning with the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT I), restricted deployment of these systems until, after the fall of the Soviet Union, system development essentially halted, and many weapons were disabled and destroyed. On January 27, 1967, more than 60 nations signed the Outer Space Treaty, banning nuclear weapons in space.\n", "In 2007 the People's Republic of China used a missile system to destroy one of its obsolete satellites (see 2007 Chinese anti-satellite missile test), in 2008 the United States similarly destroyed its malfunctioning satellite USA 193, and in 2019, India followed same by destroying a live satellite. To date, there have been no human casualties resulting from conflict in space, nor has any ground target been successfully neutralised from orbit.\n\nInternational treaties governing space limit or regulate conflicts in space and limit the installation of weapon systems, especially nuclear weapons.\n\nSection::::Space treaties.\n", "Section::::Planetary defense.\n\nIn the United States, the Directed Energy Solar Targeting of Asteroids and exploRation (DE-STAR) Project was considered for non-military use to protect Earth from asteroids.\n\nSection::::Non-lethal weapons.\n\nThe TECOM Technology Symposium in 1997 concluded on non-lethal weapons, \"determining the target effects on personnel is the greatest challenge to the testing community\", primarily because \"the potential of injury and death severely limits human tests\".\n", "The remains of five S-IVB third stages of Saturn V rockets from the Apollo program are the heaviest single pieces sent to the lunar surface. Humans have left over of material on the Moon, and of Moon rock was brought back to Earth by Apollo and Luna missions. The only man-made objects on the Moon that are still in use are the retroreflectors for the lunar laser ranging experiments left there by the Apollo 11, 14 and 15 astronauts, and by the Lunokhod 1 and Lunokhod 2 missions.\n", "Section::::July 22, 1967 (Saturday).\n\nBULLET::::- An 7.1 magnitude earthquake struck Turkey at 4:57 in the afternoon local time, with an epicenter at the village of Mudurnu\n\nBULLET::::- Explorer 35, launched by the United States to study and measure \"the shadowing effect of the moon on solar electrons\", entered lunar orbit and began sending back data. Although its instruments would be switched off by 1973, Explorer 35 would still be orbiting the Moon half a century later.\n", "BULLET::::- Two days after NASA deliberately crashed Lunar Orbiter 3 onto the Moon's surface, it did the same to Lunar Orbiter 2. A press release from NASA the next day said that its purposeful crash of the two probes had been directed from commands sent from the Langley Research Center at Hampton, Virginia, in order \"to free their radio frequencies for future use\".\n", "Section::::Program recovery.\n", "BULLET::::- 1966 - USSR Luna 9, the first soft landing on the Moon\n\nBULLET::::- 1966 - USSR launches Soyuz spacecraft, longest-running series of spacecraft, eventually serving Soviet, Russian and International space missions.\n\nBULLET::::- 1968 - USSR Zond 5, two tortoises and smaller biological Earthlings circle the Moon and return safely to Earth.\n\nBULLET::::- 1968 - US Apollo 8, the first men to reach and orbit the Moon.\n\nBULLET::::- 1969 - US Apollo 11, first men on the Moon, first lunar surface extravehicular activity.\n\nBULLET::::- 1981 - US Space Shuttle pioneers reusability and glide landings\n" ]	[ "Humans have lost or destroyed the technology that sent men to the moon." ]	[ "Humans still have the technology but it would take an immense amount of time and money to build it." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Humans have lost or destroyed the technology that sent men to the moon." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Humans still have the technology but it would take an immense amount of time and money to build it." ]

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