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2018-00749	Why does ice form a hexagonal structure when water’s bond angle (104.5) is closer to a pentagon (108) than a hexagon (120)?	You are correct the angles are 104.5 however water is polar with the hydrogen's being slightly +ve and the oxygen being slightly -ve. The +ve side is attracted to the -ve side not -ve to -ve. The latice that ice is arranged in isn't straight sheets they're a 3d structure as /u/Petwins has pointed out which results in a hexagonal shape. [Here's a great visualisation of this]( URL_0 ) particularly if you use the spacefill scheme.	[ "Because \"K\" is a polyhedron only with vertices in which 3 edges come together it is possible for a hydrocarbon to exist (similar to the Platonic hydrocarbons) whose chemical structure is represented by the skeleton of \"K\". This “associahedrane” CH would have the SMILES notation: C12-C3-C4-C1-C5-C6-C2-C7-C3-C8-C4-C5-C6-C78. Its edges would be of approximately equal length, but the vertices of each face would not necessarily be coplanar.\n", "In ice, each oxygen atom is connected by a bond to four other oxygens, and each bond contains one hydrogen atom between the terminal oxygens. The hydrogen occupies one of two symmetrically located positions, neither of which is in the middle of the bond. Pauling argued that the allowed configuration of hydrogen atoms is such that there are always exactly two hydrogens close to each oxygen, thus making the local environment imitate that of a water molecule, . Thus, if we take the oxygen atoms as the lattice vertices and the hydrogen bonds as the lattice edges, and if we draw an arrow on a bond which points to the side of the bond on which the hydrogen atom sits, then ice satisfies the ice model.\n", "The angle between two short edges is 118.267°. The opposite angle, between long edges, is 67.783°. The other two angles, between a short and a long edge each, are both 86.974°.\n\nThe dihedral angle between all faces is 154.12°.\n\nSection::::Topology.\n", "Let OABC be the vertices of a tetrahedron with an origin at O subtended by the triangular face ABC where formula_17 are the vector positions of the vertices A, B and C. Define the vertex angle to be the angle BOC and define , correspondingly. Let formula_18 be the dihedral angle between the planes that contain the tetrahedral faces OAC and OBC and define formula_19, formula_20 correspondingly. The solid angle subtended by the triangular surface ABC is given by\n", "This follows from the theory of spherical excess and it leads to the fact that there is an analogous theorem to the theorem that \"\"The sum of internal angles of a planar triangle is equal to \"\", for the sum of the four internal solid angles of a tetrahedron as follows:\n\nwhere formula_23 ranges over all six of the dihedral angles between any two planes that contain the tetrahedral faces OAB, OAC, OBC and ABC.\n", "A ubiquitous example of a hydrogen bond is found between water molecules. In a discrete water molecule, there are two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Two molecules of water can form a hydrogen bond between them that is to say oxygen-hydrogen bonding; the simplest case, when only two molecules are present, is called the water dimer and is often used as a model system. When more molecules are present, as is the case with liquid water, more bonds are possible because the oxygen of one water molecule has two lone pairs of electrons, each of which can form a hydrogen bond with a hydrogen on another water molecule. This can repeat such that every water molecule is H-bonded with up to four other molecules, as shown in the figure (two through its two lone pairs, and two through its two hydrogen atoms). Hydrogen bonding strongly affects the crystal structure of ice, helping to create an open hexagonal lattice. The density of ice is less than the density of water at the same temperature; thus, the solid phase of water floats on the liquid, unlike most other substances.\n", "Disregarding self-intersecting surfaces, the small hexagonal hexecontahedron can be constructed as a Kleetope of a pentakis dodecahedron. It is therefore a second order Kleetope of the regular dodecahedron. In other words, by adding a shallow pentagonal pyramid to each face of a regular dodecahedron, we get a pentakis dodecahedron. By adding an even shallower triangular pyramid to each face of the pentakis dodecahedron, we get a small hexagonal hexecontahedron.\n", "Ice XI is the hydrogen-ordered form of I, the ordinary form of ice. Different phases of ice, from ice II to ice XVI, have been created in the laboratory at different temperatures and pressures. The total internal energy of ice XI is about one sixth lower than ice I, so in principle it should naturally form when ice I is cooled to below 72 K. The low temperature required to achieve this transition is correlated with the relatively low energy difference between the two structures. Water molecules in ice I are surrounded by four semi-randomly directed hydrogen bonds. Such arrangements should change to the more ordered arrangement of hydrogen bonds found in ice XI at low temperatures, so long as localized proton hopping is sufficiently enabled; a process that becomes easier with increasing pressure. Correspondingly, ice XI is believed to have a triple point with hexagonal ice and gaseous water at (~72 K, ~0 Pa).\n", "The usual isomer that [18]annulene refers to is the most stable one, containing six interior hydrogens and twelve exterior ones, with the nine formal double bonds in the \"cis\",\"trans\",\"trans\",\"cis\",\"trans\",\"trans\",\"cis\",\"trans\",\"trans\" configuration. It is reported to be a red-brown crystalline solid. The H NMR of this compound exhibits the hallmarks of a system with an aromatic ring current, with the 12H signal of the exterior hydrogens at 9.25 ppm, while the 6H signal of the interior hydrogens resonates at a remarkable −2.9 ppm in THF-\"d\" at −60 °C. On the other hand, a single signal at 5.45 ppm (the weighted average of the two individual signals) is observed at 120 °C. This is consistent with rapid exchange of the exterior and interior hydrogens at that temperature. The bond lengths in [18]annulene are in between those of single and double carbon–carbon bond, with two bond lengths observed crystallographically: 138.9 pm (concave edges) and 140.7 pm (convex edges). These bond lengths are indicative of significant delocalization. The favorability of delocalization is, in turn, interpreted as evidence for aromaticity. For comparison, these values are close to the bond length of benzene (140 pm).\n", "The 60 vertices of degree 3 correspond to the apex vertex of each triangular pyramid of the Kleetope, or to each face of the pentakis dodecahedron. The 20 vertices of degree 12 and 12 vertices of degree 10 correspond to the vertices of the pentakis dodecahedron, and also respectively to the 20 hexagons and 12 pentagons of the truncated icosahedron, the dual solid to the pentakis dodecahedron.\n", " As the ice crystals grow, they can bump into each other and splinter and fracture, resulting in many new ice crystals. There are many shapes of ice crystals to bump into each other. These shapes include hexagons, cubes, columns, and dendrites. This process is referred to as \"ice enhancement\" by atmospheric physicists and chemists.\n\nSection::::Aggregation.\n", "In-silico (see: water models), cyclic water clusters (HO) are found with n = 3 to 60. Structures of water molecules with the highest resolution have been demonstrated in the studies of Richard Saykally of Berkeley College of Chemistry. With increasing cluster size the oxygen to oxygen distance is found to decrease which is attributed to so-called cooperative many-body interactions: due to a change in charge distribution the H-acceptor molecule becomes a better H-donor molecule with each expansion of the water assembly. Many isomeric forms seem to exist for the hexamer: from ring, book, bag, cage, to prism shape with nearly identical energy. Two cage-like isomers exist for heptamers, and octamers are found either cyclic or in the shape of a cube. Even larger clusters are predicted: the fullerene-like cluster (HO) is called the \"water buckyball\" and even for a 280 water molecule monster icosahedral network (with each water molecule coordinate to 4 others) there is found a local energy minimum. The 280 molecule icosahedral structure, which is 3 nm in diameter, consists of icosahedral shells with 280, 100 and 320 molecules (the 100 molecule structure is shown the figure above). There is increased stability with the addition of each shell. A look at the recent scientific literature may reveal good reviews on the studies of water clusters employing \"ab initio\" methods. These clusters are also important for studying hydration phenomena at molecular level since they form the basic building blocks of the hydrated clusters. There are theoretical models of water clusters of more than 700 water molecules by Martin Chaplin and Stanislav Zenin. They have not been proven experimentally.\n", "If both the side lengths ( and ) of the base of the pyramid and the distance () from the center of the base rectangle to the apex of the pyramid (the center of the sphere) are known, then the above equation can be manipulated to give\n\nThe solid angle of a right -gonal pyramid, where the pyramid base is a regular -sided polygon of circumradius , with a \n\npyramid height is\n\nThe solid angle of an arbitrary pyramid with an -sided base defined by the sequence of unit vectors representing edges can be efficiently computed by:\n", "Common ice crystals are symmetrical and have a hexagonal pattern.\n\nSection::::Geometry.:Square crystals.\n\nSquare ice crystals form at room temperature when squeezed between two layers of graphene. The material is a new crystalline phase of ice, joining 17 others. The research derived from the earlier discovery that water vapor and liquid water could pass through laminated sheets of graphene oxide, unlike smaller molecules such as helium. The effect is thought to be driven by the van der Waals force, which may involve more than 10,000 atmospheres of pressure.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Snow\n\nBULLET::::- Snowflake\n\nBULLET::::- Ice spike\n\nBULLET::::- Diamond dust\n", "It has the same external form as a certain facetting of the dodecahedron having 20 self-intersecting hexagons as faces. The non-convex hexagon face can be broken up into four equilateral triangles, three of which are the same size. A true excavated dodecahedron has the three congruent equilateral triangles as true faces of the polyhedron, while the interior equilateral triangle is not present.\n\nThe 20 vertices of the convex hull match the vertex arrangement of the dodecahedron.\n", "The unit cell of Type H consists of 34 water molecules, forming three types of cages – two small ones of different types, and one \"huge\". In this case, the unit cell consists of three small cages of type 5, two small ones of type 456 and one huge of type 56. The formation of Type H requires the cooperation of two guest gases (large and small) to be stable. It is the large cavity that allows structure H hydrates to fit in large molecules (e.g. butane, hydrocarbons), given the presence of other smaller help gases to fill and support the remaining cavities. Structure H hydrates were suggested to exist in the Gulf of Mexico. Thermogenically-produced supplies of heavy hydrocarbons are common there.\n", "When the water is part of a crystal structure as in a hydrate, x-ray diffraction can be used. Conformation of a water heptamer was determined (cyclic twisted nonplanar) using this method. Further, multi-layered water clusters with formulae (HO) trapped inside cavities of several polyoxometalate clusters were also reported by Mueller et. al...\n\nExperimental study of any supramolecular structures in bulk water is difficult because of their short lifetime: the hydrogen bonds are continually breaking and reforming at the timescales faster than 200 femtoseconds.\n\nSection::::Bulk water models.\n", "The 6-vertex edge ring does not conform to the shape of a perfect hexagon. The conformation of a flat 2D planar hexagon has considerable angle strain because its bonds are not 109.5 degrees; the torsional strain would also be considerable because all of the bonds would be eclipsed bonds. Therefore, to reduce torsional strain, cyclohexane adopts a three-dimensional structure known as the chair conformation, which rapidly interconvert at room temperature via a process known as a chair flip. During the chair flip, there are three other intermediate conformations that are encountered: the half-chair, which is the most unstable conformation, the more stable boat conformation, and the twist-boat, which is more stable than the boat but still much less stable than the chair. The chair and twist-boat are energy minima and are therefore conformers, while the half-chair and the boat are transition states and represent energy maxima. The idea that the chair conformation is the most stable structure for cyclohexane was first proposed as early as 1890 by Hermann Sachse, but only gained widespread acceptance much later. The new conformation puts the carbons at an angle of 109.5°. Half of the hydrogens are in the plane of the ring (\"equatorial\") while the other half are perpendicular to the plane (\"axial\"). This conformation allows for the most stable structure of cyclohexane. Another conformation of cyclohexane exists, known as boat conformation, but it interconverts to the slightly more stable chair formation. If cyclohexane is mono-substituted with a large substituent, then the substituent will most likely be found attached in an equatorial position, as this is the slightly more stable conformation.\n", "Methane forms a structure I hydrate with two dodecahedral (12 vertices, thus 12 water molecules) and six tetradecahedral (14 water molecules) water cages per unit cell. (Because of sharing of water molecules between cages, there are only 46 water molecules per unit cell.) This compares with a hydration number of 20 for methane in aqueous solution. A methane clathrate MAS NMR spectrum recorded at 275 K and 3.1 MPa shows a peak for each cage type and a separate peak for gas phase methane. In 2003, a clay-methane hydrate intercalate was synthesized in which a methane hydrate complex was introduced at the interlayer of a sodium-rich montmorillonite clay. The upper temperature stability of this phase is similar to that of structure I hydrate.\n", "Deviation from octahedral geometry can be ascribed to an effect known as a second-order Jahn-Teller distortion. In 1995, before the work of Seppelt and Pfennig, Landis and coworkers had already predicted a distorted trigonal prismatic structure based on valence bond theory and VALBOND calculations.\n", "The faces are irregular pentagons with two long edges and three short edges. The ratio of edge lengths is about 1:1.7498525667362. The faces have four obtuse angles of about 118.13662 degrees each, and one acute angle (between the two long edges) of about 67.45351 degrees. The dihedral angle is about 153.178732558 degrees between all faces.\n", " observed that every straight-line drawing of a graph with maximum degree has angular resolution at most : if is a vertex of degree , then the edges incident to partition the space around into wedges with total angle , and the smallest of these wedges must have an angle of at most . More strongly, if a graph is -regular, it must have angular resolution less than formula_1, because this is the best resolution that can be achieved for a vertex on the convex hull of the drawing.\n\nSection::::Properties.:Relation to graph coloring.\n", "The accepted crystal structure of ordinary ice was first proposed by Linus Pauling in 1935. The structure of ice I is roughly one of crinkled planes composed of tessellating hexagonal rings, with an oxygen atom on each vertex, and the edges of the rings formed by hydrogen bonds. The planes alternate in an ABAB pattern, with B planes being reflections of the A planes along the same axes as the planes themselves. The distance between oxygen atoms along each bond is about 275 pm and is the same between any two bonded oxygen atoms in the lattice. The angle between bonds in the crystal lattice is very close to the tetrahedral angle of 109.5°, which is also quite close to the angle between hydrogen atoms in the water molecule (in the gas phase), which is 105°. This tetrahedral bonding angle of the water molecule essentially accounts for the unusually low density of the crystal lattice – it is beneficial for the lattice to be arranged with tetrahedral angles even though there is an energy penalty in the increased volume of the crystal lattice. As a result, the large hexagonal rings leave almost enough room for another water molecule to exist inside. This gives naturally occurring ice its unique property of being less dense than its liquid form. The tetrahedral-angled hydrogen-bonded hexagonal rings are also the mechanism that causes liquid water to be densest at 4 °C. Close to 0 °C, tiny hexagonal ice I-like lattices form in liquid water, with greater frequency closer to 0 °C. This effect decreases the density of the water, causing it to be densest at 4 °C when the structures form infrequently.\n", "The dekany is the edge dual of the 4-simplex. Similarly, the geometrical figure for the pentadekany is the edge dual of the 5-simplex. A dekany cam be made by joining together the midpoints of the edges of the 4-simplex, and similarly for the pentadekany and the 5-simplex.\n\nSimilarly the dekany vertices when scaled by 1/2 move to the midpoints of the 4-simplex edges, and the pentadekany vertices move to the midpoints of the 5-simplex edges, and so on in all higher dimensions.\n", "In practice, ice XI is most easily prepared from a dilute (10 mM) KOH solution kept just below 72 K for about a week (for D2O a temperature just below 76 K will suffice). The hydroxide ions create defects in the hexagonal ice, allowing protons to jump more freely between the oxygen atoms (and so this structure of ice XI breaks the 'ice rules'). More specifically, each hydroxide ion creates a Bjerrum L defect and an ionized vertex. Both the defect and the ion can move throughout the lattice and 'assist' with proton reordering. The positive K ion may also play a role because it is found that KOH works better than other alkali hydroxides. The exact details of these ordering mechanisms are still poorly understood and under question because experimentally the mobility of the hydroxide and K ions appear to be very low around 72 K. The current belief is that KOH acts only to assist with the hydrogen reordering and is not required for the lower-energy stability of ice XI. However, calculations by Toshiaki Iitaka in 2010 call this into question. Iitaka argues that the KOH ions compensate for the large net electric dipole moment of the crystal lattice along the c-axis. The aforementioned electronic structure calculations are done assuming an infinite lattice and ignore the effects of macroscopic electric fields created by surface charges. Because such fields are present in any finite size crystal, in non-doped ice XI, domains of alternating dipole moment should form as in conventional ferroelectrics. It has also been suggested that the ice I = ice XI transition is enabled by the tunneling of protons.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-21912	How do testicles move on their own?	It’s the cremaster muscle that pulls them up or down. You can actually stimulate it by lightly brushing your thigh, a lot of guys don’t know this: URL_0	[ "The non-motile spermatozoa are transported to the epididymis in \"testicular fluid\" secreted by the Sertoli cells with the aid of peristaltic contraction. While in the epididymis the spermatozoa gain motility and become capable of fertilization. However, transport of the mature spermatozoa through the remainder of the male reproductive system is achieved via muscle contraction rather than the spermatozoon's recently acquired motility.\n\nSection::::Role of Sertoli cells.\n", "Tubular spermbots are assembled by adding a large amount of the microtubes to a diluted sperm sample under the microscope. The sperm cells randomly enter the microtubes and become trapped in their slightly conical cavity. In order to increase the coupling efficiency between sperm cells and microtubes, the microtubes have been functionalized with proteins or sperm chemoattractant. This has been done using thiol chemistry once the tubes are rolled-up or by transferring the molecules with an elastomer stamp onto the material before rolling the tubes.\n\nSection::::Design.:\"Helical spermbots\".\n", "The testes are covered by a tough membranous shell called the tunica albuginea. Within the testes are very fine coiled tubes called seminiferous tubules. The tubules are lined with a layer of cells (germ cells) that develop from puberty through old age into sperm cells (also known as spermatozoa or male gametes). The developing sperm travel through the seminiferous tubules to the rete testis located in the mediastinum testis, to the efferent ducts, and then to the epididymis where newly created sperm cells mature (see spermatogenesis). The sperm move into the vas deferens, and are eventually expelled through the urethra and out of the urethral orifice through muscular contractions.\n", "The tail of the sperm - the flagellum - confers motility upon the sperm, and has three principal components:\n\nBULLET::::1. a central skeleton constructed of 11 microtubules collectively termed the axoneme and similar to the equivalent structure found in cilia\n\nBULLET::::2. a thin cell membrane covering the axoneme\n\nBULLET::::3. mitochondria arranged spirally around it the axoneme,\n", "Figure 2. A simplified scheme describing the suggested sequence of active sperm guidance mechanisms in mammals. In addition, two passive processes, sperm rheotaxis and contractions of the oviduct, may assist sperm movement towards the fertilization site.\n", "A typical Newton's cradle consists of a series of identically sized metal balls suspended in a metal frame so that they are just touching each other at rest. Each ball is attached to the frame by two wires of equal length angled away from each other. This restricts the pendulums' movements to the same plane.\n\nSection::::Operation.\n", "In the wood mouse \"Apodemus sylvaticus\", sperms aggregate in 'trains' that are better able to fertilize eggs because they are more capable of navigating the viscous environment of the female reproductive tract. The trains move in a sinusoidal motion.\n\nSperm motility is also affected by certain factors released by eggs. \n", "Some biohackers can now sense which direction they face using a magnetic implant that vibrates against the skin.\n\nSection::::Research topics.:Art.\n", "Section::::Pure translation.\n\nIf a rigid body moves so that its reference frame \"M\" does not rotate (∅=0) relative to the fixed frame \"F\", the motion is called pure translation. In this case, the trajectory of every point in the body is an offset of the trajectory d(t) of the origin of \"M,\" that is:\n\nThus, for bodies in pure translation, the velocity and acceleration of every point \"P\" in the body are given by:\n", "The set of all displacements of \"M\" relative to \"F\" is called the configuration space of \"M.\" A smooth curve from one position to another in this configuration space is a continuous set of displacements, called the motion of \"M\" relative to \"F.\" The motion of a body consists of a continuous set of rotations and translations.\n\nSection::::Point trajectories in a body moving in the plane.:Matrix representation.\n", "Whilst in the epididymis, they acquire motility. However, transport of the mature spermatozoa through the remainder of the male reproductive system is achieved via muscle contraction rather than the spermatozoon's motility. A glycoprotein coat over the acrosome prevents the sperm from fertilizing the egg prior to traveling through the male and female reproductive tracts. Capacitation of the sperm by the enzymes FPP (fertilization promoting peptide, produced in the prostate gland) and heparin (in the female reproductive tract) removes this coat and allows sperm to bind to the egg.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Images and video of spermiogenesis - University of Arizona\n", "The testes remain high in the abdomen until the seventh month of gestation, when they move from the abdomen through the inguinal canals into the two sides of the scrotum. Movement has been proposed to occur in two phases, under the control of somewhat different factors. The first phase, movement across the abdomen to the entrance of the inguinal canal, appears controlled (or at least greatly influenced) by anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH). The second phase, in which the testes move through the inguinal canal into the scrotum, is dependent on androgens (most importantly testosterone). In rodents, androgens induce the genitofemoral nerve to release calcitonin gene-related peptide, which produces rhythmic contractions of the gubernaculum, a ligament which connects the testis to the scrotum, but a similar mechanism has not been demonstrated in humans. Maldevelopment of the gubernaculum, or deficiency or insensitivity to either AMH or androgen can, therefore, prevent the testes from descending into the scrotum. Some evidence suggests an additional paracrine hormone, referred to as descendin, may be secreted by the testes.\n", "Compliant mechanisms are usually designed using two techniques, the first being a pseudo-rigid-body model and the second, the topology optimization. Other techniques are being conceived to design these mechanisms. Compliant mechanisms manufactured in a plane that have motion emerging from said plane are known as lamina emergent mechanisms (LEMs).\n", "Section::::Basic principles.:Lift-off mechanism.\n", "The \"flexible drive\" or \"resilient drive\", often used to couple an electric motor to a machine (for example, a pump), is one example. The drive consists of a rubber \"spider\" sandwiched between two metal dogs. One dog is fixed to the motor shaft and the other to the pump shaft. The flexibility of the rubber part compensates for any slight misalignment between the motor and the pump. See rag joint and giubo.\n\nThe Second International Symposium on Compliant Mechanisms, was held on May 19-20, 2011 at Delft, Netherlands.\n", "In 1913, Maccallum described the process of fertilization and egg-laying of this species: \"After a certain amount of friction together, one adult attached by its anterior end (where the genital atrium is located) to the corresponding portion of the other (in the position of the vaginal opening is situated). As the cirrus and surrounding genital opening are provided with circles of spines, the animals can preserve their position during fertilization. The spermatozoa pass through the Y-shaped reservoir of the vitellaria and are stored in the seminal reservoir, to be ejected when required. When the mature large eggs leave the ovary to join the uterus, the seminal reservoir contracts in order to inject an opaline fluid into the oviduct toward the oncoming egg. The egg advances to come in contact with the seminal fluid. Then it passes along the common duct that receives a granular yellowish fluid that ends up surrounding the egg. The egg then passes into the ootype. By a vermicular moulding process, the yolk is arranged around the egg which begins take its form. Once properly shaped, the egg passes along to the muscular portion of the uterine canal that the openings of the shell gland. This glands produce a fluid over the surface of the egg and forms the shell giving a completed egg with the exception of the filaments. The latest are formed by the contractions of the uterus on the soft material. The completed egg passes to the distal part of the uterus and remains in it until it is deposited\".\n", "Most bdelloids retract the foot while they eat, but there are four genera that lack a foot: \"Adineta\", \"Bradyscela\", \"Henoceros\" and \"Philodinavus\". This affects not only how they feed but also how they crawl; for instance \"Adineta\" and \"Bradyscela\" slide whereas the other genera loop.\n\nSection::::Behaviour.\n\nThe behaviour of bdelloids can be split into four categories: feeding, locomotion, reproduction and stress-induced behaviours.\n\nSection::::Behaviour.:Feeding.\n", "Section::::Life cycle.\n\nSection::::Life cycle.:Nauplius.\n\nY-nauplii are long, with a faceted cephalic shield, from which the group derives its name. The abdomen is relatively long, and also ornamented. In common with other thecostracans, Facetotecta pass through five naupliar instars before undergoing a single cyprid phase.\n\nSection::::Life cycle.:Cyprid.\n", "Section::::Testis.:Descent of the testes.:Development of gubernaculum.\n", "The mature spermatozoa are released from the protective Sertoli cells into the lumen of the seminiferous tubule and a process called \"spermiation\" then takes place, which removes the remaining unnecessary cytoplasm and organelles.\n\nThe resulting spermatozoa are now mature but lack motility, rendering them sterile. The non-motile spermatozoa are transported to the epididymis in \"testicular fluid\" secreted by the Sertoli cells, with the aid of peristaltic contraction.\n", "The cremaster muscle can reflexively raise each testicle individually if properly triggered. This phenomenon is known as the cremasteric reflex. The testicles can also be lifted voluntarily using the pubococcygeus muscle, which partially activates related muscles.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Gene and protein expression.\n", "Section::::Pelvic bones.\n\nThe support for the vagina is provided by muscles, membranes, tendons and ligaments. These structures are attached to the hip bones. These bones are the pubis, ilium and ischium.The interior surface of these pelvic bones and their projections and contours are used as attachment sites for the fascia, muscles, tendons and ligaments that support the vagina. These bones are then fuse and attach to the sacrum behind the vagina and anteriorly at the pubic symphysis. Supporting ligaments include the sacrospinous and sacrotuberous ligaments. The sacrospinous ligament is unusual in that it is thin and triangular.\n\nSection::::Pelvic diaphragm.\n", "Section::::Design.\n\nSection::::Design.:\"Tubular spermbots\".\n\nInitially, the microtubes for the tubular spermbots were made using roll-up nanotechnology on photoresist. In this process, thin films of titanium and iron were deposited onto a sacrificial layer. When the sacrificial layer was removed, the thin films rolled into 50 µm long microtubes with a diameter of 5 - 8 µm. Later on, the microtubes were made from a temperature-responsive polymer to enable the controlled release of the sperm cells upon a small temperature change of a few degrees.\n", "Testes follow the \"path of descent\" from high in the posterior fetal abdomen to the inguinal ring and beyond to the inguinal canal and into the scrotum. In most cases (97% full-term, 70% preterm), both testes have descended by birth. In most other cases, only one testis fails to descend (cryptorchidism) and that will probably express itself within a year.\n\nSection::::Development.:Pubertal.\n", "It appears the function of the rete testis is to mix the sperm as they leave the seminiferous tubules. Sperm leave the seminiferous tubules in the dilute secretions of Sertoli cells. The rete testis does modify the luminal fluids with a limited amount of secretion and reabsorption, but their primary function is to mix and transport the sperm into the efferent ductules, where the major function is reabsorption of about 95% of the fluid, which increases the sperm concentration prior to entering the epididymis.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Testicles move on their own." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The cremaster muscle pulls testicles up or down." ]
2018-00207	Why do lighters have a hard time lighting after being outside in the cold.	They depend on their liquid fuel turning to vapor so it can burn. When very cold, it doesn't evaporate as much.	[ "Zippo lighters, which have gained popularity as “windproof” lighters, are able to stay lit in harsh weather, due to the design of the windscreen and adequate rate of fuel delivery.\n", "Section::::Other types.\n\nSection::::Other types.:Jet lighter.\n\nAs opposed to lighters of the naphtha or standard butane type (whether refillable or disposable), which combust incompletely and thus create a sooty, orange \"safety\" flame, jet lighters produce a blue flame that in some cases is almost invisible and invariably burns at a far higher temperature. The spark in such lighters is almost always produced by an electric arc (as seen below), but some arc lighters burn with incomplete combustion.\n\nDisadvantages to the jet lighter include a \"roaring\" noise in operation, as well as higher fuel consumption.\n\nSection::::Other types.:Electric arc lighter.\n", "LED flashlights may consume 1 watt or much more from the battery, producing heat as well as light. In contrast to tungsten filaments, which must be hot to produce light, both the light output and the life of an LED decrease with temperature. Heat dissipation for the LED often dictates that small high-power LED flashlights have aluminium or other high heat conductivity bodies, reflectors and other parts, to dissipate heat; they can become warm during use.\n", "If an LED lamp does not have free air circulation, the LED is likely to overheat, resulting in reduced life or early failure. The thermal design of the system must allow for the ambient temperature surrounding the lamp; a lamp in a freezer experiences a lower ambient than a lamp in a billboard in a sunny climate. \n\nSection::::Materials.\n\nLEDs are made from a variety of inorganic semiconductor materials. The following table shows the available colors with wavelength range, voltage drop, and material:\n\nSection::::Quantum-dot LEDs.\n", "CFLs are generally not designed for outdoor use and some will not start in cold weather. CFLs are available with cold-weather ballasts, which may be rated to as low as −28.8 °C (−20 °F). Light output in the first few minutes drops at low temperatures. Cold-cathode CFLs will start and perform in a wide range of temperatures due to their different design.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Starting time.\n", "Exposure to ultraviolet radiation, solvents and high temperatures reduce the lifespan of leuco dyes. Temperatures above about typically cause irreversible damage to leuco dyes; a time-limited exposure of some types to about is allowed during manufacturing.\n", "The low energy consumption of LED lights can pose a driving risk in some areas during winter. Unlike incandescent and halogen bulbs, which generally get hot enough to melt away any snow that may settle on individual lights, LED displays – using only a fraction of the energy – remain too cool for this to happen. As a response to the safety concerns, a heating element on the lens was developed.\n\nSection::::Technology.:Programmable visibility signals.\n", "Many LED bulbs are not dimmable. While dimmable ones using different drivers are available, they may not work well with traditional dimmers - either the dimming range is narrow (the minimum brightness is too high) or the bulb flickers at lower brightness, or even both. The color temperature of incandescent bulbs — essentially the actual temperature of the hot filament — decreases as the voltage applied is reduced by a dimmer, and the light becomes visibly \"warmer\"; this does not happen with other technologies. However Philips has designed those that mimic this phenomenon when dimmed.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- The light distribution from the phosphor does not fully match the distribution of light from the LED die, so color temperature varies at differing angles.\n\nBULLET::::- Phosphor performance degrades over time, resulting in change of color temperature and falling output. With some LEDs degradation can be quite fast.\n\nBULLET::::- Limited heat tolerance means that the amount of power packable into a lamp assembly is a fraction of the power usable in a similarly sized incandescent lamp.\n", "LED lights produce relatively little heat when in use. In colder inclement climates, this has resulted in LED emergency vehicle warning lights (as well as traffic lights) being obscured by the buildup of frost or snow, raising safety concerns. Solutions are being researched to provide a heat source, as necessary in certain weather conditions, to keep LED lights clear of snow and frost.\n\nSection::::Optical types.:Modification of stock lighting.\n", "The lighter is a metal or plastic cylinder containing a thin flat coil of nichrome metal strip, through which high current (~10 amperes) passes when the device is activated, usually by pushing it into the socket as though it were a push-button. When pushed in, the lighter is held against the force of a spring by a clip attached to a bi-metallic strip. The heating element glows orange hot in seconds, causing the bi-metallic strip to bend and release the mechanism, and the handle pops out, eliminating the need for the user to time the heating operation. If the lighter is then promptly removed from its socket, it can light a cigarette, cigar, or tinder.\n", "Because photochromic compounds fade back to their clear state by a thermal process, the higher the temperature, the less dark photochromic lenses will be. This thermal effect is called \"temperature dependency\" and prevents these devices from achieving true sunglass darkness in very hot weather. Conversely, photochromic lenses will get very dark in cold weather conditions. Once inside, away from the triggering UV light, the cold lenses take longer to regain their transparency than warm lenses.\n", "Section::::Physical characteristics.\n\nSection::::Physical characteristics.:Security.\n\nThe filament in a tungsten light bulb is not easy to break when the bulb is cold, but filaments are more vulnerable when they are hot because the incandescent metal is less rigid. An impact on the outside of the bulb may cause the filament to break or experience a surge in electric current that causes part of it to melt or vaporize.\n", "BULLET::::- Cool light: In contrast to most light sources, LEDs radiate very little heat in the form of IR that can cause damage to sensitive objects or fabrics. Wasted energy is dispersed as heat through the base of the LED.\n\nBULLET::::- Slow failure: LEDs mainly fail by dimming over time, rather than the abrupt failure of incandescent bulbs.\n", "Specialized \"windproof\" butane lighters are manufactured for demanding conditions such as shipboard, high altitude, and wet climates. Some dedicated models double as synthetic rope cutters. Such lighters are often far hotter than normal lighters (those that use a \"soft flame\") and can burn in excess of . The windproof capabilities are not achieved from higher pressure fuel; windproof lighters use the same fuel (butane) as standard lighters, and therefore develop the same vapour pressure. Instead, windproof lighters mix the fuel with air and pass the butane–air mixture through a catalytic coil. An electric spark starts the initial flame, and soon the coil is hot enough to cause the fuel–air mixture to burn on contact.\n", "If power is interrupted, even briefly, the lamp's arc will extinguish, and the high pressure that exists in the hot arc tube will prevent restriking the arc; with a normal ignitor a cool-down period of 5–10 minutes will be required before the lamp can be restarted, but with special ignitors and specially designed lamps, the arc can be immediately re-established. On fixtures without instant restrike capability, a momentary loss of power can mean no light for several minutes. For safety reasons, many metal-halide fixtures have a backup tungsten-halogen incandescent lamp that operates during cool-down and restrike. Once the metal halide restrikes and warms up, the incandescent safety light is switched off. A warm lamp also tends to take more time to reach its full brightness than a lamp that is started completely cold.\n", "The lampholder must be located far enough from the filament that the metals with the lowest melting point will remain solid. Historically this metal was a tin/lead solder whose melting point might be as low as 180 °C (360 °F). Due to the thermal changes from ambient temperature to full operating temperature, the design of a socket must allow for a considerable amount of expansion and contraction. Spring elements are required to accommodate these dimensional changes. However, the temperature at which a metal loses its spring is far below the melting point. This is why some older sockets that no longer work can be restored by prying up the base spring slightly.\n", "Since a filament breaking in a gas-filled bulb can form an electric arc, which may spread between the terminals and draw very heavy current, intentionally thin lead-in wires or more elaborate protection devices are therefore often used as fuses built into the light bulb. More nitrogen is used in higher-voltage lamps to reduce the possibility of arcing.\n", "Fluorescent lamps operate best around room temperature. At much lower or higher temperatures, efficacy decreases. At below-freezing temperatures standard lamps may not start. Special lamps may be needed for reliable service outdoors in cold weather. In applications such as road and railway signalling, fluorescent lamps which do not generate as much heat as incandescent lamps may not melt snow and ice build up around the lamp, leading to reduced visibility.\n\nSection::::Disadvantages.:Lamp shape.\n", "In flood lamps used for photographic lighting, the tradeoff is made in the other direction. Compared to general-service bulbs, for the same power, these bulbs produce far more light, and (more importantly) light at a higher color temperature, at the expense of greatly reduced life (which may be as short as two hours for a type P1 lamp). The upper temperature limit for the filament is the melting point of the metal. Tungsten is the metal with the highest melting point, . A 50-hour-life projection bulb, for instance, is designed to operate only below that melting point. Such a lamp may achieve up to 22 lumens per watt, compared with 17.5 for a 750-hour general service lamp.\n", "Section::::Bans on novelty lighters.\n\nOn May 11, 2006, the European Consumer Protection Commission adopted a decision requiring Member States to ensure that, from March 11, 2007, cigarette lighters are child-resistant when placed on the EU market. The decision also prohibits placing lighters on the market that resemble objects that are particularly attractive to children.\n", "Section::::Starting and warm up.\n\nA \"cold\" (below operating temperature) metal-halide lamp cannot immediately begin producing its full light capacity because the temperature and pressure in the inner arc chamber require time to reach full operating levels. Starting the initial argon arc (or xenon in automotive) sometimes takes a few seconds, and the warm up period can be as long as five minutes (depending upon lamp type). During this time the lamp exhibits different colors as the various metal halides vaporize in the arc chamber.\n", "Safety lamps have to address the following issues:\n\nBULLET::::- Provide adequate light\n\nBULLET::::- Do not trigger explosions\n\nBULLET::::- Warn of a dangerous atmosphere\n\nFire requires three elements to burn: fuel, oxidant and heat; the triangle of fire. Remove one element of this triangle and the burning will stop. A safety lamp has to ensure that the triangle of fire is maintained inside the lamp, but cannot pass to the outside.\n", "Cold-cathode CFLs can be dimmed to low levels, making them popular replacements for incandescent bulbs on dimmer circuits.\n\nWhen a CFL is dimmed, its color temperature (warmth) stays the same. This is counter to most other light sources (such as the sun or incandescents) where color gets redder as the light source gets dimmer. The Kruithof curve from 1934 described an empirical relationship between intensity and color temperature of visually pleasing light sources.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Power factor.\n", "BULLET::::- Prevent malicious tampering or interference. This means that besides the lamp itself, the entire circuit from the source (electric company or generator), through the wires, to the lamp and back should be protected.\n\nBULLET::::- Luminaires should be accessible so that the maintainer can replace blown bulbs as quickly as possible and clean the luminaires periodically. However they should be protected or somehow made inaccessible to tampering.\n\nBULLET::::- Ensure the electric meter box is locked or inaccessible, or else power the lights from a different line.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02752	How planes get AC working at such high altitude going so fast?	It takes superheated air off of the engine known as bleed air. The air is then sent through a heat exchanger that takes the cold ambient air and mixes them to the desired temperature.	[ "A near-term hybrid would need 1,000–3,000-volt and a fully turboelectric large aircraft 5,000–10,000-volt, like ship power systems but arcing occurs at much lower voltages at low pressures than at sea level.\n\nSection::::Inverters.\n\nWhile a battery power source would use a direct current distribution, a gas turbine power source would also allow alternating current which would need power converters, mainly inverters to convert DC to controlled, variable-frequency AC to regulate a motor speed and torque.\n\nSilicon carbide [SiC] and gallium nitride [GaN] switches can operate at higher frequencies with lower losses, increasing efficiency.\n", "The AC EmPower system converts aircraft AC 400 Hz or wild frequency power to standard AC 60 Hz to prevent additional stresses in laptop chargers already stressed by reduced cooling at altitude. Note that laptops on this system will still charge batteries. Modern laptop batteries, however include a temperature sensor that should compensate for the reduced cooling at altitude. This new system accepts various national power plugs and most laptop chargers will function properly at AC 110 V 60 Hz even if sold in AC 230 V 50 Hz markets.\n", "Mach number, a useful quantity in aerodynamics, is the ratio of air speed to the local speed of sound. At altitude, for reasons explained, Mach number is a function of temperature.\n\nAircraft flight instruments, however, operate using pressure differential to compute Mach number, not temperature. The assumption is that a particular pressure represents a particular altitude and, therefore, a standard temperature. Aircraft flight instruments need to operate this way because the stagnation pressure sensed by a Pitot tube is dependent on altitude as well as speed.\n\nSection::::Experimental methods.\n", "Power beaming of electromagnetic energy such as microwaves, like a power cable, requires a ground-based power source. However, compared to a power cable, power beaming carries much less weight penalty as altitude increases. The technology has been demonstrated on small models but awaits practical development.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Pioneers.\n", "Selecting a point on the plot, net thrust is calculated as follows:\n\nformula_154\n\nClearly, net thrust falls with altitude, because of the decrease in ambient pressure.\n\nThe corresponding SFC is calculated as follows:\n\nformula_155\n\nAt a given point on the Husk Plot, SFC falls with decreasing ambient temperature (e.g. increasing altitude or colder climate).The basic reason why SFC increases with flight speed is the implied increase in ram drag.\n\nAlthough a Husk Plot is a concise way of summarizing the performance of a jet engine, the predictions obtained at altitude will be slightly\n", "Naturally, net thrust will decrease with altitude, because of the lower air density. There is also, however, a flight speed effect.\n", "When altitude is increased, air density decreases. With lower air density, air molecules are further apart from each other, which will lead to declines in combustion engine performance. Electric powered aircraft will not see loses on power output at high altitude, but rather aerodynamic losses as propellers work harder to propel the same amount of air at ground level. However, cooling capacity will decline on both combustion and electric motors at high altitude due to the lower volume of air. This phenomenon is why the operating limit of helicopters is constrained, as propeller thrust returns to a value of 0 when the air becomes too thin at high altitude. This makes high altitude airports significantly more dangerous than airports at sea level.\n", "The cockpit of an aircraft is a typical location for avionic equipment, including control, monitoring, communication, navigation, weather, and anti-collision systems. The majority of aircraft power their avionics using 14- or 28‑volt DC electrical systems; however, larger, more sophisticated aircraft (such as airliners or military combat aircraft) have AC systems operating at 400 Hz, 115 volts AC. There are several major vendors of flight avionics, including Panasonic Avionics Corporation, Honeywell (which now owns Bendix/King), Universal Avionics Systems Corporation, Rockwell Collins (now Collins Aerospace), Thales Group, GE Aviation Systems, Garmin, Raytheon, Parker Hannifin, UTC Aerospace Systems (now Collins Aerospace), Selex ES (now Leonardo S.p.A.) and Avidyne Corporation.\n", "Section::::Design.:Engines and power.\n\nSix electric driven propeller engines are installed on the wings that generate a combined thrust of 250 lbf at sea level. Although the power output remains constant as altitude increases the propellers lose their effectiveness but are still able to provide cruising speed of 152 km/h at altitude for the Explorer and 100 km/h for the Pioneer. The electrical motors are powered by internal batteries during night and solar panels during daytime. The solar panels generate 2800W for the Explorer and 1800W for the Pioneer.\n\nSection::::Design.:Avionics and control.\n", "During the spring and summer of 2013, GE learned of four 747-8F freighters that suffered icing in their engines at altitudes of 40,000 feet and above. The most serious incident involved an AirBridgeCargo freighter; on July 31, while at an altitude of 41,000 feet over China, the flight crew noted two engines surging while a third lost substantial power. The pilots were able to land the plane safely but the engines were found to have sustained damage. Among the possible factors cited was \"'unique convective weather systems' such as unusually large thunderstorms reaching high altitudes.\" Boeing is working with GE on software solutions to the problem. Altitude was restricted until GE changed the software to detect the high-altitude ice crystals and open bleed air valve doors to eject them before they enter the core.\n", "GE is building a 2,400-volt DC, 1-megawatt inverter with SiC switches and its 1.7-kW MOSFETs power modules.\n\nThe University of Illinois is building a 1,000 volts DC, 200-kW \"flying capacitor\" scalable to a 1-megawatt with GaN-based field-effect transistor switches.\n\nBoth are liquid cooled and target 19 kW/kg at 99% efficiency but Boeing is developing a cryogenically cooled 1-megawatt inverter for 26 kW/kg and 99.3% efficiency with off-the-shelf silicon semiconductors, and is currently fabricating a liquid-nitrogen-cooled 200-kW inverter before a 1-megawatt one.\n", "The standard power voltage and frequency varies from country to country and sometimes within a country. In North America and northern South America it is usually 120 volt, 60 hertz (Hz), but in Europe, Asia, Africa and many other parts of the world, it is usually 230 volt, 50 Hz. Aircraft often use 400 Hz power internally, so 50 Hz or 60 Hz to 400 Hz frequency conversion is needed for use in the ground power unit used to power the airplane while it is on the ground. Conversely, internal 400 Hz internal power may be converted to 50 Hz or 60 Hz for convenience power outlets available to passengers during flight.\n", "The receivers, transmitters and necessary air-conditioning were all powered by the plane's engines using three 15 kVA, 500 Hz alternators. Without air conditioning the transmitters in the interior of the aircraft would have generated a temperature of 134 degrees Fahrenheit (57 degrees Celsius) with an outside air temperature of 25 degrees Fahrenheit (minus 4 degrees Celsius).\n", "The 480B engine is capable of producing 420 shp, but in this application it is derated to 305 shp for 5 minutes and 277 continuous shp, which is available to 13,000 MSL on a standard day. Thus hot-temperature or high-altitude operations have a considerable degree of power available. The engine drives a three-bladed rotor of 32 feet diameter and a tail rotor of 5 feet diameter. The main rotor and hubs weigh a total of 300 pounds, so there is considerable inertia in the system during a loss of power. Autorotation landings are uneventful.\n\nSection::::Variants.\n\nBULLET::::- 480\n\nBULLET::::- 480B\n", "The A380 uses four 150 kVA variable-frequency electrical generators, eliminating constant-speed drives and improving reliability. The A380 uses aluminium power cables instead of copper for weight reduction. The electrical power system is fully computerised and many contactors and breakers have been replaced by solid-state devices for better performance and increased reliability.\n", "At 13:45, control of Flight 705 was transferred to Miami Air Route Traffic Control Center. There were communication difficulties, although after the jet was provided with a different frequency to use, the flight crew established contact with Miami ARTCC. Several minutes after contact was established, the jet's altitude began increasing with a rate of climb gradually increasing to approximately 9,000 feet per minute. Following this rapid ascent, the rate of climb decreased through zero when the altitude peaked momentarily at just above 19,000 feet. During this time, the jet's airspeed decreased from 270 to 215 knots and as the peak altitude was approached, the vertical accelerations changed rapidly from 1G to about -2G.\n", "The nominal net thrust quoted for a jet engine usually refers to the Sea Level Static (SLS) condition, either for the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) or a hot day condition (e.g. ISA+10 °C). As an example, the GE90-76B has a take-off static thrust of 76,000 lbf (360 kN) at SLS, ISA+15 °C.\n\nNaturally, net thrust will decrease with altitude, because of the lower air density. There is also, however, a flight speed effect.\n", "Section::::Axial-flow jet engines.\n\nIn the jet engine application, the compressor faces a wide variety of operating conditions. On the ground at takeoff the inlet pressure is high, inlet speed zero, and the compressor spun at a variety of speeds as the power is applied. Once in flight the inlet pressure drops, but the inlet speed increases (due to the forward motion of the aircraft) to recover some of this pressure, and the compressor tends to run at a single speed for long periods of time.\n", "There are several ways to reduce energy usage in air transportation, from modifications to the planes themselves, to how air traffic is managed. As in cars, turbochargers are an effective way to reduce energy consumption; however, instead of allowing for the use of a smaller-displacement engine, turbochargers in jet turbines operate by compressing the thinner air at higher altitudes. This allows the engine to operate as if it were at sea-level pressures while taking advantage of the reduced drag on the aircraft at higher altitudes.\n", "In modern use, AC power supplies can be divided into single phase and three phase systems. \"The primary difference between single phase and three phase AC power is the constancy of delivery.\" \n\nAC power Supplies can also be used to change the frequency as well as the voltage, they are often used by manufacturers to check the suitability of their products for use in other countries. 230 V 50 Hz or 115 60 Hz or even 400 Hz for avionics testing.\n\nSection::::Types.:AC power supplies.:AC adapter.\n", "Fixed-wing, and rotor-wing aircraft can be found in either 12 volt or 24 volt configurations, however most modern aircraft are strictly 24 volt, direct current. This electrical power is generated by engine driven generators. A wet-cell lead acid battery, or Ni-cad (nickel cadmium) battery is used for starting or powering systems without engines running. On board, this DC power is changed via inverters to 115 v, 400 Hz AC power for different aircraft systems.\n\nSection::::Land vehicles.\n\nThis section will cover common voltages for different vehicle applications.\n\nSection::::Land vehicles.:6 volt.\n", "The highest altitude obtained by an electrically powered aircraft is on August 14, 2001 by the NASA Helios, and is the highest altitude in horizontal flight by a winged aircraft. This is also the altitude record for propeller driven aircraft, FAI class U (Experimental / New Technologies), and FAI class U-1.d (Remotely controlled UAV : Weight 500 kg to less than 2500 kg).\n\nSection::::Rotorcraft.\n", "The speed of the AC motor is determined primarily by the frequency of the AC supply and the number of poles in the stator winding, according to the relation:\n\nwhere\n", "Section::::Technology.:Increasing the power output.\n\nTo increase the power output, the engineer turned his power controller, which had the following effects:\n\nBULLET::::- More fuel was injected into the combustion chamber\n\nBULLET::::- The speed governor was adjusted to achieve a higher rotation speed\n\nBULLET::::- The overload protector noticed an overload situation (rotation speed lower than the target speed) and lowered (!) the load on the turbine\n", "On November 10, 2017, its successor, the GE9X, reached a higher record test thrust of in Peebles, Ohio.\n\nIn October 2003, a Boeing 777-300ER broke the ETOPS record by being able to fly five and a half hours (330 minutes) with one engine shut down. The aircraft, with GE90-115B engines, flew from Seattle to Taiwan as part of the ETOPS certification program.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04791	babies crying pre-sedentary/having shelters if it would technically be a death sentence attracting predators in nature	Hardly. First, remember that babies were not left unattended. Our early ancestors (much like some hunter gatherer tribes still do to this day) carries their babies around constantly. Babies that are worn cry much less because pretty much their every need (food and comfort) are very close by. Additionally, we are a species that lives in groups. A group of humans is going to be loud in any situation, and the occasional baby cry is not going to add much to that. Living in a group was our protection already, not stealth.	[ "Nestling tree swallows produce a begging display when their parents arrive at the nest with food, but they also beg to apparently inappropriate stimuli in the absence of parents, such as movements of the nest or broodmates. Begging rate and intensity varied in response to recordings of (1) a tree swallow adult landing on a nestbox and calling and (2) a common grackle (\"Quiscalis quiscala\"), a nest predator, landing on a nestbox. Nestlings increased the rate and intensity of their begging responses to both swallow and grackle stimulus sounds as time without food increased, although responses to the grackle sounds were always less than to the swallow sounds.\n", "Section::::Costs and defenses.:As a cost of social behavior.\n\nTaking a broader view of the black-tailed prairie dog situation, infanticide can be seen as a cost of social living. If each female were to have her own private nest away from others, she would be much less likely to have her infants killed when absent. This, and other costs such as increased spread of parasites, must be made up for by other benefits, such as group territory defense and increased awareness of predators.\n", "Sheila Kitzinger found a correlation between the mother's prenatal stress level and later amount of crying by the infant. She also found a correlation between birth trauma and crying. Mothers who had experienced obstetrical interventions or who were made to feel powerless during birth had babies who cried more than other babies. Rather than try one remedy after another to stop this crying, she suggested that mothers hold their babies and allow the crying to run its course. Other studies have supported Kitzinger's findings. Babies who had experienced birth complications had longer crying spells at three months of age and awakened more frequently at night crying.\n", "Although crying is an infant's mode of communication, it is not limited to a monotonous sound. There are three different types of cries apparent in infants. The first of these three is a basic cry, which is a systematic cry with a pattern of crying and silence. The basic cry starts with a cry coupled with a briefer silence, which is followed by a short high-pitched inspiratory whistle. Then, there is a brief silence followed by another cry. Hunger is a main stimulant of the basic cry. An anger cry is much like the basic cry; however, in this cry, more excess air is forced through the vocal cords, making it a louder, more abrupt cry. This type of cry is characterized by the same temporal sequence as the basic pattern but distinguished by differences in the length of the various phase components. The third cry is the pain cry, which, unlike the other two, has no preliminary moaning. The pain cry is one loud cry, followed by a period of breath holding. Most adults can determine whether an infant's cries signify anger or pain. Most parents also have a better ability to distinguish their own infant's cries than those of a different child. A 2009 study found that babies mimic their parents' pitch contour. French infants wail on a rising note while German infants favor a falling melody.\n", "An early reference to filicide (the killing of a child by a parent) is in Greek mythology. In his play \"Medea\", Euripides portrayed Medea as having killed her two sons after Jason abandoned her for the daughter of the King of Corinth giving us what has been termed the Medea Complex. Under the Roman Law, \"patria potestas\", the right of a father to kill his own children was protected. It was not until the 4th century that the Roman state, influenced by Christianity, began to regard filicide as a crime. Still, mothers who killed their infants or newborns received lesser sentences under both the laws of the church and the state.\n", "In a letter to the \"British Medical Journal\", it was reported that a high proportion of parents referred for actual or threatened child abuse were taking drugs at the time, often a combination of benzodiazepines and tricyclic antidepressants. Many mothers described that instead of feeling less anxious or depressed, they became more hostile and openly aggressive towards the child as well as to other family members while consuming tranquilizers. The author warned that environmental or social stresses such as difficulty coping with a crying baby combined with the effects of tranquilizers may precipitate a child abuse event.\n", "Kindleinwiegen\n\nKindleinwiegen (Rocking the Christchild) is a Christian Nativity tradition which can be traced back to the Liturgical dramas of the later Medieval period. It is a tradition primarily from the German speaking parts of central Europe which appeared across the region in a variety of forms, chiefly though not exclusively in monasteries and churches. It was at its most widespread between the fifteenth and nineteenth centuries, and survived more strongly in Roman Catholic regions than in those areas that switched to protestantism, following the interventions of Martin Luther and others.\n", "The church consistently dealt more leniently with those mothers whose children died by overlaying, an accidental death by smothering when a sleeping parent rolled over on the infant. The opinions of the church in these deaths may reflect an awareness of one of society's first attempts to understand the severe problem of overpopulation and overcrowding. England has traditionally viewed infanticide as a \"special crime,\" passing its first Infanticide Act in 1623 under the Stuarts and more recently in the Infanticide Acts of 1922 and 1938. Most recently England passed the Infanticide Act of 1978 which allows a lesser sentence for attempted infanticide. Unlike England and other European countries, the United States has not adopted special statutes to deal with infanticide or neonaticide. Nonetheless, juries and judges, as reflected in their verdicts and sentences, have consistently considered the difficulties and stresses of a mother during the post-partum period.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Maternal deprivation\": The maternal deprivation model is the most widely used early life stress model. This model manipulates the maternal separation of early life deprivation, in which pups are separated from the dam for 1–24 h per day during the first two postnatal weeks. Maternal separation results in increased anxiety- and depression-like behaviors and increased HPA response in adulthood.\n\nSection::::Other models.\n", "Those who realize that an infant can be in a situation where abuse is a possibility, support can be offered to give a parent or caregiver a break when needed. Education and understanding can let the parent know that dealing with a crying baby can be very frustrating—especially when they are tired or stressed, but infant crying is normal and it will pass. Parents can be encouraged to take a calming break if needed while the baby is safe in the crib. Others can be sensitive and supportive in situations when parents are trying to calm a crying baby.\n", "Compared to other infants, excessive crying infants had a slightly lower birth weight and a slightly younger gestational age. Excessive crying infants more often had a single, lower educated mother, originating from a non-industrialized country, who reported more depression, a higher burden of infant care, and more aggressive behavior and had an authoritarian parenting style. Excessive crying was associated with a higher risk for hyperactivity/inattention problems, emotional symptoms, conduct problems, peer relationship problems, and overall problem behavior at the age of 5–6, as well as a higher risk for decreased pro-social behavior as reported by the mother. Excessive crying was also associated with mood problems as well as generalized anxiety problems at the age of 5–6.\n", "The conditions of immigration detention are rarely appropriate for children, especially when detention is ordered for extensive periods of time. In immigration detention, children often face challenges in accessing education, appropriate health services, adequate food and accommodation and may have limited opportunities for leisure time and recreational activities. Detention is a highly distressing experience, especially for migrants and asylum seekers. It has a harmful impact on the mental health, well-being and development of children. The experience of detention can cause or exacerbate previous traumatisation. In some cases, migrant children are detained together with their families to prevent family separation in cases where parents are being detained for immigration matters. When it is in the best interests of the child to remain with her or his parents, alternatives to detention can be considered for the whole family.\n", "Section::::Mammals.\n\nYoung mammals often demand resources from their parents by screaming, bleating or crying, and sometimes by direct tussling.\n", "The story is based upon the Mexican urban legend of La Llorona. The legend began in Aztec mythos where the goddess Cihuacoatl was said to have taken the form of a beautiful lady draped in white garments to predict the death of her children. This early myth evolved into the modern Mexico version of La Llorona, a woman who, betrayed by her husband, drowned her children out of revenge. As punishment for this horrific act, La Llorona’s spirit is condemned to roam the earth for eternity, crying for her children.\n\nSection::::Theatrical and festival release.\n", "Although begging is assumed to be directed at parents, barn owl (\"Tyto alba\"), nestlings vocalize in the presence but also in the absence of the parents. The \"sibling negotiation hypothesis\" proposes that offspring use each other's begging vocalization as a source of information about their relative willingness to contest the next prey item delivered. This predicts that the more hungry nestling will contest the next item delivered while the less hungry one will retreat to avoid injuries and/or save energy. Nestling barn owls refrain from vocalization when a rival is more hungry, but escalate once the rival has been fed by a parent, and refrain from and escalate vocalization in enlarged and reduced broods. Thus, when parents are not at the nest, a nestling vocally refrains when the value of the next delivered prey item will be higher for its nest-mates.\n", "Camper Sally Lowe and Lindy's husband Michael gave evidence that they heard a baby cry at a time when Chamberlain was with them at the barbecue area and Azaria was believed to be in the family tent.\n\nWitness Judith West, who was camped 30 metres away, testified to hearing a dog's low, throaty growl coming from that direction, a sound that she associated with growls her husband's dogs made when he was slaughtering sheep.\n", "Section::::Modulators.:Genetic.\n\nSibling relatedness in a brood also influences the level of begging. In a study on passerine birds, it was found that chicks begged more loudly in species with higher levels of extra-pair paternity.\n\nSection::::Modulators.:Sibling negotiation.\n", "Risk of predation: Nestlings giving repeated begging calls could enable predators to more easily locate the nest. This has been tested by comparing predation rates at artificial nests with and without playbacks of bird begging calls. In trials where tapes were played in an artificial nest with quail eggs, these nests were destroyed by predators before nearby “quiet” nests. Ground-nesting birds are at a greater risk to predation than tree-nesting birds; nestlings of these species have higher frequency begging chirps which travel less distance than lower frequency calls which could reduce their vulnerability to predators. Another behavioral adaptation is that when a nest is in danger, parents give alarm calls which temporarily stop the begging calls of the nestlings.\n", "Charles Godfray (1991) modeled the begging behavior of nestling birds as a signaling game. The nestlings begging not only informs the parents that the nestling is hungry, but also attracts predators to the nest. The parents and nestlings are in conflict. The nestlings benefit if the parents work harder to feed them than the parents ultimate benefit level of investment. The parents are trading off investment in the current nestlings against investment in future offspring.\n", "Ainsworth herself was the first to find difficulties in fitting all infant behavior into the three classifications used in her Baltimore study. Ainsworth and colleagues sometimes observed \"tense movements such as hunching the shoulders, putting the hands behind the neck and tensely cocking the head, and so on. It was our clear impression that such tension movements signified stress, both because they tended to occur chiefly in the separation episodes and because they tended to precede crying. Indeed, our hypothesis is that they occur when a child is attempting to control crying, for they tend to vanish if and when crying breaks through.\" Such observations also appeared in the doctoral theses of Ainsworth's students. Crittenden, for example, noted that one abused infant in her doctoral sample was classed as secure (B) by her undergraduate coders because her strange situation behavior was \"without either avoidance or ambivalence, she did show stress-related stereotypic headcocking throughout the strange situation. This pervasive behavior, however, was the only clue to the extent of her stress.\"\n", "Preungesheim, a maximum-security women's prison in Frankfurt, Germany, has one of the best-known programs for incarcerated mothers and their children. Mothers who are on high-security and must stay on prison grounds are able to keep their children until they are 3 years old. They live in a \"closed mother-child house\" that is a separate enclosed building on the prison grounds. During the day, children attend preschool while their mothers are at work. Those mothers who are not a high-security risk live in an “open mother-child house” with their children. An open mother-child house opens to the nearby neighborhood, instead of opening to the prison - distinctly setting an open mother-child house apart from a closed mother-child house. Children are allowed to play in the nearby playground during the day while their mothers are at work.\n", "In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, \"loopholes\" were invented by Protestants who wanted to avoid the damnation that was promised by most Christian doctrine as a penalty of suicide. One famous example of someone who wished to end their life but avoid the eternity in hell was Christina Johansdotter (died 1740). She was a Swedish murderer who killed a child in Stockholm with the sole purpose of being executed. She is an example of those who seek suicide through execution by committing a murder. It was a common act, frequently targeting young children or infants as they were believed to be free from sin, thus believing to go \"straight to heaven\". \n", "Children who live with a single parent that has a live-in partner are at the highest risk: they are 20 times more likely to be victims of child abuse than children living with both biological parents.\n", "In some African societies some neonates were killed because of beliefs in evil omens or because they were considered unlucky. Twins were usually put to death in Arebo; as well as by the Nama people of South West Africa; in the Lake Victoria Nyanza region; by the Tswana in Portuguese East Africa; in some parts of Igboland, Nigeria twins were sometimes abandoned in a forest at birth (as depicted in \"Things Fall Apart\"), oftentimes one twin was killed or hidden by midwives of wealthier mothers; and by the !Kung people of the Kalahari Desert. The Kikuyu, Kenya's most populous ethnic group, practiced ritual killing of twins.\n", "Crying in infants is associated with high stress levels and depression in mothers. Excessive crying has also been linked to maternal \"physical aggression\" and \"angry speaking\". The burden of care of the mother, that is, mothers without assistance in caring for the infant, are more prone to physical aggression and angry speaking. During evaluations of maternal depression responses to infant crying, sleeping problems are closely associated with excessive crying and may confound the conclusions of such research. Also, it is not always clear that when sleeping problems are associated with infant crying, whether the sleeping problems are descriptive of the mother or the infant or both. Maternal stress is associated with excessive crying.\n" ]	[ "Babies crying would attract predators", "Presedentary babies and/or babies without shelter that cried was the equivalent to a death sentence. " ]	[ "Humans are loud, not just babies. Babies that are worn cry much less.", "It can not be considered a death sentence because babies were not left unattended, in addition to this most of the time they were carried which means most of their needs were met to minimize crying. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Babies crying would attract predators", "Presedentary babies and/or babies without shelter that cried was the equivalent to a death sentence. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Humans are loud, not just babies. Babies that are worn cry much less.", "It can not be considered a death sentence because babies were not left unattended, in addition to this most of the time they were carried which means most of their needs were met to minimize crying. " ]
2018-03316	Why aren’t race and other demographic info withheld in justice systems to create an impartial system?	The accused has a right to confront their accusers and to attend their own trials. So it's pretty obvious to all involved, when it comes to race, gender, etc.	[ "The NCJA believe that the over-representation of victims of color and under-representation of minority professionals employed within the criminal justice system are issues that need to be addressed and present significant challenges for the justice system. Criminal Justice professionals should strive to have administration be representative of the population they serve, as well as work to seek out effective measures to reduce over-representation of minority victims and offenders in the criminal justice system.\n\nSection::::Policy Statements.:Mentally Ill Persons in the Criminal Justice System.\n", "A 2016 study from the American Psychological Association, \"Discrimination and Instructional Comprehension\", researched how the lack of comprehension of capital penalty jury instructions, relates to death sentencing in America. This study was composed of eligible subjects, who were given the option to sentence a verdict based on their comprehension from the given instructions and their evidence. The study concluded that multiple verdicts who could not comprehend the penalty instructions, had a higher death sentence probability.\n\nSection::::Racial inequality in incarceration.:Race and the death penalty.\n", "In April 2012 the EEOC published an enforcement guidance requiring companies to establish procedures to show that they are not using criminal records to discriminate by race or national origin. The EEOC indicated that they were investigating \"hundreds of charges related to the use of criminal history in employment\". EEOC endorsed removing a conviction question from the job application as a best practice in its 2012 guidance.\n", "Section::::Over-representation of Aboriginal People in Criminal Justice System.\n", "Minorities are targeted at disproportionate rates and sent to prison for reasons that are ignored for non-minorities. When the citizens who have been arrested can no longer support themselves the legal route, they might decide to turn to the underground world of crime. This decision can lead to harm upon oneself, open the door to addiction, and possible re-arrest which repeats the cycle of sending minorities to prison. It was found in 2010 that \"the United States imprisoned a larger percentage of its black population than South Africa did at the height of the Apartheid.\" This shows a clear occurrence of disproportionate racial incarceration.\n", "\"Controlling for nature of offense...for family background...for educational history—all of the things that go into a prosecutor's decision, there are still disparities, significant disparities, that cannot be explained by anything other than race,\" says Laura Cohen, the director of the Criminal and Youth Justice Clinic at Rutgers Law School.\n", "Justice Cory and Justice Iacobucci held that the courts below erred in taking an overly narrow approach of s. 718.2(e). The purpose of this provision is to address the historical and current problem with the severe over-representation of Indigenous people within the criminal justice system. In Canada, Indigenous people make up 25% of the Federal prison population, despite representing only 4% of the Canadian population. \n\nSection::::Challenges.\n", "The introduction stated \"Knowledge of the truth does not always help change emotional attitudes that draw their real strength from the subconscious or from factors beside the real issue.\" But it could \"however, prevent rationalizations of reprehensive acts or behaviour prompted by feelings that men will not easily avow openly.\"\n\nUNESCO made a moral statement:\n", "Section::::Policy Statements.:Information Technology.\n\nAccording to the NCJA there is a critical need for all public safety agencies to collect, analyze, and share information involving criminal justice data and trends. \n\nInvestments in technology should also adhere to federal and state standards, especially the National Information Exchange Model and Global Information Sharing Initiative.\n\nThe use of technology should not affect the rights and privacy of individuals, and confidentiality of records should be maintained.\n\nSection::::Policy Statements.:Racial Disparity in the Criminal Justice System.\n", "Section::::Notable cases.:Aryan Nations.\n", "In \"Peña-Rodriguez v. Colorado\" (2017), the Supreme Court ruled that the Sixth Amendment requires a court in a criminal trial to investigate whether a jury's guilty verdict was based on racial bias. For a guilty verdict to be set aside based on the racial bias of a juror, the defendant must prove that the racial bias \"was a significant motivating factor in the juror's vote to convict.\"\n\nSection::::Rights secured.:Impartial jury.:Venire of juries.\n", "BULLET::::- Employers should only ask about an applicant's criminal conviction history if it is job related.\n\nBULLET::::- Treating job applicants with criminal histories differently based on their race or national origin is a disparate treatment liability. Disparate treatment is defined as intentional discrimination If employers ask about criminal convictions in the interview process, the interviewer must ask all interviewees and not just interviewees of a perceived sex, race, or national origin.\n", "The defendant may move to dismiss a criminal charge on the ground that he or she has been singled out for prosecution because of race, gender, religion, national origin, illegitimacy, or similar. In order to get discovery on a racial selective prosecution claim, the defendant must make the threshold showing that the government declined to prosecute similarly situated suspects of other races. The defendant is not entitled to a presumption of selective prosecution based on data regarding the overall population of convicts.\n\nBULLET::::- Discrimination in the jury pool and venire\n", "Section::::Practical considerations.:Privacy concerns.\n", "The Project is unique because it will commence with the strategic selection of cases relating to the wrongful conviction of Aboriginal Australians after being tried or interviewed without an interpreter or with an unqualified and/or co-accused interpreter. This will not only include cases where an appellant is non-English speaking but also when an appellant speaks “Aboriginal-English” and/or demonstrates gratuitous concurrence\n\nSection::::Projects.:Coronial Inquests.\n", "Examining both individual level and county level variables, a new study from 2008 updated and evaluated Crawford's work. It affirmed that sentencing policies are becoming harsher, and habitual offender statutes are currently just another tool that lawmakers use to incarcerate minorities at a higher rate than their white counterparts. The 2008 study concluded that habitual offender statutes can only continue to be used if they are used in a way that completely disregards race and is unbiased. \n\nSection::::Factors affecting incarceration rates.\n", "A federal investigation initiated before the 2014 Michael Brown shooting in Ferguson, Missouri, found faults with the treatment given youths in the juvenile justice system in St. Louis County, Mo. The Justice Dept, following a 20-month investigation based on 33,000 cases over three years, reported that black youths were treated more harshly than whites and that all low-income youths, regardless of race, were deprived of their basic constitutional rights. Youths who encountered law enforcement got little or no chance to challenge detention or get any help from lawyers. With only one public defender assigned to juveniles in a county of one million, that legal aide handled 394 cases in 2014. The investigation was unrelated to the notorious case which roiled St. Louis, beginning before the police shooting of the unarmed black youth. The failure to grant access to counsel brought to light the practice of an informal process which could let offenders off with a warning or having them enter into diversion programs in lieu of being charged in court. But to be accepted into the informal process, offenders had to admit to guilt, which runs afoul of the right not to incriminate oneself in criminal proceedings. The investigation following Michael Brown's shooting found an enormous disparity in the way juvenile cases were handled, with blacks being 47% more likely than whites to be put through the formal criminal proceedings. It also found them more likely to be held in detention, and also subsequently sentenced to incarceration once the case was finished. They were also more likely to be detained for violating parole from a previous case.\n", "BULLET::::- Excluding applicants with certain criminal records may end up overly excluding groups of individuals protected under Title VII which is a disparate impact liability. Disparate impact is defined as unintentional discrimination.\n\nBULLET::::- Some states have different laws about how arrest and conviction records can be used in hiring decisions and when employers can obtain information about criminal records.\n", "The bill would require the Attorney General to study such information and report on means by which it can be used to reduce the number of such deaths.\n\nThe information states would be required to provide includes mostly demographic data. States would need to indicate the prisoner's name, gender, race, ethnicity, and age. The circumstances surrounding the prisoner's death would also have to be reported.\n\nSection::::Procedural history.\n", "In the United States, the practice of racial profiling has been ruled to be both unconstitutional and also to constitute a violation of civil rights. There also an ongoing debate on the relationship between race and crime regarding the disproportional representation of certain minorities in all stages of the criminal justice system.\n", "A 2014 study in the \"Journal of Political Economy\" found that 9% of the black-white gap in sentencing could not be accounted for. The elimination of unexplained sentencing disparities would reduce \"the level of black men in federal prison by 8,000–11,000 men [out of black male prison population of 95,000] and save $230–$320 million per year in direct costs.\" The majority of the unexplained sentencing disparity appears to occur at the point when prosecutors decide to bring charges carrying “mandatory minimum” sentences. A 2018 paper by Alma Cohen and Crystal Yang of Harvard Law School found that \"that Republican-appointed judges give substantially longer prison sentences to black offenders versus observably similar non-black offenders compared to Democratic-appointed judges within the same district court.\" A 2018 study in the \"Quarterly Journal of Economics\" found that bail judges in Miami and Philadelphia were racially biased against black defendants, as white defendants had higher rates of pretrial misconduct than black defendants.\n", "The court decision in \"Dred Scott v. Sandford\" made it so that African slaves and their descendants were considered non-citizens, further incorporating racism into the justice system.\n\nSection::::Historical timeline.:Postbellum (1865–).\n\nWhen slavery was abolished after the Civil War through the ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment to the constitution, violence against African Americans increased tremendously and thousands of African Americans experienced lynching.\n\nDuring the same time period, unequal treaties towards Native Americans led to a large decrease in Native American land holdings, and Native Americans were forced into reservations.\n", "The counter-argument: It has been pointed out that constitutional approval of felons' political powerlessness is not the same as constitutional approval of government prejudice toward the politically powerless. Such prejudice may arguably violate the Equal Protection Clause, which itself contains no exclusionary provision authorizing discrimination against felons (although several other provisions explicitly authorize discrimination). A \"discrete and insular\" minority subject to prejudice, in particular, may be considered particularly vulnerable to oppression by the majority, and thus a suspect class worthy of protection by the judiciary.\n", "The criminal justice, child welfare, and immigrant detention systems frequently target and separate families with marginalized identities, which advocates say is a reproductive justice issue. The cash bail system incarcerates only people who have low incomes and cannot afford bail, which often means people of color. Due to the Adoption and Safe Families Act, parents can then lose all legal rights to their children if they have been incarcerated for 15 of the last 22 months, even if they are still awaiting trial. Both incarceration and immigrant detention separate children from competent parents who want them, which is often deeply traumatic and can result in children being placed in the foster care system, where the likelihood of poor healthcare and educational outcomes increases, as does the likelihood of future criminal justice involvement, and these outcomes are worst for children of color.\n", "BULLET::::- Individuals associated with the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (FLDS) church, such as Warren Jeffs and Merril Jessop have refused to answer questions during depositions and court hearings, citing the 5th amendment, over concerns of self-incrimination related to \"potential state investigation still ongoing, as well as criminal investigations under the Mann Act out of the U.S. Attorney's Office.\"\n\nSection::::Legal application.:Mann Act case decisions by the United States Supreme Court.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-08732	why does a planet need to have traces of water for it to be able to carry life?	The only life we know to exist requires water. So, we look for water as a shortcut to look for life as we know it. Is it possible life as we don't know it, that does not use water, exists? Sure maybe. But how do you look for "I don't know what"? You can't, effectively. Worse still, if it doesn't exist, then most of your searching is a waste of time.	[ "However, the question of what makes a planet habitable is much more complex than having a planet located at the right distance from its host star so that water can be liquid on its surface: various geophysical and geodynamical aspects, the radiation, and the host star's plasma environment can influence the evolution of planets and life, if it originated. Liquid water is a necessary but not sufficient condition for life as we know it, as habitability is a function of a multitude of environmental parameters\n\nSection::::Suitable star systems.:Spectral class.\n", "Section::::Indicators, methods of detection and confirmation.:Models of radioactive decay.\n", "A planet's orbit in the circumstellar habitable zone is a popular method used to predict its potential for surface water at its surface. Habitable zone theory has put forward several extrasolar candidates for liquid water, though they are highly speculative as a planet's orbit around a star alone does not guarantee that a planet it has liquid water. In addition to its orbit, a planetary mass object must have the potential for sufficient atmospheric pressure to support liquid water and a sufficient supply of hydrogen and oxygen at or near its surface.\n", "BULLET::::3. Earth's atmospheric content of Ne is significantly higher than would be expected had all the rare gases and HO been accreted from planetary embryos with carbonaceous chondritic compositions.\n", "Section::::Liquid water in the Solar System.:Ice giants.\n\nThe \"ice giant\" (sometimes known as \"water giant\") planets Uranus and Neptune are thought to have a supercritical water ocean beneath their clouds, which accounts for about two-thirds of their total mass, most likely surrounding small rocky cores. This kind of planet is thought to be common in extrasolar planetary systems.\n\nSection::::Indicators, methods of detection and confirmation.\n\nMost known extrasolar planetary systems appear to have very different compositions to the Solar System, though there is probably sample bias arising from the detection methods.\n\nSection::::Indicators, methods of detection and confirmation.:Spectroscopy.\n", "The asteroid 24 Themis was the first found to have water, including liquid pressurised by non-atmospheric means, dissolved into mineral through ionising radiation. Water has also been found to flow on the large asteroid 4 Vesta heated through periodic impacts.\n\nSection::::Extrasolar habitable zone candidates for water.\n\nMost known extrasolar planetary systems appear to have very different compositions to the Solar System, though there is probably sample bias arising from the detection methods.\n", "spacecraft bound to \"special regions\" containing water. Otherwise there is a risk of contaminating not only the life-detection experiments but possibly the planet itself.\n", "Extraterrestrial liquid water\n\nExtraterrestrial liquid water (from the Latin words: \"extra\" [\"outside of, beyond\"] and \"terrestris\" [\"of or belonging to Earth\"]) is water in its liquid state that naturally occurs outside Earth. It is a subject of wide interest because it is recognized as one of the key prerequisites for life as we know it and thus surmised as essential for extraterrestrial life.\n", "Models of radioactive decay suggest that MOA-2007-BLG-192Lb, a small planet orbiting a small star could be as warm as the Earth and completely covered by a very deep ocean.\n\nSection::::Indicators, methods of detection and confirmation.:Internal differentiation models.\n\nModels of Solar System objects indicate the presence of liquid water in their internal differentiation.\n\nSome models of the dwarf planet Ceres, largest object in the asteroid belt indicate the possibility of a wet interior layer. Water vapor detected to be emitted by the dwarf planet may be an indicator, through sublimation of surface ice.\n", "With oceanic water covering 71% of its surface, Earth is the only planet known to have stable bodies of liquid water on its surface, and liquid water is essential to all known life forms on Earth. The presence of water on the surface of Earth is a product of its atmospheric pressure and a stable orbit in the Sun's circumstellar habitable zone, though the origin of Earth's water remains unknown.\n", "Locations within the Solar System where life might exist today include the oceans of liquid water beneath the icy surface of Europa, Enceladus,\n\nand Titan (its surface has oceans of liquid ethane / methane, but it may also have liquid water below the surface and ice volcanoes).\n", "Section::::Determination.:Extrasolar extrapolation.:Other considerations.\n\nA planet cannot have a hydrosphere—a key ingredient for the formation of carbon-based life—unless there is a source for water within its stellar system. The origin of water on Earth is still not completely understood; possible sources include the result of impacts with icy bodies, outgassing, mineralization, leakage from hydrous minerals from the lithosphere, and photolysis. For an extrasolar system, an icy body from beyond the frost line could migrate into the habitable zone of its star, creating an ocean planet with seas hundreds of kilometers deep such as GJ 1214 b or Kepler-22b may be.\n", "On 9 December 2013, NASA reported that the planet Mars had a large freshwater lake (which could have been a hospitable environment for microbial life) based on evidence from the Curiosity rover studying Aeolis Palus near Mount Sharp in Gale Crater.\n\nSection::::Liquid water on comets and asteroids.\n", "BULLET::::- Has been studied for more than a year\n\nBULLET::::- Confirmed surface with strong evidence for it being either solid or liquid\n\nBULLET::::- Water vapour detected in its atmosphere\n\nBULLET::::- Gravitational, radio or differentation models that predict a wet stratum\n\nMost known extrasolar planetary systems appear to have very different compositions from the Solar System, though there is sampling bias arising from the detection methods.\n", "The existence of liquid water, and to a lesser extent its gaseous and solid forms, on Earth are vital to the existence of life on Earth as we know it. The Earth is located in the habitable zone of the solar system; if it were slightly closer to or farther from the Sun (about 5%, or about 8 million kilometers), the conditions which allow the three forms to be present simultaneously would be far less likely to exist.\n", "Water is present as ice on:\n\nBULLET::::- Mars: under the regolith and at the poles.\n\nBULLET::::- Earth–Moon system: mainly as ice sheets on Earth and in Lunar craters and volcanic rocks NASA reported the detection of water molecules by NASA's Moon Mineralogy Mapper aboard the Indian Space Research Organization's Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft in September 2009.\n\nBULLET::::- Ceres\n\nBULLET::::- Jupiter's moons: Europa's surface and also that of Ganymede and Callisto\n\nBULLET::::- Saturn: in the planet's ring system and on the surface and mantle of Titan and Enceladus\n\nBULLET::::- Pluto–Charon system\n\nBULLET::::- Comets and other related Kuiper belt and Oort cloud objects\n", "There is, of course, no guarantee that the other conditions will be found that allow liquid water to be present on a planetary surface. Should planetary mass objects be present, a single, gas giant planet, with or without planetary mass moons, orbiting close to the circumstellar habitable zone, could prevent the necessary conditions from occurring in the system. However, it would mean that planetary mass objects, such as the icy bodies of the solar system, could have abundant quantities of liquid within them.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The current understanding of planetary habitability—the ability of a world to develop environmental conditions favorable to the emergence of life—favors planets that have liquid water on their surface. Most often this requires the orbit of a planet to lie within the habitable zone, which for the Sun extends from just beyond Venus to about the semi-major axis of Mars. During perihelion, Mars dips inside this region, but Mars's thin (low-pressure) atmosphere prevents liquid water from existing over large regions for extended periods. The past flow of liquid water demonstrates the planet's potential for habitability. Recent evidence has suggested that any water on the Martian surface may have been too salty and acidic to support regular terrestrial life.\n", "Section::::Biochemical basis.\n\nLife on Earth requires water as a solvent in which biochemical reactions take place. Sufficient quantities of carbon and other elements, along with water, might enable the formation of living organisms on terrestrial planets with a chemical make-up and temperature range similar to that of Earth. Life based on ammonia (rather than water) has been suggested as an alternative, though this solvent appears less suitable than water. It is also conceivable that there are forms of life whose solvent is a liquid hydrocarbon, such as methane, ethane or propane.\n", "Outside the CHZ, tidal heating and radioactive decay are two possible heat sources that could contribute to the existence of liquid water. Abbot and Switzer (2011) put forward the possibility that subsurface water could exist on rogue planets as a result of radioactive decay-based heating and insulation by a thick surface layer of ice.\n", "And is also likely present on:\n\nBULLET::::- Mercury's poles\n\nBULLET::::- Tethys\n\nSection::::Distribution in nature.:In the universe.:Exotic forms.\n\nWater and other volatiles probably comprise much of the internal structures of Uranus and Neptune and the water in the deeper layers may be in the form of ionic water in which the molecules break down into a soup of hydrogen and oxygen ions, and deeper still as superionic water in which the oxygen crystallises but the hydrogen ions float about freely within the oxygen lattice.\n\nSection::::Distribution in nature.:Water and habitable zone.\n", "A planet found in December 2009, GJ 1214 b, is 2.7 times as large as Earth and orbits a star much smaller and less luminous than our Sun. \"This planet probably does have liquid water,\" said David Charbonneau, a Harvard professor of astronomy and lead author of an article on the discovery. However, interior models of this planet suggest that under most conditions it does not have liquid water.\n\nBy November 2009, a total of 30 super-Earths had been discovered, 24 of which were first observed by HARPS.\n\nSection::::Discoveries.:Others by year.:2010.\n", "Long before the discovery of water on asteroids on comets and dwarf planets beyond Neptune, the Solar System's circumstellar disks, beyond the snow line, including the asteroid belt and the Kuiper Belt were thought to contain large amounts of water and these were believed to be the Origin of water on Earth. Given that many types of stars are thought to blow volatiles from the system through the photoevaporation effect, water content in circumstellar disks and rocky material in other planetary systems are very good indicators of a planetary system's potential for liquid water and a potential for organic chemistry, especially if detected within the planet forming regions or the habitable zone. Techniques such as interferometry can be used for this.\n", "For the Jovian moons Ganymede and Europa, the existence of a sub-ice ocean is inferred from the measurements of the magnetic field of Jupiter. Since conductors moving through a magnetic field produce a counter-electromotive field, the presence of the water below the surface was deduced from the change in magnetic field as the moon passed from the northern to southern magnetic hemisphere of Jupiter.\n\nSection::::Indicators, methods of detection and confirmation.:Geological indicators.\n\nThomas Gold has posited that many Solar System bodies could potentially hold groundwater below the surface.\n", "This bound water fails the \"common sense\" test of lay, terrestrial experience. Solar System science and asteroid mining ascribe all these as \"water,\" in a similar sense as ice giant.\n\nOn a macroscopic scale, some thickness of crust may shelter water from evaporation, photolysis and radiolysis, meteoric bombardment, etc. Even where a crust does not originally exist, impurities in ice may form a crust after its parent ice escapes: a lag deposit.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04347	how does one person (out of a group/family) fall ill (with a disease or virus) and yet no other group/family member is affected?	Your immune system likely fended off the bacteria that infected your grandma's lungs. A healthy immune system is typically capable of eliminating most bacteria before they become problematic. But many things may cause a person's immune system to be compromised or otherwise less capable of fending off disease. It may the person is very young or old, they have some other illness that has weakened or disabled the immune system, the person being on immunosuppressants, the person having a genetic disorder, or a variety of other reasons. In this case, the bacteria may spread before the immune system can contain them. In the vast majority of cases, the immune system eventually catches up and eliminates the bacteria, allowing the person to recover.	[ "BULLET::::- Homogeneous mixing of the population, i.e., individuals of the population under scrutiny assort and make contact at random and do not mix mostly in a smaller subgroup. This assumption is rarely justified because social structure is widespread. For example, most people in London only make contact with other Londoners. Further, within London then there are smaller subgroups, such as the Turkish community or teenagers (just to give two examples), who mix with each other more than people outside their group. However, homogeneous mixing is a standard assumption to make the mathematics tractable.\n\nSection::::Types of epidemic models.\n", "Section::::Infectious diseases.\n\nAsymptomatic carriers have furthered the spread of many infectious diseases. A common principle in epidemiology, the 80–20 rule, speculates that 80% of the disease transmission is conducted by only 20% of people in a population. Carriers are responsible for significant bacterium transmission in many common diseases such as the flu, but may also contribute to the spread of less common infections.\n\nSection::::Infectious diseases.:Typhoid fever.\n", "Some people who have had an infectious disease such as tuberculosis never completely recover and continue to carry the infection, whilst not suffering the disease themselves. They may then move back into the infectious compartment and suffer symptoms (as in tuberculosis) or they may continue to infect others in their carrier state, while not suffering symptoms. The most famous example of this is probably Mary Mallon, who infected 22 people with typhoid fever. The carrier compartment is labelled C.\n\nSection::::Elaborations on the basic SIR model.:The SEIR model.\n", "Several assumptions were made in the formulation of these equations: First, an individual in the population must be considered as having an equal probability as every other individual of contracting the disease with a rate of formula_17, which is considered the contact or infection rate of the disease. Therefore, an infected individual makes contact and is able to transmit the disease with formula_18 others per unit time and the fraction of contacts by an infected with a susceptible is formula_19. The number of new infections in unit time per infective then is formula_20, giving the rate of new infections (or those leaving the susceptible category) as formula_21. For the second and third equations, consider the population leaving the susceptible class as equal to the number entering the infected class. However, a number equal to the fraction (formula_22 which represents the mean recovery/death rate, or formula_23 the mean infective period) of infectives are leaving this class per unit time to enter the removed class. These processes which occur simultaneously are referred to as the Law of Mass Action, a widely accepted idea that the rate of contact between two groups in a population is proportional to the size of each of the groups concerned. Finally, it is assumed that the rate of infection and recovery is much faster than the time scale of births and deaths and therefore, these factors are ignored in this model.\n", "Some individuals may have a natural resistance to a particular infectious disease. However, except in some special cases such as malaria, these individuals make up such a small proportion of the total population that they can be ignored for the purposes of modelling an epidemic.\n\nSection::::Mathematical model of susceptibility.\n", "Many carriers are infected with persistent viruses such as Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV), a member of the herpes virus family. Studies show that about 95% of adults have antibodies against EBV, which means they were infected with the virus at some point in their life.\n\nSection::::Infectious diseases.:Clostridium difficile.\n\nClostridium difficile has also been shown to be spread by asymptomatic carriers, and poses significant problems in home-care settings. Reports indicating that over 50% of long-term patients present with fecal contamination despite a lack of symptoms have led many hospitals to extend the period of contact precautions until discharge.\n\nSection::::Infectious diseases.:Chlamydia.\n", "Where \"A\" is the average age at which the disease is contracted and \"L\" is the average life expectancy of the population. To understand the rationale behind this relation, think of \"A\" as the length/amount of time spent in the susceptible group (assuming an individual is susceptible before contracting the disease and immune afterwards) and \"L\" as the total length of time spent in the population. It thus follows that the proportion of time spent as a susceptible is A/L and, in a population with a rectangular distribution, the proportion of an individual's life spent in one group is representative of the proportion of the population in that group. \n", "In the case of some diseases such as AIDS and Hepatitis B, it is possible for the offspring of infected parents to be born infected. This transmission of the disease down from the mother is called Vertical Transmission. The influx of additional members into the infected category can be considered within the model by including a fraction of the newborn members in the infected compartment.\n\nSection::::Other considerations within compartmental epidemic models.:Vector transmission.\n", "The heritability of sarcoidosis varies according to ethnicity. About 20% of African Americans with sarcoidosis have a family member with the condition, whereas the same figure for European Americans is about 5%. Additionally, in African Americans, who seem to experience more severe and chronic disease, siblings and parents of sarcoidosis cases have about a 2.5-fold increased risk for developing the disease. In Swedish individuals heritability was found to be 39%. In this group, if a first-degree family member was affected, a person has a four-fold greater risk of being affected.\n", "Computer simulations of infectious disease spread have been used.\n\nHuman aggregation can drive transmission, seasonal variation and outbreaks of infectious diseases, such as the annual start of school, bootcamp, the annual Hajj etc. Most recently, data from cell phones have been shown to be able to capture population movements well enough to predict the transmission of certain infectious diseases, like rubella.\n\nSection::::Relationship with virulence and survival.\n", "Each member of the population typically progresses from susceptible to infectious to recovered. This can be shown as a flow diagram in which the boxes represent the different compartments and the arrows the transition between compartments, i.e.\n\nSection::::The SIR model.:Transition rates.\n\nFor the full specification of the model, the arrows should be labeled with the transition rates between compartments. Between S and I, the transition rate is βI, where β is the average number of contacts per person times the probability of disease transmission in a contact between a susceptible and an infectious subject.\n", "Although unaffected by the pathogen, carriers can transmit it to others or develop symptoms in later stages of the disease. Asymptomatic carriers play a critical role in the transmission of common infectious diseases such as typhoid, \"C. difficile\", influenzas, and HIV. While the mechanism of disease-carrying is still unknown, researchers have made progress towards understanding how certain pathogens can remain dormant in a human for a period of time. A better understanding of asymptomatic disease carriers is crucial to the fields of medicine and public health as they work towards mitigating the spread of common infectious diseases.\n", "Section::::Types of asymptomatic carriers.\n\nAsymptomatic carriers can be categorized by their current disease state. When an individual transmits pathogens immediately following infection but prior to developing symptoms, they are known as an incubatory carrier. Humans are also capable of spreading disease following a period of illness. Typically thinking themselves cured of the disease, these individuals are known as convalescent carriers. Viral diseases such as hepatitis and poliomyelitis are frequently transmitted in this manner. Considered to be the classic asymptomatic carriers, \"healthy carriers\" never exhibit signs or symptoms of the disease, yet are capable of infecting others.\n\nSection::::Significance in disease transmission.\n", "Several medical conditions increase a person's susceptibility to infection and developing sepsis. Common sepsis risk factors include age (especially the very young and old); conditions that weaken the immune system such as cancer, diabetes, or the absence of a spleen; and major trauma and burns.\n", "Individuals who are immune to a disease act as a barrier in the spread of disease, slowing or preventing the transmission of disease to others. An individual's immunity can be acquired via a natural infection or through artificial means, such as vaccination. When a critical proportion of the population becomes immune, called the \"herd immunity threshold\" (HIT) or \"herd immunity level\" (HIL), the disease may no longer persist in the population, ceasing to be endemic. This threshold can be calculated by taking \"R\", the basic reproduction number, or the average number of new infections caused by each case in an entirely susceptible population that is homogeneous, or well-mixed, meaning each individual can come into contact with every other susceptible individual in the population, and multiplying it by \"S\", the proportion of the population who are susceptible to infection:\n", "BULLET::::3. Each individual has a fixed probability of coming into adequate contact with any other specified individual in the group within one time interval, and this probability is the same for every member of the group.\n\nBULLET::::4. The individuals are wholly segregated from others outside the group. (It is a closed population.)\n\nBULLET::::5. These conditions remain constant during the epidemic.\n\nThe following parameters are set initially:\n", "As implied by the variable function of \"t\", the model is dynamic in that the numbers in each compartment may fluctuate over time. The importance of this dynamic aspect is most obvious in an endemic disease with a short infectious period, such as measles in the UK prior to the introduction of a vaccine in 1968. Such diseases tend to occur in cycles of outbreaks due to the variation in number of susceptibles (S(\"t\")) over time. During an epidemic, the number of susceptible individuals falls rapidly as more of them are infected and thus enter the infectious and recovered compartments. The disease cannot break out again until the number of susceptibles has built back up as a result of offspring being born into the susceptible compartment.\n", "The dynamics of an epidemic, for example the flu, are often much faster than the dynamics of birth and death, therefore, birth and death are often omitted in simple compartmental models. The SIR system without so-called vital dynamics (birth and death, sometimes called demography) described above can be expressed by the following set of ordinary differential equations:\n\nWhere formula_4 is the stock of susceptible population, formula_5 is the stock of infected, and formula_6 is the stock of recovered population.\n", "While the \"Haemophilus influenzae\" bacteria are unable to survive in any environment outside of the human body, humans can carry the bacteria within their bodies without developing any symptoms of the disease. It spreads through the air when an individual carrying the bacteria coughs or sneezes. The risk of developing \"Haemophilus\" meningitis is most directly related to an individual's vaccination history, as well as the vaccination history of the general public. Herd immunity, or the protection that unvaccinated individuals experience when the majority of others in their proximity are vaccinated, does help in the reduction of meningitis cases, but it does not guarantee protection from the disease. Contact with other individuals with the disease also vastly increases the risk of infection. A child in the presence of family members sick with \"Haemophilus\" meningitis or carrying the bacteria is 585 times more likely to catch \"Haemophilus\" meningitis. Additionally, siblings of individuals with the Haemophilus influenzae meningitis receive reduced benefits from certain types of immunization. Similarly, children under two years of age have a greater risk of contracting the disease when attending day care, especially in their first month of attendance, due to the maintained contact with other children who might be asymptomatic carriers of the Hib bacteria.\n", "During the course of the past influenza pandemics and the current influenza epizootic there has been evidence of family clusters of disease. Kandun, et al. found that family clusters in Indonesia in 2005 resulted in mild, severe and fatal cases among family members. The findings from this study raise questions about genetic or other predispositions and how they affect a persons susceptibility to and severity of disease. Continued research will be needed to determine the epidemiology of H5N1 infection and whether genetic, behavioral, immunologic, and environmental factors contribute to case clustering.\n", "Some viruses can cause lifelong or chronic infections, where the viruses continue to replicate in the body despite the host's defence mechanisms. This is common in hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C virus infections. People chronically infected are known as carriers, as they serve as reservoirs of infectious virus. In populations with a high proportion of carriers, the disease is said to be endemic.\n\nSection::::Role in human disease.:Epidemiology.\n", "Any living organism can contract a virus by giving parasites the opportunity to grow. Parasites feed on the nutrients of another organism which allows the virus to thrive. Once the human body detects a virus, it then creates fighter cells that attack the parasite/virus; literally, causing a war within the body. A virus can affect any part of the body causing a wide range of illnesses such as the flu, the common cold, and sexually transmitted diseases. The flu is an airborne virus that travels through tiny droplets and is formally known as Influenza. Parasites travel through the air and attack the human respiratory system. People that are initially infected with this virus pass infection on by normal day to day activity such as talking and sneezing. When a person comes in contact with the virus, unlike the common cold, the flu virus affects people almost immediately. Symptoms of this virus are very similar to the common cold but much worse. Body aches, sore throat, headache, cold sweats, muscle aches and fatigue are among the many symptoms accompanied by the virus. A viral infection in the upper respiratory tract results in the common cold. With symptoms like sore throat, sneezing, small fever, and a cough, the common cold is usually harmless and tends to clear up within a week or so. The common cold is also a virus that is spread through the air but can also be passed through direct contact. This infection takes a few days to develop symptoms; it is a gradual process unlike the flu.\n", "Some infections, for example those from the common cold and influenza, do not confer any long lasting immunity. Such infections do not give immunization upon recovery from infection, and individuals become susceptible again.\n\nWe have the model:\n\nNote that denoting with N the total population it holds that:\n\nformula_60\n\nit follows that:\n\ni.e. the dynamics of infectious is ruled by a logistic equation, so that formula_62:\n", "BULLET::::1. The infection is spread directly from infected individuals to others by a certain type of contact (termed \"adequate contact\") and in no other way.\n\nBULLET::::2. Any non-immune individual in the group, after such contact with an infectious individual in a given period, will develop the infection and will be infectious to others only within the following time period; in subsequent time periods, he is wholly and permanently immune.\n", "BULLET::::- Continuous epidemics have no break in the parasitism; they have no gene-for-gene relationships; they involve evergreen trees, and some perennial herbs.\n\nBULLET::::- Discontinuous epidemics have regular breaks in the parasitism, due to an absence of host tissue during an adverse season, such as a temperate winter or tropical dry season; they often have a gene-for-gene relationship against some of their parasites; they involve annual plants, some perennial herbs, and the leaves and fruits of deciduous trees and shrubs.\n\nSection::::\"Gene-for-gene relationship - the n/2 model\".\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-18532	How does blood vessel cauterizing work? Doesn’t it kill tissue since blood flow is lost?	Not every blood vessel is necessary. You have an entire network to shunt blood around, blocking off 1 or 2 vessels just redirects blood somewhere else. It’s like traffic redirecting traffic. There are surgeries where you purposely cauterize blood vessels to reduce vericrose veins (spider web bulging veins). The major threat is if the blood clot breaks off, enters your lung vessels and stops proper supply of oxygen. The tissue next to the removed/sealed veins is still supplied with blood from some other vessel, no major risks there. EDIT: blood clot from legs will end up in your lungs, causing oxygen deprivation. Not end up in heart and cause heart Attack.	[ "The electrically produced heat in this process inherently can do numerous things to the tissue, depending on the waveform and power level, including cauterize, coagulate, cut, and dry (desiccate). Thus electrocautery, electrocoagulation, electrodesiccation, and electrocurettage are closely related and can co-occur in the same procedure when desired. Electrodesiccation and curettage is a common procedure.\n\nSection::::Electrocautery.:Unipolar.\n", "Adverse effects can appear mechanically. The design of some surgical instruments may be decades old, hence certain adverse effects (such as tissue trauma) may never have been properly cauterized.\n\nSection::::Causes and consequences.:Psychiatry.\n", "Electrocauterization is the process of destroying tissue (or cutting through soft tissue) using heat conduction from a metal probe heated by electric current. The procedure stops bleeding from small vessels (larger vessels being ligated). Electrocautery applies high frequency alternating current by a \"unipolar\" or \"bipolar\" method. It can be a continuous waveform to cut tissue, or intermittent to coagulate tissue.\n", "Many chemical reactions can destroy tissue, and some are used routinely in medicine , most commonly to remove small skin lesions such as warts or necrotized tissue , or for hemostasis . Because chemicals can leach into areas not intended for cauterization, laser and electrical methods are preferable where practical . Some cauterizing agents are:\n\nBULLET::::- Silver nitrate is the active ingredient of the lunar caustic, a stick that traditionally looks like a large match. It is dipped in water and pressed onto the lesion for a few moments.\n\nBULLET::::- Trichloroacetic acid\n", "In unipolar cauterization, the physician contacts the tissue with a single small electrode. The circuit's exit point is a large surface area, such as the buttocks, to prevent electrical burns. The amount of heat generated depends on the size of contact area, power setting or frequency of current, duration of application, and waveform. A constant waveform generates more heat than intermittent. The frequency used in cutting the tissue is higher than in coagulation mode.\n\nSection::::Electrocautery.:Bipolar.\n", "Tools used in the ancient cauterization process ranged from heated lances to cauterizing knives. The piece of metal was heated over fire and applied to the wound. This caused tissues and blood to heat rapidly to extreme temperatures, causing coagulation of the blood and thus controlling the bleeding, at the cost of extensive tissue damage. In rarer cases, cauterization was instead accomplished via the application of cauterizing chemicals like lye.\n", "Cautery was historically believed to prevent infection, but current research shows that cautery actually increases the risk for infection by causing more tissue damage and providing a more hospitable environment for bacterial growth.\n\nActual cautery refers to the metal device, generally heated to a dull red glow, that a physician applies to produce blisters, to stop bleeding of a blood vessel, and for other similar purposes.\n", "Cut If the voltage level is high enough, the heat generated can create a vapour pocket. The vapour pocket typically reaches temperatures of approximately 400 degrees Celsius, which vaporizes and explodes a small section of soft tissue, resulting in an incision.\n\nCoag When the system is operating in \"coag mode\" the voltage output is usually higher than in cut mode. Tissue remains grossly intact, but cells are destroyed at the point of contact, and smaller vessels are destroyed and sealed, stopping capillary and small-arterial bleeding.\n\nSection::::Electrosurgical waveforms.\n", "Cauterization\n\nCauterization (or cauterisation, or cautery) is a medical practice or technique of burning a part of a body to remove or close off a part of it. It destroys some tissue in an attempt to mitigate bleeding and damage, remove an undesired growth, or minimize other potential medical harm, such as infections when antibiotics are unavailable.\n\nThe practice was once widespread for treatment of wounds. Its utility before the advent of antibiotics was said to be effective at more than one level:\n\nBULLET::::- To prevent exsanguination\n\nBULLET::::- To close amputations\n", "The main forms of cauterization used today in the first world are electrocautery and chemical cautery—both are, for example, prevalent in the removal of unsightly warts and stopping nosebleeds. Cautery can also mean the branding of a human, either recreational or forced.\n\nSection::::Etymology.\n\nCauterize is a Middle English word borrowed from the Old French \"cauteriser\", from Late Latin \"cauterizare\" \"to burn or brand with a hot iron\", from Greek καυτηριάζειν kauteriazein, from καυτήρ, kauter, \"burning or branding iron\", and καίειν, \"to burn\" (cf caustic).\n\nSection::::History.\n", "In EVH, clinical experience, comprehensive training and a careful approach are needed when cutting and removing side branches from the main vessel being harvested. As branches are cut, they must be sealed, or cauterized, to prevent bleeding after disconnection from the main vessel. In surgical practice it is common to use a form of heat or electrical energy to cauterize, or seal tissues in order to stop bleeding. If not properly controlled, the application of heat or energy to seal off the branch vessels can cause unintended thermal injury to the surrounding cells including the endothelium of the main vessel or conduit.\n", "Section::::Reception.\n", "Cauterization continued to be used as a common treatment in medieval times. While mainly employed to stop blood loss, it was also used in cases of tooth extraction and as a treatment for mental illness. In the Arab world, scholars Al-Zahrawi and Avicenna wrote about techniques and instruments used for cauterization.\n\nThe technique of ligature of the arteries as an alternative to cauterization was later improved and used more effectively by Ambroise Paré.\n\nSection::::Electrocautery.\n", "More modern treatment applies silver nitrate after a local anesthetic. The procedure is generally painless, but after the anesthetic wears off, there may be pain for several days, and the nose may run for up to a week after this treatment.\n\nSection::::Amputational cauterization.\n\nCountries that practice amputation as part of their penal code, such as Iran and Malaysia, may use cauterization to prevent death from severe loss of blood.\n\nSection::::Infant circumcision.\n", "Bipolar electrocautery passes the current between two tips of a forceps-like tool. It has the advantage of not disturbing other electrical body rhythms (such as the heart) and also coagulates tissue by pressure. Lateral thermal injury is greater in unipolar than bipolar devices.\n\nElectrocauterization is preferable to chemical cauterization, because chemicals can leach into neighbouring tissue and cauterize outside of intended boundaries. Concern has also been raised regarding toxicity of the surgical smoke electrocautery produces. This contains chemicals that, through inhalation, may harm patients or medical staff.\n\nUltrasonic coagulation and ablation systems are also available.\n\nSection::::Chemical cautery.\n", "Cauterization has been used to stop heavy bleeding since antiquity. The process was described in the Edwin Smith Papyrus and Hippocratic Corpus. It was primarily used to control hemorrhages, especially those resulting from surgery, in ancient Greece. Archigenes recommended cauterization in the event of hemorrhaging wounds, and Leonides of Alexandria described excising breast tumors and cauterizing the resulting wound in order to control bleeding. The Chinese \"Su wen\" recommends cauterization as a treatment for various ailments, including dog bites. Indigenous peoples of the Americas, ancient Arabs, and Persians also used the technique. \n", "Because of the high mortality associated with infected gangrene, an emergency salvage amputation, such as a guillotine amputation, is often needed to limit systemic effects of the infection. Such an amputation can be converted to a formal amputation, such as a below- or above-knee amputation.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Gas gangrene.\n", "The LEEP technique results in some thermal artifact in all specimens obtained due to the use of electricity which simultaneously cuts and cauterizes the lesion, but this does not generally interfere with pathological interpretation.\n\nSection::::Complications.\n\nComplications are less frequent in comparison to a cold-knife conization but can include infection and hemorrhage.\n", "Plasma does not have a thermal effect on tissue, it only affects it on a chemical level. The generated plasma field produces positively charged hydrogen ions (H+) and negatively charged hydroxide ions (OH-), which enable plasma to be able to destroy tissue. There is no or only minor damage done to tissues nearby the tonsils during the coblation procedure because charged particles move between the generated plasma field and the ablated tissue, hence the molecules breakdown without the temperatures rising high.\n", "Section::::Wound repair.\n\nNormal wound repair consists of three different phases: hemostasis and inflammation, proliferation and tissue remodeling. In disturbed wound healing, these stages cannot be completed often resulting in a reduced anatomical and functional outcome.\n", "If the bleeding is too copious, the chemical cautery may not be effective, as the flowing blood can wash away the chemical before it can react with the tissue. It can also be accidentally spread to undesirable locations where it can cause skin staining and tissue burns. This is especially important, as it is often used in the nose where accidental aerosolization can occur, splattering the clinician or other parts of the patient and causing unintentional burns. Accidental application to unintended tissue is treated with copious water irrigation, and saline solution will inactivate the chemical reaction.\n", "\"Direct Current\"\n\nWith direct current devices, current flows to the heating elements contained within a set of \"jaws\" that clamp down on the branch vessel. The amount of heat generated by the heating elements defines the cutting and sealing. The combination of the heat and pressure results in a single, simultaneous cut-and-seal motion.\n\nThe distance between the location at which the side branch is cut and the main conduit is especially critical to minimize thermal injury to the main vessel during dissection. On some devices, a mechanical feature is used to physically distance the main conduit from the cautery device.\n", "Compared to the results of valve replacement there will be a minimal tendency towards clot formation after aortic valve repair, and anticoagulation is commonly not necessary, thus minimizing the possibility of bleeding complications. The likelihood of infection of the repaired aortic valve is much lower compared to what is seen after aortic valve replacement. A repair procedure may not last forever, but in many instances the durability of an aortic valve repair will markedly exceed that of a biological prosthesis.\n\nSection::::Surgical technique.\n\nSection::::Surgical technique.:General considerations.\n", "In 2006 Darrin Pfeiffer, Cauterize's new manager, founded record label, \"High 4 Records\", to promote Canadian Talent; Cauterize was one of his first acts. The band re-recorded a number of tracks from \"Paper Wings\", and new material, with Greig Nori (from the bands Treble Charger and Sum 41) ; the new album, re-released in 2007 as \"Disguises\", with songs \"Closer\" and \"Minor Key Symphony\" as single releases, was unsuccessful in securing radio play and sales.\n", "The Zubi Shiyi Mai Jiujing (), or Cauterization Canon of the Eleven Vessels of the Foot and Forearm, is an ancient Chinese medical text that was excavated in 1973 from a tomb in Mawangdui Han tombs site that was sealed in 168 BCE, under the Han Dynasty. It was handcopied in seal script around 215 BCE, under the Qin Dynasty, on the same sheet of silk as a longer medical text called \"Recipes for Fifty-Two Ailments\". The \"Cauterization Canon\" describes the path of eleven vessels or channels (\"mai\" 脉) inside the body and explains how to perform cauterization to treat the ailments associated with each vessel.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Tissue will die if blood vessel is cauterized." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "The tissue next to the cauterized vessel is still supplied with blood from some other vessel." ]
2018-08924	who set the rules for owning land? Obviously i bought my house/land from some guy, but where'd he get it? and the person before him? where does it start?	The government in control of the region you are in. Most often they got control via force some time in history.	[ "The concept, idea or philosophy of property underlies all property law. In some jurisdictions, historically all property was owned by the monarch and it devolved through feudal land tenure or other feudal systems of loyalty and fealty.\n\nThough the Napoleonic code was among the first government acts of modern times to introduce the notion of absolute ownership into statute, protection of personal property rights was present in medieval Islamic law and jurisprudence, and in more feudalist forms in the common law courts of medieval and early modern England.\n\nSection::::Theory.\n", "Each state in Australia has a different regime for the regulation and bureaucratisation of land. It is a largely statute based area of the law but can still be influenced by the common law and principles that originate from Australia's history as a colony of the United Kingdom, where land and estate law developed through the ambit of feudalism.\n", "BULLET::::- JJ Rousseau, \"Discourse on the Origin of Inequality\" (1754) \"The first man who, having fenced in a piece of land, said \"This is mine\", and found people naïve enough to believe him, that man was the true founder of civil society. From how many crimes, wars, and murders, from how many horrors and misfortunes might not any one have saved mankind, by pulling up the stakes, or filling up the ditch, and crying to his fellows: Beware of listening to this impostor; you are undone if you once forget that the fruits of the earth belong to us all, and the earth itself to nobody.\"\n", "Section::::History and buildings.\n\nIn 1584, William Beighton, a cutler of Stumperlowe left to his sons in his will\n\n\"all my interest terms titles and possession which I have in and upon one watter whele called Potar Whele which I have of the grant of the said Lord\".\n", "...Before leaving England my father was made aware that he could claim both a town and country grant of land, by virtue of his official position. To a man who never owned a foot of land in his life, and perhaps had he remained in England never would have done so, the mere thought of becoming the owner of many acres must have been a great satisfaction.\n", "Section::::Proposed land distribution in 486 BC.\n", "In medieval and Renaissance Europe the term \"property\" essentially referred to land. After much rethinking, land has come to be regarded as only a special case of the property genus. This rethinking was inspired by at least three broad features of early modern Europe: the surge of commerce, the breakdown of efforts to prohibit interest (then called \"usury\"), and the development of centralized national monarchies.\n\nSection::::Property in philosophy.:Ancient philosophy.\n\nUrukagina, the king of the Sumerian city-state Lagash, established the first laws that forbade compelling the sale of property.\n", "Section::::Content.:Development of human society and the family.\n", "History of English land law\n\nThe history of English land law can be traced into Roman times, and through the Dark Ages under Saxon monarchs where, as for most of human history, land was the dominant source of personal wealth. English land law transformed from the industrial revolution and over the 19th century, as the political power of the landed aristocracy diminished, and modern legislation increasingly made land a social form of wealth, subject to extensive social regulation, such as for housing, national parks, and agriculture.\n\nSection::::Roman law.\n", "In later years, the ranks of Harrington's admirers included American revolutionary and founder John Adams.\n\nSection::::Property in philosophy.:Modern philosophy.:Robert Filmer (17th century).\n\nAnother member of the Hobbes/Harrington generation, Sir Robert Filmer, reached conclusions much like Hobbes', but through Biblical exegesis. Filmer said that the institution of kingship is analogous to that of fatherhood, that subjects are but children, whether obedient or unruly, and that property rights are akin to the household goods that a father may dole out among his children—his to take back and dispose of according to his pleasure.\n\nSection::::Property in philosophy.:Modern philosophy.:John Locke (17th century).\n", "Scotland is one of the first countries in the world to have a system of land registration. Land registration commenced in Scotland with the creation of the \"Register of Sasines\" by the Registration Act 1617.\n\nToday, almost all land in Scotland is registered in the Register of Sasines making it possible (but, because of the mapping limitations of that register, sometimes difficult) to determine who owns what.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nOver the millennia and across cultures, notions regarding what constitutes \"property\" and how it is treated culturally have varied widely. Ownership is the basis for many other concepts that form the foundations of ancient and modern societies such as money, trade, debt, bankruptcy, the criminality of theft, and private vs. public property. Ownership is the key building block in the development of the capitalist socio-economic system. Adam Smith stated that one of the sacred laws of justice was to guard a person's property and possessions.\n\nSection::::Types of owners.\n\nSection::::Types of owners.:In person.\n", "Section::::Overview.\n\nOften property is defined by the code of the local sovereignty, and protected wholly or more usually partially by such entity, the owner being responsible for any remainder of protection. The standards of proof concerning proofs of ownerships are also addressed by the code of the local sovereignty, and such entity plays a role accordingly, typically somewhat managerial. Some philosophers assert that property rights arise from social convention, while others find justifications for them in morality or in natural law.\n", "It was believed by some that if a person could build a house on common land in one night, the land then belonged to them as a freehold. There are other variations on this tradition, for example that the test was to have a fire burning in the hearth by the following morning and the squatter could then extend the land around by the distance they could throw an axe from the four corners of the house.\n\nSection::::Origins.\n", "In 1787, the Continental Congress adopted the Northwest Ordinance for governance of areas in the United States outside of the individual states. Congress wrote: \"No man shall be deprived of his liberty or property, but by the judgment of his peers, or the law of the land.\" Following adoption of the United States Constitution, Congress re-adopted the Northwest Ordinance in 1789.\n\nSection::::Use in the United States Constitution.\n", "They generally have no powers to actively deal with the land as these powers are vested in the tenant for life. The trustees of the settlement have a more active role in two scenarios –\n\nBULLET::::- Where the tenant for life is an infant, in which case the trustees can exercise that role for him until he reaches the age of majority- s.60 1882 Actor\n\nBULLET::::- Where the tenant for life wishes to buy the fee simple the trustees must step into his shoes and exercise the power of sale for him – s.12 1890 Act\n", "BULLET::::- The 2016 film \"The Magnificent Seven,\" loosely adapted from the 1960 film of the same name, features Sam Chisolm, an African American U.S. Marshal raised on a homestead in Lincoln, Kansas. His family had been lynched in 1867 by former Confederate Army soldiers, hired by a robber baron to drive off settlers and free up real estate on the American frontier.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Desert Land Act\n\nBULLET::::- Land Act of 1804\n\nBULLET::::- Forty acres and a mule\n\nBULLET::::- Russian Homestead Act\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "Individuals may own property directly. In some societies only adult men may own property; in other societies (such as the Haudenosaunee), property is matrilinear and passed on from mother to the offspring. In most societies both men and women can own property with no restrictions and limitations at all.\n\nSection::::Types of owners.:Structured ownership entities.\n\nThroughout history, nations (or governments) and religious organizations have owned property. These entities exist primarily for other purposes than to own or operate property; hence, they may have no clear rules regarding the disposition of their property.\n", "Land is owned by no single person, but in trust by the community. In the mountains, after finding a site, the group decides the boundaries of each person's garden, with certain areas being fallow (for up to 10 years) and others open to cultivation (for up to 4 years).\n\nSection::::Religion.\n", "In addition, there are various forms of collective ownership, which typically take either the form of membership in a cooperative, or shares in a corporation, which owns the land (typically by fee simple, but possibly under other arrangements). There are also various hybrids; in many communist states, government ownership of most agricultural land has combined in various ways with tenure for farming collectives.\n\nSection::::Land tenure in archaeology.\n", "There exist many theories of property. One is the relatively rare first possession theory of property, where ownership of something is seen as justified simply by someone seizing something before someone else does. Perhaps one of the most popular is the natural rights definition of property rights as advanced by John Locke. Locke advanced the theory that God granted dominion over nature to man through Adam in the book of Genesis. Therefore, he theorized that when one mixes one’s labor with nature, one gains a relationship with that part of nature with which the labor is mixed, subject to the limitation that there should be \"enough, and as good, left in common for others.\" (see Lockean proviso)\n", "One of the earliest monuments records the purchase by a king of a large estate for his son, paying a fair market price and adding a handsome honorarium to the many owners, in costly garments, plate, and precious articles of furniture. The Code recognizes complete private ownership of land but apparently extends the right to hold land to votaries and merchants; but all land sold was subject to its fixed charges. The king, however, could free land from these charges by charter, which was a frequent way of rewarding those who deserved well of the state.\n", "Section::::Properties.:Predecessors and Gardens of Eden.\n", "An early example of use of the notion of land administration is a 1973 \"Seminar on Land Administration\" in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. \"Land administration arrangements\" were charted in a 1985 paper by Holstein, McLaughlin, and Nichols, and the Department of Lands and Surveys, Western Australia changed name in 1986 to Department of Land Administration. The UNECE in 1996 published \"Land Administration Guidelines With Special Reference to Countries in Transition\", and the Dale & McLaughlin textbook on \"Land Information Management\" from 1988 was in 1999 succeeded by the textbook \"Land Administration\".\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The Lord of the Manor, his officials, and a Manorial court administered the manor and exercised jurisdiction over the peasantry. The Lord levied rents and required the peasantry to work on his personal lands, called a demesne.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01827	How do frat bros get into prestigious universities?	You don't join a fraternity until AFTER you start in at College or University, then there's a little thing called Rush Week where all the prospective pledges try to prove they're cool enough for their desired frat to accept them.	[ "The Farrelly Brothers have directed Frat Pack members Ben Stiller in \"There's Something About Mary\" and \"The Heartbreak Kid\", Jack Black in \"Shallow Hal\" and Owen Wilson in \"Hall Pass\".\n", "At MIT Jim pledges Alpha Zeta Omicron (AZO), a raucous fraternity, and gets indoctrinated into MIT's hacking culture. Jim and his pledge brothers endure all manner of high-tech hazing at the hands of Luke Bardolf, a gruff AZO senior who is obsessed with pulling off the greatest hack at MIT.\n", "BULLET::::- Thomas Dundon (SMU, 1993): Chairman and Managing Partner of Dundon Capital Partners; owner of the Carolina Hurricanes of the National Hockey League\n\nBULLET::::- JT \"Pops\" McCarty (PU, 1972): President of Colonial Classics of Evansville and Newburg; Collegiate Table Tennis Champion of Purdue; Benefactor of McCarty Scholarship at Purdue\n\nBULLET::::- Giovanni Feroce (University of Rhode Island, 1991): former CEO of Alex and Ani; current CEO of Benrus\n\nBULLET::::- Jess Jackson (California, 1952): billionaire wine entrepreneur; namesake of Kendall-Jackson winery and majority owner of Curlin, the 2007 Preakness Stakes winner, 2007 Belmont Stakes second-place finisher, and 2007 Kentucky Derby third-place finisher\n", "\"Weird Al\" Yankovic's \"White & Nerdy\" (2006) riffs upon MIT, along with a plenitude of other geek culture references — \"Star Wars Holiday Special,\" pocket protectors and editing Wikipedia, to name a few. Yankovic claims that he graduated \"first in [his] class here at MIT\"; however, the Institute does not assign class rankings or confer traditional Latin honors upon its graduates.\n", "BULLET::::- Edgemont High School\n\nBULLET::::- Emma Willard School\n\nBULLET::::- Friends Academy\n\nBULLET::::- Hackley School\n\nBULLET::::- Hewitt School\n\nBULLET::::- Horace Mann School\n\nBULLET::::- Irvington High School\n\nBULLET::::- Lawrence Woodmere Academy\n\nBULLET::::- The Masters School\n\nBULLET::::- Millbrook School\n\nBULLET::::- Nichols School\n\nBULLET::::- Nightingale-Bamford School\n\nBULLET::::- Northwood School\n\nBULLET::::- Packer Collegiate Institute\n\nBULLET::::- Poly Prep Country Day School\n\nBULLET::::- Portledge School\n\nBULLET::::- The Stony Brook School\n\nBULLET::::- The Storm King School\n\nBULLET::::- Trinity School\n\nBULLET::::- Trinity-Pawling School\n\nSection::::District IV: District of Columbia, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, Puerto Rico, International.\n\nSection::::District IV: District of Columbia, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, Puerto Rico, International.:District of Columbia.\n", "In order to rush into the NoZe Brotherhood, each potential new member had to submit an essay. Their acceptance was based on both originality and creativity. Each member needed to obtain and keep a 3.8 GPA, the highest GPA of any organization on campus many times. Each pledge class that becomes apart of the brotherhood is required to complete a \"class project.\" This class project is basically a group prank. \n", "The charge is now located at 372 Memorial Drive in Cambridge, Massachusetts, overlooking Memorial Drive and the Charles River. In 1966, Theta Deuteron acquired the property and the house, a former MIT dean's mansion. During the 1980s a fourth floor was added to the house.\n\nNoted alumni include\n\nBULLET::::- Peter Diamandis, CEO of the X PRIZE Foundation.\n\nBULLET::::- Michael J. Saylor, CEO of MicroStrategy.\n\nSection::::Fraternities.:Theta Tau.\n", "BULLET::::- Mike Golic\n\nBULLET::::- Paul Hornung – the \"Golden Boy,\" 1956 Heisman Trophy winner, number one overall draft pick in the 1957 NFL Draft, and member of four NFL Championship teams with the Green Bay Packers\n\nBULLET::::- Bill Laimbeer - won two NBA Championships and was named to the NBA All-Star Game four times while playing with the Detroit Pistons\n\nBULLET::::- Derek Landri\n\nBULLET::::- Trevor Laws\n\nBULLET::::- Romeo Okwara\n\nBULLET::::- Brady Quinn\n", "The opening fraternity, that drove the filmmakers out of the college and the town, is the Beta Chi fraternity on the State University of New York College at Oneonta campus in Oneonta New York. Beta Chi is an unrecognized fraternity in Oneonta, and was kicked off the Oneonta campus after reports of severe hazing. Beta Chi is currently a recognized fraternity at SUNY Oneonta as of January 22nd, 2018. Other unrecognized fraternities from SUNY Oneonta shown in the film include Sigma Alpha Mu, also known as \"Sammy\", and Tau Kappa Epsilon, which was recognized in the spring of 2007 but shortly thereafter lost their recognition from the campus. \"Frat House\" won two Sundance Film Festival awards in 1998, but has been attacked for containing sequences that were staged for the cameras.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Simpsons\", 1989–Present - In this animated sitcom, Mr. Burns, Springfield's richest and most powerful citizen, as well as owner of Springfield's nuclear power plant, is said to have graduated from Yale and be a member of Skull and Bones. In the episode 'Caper Chase', Mr. Burns visits Yale hoping to endow a program in Nuclear Plant Management, but is rebuffed by students.\n", "An active member of the fraternity is a full-time enrolled student at his chapter's host institution at the undergraduate, graduate, or post-graduate level; all others, including members who have graduated or transfer to a school without a Phi Psi chapter, are considered alumni. Men may be initiated into Phi Kappa Psi either by an active chapter, or as part of a colony that is being installed as a chapter. Members typically join Phi Kappa Psi when a chapter extends an offer to enter into a probationary period known as pledgeship, which lasts for six weeks and concludes with initiation.\n", "Section::::Individual institutions.:Virginia Military Institute.\n\nThe military academies have often been hostile to fraternities and secret societies. Final admission to the VMI cadet corps is contingent on three factors: 1.) A cadet agrees to abide by the Honor Code. 2.) A cadet will not marry while a member of the Corps in pursuit of a degree. 3.) A cadet will never join any secret society. Should a cadet found to be in violation of any of those three, he is to be drummed out of the VMI cadet corps.\n\nSection::::Individual institutions.:Washington and Lee University.\n", "Mitch's other friend Bernard (Vince Vaughn) throws a housewarming party at Mitch's house, dubbed Mitch-A-Palooza, which is a huge success. Frank gets drunk and is seen streaking by his wife Marissa and her friends, putting a strain on their new marriage. The following morning, the trio run into an old acquaintance whom they used to ridicule at school: Gordon Pritchard (Jeremy Piven), who is now the college dean. He informs them they must vacate the house because it's exclusively for campus housing. Bernard proposes starting a fraternity that is open to anyone to meet the housing criteria. The new fraternity carries out several hazing events throughout campus, attracting the attention of Pritchard and other faculty members.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Family Ties\" – \"Young Republican\" Alex P. Keaton (Michael J. Fox) spends the first two seasons of the series preparing to attend Princeton\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Flintstones\" – in the 1961 episode entitled \"Flintstone of Prinstone\", Fred briefly attends Princeton's prehistoric counterpart, \"Prinstone University\", as a part-time student; in the 1964 episode \"Cinderellastone\", Fred's dream character also attended Prinstone\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air\" – Princeton is Philip's alma mater; his son, Carlton, enrolls in Princeton by the final episode\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gilmore Girls\" – Rory Gilmore is accepted into Princeton University\n", "Today, admitted degree candidates are granted access to Harvard's athletic facilities, libraries, dining services, on and off campus apartment housing, career services and student life organizations. Students have \"nearly unfettered access to some of Harvard's most prized resources—world-renowned libraries, a distinguished faculty, and an impressive body of speakers.\" The top 10 percent of the undergraduate (ALB) graduating class in good standing is inducted into the Harvard Extension School's Phi Beta chapter (established 2002-03) of Alpha Sigma Lambda, the national honor society for nontraditional students. Ordinarily, undergraduate students with GPAs of 3.8 or higher are eligible. Degree candidates and alumni are also eligible for working at the Harvard Innovation Lab.\n", "BULLET::::- Harry Ackerman, Dartmouth College, 1935 – Emmy Award winner; producer of \"Gidget\", \"Bewitched\", \"I Dream of Jeannie\", \"The Flying Nun\", The Monkees, and \"The Partridge Family\"\n\nBULLET::::- Joseph Ashton – actor, film and voice actor\n\nBULLET::::- Dirk Benedict, Whitman College, 1967 – actor, \"The A-Team\"\n\nBULLET::::- Ted Bessell, University of Colorado, 1957 – actor, daytime Emmy Award winner\n\nBULLET::::- Bill Bixby, University of California (Berkeley), 1956 – actor, director, writer, \"The Incredible Hulk\", \"My Favorite Martian\"\n\nBULLET::::- Prince Lorenzo Borghese, Rollins College, 1995 – bachelor in \"The Bachelor: Rome\"\n", "BULLET::::- Laszlo Bock, class of 1993 - Senior Vice President, People Operations, Google\n\nBULLET::::- Cathy Corison - winemaker\n\nBULLET::::- Lynn Forester de Rothschild - CEO of E.L. Rothschild\n\nBULLET::::- Burnell H. DeVos Jr, class of 1949 - co-chairman of Price Waterhouse\n\nBULLET::::- Roy E. Disney, class of 1951 - executive at The Walt Disney Company; nephew of Walt Disney\n\nBULLET::::- Hashim Djojohadikusumo, class of 1976 - Indonesian entrepreneur and brother of former Indonesian presidential candidate Prabowo Subianto\n\nBULLET::::- Richard Fairbank, class of 1972 - founder and chairman of Capital One (transferred)\n", "BULLET::::- Maumee Valley Country Day School\n\nBULLET::::- Seven Hills School\n\nBULLET::::- University School\n\nBULLET::::- Upper Arlington High School\n\nBULLET::::- Walnut Hills High School\n\nBULLET::::- Wellington School\n\nBULLET::::- Western Reserve Academy\n\nBULLET::::- Withrow High School\n\nSection::::District VI: Indiana, Kentucky, Michigan, Ohio, Tennessee.:Tennessee.\n\nBULLET::::- Battle Ground Academy\n\nBULLET::::- Baylor School\n\nBULLET::::- Collierville High School\n\nBULLET::::- Father Ryan High School\n\nBULLET::::- Franklin Road Academy\n\nBULLET::::- Girls Preparatory School\n\nBULLET::::- Harpeth Hall School\n\nBULLET::::- Hutchison School\n\nBULLET::::- Lausanne Collegiate School\n\nBULLET::::- The McCallie School\n\nBULLET::::- Memphis University School\n\nBULLET::::- Montgomery Bell Academy\n\nBULLET::::- St. Andrew's-Sewanee School\n\nBULLET::::- St. George's Independent School\n", "According to the Texas Tech website, the sixteen hopefuls were required to meet university, Big 12 Conference, and NCAA criteria.\n\nSection::::The winner.\n", "Honey Shayne (Kiger) is a freshman at Fairenville University (known, according to a title card, as \"Good old F.U.\"). After unsuccessfully pledging the Pi sorority, and being publicly ridiculed by sorority president Melody Ragmore (Bloom), Honey joins with three other unsuccessful pledges (O'Hara, Terri, and Samantha) to form a new sorority (to be known as H.O.T.S. after their initials ) with the goal of stealing all of the rival sorority's boyfriends.\n", "Harvard does not have secret societies in the usual sense, though it does have final clubs, fraternities, sororities, and a variety of other secret or semi-secret organizations.\n", "Section::::Stanford Hall.:Notable residents.\n\nBULLET::::- Colin Falls – former Notre Dame basketball player\n\nBULLET::::- Mike Ferguson – former US Representative for New Jersey's 7th congressional district\n\nBULLET::::- Mike Gann – former Notre Dame and NFL Atlanta Falcons football player\n\nBULLET::::- David Givens – former Notre Dame and NFL football player\n\nBULLET::::- Terry Hanratty – former Notre Dame and Pittsburgh Steelers football player\n\nBULLET::::- Joe Kernan – former Governor and Lt. Governor of Indiana\n\nBULLET::::- Rob Kurz – former Notre Dame and NBA basketball player\n\nBULLET::::- Ted Leo – musician\n", "BULLET::::- Van Heflin, University of Oklahoma, 1932 – Academy Award–winning actor\n\nBULLET::::- Jeffrey Hunter, Northwestern University, 1950 – actor, \"King of Kings\"\n\nBULLET::::- Richard Kelly, University of Southern California, 1997 – writer, producer, \"Donnie Darko\"\n\nBULLET::::- Francis D. Lyon, UCLA, 1928 – Academy Award–winning editor\n\nBULLET::::- Al Mayer Jr., CSUN, 1991 – Academy Award, Emmy Award for Technical Achievement\n\nBULLET::::- Michael McDonald, University of Southern California, 1987 – actor, \"MADtv\"\n\nBULLET::::- Michael Murphy, University of Arizona, 1960 – actor\n\nBULLET::::- Brock Pemberton, University of Kansas, 1908 – Founder of the Tony Awards\n", "It is frequently assumed that all Theta Nu Epsilon members are also members of four-year college fraternities, but that has never been a requirement of membership. However, it is true that very many members have been members of four-year fraternities. There have been chapters that have operated exclusively that way, and the independent former chapter at Alabama is a well-known example of a group operating solely as an interfraternity coordinating organization.\n\nSection::::Post WWII history.\n", "The first professional fraternity was founded at Transylvania University in Lexington, Kentucky in 1819: the Kappa Lambda Society of Aesculapius, established for the purpose of bringing together students of the medical profession. The fraternity lasted until about 1858.\n\nOf the professional fraternities still in existence, the oldest is Phi Delta Phi founded at the University of Michigan in 1869; however, Phi Delta Phi changed its mission in 2012 to become an honor society for law school students.\n\nSection::::Title IX applied to professional fraternities.\n" ]	[ "Frat bros get into prestigious universities." ]	[ "Normal people get into prestigious universities and then become frat bros. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Frat bros get into prestigious universities." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Normal people get into prestigious universities and then become frat bros. " ]
2018-02383	what actually happens when you die from the flu?	Depends. Probably the simplest thing is viral pneumonia leading to severe respiratory failure leading to death. If you have other long term illnesses these can also be triggered (e.g. someone with coronary heart disease might possibly have a heart attack due to the various stresses of being very unwell). Source: ITU doctor.	[ "On 16 September 2008, the body of British politician and diplomat Sir Mark Sykes was exhumed to study the RNA of the flu virus in efforts to understand the genetic structure of modern H5N1 bird flu. Sykes had been buried in 1919 in a lead coffin which scientists hoped had helped preserve the virus. The coffin was found to be split because of the weight of soil over it, and the cadaver was badly decomposed. Nonetheless, samples of lung and brain tissue were taken through the split, with the coffin remaining \"in situ\" in the grave during this process.\n", "As of February 2008, the \"median age of patients with influenza A (H5N1) virus infection is approximately 18 years [...] The overall case fatality proportion is 61% [...] Handling of sick or dead poultry during the week before the onset of illness is the most commonly recognized risk factor [...] The primary pathologic process that causes death is fulminant viral pneumonia.\"\n", "Sometimes, influenza may have abnormal presentations, like confusion in the elderly and a sepsis-like syndrome in the young.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Emergency warning signs.\n\nBULLET::::- Shortness of breath\n\nBULLET::::- Chest pain\n\nBULLET::::- Dizziness\n\nBULLET::::- Confusion\n\nBULLET::::- Extreme vomiting\n\nBULLET::::- Flu symptoms that improve but then relapse with a high fever and severe cough (can be bacterial pneumonia)\n\nBULLET::::- Cyanosis\n\nBULLET::::- High fever and a rash.\n\nBULLET::::- Inability to drink fluids\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Emergency warning signs.:Signs of dehydration.\n\nBULLET::::- (in infants) Far fewer wet diapers than usual\n\nBULLET::::- Cannot keep down fluids\n\nBULLET::::- (in infants) No tears when crying.\n\nSection::::Virology.\n", "BULLET::::- Kodi Smit-McPhee as Toby Connelly\n\nBULLET::::- John yates as doctor 1\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "Some viral hemorrhagic fevers, such as Ebola, Lassa fever, and Lábrea fever, may kill in as little as two to five days. Diseases that cause rapidly developing lung edema, such as some kinds of pneumonia, may kill in a few hours. It was said of the \"black death\" (pneumonic bubonic plague) that some of its victims would die in a matter of hours after the initial symptoms appeared. Other pathologic conditions that may be fulminating in character are acute respiratory distress syndrome, asthma, acute anaphylaxis, septic shock, and disseminated intravascular coagulation.\n", "The most common cause of death is respiratory failure. Other causes of death are pneumonia (leading to sepsis), high fever (leading to neurological problems), dehydration (from excessive vomiting and diarrhea), electrolyte imbalance and kidney failure. Fatalities are more likely in young children and the elderly.\n\nSection::::Virology.\n\nSection::::Virology.:Transmission.\n\nSection::::Virology.:Transmission.:Between pigs.\n\nInfluenza is quite common in pigs, with about half of breeding pigs having been exposed to the virus in the US. Antibodies to the virus are also common in pigs in other countries.\n", "BULLET::::- Liver function: Elevations of liver enzymes and bilirubin, hepatic dysfunction, jaundice and, in one patient, liver necrosis have all been seen. Some fatal cases have been reported; however, the majority of cases was reversible.\n\nBULLET::::- Renal function: Increased BUN and serum creatinine have been noted. Crystalluria (formation of crystals and excretion in the urine) and acute renal failure have also been seen.\n\nBULLET::::- Adverse central nervous system effects are frequent and include confusion, hallucinations, psychosis, ataxia, hearing loss, headache, paresthesia, parkinsonism, peripheral neuropathy, vertigo and sedation.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Severe cases.\n\nThe World Health Organization reports that the clinical picture in severe cases is strikingly different from the disease pattern seen during epidemics of seasonal influenza. While people with certain underlying medical conditions are known to be at increased risk, many severe cases occur in previously healthy people. In severe cases, patients generally begin to deteriorate around three to five days after symptom onset. Deterioration is rapid, with many patients progressing to respiratory failure within 24 hours, requiring immediate admission to an intensive care unit. Upon admission, most patients need immediate respiratory support with mechanical ventilation.\n", "Section::::Prevention.:Medications.\n\nWhen influenza outbreaks occur, medications such as amantadine or rimantadine may help prevent the condition; however are associated with side effects. Zanamivir or oseltamivir decrease the chance that people who are exposed to the virus will develop symptoms; however, it is recommended that potential side effects are taken into account.\n\nSection::::Prevention.:Other.\n", "Human flu symptoms usually include fever, cough, sore throat, muscle aches, conjunctivitis and, in severe cases, severe breathing problems and pneumonia that may be fatal. The severity of the infection will depend in large part on the state of the infected person's immune system and if the victim has been exposed to the strain before, and is therefore partially immune. Recent follow up studies on the impact of statins on influenza virus replication show that pre-treatment of cells with atorvastatin suppresses virus growth in culture. \n", "Influenza, commonly known as the flu, is an infectious disease caused by an influenza virus. Symptoms can be mild to severe. The most common symptoms include: high fever, runny nose, sore throat, muscle pains, headache, coughing, sneezing, and feeling tired. These symptoms typically begin two days after exposure to the virus and most last less than a week. The cough, however, may last for more than two weeks. In children, there may be diarrhea and vomiting, but these are not common in adults. Diarrhea and vomiting occur more commonly in gastroenteritis, which is an unrelated disease and sometimes inaccurately referred to as \"stomach flu\" or the \"24-hour flu\". Complications of influenza may include viral pneumonia, secondary bacterial pneumonia, sinus infections, and worsening of previous health problems such as asthma or heart failure.\n", "It can be difficult to distinguish between the common cold and influenza in the early stages of these infections. Influenza symptoms are a mixture of symptoms of common cold and pneumonia, body ache, headache, and fatigue. Diarrhea is not usually a symptom of influenza in adults, although it has been seen in some human cases of the H5N1 \"bird flu\" and can be a symptom in children. The symptoms most reliably seen in influenza are shown in the adjacent table.\n", "Influenza, commonly known as the flu, is an infectious disease of birds and mammals caused by an RNA virus of the family Orthomyxoviridae (the influenza viruses). In humans, common symptoms of influenza infection are fever, sore throat, muscle pains, severe headache, coughing, and weakness and fatigue. In more serious cases, influenza causes pneumonia, which can be fatal, particularly in young children and the elderly. While sometimes confused with the common cold, influenza is a much more severe disease and is caused by a different type of virus. Although nausea and vomiting can be produced, especially in children, these symptoms are more characteristic of the unrelated gastroenteritis, which is sometimes called \"stomach flu\" or \"24-hour flu.\"\n", "In 1928 Orwell went to Paris for 18 months. In March 1929 he was feeling unwell and spent two weeks in the Hôpital Cochin, rue Faubourg Saint-Jacques, in the 15th arrondissement of Paris. Ill with the flu, he was treated at the hospital from 7 to 22 March 1929. While in the hospital he continued writing, as he gave it as an address to a publisher. Orwell was subject to bronchial conditions throughout his life, but it is not certain whether he was suffering from influenza or pneumonia. In Paris, he was checked for tuberculosis and found to be unaffected. \n", "According to the World Health Organization, symptoms include fever, cough, and shortness of breath, which may progress to severe pneumonia. The virus can also overload the immune system, causing what is known as a cytokine storm. Blood poisoning and organ failure are also possible. In an article in the \"New England Journal of Medicine\", doctors reported that most of the patients with confirmed cases of H7N9 virus infection were critically ill and that approximately 20% had died of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) or multiorgan failure.\n", "BULLET::::- Kilgore Trout in Kurt Vonnegut's \"Breakfast of Champions\" walks past a young man passed out on the street, and the narrator observes that he had been using paint thinner and pills for \"Bang's Disease\" to get high.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Brucella suis, also referred to as swine brucellosis\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Fact sheet on Brucellosis from World Organisation for Animal Health\n\nBULLET::::- Brucella genomes and related information at PATRIC, a Bioinformatics Resource Center funded by NIAID\n\nBULLET::::- Prevention about Brucellosis from Centers for Disease Control\n\nBULLET::::- – re high rate of brucellosis in humans in ancient Pompeii\n", "In one case, a boy with H5N1 experienced diarrhea followed rapidly by a coma without developing respiratory or flu-like symptoms. There have been studies of the levels of cytokines in humans infected by the H5N1 flu virus. Of particular concern is elevated levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha, a protein associated with tissue destruction at sites of infection and increased production of other cytokines. Flu virus-induced increases in the level of cytokines is also associated with flu symptoms, including fever, chills, vomiting and headache. Tissue damage associated with pathogenic flu virus infection can ultimately result in death. The inflammatory cascade triggered by H5N1 has been called a 'cytokine storm' by some, because of what seems to be a positive feedback process of damage to the body resulting from immune system stimulation. H5N1 induces higher levels of cytokines than the more common flu virus types.\n", "Respiratory symptoms are a common finding in rabbits that survive the first stages of myxomatosis. Mucopurulent nasal discharge occurs, leading to gasping and stertorous respiration with extension of the head and neck. Secondary bacterial pneumonia occurs in many cases. Chronic respiratory disease, such as nasal discharge, is common in surviving rabbits. Even in apparently recovered rabbits, it is not unusual to find lung lobes filled with fluid rather than air at necropsy.\n", "BULLET::::- The 29th death was a 3-year-old boy in Tokyo Metropolis. He had no underlying diseases. At the evening of October 19, he had a fever of 38.0 degree so went to a nearby clinic. Diagnosed as common cold and prescribed cough medicine. The next day, his temperature rise to 39.6 and diagnosed as type A positive by simple test, prescribed oseltamivir. At the night, his condition suddenly changed and became unconscious. When he was emergency transported to a hospital, he was already in cardiac arrest, confirmed dead and was novel flu. His cause of death is considered to be a viral encephalitis.\n", "BULLET::::- The 32nd death was a man in his 50s in Fukui city, Fukui Prefecture. He had underlying diseases of diabetes, high blood pressure and stroke. He had cough and fever on September 27, visited Fukui Health and Welfare Center, and diagnosed as pneumonia. Although a simple test resulted negative, novel flu was considered from the symptoms so he was oseltamivir. On 30 his condition worsened and had a fever of 38.5 degree so taken into ICU. On October 1, confirmed as novel flu by PCR test. On October 11, he was attached to a respirator. Died October 23 at 5am. His cause of death was pneumonia.\n", "Section::::Prevention.:Infection control.:Pigs and food safety.\n", "BULLET::::- Don't touch your eyes, nose or mouth without first washing your hands.\n\nBULLET::::- Cover your nose and mouth when coughing or sneezing, and use a tissue when possible.\n\nBULLET::::- Dispose of dirty tissues promptly and carefully.\n\nBULLET::::- Maintain good basic hygiene, for example washing hands frequently with soap and water to reduce the spread of the virus from your hands to your face, or to other people.\n\nBULLET::::- Clean hard surfaces, such as door handles, frequently using a normal cleaning product.\n\nBULLET::::- Make sure children follow this advice.\n", "BULLET::::- The 22nd death occurred in Tokyo Metropolis. A 5-year-old with no underlying diseases developed a fever on October 2. The next day his temperature reached 40 degrees, he was diagnosed A-positive by simple test and prescribed oseltamivir. But after he was back home, he vomited, exhibited disordered consciousness, and developed a cramp so he was transported by emergency vehicle to a hospital. He lost consciousness and developed MODS. He was attached to a respiratory system. On October 5 he was confirmed to have novel flu and died the next day. His direct cause of death was viral encephalitis.\n", "BULLET::::- Wearing a surgical mask\n\nBULLET::::- Avoiding contact with bodily fluids\n\nBULLET::::- Washing the personal items of someone with SARS in hot, soapy water (eating utensils, dishes, bedding, etc.)\n\nBULLET::::- Keeping children with symptoms home from school\n\nBULLET::::- Simple hygiene measures\n\nBULLET::::- Isolating oneself as much as possible to minimise the chances of transmission of the virus\n", "Section::::Pathogenicity.\n\nLiver fluke infections cause serious medical and veterinary diseases. Fasciolosis of sheep, goats and cattle, is the major cause of economic losses in dairy and meat industry. Fasciolosis of humans produces clinical symptoms such as fever, nausea, swollen liver, extreme abdominal pain, jaundice and anemia.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00245	How do non-radio objects (eg fans, bed frames) pick up and play AM signals?	They have metal parts in them that can act like an antenna. If exposed to a strong enough electromagnetic field, they'll begin to oscillate at whatever frequency that field's at. This is essentially how a crystal radio works. But you'd need to be really close to a really, really powerful transmitter to hear music on your bedframe or water pipes. The origins of this story seem to date back to the 1930s when WLW in Cincinnati opened up a 500kW transmitter. The FCC no longer allows transmitters that powerful. They max out at 50kW nowadays, and they usually aren't built close to residential areas.	[ "Section::::Classic gear.\n\nVintage operating activity is not limited to the AM mode. Many devotees use their \"classic\" amateur gear from vintage-era American manufacturers like Eico, EF Johnson, National, Heathkit, Hammarlund, Drake, Collins, WRL, Swan, Signal/One, Lafayette and Hallicrafters, to make radiotelegraphy (CW), SSB, FM and RTTY two-way contacts. Although 1930s through 1970s gear is considered \"vintage\", collectors may differ on the cutoff dates.\n", "Below are the detectors that saw wide use before vacuum tubes took over around 1920. All except the magnetic detector could rectify and therefore receive AM signals:\n", "A majority of \"AM'ers\" stations consist of vintage transmitters and receivers housed in separate cabinets. Some operators have even obtained old AM broadcast transmitters from radio stations that have upgraded their equipment. Others build their equipment from scratch (called homebrewing) using both modern and vintage-era components.\n", "Most transceivers installed in vehicles are designed to run on 12-16 VDC, and are generally powered by the starting battery in the vehicle. Because of the power demands placed on the vehicle battery, most mobile stations either do not include external amplifiers or include amplifiers with power outputs that are more modest than those commonly found in fixed stations.\n", "Fixed stations are generally powered from the AC mains electrical supply available in the building. Some equipment in fixed stations may run off low voltage DC instead of AC, and require a separate power supply. Some fixed stations are equipped with auxiliary sources of power, such as electrical generators or batteries for use in emergencies.\n\nSection::::Types of stations.:Mobile stations.\n", "Ownership of the station changed twice within a two-year span. In 1939, the Bonwit Teller department store replaced The Evening Ledger newspaper as owner; in July 1940, J. David Stern, who published The Philadelphia Record newspaper bought the station from Bonwit Teller. At that time, WHAT operated with 100 watts of power.\n\nSection::::History.:Banks Ownership (1944–1986).\n\nOn February 12, 1944, former WIP salesman William Banks purchased WHAT for $22,500 from the Philadelphia Record and became the station's new President. His sister, Dolly Banks, became program director and expanded on the ethnic format while ending time-brokered programming.\n", "Section::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Amateur radio\n\nBULLET::::- AM broadcasting\n\nBULLET::::- Antique radio\n\nBULLET::::- Tube sound\n\nBULLET::::- Collins 75A-4 and KWS-1\n\nBULLET::::- Gonset Communicator\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- AM North America\n\nBULLET::::- ARRL amplitude modulation page\n\nBULLET::::- Antique Wireless Association\n\nBULLET::::- Glowbug resources\n\nBULLET::::- Electric Radio Magazine\n\nBULLET::::- Vintage And Military Amateur Radio Society (UK)\n\nBULLET::::- Ham radio equipment Reference Guide\n\nBULLET::::- Nostalgic Kits Central Pictures, schematics, service bulletins, modifications, specifications and more of a large number of vintage electronics sold as kits\n\nBULLET::::- Old Time Radio Shacks photos from “OSL Cards from the Past” www.oldqslcards.com\n", "Serious crystal radio hobbyists use \"inverted L\" and \"T\" type antennas, consisting of hundreds of feet of wire suspended as high as possible between buildings or trees, with a feed wire attached in the center or at one end leading down to the receiver. However more often random lengths of wire dangling out windows are used. A popular practice in early days (particularly among apartment dwellers) was to use existing large metal objects, such as bedsprings, fire escapes, and barbed wire fences as antennas.\n\nSection::::Design.:Ground.\n", "The most common form of log-periodic antenna is the log-periodic dipole array or LPDA, The LPDA consists of a number of half-wave dipole driven elements of gradually increasing length, each consisting of a pair of metal rods. The dipoles are mounted close together in a line, connected in parallel to the feedline with alternating phase. Electrically, it simulates a series of two or three-element Yagi antennas connected together, each set tuned to a different frequency.\n", "Section::::Video.\n", "Early sets used any of the following technologies:\n\nBULLET::::- Crystal set\n\nBULLET::::- Crystal set with carbon or mechanical amplifier\n\nBULLET::::- Basic Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Sets\n\nBULLET::::- Reaction Sets\n\nBULLET::::- Super-Regenerative Receiver\n\nBULLET::::- Superheterodyne Receiver\n\nSection::::Types of antique radio.:Early home-made sets.:Crystal sets.\n", "The antenna is an integral part of the tuned circuit and its reactance contributes to determining the circuit's resonant frequency. Antennas usually act as a capacitance, as antennas shorter than a quarter-wavelength have capacitive reactance. Many early crystal sets did not have a tuning capacitor, and relied instead on the capacitance inherent in the wire antenna (in addition to significant parasitic capacitance in the coil) to form the tuned circuit with the coil.\n", "Section::::History.:Most famous Packard Bell radio.\n\nA Packard Bell radio was used as a prop in the 1960s American television series \"Gilligan's Island\". The Japanese made, eight-transistor AR-851 was an important plot device over the course of the three-year run of the show. A handle and external antenna were added to the AM-only radio, presumably to make it appear more \"radio-like\".\n\nSection::::History.:Other Packard Bell business.\n", "BULLET::::- After the Nazi seizure of power in Germany is broadcasting finally a political tool. Systematic censorship is to prevent opposition and spread the \"Aryan culture\". Series production of the \" People's recipient VE 301 \"starts.\n\nBULLET::::- Edwin Howard Armstrong demonstrates that frequency-modulated (FM) radio transmissions are less susceptible to interference than amplitude-modulated (AM). However, practical application is long delayed.\n\nBULLET::::- In the USA the first opened drive-in theater.\n\nBULLET::::- 1934: First commercial stereo recordings find little favor - the necessary playback devices are still too expensive. The term \"High Fidelity\" is embossed around this time.\n\nBULLET::::- 1935\n", "In aircraft, cars, trucks and boats, glow and gas engines are still used even though electric power has been the most common form of power for a while. The following picture shows a typical brushless motor and speed controller used with radio controlled cars. As you can see, due to the integrated heat sink, the speed controller is almost as large as the motor itself. Due to size and weight limitations, heat sinks are not common in RC aircraft electronic speed controller (ESCs), therefore the ESC is almost always smaller than the motor.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- JST connector\n", "\"PC radios\", or radios that are designed to be controlled by a standard PC are controlled by specialized PC software using a serial port connected to the radio. A \"PC radio\" may not have a front-panel at all, and may be designed exclusively for computer control, which reduces cost.\n", "Section::::General purpose signal generators.:RF and microwave signal generators.:Analog signal generators.\n\nAnalog signal generators based on a sine-wave oscillator were common before the inception of digital electronics, and are still used. There was a sharp distinction in purpose and design of radio-frequency and audio-frequency signal generators.\n\nBULLET::::- RF\n", "The association publishes two journals, the quarterly \"AWA Journal\" (known as the \"Old Timer's Bulletin\" from 1952 until 2004) which focuses on history and preservation efforts, as well as the annual \"AWA Review\", established in 1986, which features more extensive discussions. Since 2017, the museum has a quarterly newsletter called \"Museum Sparks\".\n", "Section::::Design.:Tuned circuit.\n", "Some microbroadcasters, especially those in the United States operating under the FCC's Part 15 rules, and pirate radio operators on mediumwave and shortwave, achieve greater range than possible on the FM band. On mediumwave these stations often transmit on 1610 kHz to 1710 kHz. Hobbyists also use low-power AM (LPAM) transmitters to provide programming for vintage radio equipment in areas where AM programming is not widely available or does not carry programming the listener desires; in such cases the transmitter, which is designed to cover only the immediate property and perhaps nearby areas, is connected to a computer, an FM radio or an MP3 player. Microbroadcasting and pirate radio have generally been supplanted by streaming audio on the Internet, but some schools and hobbyists still use LPAM transmissions.\n", "Section::::Design.:Tuned circuit.:Impedance matching.\n", "Hobby grade models can be fine tuned, unlike most toy grade models. For example, cars often allow toe-in, camber and caster angle adjustments, just like their real-life counterparts. All modern \"computer\" radios allow each function to be adjusted over several parameters for ease in setup and adjustment of the model. Many of these transmitters are capable of \"mixing\" several functions at once, which is required for some models.\n", "Section::::Radio Control Software.:Amateur Radio Control System for the Kenwood TS-2000 by WB5KIA.\n", "TV modulators generally feature analog passthrough, meaning that they take input both from the device and from the usual antenna input, and the antenna input \"passes through\" to the TV, with minor insertion loss due to the added device. In some cases the antenna input is always passed through, while in other cases the antenna input is turned off when the device is outputting a signal, and only the device signal is sent onward, to reduce interference.\n", "Section::::History.:Receivers.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-13809	When having a blocked nose, why do our nostrils "take turns" being blocked?	It's called the nasal cycle. URL_0 Basically, it's to help ensure that one side is always moist, which is necessary for proper breathing and smelling things.	[ "Some odor chemicals bind with olfactory receptors easily, even under conditions of high airflow, and other odors need more time, under low airflow conditions, to bind with receptors. With high airflow on one side and low airflow on the other side, the olfactory center detects a greater range of smells.\n\nSection::::Distinction.\n\nThe nasal cycle should not be confused with pathological nasal congestion: individuals with normal nasal breathing usually do not realize their breathing is asymmetric unless there is underlying nasal obstruction. In pathological conditions, however, the nasal cycle may influence the symptoms.\n\nSection::::Research on the effects.\n", "In 1927, Heetderks described the alternating turgescence of the inferior turbinates in 80% of a normal population. According to Heetderks, the cycle is the result of alternating congestion and decongestion of the nasal conchae or turbinates, predominantly the inferior turbinates, which are by far the largest of the turbinates in each nasal fossa. Turbinates consist of bony projections covered by erectile tissue, much like the tissues of the penis and clitoris. The turbinates in one fossa fill up with blood while the opposite turbinates decongest by shunting blood away. This cycle, which is controlled by the autonomic nervous system as described above, has a mean duration of two and a half hours. He further observed and documented that the turbinates in the dependent nasal fossa fill when the patient is in the lateral decubitus (lying down on your side) position. Some postulate that this alternating positional obstruction has the purpose of causing a person to turn from one side to the other while sleeping in order to prevent bedsores. Others note that the asymmetric airflow may have some benefit to overall olfactory sensitivity. The nasal cycle is an alternating one, with the total resistance in the nose remaining constant. In patients with a fixed septal deviation and intermittent nasal obstruction, the interplay of the nasal cycle becomes evident; the sensation of obstruction frequently mirrors the congestion phase.\n", "It has been shown that the cilia of the congested side suspend their motility until that side decongests. Thus the cycle ensures that one side of the nose is always moist, to facilitate humidification, which is one of the three functions of the nose, the other two being filtration and warming of inspired air prior to its entering the lungs.\n\nSection::::Benefits in olfaction.\n", "Section::::Humans.\n", "Section::::Limitations with nasal systemic drug delivery.\n", "It is possible that the nasal cycle may exacerbate the nasal congestion caused by the common cold, as the lack of motility of the cilia in one half of the nose may lead to an uncomfortable sensation of not being able to shift mucus by blowing the nose.\n\nSection::::Benefits in breathing.\n", "Section::::Other animals.\n", "The superior conchae completely cover and protect the nerve axons piercing through the cribriform plate (a porous bone plate that separates the nose from the brain) into the nose. Some areas of the middle conchae are also innervated by the olfactory bulb. All three pairs of conchae are innervated by pain and temperature receptors, via the trigeminal nerve (or, the fifth cranial nerve). Research has shown that there is a strong connection between these nerve endings and activation of the olfactory receptors, but science has yet to fully explain this interaction.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Dysfunction.\n", "The nasopulmonary and nasothoracic reflexes regulate the mechanism of breathing through deepening the inhale. Triggered by the flow of the air, the pressure of the air in the nose, and the quality of the air, impulses from the nasal mucosa are transmitted by the trigeminal nerve to the breathing centres in the brainstem, and the generated response is transmitted to the bronchi, the intercostal muscles, and the diaphragm.\n", "Nasal cycle\n\nThe nasal cycle is the often unnoticed alternating partial congestion and decongestion of the nasal cavities in humans and other animals. It is a physiological congestion of the nasal conchae, also called the nasal turbinates, due to selective activation of one half of the autonomic nervous system by the hypothalamus. It should not be confused with pathological nasal congestion. The nasal cycle was studied and discussed in the ancient yoga literature of pranayama. In the modern western literature, it was first described by the German physician Richard Kayser in 1895.\n\nSection::::Description.\n", "Nasal administration\n\nNasal administration is a route of administration in which drugs are insufflated through the nose. It can be a form of either topical administration or systemic administration, as the drugs thus locally delivered can go on to have either purely local or systemic effects. Nasal sprays are locally acting drugs such as decongestants for cold and allergy treatment, whose systemic effects are usually minimal. Examples of systemically active drugs available as nasal sprays are migraine drugs, nicotine replacement, and hormone treatments.\n\nSection::::Advantages with nasal systemic drug delivery.\n", "Nasal clicks involve a combination of lingual and pulmonic mechanisms. The velum is lowered so as to direct pulmonic airflow through the nasal cavity during the lingual initiation. This nasal airflow may itself be egressive or ingressive, independently of the lingual initiation of the click. Nasal clicks may be voiced, but are very commonly unvoiced and even aspirated, which is rare for purely pulmonic nasals.\n\nSection::::Airstream contours.\n", "Section::::Routes of Administration.:Nasal.\n", "It is generally understood that olfactory adaptation involves both receptor level and post-receptor components (peripheral and central regions, respectively). Support for the participation of both systems derives from experiments showing that monorhinal stimulation results in both ipsilateral and contralateral adaptation. However, the degree of adaptation is more profound in the ipsilateral nostril, and recovery appears to be slower. Psychophysical support for this theory draws from studies that have reported relatively small decreases in peripheral response after repeated stimulation despite significant reductions in behaviorally perceived intensity.\n", "The nasal cartilages are the septal, lateral, major alar, and minor alar cartilages. The major and minor cartilages are also known as the greater and lesser alar cartilages. There is a narrow strip of cartilage called the vomeronasal cartilage that lies between the vomer and the septal cartilage.\n", "In humans, the conchae divide the nasal airway into 4 groove-like air passages, and are responsible for forcing inhaled air to flow in a steady, regular pattern around the largest possible surface area of nasal mucosa. As a ciliated mucous membrane with shallow blood supply, the nasal mucosa cleans and warms the inhaled air in preparation for the lungs.\n", "There is a reinforcing structure known as the nasal scroll that resists internal collapse from airflow pressure generated by normal breathing. This structure is formed by the junction between the lateral and major cartilages. Their edges interlock by one scrolling upwards and one scrolling inwards.\n\nSection::::Structure.:External nose.\n\nThe nasal root is the top of the nose that attaches the nose to the forehead. The nasal root is above the bridge and below the glabella, forming an indentation known as the nasion at the frontonasal suture where the frontal bone meets the nasal bones.\n", "Section::::Nasal Chondrocytes for Cartilage Tissue Engineering applications.:Chondrogenic differentiation.\n", "The inflammation of the cartilage of the nose involves the bridge of the nose and is often less marked than the ears. Statistics show that this clinical manifestation is present in 15% of persons with RP and occurs at some point in 65% of persons with RP.\n\nNasal obstruction is not a common feature. Atrophy may eventually develop secondarily during the disease, this appears gradual and is not easily noticed. This can result in collapse of the nasal septum with saddle-nose deformity, which is painless but irreversible.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Cartilage inflammation.:Respiratory tract.\n", "There is a nasal valve area in the cavity responsible for providing resistance to the flow of air. This enables an increased time for warming and moistening the air. This area is of two nasal valves. The internal nasal valve is the narrowest part of the airway in the middle third of the cavity. The larger external nasal valve is located in the alar wall.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Internal nose.:Nasal vestibule.\n", "Beneath the upper lateral-cartilages lay the lower lateral-cartilages; the paired lower lateral-cartilages swing outwards, from medial attachments, to the caudal septum in the midline (the medial crura) to an intermediate crus (shank) area. Finally, the lower lateral-cartilages flare outwards, above and to the side (superolaterally), as the lateral crura; these cartilages are mobile, unlike the upper lateral cartilages. Furthermore, some persons present anatomical evidence of nasal scrolling—i.e., an outward curving of the lower borders of the upper lateral-cartilages, and an inward curving of the cephalic borders of the alar cartilages.\n\nSection::::Anatomy of the human nose.:The external nose.\n", "Medical therapy with nasal sprays including decongestants, antihistamines, or nasal corticosteroid sprays is typically tried first before considering a surgical approach to correct nasal septum deviation. Medication temporarily relieves symptoms, but does not correct the underlying condition. Non-medical relief can also be obtained using nasal strips.\n", "BULLET::::- Rhinitis medicamentosa - topical decongestant nasal drops are notorious for causing rebound phenomenon. Their excessive use causes rhinitis if treated by withdrawal of nasal drops, short course of systemic steroid therapy and in some cases, surgical reduction of turbinates, if they have become hypertrophied.\n", "Most prominent pathological changes observed are nasal airway epithelial metaplasia in which goblet cells replace ciliated columnar epithelial cells in the nasal mucous membrane. This results in mucin hypersecretion by goblet cells and decreased mucociliary activity. Nasal secretion are not adequately cleared with clinical manifestation of nasal congestion, sinus pressure, post-nasal dripping, and headache. Over-expression of transient receptor potential (TRP) ion channels, such as TRPA1 and TRPV1, may be involved in the pathogenesis of non-allergic rhinitis.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.:Association between rhinitis and asthma.\n", "The olfactory transfer of drugs into the brain is thought to occur by either slow transport inside the olfactory nerve cells to the olfactory bulb or by faster transfer along the perineural space surrounding the olfactory nerve cells into the cerebrospinal fluid surrounding the olfactory bulbs and the brain (8, 9) \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-14478	Why do horses need the bits in their mouth rather than a harness over/under the mouth?	They don't. It's just the way that gained favor hundreds of years ago. Native Americans didn't use bits and today there is a surge in popularity of Hackamore and Bosal bridles that don't use bits. Bits cause pain. Pain causes compliance. That's a wildly oversimplified explanation, and I'm sure there will be no shortage of people who want to berate me for saying it.	[ "The mouthpiece of the bit does not rest on the teeth of the horse, but rather rests on the gums or \"bars\" of the horse's mouth in an interdental space behind the front incisors and in front of the back molars. When a horse is said to \"grab the bit in its teeth\" they actually mean that the horse tenses its lips and mouth against the bit to avoid the rider's commands (although some horses may actually learn to get the bit between their molars).\n", "Depending on the style of bit, pressure can be brought to bear on the bars, tongue, and roof of the mouth, as well as the lips, chin groove and poll. Bits offer varying degrees of control and communication between rider and horse depending upon their design and on the skill of the rider. It is important that the style of bit is appropriate to the horse's needs and is fitted properly for it to function properly and be as comfortable as possible for the horse.\n", "Bit mouthpiece\n\nThe mouthpiece is the part of a horse's bit that goes into the mouth of a horse, resting on the bars of the mouth in the sensitive interdental space where there are no teeth. The mouthpiece is possibly the most important determinant in the severity and action of the bit. Some mouthpieces are not allowed in dressage competition.\n", "Uses: The twisted wire is \"extremely\" severe. It is not permitted for dressage. It is more commonly seen in the Western disciplines than the English, although the jumping disciplines occasionally feature wire bits. These bits are for strong horses that pull or take off, and those with \"hard\" mouths. It should only be used by skilled riders with soft hands. Some people do not use these bits because they believe them to be cruel, although many trainers agree they are appropriate in certain circumstances with particular horses.\n", "If the longe line is attached just to the inside bit ring, the outside ring can slide through the mouth when the line is pulled and damage the horse's mouth. If the line is run through the inside bit ring, under the chin, and attached to the outside bit ring, the bit can pinch the horse's jaw, and it alters the action of the bit to put pressure on the roof of the horse's mouth. When a method of attachment causes more pain than control, the horse often resists the pressure and will not perform properly.\n\nSection::::Equipment for longeing.:Halter.\n", "On the other hand, very thin bits (such as the twisted wire bits) have a marked severity over thicker bits. Some wire bits may come in a thickness as low as 1/16 inch, making them \"extremely\" severe to the point where it is easy for any rider to cut and ruin the horse's mouth, especially the lips. Many horsemen, even the most skilled riders, will not put such a harsh bit in their horse's mouths. Many equestrian organizations do not allow a bit to be 1/4 inch or thinner in diameter.\n", "Those who advocate use of the bosal-style hackamore note that many young horses' mouths are too sensitive for a bit because they are dealing with tooth eruption, replacing primary molars with permanent teeth. While designed for use on young horses, bosals are equipment intended for use by experienced trainers and should not be used by beginners, as they can be harsh in the wrong hands.\n", "Bits are further described by the style of mouthpiece that goes inside the horse's mouth as well as by the type of bit ring or bit shank that is outside the mouth, to which the reins are attached.\n\nTypes of headgear for horses that exert control with a noseband rather than a bit are usually called hackamores, though the term \"bitless bridle\" has become a popular colloquialism in recent years.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The regular use of a bit to control a horse can create wear facets or bevels on the anterior corners of the lower second premolars. The corners of the horse's mouth normally keep the bit on the \"bars\" of the mouth, an interdental space where there are no teeth, forward of the premolars. The bit must be manipulated by a human or the horse must move it with its tongue for it to touch the teeth. Wear can be caused by the bit abrading the front corners of the premolars if the horse grasps and releases the bit between its teeth; other wear can be created by the bit striking the vertical front edge of the lower premolars, due to very strong pressure from a human handler.\n", "Sometimes, a \"bit seat\" is filed in the first premolar, where the surface is rounded so that the flesh of the cheek is not pushed into the sharp edge of the tooth, making riding more comfortable for the horse, although the practice is controversial.\n\nSection::::Dental problems.\n\nLike humans, horses can develop a variety of dental problems, with a variety of dental services available to minimise problems through reactive or prophylactic intervention.\n", "BULLET::::- Bits for harness (often a Liverpool bit, but the Wilson snaffle is also popular) may be similar to those used for riding, particularly in mouthpiece, usually operating with a curb bit and adjustable leverage to help balance the effect of the reins on different horses in a team. The bridles of the rearward horses in a team (the wheelers in a four-horse team, and both wheelers and centre horses in a six-horse team) often have rings at each end of the browband, through which the lines of the forward horses pass.\n", "Throughout history, the need for control of horses in warfare drove extensive innovation in bit design, producing a variety of prototypes and styles over the centuries, from Ancient Greece into modern-day use.\n\nSection::::Design and terminology.\n\nA bit consists of two basic components, the bit mouthpiece that goes inside the horse's mouth, and the \"bit rings\" of a snaffle bit or \"shanks\" of a curb bit, to which the bridle and reins attach.\n", "If a rider believes such a bit would benefit his horse, he should first look at the animal's training and his own skills. Many problems can be resolved through proper training, rather than harsher bitting. Usually, it is the less-skilled riders who find the need to use harsher bits, because they can't control their horses in anything else.\n\nNonetheless, in some cases, skilled riders can use such bits to their advantage and improve the horse's training. These bits are not permitted in dressage competition, and are generally not used for schooling dressage horses.\n\nSection::::Twisted/serrated bits.:Slow twist.\n", "Bit (horse)\n\nA bit is a type of horse tack used in equestrian activities, usually made of metal, or a synthetic material. It is placed in the mouth of a horse (or other equid) and assists a rider in communicating with the animal. It extends from one side of the mouth across to the other and rests on the bars of the mouth, which are a region, between the incisors and the molars, where there are no teeth. It is held on a horse's head by means of a bridle and has reins attached for use by a rider.\n", "The mouthpiece of the bit does not rest on the teeth of the horse, but rather rests on the gums or \"bars\" of the horse's mouth in an interdental space behind the front incisors and in front of the back molars. It is important that the style of bit is appropriate to the horse's needs and is fitted properly for it to function properly and be as comfortable as possible for the horse.\n\nThe basic \"classic\" styles of bits are:\n\nBULLET::::- Curb bit\n\nBULLET::::- Snaffle bit\n\nBULLET::::- Pelham bit\n\nBULLET::::- Weymouth or Double Bridle\n", "Bit guard\n\nA bit guard (cheek guard in Australia) is a specialty piece of horse tack: a washer, usually made of flexible rubber, that is sometimes used in pairs on a bit.\n\nReasons for using a bit guard include:\n\nBULLET::::- to protect the horse's lips from chafing or pinching by the bit rings\n\nBULLET::::- to provide a better fit when the bit is too wide for the horse's mouth\n\nBULLET::::- to prevent the bit rings from being pulled through the horse's mouth\n", "One of the important criteria when fitting the snaffle is that it does not hit the horse's teeth. The greater concern is that the bit not be so high as to constantly rub on the molars, which can cause considerable discomfort to the horse. A bit adjusted too low usually will not come anywhere near the incisors, even on a short-mouthed horse, until the entire bridle is at risk of falling off.\n", "Bits with more than two joints tend to wrap around the lower jaw of the horse. In general, they are considered more severe than double-jointed bits. These bits are \"not\" permitted in dressage.\n\nSection::::Multi-jointed bits.:Waterford.\n\nType of Bits: snaffle, pelham, gag, curb\n\nWhat it is: The mouthpiece is made of 5-9 joints and is very flexible.\n\nAction: Due to the many joints, the waterford has many bumps, which can act as pressure points. The idea is that the great flexibility discourages the horse from leaning on it.\n\nMaterials: Stainless steel.\n", "What it is: A mouthpiece (usually single jointed, but not always) that is hollow in the middle, making it very light. The mouthpiece is usually thicker than average.\n\nAction: The thick, hollow mouthpiece spreads out pressure, thought to make it less severe. However, this effect varies with the mouth structure of the individual horse. Some horses prefer a smaller diameter bit in their mouth because their mouths do not have room for the thick mouthpieces, and in such cases a hollow mouth bit may cause discomfort.\n\nSection::::Roller bits.\n\nSection::::Roller bits.:The cricket, cherry roller and other roller bits.\n", "A bit functions through the principle of negative reinforcement: the reduction or relaxation of pressure as reinforcement for a behavior. The rider applies pressure through the reins to the bit in the horse's mouth and the horse is reinforced or rewarded for the correct response by softer contact or a release or pressure, depending on the style of riding. Studies have indicated that soft, consistent bit contact between the rider and horse causes the animal less stress than intermittent or unpredictable contact.\n\nSection::::Basic types.\n", "All bits act with some combination of pressure and leverage, often in conjunction with pressure applied by other parts of the bridle such as the curb chain on the chin, noseband on the jaw and face, or pressure on the poll from the headstall. Particular mouthpieces do not define the type of bit. It is the sidepieces and the leverage these rings or shanks use to act on a horse's mouth that determines whether a bit is in the curb or snaffle family, and has a great impact on the severity of the mouthpiece.\n", "Some styles of gag bit are integral to a special bridle, known as a gag bridle; others are used with a standard bridle. Inside the horse's mouth, the gag bit may be jointed like a snaffle bit or smooth like a Mullen mouth bit.\n\nSection::::Usage.\n", "This bit can put pressure on the tongue, although it also adds pressure to the bars and lips of the mouth. It contains a double jointed mouthpiece similar to the French link, with the center section a flat plate. In its original form, the plate was intended to lie across the whole width of the horse's tongue. Bristol insisted that this bit was intended to be comfortable for the horse because the central plate would lie flat onto the tongue thus lowering the pressure.\n", "Although sometimes called a bitless bridle, technically, a mechanical hackamore is not a bridle, as a true bridle contains a bit. However, the mechanical hackamore is also unrelated to a true hackamore except to the extent that both are headgear that control a horse with some form of noseband rather than a bit in the horse's mouth. Because the mechanical hackamore uses shanks and leverage, it is not a true hackamore, but rather works similarly to a curb bit. The shanks and curb chain serve to increase pressure on the nose, jaw, and poll\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- Second, to keep the horse's mouth closed or at least prevent a horse from evading the bit by opening the mouth too far. It can sometimes prevent the horse from putting its tongue over the bit and avoiding pressure in that manner.\n" ]	[ "Horses need a bit in their mouth.", "Horses need the parts in their mouth instead of over or under their mouth." ]	[ "They do not need this, it is just what has been done historically. ", "They don;t need it it is just the standard that we use due to popularity." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Horses need a bit in their mouth.", "Horses need the parts in their mouth instead of over or under their mouth." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "They do not need this, it is just what has been done historically. ", "They don;t need it it is just the standard that we use due to popularity." ]
2018-00723	Why isn't national debt treated like a national emergency?	The reason it isn't treated as a national emergency is because it isn't. Trillions of dollars sounds like a lot of money and it is to an individual, but not if you are a multi-trillion dollar entity. The US government's annual budget in 2015 was 3.8 Trillion. So when you hear that the US is $20 Trillion in debt, remember that is the same as someone making $50,000 a year being $250,000 in debt. That is a very common occurrence considering that mortgages are a thing. On top of that, the US government borrows at (effectively) the lowest interest rate in the world through Treasury Bonds. These bonds are considered "risk free" by the financial world and the result is that the US can borrow extremely cheaply and from damn near everybody. So long as that continues to be true the US government has little to fear from that debt. The only reason that a debt becomes an issue is that the payments on it are too much for the country to bear. So yes, at some large amount the US government will not be able to pay the interest on its debt off but we aren't near that point yet. Assuming the US economy continues to perform and function it is unlikely we'll reach that level any time soon.	[ "On July 9, 2014 a hearing on the crisis was held by the United States Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs. The testimony of Statement of Craig Fugate Administrator, Federal Emergency Management Agency U.S. Department of Homeland Security was that \"We are talking about large numbers of children, without their parents, who have arrived at our border—hungry, thirsty, exhausted, scared and vulnerable.\" Senator Dianne Feinstein compared the crisis to the American refusal to accept Jewish refugees from Nazi Germany aboard the MS \"St. Louis\". The President's request for additional funds was met in both houses of Congress by proposals to modify or eliminate the rights granted by the 2008 reauthorization of the Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000\n", "National emergency powers allow the president unilaterally to control any business activity or person within the country. Once a national emergency is proclaimed, it should get Congressional approval within 30 days if it is to remain in effect. A joint resolution of Congress should be able to cancel a national emergency. The national emergency power should be used only when the nation is at risk of being lost. Only the Civil War, World War II, and possibly the Cuban missile crisis qualify as true national emergencies. The national emergencies claimed by Jefferson, Truman, and Nixon do not meet this standard.\n", "The 1977 International Emergency Economic Powers Act allows the government to freeze assets, limit trade and confiscate property in response to an \"unusual and extraordinary threat\" to the United States that originates substantially outside of it. As of 2015 more than twenty emergencies under the IEEPA remain active regarding various subjects, the oldest of which was declared in 1979 with regard to the government of Iran. Another ongoing national emergency, declared after the September 11 attacks, authorizes the president to retain or reactivate military personnel beyond their normal term of service.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Ongoing.\n", "When the nation is under a presidentially declared state of national emergency in accordance with the National Emergencies Act the President has even broader authority, allowing him to activate not more than 1,000,000 members of the Ready Reserve with no further limitation. The United States has been in a state of national emergency since November 14, 1979.\n", "Under normal accounting rules, fully owned companies would be consolidated into the books of their owners, but the large size of Fannie and Freddie has made the U.S. government reluctant to incorporate Freddie and Fannie into its own books. When Freddie Mac and Fannie Mae required bail-outs, White House Budget Director Jim Nussle, on September 12, 2008, initially indicated their budget plans would not incorporate the GSE debt into the budget because of the temporary nature of the conservator intervention. As the intervention has dragged out, pundits have started to further question this accounting treatment, noting that changes in August 2012 \"makes them even more permanent wards of the state and turns the government's preferred stock into a permanent, perpetual kind of security\".\n", "The Treasury Department is permitted to borrow funds needed to fund government operations, as had been authorized by congressional appropriations, up to the debt ceiling, with some small exceptions. In a letter to Congress of April 4, 2011, Treasury Secretary Timothy Geithner explained that when the debt ceiling is reached, Treasury can declare a \"debt issuance suspension period\" during which it can take \"extraordinary measures\" to continue meeting federal obligations provided that it does not involve the issue of new debt. These measures are taken to avoid, as far as resources permit, a partial government shutdown or a default on the debt. These methods have been used on several previous occasions in which federal debt neared its statutory limit.\n", "Under US law, an administration can spend only if it has sufficient funds to pay for it. These funds can come either from tax receipts or from borrowing by the United States Department of the Treasury. Congress has set a debt ceiling, beyond which the Treasury cannot borrow (this is similar to a credit limit on a credit card). The debt limit does not restrict Congress's ability to enact spending and revenue legislation that affects the level of debt or otherwise constrains fiscal policy; it restricts Treasury's authority to borrow to finance the decisions already enacted by Congress and the President. Congress also usually votes on increasing the debt limit after fiscal policy decisions affecting federal borrowing have begun to take effect. In the absence of sufficient revenue, a failure to raise the debt ceiling would result in the administration being unable to fund all the spending which it is required to do by prior acts of Congress. At that point, the government must cancel or delay some spending, a situation sometimes referred to as a partial government shut down.\n", "More recently, budget limitations and using the power of the purse formed a controversial part of discussion regarding Congressional opposition to the Iraq War. On March 23, 2007, the U.S. House of Representatives passed a supplemental war budget that imposed a timeline on the presence of American combat troops in Iraq, but the legislation was not passed.\n", "Over the long-term, the CBO projects that interest expense and mandatory spending categories (e.g., Medicare, Medicaid and Social Security) will continue to grow relative to GDP, while discretionary categories (e.g., Defense and other Cabinet Departments) continue to fall relative to GDP. Debt is projected to continue rising relative to GDP under the above two scenarios, although the CBO did also offer other scenarios that involved austerity measures that would bring the debt to GDP ratio down.\n\nSection::::Risks and debates.\n\nSection::::Risks and debates.:CBO risk factors.\n", "However, these amounts are not sufficient to cover government operations for extended periods. Treasury first implemented these measures on December 16, 2009 to avoid a government shutdown. These measures were implemented again on May 16, 2011, when Treasury Secretary Geithner declared a \"debt issuance suspension period\". According to his letter to Congress, this period could \"last until August 2, 2011, when the Department of the Treasury projects that the borrowing authority of the United States will be exhausted\".\n", "The Republican Party, which had retaken the House of Representatives the prior year, demanded that the President negotiate over deficit reduction in exchange for an increase in the debt ceiling, the statutory maximum of money the Treasury is allowed to borrow. The debt ceiling had routinely been raised in the past without partisan debate and without any additional terms or conditions. This reflects the fact that the debt ceiling does not prescribe the amount of spending, but only ensures that the government can pay for the spending to which it has already committed itself. Some use the analogy of an individual \"paying their bills\".\n", "The United States debt ceiling crisis was a financial crisis that started as a political and economic debate over increasing the statutory limit of US federal government borrowing. The limit of the indebtedness of the government of the United States is also known as the debt ceiling. In the run up to the crisis, the United States had approached, and actually passed, this limit.\n", "If the United States breached its debt ceiling and were unable to resort to other \"extraordinary measures\", the Treasury would have to either default on payments to bondholders or immediately curtail payment of funds owed to various companies and individuals that had been mandated but not fully funded by Congress. Both situations would likely have led to a significant international financial crisis.\n", "On August 26, 2013, Treasury informed Congress that if the debt ceiling was not raised in time, the United States would be forced to default on its debt sometime in mid-October.\n\nOn September 25, Treasury announced that extraordinary measures would be exhausted no later than October 17, leaving Treasury with about $30 billion in cash, plus incoming revenue, but no ability to borrow money. The CBO estimated that the exact date on which Treasury would have had to begin prioritizing/delaying bills and/or actually defaulting on some obligations would fall between October 22 and November 1.\n\nSection::::October 2013 debt ceiling debate.\n", "At the time that the Constitution came into effect, the United States had a significant debt, primarily associated with the Revolutionary War. There were differences within and between the major political coalitions over the possible liquidation or increase of this debt. As early as 1798, Thomas Jefferson wrote:I wish it were possible to obtain a single amendment to our Constitution. I would be willing to depend on that alone for the reduction of the administration of our government; I mean an additional article taking from the Federal Government the power of borrowing. I now deny their power of making paper money or anything else a legal tender. I know that to pay all proper expenses within the year would, in a case of war, be hard on us. But not so hard as ten wars instead of one. For wars could be reduced in that proportion; besides that, the State governments would be free to lend their credit in borrowing quotas.\n", ", approximately 40 percent of US government spending relied on borrowed money. That is, without borrowing, the federal government would have had to cut spending immediately by 40 percent, affecting many daily operations of the government, besides the impact on the domestic and international economies. It is unclear if the Treasury has the technological capability to disperse funds to some individuals it owes money. The Government Accountability Office reported in February 2011 that managing debt when delays in raising the debt limit occur diverts Treasury's resources away from other cash and debt management responsibilities and that Treasury's borrowing costs modestly increased during debt limit debates in 2002, 2003, 2010 and 2011. If the interest payments on the national debt are not made, the US would be in default, potentially causing catastrophic economic consequences for the US and the wider world as well. (Effects outside the US would be likely because the United States is a major trading partner with many countries. Other major world powers who hold its debt could demand repayment.)\n", "Section::::Content.\n\nThe bulk of the report is an inventory of approximately 470 sections in federal law that extend emergency powers to the President and the executive branch. Before this comes an introduction discussing the history of how such a political situation developed.\n", "In a joint press release on the same day from the Federal Reserve System, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, the National Credit Union Administration, and the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency, federally regulated institutions were told that for risk-based capital purposes, the debt of the United States was still considered to be risk free.\n\nSection::::Reaction.:US reaction.:Congressional reaction.\n", "H.R. 325 would temporarily suspend the debt limit by the Treasury until May 18, 2013. On the following day, the current debt limit of $16.394 trillion would be raised by the amount of borrowing above that level during the period in which the limitation was suspended.\n", "Section::::Debt ceiling.\n\nThe debt ceiling is a legislative mechanism to limit the amount of national debt that can be issued by the Treasury. In effect, it will restrain the Treasury from paying for expenditures after the limit has been reached, even if the expenditures have already been approved (in the budget) and have been appropriated. If this situation were to occur, it is unclear whether Treasury would be able to prioritize payments on debt to avoid a default on its debt obligations, but it would have to default on some of its non-debt obligations.\n\nSection::::Debt holdings.\n", "Historically, the US public debt as a share of gross domestic product (GDP) has increased during wars and recessions, and subsequently declined. The ratio of debt to GDP may decrease as a result of a government surplus or due to growth of GDP and inflation. For example, debt held by the public as a share of GDP peaked just after World War II (113% of GDP in 1945), but then fell over the following 35 years. In recent decades, aging demographics and rising healthcare costs have led to concern about the long-term sustainability of the federal government's fiscal policies. The aggregate, gross amount that Treasury can borrow is limited by the United States debt ceiling.\n", "However, if the U.S. government continues to run \"on budget\" deficits as projected by the CBO and OMB for the foreseeable future, it will have to issue marketable Treasury bills and bonds (i.e., debt held by the public) to pay for the projected shortfall in the Social Security program. This will result in \"debt held by the public\" replacing \"intragovernmental debt\".\n\nSection::::Risks and debates.:Intergenerational equity.\n", "The Budget Control Act of 2011 (BCA) authorized two types of spending to exceed the established spending caps: disaster and emergency. While emergency spending is not subject to the caps in the BCA, spending for disaster relief is calculated by taking the average of the previous ten years' disaster relief spending (excluding the highest and lowest spending years).\n\nSection::::Provisions.\n", "Following the increase in the debt ceiling to $16.394 trillion in 2011, the United States again reached the debt ceiling on December 31, 2012 and the Treasury began taking extraordinary measures. The fiscal cliff was resolved with the passage of the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012 (ATRA), but no action was taken on the debt ceiling. With the ATRA tax cuts, the government indicated that the debt ceiling needed to raise by $700 billion for it to continue financing operations for the rest of the 2013 fiscal year and that extraordinary measures were expected to be exhausted by February 15. Treasury has said it is not set up to prioritize payments, and it's not clear that it would be legal to do so. Given this situation, Treasury would simply delay payments if funds could not be raised through extraordinary measures and the debt ceiling had not been raised. This would put a freeze on 7% of the nation's GDP, a contraction greater than the Great Recession. The economic damage would worsen as recipients of social security benefits, government contracts, and other government payments cut back on spending in response to having the freeze in their revenue.\n", "Internationally, the United States had little ability to defend its sovereignty. Most of the troops in the 625-man United States Army were deployed facing – but not threatening – British forts on American soil. They had not been paid; some were deserting and others threatening mutiny. Spain closed New Orleans to American commerce; U.S. officials protested, but to no effect. Barbary pirates began seizing American ships of commerce; the Treasury had no funds to pay their ransom. If any military crisis required action, the Congress had no credit or taxing power to finance a response.\n" ]	[ "National debt should be treated like an emergency.", "National debt should be considered a national emergency. " ]	[ "National debt is not bad, it is how the country is financed. It is only bad if you can't make the payments. ", "National debt is not a national emergency because trillions of dollars is not very much to a mutli trillion dollar entity." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "National debt should be treated like an emergency.", "National debt should be considered a national emergency. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "National debt is not bad, it is how the country is financed. It is only bad if you can't make the payments. ", "National debt is not a national emergency because trillions of dollars is not very much to a mutli trillion dollar entity." ]
2018-03677	How do YouTube mashup artists like 'oneboredjeu' and 'InanimateMashups' not get copyright strikes?	First, Youtube takes down things in part based on how likely they are to get issued legal challenges to the videos. So the question is, are mashups illegal copyright infringement? Most mashups and sample usage in original songs are protected under the doctrine of fair use. If you take chunks of someone else's song and transform them into something new, generally the new song which is created is protected and not considered copyright infringement. This extends to parodies and, in some cases, covers. [More on fair use from URL_1 ]( URL_0 )	[ "Copyright strikes have also been issued against creators themselves. \"Miracle of Sound\"'s channel was hit with multiple copyright strikes as a result of automated strikes by the distributor of their own music. \n\nSection::::Reasons for strikes.:Strikes for works in Public Domain.\n", "Starting from Wednesday 1 October 2014, the new EU law becomes effective in the United Kingdom. There is an amendment to the Copyright, Design and Patents Act 1988. It is now legal for people to use “limited amount” of copyrighted material in online video for the purposes of “parody, caricature or pastiche” without the consent of the copyright holder, only if their work do not convey a discriminatory message, or compete with the original. A judge will decide whether the video is funny enough to classify as a parody and if it violates the law.\n", "Courts in the United States balance four factors when considering fair use:\n\nBULLET::::1. Purpose and character of the use (including: commercial nature, non-profit education purposes)\n\nBULLET::::2. Nature of the copyrighted work\n\nBULLET::::3. Amount and substantiality of the portion used in relation to the copyrighted work as a whole\n\nBULLET::::4. Effect of the use upon the potential market or value of the copyrighted work\n", "In a similar incident to such strikes, though in another forum, Sony issued an automated copyright strike against James Rhodes for a video on Facebook of him playing part of a piece by Bach, on the grounds that they owned the copyright on a similar recording, and when the strike was challenged, asserted that they owned the rights to the work, before finally admitting that Bach's compositions are in the public domain. \n\nSection::::Reasons for strikes.:Strikes for unknown reasons.\n\nLots of publishers on YouTube report not understanding why they have received strikes.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Mashup videos are increasingly popular online. When the mashup creators remix two or more videos or music from various sources e.g. TV, film, music etc., they may not be aware of the copyright of the original source. Without the permission of copyright owner, mashup video artists may violate the copyright law and charged by criminal copyright infringement. If they violate the law, their videos will be forced to take down on YouTube. YouTube can ban their accounts and they are forbidden to post anything online. In a more serious case, the copyright owners reserve their rights to sue the mashup artists and they may have a maximum punishment of five years in jail and large fines. It is an obstacle that hinders mashup artists to develop mashup video more. The original copyright law is written in 1980s or even earlier and it did not include the possibilities of copyright infringement exist in digital era. Therefore, mashup artists and public suggests a reform of copyright law regarding on remix culture and mashup videos in order to give more freedom for mashup artists to create their work.\n", "Section::::Copyright issues.:United States.\n\nIn the United States, the Copyright Act of 1976 acts as the basis of copyright law to protect the rights of the original creators. It protects the original works of authorship. To some extent, it allows artists to reproduce the work and create derivative works of the original work.\n\nFair use is a limitation and exception to the copyright law. According to the \"Hofstra Law Review\", “If mashup artists could prove that they use others’ songs or clips to criticize, comment, or teach, then mashup artists might be able to use the copyrighted material without authorization.\" \n", "Section::::Copyright issues.\n", "In 2012, video mashup artist Jonathan McIntosh spoke before the United States Copyright Office to advocate for exemptions to the Digital Millennium Copyright Act. The final rulemaking stated an exemption for: \"Motion pictures (including television shows and videos), as defined in 17 U.S.C. 101, where circumvention is undertaken solely in order to make use of short portions of the motion pictures for the purpose of criticism or comment in limited instances.\"\n\nSection::::Copyright issues.:United Kingdom.\n", "The judgment of the single judge was reversed on the following grounds-\n\nBULLET::::- No Actual Knowledge\n", "Under the US copyright law, a person has to prove the following two things for claiming joint authorship in a work:\n\nBULLET::::1. First, he must show that he made a copyrightable contribution to the final work at issue.\n\nBULLET::::2. Second, he must show that all of these contributors intended that their various contributions be merged into a unitary whole.\n\nSection::::Law in the United States.:Elements.:Copyrightable contribution.\n", "Under United States copyright law, a creation receives copyright protection if it satisfies four conditions under 17 U.S.C. § 102. For a meme to get copyright protection, it would have to satisfy four conditions:\n\nBULLET::::1. It falls under one of the categories of work which is protected under the law\n\nBULLET::::2. It is an \"expression\"\n\nBULLET::::3. It has a modest amount of creativity\n\nBULLET::::4. It is \"fixed\".\n", "On December 13, 2018, TheFatRat posted on Twitter that one of his songs, \"The Calling\", was content claimed by a user named Ramjets for unfairly using a song on the behalf of Andres Galvis, who had remixed the original track. He originally appealed, but was denied as it is not YouTube, but the user claiming the content who has the final say over the appeal. He messaged YouTube to appeal, but YouTube said that they do not meditate copyright claims.\n", "YouTube assigns strikes based on reports of copyright violations from bots.\n\nSome users have expressed concern that the strike process is unfair to users. The complaint is that the system assumes guilt of YouTube users and takes the side of copyright holders even when no infringement has occurred.\n\nYouTube and Nintendo were criticised by Cory Doctorow, a writer for the blog \"Boing Boing\", due to them reportedly treating video game reviewers unfairly by threatening them with strikes.\n\nSection::::Reasons for strikes.\n\nSection::::Reasons for strikes.:Disagreements about what constitutes fair use.\n", "Section::::Lawsuit.\n\nOn June 21, 2011, Schmidt filed a lawsuit in Seattle Federal Court against Threadless for their 2009 line of Three Keyboard Cat Moon T-shirts, a send up of the then popular Three Wolf Moon meme, due to copyright infringement. Threadless counter-claimed by stating that Schmidt's copyright claim was not approved until September 22, 2010, more than a year after the production of the T-shirts, and that Schmidt had lost his copyright when he asked people to submit videos that paid tribute to Fatso. , this lawsuit has been settled.\n", "Mashup (video)\n\nA video mashup (also written as video mash-up) combines multiple pre-existing video sources with no discernible relation with each other into a unified video. These are derivative works as defined by the United States Copyright Act , and as such, may find protection from copyright claims under the doctrine of fair use. Examples of mashup videos include movie trailer remixes, vids, YouTube Poop, Wishfie Reaction Videos, and supercuts.\n\nSection::::Music videos.\n", "Fair use is a legal rationale for reusing copyrighted content in a limited way, such as to discuss or criticize other media. Various YouTube creators have reported receiving copyright strikes for using media in the context of fair use.\n\nSection::::Reasons for strikes.:Suppression of criticism.\n\nVarious YouTube creators have reported receiving copyright strikes on videos which are critical of corporate products. They claim that a claim of copyright violation is actually a strategy to suppress criticism.\n\nSection::::Reasons for strikes.:Strikes for posting own work.\n", "On October 23, 2007 The United States Patent and Trademark Office granted the EFF’s request for the reexamination of NeoMedia's patent #6,199,048. The Office also granted request for the reexamination of Hoshiko's (Ideaflood) patent #6,687,746 that covers the automation of subdomain registration.\n\nOn February 4, 2009, The United States Patent and Trademark Office upheld NeoMedia patent #6,199,048, although with limitations imposed upon the claimed material.\n\nSection::::Ten Most-wanted Patents.\n\nBULLET::::- Acacia Research: Audio and video receiving and transmission system\n\nBULLET::::- Clear Channel Entertainment: System and method of creating digital recordings of live performances\n", "The individual contributions made by authors to a joint work need not necessarily be equal in quality or quantity. Nevertheless, the author has to show that his contribution to the joint work is copyrightable by itself. A contribution of mere ideas is not sufficient. In order to be a joint author, one must contribute expression. For the expression to be copyrightable it has to be original – that is independently created and possess at least a minimal degree of creativity.\n", "\"A work can only be original if it is the result of independent creative effort. It will not be original if it has been copied from something that already exists. If it is similar to something that already exists but there has been no copying from the existing work either directly or indirectly, then it may be original.\n", "A YouTube copyright strike is a copyright policing practice used by YouTube for the purpose of managing copyright infringement and complying with the Digital Millennium Copyright Act. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) is the basis for the design of the YouTube copyright strike system. For YouTube to retain DMCA safe harbor protection, it must respond to copyright infringement claims with a notice and take down process. YouTube's own practice is to issue a \"YouTube copyright strike\" on the user accused of copyright infringement. When a YouTube user has three copyright strikes, YouTube terminates that user's YouTube channel, removes all of their videos from that user's YouTube channel, and prohibits that user from creating another YouTube channel.\n", "Yoga to the People is a yoga studio established by one of Bikram Choudhury's former work associates. After Yoga to the People opened a yoga studio near a Bikram Yoga studio, Bikram started a lawsuit to have them cease presenting Bikram Yoga postures at their studio.\n\nYoga to the People sought public attention to the lawsuit in social media.\n", "In March 2012, the European Court of Justice also set a similar precedent, ruling that Football DataCo could not claim copyright on association football match schedules due to the skill and labour used in their creation, as their compilation is \"dictated by rules or constraints which leave no room for creative freedom\". In November 2015, also citing the European Court of Justice, the United Kingdom's Intellectual Property Office clarified that it was \"unlikely\" that a digitised reproduction of a work out of copyright would be original enough to attain a new copyright.\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "In 2018, Behringer/Music Tribe attempted to file a libel suit against Dave Smith Instruments (now Sequential) and 20 anonymous forum users for making what it referred to as \"false, defamatory and libelous\" remarks about its clones of synthesizers such as the Minimoog, Oberheim OB-Xa, and Sequential Pro-One. Although the lawsuit was directed mainly at the forum users, DSI was involved because an engineer who worked for them was a participant in the discussions. The lawsuits were dismissed after the defendants filed a motion under California's anti-SLAPP statute.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of microphone manufacturers\n\nBULLET::::- List of studio monitor manufacturers\n", "To date, this question remains untested in the United States. One 2008 United States district court case, \"Southwest Casino and Hotel Corp. vs Flyingman\", would have been on point had the case ever been heard. The casino filed suit for copyright infringement on the use of their surveillance video. The defendant argued in a motion that the surveillance video lacked the sufficient creativity needed to secure copyright protection. That argument never got its day in court; instead, the case fell apart when a separate tribal court ruled that the tribes, rather than the casino, owned the footage.\n", "Fictitious entries may be used to demonstrate copying, but to prove legal infringement, the material must also be shown to be eligible for copyright. However, due to the \"Feist v. Rural\", Fred Worth lawsuit where the Supreme Court ruled that \"information alone without a minimum of original creativity cannot be protected by copyright\", there are very few cases where copyright has been proven. Many of these cases that go to court are dismissed and the affected party is rewarded no compensation.\n" ]	[ "YouTube mashup artists never get copyright strikes.", "Youtube Mashup artists such as oneboredjeu and Inanimatemashups should receive copyright strikes. " ]	[ "Youtube takes down things in part based on how likely they are to get issued legal challenges to the videos.", "Artists such of these transform the samples they place in their videos, therfore the content they produce is considered fair use." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "YouTube mashup artists never get copyright strikes.", "Youtube Mashup artists such as oneboredjeu and Inanimatemashups should receive copyright strikes. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Youtube takes down things in part based on how likely they are to get issued legal challenges to the videos.", "Artists such of these transform the samples they place in their videos, therfore the content they produce is considered fair use." ]
2018-06640	What’s the difference between the words “further” and “farther?”	Further = degree/magnitude. She told him that she did not want to take their friendship any further. Farther = distance. Drive 2 kms farther down the road.	[ "Section::::In Languages.:English.\n\nBecause of the many dialects in English, there are multiple ways morphological leveling affects the language.\n\nSection::::In Languages.:English.:\"to be\" Leveling.\n\nIn African-American Vernacular English (AAVE) and Appalachian English, they both exhibit the \"to be\" leveling mentioned above.\n", "Affixes are bound by definition. English language affixes are almost exclusively prefixes or suffixes: \"pre-\" in \"precaution\" and \"-ment\" in \"shipment\". Affixes may be inflectional, indicating how a certain word relates to other words in a larger phrase, or derivational, changing either the part of speech or the actual meaning of a word.\n", "Dom has a spatial referencing demonstrative system, i.e. there are certain demonstrative lexemes bearing information about the spatial relation of the referred object to the speaker alongside neutral demonstratives. A Dom speaker also uses different lexemes for visible and invisible objects. In the case of visible objects, the speaker locates it on a horizonal and vertical axis as to whether it is proximal, medium or distal from the speaker and on the same level, uphill or downhill.\n\nDemonstratives with spatial alignment:\n", "BULLET::::- The vowel sounds of both and are neutralized, resulting in both pronounced as ; so the vowels in \"further\" are typically realized with the same segmental quality as .\n", "Historically, English has undergone a few changes in relation to prosodic paradigm leveling. For example, the word \"he'd\" in Australian English has experienced an internal leveling in terms of vowels. The original word was pronounced /hid/ (in IPA) in the same was as the word \"heed\" is pronounced in American English. However, it experienced influence from the weaker form of the word, /hɪd/. Thus, the primary pronunciation of the word became /hɪd/. Another example of this would be the word \"than\". The word was originally pronounced /ðæːn/. This leveling occurred in terms of trans-paradigmatic leveling. The change in the word stemmed from paradigms like \"that\" (/ðæt) and \"have\" (/hæv/), from which \"than\" dropped the lengthening of the vowel to become /ðæn/.\n", "Prosody deals with the intonation, stress, tone, rhythm and other not phonetic segments of words. In prosodic paradigm leveling (PPL), the prosody of the forms of a word will be leveled so that the prosodic distinction between the words is minor, or they are prosodically similar. This application of leveling occurs in two steps. The first being the when a new form begins to gain use along side an older version of the word. The second step is when the older form falls out of use and the newer one becomes the primary form of the word.\n\nSection::::In Languages.\n", "Section::::In Languages.:English.:PPL.\n", "Section::::Superstratum.\n\nA superstratum (plural: superstrata) or superstrate offers the counterpart to a substratum. When one language succeeds another, linguists label the succeeding language a superstratum and the earlier language a substratum.\n", "Further\n\nFurther or Furthur may refer to:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Further\" (bus), the Merry Pranksters' psychedelic bus\n\nBULLET::::- Further (band), a 1990s American indie rock band\n\nBULLET::::- Furthur (band), a band formed in 2009 by Bob Weir and Phil Lesh\n\nBULLET::::- \"Further\" (The Chemical Brothers album), 2010\n\nBULLET::::- \"Further\" (Flying Saucer Attack album), 1995\n\nBULLET::::- \"Further\" (Geneva album), 1997, and a song from the album\n\nBULLET::::- \"Further\" (Richard Hawley album), 2019\n\nBULLET::::- \"Further\" (Solace album), 2000\n\nBULLET::::- \"Further\" (Outasight album), 2009\n\nBULLET::::- \"Further\" (VNV Nation song), a song by VNV Nation\n\nBULLET::::- \"Further\", a song by Longview from the album \"Mercury\", 2003\n", "In this case, the paradigm leveling occurs within the same paradigm. In this way, one form of a word will take on the characteristic(s) of another form within its own paradigm.\n\nSection::::Types.:Trans-Paradigmatic Leveling.\n\nIn trans-paradigmatic leveling, the process occurs between two forms originating from two separate paradigms. This means that a form from one paradigm will begin to resemble the form of another from a separate paradigm.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n\nSection::::Applications.:\"to be\" Leveling.\n", "Section::::Main terms.:Medial and lateral.\n", "Johnson's use of \"former\" and \"latter\" seem to be swapped; perhaps \"former\" was here meant to refer to the immediately preceding section title \"Depth of Focus\", and \"latter\" to the current section title \"Depth of Field\". Except for an obvious factor-of-2 error in using the ratio of stop diameter to CoC radius, this definition is the same as Abney's hyperfocal distance.\n\nSection::::History.:Others, early twentieth century.\n\nThe term \"hyperfocal distance\" also appears in Cassell's \"Cyclopaedia\" of 1911, \"The Sinclair Handbook of Photography\" of 1913, and Bayley's \"The Complete Photographer\" of 1914.\n\nSection::::History.:Kingslake 1951.\n\nRudolf Kingslake is explicit about the two meanings:\n", "Sense-for-sense translation\n\nSense-for-sense translation is the oldest norm for translating. It fundamentally means translating the meaning of each whole sentence before moving on to the next, and stands in normative opposition to word-for-word translation (also known as literal translation), which means translating the meaning of each lexical item in sequence.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Writing about intensely positive emotions.\n", "Other style guides argue that terms like \"perfect\" and \"parallel\" never apply \"exactly\" to things in real life, so they are commonly used to mean \"nearly perfect\", \"nearly parallel\", and so on; in this sense, \"more perfect\" (\"i.e.\", more nearly perfect, closer to perfect) and \"more parallel\" (\"i.e.\", more nearly parallel, closer to parallel) are meaningful.\n\nSection::::Balto-Slavic languages.\n\nIn most Balto-Slavic languages (such as Czech, Polish, Lithuanian and Latvian), the comparative and superlative forms are also declinable adjectives.\n\nIn Bulgarian, comparative and superlative forms are formed with the clitics (\"more\") and (\"most\"):\n", "The coiner of the term \"sense-for-sense\" was Jerome in his \"Letter to Pammachius\", where he said that, \"except of course in the case of Holy Scripture, where even the syntax contains a mystery,\" he translates \"non verbum e verbo sed sensum de sensu\": not word for word but sense for sense.\n", "According to Thomas Aquinas (\"Summa Theologica\", Part I, Question 21, Article 2), there are two kinds of \"truth\" (\"veritas\"), both understood as correspondence between mind (\"intellectus\") or words (\"oratio\") and world (\"things\", \"res\"):\n\nSection::::In speech act theory.\n\nPerhaps the first to speak of a \"direction of fit\" was the philosopher J. L. Austin. Austin did not use the distinction between different directions of fit to contrast commands or expressions of intention to assertions, or desires to beliefs. He rather distinguishes different ways of asserting that an item is of a certain type.\n", "Section::::Other languages.:Swedish.\n\nIn Swedish \"chevré\" (as in \"chevré[ost]\" for 'chèvre cheese') is pronounced quite differently from the original French \"chèvre\" (possibly by false analogy with the Swedish \"grevé\" cheese, \"grevéost\").\n\nSimilarly \"entrecôte\", which can often be spelled , or , or some other combination of and or . More often than not, it is pronounced without a final .\n\nSection::::Other languages.:Norwegian.\n", "Three types of relationship between vantages have been identified: near synonymy, coextension, and inclusion, plus the relationship of complementation obtaining between the dominant vantages of distinct categories. The relationships are found synchronically in the world's languages but also follow a diachronic sequence in that order. The process has to do with progressively greater differentiation of categories along with greater emphasis placed on difference at the expense of similarity. The relationships are idealized segments of a continuum. The most intriguing of the four is coextension, first observed in the WARM category of Uspantec (Uspanteco), a Mayan language of Guatemala. In coextension, the ranges of each of two root terms used to name a category overlap substantially, but the range of one encompasses the focus of the other.\n", "A map germ at \"x\" in \"X\" which maps the point \"x\" in \"X\" to the point \"y\" in \"Y\" is denoted as\n\nWhen using this notation, \"f\" is then intended as an entire equivalence class of maps, using the same letter \"f\" for any representative map.\n\nNotice that two sets are germ-equivalent at \"x\" if and only if their characteristic functions are germ-equivalent at \"x\":\n\nSection::::Formal definition.:More generally.\n", "A directed distance along a curved line is not a vector and is represented by a segment of that curved line defined by endpoints \"A\" and \"B\", with some specific information indicating the sense (or direction) of an ideal or real motion from one endpoint of the segment to the other (see figure). For instance, just labelling the two endpoints as \"A\" and \"B\" can indicate the sense, if the ordered sequence (\"A\", \"B\") is assumed, which implies that \"A\" is the starting point.\n\nSection::::Distance versus directed distance and displacement.:Displacement.\n", "The difference between a fronted and non-fronted consonant can be heard in the English words \"key\" and \"coo\" , where the in \"key\" is fronted under the influence of the front vowel . In English, the plosive in the affricate , as in the word \"church\", is farther back than an alveolar due to assimilation with the postalveolar fricative . In narrow transcription, may be transcribed . In General American English, the in the word \"eighth\" is farther front than normal, due to assimilation with the interdental consonant , and may be transcribed as . \n", "Section::::Physical Layer.\n", "tibum \"straight\"\n\nClass 3 Example:\n\nkambom \"bad, very.\"\n\nClass 4 Example:\n\namuŋ \"very\"\n\nna \"very\"\n\nLocation Words: Hote location words are often depicted by vertical and horizontal planes with the exception of kapo \"inside\" and yaiŋ \"outside.\" The orientations are as follows:\n\nVertical:\n\nvuliŋ on.top/overhead\n\nvibiŋ \"underneath\"\n\nvumak \"underneath\" (farther down)\n\nHorizontal:\n\nsaka \"over there\" (nearest)\n\ntoka \"over there\" (near)\n\ntoku \"over there\" (far)\n\ntuvulu \"over there\" (farthest)\n\nHeight:\n\ndaka up.there (near)\n\nsaku up.there (far)\n\ndaku up.there (farthest)\n\ntamu down/down to (any distance)\n\nExample:\n\nhamu vibiŋ \"It is underneath.\"\n\n3s.is underneath\n", "Section::::Substratum.:Concept history.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00636	how do solar panels capture energy from the sun?	Photons have energy in them. When those photons hit a special semiconducting material, they can transfer that energy to the electrons in the semiconductor. This allows the electrons to move to a nearby metal electrode and loop around through a circuit to a baseline electrode on the other side of the semiconductor.	[ "The sun's rays can be used to produce electrical energy. The direct user of sunlight is the solar cell or photovoltaic cell, which converts sunlight directly into electrical energy without the incorporation of a mechanical device. This technology is simpler than the fossil-fuel-driven systems of producing electrical energy. A solar cell is formed by a light-sensitive p-n junction semiconductor, which when exposed to sunlight is excited to conduction by the photons in light. When light, in the form of photons, hits the cell and strikes an atom, photo-ionisation creates electron-hole pairs. The electrostatic field causes separation of these pairs, establishing an electromotive force in the process. The electric field sends the electron to the p-type material, and the hole to the n-type material. If an external current path is provided, electrical energy will be available to do work. The electron flow provides the current, and the cell's electric field creates the voltage. With both current and voltage the silicon cell has power. The greater the amount of light falling on the cell's surface, the greater is the probability of photons releasing electrons, and hence more electric energy is produced.\n", "Section::::Theory.\n\nThe solar cell works in several steps:\n\nBULLET::::- Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by semiconducting materials, such as silicon.\n", "BULLET::::- Electrons are excited from their current molecular/atomic orbital. Once excited an electron can either dissipate the energy as heat and return to its orbital or travel through the cell until it reaches an electrode. Current flows through the material to cancel the potential and this electricity is captured. The chemical bonds of the material are vital for this process to work, and usually silicon is used in two layers, one layer being doped with boron, the other phosphorus. These layers have different chemical electric charges and subsequently both drive and direct the current of electrons.\n", "When a photon hits a piece of silicon, one of three things can happen:\n\nBULLET::::1. The photon can pass straight through the silicon — this (generally) happens for lower energy photons.\n\nBULLET::::2. The photon can reflect off the surface.\n\nBULLET::::3. The photon can be absorbed by the silicon if the photon energy is higher than the silicon band gap value. This generates an electron-hole pair and sometimes heat depending on the band structure.\n", "A fluid (also called heat transfer fluid) passes through the receiver and becomes very hot. Common fluids are synthetic oil, molten salt and pressurized steam. The fluid containing the heat is transported to a heat engine where about a third of the heat is converted to electricity.\n", "As light passes throughout the transparent solar cell the NIR is absorbed, then with the incorporation of NIR reflecting mirrors, a higher PCE is achieved optimizing performance. To produce, and carry the electricity, out of the cell, a typical transparent photovoltaic device will have UV and NIR active layers that, when exposed to sunlight, interact with each other to create an electric field causing an electrical current to flow. The UV and NIR active layers are then sandwiched by layers of electrodes that are connected to an external circuit which carries the current out of the device.\n\nSection::::Technology.:Future Goals.\n", "The most commonly known solar cell is configured as a large-area p–n junction made from silicon. Other possible solar cell types are organic solar cells, dye sensitized solar cells, perovskite solar cells, quantum dot solar cells etc. The illuminated side of a solar cell generally has a transparent conducting film for allowing light to enter into active material and to collect the generated charge carriers. Typically, films with high transmittance and high electrical conductance such as indium tin oxide, conducting polymers or conducting nanowire networks are used for the purpose.\n\nSection::::Efficiency.\n", "In contrast to the battery, at current levels delivered to the external circuit near \"I\", the solar cell acts more like a \"current generator\" rather than a voltage generator (near vertical part of the two illustrated curves)\n\nThe current drawn is nearly fixed over a range of load voltages, to one electron per converted photon. The quantum efficiency, or probability of getting an electron of photocurrent per incident photon, depends not only upon the solar cell itself, but upon the spectrum of the light.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Counter-electromotive force\n\nBULLET::::- Electric battery\n\nBULLET::::- Electrochemical cell\n\nBULLET::::- Electrolytic cell\n", "Section::::\"Solar Impulse 1\" (HB-SIA).:Operational history.:International and intranational flights.:Belgium and France (2011).\n", "In addition, most solar panels on spacecraft are also made of high efficient multi-junction photovoltaic cells to derive electricity from sunlight when operating in the inner Solar System.\n\nSection::::Emerging technologies.:Floatovoltaics.\n", "Section::::Cell technologies.\n\nSection::::Cell technologies.:PERC solar cell.\n\nPassivated emitter rear contact (PERC) solar cells consists in the addition of an extra layer to the rear-side of a solar cell. This dielectric passive layer acts to reflect unabsorbed light back to the solar cell for a second absorption attempt increasing the solar cell efficiency.\n\nA PERC is created through an additional film deposition and etching process. Etching can be done either by chemical or laser processing.\n\nSection::::Cell technologies.:HIT solar cell.\n", "Section::::Types of solar collector.:Trackers.:Moving collector.:Motion Free Optical Tracking.\n\nSolar trackers can be built without the need for mechanical tracking equipment. These are called motion free optical tracking, there has been some series of advancements in this technology over the past few decades. \n\nSection::::Non-concentrating photovoltaic (PV) trackers.\n", "Solar panel\n\nPhotovoltaic solar panels absorb sunlight as a source of energy to generate electricity. A photovoltaic (PV) module is a packaged, connected assembly of typically 6x10 photovoltaic solar cells. Photovoltaic modules constitute the photovoltaic array of a photovoltaic system that generates and supplies solar electricity in commercial and residential applications. \n\nThe most common application of solar energy collection outside agriculture is solar water heating systems.\n\nSection::::Theory and construction.\n", "Solar cells are devices that convert sunlight into electricity by the photovoltaic effect. Electrons in a solar cell absorb photon energy in sunlight which excites them to the conduction band from the valence band. This generates a hole-electron pair, which is separated by a potential barrier (such as a p-n junction), and induces a current. Organic solar cells use organic materials in their active layers. Molecular, polymer, and hybrid organic photovoltaics are the main kinds of organic photovoltaic devices currently studied.\n\nSection::::Theory.:Hybrid solar cell.\n", "Photovoltaic panels convert sunlight to electricity. In this cycle, the excess electricity produced after consumption by devices connected to the system, is used to power an electrolyzer. The electrolyzer converts water into hydrogen and oxygen, which is stored. This hydrogen is used up by a fuel cell to produce electricity, which can power the devices when sunlight is unavailable.\n\nSection::::Features.\n", "Ohmic metal-semiconductor contacts are made to both the n-type and p-type sides of the solar cell, and the electrodes connected to an external load. Electrons that are created on the n-type side, or created on the p-type side, \"collected\" by the junction and swept onto the n-type side, may travel through the wire, power the load, and continue through the wire until they reach the p-type semiconductor-metal contact. Here, they recombine with a hole that was either created as an electron-hole pair on the p-type side of the solar cell, or a hole that was swept across the junction from the n-type side after being created there.\n", "Semiconductor material has a band gap and generates a pair of electron and hole per absorbed photon if the energy of photon is higher than band gap of semiconductor. This property of semiconductor materials has been successfully used to convert solar energy into electrical energy by photovoltaic devices. So, semiconductor electrodes can be used for CO photoelectrochemical reduction.\n\nBULLET::::- How do semiconductors behave when brought into contact with liquid (redox species)?\n", "Section::::Research in solar cells.:Bifacial solar cells.\n", "Section::::Basic concept.:Seasonal north-south motion of the Sun.\n", "Theory of solar cells\n\nThe theory of solar cells explains the process by which light energy in photons is converted into electric current when the photons strike a suitable semiconductor device. The theoretical studies are of practical use because they predict the fundamental limits of a solar cell, and give guidance on the phenomena that contribute to losses and solar cell efficiency.\n\nSection::::Working explanation.\n\nBULLET::::1. Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by semi-conducting materials.\n", "Section::::Research in solar cells.:Quantum dots.\n", "Solar cells are described as being photovoltaic, irrespective of whether the source is sunlight or an artificial light. They are used as a photodetector (for example infrared detectors), detecting light or other electromagnetic radiation near the visible range, or measuring light intensity.\n\nThe operation of a photovoltaic (PV) cell requires three basic attributes:\n\nBULLET::::- The absorption of light, generating either electron-hole pairs or excitons.\n\nBULLET::::- The separation of charge carriers of opposite types.\n\nBULLET::::- The separate extraction of those carriers to an external circuit.\n", "A typical solar photovoltaic home system funded by EIC consists of a small solar panel (both pole or roof mounted) connected to a charge controller and a small battery. The stored solar electricity can be used both in the day and after dark to power lights and an electrical socket for other electrical equipment (e.g. cell phone charger, OLPC, radio, TV, or computer).\n\nSection::::Carbon offsets.\n", "Assemblies of solar cells are used to make solar modules that generate electrical power from sunlight, as distinguished from a \"solar thermal module\" or \"solar hot water panel\". A solar array generates solar power using solar energy.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Cells, modules, panels and systems.\n", "Section::::Nanoparticle processing.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-10096	What exactly stops us from urinating and defecating in our sleep?	Same thing that keeps you breathing. It's a semi automatic muscle, not full auto. So not quite like your heart but not like your bicep, either.	[ "Other causes of nocturnal polyuria include diseases such as congestive heart failure, nephritic syndrome and liver failure; or lifestyle patterns such as excessive nighttime drinking. The increased airway resistance that is associated with obstructive sleep apnea may also lead to nocturnal polyuria. Obstructive sleep apnea sufferers have shown to have increases in renal sodium and water excretion that are mediated by elevated plasma ANH levels.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Bladder storage.\n", "\"Urinating in bed is frequently predisposed by deep sleep: when urine begins to flow, its inner nature and hidden will (resembling the will to breathe) drives urine out before the child awakes. When children become stronger and more robust, their sleep is lighter and they stop urinating.\"\n\nPsychological theory through the 1960s placed much greater focus on the possibility that a bedwetting child might be acting out, purposefully striking back against parents by soiling linens and bedding. However, more recent research and medical literature states that this is very rare.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Urinary incontinence\n\nBULLET::::- Nocturnal emission\n", "It has been shown that diet impacts enuresis in children. Constipation from a poor diet can result in impacted stool in the colon putting undue pressure on the bladder creating loss of bladder control (overflow incontinence).\n\nSome researchers, however, recommend a different starting age range. This guidance says that bedwetting can be considered a clinical problem if the child regularly wets the bed after turning 7 years old.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Classification.:Secondary nocturnal enuresis.\n", "BULLET::::- Sleepwalking Sleepwalking can lead to bedwetting. During sleepwalking, the sleepwalker may think he/she is in another room. When the sleepwalker urinates during a sleepwalking episode, he/she usually thinks they are in the bathroom, and therefore urinate where they think the toilet should be. Cases of this have included opening a closet and urinating in it; urinating on the sofa and simply urinating in the middle of the room.\n", "Normally, the body produces a hormone that can slow the making of urine. This hormone is called antidiuretic hormone, or ADH. The body normally produces more ADH during sleep so that the need to urinate is lower. If the body does not produce enough ADH at night, the making of urine may not be slowed down, leading to the bladder overfilling. If a child does not sense the bladder filling and awaken to urinate, then wetting will occur.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Nocturnal enuresis.:Anxiety.\n", "Primary nocturnal enuresis (PNE) is the most common form of bedwetting. Bedwetting becomes a disorder when it persists after the age at which bladder control usually occurs (4–7 years), and is either resulting in an average of at least two wet nights a week with no long periods of dryness or not able to sleep dry without being taken to the toilet by another person.\n\nNew studies show that anti-psychotic drugs can have a side effect of causing enuresis.\n", "A bladder storage disorder is any factor that increases the frequency of small volume voids. These factors are usually related to lower urinary tract symptoms that affect the capacity of the bladder. Patients with nocturia who do not have either polyuria or nocturnal polyuria according to the above criteria most likely have a bladder storage disorder that reduces their nighttime voided volume or a sleep disorder. Nocturnal bladder capacity (NBC) is defined as the largest voided volume during the sleep period. \n", "Between the ages of 5 and 10, incontinence may be the result of a small bladder capacity, long sleeping periods, and underdevelopment of the body's alarms in the brain that signal a full or emptying bladder. This form of incontinence will fade away as the bladder grows and the natural alarms become operational.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Nocturnal enuresis.:Excessive output of urine during sleep.\n", "BULLET::::- Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) Children with ADHD are 2.7 times more likely to have bedwetting issues.\n\nBULLET::::- Caffeine Caffeine increases urine production.\n\nBULLET::::- Constipation Chronic constipation can cause bed wetting. When the bowels are full, it can put pressure on the bladder. Often such children defecate normally, yet they retain a significant mass of material in the bowel which causes bed wetting.\n", "Two physical functions prevent bedwetting. The first is a hormone that reduces urine production at night. The second is the ability to wake up when the bladder is full. Children usually achieve nighttime dryness by developing one or both of these abilities. There appear to be some hereditary factors in how and when these develop.\n", "Accidents, periodic episodes of urinary or fecal incontinence, are generally a normal part of toilet training and are usually not a sign of serious medical issues. Accidents that occur with additional problems, such as pain when urinating or defecating, chronic constipation, or blood in urine or feces, should be evaluated by a pediatrician. The prevalence of nocturnal enuresis, also known as bed wetting, may be as high as 9.7% of seven-year-olds, and 5.5% of ten-year-olds, eventually decreasing to a rate of about 0.5% in adults.\n\nSection::::Complications.\n", "The first ability is a hormone cycle that reduces the body's urine production. At about sunset each day, the body releases a minute burst of antidiuretic hormone (also known as arginine vasopressin or AVP). This hormone burst reduces the kidney's urine output well into the night so that the bladder does not get full until morning. This hormone cycle is not present at birth. Many children develop it between the ages of two and six years old, others between six and the end of puberty, and some not at all.\n", "After age 5, wetting at night—often called bedwetting or sleepwetting—is more common than daytime wetting in boys. Experts do not know what causes nighttime incontinence. Young people who experience nighttime wetting tend to be physically and emotionally normal. Most cases probably result from a mix of factors including slower physical development, an overproduction of urine at night, a lack of ability to recognize bladder filling when asleep, and, in some cases, anxiety. For many, there is a strong family history of bedwetting, suggesting an inherited factor.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Nocturnal enuresis.:Slower physical development.\n", "Incontinence itself is an anxiety-causing event. Strong bladder contractions leading to leakage in the daytime can cause embarrassment and anxiety that lead to wetting at night.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Nocturnal enuresis.:Genetics.\n\nCertain inherited genes appear to contribute to incontinence. If both parents were enuretic, 77% of their children are too; if only one parent was enuretic, then 44% of their offspring are also.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Nocturnal enuresis.:Obstructive sleep apnea.\n", "Nocturnal urinary continence is dependent on 3 factors: 1) nocturnal urine production, 2) nocturnal bladder function and 3) sleep and arousal mechanisms. Any child will suffer from nocturnal enuresis if more urine is produced than can be contained in the bladder or if the detrusor is hyperactive, provided that he or she is not awakened by the imminent bladder contraction.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Classification.:Primary nocturnal enuresis.\n", "BULLET::::- Dandelions Anecdotal reports and folk wisdom say children who handle dandelions can end up wetting the bed. Dandelions are reputed to be a potent diuretic. English folk names for the plant are \"peebeds\" and \"pissabeds\". In French the dandelion is called \"pissenlit\", which means \"piss in bed\"; likewise \"piscialletto\", an Italian folkname, and \"meacamas\" in Spanish.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.\n", "During sleep, metabolic waste products, such as immunoglobulins, protein fragments or intact proteins like beta-amyloid, may be cleared from the interstitium via a glymphatic system of lymph-like channels coursing along perivascular spaces and the astrocyte network of the brain. According to this model, hollow tubes between the blood vessels and astrocytes act like a spillway allowing drainage of cerebrospinal fluid carrying wastes out of the brain into systemic blood. Such mechanisms, which remain under preliminary research as of 2017, indicate potential ways in which sleep is a regulated maintenance period for brain immune functions and clearance of beta-amyloid, a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease.\n", "Psychologists may use a definition from the DSM-IV, defining nocturnal enuresis as repeated urination into bed or clothes, occurring twice per week or more for at least three consecutive months in a child of at least 5 years of age and not due to either a drug side effect or a medical condition. Even if the case does not meet these criteria, the DSM-IV definition allows psychologists to diagnose nocturnal enuresis if the wetting causes the patient clinically significant distress.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "A common action patients take is to not consume any fluids hours before bedtime, which especially helps people with urgency incontinence. However, a study on this showed that it reduced voiding at night by only a small amount and is not ideal for managing nocturia in older people. \n", "Diagnosing nocturia requires knowing the patient's nocturnal urine volume (NUV). The ICS defines NUV as “the total volume of urine passed between the time the individual goes to bed with the intention of sleeping and the time of waking with the intention of rising.” Thus, NUV excludes the last void before going to bed, but includes the first morning void if the urge to urinate woke the patient. Although not every patient needs treatment, most people seek treatment for severe nocturia, waking up to void more than 2-3 times per night. The amount of sleep a patient gets, and the amount they intend to get, are also considered in a diagnosis. The term is derived from Latin \"nox, night\", and Greek \"[τα] ούρα, urine\".\n", "A fourth phase of acid secretion is known as the basal state which occurs in the times between meals (interdigestive phase). The level of acid secretion during these times is regulated by body weight, individual, number of parietal cells, and time of day. Acid secretion is lowest in the morning before awakening and highest at night.\n\nSection::::Cephalic Phase.\n", "The aetiology of NE is not fully understood, although there are three common causes: excessive urine volume, poor sleep arousal, and bladder contractions. Differentiation of cause is mainly based on patient history and fluid charts completed by the parent or carer to inform management options.\n\nBedwetting has a strong genetic component. Children whose parents were not enuretic have only a 15% incidence of bedwetting. When one or both parents were bedwetters, the rates jump to 44% and 77% respectively. \n", "While sleeping, a normal individual is \"at rest\" as far as cardiovascular workload is concerned. Breathing is regular in a healthy person during sleep, and oxygen levels and carbon dioxide levels in the bloodstream stay fairly constant. Any sudden drop in oxygen or excess of carbon dioxide (even if tiny) strongly stimulates the brain's respiratory centers to breathe.\n", "Section::::Treatment.:Medications.\n\nNighttime incontinence may be treated by increasing ADH levels. The hormone can be boosted by a synthetic version known as desmopressin, or DDAVP. Desmopressin is approved for use by children. There is good short-term success rate; however, there is difficulty in keeping the bed dry after medication is stopped, with as high as an 80% relapse rate.\n\nAnother medication, called imipramine, is also used to treat sleepwetting. It acts on both the brain and the urinary bladder. Unfortunately, total dryness with either of the medications available is achieved in only about 20 percent of patients.\n", "Some of the same factors that contribute to nighttime incontinence may act together with infrequent voiding to produce daytime incontinence. These factors include a small bladder capacity, constipation and food containing caffeine, chocolate or artificial coloring.\n\nSometimes overly strenuous toilet training may make the child unable to relax the sphincter and the pelvic floor to completely empty the bladder. Retaining urine (incomplete emptying) sets the stage for urinary tract infections.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n\nClinical definition of enuresis is urinary incontinence beyond age of 4 years for daytime and beyond 6 years for nighttime, or loss of continence after three months of dryness.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-16605	Why is the floor considered ‘dirty’ from a microbial perspective? Isn’t it a poor environment for growth with no water or nutrients?	Bacteria can live for a short time on the floor and it's considered that you walk on there so you drag new ones from the outside. Also dust settles on the floor after falling from objects and as it's mostly skin cells the bacteria aren't totally out of food (also dust is bad on it's own)	[ "Studies by 3M show that over 80% of contamination enters the cleanroom through entrances and exits, mostly at or near floor level. To combat this problem, suitable flooring systems are used that effectively attract, retain and inhibit the growth of viable organisms. Studies show that the most effective type of flooring system is one of polymer composition.\n", "Fungal growth often need adequate temperatures, nutrient substances, and some level of moisture. The requirements may vary between species. Like other xerophilic fungi, \"Wallemia sebi\" would grow on surfaces that are damp rather than wet. Since the indoor environments that is suitable for human habitation often satisfy the growth requirement for \"W. sebi\", \"W.sebi\" would be observed in building wallpaper if the water activity is not controlled as low.\n", "The most commonly used substrates are common soil, small pebbles, sand, peat, chips of various trees, wood mulch, vegetable fibres (of coconut, for example), or a combination of these. The choice of the substrate depends on the needs of the plants or of the animals, moisture, the risks involved and aesthetic aspects. Sterile vivariums, sometimes used to ensure high levels of hygiene (especially during quarantine periods), generally have very straightforward, easily removable substrates such as paper tissue, wood chips and even newspaper. Typically, a low-nutrient, high-drainage substrate is placed on top of a false bottom or layer of LECA or stones, which retains humidity without saturating the substrate surface.\n", "Due to its abundant presence in the environment, and its preference for damp conditions, \"S. marcescens\" is commonly found growing in bathrooms (especially on tile grout, shower corners, toilet water lines, and basins), where it manifests as a pink, pink-orange, or orange discoloration and slimy film feeding off phosphorus-containing materials or fatty substances such as soap and shampoo residue.\n", "Even when no visible dirt is present, contamination by microorganisms, especially pathogens, can still cause an object or location to be considered dirty. For example, computer keyboards are especially dirty as they contain on average 70 times more microbes than a lavatory seat.\n\nPeople and animals may eat dirt. This is thought to be caused by mineral deficiency and so the condition is commonly seen in pregnant women.\n\nSection::::Neurosis.\n", "Overall the many studies that have been conducted on the microbiomes of the built environment have started to identify some general patterns regarding the microbes are found in various places. For example, Adams et al., in a comparative analysis of ribosomal RNA based studies in the built environment found that geography and building type had strong associations with the types of microbes seen in the built environment. Pakpour et al. in 2016 reviewed the patterns relating to the presence of archaea in indoor environments (based on analysis of rRNA gene sequence data).\n", "BULLET::::- The American Academy of Microbiology had a colloquium on this topic in September 2015 and published a report \"Microbiology of Built Environments\".\n\nA 2016 paper by Brent Stephens highlights some of the key findings of studies of \"microbiomes of the indoor environment\". These key findings include those listed below:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Culture-independent methods reveal vastly greater microbial diversity compared to culture-based methods\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Indoor spaces often harbor unique microbial communities\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Indoor bacterial communities often originate from indoor sources.\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Humans are also major sources of bacteria to indoor air\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Building design and operation can influence indoor microbial communities.\"\n", "Substrate (vivarium)\n\nThe substrate of a vivarium refers to the material used on the floor of the enclosure. It can affect humidity levels, filtration as well as the well being of the inhabitants. The appropriate substrate depends on the type of animal in the enclosure.\n\nSection::::Functions and Considerations.\n\nSubstrate is used in all types of vivarium and holds an important role in the well being of the inhabitants. Although having an aesthetic factor, the substrate is an extremely important factor when keeping animals in a vivarium.\n", "Food sources for mold in buildings include cellulose-based materials such as wood, cardboard and the paper facing on drywall and organic matter such as soap, fabrics, and dust containing skin cells. If a house has mold, the moisture may originate in the basement or crawl space, a leaking roof or a leak in plumbing pipes. Insufficient ventilation may accelerate moisture buildup. Visible mold colonies may form where ventilation is poorest and on perimeter walls (because they are nearest the dew point).\n", "The floor of a vivarium must have sufficient surface area for the species living inside. The height can also be important for the larger plants, climbing plants, or for tree climbing animal species. The width must be great enough to create the sensation of depth, both for the pleasure of the spectator and the good of the species inside.\n", "The microbiomes of the built environment are being studied for multiple reasons including how they may impact the health of humans and other organisms occupying the built environment but also some non health reasons such as diagnostics of building properties, for forensic application, impact on food production, impact on built environment function, and more.\n\nSection::::Types of Built Environments For Which Microbiomes Have Been Studied.\n", "Section::::Results from Studies of the Microbiomes of the Built Environment.:Impact of Microbiomes on the Built Environment.\n\nJust as the built environment has an impact on the microbiomes found therein, the microbial communities of the built environment can impact the built environment itself. Examples include degradation of building materials, altering fluid and airflow, generating volatiles, and more.\n\nSection::::Results from Studies of the Microbiomes of the Built Environment.:Possible Uses in Forensics.\n", "Section::::Distribution.\n\nThe distribution of \"M. nanum\" is worldwide, including North and South Americas, Canada, Europe, the Middle East, Australia, and Asia. \"Microsporum nanum\" and several other dermatophytes were isolated from eleven soil samples of hospitals and public places at Gulbarga, India. Keratinous wastes such as human dander and feathers of birds were suspected to provide a growth medium for these keratinophilic fungi. \"Microscporum nanum\" was observed much more frequently in hospital soil than in public places; the percentage was 45.4% and 33.3% of the total number of the observed keratinophilic fungi respectively.\n\nSection::::Pathogenicity.\n", "Buildings constantly evolve as a result of the changes in the environment around them as well as the occupants, materials, and activities within them. The various surfaces and the air inside a building are constantly interacting, and this interaction results in changes in each. For example, we may see a window as changing slightly over time as it becomes dirty, then is cleaned, accumulates dirt again, is cleaned again, and so on through its life. In fact, the “dirt” we see may be evolving as a result of the interactions among the moisture, chemicals, and biological materials found there.\n", "Section::::Results from Studies of the Microbiomes of the Built Environment.:Human Health and Microbiomes of the Built Environment.\n\nMany studies have documented possible human health implications of the microbiomes of the built environment (e.g., ). Examples include those below.\n\nNewborn colonization. The microbes that colonize newborns come in part from the built environment (e.g., hospital rooms). This appears to be especially true for babies born by C-section (see for example Shin et al. 2016 ) and also babies that spend time in a NICU.\n", "What has been learned from direct isolation and recent PCR studies is that \"B. dermatitidis\" tends to be associated with soils and wood debris in areas “characterized by an acidic pH, high organic content (due to rotting or decayed wood or vegetation and animal or bird droppings), abundant moisture, and proximity to waterways”. Recent PCR detections, for example, concerned a Kentucky dog kennel where 35 of 100 dogs had contracted blastomycosis. Previous isolations have been from comparable sites such as soil and wood debris from an abandoned Wisconsin beaver dam, and woody materials from a Wisconsin woodpile. Isolation of \"B. dermatitidis\" was also accomplished from an earthen floor indoors on one occasion.\n", "During mold remediation in the U.S., the level of contamination dictates the protection level for remediation workers. Contamination levels have been enumerated as I, II, III, and IV:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Level I\": Small, isolated areas ( or less); remediation may be conducted by trained building staff;\n\nBULLET::::- \"Level II\": Mid-sized, isolated areas (); may also be remediated by trained, protected building staff;\n\nBULLET::::- \"Level III\": Large, isolated areas (): Professionals experienced in microbial investigations or mold remediation should be consulted, and personnel should be trained in the handling of hazardous materials and equipped with respiratory protection, gloves and eye protection;\n", "Section::::Natural habitat and diet.\n\nIn the wild, \"D. discoideum\" can be found in soil and moist leaf litter. Its primary diet consists of bacteria, such as \"Escherichia coli\", found in the soil and decaying organic matter. Uninucleate amoebae of \"D. discoideum\" consume bacteria found in its natural habitat, which includes deciduous forest soil and decaying leaves.\n\nSection::::Life cycle and reproduction.\n", "Extensive research has been conducted on individual microbes found in the built environment. More recently there has been a significant expansion in the number of studies that are examining the communities of microbes (i.e., microbiomes) found in the built environment. Such studies of microbial communities in the built environment have covered a wide range of types of built environments including those listed below.\n", "In assessing cleanroom microorganisms, the typical flora are primarily those associated with human skin (Gram-positive cocci), although microorganisms from other sources such as the environment (Gram-positive rods) and water (Gram-negative rods) are also detected, although in lower number. Common bacterial genera include \"Micrococcus\", \"Staphylococcus\", \"Corynebacterium\", and \"Bacillus\", and fungal genera include \"Aspergillus\" and \"Penicillium\".\n\nSection::::Cleanroom classification and standardization.\n", "Section::::Results from Studies of the Microbiomes of the Built Environment.:Components of the Built Environment that Likely Impact Microbiomes.\n", "A 2006 study could not verify the \"rule\" and looked at tile, wood, and carpet floors. It indicated that bacteria can survive on the ground for a long time.\n\nA 2016 \"New York Times\" article states \"You may think your floors are so clean you can eat off them, but a new study debunking the so-called five-second rule would suggest otherwise.\" In response, a pediatrician discounted the danger in consuming certain foods dropped onto floors.\n", "A major appeal of solid surface is its impermeability. Solid surface sinks can be joined to the countertop surface with no gaps, which eliminates areas for water to collect and bacteria to grow. Integral backsplashes can also be created that follow the contours of the wall “seamlessly” and without gaps.\n", "The microbiome of the built environment has some potential for being used as a feature for forensic studies. Most of these applications are still in the early research phase. For example, it has been shown that people leave behind a somewhat diagnostic microbial signature when they type on computer keyboards, use phones or occupy a room.\n\nSection::::Results from Studies of the Microbiomes of the Built Environment.:Odor and Microbes in the Built Environment.\n", "The underlying principle in the use of the term “soil health” is that soil is not just an inert, lifeless growing medium, which modern farming tends to represent, rather it is a living, dynamic and ever-so-subtly changing whole environment. It turns out that soils highly fertile from the point of view of crop productivity are also lively from a biological point of view. It is now commonly recognized that soil microbial biomass is large: in temperate grassland soil the bacterial and fungal biomass have been documented to be 1–/hectare and 2–/ha, respectively. \n" ]	[ "Bacteria will die immediately on a floor with out water or nutrients. " ]	[ "Bacteria can live for a short time without water and nutrients. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Bacteria will die immediately on a floor with out water or nutrients. ", "Bacteria will die immediately on a floor with out water or nutrients. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Bacteria can live for a short time without water and nutrients. ", "Bacteria can live for a short time without water and nutrients. " ]
2018-18402	why do some countries have such superior internet speed and connectivity compared to others? What are these speeds based off of?	Network Admin/Engineer here. It's hard to be certain about specific countries because I don't know how their internet is set up. What I can answer is how various speeds work in general. Essentially internet in high density areas is faster because of the framework that is built. Imagine it like a plumbing system. An apartment building has many pipes filtering into a single big pipe. This big pipe is the internet and the little pipes directing your poop is your network connections being filtered and forwarded into the internet. The internet is kind of like this magical cloud that people tap into but it's not really there. What is really there is all the wiring and routers and switches directing traffic in various ways. An area like a city has a very big network of cables directing packets to even bigger centralized data centers that host and store data from the internet. An area like a farm, the country, or less developed countries have further to send that data. The easiest way to explain that is if you have a router and you have a computer plugged into it with a 6 foot cable it will have a faster connection than if you used a 100ft cable. It might not be that noticeable when you are on a LAN but imagine being miles away from the data centers and you can see why it's even slower. Some countries might have to travel via satellite or hundreds or even thousands of miles away from the host connections. This gives you entire countries with slower connections. And finally just because I feel like this might also be a follow up question - why can I connect to the same website in Europe and it's just as fast in America if these websites are being hosted in other countries? Well bigger companies that can afford it actually have servers in multiple countries hosting the same content to have faster speeds in other markets. So something like Blizzard or Valve will have their sites hosted in multiple countries and even though you are still going to URL_0 their servers have packet filtering set up to automatically pick the faster server for you based on your IP address.	[ "BULLET::::- Paralympic Gold Medals\n\nBULLET::::- Paralympic Medals\n\nSection::::By category.:Technology.\n\nBULLET::::- UN International Telecommunications Union: ICT Development Index\n\nBULLET::::- Economist Intelligence Unit: Government Broadband Index\n\nBULLET::::- List of countries by Internet connection speeds\n\nBULLET::::- List of countries by 4G LTE penetration\n\nBULLET::::- List of countries by mobile banking usage\n\nBULLET::::- Google: List of countries by smartphone penetration\n\nBULLET::::- List of countries by stem cell research trials\n\nBULLET::::- OECD: List of countries by number of broadband Internet subscriptions\n\nBULLET::::- Space Competitiveness Index (SCI)\n\nBULLET::::- World Wide Web Foundation: Web Index\n\nSection::::By category.:Transport.\n\nBULLET::::- List of countries by rail usage\n", "Penetration rate is the percentage (%) of a country's population that are subscribers. A dash (—) is shown when data for 2012 is not available. Non-country and disputed areas are shown in \"italics\". Taiwan is listed as a sovereign country.\n\nNote: Because a single Internet subscription may be shared by many people and a single person my have more than one subscription, the penetration rate will not reflect the actual level of access to broadband Internet of the population and penetration rates larger than 100% are possible.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of countries by number of Internet users\n", "BULLET::::- Vakarel (LW, MW)\n\nSection::::Europe.:Croatia.\n\nBULLET::::- Grbre transmitter (MW)\n\nBULLET::::- Deanovec transmitter (MW, KW)\n\nSection::::Europe.:Czech Republic.\n\nBULLET::::- Liblice (LW)\n\nBULLET::::- Liblice (MW)\n\nBULLET::::- Topolná (LW)\n\nBULLET::::- Mělník-Chloumek (MW)\n\nBULLET::::- Dobrochov (MW)\n\nBULLET::::- Jested (FM)\n\nSection::::Europe.:Denmark.\n\nBULLET::::- Kalundborg (LW, MW)\n\nSection::::Europe.:Finland.\n\nBULLET::::- Lahti (LW, SW, shut down)\n\nBULLET::::- Pori (MW, SW, Yleisradio)\n\nSection::::Europe.:France.\n\nBULLET::::- Allouis (LW, SW)\n\nBULLET::::- Le Blanc (VLF)\n\nBULLET::::- Issoudun (SW)\n\nBULLET::::- Paris-Eiffel Tower (FM, TV)\n\nBULLET::::- Lyon-Metallic tower of Fourvière (FM, TV)\n\nBULLET::::- Sélestat (MW)\n\nSection::::Europe.:Germany.\n\nSection::::Europe.:Germany.:Bremen.\n\nBULLET::::- Mediumwave transmitter Bremen (MW)\n\nSection::::Europe.:Germany.:Hamburg.\n\nBULLET::::- Hamburg-Billstedt (MW, FM, TV)\n\nBULLET::::- Heinrich-Hertz-Turm (FM, TV)\n\nSection::::Europe.:Germany.:Saarland.\n\nBULLET::::- Heusweiler (MW)\n", "List of countries by number of broadband Internet subscriptions\n\nThis article contains a sortable list of countries by number of broadband Internet subscriptions and penetration rates, using data compiled by the International Telecommunication Union.\n\nSection::::List of countries.\n\nThe list includes figures for both fixed wired broadband subscriptions and mobile cellular subscriptions:\n\nBULLET::::- Fixed-broadband access refers to high-speed fixed (wired) access to the public Internet at downstream speeds equal to, or greater than, 256 kbit/s. This includes satellite Internet access, cable modem, DSL, fibre-to-the-home/building, and other fixed (wired) broadband subscriptions. The totals are measured irrespective of the method of payment.\n", "Bandwidth has historically been very unequally distributed worldwide, with increasing concentration in the digital age. Historically only 10 countries have hosted 70–75 % of the global telecommunication capacity (see pie-chart Figure on the right). In 2014, only three countries (China, US, Japan) host 50% of the globally installed telecommunication bandwidth potential. The U.S. lost its global leadership in terms of installed bandwidth in 2011, being replaced by China, which hosts more than twice as much national bandwidth potential in 2014 (29% versus 13% of the global total).\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Mobile broadband\n\nBULLET::::- Ultra-wideband\n\nBULLET::::- Wireless broadband\n\nNation specific:\n", "Section::::Europe.:Montenegro.\n", "List of countries by electrification rate\n\nThis list of countries by of electrification rate sorts countries by the share of their inhabitants with access to electricity. Access to electricity is considered one of the prerequisites for a modern life. In 2016, 87.4% of the world population had access to electricity. Worldwide, there are major differences between urban and rural regions in the degree of electrification\n", "BULLET::::- Quebec: As of 2005, PLC communication technology developed by Ariane Controls is being installed inside and outside existing buildings to control lights and other energy-hungry devices. The cheap devices allow energy consumption to be better managed, and so save much energy and bring a clear return on investment.\n\nBULLET::::- Western Europe:\n\nBULLET::::- Sweden: Vattenfall is using PLC technology at 1200 baud for automatic meter reading based on an Iskraemeco product.\n\nBULLET::::- Central and Eastern Europe, and Eurasia:\n", "The following is a list of countries/territories by 4G LTE coverage as measured by OpenSignal.com in 2015 Q4.\n\nSection::::2015 Q3 rankings.\n\nThe following is a list of countries/territories by 4G LTE coverage as measured by OpenSignal.com in 2015 Q3.\n\nSection::::2013 rankings.\n\nThe following is a list of countries by 4G LTE coverage as measured by Juniper Networks in 2013 and published by Bloomberg.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of countries by internet connection speed\n\nBULLET::::- List of countries by smartphone penetration\n\nBULLET::::- List of countries by number of mobile phones in use\n\nBULLET::::- List of mobile network operators\n", "BULLET::::- European countries by percentage of women in national parliaments\n\nBULLET::::- List of European countries by life expectancy\n\nBULLET::::- List of countries by number of Internet users\n\nBULLET::::- List of European countries by budget revenues\n\nBULLET::::- List of European countries by budget revenues per capita\n\nBULLET::::- List of European countries by GDP (nominal) per capita\n\nBULLET::::- List of European countries by GDP (PPP) per capita\n\nBULLET::::- List of European countries by GNI (nominal) per capita\n\nBULLET::::- List of European countries by GNI (PPP) per capita\n\nBULLET::::- List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita\n", "Section::::Europe.:Estonia.\n", "Section::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Back-channel, a low bandwidth, or less-than-optimal, transmission channel in the opposite direction to the main channel\n\nBULLET::::- Broadband mapping in the United States\n\nBULLET::::- Comparison of wireless data standards\n\nBULLET::::- Connectivity in a social and cultural sense\n\nBULLET::::- Fiber-optic communication\n\nBULLET::::- History of the Internet\n\nBULLET::::- IP over DVB, Internet access using MPEG data streams over a digital television network\n\nBULLET::::- List of countries by number of broadband Internet subscriptions\n\nBULLET::::- National broadband plan\n\nBULLET::::- Public switched telephone network (PSTN)\n\nBULLET::::- Residential gateway\n\nBULLET::::- Telecommunications network\n", "BULLET::::- Point of Presence (PoP) in 52 areas: PoP ASIA: Batam (2), Dumai, Jakarta (4), Manado, Surabaya, Dili, Hong Kong (3), Seoul, Kuala Lumpur, Naypyidaw, Singapore (4), Taipei, Tokyo. POP EUROPE & MIDDLE EAST: Amsterdam, Berlin, Dubai, Frankfurt, Kiev, London, Luxemburg, Madrid, Manchester, Marseille, Milan, Moscow, Palermo, Paris, Sofia, Stockholm, Switzerland, Vienna, Warsaw. POP USA: Ashburn, Chicago, Guam, Hawaii, Los Angeles (2), New York, Palo Alto, San Jose, Seattle, Toronto.\n\nBULLET::::- Undersea Cable System namely\n", "BULLET::::- \"Clermont Sans Fil\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Incrédibulle\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lille sans fil\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rouen-Wireless\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"cafes-wifi, Paris\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Montpellier Wireless\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Strasbourg Sans Fils\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lozère Wireless\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Grenoble Wireless\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Wi-Fi Alpes\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Les Orres Sans Fil\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nord Charente Wireless\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Vienne-Glane Haut-Débit Solidaire\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ail-Network du Pays d'Autan\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carbodebit\"\n\nSection::::Europe.:Germany.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Freifunk\"\n\nSection::::Europe.:Greece.\n\nBULLET::::- Athens Wireless Metropolitan Network\n\nBULLET::::- Wireless Thessaloniki\n\nBULLET::::- Patras Wireless Network\n\nBULLET::::- Sarantaporo.gr Wireless Community Network\n\nSection::::Europe.:Italy.\n\nBULLET::::- \"ninux\"\n\nBULLET::::- Progetto Neco\n\nSection::::Europe.:Netherlands.\n\nBULLET::::- Wireless Leiden\n\nSection::::Europe.:Portugal.\n\nBULLET::::- Wirelesspt\n\nSection::::Europe.:Slovenia.\n\nBULLET::::- wlan slovenija\n\nSection::::Europe.:Spain.\n\nBULLET::::- guifi.net\n\nSection::::Europe.:Sweden.\n\nBULLET::::- Pjodd\n\nSection::::Europe.:United Kingdom.\n", "Section::::Europe.:Macedonia.\n\nIn Macedonia, as of 2015 Makedonski Telekom is the largest among the various FTTH providers in the country. Fiber-optic services are currently available in the larger cities in the country, as well as some rural areas. The service offers symmetrical 40/50/60/1000 Mbit/s speeds in triple play and double play packages.\n\nSection::::Europe.:Moldova.\n", "BULLET::::- List of countries by number of telephone lines in use\n\nBULLET::::- List of countries by smartphone penetration\n\nBULLET::::- List of mobile network operators\n\nBULLET::::- List of multiple-system operators\n\nBULLET::::- List of telephone operating companies\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Internet Monitor\", a research project of the Berkman Center for Internet & Society at Harvard University to evaluate, describe, and summarize the means, mechanisms, and extent of Internet access, content controls and activity around the world.\n", "BULLET::::- Mexico - Tecnológico de Monterrey\n\nBULLET::::- New Zealand - New Zealand Work Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology\n\nBULLET::::- Poland - Gazeta.pl Research and Analyses Unit\n\nBULLET::::- Portugal - Lisbon Internet and Networks International Research Programme (LINI)\n\nBULLET::::- Qatar - Northwestern University in Qatar\n\nBULLET::::- Russia - Sholokhov Moscow State University for Humanities\n\nBULLET::::- Singapore - Singapore Internet Research Centre (SiRC), Nanyang Technological University\n\nBULLET::::- South Africa - South African Network Society Survey, Wits Journalism, University of Witwatersrand\n\nBULLET::::- South Korea - Yonsei University\n\nBULLET::::- Spain - Internet Interdisciplinary Institute (IN3 - Open University of Catalonia (UOC)\n", "Forecasts predict that 44% of the world's population will be users of the Internet by 2020. Splitting by country, in 2012 Iceland, Norway, Sweden, the Netherlands, and Denmark had the highest Internet penetration by the number of users, with 93% or more of the population with access.\n", "BULLET::::- 25.0 million users, 21st in the world; 65.0% of the population, 54th in the world (2012);\n\nBULLET::::- 22.5 million users, 19th in the world (2009);\n\nBULLET::::- 16 million users (2007).\n\nBULLET::::- Fixed broadband: 6.4 million subscriptions, 17th in the world; 16.6% of the population, 54th in the world (2012).\n\nBULLET::::- Wireless broadband: 18.9 million subscriptions, 16th in the world; 49.3% of the population, 33rd in the world (2012).\n\nBULLET::::- Internet hosts: 13.3 million hosts, 12th in the world (2012).\n", "BULLET::::- Balanga City, Bataan - free in downtown and several tourist attractions\n\nBULLET::::- Bogo City, Cebu - free WiFi service in most government facilities provided by the city government and ICT Office.\n\nBULLET::::- Calbayog City, Samar - downtown area\n\nSection::::Cities with municipal wireless service.:Asia.:Singapore.\n\nBULLET::::- Singapore - free/paid, Wireless@SG\n\nSection::::Cities with municipal wireless service.:Asia.:Taiwan.\n\nBULLET::::- Taiwan - iTaiwan, Free wifi covering government office, tourism attractions, transportation service area, constructed by the National Development Council.\n\nBULLET::::- Taipei - Taipei Free Public Wi-Fi and paid service Wifly by Q-Ware Communications, Inc.\n", "Newzoo's 2017 Global Mobile Market Report shows the percentage of the population owning a smartphone. These numbers come from Newzoo's Global Mobile Market Report, April 2017, and are based on a model which takes into account a country’s economic progression, demography, online population, and inequality.\n\nSection::::2017 rankings.:Pew Research Center.\n\nThe following list of countries by mobile phone penetration was measured by the Pew Research Center survey conducted in 40 nations among 45,435 respondents from March 25 to May 27, 2015.\n\nSection::::2016 rankings.\n", "List of countries by number of Internet users\n\nBelow is a sort-able list of countries by number of Internet users as of 2018. Internet users are defined as persons who accessed the Internet in the last 12 months from any device, including mobile phone and Tablets. The percentages on the list are the percentages of each country's population that are Internet users. Estimates are derived from either household surveys or from Internet subscription data.\n\nAll United Nations member states are listed, including Taiwan. \n\nSection::::External links.\n", "In Chile:\n", "Number of Broadband Users by Access (June 2002)\n\nBULLET::::- Number of the xDSL Users: 3,300,926 lines\n\nBULLET::::- Number of the FTTH Users: 84,903 lines\n\nBULLET::::- Number of the CATV Service Users: 1852000 lines\n\nBULLET::::- Number of the Dial-up Users: 20,390,000 lines\n\nCountry code (Top-level domain): JP\n\nSection::::Overview of communication services.:Postal services.\n", "BULLET::::- in Korea\n\nBULLET::::- in Taiwan\n\nBULLET::::- (J-DECT) in Japan\n\nBULLET::::- in China (until 2003)\n\nBULLET::::- in Brazil\n\nBULLET::::- in Latin America\n\nBULLET::::- (DECT 6.0) in the United States and Canada\n\nBULLET::::- Carriers (1.728 MHz spacing):\n\nBULLET::::- 10 channels in Europe and Latin America\n\nBULLET::::- 8 channels in Taiwan\n\nBULLET::::- 5 channels in the US, Brazil, Japan\n\nBULLET::::- 3 channels in Korea\n\nBULLET::::- Time slots: 2 × 12 (up and down stream)\n\nBULLET::::- Channel allocation: dynamic\n\nBULLET::::- Average transmission power: (250 mW peak) in Europe & Japan, 4 mW (100 mW peak) in the US\n\nSection::::Technical features.:Physical layer.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01599	Why is snot produced when we cry?	Your eye is connected to your nose. The corner on the inner side of each eye has a little duct called "tear duct", that helps transfer excess fluids to your nose. For more info: URL_0	[ "NFAT5\n\nNuclear factor of activated T-cells 5, also known as NFAT5, is a human gene that encodes a transcription factor that regulates the expression of genes involved in the osmotic stress.\n", "Section::::Causes.:Lacrimation.\n\nRhinorrhea is also associated with shedding tears, whether from emotional events or from eye irritation. When excess tears are produced, the liquid drains through the inner corner of the eyelids, through the nasolacrimal duct, and into the nasal cavities. As more tears are shed, more liquid flows into the nasal cavities, both stimulating mucus production and hydrating any dry mucus already present in the nasal cavity. The buildup of fluid is usually resolved via mucus expulsion through the nostrils.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Head trauma.\n", "Excessive moisture as tears collected in the lacrimal sac travel down the nasolacrimal ducts where they drain into the inferior meatus in the nasal cavity.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Nose shape.\n\nThe shape of the nose varies widely due to differences in the nasal bone shapes and formation of the bridge of the nose. Some nose shapes were classified for surgeries by Eden Warwick in \"Nasology\" 1848:\n", "Increased vascular permeability causes fluid to escape from capillaries into the tissues, which leads to the classic symptoms of an allergic reaction: a runny nose and watery eyes. Allergens can bind to IgE-loaded mast cells in the nasal cavity's mucous membranes. This can lead to three clinical responses:\n\nBULLET::::1. sneezing due to histamine-associated sensory neural stimulation\n\nBULLET::::2. hyper-secretion from glandular tissue\n\nBULLET::::3. nasal congestion due to vascular engorgement associated with vasodilation and increased capillary permeability\n\nSection::::Roles in the body.:Sleep-wake regulation.\n", "The lacrimal system is made up of a secretory system, which produces tears, and an excretory system, which drains the tears. The lacrimal gland is primarily responsible for producing emotional or reflexive tears. As tears are produced, some fluid evaporates between blinks, and some is drained through the lacrimal punctum. The tears that are drained through the punctum will eventually be drained through the nose. Any excess fluid that did not go into the punctum will fall over the eyelid, which produces tears that are cried.\n\nSection::::Disorders related to crying.\n", "Section::::Music.\n", "Section::::Furniture.:Chiesters.\n", "♦ Secondary skin lesions, including red pinpoint lesions on eyelids and raised masses on body: from day 6\n\n♦ Clear ocular and nasal discharge that becomes mucopurulent and crusting: days 6-8\n\n♦ Respiratory distress: days 7–8\n\n♦ Hypothermia: days 8–9\n\n♦ Complete closure of eyelids due to swelling: day 10\n\n♦ Death: days 10–12 \n", "The pressure difference causes the mucosal lining of the sinuses to become swollen and submucosal bleeding follows with further difficulties ventilating the sinus, especially if the orifices are involved. Ultimately fluid or blood will fill the space.\n", "The NFAT family consists of five different forms: NFAT1, NFAT2, NFAT3, NFAT4, and NFAT5 (this protein). The proteins in this family are expressed in nearly every tissue in the body and are known transcriptional regulators in cytokine and immune cell expression. Among the different forms of NFAT, NFAT5 is an important component of the hyperosmolar stress response system.\n", "And when burst, a seemingly solid, whitish colored pus initially appears then the pus and some blood follows.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Bacteria.\n\nNaturally the cause is bacteria such as staphylococci that are present on the skin. Bacterial colonisation begins in the hair follicles and can cause local cellulitis and inflammation. Myiasis caused by the tumbu fly in Africa usually presents with cutaneous furuncles. Risk factors for furunculosis include bacterial carriage in the nostrils, diabetes mellitus, obesity, lymphoproliferative neoplasms, malnutrition, and use of immunosuppressive drugs.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Family history.\n", "Section::::Adaptations.:Internet radio show.\n", "Section::::Role in disease transmission.\n", "NFAT plays a role in the regulation of inflammation of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). In the gene that encodes LRRK2 (leucine-rich repeat kinase 2), a susceptibility locus for IBD was found. The kinase LRRK2 is an inhibitor for the NFATc2 variety, so in mice lacking LRRK2, increased activation of NFATc2 was found in macrophages. This led to an increase in the NFAT-dependent cytokines that spark severe colitis attacks.\n", "A 2017 study also found that some common drugs and drug-like molecules can modulate MAIT cell function in mammals.\n\nSection::::MR1.\n", "Section::::Appearance.\n", "\"Crocodile tears syndrome\", also known as Bogorad's syndrome, is an uncommon consequence of nerve regeneration subsequent to Bell's palsy or other damage to the facial nerve in which efferent fibres from the superior salivary nucleus become improperly connected to nerve axons projecting to the lacrimal glands, causing one to shed tears (lacrimate) during salivation while smelling foods or eating. It is presumed that this would cause salivation while crying due to the inverse improper connection of the lacrimal nucleus to the salivary glands, but this would be less noticeable.\n", "Increased mucus production in the respiratory tract is a symptom of many common illnesses, such as the common cold and influenza. \n\nSection::::Respiratory system.:Upper respiratory tract.\n", "Section::::Function.:Modulation of inflammatory responses.\n", "Section::::Management.:Chorioamnionitis.\n", "It has been found that NFAT5 expression, following hyperosmolarity, depends on p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK). The addition of a p38 MAPK inhibitor was found to correlate with decreased NFAT5 expression, even in the presence of osmotic stress signals. However, the downstream transcription of the NFAT5 gene by p38 MAPK is currently not yet characterized. It is hypothesized that p38 MAPK phosphorylation activates c-Fos and interferon regulatory factors (IRFs), which bind to AP-1-binding sites and ISRES (Interferon Stimulated Response Element) respectively. Binding to these sites consequently activates the transcription of target genes.\n", "Section::::Chemistry.\n", "If untreated the welt should stop itching and weeping after the first five to seven days. Once this has happened, it should be left exposed to allow the affected area to breathe. Blisters sometimes subside into a tender scab or scar that can take many months to disappear altogether.\n\nSection::::Effects on the body.:Medicinal uses.\n", "Nasolacrimal duct\n\nThe nasolacrimal duct (also called the tear duct) carries tears from the lacrimal sac of the eye into the nasal cavity. The duct begins in the eye socket between the maxillary and lacrimal bones, from where it passes downwards and backwards. The opening of the nasolacrimal duct into the inferior nasal meatus of the nasal cavity is partially covered by a mucosal fold (valve of Hasner or \"plica lacrimalis\"). Excess tears flow through nasolacrimal duct which drains into the inferior nasal meatus.\n", "Along with other members of the lipocalin protein family, major urinary proteins can be potent allergens to humans. The reason for this is not known; however, molecular mimicry between Mups and structurally similar human lipocalins has been proposed as a possible explanation. The protein product of the mouse \"Mup17\" gene, known as Mus m 1, Ag1 or MA1, accounts for much of the allergenic properties of mouse urine. The protein is extremely stable in the environment; studies have found 95% of inner city homes and 82% of all types of homes in the United States have detectable levels in at least one room. Similarly, Rat n 1 is a known human allergen. A US study found its presence in 33% of inner city homes, and 21% of occupants were sensitized to the allergen. Exposure and sensitization to rodent Mup proteins is considered a risk factor for childhood asthma and is a leading cause of laboratory animal allergy (LAA)—an occupational disease of laboratory animal technicians and scientists. One study found that two-thirds of laboratory workers who had developed asthmatic reactions to animals had antibodies to Rat n 1.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-14107	How do sites like 4chan figure out who an individual is based on vague photos/background imagery?	Every photo you take has tags that can be extracted if not removed/hidden properly. It’s just a matter of taking the tags and searching the area the picture was taken from. (Largely dumbed down there’s more to this but I’m on my phone and typing one handed)	[ "BULLET::::- In late 2017, the Washington County, Oregon Sheriff's Office began using Rekognition to identify suspects' faces. Rekognition was marketed as a general-purpose computer vision tool, and an engineer working for Washington County decided to use the tool for facial analysis of suspects.\n\nBULLET::::- In April 2018, it was reported that FamilySearch is using Rekognition to enable their users to \"see which of their ancestors they most resemble based on family photographs.\"\n\nBULLET::::- In May 2018, it was reported that Orlando, Florida was running a pilot using Rekognition for facial analysis in law enforcement. That pilot ended in July 2019.\n", "The website team manually vet each profile data and photographs for authenticity. The website is also self-regulating so users can report other users who are misusing the service, or who may not be genuine users, and there is a zero-tolerance policy in place where such people will be removed. Family or friends can also register on the website on behalf of someone.\n\nSection::::Statistics.\n", "Section::::Application.\n\nSection::::Application.:Mobile platforms.\n\nSection::::Application.:Mobile platforms.:Social media.\n\nSocial media platforms have adopted facial recognition capabilities to diversify their functionalities in order to attract a wider user base amidst stiff competition from different applications.\n", "An avatar of the shopper is created, which requires the shopper to measure themselves and provide these data. Sometimes the avatar may be personalised: racially, or by skin tone, or by application of pre-determined hair-styles, or even by uploading an image of a customer’s own face. The avatar may then be used to show how the shopper would look wearing the clothing, accessories and any other items on sale.\n\nMore sophisticated versions allow side-by-side comparison of different versions of a garment, and enable different items to be tried on at the same time.\n\nSection::::3D customer’s model.\n", "The FERET program first began as a way to unify a large body of face-recognition technology research under a standard database. Before the program’s inception, most researchers created their own facial imagery database that was attuned to their own specific area of study. These personal databases were small and usually consisted of images from less than 50 individuals. The only notable exceptions were the following:\n\nBULLET::::- Alex Pentland’s database of around 7500 facial images at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)\n\nBULLET::::- Joseph Wilder’s database of around 250 individuals at Rutgers University\n", "At the end of Phase I, five organizations were given the opportunity to test their face-recognition algorithm on the newly-created FERET database in order to compare how they performed against each other. There five principal investigators were:\n\nBULLET::::- MIT, led by Alex Pentland\n\nBULLET::::- Rutgers University, led by Joseph Wilder\n\nBULLET::::- The Analytic Science Company (TASC), led by Gale Gordon\n\nBULLET::::- The University of Illinois at Chicago (UIC) and the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaigne, led by Lewis Sadler and Thomas Huang\n\nBULLET::::- USC, led by Christoph von der Malsburg\n", "Offender profiling is now a contemporary method used to discover clues pertaining to the characteristics of an unknown offender from evidence at the scene of the crime, and to psychologically profile the perpetrator concerned.\n\nSection::::Crimes.\n", "A basic Web search can yield results. Social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter, MySpace, and Linkedin offer a wealth of private information, because many users have high levels of self-disclosure (i.e. sharing their photos, place of employment, phone number, email address), but low levels of security. It is also possible to derive a person's name and home address from a cell-phone number, through such services as reverse phone lookup. Social engineering has been used to extract information from government sources or phone companies.\n", "Emerging use of Facial recognition is in use of ID verification services. Many companies are working in the market now to provide these services to banks, ICOs, and other e-businesses.\n\nSection::::Application.:Mobile platforms.:Face ID.\n", "In 2014, Erlich and Arvind Narayanan published a survey of hacking techniques to genomic datasets. They predicted that autosomal searches in GEDmatch can be used to trace back the identity of anonymous people once the GEDmatch user base will reach a certain size, which indeed happened in 2018, where the website used to capture the Golden State Killer.\n", "Section::::Face recognition.\n", "Images of the missing and unidentified, including forensic facial reconstructions, tattoos, and age progressions are also posted when available for cases. Cases of murder conviction without a body are also listed, although their cases have been solved. In some instances, the victim could possibly remain unidentified. \n", "Section::::Music video.\n", "Sketches have been used in a variety of cases. Forensic artist Karen T. Taylor created her own method during the 1980s, which involved much more precise techniques, such as estimating locations and sizes of the features of a skull. This method has been shown to be fairly successful.\n", "A person's social data refers to the personal data that they generate either online or offline (for more information, see social data revolution). A large amount of these data, including one's language, location and interest, is shared through social media and social network. Altogether, this information can construct a person's social profile.\n", "Section::::Techniques for face acquisition.:Skin texture analysis.\n\nAnother emerging trend uses the visual details of the skin, as captured in standard digital or scanned images. This technique, called Skin Texture Analysis, turns the unique lines, patterns, and spots apparent in a person's skin into a mathematical space.\n", "Section::::Techniques for face acquisition.:Facial recognition combining different techniques.\n\nAs every method has its advantages and disadvantages, technology companies have amalgamated the traditional, 3D recognition and Skin Textual Analysis, to create recognition systems that have higher rates of success.\n\nCombined techniques have an advantage over other systems. It is relatively insensitive to changes in expression, including blinking, frowning or smiling and has the ability to compensate for mustache or beard growth and the appearance of eyeglasses. The system is also uniform with respect to race and gender.\n\nSection::::Techniques for face acquisition.:Thermal cameras.\n", "In her article “Only You, Your Doctor, and Many Others May Know,” writer Latanya Sweeney discusses her research project in which she located and matched up identities and personal health records through a number of methods. Such methods, as she explains in depth later on, include looking at public health records from hospitals and newspaper stories. Towards the end of the article, Sweeney touches upon the different approaches of how she analyzed and matched the data, either through using computer programs or human effort. She then makes the conclusion that new and improved methods of data sharing are necessary.\n", "BULLET::::1. If a visitor reports a child is missing, a detailed description of the child and what he or she is wearing is obtained. Specifically, what color and type of shoes the child is wearing (in department stores it's easy to change a child's clothes, harder to find different shoes) Additionally, all exterior access to the building is locked and monitored; anyone approaching a door is turned away. The child's name is not requested and is to be ignored if provided.\n", "Various projects to make the raw data more useful for educational purposes are under way. It is necessary to build a three-dimensional virtual model of the body where the organs are labeled, may be removed selectively and viewed from all sides, and ideally are even animated. Two commercial software products accomplish the majority of these goals, the VH Dissector from Touch of Life Technologies and “Voxel-Man 3D-Navigator” from the University of Hamburg NLM itself has started an open source project, the Insight Toolkit, whose aim is to automatically deduce organ boundaries from the data.\n", "Potential areas where this face-recognition technology could be used include:\n\nBULLET::::- Automated searching of mug books using surveillance photos\n\nBULLET::::- Controlling access to restricted facilities or equipment\n\nBULLET::::- Checking the credentials of personnel for background and security clearances\n\nBULLET::::- Monitoring airports, border crossings, and secure manufacturing facilities for particular individuals\n\nBULLET::::- Finding and logging multiple appearances of individuals over time in surveillance videos\n\nBULLET::::- Verifying identities at ATM machines\n\nBULLET::::- Searching photo ID records for fraud detection\n", "In 2005, a new web site was created - www.human-anatomy-for-artist.com - which focuses more on man and woman anatomy and has become a basic source of photographical material for video game developers, graphic artists, animators, sculptors and various other artists. As of April 2010, the site contained more than 118,000 photos of human models ranging from 18 to 75 in age, various ethnicity, body and hair types. Premium members have access to a special software that allows them to walk around any model in 3D space as if the model was in their own studio. These models are shot from 16 different angles and 3 different vertical positions.\n", "Section::::Controversies.:Privacy violations.:Facebook DeepFace.\n", "Face recognition technology can be used to gain access to a person's private data, according to a new study. Researchers at Carnegie Mellon University combined image scanning, cloud computing and public profiles from social network sites to identify individuals in the offline world. Data captured even included a user's social security number. Experts have warned of the privacy risks faced by the increased merging of our online and offline identities. The researchers have also developed an 'augmented reality' mobile app that can display personal data over a person's image captured on a smartphone screen. Since these technologies are widely available, our future identities may become exposed to anyone with a smartphone and an Internet connection. Researchers believe this could force us to reconsider our future attitudes to privacy.\n", "• In April 2018, it has been announced that the NtechLab face recognition algorithm will be implemented in the large Leto shopping and entertainment complex in St.Petersburg. The Leto authorities will collect a non-personal information on visitors without identifying them. The analysis will help to determine the demographic composition of customers, identify repeated visits, estimate the amount of time spent by visitiors on purchases, compare customer behavior in different stores .\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-16000	Why does pain, atleast in some cases, throb rather than being a consistent stream?	Pretty sure it throbs because it's your heartbeat. You're area where the damaged nerves are receives blood each throb, and sends that signal of pain even stronger to your brain. This is just my guess.	[ "Response to motor-level stimulation is often not immediately but its effect is long-lasting. Due to the lack of immediate effect, treatment times are typically longer and are conducted for 45 minutes or longer. The mechanism of action may be attributed to the production of rhythmic motor contractions that activate the endogenous opiate mechanisms of analgesia. This level of electroanalgesia is most often used in patients with deep, throbbing, or chronic pain.\n\nSection::::Electroanalgesia.:Noxious-level stimulation.\n", "Spontaneous pain or allodynia (pain resulting from a stimulus which would not normally provoke pain, such as a light touch of the skin) is not limited to the territory of a single peripheral nerve and is disproportionate to the inciting event.\n\nBULLET::::1. There is a history of edema, skin blood flow abnormality, or abnormal sweating in the region of the pain since the inciting event.\n\nBULLET::::2. No other conditions can account for the degree of pain and dysfunction.\n", "Section::::Electroanalgesia.:Sensory-level stimulation.\n\nDefined as stimulation at or above the sensory threshold and below the motor threshold, sensory-level stimulation is frequently achieved with a frequency in the 50-100 pps range, with short pulse and phase durations of 2-50 μs, and low intensities. Short pulses must be used to avoid producing tetanic muscular contractions - muscular movement is not desirable in sensory-level TENS.\n", "Recently this idea has regained some credibility under a new term, central sensitization. Central sensitization occurs when neurons in the spinal cord's dorsal horn or brainstem become more responsive after repeated stimulation by peripheral neurons, so that weaker signals can trigger them. The delay in appearance of referred pain shown in laboratory experiments can be explained due to the time required to create the central sensitization.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.:Axon-reflex.\n", "Hyperexcitability hypothesizes that referred pain has no central mechanism. However, it does say that there is one central characteristic that predominates. Experiments involving noxious stimuli and recordings from the dorsal horn of animals revealed that referred pain sensations began minutes after muscle stimulation. Pain was felt in a receptive field that was some distance away from the original receptive field. According to hyperexcitability, new receptive fields are created as a result of the opening of latent convergent afferent fibers in the dorsal horn. This signal could then be perceived as referred pain.\n", "Axon reflex suggests that the afferent fiber is bifurcated before connecting to the dorsal horn. Bifurcated fibers do exist in muscle, skin, and intervertebral discs. Yet these particular neurons are rare and are not representative of the whole body. Axon-Reflex also does not explain the time delay before the appearance of referred pain, threshold differences for stimulating local and referred pain, and somatosensory sensibility changes in the area of referred pain.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.:Hyperexcitability.\n", "Only 35% of TIF patients exhibit the pathognomonic warning signs which include sentinel bleeding, a small bleed from the tracheostomy in the preceding the TIF, and pulsations of the tracheostomy tube that coincides with the heartbeat.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "The two types differ only in the nature of the inciting event. Type I CRPS develops following an initiating noxious event that may or may not have been traumatic, while type II CRPS develops after a nerve injury.\n", "This phenomenon can be a sign of hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy or of many other types of heart disease (see list below). Other causes include digitalis toxicity, induction of anesthesia, placement of surgical instrumentation into the thorax or as a benign, temporary phenomenon.\n", "The first mechanism, referred to as the dispersion of repolarisation, occurs because the action potential shortening seen in this condition occurs to a greater extent in some layers of the heart wall than in others. This means that at certain points in the cardiac cycle, some layers of the heart wall will have fully repolarised, and are therefore ready to contract again, while other regions are only partially repolarised and therefore are still within their refractory period and not yet able to be re-excited. If a triggering impulse arrives at this critical point in the cardiac cycle, the wavefront of electrical activation will conduct in some regions but block in others, potentially leading to wavebreak and re-entrant arrhythmias.\n", "Bigeminal pulse\n\nBigeminal pulse is a medical condition, easily confused with pulsus alternans. Similar features between bigeminal pulse and pulsus alternans are strong peak and weak peak. However, unlike pulsus alternans, the weak beat in bigeminal pulse occurs prematurely (early). Thus, not followed a pause as it is in pulsus alternans but occurs close to normal strong beat. \n", "BULLET::::1. The presence of an initiating noxious event or a cause of immobilization\n\nBULLET::::2. Continuing pain, allodynia (perception of pain from a nonpainful stimulus), or hyperalgesia (an exaggerated sense of pain) disproportionate to the inciting event\n\nBULLET::::3. Evidence at some time of edema, changes in skin blood flow, or abnormal sudomotor activity in the area of pain\n\nBULLET::::4. The diagnosis is excluded by the existence of any condition that would otherwise account for the degree of pain and dysfunction.\n\nAccording to the IASP, CRPS II (causalgia) is diagnosed as follows:\n", "Section::::Career.:Independent circuit (2006-present).\n", "In normal individuals, the AV node slows the conduction of electrical impulse through the heart. This is manifest on a surface electrocardiogram (ECG) as the PR interval. The normal PR interval is from 120 ms to 200 ms in length. This is measured from the initial deflection of the P wave to the beginning of the QRS complex.\n\nIn first-degree heart block, the diseased AV node conducts the electrical activity more slowly. This is seen as a PR interval greater than 200 ms in length on the surface ECG. It is usually an incidental finding on a routine ECG.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Pulsus tardus et parvus\", also \"pulsus parvus et tardus\", slow-rising pulse and anacrotic pulse, is weak (parvus), and late (tardus) relative to its expected characteristics. It is caused by a stiffened aortic valve that makes it progressively harder to open, thus requiring increased generation of blood pressure in the left ventricle. It is seen in aortic valve stenosis.\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.\n\nA bundle branch block can be diagnosed when the duration of the QRS complex on the ECG exceeds 120 ms. A right bundle branch block typically causes prolongation of the last part of the QRS complex, and may shift the heart's electrical axis slightly to the right. The ECG will show a terminal R wave in lead V1 and a slurred S wave in lead I.\n", "It is always important for not only the physician but also the patient to remember the dissociation between magnitude of injury to internal organs and the intensity of pain and how this can be potentially dangerous if overlooked, for example a silent heart attack. More rarely intense visceral pain does not signify a significant pathologic process, for example intense gas pains.\n\nSection::::Neurobiology.\n", "The ability to experience pain is essential for protection from injury, and recognition of the presence of injury. Episodic analgesia may occur under special circumstances, such as in the excitement of sport or war: a soldier on the battlefield may feel no pain for many hours from a traumatic amputation or other severe injury.\n", "Mitral regurgitation typically is a holosystolic (pansystolic) murmur heard best at the apex, and may radiate to the axilla or precordium. A systolic click may be heard if there is associated mitral valve prolapse. Valsalva maneuver in mitral regurgitation associated with mitral valve prolapse will decrease left ventricular preload and move the murmur onset closer to S1, and isometric handgrip, which increases left ventricular afterload, will increase murmur intensity. In acute severe mitral regurgitation, a holosystolic (pansystolic) murmur may not be heard.\n", "For sinusoidal electrical stimulation less than 10 volts, the skin voltage-current characteristic is quasilinear. Over time, electrical characteristics can become non-linear. The time required varies from seconds to minutes, depending on stimulus, electrode placement, and individual characteristics.\n", "Cardiac resuscitation guidelines (ACLS/BCLS) advise that Cardiopulmonary resuscitation should be initiated promptly to maintain cardiac output until the PEA can be corrected. The approach in treatment of PEA is to treat the underlying cause, if known (e.g. relieving a tension pneumothorax). Where an underlying cause for PEA cannot be determined and/or reversed, the treatment of pulseless electrical activity is similar to that for asystole. There is no evidence that external cardiac compression can increase cardiac output in any of the many scenarios of PEA, such as hemorrhage, in which impairment of cardiac filling is the underlying mechanism producing loss of a detectable pulse.\n", "The sting of a weever is acute and intense. The pain frequently is radiated to the area around the limb. The seriousness of the pain reaches its peak 30 minutes after the sting, and then slowly decreases. However, some pain (or other sensation, such as a tingle) may continue to affect the area for up to 24 hours. Very rarely, pain can be propagated to the tributary lymph nodes, i.e. those in the groin (when the sting is on the sole of the foot), or those in the armpit (if the sting is on the hands).\n", "Further, recent research has found that ketamine, a sedative, is capable of blocking referred pain. The study was conducted on patients suffering from fibromyalgia, a disease characterized by joint and muscle pain and fatigue. These patients were looked at specifically due to their increased sensitivity to nociceptive stimuli. Furthermore, referred pain appears in a different pattern in fibromyalgic patients than non-fibromyalgic patients. Often this difference manifests as a difference in terms of the area that the referred pain is found (distal vs. proximal) as compared to the local pain. The area is also much more exaggerated owing to the increased sensitivity.\n", "Pathologic Q waves occur when the electrical signal passes through stunned or scarred heart muscle; as such, they are usually markers of previous myocardial infarctions, with subsequent fibrosis. A pathologic Q wave is defined as having a deflection amplitude of 25% or more of the subsequent R wave, or being (40 ms) in width and in amplitude. However, diagnosis requires the presence of this pattern in more than one corresponding lead.\n\nSection::::Components.:R wave progression.\n", "BULLET::::- Regurgitation through the mitral valve is by far the most commonly heard murmur, producing a pansystolic/holosystolic murmur which is sometimes fairly loud to a practiced ear, even though the volume of regurgitant blood flow may be quite small. Yet, though obvious using echocardiography visualization, probably about 20% of cases of mitral regurgitation do not produce an audible murmur.\n\nBULLET::::- Stenosis of the aortic valve is typically the next most common heart murmur, a systolic ejection murmur. This is more common in older adults or in those individuals having a two-leaflet, not a three-leaflet, aortic valve.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01642	How does Egg cholesterol not translate to dietary cholesterol?	Egg cholesterol is dietary cholesterol, it just doesn't translate to serum cholesterol because serum cholesterol has more to do with consumption of saturated fats	[ "More than half the calories found in eggs come from the fat in the yolk; 50 grams of chicken egg (the contents of an egg just large enough to be classified as \"large\" in the US, but \"medium\" in Europe) contains approximately five grams of fat. People on a low-cholesterol diet may need to reduce egg consumption; however, only 27 percent of the fat in egg is saturated fat (palmitic, stearic, and myristic acids). The egg white consists primarily of water (87 percent) and protein (13 percent) and contains no cholesterol and little, if any, fat.\n", "A deficiency of LCAT causes accumulation of unesterified cholesterol in certain body tissues. Cholesterol effluxes from cells as free cholesterol and is transported in HDL as esterified cholesterol. LCAT is the enzyme that esterifies the free cholesterol on HDL to cholesterol ester and allows the maturation of HDL. LCAT deficiency does not allow for HDL maturation resulting in its rapid catabolism of circulating apoA-1 and apoA-2. The remaining form of HDL resembles nascent HDL.\n", "The involvement of three proteins in cholesterol side-chain cleavage reaction raises the question of whether the\n", "There is debate over whether egg yolk presents a health risk. Some research suggests dietary cholesterol increases the ratio of total to HDL cholesterol and, therefore, adversely affects the body's cholesterol profile; whereas other studies show that moderate consumption of eggs, up to one a day, does not appear to increase heart disease risk in healthy individuals. Harold McGee argues that the cholesterol in the egg yolk is not what causes a problem, because fat (particularly saturated fat) is much more likely to raise cholesterol levels than the consumption of cholesterol.\n\nSection::::Health effects.:Type 2 diabetes.\n", "A 2007 study of nearly 10,000 adults demonstrated no correlation between moderate (six per week) egg consumption and cardiovascular disease or strokes, except in the subpopulation of diabetic patients who also presented an increased risk of coronary artery disease. One potential alternative explanation for the null finding is that background dietary cholesterol may be so high in the usual Western diet that adding somewhat more has little further effect on blood cholesterol. Other research supports the idea that a high egg intake increases cardiovascular risk in diabetic patients. A 2009 prospective cohort study of more than 21,000 individuals suggests that \"egg consumption up to 6 [per] week has no major effect on the risk of cardiovascular disease and mortality and that consumption of [more than 7 a week] is associated with a modest increased risk of total mortality\" in males, whereas among males with diabetes, \"any egg consumption is associated with an increased risk of all-cause mortality and there was suggestive evidence for an increased risk of myocardial infarction and stroke\".\n", "Dietary cholesterol is only found in animal products such as meat, eggs, and dairy. The effect of dietary cholesterol on blood cholesterol levels is controversial. Some studies have found a link between cholesterol consumption and serum cholesterol levels. Other studies have not found a link between eating cholesterol and blood levels of cholesterol. \n", "Elevated levels of the lipoprotein fractions, LDL, IDL and VLDL, rather than the total cholesterol level, correlate with the extent and progress of atherosclerosis. Conversely, the total cholesterol can be within normal limits, yet be made up primarily of small LDL and small HDL particles, under which conditions atheroma growth rates are high. A \"post hoc\" analysis of the IDEAL and the EPIC prospective studies found an association between high levels of HDL cholesterol (adjusted for apolipoprotein A-I and apolipoprotein B) and increased risk of cardiovascular disease, casting doubt on the cardioprotective role of \"good cholesterol\".\n", "One particularly relevant pathway in which cholesterol takes place is the Hedgehog signaling pathway. This pathway is very important during embryonic development, and involved in deciding the fate of cells (i.e., which tissue they need to migrate to). Hedgehog proteins are also involved in the transcription of genes that regulate cell proliferation and differentiation. Cholesterol is important to this pathway because it undergoes covalent bonding to Hedgehog proteins, resulting in their activation. Without cholesterol, the signaling activity is disrupted and cell differentiation may be impaired.\n", "LDL cholesterol normally circulates in the body for 2.5 days, and subsequently the apolipoprotein B portion of LDL cholesterol binds to the LDL receptor on the liver cells, triggering its uptake and digestion. This process results in the removal of LDL from the circulatory system. Synthesis of cholesterol by the liver is suppressed in the HMG-CoA reductase pathway. In FH, LDL receptor function is reduced or absent, and LDL circulates for an average duration of 4.5 days, resulting in significantly increased level of LDL cholesterol in the blood with normal levels of other lipoproteins. In mutations of \"ApoB\", reduced binding of LDL particles to the receptor causes the increased level of LDL cholesterol. It is not known how the mutation causes LDL receptor dysfunction in mutations of \"PCSK9\" and \"ARH\".\n", "Animal cells maintain proper levels of intracellular lipids (fats and oils) under widely varying circumstances (lipid homeostasis). For example, when cellular cholesterol levels fall below the level needed, the cell makes more of the enzymes necessary to make cholesterol. A principle step in this response is to make more of the mRNA transcripts that direct the synthesis of these enzymes. Conversely, when there is enough cholesterol around, the cell stops making those mRNAs and the level of the enzymes falls. As a result, the cell quits making cholesterol once it has enough.\n", "Although cholesterol is a steroid generally associated with mammals, the human pathogen \"Mycobacterium tuberculosis\" is able to completely degrade this molecule and contains a large number of genes that are regulated by its presence. Many of these cholesterol-regulated genes are homologues of fatty acid β-oxidation genes, but have evolved in such a way as to bind large steroid substrates like cholesterol.\n\nSection::::Dietary sources.\n", "The interaction of the proteins forming the surface of the particles (with enzymes in the blood; with each other; and with specific proteins on the surfaces of cells) determines whether triglycerides and cholesterol will be added to or removed from the lipoprotein transport particles.\n\nRegarding atheroma development and progression as opposed to regression, the key issue has always been cholesterol transport patterns, not cholesterol concentration itself.\n\nSection::::Functions.\n\nSection::::Functions.:Metabolism.\n", "BULLET::::- Lipid Panel: low high-density lipoprotein (HDL) 10 mg/dL, elevated very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) and triglycerides, high plasma unesterified cholesterol in HDL particles, and low cholesterol ester in HDL particles but normal levels in low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and VLDL particles\n\nBULLET::::- Plasma LCAT activity: decreased only in HDL particles but not LDL\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Genetic Findings in Fish-eye Disease.\n", "Section::::Effects of other membrane lipids.\n", "Cholesterol synthesis can also be turned off when cholesterol levels are high. HMG-CoA reductase contains both a cytosolic domain (responsible for its catalytic function) and a membrane domain. The membrane domain senses signals for its degradation. Increasing concentrations of cholesterol (and other sterols) cause a change in this domain's oligomerization state, which makes it more susceptible to destruction by the proteosome. This enzyme's activity can also be reduced by phosphorylation by an AMP-activated protein kinase. Because this kinase is activated by AMP, which is produced when ATP is hydrolyzed, it follows that cholesterol synthesis is halted when ATP levels are low.\n", "The availability of cholesterol at the membrane surface is dependent upon its interaction with other membrane components such as phospholipids and proteins; and the more cholesterol interacts with these components the less available it is to interact with extramembranous molecules. Some factors that affect cholesterols availability are size of the polar head groups and the ability of the phospholipid to hydrogen bond with the 3-β-OH group of cholesterol. Cholesterol associates with phospholipids, forming a stoichiometric complex and contributes to membrane fluidity. If cholesterol concentration exceeds a certain point, free cholesterol will begin to precipitate out of the membrane. The binding and pore formation of CDC will occur when the concentration of cholesterol exceeds the association capacity of the phospholipids, allowing the excess cholesterol to associate with the toxin.\n", "A 2013 meta-analysis found no association between egg consumption and heart disease or stroke. A 2013 systematic review and meta-analysis found no association between egg consumption and cardiovascular disease or cardiovascular disease mortality, but did find egg consumption of more than once daily increased cardiovascular disease risk 1.69-fold in those with type 2 diabetes mellitus when compared to type 2 diabetics who ate less than one egg per week. Another 2013 meta-analysis found that eating four eggs per week increased the risk of cardiovascular disease by six percent.\n\nSection::::Health effects.:Contamination.\n", "Another type of fat emulsion Omegaven is being used experimentally within the US primarily in the pediatric population. It is made of fish oil instead of the egg based formulas more widely in use. Research has shown use of Omegaven may reverse and prevent liver disease and cholestasis.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Cholesterol is essential for all animal life, with each cell capable of synthesizing it by way of a complex 37-step process. This begins with the mevalonate or HMG-CoA reductase pathway, the target of statin drugs, which encompasses the first 18 steps. This is followed by 19 additional steps to convert the resulting lanosterol into cholesterol.\n\nA human male weighing 68 kg (150 lb) normally synthesizes about 1 gram (1,000 mg) of cholesterol per day, and his body contains about 35 g, mostly contained within the cell membranes. Typical daily cholesterol dietary intake for a man in the United States is 307 mg.\n", "Dietary guidelines generally recommend limiting full-fat dairy products. This recommendation has been based on traditional hypothesis that dietary saturated fatty acids, such as those derived from milk fat, have serum LDL cholesterol raising effects. Subsequently, although not demonstrated in randomized controlled trials, serum LDL cholesterol has been associated with cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk based on observational evidence. A review of observational studies has suggested that the association between milk fat intake and serum cholesterol measures could vary depending on the type of dairy products. Differential effects of various dairy foods on plasma lipids might be partly dependent on the presence of MFGM.\n", "Section::::Cholesterol metabolism and function.:Regulation.\n\nRegulation of cholesterol synthesis is complex and occurs primarily through the enzyme HMG-CoA reductase (catalyst of the rate-limiting step). It involves a feedback loop that is sensitive to cellular levels of cholesterol. The four main steps of regulation are:\n", "Plant cells synthesize cholesterol as a precursor for other compounds, such as phytosterols and steroidal glycoalkaloids, with cholesterol remaining in plant foods only in minor amounts or absent. Some plant foods, such as avocado, flax seeds and peanuts, contain phytosterols, which compete with cholesterol for absorption in the intestines, reduce the absorption of both dietary and bile cholesterol. A typical diet contributes on the order of 0.2 gram of phytosterols, which is not enough to have a significant impact on blocking cholesterol absorption. Phytosterols intake can be supplemented through the use of phytosterol-containing functional foods or dietary supplements that are recognized as having potential to reduce levels of LDL-cholesterol. Some supplemental guidelines have recommended doses of phytosterols in the 1.6–3.0 grams per day range (Health Canada, EFSA, ATP III, FDA). A recent meta-analysis demonstrating a 12% reduction in LDL-cholesterol at a mean dose of 2.1 grams per day. However, the benefits of a diet supplemented with phytosterols have been questioned.\n", "MFGM lipid components such as sphingolipids are involved in the intestinal uptake of cholesterol. Studies in adult rodents have shown that milk sphingomyelin could lower the intestinal absorption of cholesterol in a dose-dependent manner. Intestinal cholesterol absorption in adult rodents consuming a high fat diet was limited by sphingomyelin supplementation. Milk sphingomyelin and other phospholipids with high affinity for cholesterol could limit the micellar solubility of intestinal cholesterol, thereby limiting the cholesterol uptake by the enterocyte. Dietary sphingolipids have been shown to dose-dependently lower plasma cholesterol and triacylglycerol in adult rodents fed with Western-type diet and protect the liver from fat- and cholesterol-induced steatosis. Dietary sphingolipids also lowers hepatic cholesterol and triglyceride levels in adult rodents partly by modulating hepatic gene expression.\n", "Lomitapide, an inhibitor of the microsomal triglyceride transfer protein, was approved by the US FDA in December 2012 as an orphan drug for the treatment of homozygous familial hypercholesterolemia. In January 2013, The US FDA also approved mipomersen, which inhibits the action of the gene apolipoprotein B, for the treatment of homozygous familial hypercholesterolemia. Gene therapy is a possible future alternative.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Children.\n", "It appears that the biosyntheis of JH III is identical to that of cholesterol, from production of IPP to FPP, although there appear to be no studies on export of citrate or other metabolites from the mitochondrion into the cytosol, or formation of acetyl-CoA. The enzymes of this pathway were first studied in \"Manduca sexta\", which produces both homoisoprenoid and isoprenoid (JHIII) JHs. \n" ]	[ "Egg cholesterol does not translate to dietary cholesterol" ]	[ "Egg cholesterol is dietary cholesterol" ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Egg cholesterol does not translate to dietary cholesterol" ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Egg cholesterol is dietary cholesterol" ]
2018-12932	To people learning new languages: How does assimilation of words from a foreign language to one's vocabulary usually go?	When you first start, you usually try to make word to word associations, but this will only get you so far. Words often don't mean the exact same thing from language to language, garçon is translated as boy, but it has slightly different meanings in French than boy does in English. Beyond that you have grammatic constructs and idioms that don't translate at all. Eventually, you need to stop trying to assimilate and translate, and start being able to switch your brain into a different mode. One of the biggest milestones in learning a language is being about to think in that language.	[ "Section::::Second language acquisition.\n\nSpontaneous second language acquisition (and the genesis of pidgins) involves the gradual relexification of the native or source language with target-language vocabulary. After relexification is completed, native language structures alternate with structures acquired from the target language.\n\nSection::::Conlangs and jargon.\n\nIn the context of constructed languages, jargons, and argots, the term is applied to the process of creating a language by substituting new vocabulary into the grammar of an existing language, often one's native language.\n", "In other languages, verbification is a more regular process. However, such processes often do not qualify as conversion, as they involve changes in the form of the word. For example, in Esperanto, any word can be transformed into a verb, either by altering its ending to \"-i\", or by applying suffixes such as \"-igi\" and \"-iĝi\"; and in Semitic languages, the process often involves changes of internal vowels, such as the Hebrew word \"גגל\" (, ), from the proper noun גוגל ().\n\nSection::::Humor.\n", "Section::::Specific examples.\n", "One of the most important preliminary steps in language revitalization/recovering involves establishing the degree to which a particular language has been “dislocated”. This helps involved parties find the best way to assist or revive the language.\n\nSection::::Theory.:Steps in reversing language shift.\n\nThere are many different theories or models that attempt to lay out a plan for language revitalization. One of these is provided by celebrated linguist Joshua Fishman.\n", "Section::::Reversing.\n\nAmerican linguist Joshua Fishman has proposed a method of reversing language shift which involves assessing the degree to which a particular language is disrupted in order to determine the most effective way of assisting and revitalising the language.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Endangered language\n\nBULLET::::- Extinct language\n\nBULLET::::- Germanic substrate hypothesis\n\nBULLET::::- Koiné language\n\nBULLET::::- Language death\n\nBULLET::::- Linguistic imperialism\n\nBULLET::::- Second language\n\nBULLET::::- World Englishes\n\nSection::::Sources.\n\nBULLET::::- Bastardas-Boada, Albert (2007), \"Linguistic sustainability for a multilingual humanity\", \"Glossa. An Interdisciplinary Journal\" (on-line), vol. 2, n. 2.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Overgeneralization\". Learners use rules from the second language in roughly the same way that children overgeneralise in their first language. For example, a learner may say \"I goed home\", overgeneralizing the English rule of adding \"-ed\" to create past tense verb forms. English children also produce forms like goed, sticked, bringed. German children equally overextend regular past tense forms to irregular forms.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Simplification\". Learners use a highly simplified form of language, similar to speech by children or in pidgins. This may be related to linguistic universals.\n", "A number of scholars agree that in order for Anglicism to take place, adaptation must first occur such as in the case of the integration of a great number of Anglicisms in Europe. Fischer said that it is similar to neologism in the sense that it completes several phases of integration, which include: 1) the beginning, when it is still new and not known to many speakers; 2) the phase where it begins to spread and take part in the process of institutionalization; and, 3) the word becomes part of the common core of the language. There are experts who propose a more detailed framework such as the model of Anglicism adaptation that transpires on four levels: orthographic, phonological, morphological, and semantic.\n", "Although some techniques seem ineffective, Kendall A. King provides several suggestions:\n\nBULLET::::1. Exposure to and acquisition of the language at a young age.\n\nBULLET::::2. Extreme immersion techniques.\n\nBULLET::::3. Multiple and diverse efforts to reach adults.\n\nBULLET::::4. Flexibility and coordination in planning and implementation\n\nBULLET::::5. Directly addressing different varieties of the language.\n\nBULLET::::6. Planners stressing that language revitalization is a long process\n\nBULLET::::7. Involving as many people as possible\n\nBULLET::::8. Parents using the language with their children\n\nBULLET::::9. Planners and advocates approaching the problem from all directions.\n", "BULLET::::- increase their legitimate power in the eyes of the dominant community;\n\nBULLET::::- have a strong presence in the education system;\n\nBULLET::::- can write down the language;\n\nBULLET::::- can use electronic technology.\n\nSection::::Theory.:Revival linguistics.\n\nGhil'ad Zuckermann proposes \"Revival Linguistics\" as a new linguistic discipline and paradigm.\n\nAccording to Zuckermann, \"revival linguistics combines scientific studies of native language acquisition and foreign language learning. After all, language reclamation is the most extreme case of second-language learning. Revival linguistics complements the established area of documentary linguistics, which records endangered languages before they fall asleep.\"\n", "The results of positive transfer go largely unnoticed and so are less often discussed. Nonetheless, such results can have a large effect. Generally speaking, the more similar the two languages are and the more the learner is aware of the relation between them, the more positive transfer will occur. For example, an Anglophone learner of German may correctly guess an item of German vocabulary from its English counterpart, but word order, connotations and collocation are more likely to differ. Such an approach has the disadvantage of making the learner more subject to the influence of \"false friends\".\n", "Word formation\n\nIn linguistics, word formation is the creation of a new word. Word formation is sometimes contrasted with semantic change, which is a change in a single word's meaning. The boundary between word formation and semantic change can be difficult to define: a new use of an old word can be seen as a new word derived from an old one and identical to it in form. See 'conversion'. \n\nSection::::Types.\n\nThere are a number of methods of word formation.\n\nSection::::Types.:Blending.\n", "Lindstedt, on the other hand, referencing Bergen's study, contends that \"it is difficult to find convincing examples of changes introduced by the process of nativisation. All examples proposed seem rather to be due to (1) transfers from the children’s other native languages, (2) differences between the spoken and written register of Esperanto and, in some cases, (3) incomplete acquisition.\" Some of the features, such as phonological reduction, can be found in the speech of some fluent non-native speakers, while some other, such as the attrition of the accusative, are completely absent from the speech of some native-speaking children.\n\nSection::::Word derivation.\n", "Section::::Specific examples.:Europe.:Irish.\n", "Interlanguage fossilization\n\nInterlanguage fossilization is a phenomenon of second language acquisition (SLA) in which second language learners turn linguistic features that are correct in their first language into permanent errors in the way they speak and write the new language. In other words, they develop and retain their own, personal linguistic system that is self-contained and different from both their first language and the target language. Such a linguistic system has been variously called an interlanguage, approximative system, idiosyncratic dialect, or transitional dialect.\n\nSection::::Development of interlanguage.\n", "Relexification\n\nIn linguistics, relexification is a mechanism of language change by which one language changes much or all of its lexicon, including basic vocabulary, with the lexicon of another language, without drastically changing the relexified language's grammar. The term is principally used to describe pidgins, creoles, and mixed languages. \n\nRelexification is not synonymous with lexical borrowing, by which a language merely \"supplements\" its basic vocabulary with loanwords from another language.\n\nSection::::Language creation and relexification hypothesis.\n", "During the process of grammaticalisation, new layers are added to older ones whereby the functional domain is broadened, i.e. several items may fulfil the same linguistic function.\n\nAn example from English: 'I am going to study' / 'I will study' / 'I shall study'.\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Lessau, Donald A. \"A Dictionary of Grammaticalization\". Bochum: Brockmeyer, 1994.\n\nBULLET::::- Hopper, Paul J. “On some principles of grammaticization”. In Elizabeth Closs Traugott and Bernd Heine, eds. \"Approaches to Grammaticalization\", Vol. I. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1991. pp. 17–36.\n", "Differently from other approaches, there have been no abrupt changes of direction in Integrational Linguistics. By now the theory of language developed in Integrational Linguistics has grown into an in-depth theory of all major aspects of language, and its application to a number of different and unrelated languages of the world is in progress.\n\nSo far, the following languages have been or are being studied from an integrational point of view: German, English, Latin, French, Russian, Polish, Chinese, Burmese, Yinchia, Guaraní, Aweti.\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "Section::::Theory.:Revival linguistics.:Traditionalist.\n", "The foreign language learner's tasks, according to CLL are (1) to apprehend the sound system of the language (2) assign fundamental meanings to individual lexical units and (3) construct a basic grammar.\n\nIn these three steps, the CLL resembles the natural approach to language teaching in which a learner is not expected to speak until he has achieved some basic level of comprehension.\n\nThere are 5 stages of development in this method.\n\nBULLET::::1. “Birth” stage: feeling of security and belonging are established.\n\nBULLET::::2. As the learners' ability improve, they achieve a measure of independence from the parent.\n", "Section::::Examples.\n\nSome examples arise from reborrowing. For example, English \"pioneer\" was borrowed from Middle French in the sense of \"digger, foot soldier, pedestrian\", then acquired the sense of \"early colonist, innovator\" in English, which was reborrowed into French.\n", "A central theme in SLA research is that of \"interlanguage\", the idea that the language that learners use is not simply the result of differences between the languages that they already know and the language that they are learning, but that it is a complete language system in its own right, with its own systematic rules. This interlanguage gradually develops as learners are exposed to the targeted language. The order in which learners acquire features of their new language stays remarkably constant, even for learners with different native languages, and regardless of whether they have had language instruction. However, languages that learners already know can have a significant influence on the process of learning a new one. This influence is known as \"language transfer\".\n", "The physiological or psychological mechanisms of coarticulation are unknown; coarticulation is often loosely referred to as a segment being \"triggered\" by an assimilatory change in another segment. In assimilation, the phonological patterning of the language, discourse styles and accent are some of the factors contributing to changes observed. \n\nThere are four configurations found in assimilations: \n\nBULLET::::- Between adjacent segments.\n\nBULLET::::- Between segments separated by one or more intervening segments.\n\nBULLET::::- Changes made in reference to a preceding segment\n\nBULLET::::- Changes made in reference to a following segment\n", "There are three different processes that influence the creation of interlanguages:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Language transfer\". Learners fall back on their mother tongue to help create their language system. Transfer can be positive, i.e. promote learning, or negative, i.e. lead to mistakes. In the latter case, linguists also use the term interference error.\n", "Other linguists have argued that when language revitalization borrows heavily from the majority language, the result is a new language, perhaps a creole or pidgin. For example, the existence of \"Neo-Hawaiian\" as a separate language from \"Traditional Hawaiian\" has been proposed, due to the heavy influence of English on every aspect of the revived Hawaiian language. This has also been proposed for Irish, with a sharp division between \"Urban Irish\" (spoken by second-language speakers) and traditional Irish (as spoken as a first language in Gaeltacht areas). Ó Béarra stated: \"[to] follow the syntax and idiomatic conventions of English, [would be] producing what amounts to little more than English in Irish drag.\" With regard to the then-moribund Manx language, the scholar T. F. O'Rahilly stated, \"When a language surrenders itself to foreign idiom, and when all its speakers become bilingual, the penalty is death.\" Neil McRae has stated that the uses of Scottish Gaelic are becoming increasingly tokenistic, and native Gaelic idiom is being lost in favor of artificial terms created by second-language speakers.\n", "Peter Trudgill sees three processes in operation during what Mesthrie calls the accommodation period: mixing, levelling and simplification. The processes of leveling and simplification are both dependent on a wide range of factors, including the differential prestige related of the contributing dialects, socio-political contexts in which the new dialect develops, and individual networks of adults involved in the accommodation process. Additionally, both Trudgill and Mesthrie also comment on the process of reallocation, in which features that have been retained from contributing dialects take on new meanings or functions within the new dialect.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01994	How do the Voyager Satellites survive the extreme temperatures of Space?	They built the electronics to survive the conditions by using materials that don't degrade. (much, anyway) Gold is a good one, that's why the Voyager record is plated in gold. It's expected to last approximately a billion years before it becomes unreadable. Actually, the cold is less of a problem than you'd think. Most spacecraft have more trouble getting rid of excess heat than with freezing. That's because without air to conduct heat away, you have to rely on radiation which is a much slower process. Spacecraft will often have large radiators to deal with the heat problem. The bigger problems are debris and radiation. Those are dealt with by various forms of shielding, either strong materials to protect from debris or conductive materials to protect from radiation. Aluminum is nice, because it fits both requirements, is lightweight so it's cheaper to launch, and is relatively common and easy to work with.	[ "Spacecraft are often protected from temperature fluctuations with insulation. Some spacecraft use mirrors and sunshades for additional protection from solar heating. They also often need shielding from micrometeoroids and orbital debris.\n\nSection::::Design.:Propulsion.\n", "The hottest areas of all, the nose-cap and the leading edges of the fins, were made of reinforced carbon–carbon, as they were on the Shuttle.\n\nSection::::Design.:Propulsion: OMS and RCS with methane fuel.\n", "BULLET::::- Multi-layer insulation (MLI), which protects the spacecraft from excessive solar or planetary heating as well as from excessive cooling when exposed to deep space\n\nBULLET::::- coatings that change the thermo-optical properties of external surfaces\n\nBULLET::::- thermal fillers to improve the thermal coupling at selected interfaces (for instance on the thermal path between an electronic unit and its radiator)\n\nBULLET::::- thermal washers to reduce the thermal coupling at selected interfaces\n\nBULLET::::- thermal doublers to spread on the radiator surface the heat dissipated by equipment\n", "Section::::Experiments and results.\n\nDuring its stay in orbit, the following two experiments on board SRE-1 were successfully conducted under microgravity conditions.\n\nBULLET::::- One of the experiments studied metal melting and crystallisation under microgravity conditions. This experiment, jointly designed by the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore and Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre, Thiruvananthapuram, was performed in an isothermal heating furnace.\n", "Modern materials however are often not designed to handle such temperatures, especially since modern spacecraft often use \"commercial off the shelf\" components. Problems encountered include nanoscale features only a few atoms thick, plastic packaging, and conductive epoxy attachment methods. Also many instrument sensors cannot be exposed to high temperature, and high temperature can interfere with critical alignments of instruments.\n\nAs a result, new methods are needed to sterilize a modern spacecraft to the higher categories such as Category IVc for Mars, similar to Viking. Methods under evaluation, or already approved, include:\n", "During re-entry of spacecraft into the earth's atmosphere, the high velocity of the spacecraft together with friction and displacement of air molecules leads to temperatures of over 2000 °C. In order to not burn up, spaceships need very expensive and sometimes failing heat shields.\n\nSection::::First spacecraft with sharp corners and edges.\n", "Virtually every deep space mission beyond Mars uses both RHUs and RTGs. Solar insolation decreases with the square of the distance from the Sun, so additional heat is needed to keep spacecraft components at nominal operating temperature. Some of this heat is produced electrically because it is easier to control, but electrical heaters are far less efficient than a RHU because RTGs convert only a few percent of their heat to electricity and reject the rest to space.\n", "Thermal control subsystem (TCS) is used to maintain the temperature of all spacecraft components within certain limits. Both upper and lower limits are defined for each component. There are two limits, namely, operational (in working conditions) and survival (in non-working conditions). Temperature is controlled by using insulators, radiators, heaters, louvers and by giving proper surface finish to components.\n\nSection::::Spacecraft Subsystems.:Propulsion.\n", "Some spacecraft are designed to last for 20 years, so heat transport without electrical power or moving parts is desirable. Rejecting the heat by thermal radiation means that large radiator panes (multiple square meters) are required. Heat pipes and loop heat pipes are used extensively in spacecraft, since they don’t require any power to operate, operate nearly isothermally, and can transport heat over long distances.\n", "A later example of a radiation vault is the Juno Radiation Vault for the Juno Jupiter orbiter, launched in 2011, which was designed to protect much of the uncrewed spacecraft's electronics, using 1 cm thick walls of titanium.\n", "Modern CPU heat pipes are typically made of copper and use water as the working fluid.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Spacecraft.\n\nThe spacecraft thermal control system has the function to keep all components on the spacecraft within their acceptable temperature range. This is complicated by the following:\n\nBULLET::::- Widely varying external conditions, such as eclipses\n\nBULLET::::- Micro-g environment\n\nBULLET::::- Heat removal from the spacecraft by thermal radiation only\n\nBULLET::::- Limited electrical power available, favoring passive solutions\n\nBULLET::::- Long lifetimes, with no possibility of maintenance\n", "Two material exceptions that can directly sustain rocket exhaust temperatures are graphite and tungsten, although both are subject to oxidation if not protected. Materials technology, combined with the engine design, is a limiting factor of the exhaust temperature of chemical rockets.\n", "One of the challenges for a Mars habitat is for it to maintain suitable temperatures in the right places in a habitat. Things like electronics and lights generate heat that rises in the air, even as there are extreme temperature fluctuation outside. There can be large temperature swings on Mars, for example at the equator it may reach 70 degrees F (20 degrees C) in the daytime but then go down to minus 100 degrees F (−73 C) at night.\n\nExamples of Mars surface temperatures:\n\nBULLET::::- Average −80 degrees Fahrenheit (−60 degrees Celsius).\n", "The satellite time series is not homogeneous. It is constructed from a series of satellites with similar but not identical sensors. The sensors also deteriorate over time, and corrections are necessary for orbital drift and decay. Particularly large differences between reconstructed temperature series occur at the few times when there is little temporal overlap between successive satellites, making intercalibration difficult.\n\nSection::::Measurements.:Surface measurements.\n", " Most lunar and Martian surface probes use RHUs for heat, including many probes that use solar panels rather than RTGs to generate electricity. Examples include the seismometer deployed on the Moon by Apollo 11 in 1969, which contained 1.2 ounces (34 grams) of plutonium-238; Mars Pathfinder; and the Mars Exploration Rovers \"Spirit\" and \"Opportunity\". RHUs are especially useful on the Moon because of its lengthy and cold two-week night.\n", "Temperature in space can vary extremely depending on where the sun is. Temperatures from solar radiation can reach up to and lower down to . Because of this, space suits must provide proper insulation and cooling.\n", "The design of the Economy System sought to lower the cost of space travel, and was based on the Minimum System. This system was to be a low cost version of the CM, capable of carrying a pilot and four passengers.\n\nSection::::Design.:Other modules.\n\nAdditional modules were planned, including a Space Laboratory Module equipped with a heat radiation mechanism, a Robotic arm module, and an inflatable Simple Life Support Module.\n\nSection::::Features.\n\nThe Fuji spacecraft was designed to ensure safety by adopting common existing technologies such as escape rockets and ablative heat shields.\n", "The Ambient Temperature Recorder (ATR-4) is a self-contained, battery-powered instrument, approximately the size of a deck of cards. It may be placed in almost any environment (not submersible in liquid) to provide recording of up to four channels of temperature data.\n", "The interior structure is painted black to equalize temperature by radiative heat transfer. Overall, the spacecraft is thoroughly blanketed to retain heat. Unlike the \"Pioneers\" and \"Voyagers\", the radio dish is also enclosed in blankets that extend to the body. The heat from the RTG adds warmth to the spacecraft while it is in the outer Solar System. While in the inner Solar System, the spacecraft must prevent overheating, hence electronic activity is limited, power is diverted to shunts with attached radiators, and louvers are opened to radiate excess heat. While the spacecraft is cruising inactively in the cold outer Solar System, the louvers are closed, and the shunt regulator reroutes power to electric heaters.\n", "Known spacecraft/nuclear power systems and their fate. Systems face a variety of fates, for example, Apollo's SNAP-27 were left on the Moon. Some other spacecraft also have small radioisotope heaters, for example each of the Mars Exploration Rovers have a 1 watt radioisotope heater. Spacecraft use different amounts of material, for example MSL \"Curiosity\" has 4.8 kg of plutonium-238 dioxide, while the Cassini spacecraft had 32.7 kg.\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Notes\n\nBULLET::::- Safety discussion of the RTGs used on the \"Cassini-Huygens\" mission.\n\nBULLET::::- Nuclear Power in Space (PDF)\n\nBULLET::::- Detailed report on \"Cassini\" RTG (PDF)\n\nBULLET::::- Detailed lecture on RTG fuels (PDF)\n", "BULLET::::- An additional mechanism is through the impact of space debris hitting intact contained coolant loops. A number of these satellites are punctured by orbiting space debris—calculated to be 8 percent over any 50-year period—and release their remaining NaK coolant into space. The coolant self-forms into frozen droplets of solid sodium-potassium of up to around several centimeters in size and these solid objects then become a significant source of space debris themselves.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- SNAP-10A, an experimental nuclear reactor launched into orbit by the United States\n\nBULLET::::- Space-based radar\n\nBULLET::::- List of Kosmos satellites\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Between 1961–2011, 28 U.S. space missions safely flew radioisotope energy sources.\n", "The upper surface skin, exposed to much lower temperatures, was made of aluminium honeycomb panels that could be removed to allow access to the unpressurised equipment bays between the frames. The upper skin was covered with the same insulating white fabric (AFRSI, Nomex Advanced Felt Reusable Surface Insulation) as the upper surfaces of the Shuttle.\n\nThe fins were made entirely of titanium, with both TUFI tiles (in hotter areas) and AFRSI fabric (in cooler areas) directly bonded to the skin .\n", "The radiators of the International Space Station are clearly visible as arrays of white square panels attached to the main truss.\n\nSection::::Current Technologies.:Heat pipes.\n\nHeat pipes use a closed two-phase liquid-flow cycle with an evaporator and a condenser to transport relatively large quantities of heat from one location to another without electrical power.\n\nSection::::Future of Thermal Control Systems.\n\nBULLET::::- Composite materials\n\nBULLET::::- Heat rejection through Advanced Passive Radiators\n\nBULLET::::- Spray cooling devices (e.g. liquid droplet radiator)\n\nBULLET::::- Lightweight thermal insulation\n\nBULLET::::- Variable-emittance technologies\n\nBULLET::::- Diamond films\n\nBULLET::::- Advanced thermal control coatings\n\nBULLET::::- Microsheets\n\nBULLET::::- Advanced spray on thin films\n", "BULLET::::- The most common type of heater used on spacecraft is the patch heater which consists of an electrical-resistance element sandwiched between two sheets of flexible electrically insulating material, such as Kapton. The patch heater may contain either a single circuit or multiple circuits, depending on whether or not redundancy is required within it.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04415	We often read about how hackers stole some number of terabytes of data. How do forensic analysts know how much was taken?	Either by raw count of data to the attacking IP address, or, by viewing the results of the COPY commands they issued on your system and taking the inventory of those files.	[ "Computer forensics can deal with a broad range of information; from logs (such as internet history) through to the actual files on the drive. In 2007 prosecutors used a spreadsheet recovered from the computer of Joseph E. Duncan III to show premeditation and secure the death penalty. Sharon Lopatka's killer was identified in 2006 after email messages from him detailing torture and death fantasies were found on her computer.\n\nSection::::Branches.:Mobile device forensics.\n", "One study done in 2016 had researchers drop 297 USB drives around the campus of the University of Illinois. The drives contained files on them that linked to webpages owned by the researchers. The researchers were able to see how many of the drives had files on them opened, but not how many were inserted into a computer without having a file opened. Of the 297 drives that were dropped, 290 (98%) of them were picked up and 135 (45%) of them \"called home\".\n\nSection::::Other Concepts.:Quid pro quo.\n\nQuid pro quo means \"something for something\":\n", "However, the statistical distribution of filesystems' metadata is affected by such large scale copying. By analyzing this distribution, stochastic forensics is able to identify and examine such data theft. Typical filesystems have a heavy tailed distribution of file access. Copying in bulk disturbs this pattern, and is consequently detectable.\n\nDrawing on this, stochastic mechanics has been used to successfully investigate insider data theft where other techniques have failed. Typically, after stochastic forensics has identified the data theft, follow up using traditional forensic techniques is required.\n\nSection::::Criticism.\n", "However, one of the easiest ways to capture data is by actually saving the RAM data to disk. Various file systems that have journaling features such as NTFS and ReiserFS keep a large portion of the RAM data on the main storage media during operation, and these page files can be reassembled to reconstruct what was in RAM at that time.\n\nSection::::Forensic process.:Analysis tools.\n", "A digital forensic investigation commonly consists of 3 stages: acquisition or imaging of exhibits, analysis, and reporting. Ideally acquisition involves capturing an image of the computer's volatile memory (RAM) and creating an exact sector level duplicate (or \"forensic duplicate\") of the media, often using a write blocking device to prevent modification of the original. However, the growth in size of storage media and developments such as cloud computing have led to more use of 'live' acquisitions whereby a 'logical' copy of the data is acquired rather than a complete image of the physical storage device. Both acquired image (or logical copy) and original media/data are hashed (using an algorithm such as SHA-1 or MD5) and the values compared to verify the copy is accurate.\n", "During the analysis an investigator usually recovers evidence material using a number of different methodologies (and tools), often beginning with recovery of deleted material. Examiners use specialist tools (EnCase, ILOOKIX, FTK, etc.) to aid with viewing and recovering data. The type of data recovered varies depending on the investigation, but examples include email, chat logs, images, internet history or documents. The data can be recovered from accessible disk space, deleted (unallocated) space or from within operating system cache files.\n", "BULLET::::- Dr. Conrad Murray: Dr. Conrad Murray, the doctor of the deceased Michael Jackson, was convicted partially by digital evidence on his computer. This evidence included medical documentation showing lethal amounts of propofol.\n\nSection::::Forensic process.\n\nComputer forensic investigations usually follow the standard digital forensic process or phases which are acquisition, examination, analysis and reporting. Investigations are performed on static data (i.e. acquired images) rather than \"live\" systems. This is a change from early forensic practices where a lack of specialist tools led to investigators commonly working on live data.\n\nSection::::Forensic process.:Techniques.\n", "The actual process of analysis can vary between investigations, but common methodologies include conducting keyword searches across the digital media (within files as well as unallocated and slack space), recovering deleted files and extraction of registry information (for example to list user accounts, or attached USB devices).\n\nThe evidence recovered is analysed to reconstruct events or actions and to reach conclusions, work that can often be performed by less specialised staff. When an investigation is complete the data is presented, usually in the form of a written report, in lay persons' terms.\n\nSection::::Application.\n", "Section::::Forensic process.:Acquisition.\n\nThe second step in the forensic process is acquisition, in this case usually referring to retrieval of material from a device (as compared to the bit-copy imaging used in computer forensics).\n", "A number of techniques are used during computer forensics investigations and much has been written on the many techniques used by law enforcement in particular.\n\nBULLET::::- Cross-drive analysis\n\nBULLET::::- Live analysis\n\nBULLET::::- Deleted files\n\nBULLET::::- Stochastic forensics\n\nBULLET::::- Steganography\n\nSection::::Forensic process.:Volatile data.\n", "Various types of techniques are used to recover evidence, usually involving some form of keyword searching within the acquired image file, either to identify matches to relevant phrases or to filter out known file types. Certain files (such as graphic images) have a specific set of bytes which identify the start and end of a file. If identified, a deleted file can be reconstructed. Many forensic tools use hash signatures to identify notable files or to exclude known (benign) files; acquired data is hashed and compared to pre-compiled lists such as the \"Reference Data Set\" (RDS) from the National Software Reference Library\n", "BULLET::::- BTK Killer: Dennis Rader was convicted of a string of serial killings that occurred over a period of sixteen years. Towards the end of this period, Rader sent letters to the police on a floppy disk. Metadata within the documents implicated an author named \"Dennis\" at \"Christ Lutheran Church\"; this evidence helped lead to Rader's arrest.\n\nBULLET::::- Joseph E. Duncan III: A spreadsheet recovered from Duncan's computer contained evidence that showed him planning his crimes. Prosecutors used this to show premeditation and secure the death penalty.\n", "As an increasing number of mobile devices use high-level file systems, similar to the file systems of computers, methods and tools can be taken over from hard disk forensics or only need slight changes.\n\nThe FAT file system is generally used on NAND memory. A difference is the block size used, which is larger than 512 bytes for hard disks and depends on the used memory type, e.g., NOR type 64, 128, 256 and NAND memory 16, 128, 256, or 512 kilobyte.\n", "BULLET::::- Forensic imaging is the process where the entire drive contents are imaged to a file and values are verify the integrity of the image file Forensic images are acquired with the use of software tools. Some tools have added forensic functionality previously mentioned, is typically used to replicate the contents of the hard drive for use in another system. This can typically be done by software programs as it only structure are files themselves.\n", "In 2005, American serial killer Dennis Lynn Rader (also known as the BTK killer) sent a floppy disk to FOX affiliate KSAS-TV in Wichita, Kansas. Using EnCase, police were able to find metadata embedded in a deleted Microsoft Word document that was, unbeknownst to Rader, on the disk. The metadata contained \"Christ Lutheran Church\", and the document was marked as last modified by \"Dennis\". A search of the church website turned up Dennis Rader as president of the congregation council. Police began surveillance of Rader.\n", "Digital forensics investigation is not restricted to retrieve data merely from the computer, as laws are breached by the criminals and small digital devices (e.g. tablets, smartphones, flash drives) are now extensively used. Some of these devices have volatile memory while some have non-volatile memory. Sufficient methodologies are available to retrieve data from volatile memory, however, there is lack of detailed methodology or a framework for data retrieval from non-volatile memory sources. Depending on the type of devices, media or artifacts, digital forensics investigation is branched into various types.\n\nSection::::Branches.:Computer forensics.\n", "The acquired image is verified by using the SHA-1 or MD5 hash functions. At critical points throughout the analysis, the media is verified again to ensure that the evidence is still in its original state. The process of verifying the image with a hash function is called \"hashing.\"\n\nGiven the problems associated with imaging large drives, multiple networked computers, file servers that cannot be shut down and cloud resources new techniques have been developed that combine digital forensic acquisition and ediscovery processes.\n\nSection::::Analysis.\n", "In February 2004, Michael Ford introduced memory forensics into security investigations with an article in SysAdmin Magazine. In that article, he demonstrated analysis of a memory based rootkit. The process utilized the existing Linux crash utility as well as two tools developed specifically to recover and analyze the memory forensically, memget and mempeek.\n", "BULLET::::- Sharon Lopatka: Hundreds of emails on Lopatka's computer lead investigators to her killer, Robert Glass.\n\nBULLET::::- Corcoran Group: This case confirmed parties' duties to preserve digital evidence when litigation has commenced or is reasonably anticipated. Hard drives were analyzed by a computer forensics expert who could not find relevant emails the Defendants should have had. Though the expert found no evidence of deletion on the hard drives, evidence came out that the defendants were found to have intentionally destroyed emails, and misled and failed to disclose material facts to the plaintiffs and the court.\n", "One of the first practical (or at least publicized) examples of digital forensics was Cliff Stoll's pursuit of hacker Markus Hess in 1986. Stoll, whose investigation made use of computer and network forensic techniques, was not a specialized examiner. Many of the earliest forensic examinations followed the same profile.\n", "To compound the issue, there has been a massive increase in the size of the data that the computer forensic expert needs to collect. It is now often the case that the computer hard drive is not able to be imaged, for example if the computer that contains the evidence is too big, or the system cannot be shut down to take an image as it is a mission critical server such as an email server or company file server. The rise of Cloud computing has also added challenges to the collection of evidence. The data that requires collection and review may reside in the Cloud. In this case there is no computer available to image. The forensic expert then needs to collect the information using forensic software designed to work with certain Cloud providers.\n", "One case where detection of suspect files is straightforward is when the original, unmodified carrier is available for comparison. Comparing the package against the original file will yield the differences caused by encoding the payload—and, thus, the payload can be extracted.\n\nSection::::Advanced techniques.\n\nSection::::Advanced techniques.:Noise floor consistency analysis.\n", "In order to analyze large structured data sets with the intention of detecting financial crime it takes at least three types of expertise in the team: A data analyst to perform the technical steps and write the queries, a team member with extensive experience of the processes and internal controls in the relevant area of the investigated company and a forensic scientist who is familiar with patterns of fraudulent behaviour.\n", "Mobile devices are also useful for providing location information; either from inbuilt gps/location tracking or via cell site logs, which track the devices within their range. Such information was used to track down the kidnappers of Thomas Onofri in 2006.\n\nSection::::Branches.:Network forensics.\n", "During the analysis phase an investigator recovers evidence material using a number of different methodologies and tools. In 2002, an article in the \"International Journal of Digital Evidence\" referred to this step as \"an in-depth systematic search of evidence related to the suspected crime.\" In 2006, forensics researcher Brian Carrier described an \"intuitive procedure\" in which obvious evidence is first identified and then \"exhaustive searches are conducted to start filling in the holes.\"\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00464	Why does cheese make you constipated?	So at least one study actually suggests that it doesn’t. Mykkanen et al in The Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology (1993) found that “ the results of the present study do not support the practice that cheese should be avoided as a means of preventing constipation”. Go figure.	[ "Before the age of pasteurization, cheesemakers knew that certain cheeses can cause constipation or kidney stones, so they advised their customers to supplement these side effects by eating in moderation along with other foods and consuming walnuts, almonds, or horseradish.\n\nSection::::Process.\n", "Once the cheese curd is judged to be ready, the cheese whey must be released. As with many foods the presence of water and the bacteria in it encourages decomposition. The cheesemaker must, therefore, remove most of the water (whey) from the cheese milk, and hence cheese curd, to make a partial dehydration of the curd. This ensures a product of good quality that will keep. There are several ways to separate the curd from the whey, and it is again controlled by the cheesemaker.\n\nSection::::Process.:Scalding.\n", "Section::::Nutrition and health.:Cardiovascular disease.\n\nNational health organizations, such as the American Heart Association, Association of UK Dietitians, British National Health Service, and Mayo Clinic, among others, recommend that cheese consumption be minimized, replaced in snacks and meals by plant foods, or restricted to low-fat cheeses to reduce caloric intake and blood levels of HDL fat, which is a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. There is no high-quality clinical evidence that cheese consumption lowers the risk of cardiovascular diseases.\n\nSection::::Nutrition and health.:Pasteurization.\n", "Docusate does not stay in the gastrointestinal tract, but is absorbed into the bloodstream and excreted via the gallbladder after undergoing extensive metabolism.\n\nThe effect of docusate may not necessarily be all due to its surfactant properties. Perfusion studies suggest that docusate inhibits fluid absorption or stimulates secretion in the portion of the small intestine known as the jejunum.\n\nSection::::Toxicity.\n", "At refrigerator temperatures, the fat in a piece of cheese is as hard as unsoftened butter, and its protein structure is stiff as well. Flavor and odor compounds are less easily liberated when cold. For improvements in flavor and texture, it is widely advised that cheeses be allowed to warm up to room temperature before eating. If the cheese is further warmed, to , the fats will begin to \"sweat out\" as they go beyond soft to fully liquid.\n", "Section::::Production methods.\n\nAccording to a 14-year-old girl being treated at the Phoenix Academy, water is added to the heroin. The watered-down heroin, often called \"monkey juice,\" is mixed with Tylenol PM tablets. The makers of Cheese heat the mixture to remove excess water, resulting in the final product.\n", "BULLET::::- Dietary fructose intolerance occurs when there is a deficiency in the amount of fructose carrier.\n\nBULLET::::- Lactose intolerance is the most common problem of carbohydrate digestion and occurs when the human body doesn't produce a sufficient amount of lactase (a disaccharidase) enzyme to break down the sugar lactose found in dairy. As a result of this deficiency, undigested lactose is not absorbed and is instead passed on to the colon. There bacteria metabolize the lactose and in doing so release gas and metabolic products that enhance colonic motility. This causes gas and other uncomfortable symptoms.\n", "During the fermentation process, once the cheesemaker has gauged that sufficient lactic acid has been developed, rennet is added to cause the casein to precipitate. Rennet contains the enzyme chymosin which converts κ-casein to para-κ-caseinate (the main component of cheese curd, which is a salt of one fragment of the casein) and glycomacropeptide, which is lost in the cheese whey. As the curd is formed, milk fat is trapped in a casein matrix. After adding the rennet, the cheese milk is left to form curds over a period of time.\n\nSection::::Process.:Draining.\n", "Some hard cheeses are then heated to temperatures in the range of . This forces more whey from the cut curd. It also changes the taste of the finished cheese, affecting both the bacterial culture and the milk chemistry. Cheeses that are heated to the higher temperatures are usually made with thermophilic starter bacteria that survive this step—either \"Lactobacilli\" or \"Streptococci\".\n", "Cheesemaking may have originated from nomadic herdsmen who stored milk in vessels made from sheep's and goats' stomachs. Because their stomach linings contains a mix of lactic acid, bacteria as milk contaminants and rennet, the milk would ferment and coagulate. A product reminiscent of yogurt would have been produced, which through gentle agitation and the separation of curds from whey would have resulted in the production of cheese; the cheese being essentially a concentration of the major milk protein, casein, and milk fat. The whey proteins, other major milk proteins, and lactose are all removed in the cheese whey. Another theory is offered by David Asher, who wrote that the origins actually lie within the \"sloppy milk bucket in later European culture, it having gone unwashed and containing all of the necessary bacteria to facilitate the ecology of cheese.\"\n", "Section::::Food and nutrients.\n", "Section::::Diagnostic approach.:Description.\n", "Section::::Mold.:Smear-ripened.\n\nS-rind cheeses are also smear-ripened with solutions of bacteria or fungi (most commonly \"Brevibacterium linens\", \"Debaryomyces hansenii\" or \"Geotrichum candidum\"), which usually gives them a stronger flavor as the cheese matures. In some cases, older cheeses are smeared on young cheeses to transfer the microorganisms. Many, but not all, of these cheeses have a distinctive pinkish or orange coloring of the exterior. Unlike with other washed-rind cheeses, the washing is done to ensure uniform growth of desired bacteria or fungi and to prevent the growth of undesired molds. Examples of smear-ripened cheeses include Munster and Port Salut.\n\nSection::::Mold.:Blue.\n", "To make cheese, the cheesemaker brings milk (possibly pasteurised) in the cheese vat to a temperature required to promote the growth of the bacteria that feed on lactose and thus ferment the lactose into lactic acid. These bacteria in the milk may be wild, as is the case with unpasteurised milk, added from a culture, frozen or freeze dried concentrate of starter bacteria. Bacteria which produce only lactic acid during fermentation are homofermentative; those that also produce lactic acid and other compounds such as carbon dioxide, alcohol, aldehydes and ketones are heterofermentative. Fermentation using homofermentative bacteria is important in the production of cheeses such as Cheddar, where a clean, acid flavour is required. For cheeses such as Emmental the use of heterofermentative bacteria is necessary to produce the compounds that give characteristic fruity flavours and, importantly, the gas that results in the formation of bubbles in the cheese ('eye holes').\n", "Each of these factors affects the cheese-ripening process differently, and has been the subject of much research. It is important for manufacturers to understand how each of these elements work, so that they are able to maintain the quality of the cheese while producing the cheese at an acceptable investment of time and cost. These agents contribute to the three primary reactions that define cheese ripening: glycolysis, proteolysis, and lipolysis.\n", "As its temperature continues to rise, cheese will brown and eventually burn. Browned, partially burned cheese has a particular distinct flavor of its own and is frequently used in cooking (e.g., sprinkling atop items before baking them).\n\nSection::::Cooking and eating.:Cheeseboard.\n", "\"Cyberlindnera jadinii\" (which in these contexts is often still labelled with its synonym \"Candida utilis\") can be used, in a blend of various other yeasts, as secondary cheese starter culture \"... to inoculate pasteurised milk, which mimic the natural yeast flora of raw milk and improve cheese flavour. Other functions of the added yeasts organisms are the neutralisation of the curd (lactate degradation) and galactose consumption.\"\n", "Whey protein makes up about 20% of milk’s protein composition and is separated for the casein (80% of milk’s protein make up) during the process of curdling cheese. This protein is commonly used in protein bars, beverages and concentrated powder, due to its high quality amino acid profile. It contains levels of both essential amino acids as well as branched that are above those of soy, meat, and wheat. \"Diafiltered\" milk is a process of ultrafiltration of the fluid milk to separate lactose and water from the casein and whey proteins. This process allows for more efficiency in cheese making and gives the potential to produce low-carb dairy products.\n", "Section::::Description.\n", "FPC was the first artificially produced enzyme to be registered and allowed by the US Food and Drug Administration. In 1999, about 60% of US hard cheese was made with FPC and it has up to 80% of the global market share for rennet.\n\nBy 2008, approximately 80% to 90% of commercially made cheeses in the US and Britain were made using FPC. The most widely used fermentation-produced chymosin is produced either using the fungus \"Aspergillus niger\" or using \"Kluyveromyces lactis\".\n", "A required step in cheesemaking is separating the milk into solid curds and liquid whey. Usually this is done by acidifying (souring) the milk and adding rennet. The acidification can be accomplished directly by the addition of an acid, such as vinegar, in a few cases (paneer, queso fresco). More commonly starter bacteria are employed instead which convert milk sugars into lactic acid. The same bacteria (and the enzymes they produce) also play a large role in the eventual flavor of aged cheeses. Most cheeses are made with starter bacteria from the \"Lactococcus\", \"Lactobacillus\", or \"Streptococcus\" families. Swiss starter cultures also include \"Propionibacter shermani\", which produces carbon dioxide gas bubbles during aging, giving Swiss cheese or Emmental its holes (called \"eyes\").\n", "While rennet was traditionally produced via extraction from the inner mucosa of the fourth stomach chamber of slaughtered young, unweaned calves, most rennet used today in cheesemaking is produced recombinantly. The majority of the applied chymosin is retained in the whey and, at most, may be present in cheese in trace quantities. In ripe cheese, the type and provenance of chymosin used in production cannot be determined.\n\nSection::::Processing.:Curd processing.\n", "Section::::Description.:Bread.\n", "According to several publications, \"Hafnia alvei\" is present as a dominant species during the ripening of raw milk cheese.\n\n\"Hafnia alvei\" is a psychrotrophic bacterium, it originates in raw milk and continues to grow in cheeses such as Camembert. The multiplication is a key factor in the fermentation process and ripening of cheese.\n", "Pasteurization of cow's milk initially destroys any potential pathogens and increases the shelf life, but eventually results in spoilage that makes it unsuitable for consumption. This causes it to assume an unpleasant odor, and the milk is deemed non-consumable due to unpleasant taste and an increased risk of food poisoning. In raw milk, the presence of lactic acid-producing bacteria, under suitable conditions, ferments the lactose present to lactic acid. The increasing acidity in turn prevents the growth of other organisms, or slows their growth significantly. During pasteurization, however, these lactic acid bacteria are mostly destroyed.\n" ]	[ "Cheese makes you constipated." ]	[ "At least one study suggests that cheese does not make you constipated." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Cheese makes you constipated." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "At least one study suggests that cheese does not make you constipated." ]
2018-05698	Why do some older male bodybuilders on gear have very pronounced jawlines / see apparent growth in their jaws (specifically the associated muscle/bones in that area) if jaw development for men ceases somewhere around the mid-twenties?	In short, growth hormone can trigger growth in the hands, head and feet. Our natural growth hormone levels diminish after our late teens, but obviously supplementation in bodybuilders causes a rise in our levels again. Not necessarily supplementing with growth hormone directly. But supplementing with high levels of testosterone and other anabolics can cause an increase in HGH and IGF which causes the pronounced jawlines you see. Another factor, is the extremely low bodyfat levels of these bodybuilders can make this seem more pronounced again.	[ "Non-surgical techniques are essentially limited to cases in which the masseter is enlarged. While a masseter muscle can be large due to congenital reasons, it can commonly be an acquired deformity. Like any muscle it increases in size with exercise. Behaviors such as repeated gum chewing, teeth clenching, or bruxism can contribute to enlargement of the muscle.\n", "It is important to note the difference of ages that play a role in eruption of the posterior molars. An adolescence has an inter-maxillary growth space which allows the posterior molar eruption without any relapse in the later age when relative intrusion is performed in their orthodontic treatment. However, if relative intrusion is performed in adults who have a deep bite tendency with short anterior lower facial height, there is a higher chance of relapse of this movement. This is due to two reasons: Adults do not have intermaxillary growth space that posterior teeth can erupt into and adults tend to have a strong facial jaw musculature which leads to \"pound\" the molars back into their original position. Therefore, in an orthodontic treatment it is important to diagnose a patient with a type of facial growth that is occurring before taking any treatment steps.\n", "Patient with skeletal open bites that accompany dental open bites may have Adenoid faces or Long face syndrome. They are said to have what is known as \"Hyperdivergent Growth Pattern\" which includes characteristics such as:\n\nBULLET::::- Increased Lower Anterior Facial Height\n\nBULLET::::- Occlusal plane diverges after the 1st molar contact\n\nBULLET::::- May accompany dental open bite\n\nBULLET::::- Narrow nostrils with upturned nose\n\nBULLET::::- Dolicofacial or Leptoprosopic face pattern\n\nBULLET::::- Constricted maxillary arch\n\nBULLET::::- Bilateral Posterior Crossbite\n\nBULLET::::- High and narrow palatal vault\n\nBULLET::::- Presence of crowding in teeth\n\nBULLET::::- Mentalis muscle strain upon forcibly closing of lips\n", "Neoteny is not a ubiquitous trait of the human phenotype. Human expression timing, compared to chimpanzee, has a completely different trajectory uncovering that there is no uniform shift in developmental timing. Humans undergo this neotenous shift once sexual maturity is reached. A question prompted by the Mehmet Somel et al. study, is whether or not human-specific neotonic changes are indicative of human- specific cognitive traits. The tracking of where developmental landmarks occur in humans and other primates is a step towards a better understanding of how neoteny manifests specifically in our species and how it may contribute to our specialized features, such as smaller jaws. In humans, the neotonic shift is concentrated around a group of gray matter genes. This shift in neotonic genes also coincides with cortical reorganization that is related to synaptic elimination and is at a much more rapid pace over others during adolescence. It is also linked to the development of linguistic skills and the development of certain neurological disorders like ADHD.\n", "Section::::Pathogenesis.:Oral/dental concerns.:Permanent dentition.\n\nAfter the last primary tooth is lost, usually around the age of twelve, final orthodontic treatment can be initiated. A patient that has not been able to close or swallow well probably will have an open bite, deficient lower-jaw growth, a narrow archform with crowded teeth, and upper anterior flaring of teeth. Orthognathic (jaw) surgery may be indicated. This should be completed in most situations before the smile surgery where the gracilis muscle is grafted to the face.\n\nGenetic links to 13q12.2 and 1p22 have been suggested.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "As Western media emphasize physical attractiveness, some marketing campaigns now exploit male body-image insecurities. Over the past 20 years, the number of men's-fitness magazines and of partially-undressed, well-muscled men in advertisements have increased. Such media provoke bodily comparisons and pressure individuals to conform, yet increase the gap between men's perceptions of their own muscularity versus their desired muscularity. In college-aged men, a strong predictor of a muscularity quest is internalization of the idealized male bodies depicted in media.\n\nSection::::Risk factors.:Athletic participation.\n", "BULLET::::- July 1991 – \"DeafLife Volume IV, Number 1\"\n\nBULLET::::- January 1991 – \"NPC News\"\n\nBULLET::::- December 1992 – \"DeafLife Volume V, Number 6\"\n\nBULLET::::- March 1993 – \"Female Bodybuilding\"\n\nBULLET::::- August 1993 – \"Muscular Development\"\n\nBULLET::::- December 1993 – \"Iron Man\"\n\nBULLET::::- February 1994 – \"Muscular Development\"\n\nBULLET::::- September 1994 – \"Muscular Development\"\n\nBULLET::::- November 1994 – \"Women's Physique World\"\n\nBULLET::::- January 1998 – \"Muscular Development\"\n\nSection::::References.\n", "Depending upon the treatment required, it is sometimes most appropriate to wait until later in life for a surgical remedy – the childhood growth of the face may highlight or increase the symptoms. When surgery is required, particularly when there is a severe disfiguration of the jaw, it is common to use a rib graft to help correct the shape.\n", "BULLET::::1. Dental Model Analyses - Study models for analysis can be made by taking dental impressions, or by 3D intra-oral scanning. They allow for the appraisal of shape and size of jaws and teeth. This can be valuable for the long-term evaluation of development and for the follow up of treatment results. Depending on the type of jaw abnormality, a face bow record for transfer on to the articulator, can sometimes be appropriate for the patient.\n", "After adolescence, some men and women use bodybuilding as a means to hide their malformation. Some women find that their breasts, if large enough, serve the same purpose. Some plastic surgeons perform breast augmentation to disguise mild to moderate cases in women. Bodybuilding is suggested for people with symmetrical pectus carinatum.\n\nSection::::Prognosis.\n\nPectus malformations usually become more severe during adolescent growth years and may worsen throughout adult life. The secondary effects, such as scoliosis and cardiovascular and pulmonary conditions, may worsen with advancing age.\n", "Generally wisdom teeth are stated as erupting most commonly between age 17 and 21. Eruption may start as early as age 13 in some groups. Sometimes they can erupt up to age 25. If they have not erupted by age 25, oral surgeons generally consider that the tooth will not erupt spontaneously by itself.\n\nSection::::Function.\n", "2. Acromegaly, an endocrine disease, can present with enlargement of bones with growth potential such as the mandible, thickened soft tissues and facial features and spade-like hands \n\nBULLET::::- Macrogenia or Microgenia\n\nMacrogenia and microgenia occur when there is a normal skeletal relationship but the chin, skeletal and soft tissue components, failed to develop in proportion to the skeletal base, resulting in marked protrusive (macrogenia) or retrusive (microgenia) facial profile. Microgenia can be presented when there is inadequate bone depth at the apex of lower anteriors or the base of mandible and vice versa.\n\nSection::::Classification.:Position.\n\nBULLET::::- Transverse\n", "Many dog breeds have underbite, particularly those with short faces, like shih tzus and boxers. This too might be due, as in the case of bulldogs, to severe inbreeding.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nPrior to the development of modern dentistry, there was no treatment for this condition: those who had it simply endured the condition. Today, the most common treatment for mandibular prognathism is a combination of orthodontics and orthognathic surgery. The orthodontics can involve braces, removal of teeth, or a mouthguard. None of this, however, removes the predisposing genetic condition.\n", "The skeletal features and growth patterns associated with hypodontia are unknown although there is some evidence to suggest that the cranio-facial features of individuals with missing teeth are different from those with a full natural dentition. Patients with hypodontia commonly present with a smaller lower anterior face height and lip protrusion which are linked with lower mandibular plane angles. Smaller lengths of maxilla and mandible and a Class III skeletal base are also associated with hypodontia. The tendency of the patient to have these skeletal effects becomes more significant as the severity of agenesis increases, especially when more than one type of tooth is missing. Patients may appear over-closed due to the short face height and large freeway space associated with hypodontia.\n", "Section::::Bodybuilding career.:Professional career.:1984-2000.\n", "Section::::L.\n\nBULLET::::- Lee Labrada\n\nBULLET::::- Jack LaLanne\n\nBULLET::::- Kevin Levrone \"Maryland Muscle Machine\"\n\nBULLET::::- Flex Lewis\n\nBULLET::::- Aaron Links\n\nBULLET::::- Anibal Lopez\n\nBULLET::::- Dan Lurie, AAU Mr. America \"America's Most Muscular Man\" 1942-1946\n\nSection::::M.\n\nBULLET::::- Víctor Martínez, Dominican bodybuilder\n\nBULLET::::- Mike Matarazzo\n\nBULLET::::- Earl Maynard\n\nBULLET::::- Frank McGrath aka \"Bryn\"\n\nBULLET::::- Tim McGuire\n\nBULLET::::- Stan McQuay\n\nBULLET::::- Mike Mentzer, \"Mister Heavy Duty\"\n\nBULLET::::- Ray Mentzer, brother of Mike Mentzer\n\nBULLET::::- Mustafa Mohammad\n\nBULLET::::- Andreas Münzer\n\nSection::::N.\n\nBULLET::::- Kodi Ramamurthy Naidu\n\nBULLET::::- Jamo Nezzar\n\nBULLET::::- Konstantin Nerchenko\n\nBULLET::::- Serge Nubret\n\nBULLET::::- Tony Nicholson\n\nSection::::O.\n\nBULLET::::- Sergei Ogorodnikov\n", "BULLET::::- Earle Reynolds cited in Garn, Stanley M., Growth Research in Medicine: Presented at the Symposium on Medical Anthropology, Thirty-first Annual Meeting of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists, 1962, page 1: \"With the Grenlich-Pyle Radiographic Atlas of Skeletal Development ('59), Earle Reynolds' standards for sexual maturation (Reynolds and Wines, '48, '51) . . .we surely cover the normative front.\"\n", "It includes assessment of tooth mass, arch form, arch length, skeletal pattern, skeletal growth potential, orofacial musculature, facial aesthetics, oral habits and hereditary assessment of parents and siblings.\n\nThe most favorable morphologic factors for serial extraction include class 1 malocclusion, a favorable morphogenetic pattern – one that does not change, a flush terminal plane or a mesial step relationship of the primary second molars, minimum overjet and minimum overbite.\n\nSection::::Assessments to be made before contemplation of serial extraction.:Space analysis.\n", "Assessing a patient for vertical and horizontal excess:\n", "More specifically, patients with the autosomal dominant pure form of HSP reveal normal facial and extraocular movement. Although jaw jerk may be brisk in older subjects, there is no speech disturbance or difficulty of swallowing. Upper extremity muscle tone and strength are normal. In the lower extremities, muscle tone is increased at the hamstrings, quadriceps and ankles. Weakness is most notable at the iliopsoas, tibialis anterior, and to a lesser extent, hamstring muscles.\n", "BULLET::::- Class III: Upper jaw lies less than 2mm in front of the lower jaw, or in more severe cases, the lower jaw may be in front of the upper jaw.\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Classification.\n\nOsteonecrosis of the jaw is classified based on severity, number of lesions, and lesion size. Osteonecrosis of greater severity is given a higher grade, with asymptomatic ONJ designated as grade 1 and severe ONJ as grade 4.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "Section::::Open bite correction.:Permanent dentition.\n\nCorrection of open bite in permanent dentition may involve extrusion of the anterior teeth or intrusion of the posterior teeth. This decision depends on the incisor show on smiling for a patient. If a patient has normal incisor show at rest smile, than molar intrusion may be done in these type of faces. Extrusion of anterior teeth in these patients will lead to excessive gummy smile which in some cases is not desirable. If a patient does not have a normal incisor show at rest and smile, then anterior extrusion may be done in these patients.\n", "Common symptoms include haematoma, infection, asymmetry, over- or under-correction of the mandibular bone, sensory deficit. Excluding asymmetry and over- or under-correction, the other symptoms dissipate within three to six months post-surgery. Individuals with abundant soft tissue or thick skin may consider an additional lifting procedure done simultaneously with the jaw reduction surgery, as there is a high possibility of sagging soft tissue. Age and skin elasticity level also determines whether a lifting procedure is required.\n\nSection::::Non-surgical method.\n\nSection::::Non-surgical method.:Botox injection.\n", "Under ischaemic conditions numerous pathological changes in the bone marrow and trabeculae of oral cancellous bone have been documented. Microscopically, areas of \"\"apparent fatty degeneration and/or necrosis, often with pooled fat from destroyed adipose cells (oil cysts) and with marrow fibrosis (reticular fatty degeneration)\"\" are seen. These changes are present even if \"\"most bony trabeculae appear at first glance viable, mature and otherwise normal, but closer inspection demonstrates focal loss of osteocytes and variable micro cracking (splitting along natural cleavage planes). The microscopic features are similar to those of ischaemic or aseptic osteonecrosis of long bones, corticosteroid-induced osteonecrosis, and the osteomyelitis of caisson (deep-sea diver's) disease\"\".\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Jaw development for all men ceases in the mid-twenties." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Growth hormones taken by bodybuilders can trigger growth in the jaw." ]
2018-01271	In the world of medicine, how can we possibly know how drugs interact with our body so precisely, often times down to the type of cells, receptors, etc they target?	Drugs are developed specifically to target one or a few receptors, enzymes or other targets. The first experimental step in developing a new drug is testing different candidates just with your target in a test tube, and finding effective candidates. You also test it with targets related to your target and other common drug targets. Then you move up to cells in culture, then small animals, then humans. Every step is designed to weed out those compounds with “offtarget effects”, trying to get the most selective compound as possible. An obvious red flag is if the cells/animals/humans die or exhibit bad side effects, but also lots of clever bioassays go into discerning whether or not you’re only hitting the target. It’s also a lot more complicated when you put a drug candidate in such a complex system as an animal or human, so you do things like metabolite analysis to see how fast the drug is cleared and what your body does to it. These are also good clues about how the drug is working. Edit for clarification - So in summary, you start with a nice selective binder in a test tube, then test its efficacy, adverse effects and drug metabolism in complex organisms. It’s a lot easier to find compounds that hit your target selectively in a test tube, than to find compounds that actually work as orally-available drugs in people or animals. This is why most drugs fail, either because of poor absorption and metabolic profiles, or because of off target and adverse side effects. The human body is so complex that we still don’t know most of what’s going on, we just have educated guesses.	[ "The study of chemicals requires intimate knowledge of the biological system affected. With the knowledge of cell biology and biochemistry increasing, the field of pharmacology has also changed substantially. It has become possible, through molecular analysis of receptors, to design chemicals that act on specific cellular signaling or metabolic pathways by affecting sites directly on cell-surface receptors (which modulate and mediate cellular signaling pathways controlling cellular function).\n", "The change in an organism's response upon administration of a drug is an important factor in pharmacodynamic interactions. These changes are extraordinarily difficult to classify given the wide variety of modes of action that exist, and the fact that many drugs can cause their effect through a number of different mechanisms. This wide diversity also means that, in all but the most obvious cases it is important to investigate, and understand these mechanisms. The well-founded suspicion exists that there are more unknown interactions than known ones.\n\nPharmacodynamic interactions can occur on:\n", "The integration of knowledge concerning the molecular and cellular actions of a drug within the brain circuitry leads to an overall understanding of a neurological drug's action mechanisms. This understanding of drug action in turn can be extrapolated to account for system-wide or clinical manifestations which are observed as symptoms. The clinical effects of a neural drug are due to both immediate changes in homeostasis and long-term neural adaptations characterized by the phenomena neural plasticity.\n", "The process of finding a new drug against a chosen target for a particular disease usually involves high-throughput screening (HTS), wherein large libraries of chemicals are tested for their ability to modify the target. For example, if the target is a novel GPCR, compounds will be screened for their ability to inhibit or stimulate that receptor (see antagonist and agonist): if the target is a protein kinase, the chemicals will be tested for their ability to inhibit that kinase.\n", "classical pharmacology. Since sequencing of the human genome which allowed rapid cloning and synthesis of large quantities of purified proteins, it has become common practice to use high throughput screening of large compounds libraries against isolated biological targets which are hypothesized to be disease modifying in a process known as reverse pharmacology. Hits from these screens are then tested in cells and then in animals for efficacy. Even more recently, scientists have been able to understand the shape of biological molecules at the atomic level, and to use that knowledge to design (see drug design) drug candidates.\n", "Bioanalytical methods are necessary to construct a concentration-time profile. Chemical techniques are employed to measure the concentration of drugs in biological matrix, most often plasma. Proper bioanalytical methods should be selective and sensitive. For example, microscale thermophoresis can be used to quantify how the biological matrix/liquid affects the affinity of a drug to its target.\n\nSection::::Analysis.:Mass spectrometry.\n", "This relies on the availability of experimentally determined 3D structures or high quality homology models. A number of methods exist for this assessment of druggability but all of them consist of three main components:\n\nBULLET::::1. Identifying cavities or pockets on the structure\n\nBULLET::::2. Calculating physicochemical and geometric properties of the pocket\n\nBULLET::::3. Assessing how these properties fit a training set of known druggable targets, typically using machine learning algorithms\n", "Around that same time, major development and growth in biology began. Information started to pile up on biological substrates and drug movements as soon as new techniques and concepts arose. During the last half-century, many new and some old drug groups were introduced. There has been even more rapid growth in even the last three decades, with understanding the bases of drug action at a molecular level. This new information has helped to identify the molecular mechanisms of many dugs and separate receptors and clone them. These methods aided in the many discoveries dealing with receptors.\n", "Another approach that's been investigated recently is dosing on a molecular level, either through conventional delivery systems, nanoparticle delivery, light-triggered delivery, or other less known/used methods. By combining these drugs with a system that detects the concentration of drug particles in the blood, proper dosing could be achieved for each individual patient. Research in this field was initiated with monitoring of small-molecule cocaine levels in undiluted blood serum with electrochemical aptamer-based sensing. DNA aptamers, which are peptides that have with specific target molecules that they search for, fold in response to the molecule when they find it, and this technology was used in a microfluidic detection system to create an electrochemical signal that physicians can read. Researchers tested it on cocaine detection and found that it successfully found trace amounts of cocaine in blood.\n", "Many aspects of drug development focus on satisfying the regulatory requirements of drug licensing authorities. These generally constitute a number of tests designed to determine the major toxicities of a novel compound prior to first use in humans. It is a legal requirement that an assessment of major organ toxicity be performed (effects on the heart and lungs, brain, kidney, liver and digestive system), as well as effects on other parts of the body that might be affected by the drug (e.g., the skin if the new drug is to be delivered through the skin). Increasingly, these tests are made using \"in vitro\" methods (e.g., with isolated cells), but many tests can only be made by using experimental animals to demonstrate the complex interplay of metabolism and drug exposure on toxicity.\n", "Discovery is the identification of novel active chemical compounds, often called \"hits\", which are typically found by assay of compounds for a desired biological activity. Initial hits can come from repurposing existing agents toward a new pathologic processes, and from observations of biologic effects of new or existing natural products from bacteria, fungi, plants, etc. In addition, hits also routinely originate from structural observations of small molecule \"fragments\" bound to therapeutic targets (enzymes, receptors, etc.), where the fragments serve as starting points to develop more chemically complex forms by synthesis. Finally, hits also regularly originate from \"en-masse\" testing of chemical compounds against biological targets, where the compounds may be from novel synthetic chemical libraries known to have particular properties (kinase inhibitory activity, diversity or drug-likeness, etc.), or from historic chemical compound collections or libraries created through combinatorial chemistry. While a number of approaches toward the identification and development of hits exist, the most successful techniques are based on chemical and biological intuition developed in team environments through years of rigorous practice aimed solely at discovering new therapeutic agents.\n", "A typical protocol to isolate a pure chemical agent from natural origin is bioassay-guided fractionation, meaning step-by-step separation of extracted components based on differences in their physicochemical properties, and assessing the biological activity, followed by next round of separation and assaying. Typically, such work is initiated after a given crude drug formulation (typically prepared by solvent extraction of the natural material) is deemed \"active\" in a particular \"in vitro\" assay. If the end-goal of the work at hand is to identify which one(s) of the scores or hundreds of compounds are responsible for the observed \"in vitro\" activity, the path to that end is fairly straightforward:\n", "Once the receptors are activated, they either trigger a particular response directly on the body, or they trigger the release of hormones and/or other endogenous drugs in the body to stimulate a particular response.\n\nSection::::Short note on receptors.\n\nDrugs interact with receptors by bonding at specific binding sites. Most receptors are made up of proteins, and the drugs can therefore interact with the amino acids to change the conformation of the receptor proteins.\n\nThese interactions are very basic, just like that of other chemical bondings:\n\nSection::::Short note on receptors.:Ionic bonds.\n", "BULLET::::- In the case of anti-infective drug development, the information permits anticipation of problems relating to clinical safety. Drugs disrupting the cytoplasmic membrane or electron transport chain, for example, are more likely to cause toxicity problems than those targeting components of the cell wall (peptidoglycan or β-glucans) or 70S ribosome, structures which are absent in human cells.\n\nBULLET::::- By knowing the interaction between a certain site of a drug and a receptor, other drugs can be formulated in a way that replicates this interaction, thus producing the same therapeutic effects. Indeed, this method is used to create new drugs.\n", "BULLET::::1. To date, microdialysis is the only in vivo sampling technique that can continuously monitor drug or metabolite concentrations in the extracellular fluid of virtually any tissue. Depending on the exact application, analyte concentrations can be monitored over several hours, days, or even weeks. Free, unbound extracellular tissue concentrations are in many cases of particular interest as they resemble pharmacologically active concentrations at or close to the site of action. Combination of microdialysis with modern imaging techniques, such positron emission tomography, further allow for determination of intracellular concentrations.\n", "Pharmacokinetic modelling is performed by noncompartmental or compartmental methods. Noncompartmental methods estimate the exposure to a drug by estimating the area under the curve of a concentration-time graph. Compartmental methods estimate the concentration-time graph using kinetic models. Noncompartmental methods are often more versatile in that they do not assume any specific compartmental model and produce accurate results also acceptable for bioequivalence studies.\n", "classical pharmacology. After sequencing of the human genome allowed rapid cloning and synthesis of large quantities of purified proteins, it has become common practice to use high throughput screening of large compounds libraries against isolated biological targets which are hypothesized to be disease-modifying in a process known as reverse pharmacology. Hits from these screens are then tested in cells and then in animals for efficacy.\n", "Each of the phases is subject to physico-chemical interactions between a drug and an organism, which can be expressed mathematically. Pharmacokinetics is therefore based on mathematical equations that allow the prediction of a drug's behavior and which place great emphasis on the relationships between drug plasma concentrations and the time elapsed since the drug's administration.\n\nSection::::Analysis.\n\nSection::::Analysis.:Bioanalytical methods.\n", "BULLET::::1. Select a training set of ligands – Choose a structurally diverse set of molecules that will be used for developing the pharmacophore model. As a pharmacophore model should be able to discriminate between molecules with and without bioactivity, the set of molecules should include both active and inactive compounds.\n\nBULLET::::2. Conformational analysis – Generate a set of low energy conformations that is likely to contain the bioactive conformation for each of the selected molecules.\n", "However, these models do not always truly reflect the real situation within an organism. For example, not all body tissues have the same blood supply, so the distribution of the drug will be slower in these tissues than in others with a better blood supply. In addition, there are some tissues (such as the brain tissue) that present a real barrier to the distribution of drugs, that can be breached with greater or lesser ease depending on the drug's characteristics. If these relative conditions for the different tissue types are considered along with the rate of elimination, the organism can be considered to be acting like two compartments: one that we can call the \"central compartment\" that has a more rapid distribution, comprising organs and systems with a well-developed blood supply; and a \"peripheral compartment\" made up of organs with a lower blood flow. Other tissues, such as the brain, can occupy a variable position depending on a drug's ability to cross the barrier that separates the organ from the blood supply.\n", "Another important function of HTS is to show how selective the compounds are for the chosen target, as one wants to find a molecule which will interfere with only the chosen target, but not other, related targets. To this end, other screening runs will be made to see whether the \"hits\" against the chosen target will interfere with other related targets – this is the process of cross-screening. Cross-screening is important, because the more unrelated targets a compound hits, the more likely that off-target toxicity will occur with that compound once it reaches the clinic.\n", "Historically, drugs were discovered through identifying the active ingredient from traditional remedies or by serendipitous discovery. Later chemical libraries of synthetic small molecules, natural products or extracts were screened in intact cells or whole organisms to identify substances that have a desirable therapeutic effect in a process known as\n", "A BERA sensor has two parts:\n\nBULLET::::- The consumable biorecognition elements\n\nBULLET::::- The electronic read-out device with embedded artificial intelligence.\n\nA recent advance is the development of a technique called molecular identification through membrane engineering (MIME). This technique allows for building cells with defined specificity for virtually any molecule of interest, by embedding thousands of artificial receptors into the cell membrane.\n\nSection::::Other methods.:Computational electrophysiology.\n", "As a way to explain how medications work, pharmaceutical manufacturers may provide mechanism of action animations, often through websites dedicated to specific prescription drugs. These medical visualizations typically do not represent cellular structures in a fully accurate or proportional way. Instead, mechanism of action animations may visually simplify the interaction between drug molecules and cells. These medical animations may also explain the physiological origins of the disease itself.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Emergency care instruction.\n", "Pharmacokinetics is often studied using mass spectrometry because of the complex nature of the matrix (often plasma or urine) and the need for high sensitivity to observe concentrations after a low dose and a long time period. The most common instrumentation used in this application is LC-MS with a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer. Tandem mass spectrometry is usually employed for added specificity. Standard curves and internal standards are used for quantitation of usually a single pharmaceutical in the samples. The samples represent different time points as a pharmaceutical is administered and then metabolized or cleared from the body. Blank samples taken before administration are important in determining background and ensuring data integrity with such complex sample matrices. Much attention is paid to the linearity of the standard curve; however it is common to use curve fitting with more complex functions such as quadratics since the response of most mass spectrometers is not linear across large concentration ranges.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-06210	how is pornhub able to stay up when most of it's content is pirated material	If it's user-submitted content, then DMCAs can be handled with a little foot-dragging if they're even submitted at all. Of course, they could also simply get permission to use the clips. Maybe that's how Pornhub is able to 'stay up'. Giggity.	[ "In 2010, Mansef Inc. and Interhub, the then-owners of Pornhub, were sued by the copyright holding company of the pornographic film production company Pink Visual, Ventura Content, for the copyright infringement of 95 videos on websites, including Pornhub, Keezmovies, Extremetube, and Tube8. According to Ventura Content, the 45 videos were streamed \"tens of millions of times\" and they claimed the piracy threatened the \"entire adult entertainment industry\". The suit was settled in October 2010, with terms that remain confidential. The parties agreed that the site operators would implement digital fingerprint filtering on their sites. Porn 2.0 sites such as these are seen as posing notable competition for paid pornographic websites and traditional magazine and DVD-based pornography.\n", "The website allows visitors to view pornographic videos from a number of categories, including professional and amateur pornography. Users can take advantage of several features, including sharing videos on social media websites and liking or disliking them. Users may also optionally register a free Pornhub account, which additionally allows them to post comments, download videos and add videos to their favourites, as well as upload videos themselves. To combat the proliferation of illegal content, users are encouraged to flag videos they deem inappropriate, which are immediately reviewed by the Pornhub team and removed if they violate the website's terms of service. However, a significant amount of the porn on Pornhub continues to be pirated content.\n", "Section::::History.:Censorship.\n\nIn 2011, European broadband provider TalkTalk (formerly Tiscali) received some criticism because its internet filter failed to block Pornhub, for over a week. This was due to the issue of child internet safety.\n", "As of 2009, three of the largest pornographic sites \"RedTube, YouPorn and PornHub -- collectively make up 100 million unique visitors\". In 2014, Pornhub told its viewers to stop uploading footage from Brazil's defeat to Germany at the 2014 FIFA World Cup with sexual innuendo titles.\n", "In June 2015, Pornhub announced that it was going to make a pornographic film featuring real-life sex in space, named \"Sexplorations\". The site hoped to launch the mission and shoot the movie in 2016, covering the pre- and post-production costs itself but seeking $3.4 million from IndieGogo crowdfunders. If funded, the film would have been slated for a 2016 release, following six months of training for the two performers and six-person crew\n\nOn 1 February 2016, Pornhub launched an online casino, powered by Betsoft, Endorphina and 1x2 gaming software.\n", "Pornhub was founded by web developer Matt Keezer as a website within the company Interhub, and launched on 25 May 2007. In March 2010, the company was purchased by Fabian Thylmann as part of the Manwin conglomerate, now known as MindGeek. As part of MindGeek, Pornhub makes up one of several pornographic websites in the company's \"Pornhub NETWORK\", alongside YouPorn, RedTube and the like. Though not the most popular pornographic website, Pornhub is the single largest such website on the internet, hosting more videos than any similar site.\n", "In October 2018, the Uttarakhand High Court reinstated a ban on Pornhub in India, mandating ISP blocks. In order to circumvent the ban, Pornhub established a mirror website at Pornhub.net.\n\nSection::::Malvertising.\n\nResearcher Conrad Longmore claims that advertisements displayed by the sites were found to contain malware programs, which install harmful files on users' machines without their permission. Longmore told the BBC that two popular sites – XHamster and Pornhub – pose the greatest threat.\n\nSection::::Philanthropy.\n", "Section::::In popular culture.\n\nPornhub makes a prominent appearance in many scenes of the 2013 romantic comedy film \"Don Jon\". Pornhub Vice President Cory Price explained that one of the film's producers approached the company in March 2012, seeking permission to use the Pornhub brand. Price reviewed the movie's script and granted them permission, going as far as helping them find clips to use in the movie from their content partners (e.g. Brazzers, Mofos, Digital Playground, and Twistys). Joseph Gordon-Levitt, director and actor in the film, edited the clips together into rapid-fire montages, also featured prominently in the film.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "In an effort to introduce quality curation to the site, the company launched a service called \"Pornhub Select\" in October 2013. Pornhub also launched a content curation website on 9 October 2013 called \"PornIQ\", which uses an algorithm to create personalized video playlists for the viewer based on a number of factors, including their porn preferences, the time of day they're visiting the website, what part of the world they live in and the amount of time the viewer has to watch the video(s). David Holmes of PandoDaily noted that Pornhub's data-intensive approach to playlists set it apart from previous attempts at user-generated playlists, and marked a new trend in the switch from content searching to passive curation among Web 2.0 websites.\n", "\"The Huffington Post\" explains that in 2013, \"CBS...refused to air a short commercial for adult-themed site Pornhub during the Super Bowl on Sunday...The 20-second spot, which features an older couple sitting on a park bench (that's really all that happens), includes no explicit content\". It was rejected because the Federal Communications Commission could hold CBS liable for endorsing pornographic content, as it is illegal to air pornography on US television.\n\nThe website was blocked by the Great Firewall in China from September 2013.\n", "In honour of Arbour Day 2014, Pornhub launched a weeklong environmental campaign called \"Pornhub Gives America Wood\", which started on 25 April 2014 and ended on 2 May 2014. In a similar manner to the website's previous \"Save the Boobs!\" campaign, Pornhub offered to plant a single tree for every 100 videos viewed in the site's \"big dick\" category. In total, approximately 1,547,300 video views were counted, which resulted in 15,473 trees to be planted. After the campaign ended on 2 May 2014, Pornhub's PR director stated that they were considering working with one of three environmental organizations to help them plant the trees.\n", "By 2006 Video Island/ScreenSelect had outgrown Lovefilm, with over 200,000 customers against Lovefilm's 100,000 users. In April 2006, led by Simon Calver Lovefilm and Screenselect merged using ScreenSelect's management and technology platform, but with the Lovefilm brand, and moved the headquarters to Acton – ScreenSelect's original base. By the end of 2006 the Lovefilm brand had replaced ScreenSelect, Brafilm and Boxman everywhere except Norway – which followed in 2008.\n\nIn February 2008, Lovefilm acquired Amazon's DVD rental business in the UK and German markets, and in return Amazon became the largest shareholder of Lovefilm.\n", "In March 2017, it was reported that Ted Osius, then United States Ambassador to Vietnam, held a meeting with Truong Minh Tuan, Vietnam's Minister of Information and Communications, during which Osius urged for the criminal prosecution of Putlocker, along with the websites 123Movies and KissCartoon, for copyright infringement.\n", "On 12 March 2014, Pornhub was blocked in Russia because one actress looked too young, leading some viewers to think she was a minor.\n\nIn January 2017, Pornhub was among the pornographic websites that were blocked in the Philippines in adherence to the Anti-Child Pornography Law.\n\nThe site was blocked in September 2016 in Russia due to \"spreading harmful information to children\", and reinstated in April 2017 after specifying the age of users. The site requires Russian users to provide their cellphone numbers or passports to log in.\n", "Roskomnadzor, the Russian government's media overseer, has the power to order the blocking of pornographic websites. In 2015, the agency ordered the blocking of the Russian-language version of Pornhub and 10 other pornographic sites on the basis of a court ruling. In early 2015, the Roskomnadzor has blocked over 100 pornography sites, making it difficult to view in Russia. Two more websites PornHub and YouPorn were blocked in Russia in September 2016. PornHub was unblocked in 2017.\n\nSection::::Internet pornography laws in various countries.:India.\n\nBULLET::::- The watching or possessing pornographic material is illegal in India under section 292.\n", "Pornhub offers 360° videos for their premium customers and can be used with the PlayStation VR.\n\nSection::::Products.:Wearable device.\n\nIn February 2015, PornHub announced an upcoming wristband equipped with a kinetic energy electric generator. Aimed primarily at men, the wristband would use the up and down motion of masturbation to charge consumer electronics.\n\nSection::::Products.:Awards.\n\nThe inaugural Pornhub was held on 6 September 2018 at the Belasco Theater in Los Angeles. Kanye West was creative director. At the event, West debuted the music video for his song, \"I Love It\".\n\nSection::::Products.:VPN.\n\nIn May 2018, Pornhub launched its own VPN service called VPNHub.\n", "acted in concert.'\" The court stated that if one swarm of users disseminates a low-quality version of a video, and a second swarm a high-quality version, the two cases cannot be joined as they participated in two separate crimes. The court therefore ordered on July 8 that Pacific Century's claims against Does 2-101 be dismissed for improper joinder, while allowing the subpoena for Doe 1 to move forward.\n", "Pornhub\n\nPornhub is a Canadian pornographic video sharing and pornography site on the Internet. It was launched in Montreal, providing professional and amateur pornography since 2007. Pornhub also has offices and servers in San Francisco, Houston, New Orleans and London. In March 2010, the company was bought by Manwin (now known as MindGeek), which owns numerous other pornographic websites.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Internet pornography laws in various countries.:Philippines.\n\nSince January 14, 2017, several pornography sites including Pornhub and XVideos has been blocked in the Philippines by President Rodrigo Duterte as part of the Republic Act 9775 or the Anti-Child Pornography Law, but still can be accessed depending on the ISP.\n\nSection::::Internet pornography laws in various countries.:Russia.\n", "Doğuş Group previously launched a similar service called \"Sipru\" in 2007. \"Sipru TV\" has been shut down a few years later, however \"Sipru RD\" for radio service is still available as an iOS application.\n\nSection::::Competitors.\n\nAfter the web site launched, similar services followed. Doğan Media Group opened netd about one month after. Also, Apple iTunes Store opened for Turkey in December 4, 2012 only for music and films. TTNET also has a similar subscription-based service, Tivibu.\n", "operator, including using Cloudflare, but there is strong reason to believe the operator is still in Vietnam; content is uploaded using cyberlockers from numerous email accounts originating from Can Tho University of Medicine and Pharmacy\".\n\nIn March 2018, the MPAA said that the site was the \"most popular illegal download site in the world\", and was operated from Vietnam and estimated that it had 98 million visitors per month. On 19 March 2018, a note on the site's home page announced its shut-down, and urged users to \"respect filmmakers by paying for movies and TV-shows\".\n\nSection::::Reappearance.\n", "As of 2009, three of the largest porn sites \"RedTube, YouPorn and Pornhub — collectively only make up 100 million unique visitors\". MindGeek has since acquired all three sites.\n\nSection::::History.:Cease and desist case in Germany.\n", "On May 18th, 2007, Anime News Network reported that the police in Poland and Germany seized the fansubbing site Napisy.org arrested at least 9 people related to it. These raids were orchestrated by the Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry (ZPAV), a collective rights organisation, and German authorities shut the site which was hosted on servers in that jurisdiction. In May of 2013, that case was closed, as prosecutors decided to drop the charges due to the charged individuals' ignorance of the unlawfulness of their actions. The site Napisy.org is currently closed and it shows sites to watch legal content.\n", "Trilulilu is one of the most visited websites in Romania. The site has over 2.2 million unique visitors per month and 7 million overall visitors per month. The total number of registered users tops 500,000 and user related video uploads amount to over 23,000 hours of content. \n\nTrilulilu.ro was placed as eighth in the top 10 most visited websites by Romanians at the end of 2008 and second in the top 10 most visited websites from Romania in 2009, reaching the first position in July and August 2009.\n", "Data suggests an increase in pornography viewing over the past few decades, and this has been attributed to the growth of Internet pornography since widespread public access to the World Wide Web in the late 1990s. Through the 2010s, many pornographic production companies and top pornographic websites – such as PornHub, RedTube and YouPorn – were acquired by MindGeek, which has been described as \"a monopoly\".\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00576	Why do some fabrics get softer when they're washed a lot, while others get rougher?	It depends on the textile. With wearing and use, some materials relax and become softer and looser because the thread is bent, pulled, and twisted through mechanical motion, much the way that crumpling a sheet of notebook paper over and over makes it very soft. Wearing the clothes often contributes more to this than the washing by itself. However other materials may contain oils, waxes, and other materials naturally present in the fiber such as lanolin. Washing, and especially bleaching, removes these soft, greasy, fatty substances which can make the fibers dry, scratchy, or cause them to begin to fray or lose their water proofness. The primary purpose of fabric softeners, is to help replenish these substances, but it's always a downhill battle short of soaking the clothing in lard or oil. Lastly, some synthetic cloth can become brittle with use, similar to the way that bending a plastic spoon back and forth in the same spot will cause it to snap. The fabric begins to get creases and folds in it that don't come out with ironing. They don't exactly get scratchy, but they become stiff like folded paper, and don't bend and take the shape of the body as well. As fibers wear and break and tear, it has an effect of reducing thread count. Thread count is the number one thing for comfort up close to the skin, with higher thread count cloth feeling softer and silky versus lower but thicker thread count like a knitted sweater which can feel rough.	[ "Machine washing puts great mechanical stress on textiles, particularly natural fibers such as cotton and wool. The fibers at the fabric surface are squashed and frayed, and this condition hardens while drying the laundry in air, giving the laundry a harsh feel. Adding a liquid fabric softener to the final rinse (rinse-cycle softener) results in laundry that feels softer.\n", "An important and oldest textile finishing is brushing or raising. Using this process a wide variety of fabrics including blankets, flannelettes and industrial fabrics can be produced. The process of raising consists of lifting from the body of the fabric a layer of fibers which stands out from the surface which is termed as \"pile\". The formation of pile on a fabric results in a \"lofty\" handle and may also subdue the weave or pattern and color of the cloth.\n", "Sheer fabrics are seldom made with a twill weave. Because a twill surface already has interesting texture and design, printed twills (where a design is printed on the cloth) are much less common than printed plain weaves. When twills are printed, this is typically done on lightweight fabrics. \n\nSoiling and stains are less noticeable on the uneven surface of twills than on a smooth surface, such as plain weaves, and as a result twills are often used for sturdy work clothing and for durable upholstery. Denim, for example, is a twill.\n", "BULLET::::- formula_3 = formula_4th objective measurement\n\nBULLET::::- formula_5 = mean value of the formula_4th objective measurement or its logarithm\n\nBULLET::::- formula_7 = standard deviation of the formula_4th objective measurement or its logarithm\n\nBULLET::::- formula_9 = the constant\n\nBULLET::::- formula_10 = the coefficient\n\nSection::::Evaluation.:Results.\n\nThe conclusion of the study illustrates that thicker fabrics, such as Melton, showed higher ∆f than thinner ones. Thinner fabrics, such as tropical wool, which are resistant to shearing showed the lowest values for loudness and the highest for ∆L. Most wool is perceived as loud but tropical wool, however, is perceived as clear and pleasant.\n", "In preparation for calendering, the fabric is folded lengthwise with the front side, or face, inside, and stitched together along the edges. The fabric can be folded together at full width, however this is not done as often as it is more difficult. The fabric is then run through rollers that polish the surface and make the fabric smoother and more lustrous. High temperatures and pressure are used as well. Fabrics that go through the calendering process feel thin, glossy and papery.\n", "BULLET::::- Anti-pilling finish alleviates pilling, an unpleasant phenomenon associated with spun yarn fabrics, especially when they contain synthetics. Synthetic fibers are more readily brought to the surface of a fabric due to their smooth surface and circular cross-section, and due to their higher tensile strength and abrasion resistance. With knit \"picking\" also occurs: by abrasion, individual fibers work themselves out of yarn loops onto the surface, and the garment catches on a pointed or rough object. Knitting is susceptible to these effects due to the open weave and bulky yarn.\n", "BULLET::::- Has a better drape than heat set netting or Tetex\n\nSection::::Materials and Techniques.:Silk Crepeline.\n\nSilk crepeline is less sheer than nylon netting and is also susceptible to reactions to light, but may be used as an overlay technique as well as for patching specific areas and can be easily dyed. Because it can fray, the edges need to be hemmed, which can create less sheer areas.\n\nSection::::Materials and Techniques.:Polyester Tetex (Stabiltex).\n", "Wrinkle-resistant fabric\n\nWrinkle-resistant fabrics are textiles that have been treated to resist external stress and hold their shape. Clothing made from this fabric does not need to be ironed and may be sold as non-iron clothing. While fabric cleaning and maintenance may be simplified, some wearers experience decreased comfort.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nWrinkle-resistant finishes were developed in the early 20th century, as to deal with fabrics derived from cotton, rayon, and linen, which were found to wrinkle easily and retain them.\n", "Since the 1990s, with advances in technologies such as permanent press process, finishing agents have been used to strengthen fabrics and make them wrinkle free. More recently, nanomaterials research has led to additional advancements, with companies such as Nano-Tex and NanoHorizons developing permanent treatments based on metallic nanoparticles for making textiles more resistant to things such as water, stains, wrinkles, and pathogens such as bacteria and fungi.\n", "Broader terms, such as \"fine\" may be applied, either because the overall yarn is fine or because fibers within this yarn are thin. A 75-denier yarn is considered fine even if it contains only a few fibers, such as thirty 2.5-denier fibers; but a heavier yarn, such as 150 denier, is considered fine only if its fibers are individually as thin as one denier.\n\nThe following relationship applies to straight, uniform filaments:\n\nThe denier system of measurement is used on two- and single-filament fibers. Some common calculations are as follows:\n", "Woven fabric\n\nWoven fabric is any textile formed by weaving. Woven fabrics are often created on a loom, and made of many threads woven on a warp and a weft. Technically, a woven fabric is any fabric made by interlacing two or more threads at right angles to one another.\n\nSection::::Qualities.\n\nWoven fabric only stretches diagonally on the bias directions (between the warp and weft directions), unless the threads used are elastic. Woven fabric cloth usually frays at the edges, unless techniques are used to counter it, such as the use of pinking shears or hemming.\n", "All fabrics pill to some extent, although fibers such as linen and silk pill less than most. The primary drivers of pilling are the physical characteristics of the textile (including both the initial fibre, and the way in which it is processed during manufacturing), the personal habits of the textile's wearer, and the environment in which the textile is used. Fibers such as wool, cotton, polyester, nylon and acrylic have a tendency to pill the most, but wool pilling diminishes over time as non-tenacious wool fibers work themselves free of the fabric and break away, whereas pilling of synthetic textiles is a more serious problem, because the stronger fibers hold on to the pills preventing them from falling off.\n", "In order to impart the required functional properties to the fiber or fabric, it is customary to subject the material to different types of physical and chemical treatments. For example, wash and wear finish for a cotton fabric is necessary to make it crease-free or wrinkle-free. In a similar way, mercerising, singeing, flame retardant, water repellent, waterproof, anti-static and peach finishing achieve various fabric properties desired by consumers.\n", "Ease is most important for woven garments cut on the straight or crossgrain, because fabric in this orientation has little or no stretch. This is in contrast to woven garments cut on the bias and knit garments, both of which can stretch to accommodate movement.\n\nA sloper pattern or block pattern is a simple pattern with very little or no ease made for the purpose of fitting the body accurately, from which more finished or stylized patterns may be developed.\n\nSection::::Adding ease.\n", "A further possibility is mercerizing, during which the fabric is treated with caustic soda solution to cause swelling of the fibres. This results in improved lustre, strength and dye affinity. Cotton is mercerized under tension, and all alkali must be washed out before the tension is released or shrinkage will take place. Mercerizing can take place directly on grey cloth, or after bleaching.\n\nSection::::Finishing of cotton.:Coloration.\n", "In general, natural fibers tend to require more careful handling than synthetics because they can shrink, felt, stain, shed, fade, stretch, wrinkle, or be eaten by moths more readily, unless special treatments such as mercerization or superwashing are performed to strengthen, fix color, or otherwise enhance the fiber's own properties.\n", "Calendering (textiles)\n\nCalendering of textiles is a finishing process used to smooth, coat, or thin a material. With textiles, fabric is passed between calender rollers at high temperatures and pressures. Calendering is used on fabrics such as moire to produce its watered effect and also on cambric and some types of sateens.\n", "List of delicate fabrics\n\nDelicate fabrics are distinguished from sturdier fabrics by being lighter in weight-per-unit-of-surface-area, often more flexible and pliable, and often more liable to damage by wear and tear and by choices as to mode of laundering.\n\nClothiers' choices of fabrics likely to be considered as delicate are especially likely to result in garments described as \"delicates\", especially in the context of laundering them.\n\nThe following are often considered to be among delicate fabrics:\n\nBULLET::::- Chiffon\n\nBULLET::::- Moire\n\nBULLET::::- Most sheer fabrics\n\nBULLET::::- Ninon\n\nBULLET::::- Lace (including Bobbin lace)\n\nBULLET::::- Silk, especially embroidered, Tussar, and Rajshahi silk\n", "In the 1960s and 1970s, the developments in the chemistry of textile-treatments led to the discovery of DMDHEU, a chemical agent that made possible a low-cost but superior-quality production of \"permanent-pressed fabrics\", which are now known as durable-pressed finishes. However, these processes weakened clothes; as a result, they wore out faster.\n\nSection::::Process.\n", "Textile warp sizing, also known as tape sizing, of warp yarn is essential to reduce breakage of the yarn and thus production stops on the weaving machine. On the weaving machine, the warp yarns are subjected to several types of actions i.e. cyclic strain, flexing, abrasion at various loom parts, and inter yarn friction.\n\nWith sizing, the strength — abrasion resistance — of the yarn will improve and the hairiness of yarn will decrease. The degree of improvement of strength depends on adhesion force between fiber and size, size penetration, as well as encapsulation of yarn.\n", "Textile makers have combined sulfuric acid treatment with other processes to achieve different effects. For example, Mercerising cotton fabric before acid treatment appears to make it more susceptible to treatment at lower concentrations of sulfuric acid. At about 106 °Tw the Mercerised lustre is removed and the fabric becomes fuller, softer, and more wool-like, similar to a crêpe. The parchmentising effect is still present at higher concentrations, and may be obtained as low as 107.5 °Tw with somewhat longer treatment, perhaps a few minutes. Acid and alkaline treatments are sometimes applied several times in alternation, and patterns may be created by locally applying a resist before or between treatments.\n", "BULLET::::- Match the original fabric with consideration of the loss of color or sheen\n\nBULLET::::- Be of a tight enough weave to exclude dust if being used as a barrier\n\nSection::::Methods.:Overlay.\n\nTranslucent or sheer fabrics are used to stabilize the textile without altering its appearance. This is typically done using nylon netting, silk crepeline, or polyester Tetex. Overlay is generally applied to textiles too fragile to withstand localized stitching methods. Overlay materials may be stitched to a more stable backing fabric. \n\nSection::::Materials and Techniques.\n\nSection::::Materials and Techniques.:Conservation Stitching.\n", "Several techniques can be used to add ease to a pattern. The simplest may be to add width to the pattern pieces, such as at the side seams. Pleats or gathers may also be used. Reducing the intake of darts will also add ease.\n\nSection::::Contouring.\n", "Calendering is the third important mechanical process, in which the fabric is passed between heated rollers to generate smooth, polished or embossed effects depending on roller surface properties and relative speeds.\n\nSection::::Finishing of cotton.:Finishing.:Chemical finishing.\n\nMany other chemical treatments may be applied to cotton fabrics to produce low flammability, crease resist and other special effects. \n\nSection::::Finishing of cotton.:Finishing.:Shrinking.\n\nMechanical shrinking (sometimes referred to as sanforizing), whereby the fabric is forced to shrink width and/or lengthwise, creates a fabric in which any residual tendency to shrink after subsequent laundering is minimal.\n\nSection::::Standard finishes.\n\nSection::::Standard finishes.:Quality-oriented.\n\nBULLET::::- Calendering\n\nBULLET::::- Decatising\n", "The fewer interlacings in twills as compared to other weaves allow the yarns to move more freely, and therefore they are softer and more pliable, and drape better than plain-weave textiles. Twills also recover from creasing better than plain-weave fabrics do. When there are fewer interlacings, the yarns can be packed closer together to produce high-count fabrics. With higher counts, including high-count twills, the fabric is more durable, and is air- and water-resistant.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-07866	Why do shower curtains tend to get inside the shower and stick to the body when taking a shower, instead of staying were they should or outside the shower?	Ooh, i know this one 😎 The difference in temperature inside the cubicle / shower space vs. The cooler air outside the shower creates a vacuum, pulling the curtain into you ✔✔✔	[ "Section::::Structure and design.:Shower and bathtub curtains.\n\nCurtains can be used in shower or bathtub enclosures with two main purposes: to provide privacy and to prevent water from flooding or spraying outside the shower or bathtub area. Shower and bathtub curtains usually surround the bath inside the tub or shower area and are held up with railings or curtain rods high on the wall or ceiling. To accommodate the different types of bathtub shapes, railings can come in different sizes and are flexible in their design. \n", "It's possible to use a telescopic shower curtain rod to block the curtain on its lower part and to prevent it from sucking inside.\n\nHanging the curtain rod higher or lower, or especially further away from the shower head, can reduce the effect. A (convex) curved shower rod can also be used to hold the curtain against the inside wall of a tub.\n", "Shower or bathtub curtains are more commonly installed because of their very low cost and ease of installation, requiring only a rod, which may be removable, that spans between the end walls of the open side of the bathtub, and rings or hooks for attaching the curtain. The waterproof curtain or liner is placed inside the bathtub during and after shower use to contain water spray and splashes within the bathtub for proper drainage while drying. However, they are not highly effective: if the curtain is not very carefully arranged, then water escapes and puddles on the floor, near the wall at the end of the shower curtain, particularly at the end where the shower head was located.\n", "Colder dense air outside and hot less dense air inside causes higher air pressure on the outside to force the shower curtain inwards to equalise the air pressure, this can be observed simply when the bathroom door is open allowing cold air into the bathroom.\n\nSection::::Solutions.\n\nMany shower curtains come with features to reduce the shower-curtain effect. They may have adhesive suction cups on the bottom edges of the curtain, which are then pushed onto the sides of the shower when in use. Others may have magnets at the bottom, though these are not effective on acrylic or fiberglass tubs.\n", "Section::::Hypotheses.:Horizontal vortex hypothesis.\n\nA computer simulation of a typical bathroom found that none of the above theories pan out in their analysis, but instead found that the spray from the shower-head drives a horizontal vortex. This vortex has a low-pressure zone in the centre, which sucks the curtain.\n", "David Schmidt of University of Massachusetts was awarded the 2001 Ig Nobel Prize in Physics for his partial solution to the question of why shower curtains billow inwards. He used a computational fluid dynamics code to achieve the results. Professor Schmidt is adamant that this was done \"for fun\" in his own free time without the use of grants.\n\nSection::::Hypotheses.:The Coandă effect.\n\nThe Coandă effect, also known as \"boundary layer attachment\", is the tendency of a moving fluid to adhere to an adjacent wall.\n\nSection::::Hypotheses.:Condensation.\n", "During the late 1980s centrally parted hair, derived from the bowl cut, made a comeback among fans of new wave, synthpop, and electronic music as an alternative to the mullets and backcombed hair worn by glam metal bands.\n\nIn the UK, curtains were popularised during the early 1990s by the Baggy or Madchester scene as well as contemporary Shoegaze and Britpop bands such as The Happy Mondays, Inspiral Carpets, early Blur, The Beautiful South, and the Stone Roses.\n", "It is also important to note that each fluid has its own minimum flow rate. The minimum flow rate is the smallest amount of dye at a given moment to keep the curtain flowing continuously. The minimum flow rate is directly proportional to the surface tension while viscosity is inversely proportional.\n", "Commercial sized curtains are commonly used in restaurants, cinemas, and theatre stages.\n\nThe now well known shower curtain was once called the bath curtain, and were once made of cloth, proving difficult to soak up the water.\n\nSection::::Styles.\n\nCurtains can be used to give a room a focal point. There are at least twenty different styles of curtains and draperies which can be used in window treatment.\n", "Shower or bathtub doors are doors (also called screens) used in bathrooms that help keep water inside a shower or bathtub and are alternatives to shower curtains. They are available in many different styles such as framed or frameless, sliding or swing. They are usually constructed of aluminium, clear glass, plexi-glass or tempered glass. Shower doors can come in many different hardware finishes and glass patterns that can match other bathroom hardware such as faucets and shower heads. There are also shower doors that are in a neo angle design for use on shower pans that have the neo design as well. The design of the shower pan is extremely important as the shower door must be the type required for the pan in order to work. A shower door requires plastic lining along the edges of the door to protect against water leaking out.\n", "Also called Chimney effect or Stack effect, observes that warm air (from the hot shower) rises out over the shower curtain as cooler air (near the floor) pushes in under the curtain to replace the rising air. By pushing the curtain in towards the shower, the (short range) vortex and Coandă effects become more significant. However, the shower-curtain effect persists when cold water is used, implying that this cannot be the only mechanism at work.\n\nSee also Cooling tower.\n\nSection::::Hypotheses.:Bernoulli effect hypothesis.\n", "Section::::Production.\n", "Uncoated fabrics provide the next level of heat insulation and light absorption. Uncoated fabrics constitute the vast majority of fabrics used in curtains, and are composed of a tightly woven fabric, most typically a cotton/polyester blend, which is mostly opaque when viewed in ambient light. Uncoated fabrics provide a reasonable level of heat insulation due to the tight weave of the fabric. However, the fabric itself is typically not thick enough to completely absorb strong light sources. As a result, when curtains made from uncoated fabrics are closed in an attempt to block out direct sunlight, light will still be visible through the curtain.\n", "A weight can be attached to a long string and the string attached to the curtain rod in the middle of the curtain (on the inside). Hanging the weight low against the curtain just above the rim of the shower pan or tub makes it an effective billowing deterrent without allowing the weight to hit the pan or tub and damage it.\n\nThere are a few alternative solutions that either attach to the shower curtain directly, attach to the shower rod or attach to the wall.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Scientific American: Why does the shower curtain move toward the water?\n", "The most popular explanation given for the shower-curtain effect is Bernoulli's principle. Bernoulli's principle states that an increase in velocity results in a decrease in pressure. This theory presumes that the water flowing out of a shower head causes the air through which the water moves to start flowing in the same direction as the water. This movement would be parallel to the plane of the shower curtain. If air is moving across the inside surface of the shower curtain, Bernoulli's principle says the air pressure there will drop. This would result in a pressure differential between the inside and outside, causing the curtain to move inward. It would be strongest when the gap between the bather and the curtain is smallest - resulting in the curtain attaching to the bather.\n", "In its most-basic form, a drape or curtain bind often consists of a ring and a pin: the curtain is \"bound\" inside the ring by the placement of the pin behind it, holding the curtain in the center of the window rather than along its edge as with most tie-backs. Alternatively, a double-slotted piece of wood or plastic resembling a figure-8 can be used to the same effect. This arrangement is only possible with very brief or sheer curtains.\n\nSection::::Window hardware.:Knob.\n", "Domestic showers are most commonly stall showers or showers over a bathtub. A stall shower is a dedicated shower area which uses a door or curtain to contain water spray. The shower over a bathtub saves bathroom space and enables the area to be used for either a bath or a shower and commonly uses a sliding shower curtain to contain the water spray. Showers may also be in a wet room, in which there is no contained shower area, or in a dedicated shower room, which does not require containment of water spray. Most domestic showers have a single overhead shower head, which may be adjustable.\n", "A longer, collar-length version of the haircut went mainstream in the early to mid 1990s and was worn by many celebrities, most notably Tom Cruise.\n\nSection::::In popular culture.\n\nActors who have worn the longer version of curtained hair include Tom Cruise in \"\", Brendan Fraser in \"The Mummy Returns,\" Leonardo DiCaprio in \"Titanic\". and River Phoenix in \"Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade\".\n", "A sheer or net curtain is one that is made from translucent fabric, such as a loosely woven polyester voile or a cotton lace. Sheer curtains allow a majority of light to be transmitted through the fabric, with the fabric weave providing a basic level of UV protection while retaining maximum visibility outward through the curtain. Sheer curtains are sometimes referred to as \"privacy curtains\" in reference to their screening abilities; during the day most sheer fabrics will allow people inside the home to see the outside view while preventing people outside the home from seeing directly into the home. Due to the loose weave in sheer fabrics, these types of curtains offer very little in the way of heat insulation.\n", "Some people use two shower curtains: one that is inside the tub, which is mainly functional or decorative as well, and an outer shower curtain, which is purely decorative. The bottom portion of the inner curtain often comes with magnetic discs or suction cups which adhere to the bathtub itself.\n\nThese curtains are usually made from vinyl, cloth or plastic.\n\nSection::::Structure and design.:Shower and bathtub doors.\n", "Section::::Design concerns.:Deflection.\n", "BULLET::::- Why does the shower curtain blow up and in instead of down and out?\n\nBULLET::::- Video demonstration of how this phenomenon could be solved.\n\nBULLET::::- The Straight Dope: Why does the shower curtain blow in despite the water pushing it out (revisited)?\n\nBULLET::::- 2001 Ig Nobel Prize Winners\n\nBULLET::::- Fluent NEWS: Shower Curtain Grabs Scientist – But He Lives to Tell Why\n\nBULLET::::- Arggh, Why Does the Shower Curtain Attack Me? by Joe Palca. \"All Things Considered\", National Public Radio. November 4, 2006. (audio)\n", "Often, air showers are equipped with air ionizers to reduce static electricity, as large volumes of high-velocity air create electric charges. Since laboratory equipment, electronic measuring instruments and many hi-tech manufactured goods can often be damaged by electrostatic discharge, ionizers are essential in rendering material surfaces electrically neutral prior to entering the cleanroom.\n\nSection::::Safety.\n", "Section::::Soft furnishing.:Pendulum tie-back.\n\nAlmost a variety of tassel tie-back, the pendulum tie-back consists of one or two large handing decorative pendulums attached to ropes which loop around the curtain.\n\nSection::::Window hardware.\n\nHardware forms, often called drapery hooks or curtain hooks, are usually U-shaped pieces of metal, sometimes highly decorative, though other materials such as antler might be used. One leg of the \"U\" is fixed to the wall and the curtain is pulled over the other leg to secure it. Other forms of hardware tie-backs include the following:\n\nSection::::Window hardware.:Curtain bind.\n", "A hot shower will produce steam that condenses on the shower side of the curtain; lowering the pressure there. In a steady state the steam will be replaced by new steam delivered by the shower but in reality the water temperature will fluctuate and lead to times when the net steam production is negative.\n\nSection::::Hypotheses.:Air pressure.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01459	How was the FIRST blast furnace constructed?	You don't need metal in a furnace to produce iron. You can make a furnace complete out of stone, brick or clay. Or more precisely you can never have the inside of blast furnace made of the same metal you you are melting in it since then the furnace itself would also melt. But you have a pure metal furnace if the metal that you melts have a lower melting temperature, lead can be molten in a furnace with a steel inside if you cool it with water. Modern blast furnaces have the outside made of metal because it is strong and easy to build the structure. The inside are lined with ceramic bricks that survive the temperature.	[ "BULLET::::- Phase 1: walls of the Davey blower house; pump house foundations; footings for the first Parsons turbo-blower; the well outside the pumphouse; the floor of the boiler house; the brick revetment wall of the furnaces and stoves area; the foundations of No. 1 furnace and its four stoves; the base of the brick chimney stack; iron bottom-plates for three of the four stoves; the pig bins; the brick walls of the material bunkers; the pit for the truck drop.\n", "Section::::Origin and spread of early modern blast furnaces.\n\nDue to the casting of cannon, the blast furnace came into widespread use in France in the mid 15th century.\n", "The simplest forge, known as the Corsican, was used prior to the advent of Christianity. Examples of improved bloomeries are the (sometimes called wolf-furnace), which remained until the beginning of the 19th century. Instead of using natural draught, air was pumped in by a \"trompe\", resulting in better quality iron and an increased capacity. This pumping of airstream in with bellows is known as \"cold blast\", and it increases the fuel efficiency of the bloomery and improves yield. They can also be built bigger than natural draught bloomeries.\n\nSection::::History.:Medieval Europe.:Oldest European blast furnaces.\n", "In 1865, the French engineer Pierre-Émile Martin took out a license from Siemens and first applied his regenerative furnace for making steel. The most appealing characteristic of the Siemens regenerative furnace is the rapid production of large quantities of basic steel, used for example to construct high-rise buildings. The usual size of furnaces is 50 to 100 tons, but for some special processes they may have a capacity of 250 or even 500 tons.\n", "In 1829-30, Waern installed a furnace of the south Wales type at Backefors ironworks, while independently Ekman built Lancashire hearths at Dormsjö and Söderfors. From there the process spread to other forges. In 1887, 406 hearths made 210,500 tons of iron. The last Lancashire forge in Sweden was at Ramnäs, closed in 1964. \n\nIn Shropshire, charcoal iron production continued on a significant scale, but declined after 1870, rods for wire-drawing being a significant product. However most charcoal forges were probably closed by 1890.\n\nSection::::Process.\n", "BULLET::::- Sir Clement Clerke, a partner in the Dudley furnace, developed lead smelting in reverberatory furnaces. He and his son Talbot Clerke then applied this method to copper smelting and to iron foundry work. Associates in the latter business, floated as the Company for Making Iron with Pitcoal, built a coke furnace at Cleator in Cumberland in the 1690s. That company had some dispute with Shadrach Fox of Coalbrookdale, who was casting shot for the Board of Ordnance, and it may have used coal at another furnace at Wombridge.\n", "To heat the iron for the mill, four large furnaces were used, each capable of heating from of iron per shift. Attached were large horizontal boilers for raising steam by the waste-head from the furnaces. There was a great deal of equipment on site including immense Cornish boilers, weighing for raising steam by the waste heat from the furnaces. There was a steam hammer, massive shears for cutting up rails into lengths, a large gantry, horizontal condensing engine and giant fly-wheels with diameters, weighing .\n", "The \"casthouse\" at the bottom half of the furnace contains the bustle pipe, water cooled copper tuyeres and the equipment for casting the liquid iron and slag. Once a \"taphole\" is drilled through the refractory clay plug, liquid iron and slag flow down a trough through a \"skimmer\" opening, separating the iron and slag. Modern, larger blast furnaces may have as many as four tapholes and two casthouses. Once the pig iron and slag has been tapped, the taphole is again plugged with refractory clay.\n", "The blast furnace used at the Nyrstar Port Pirie lead smelter differs from most other lead blast furnaces in that it has a double row of tuyeres rather than the single row normally used. The lower shaft of the furnace has a chair shape with the lower part of the shaft being narrower than the upper. The lower row of tuyeres being located in the narrow part of the shaft. This allows the upper part of the shaft to be wider than the standard.\n\nSection::::Origin and spread of early modern blast furnaces.:Modern furnaces.:Zinc blast furnaces (Imperial Smelting Furnaces).\n", "The open hearth furnace was first developed by German-born engineer Carl Wilhelm Siemens. In 1865, the French engineer Pierre-Émile Martin took out a license from Siemens and first applied his regenerative furnace for making steel. Their process was known as the Siemens–Martin process, and the furnace as an \"open-hearth\" furnace. Most open hearth furnaces were closed by the early 1990s, not least because of their slow operation, being replaced by the basic oxygen furnace or electric arc furnace.\n", "Archaeological evidence shows that bloomeries appeared in China around 800 BC. Originally it was thought that the Chinese started casting iron right from the beginning, but this theory has since been debunked by the discovery of 'more than ten' iron digging implements found in the tomb of Duke Jing of Qin (d. 537 BC), whose tomb is located in Fengxiang County, Shaanxi (a museum exists on the site today). There is however no evidence of the bloomery in China after the appearance of the blast furnace and cast iron. In China blast furnaces produced cast iron, which was then either converted into finished implements in a cupola furnace, or turned into wrought iron in a fining hearth.\n", "Cast iron has been found in China dating to the 5th century BC, but the earliest extant blast furnaces in China date to the 1st century AD and in the West from the High Middle Ages. They spread from the region around Namur in Wallonia (Belgium) in the late 15th century, being introduced to England in 1491. The fuel used in these was invariably charcoal. The successful substitution of coke for charcoal is widely attributed to English inventor Abraham Darby in 1709. The efficiency of the process was further enhanced by the practice of preheating the combustion air (hot blast), patented by Scottish inventor James Beaumont Neilson in 1828.\n", "BULLET::::- 1864: ownership passed to Sir Ivor Guest\n\nBULLET::::- 1870: the works consisted of six Bessemer converters and four Siemens open-hearth furnaces\n\nMenelaus innovated in production systems and methodologies. He used small coal, a waste product, in the furnaces, releasing the large coal for sale as steam coal. He also scientifically demonstrated that old worn-out furnaces were merely destroying fuel. In 1870 Dowlais was first ironworks to use the waste gas from the coking ovens to fuel the furnaces.\n", "Dyfi Furnace, Cardiganshire, was built in 1755, by Kendall & Co., the owners of Duddon. It was not worked by Harrison Ainslie, but has many features in common with Newland, Bonawe, Craleckan and Duddon, namely: \n\nBULLET::::- A battered (tapered) furnace stack, circular inside, built of stone and lined with firebrick.\n\nBULLET::::- A blowing chamber uphill of the furnace driven by a waterwheel on the side of the blowing chamber.\n\nBULLET::::- A charging house above the blowing chamber.\n\nBULLET::::- Large charcoal barns uphill of the furnace stack.\n", "All the blast furnaces mentioned except Warsash are still standing; Backbarrow was under restoration in 2019.\n\nSection::::Forges.\n\nRichard Ford was a partner in the Nibthwaite furnace. A finery forge was built here in 1751 and operated by the Newland Company until 1840. The premises were sold in 1850 and a bobbin mill erected on the site.\n\nThe Newland Company bought Spark Bridge forge from the Backbarrow Company in 1798. It worked until 1848 and the premises were dismantled and sold in 1853.\n", "Section::::History.:China.\n", "The furnace used iron ore shipped in via rail from Negaunee and Ishpeming to Marquette, and thence by boat to Munising. Charcoal was made in kilns within a few miles of the furnace; seventeen of these have been located. The furnace also used limestone shipped in from the Lake Erie region. A small steam engine was operated to crush the ore and a larger one supplied air to the furnace.\n", "Hot blast enabled the use of raw anthracite coal, which was difficult to light, to the blast furnace. Anthracite was first tried successfully by George Crane at Ynyscedwyn Ironworks in south Wales in 1837. It was taken up in America by the Lehigh Crane Iron Company at Catasauqua, Pennsylvania, in 1839. Anthracite use declined when very high capacity blast furnaces requiring coke were built in the 1870s.\n\nSection::::Origin and spread of early modern blast furnaces.:Modern furnaces.\n\nSection::::Origin and spread of early modern blast furnaces.:Modern furnaces.:Iron blast furnaces.\n", "The efficiency of the blast furnace was improved by the change to hot blast, patented by James Beaumont Neilson in Scotland in 1828. This further reduced production costs. Within a few decades, the practice was to have a 'stove' as large as the furnace next to it into which the waste gas (containing CO) from the furnace was directed and burnt. The resultant heat was used to preheat the air blown into the furnace.\n\nSection::::Industrial steelmaking.\n", "The first blast furnace in Russia opened in 1637 near Tula and was called the Gorodishche Works. The blast furnace spread from here to the central Russia and then finally to the Urals.\n\nSection::::Origin and spread of early modern blast furnaces.:Coke blast furnaces.\n", "Section::::History.:Since 1901.\n", "BULLET::::- Cupola furnace: American anthropologist Vincent C. Pigott of the University of Pennsylvania states that the cupola furnace existed in China at least by the Warring States period (403–221 BC), while Donald B. Wagner writes that some iron ore melted in the blast furnace may have been cast directly into molds, but most, if not all, iron smelted in the blast furnace during the Han Dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) was remelted in a cupola furnace; it was designed so that a cold blast injected at the bottom traveled through tuyere pipes across the top where the charge (i.e. of charcoal and scrap or pig iron) was dumped, the air becoming a hot blast before reaching the bottom of the furnace where the iron was melted and then drained into appropriate molds for casting.\n", "Section::::Origin and spread of early modern blast furnaces.:Steam-powered blast.\n\nThe steam engine was applied to power blast air, overcoming a shortage of water power in areas where coal and iron ore were located. The cast iron blowing cylinder was developed in 1768 to replace the leather bellows, which wore out quickly. The steam engine and cast iron blowing cylinder led to a large increase in British iron production in the late 18th century.\n\nSection::::Origin and spread of early modern blast furnaces.:Hot blast.\n", "Cupola furnaces were built in China as early as the Warring States period (403–221 BC), although Donald Wagner writes that some iron ore melted in the blast furnace may have been cast directly into molds. During the Han Dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD), most, if not all, iron smelted in the blast furnace was remelted in a cupola furnace; it was designed so that a cold blast injected at the bottom traveled through tuyere pipes across the top where the charge (i.e. of charcoal and scrap or pig iron) was dumped, the air becoming a hot blast before reaching the bottom of the furnace where the iron was melted and then drained into appropriate molds for casting. A modern cupola furnace was made by French scientist and entomologist René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur around 1720.\n", "'A work for remelting and casting old iron with sea coal' was built at 'Fox Hall' (probably Vauxhall under the direction of Sir Clement. This was the first reverberatory furnace (in this case known as an 'air furnace') to be built for iron foundry purposes. This seems to have formed the basis for the Company for Making Iron with Pitcoal, though it may also have been intended to exploit a patent granted to Thomas Addison in 1692. The company ran its foundry for a few years, with Thomas Fox (the brother of Shadrach Fox of Coalbrookdale) as founder.\n\nSection::::Impact.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00506	Why do humans have different voices?	Animals sound different. You just might not notice unless you spend plenty of time with them or are one of them. My dogs sound different from each other and strays. Same with my cats. People that study animals can tell them apart even better than me.	[ "BULLET::::- Independent convergent evolution: All three avian groups evolved vocal learning and similar neural pathways independently (not through a common ancestor). This suggests that there are strong epigenetic constraints imposed by the environment or morphological needs, and so this hypothesis predicts that groups that newly evolve vocal learning will also develop similar neural circuits.\n", "Section::::Evidence of vocal learning in various species.:Known vocal learners.:Cetaceans.\n\nSection::::Evidence of vocal learning in various species.:Known vocal learners.:Cetaceans.:Whales.\n\nMale humpback whales (\"Megaptera novaeangliae\") sing as a form of sexual display while migrating to and from their breeding grounds. All males in a population produce the same song which can change over time, indicating vocal learning and cultural transmission, a characteristic shared by some bird populations. Songs become increasingly dissimilar over distance and populations in different oceans have dissimilar songs.\n", "Section::::Evolution of sexual dimorphism in human voice pitch.\n", "The sound of each individual's voice is entirely unique not only because of the actual shape and size of an individual's vocal cords but also due to the size and shape of the rest of that person's body, especially the vocal tract, and the manner in which the speech sounds are habitually formed and articulated. (It is this latter aspect of the sound of the voice that can be mimicked by skilled performers.) Humans have vocal folds that can loosen, tighten, or change their thickness, and over which breath can be transferred at varying pressures. The shape of chest and neck, the position of the tongue, and the tightness of otherwise unrelated muscles can be altered. Any one of these actions results in a change in pitch, volume, timbre, or tone of the sound produced. Sound also resonates within different parts of the body, and an individual's size and bone structure can affect somewhat the sound produced by an individual.\n", "Section::::Physiology and vocal timbre.:Vocal registration.\n", "Historically, species have been classified into the binary categories of vocal learner or vocal non-learner based on their ability to produce novel vocalizations or imitate other species, with evidence from social isolation, deafening studies, and cross-fostering experiments. However, vocal learners exhibit a great deal of plasticity or variation between species, resulting in a spectrum of ability. The vocalizations of songbirds and whales have a syntactic-like organization similar to that of humans but are limited to Finite-State Grammars (FSGs), where they can generate strings of sequences with limited structural complexity. Humans, on the other hand, show deeper hierarchical relationships, such as the nesting of phrases within others, and demonstrate compositional syntax, where changes in syntactic organization generate new meanings, both of which are beyond the capabilities of other vocal learning groups\n", "Section::::Voice modulation in spoken language.\n\nHuman spoken language makes use of the ability of almost all people in a given society to dynamically modulate certain parameters of the laryngeal voice source in a consistent manner. The most important communicative, or phonetic, parameters are the voice pitch (determined by the vibratory frequency of the vocal folds) and the degree of separation of the vocal folds, referred to as vocal fold adduction (coming together) or abduction (separating).\n", "It has been proposed that birds show latitudinal variation in song complexity, however there is no strong evidence that song complexity increases with latitude or migratory behaviour.\n\nSection::::Learning.\n", "Section::::Evidence of vocal learning in various species.:Controversial or limited vocal learners.:Mice.\n\nMice produce long sequences of vocalizations or \"songs\" that are used for both isolation calls in pups when cold or removed from nest and for courtship when males sense a female or detect pheromones in their urine. These ultrasonic vocalizations consist of discrete syllables and patterns, with species-specific differences. Males tend to use particular syllable types that can be used to differentiate individuals.\n", "Vocal learning phenotype also differ within groups and closely related species will not display the same abilities. Within avian vocal learners, for example, zebra finch songs only contain strictly linear transitions that go through different syllables in a motif from beginning to end, yet mockingbird and nightingale songs show element repetition within a range of legal repetitions, non-adjacent relationships between distant song elements, and forward and backward branching in song element transitions. Parrots are even more complex as they can imitate the speech of heterospecifics like humans and synchronize their movements to a rhythmic beat.\n\nSection::::Classification.:Continuum hypothesis.\n", "BULLET::::- Rapid adaptation to sound propagation in different environments: Vocal non-learners produce their sounds best in specific habitats, making them more susceptible to changes in the environment. For example, pigeons' low-frequency calls travel best near the ground, and so communication higher in the air is much less effective. In contrast, vocal learners can change voice characteristics to suit their current environment, which presumably allows for better group communication.\n\nSection::::Evolution.:Predatory pressure.\n", "BULLET::::- Common ancestor: This alternative hypothesis suggests that vocal learning birds evolved the trait from a distant common ancestor, which was then lost four independent times in interrelated vocal non-learners. Possible causes include high survival costs of vocal learning (predation) or weak adaptive benefits that did not induce strong selection for the trait for organisms in other environments.\n", "The ability to vary the ab/adduction of the vocal folds quickly has a strong genetic component, since vocal fold adduction has a life-preserving function in keeping food from passing into the lungs, in addition to the covering action of the epiglottis. Consequently, the muscles that control this action are among the fastest in the body. Children can learn to use this action consistently during speech at an early age, as they learn to speak the difference between utterances such as \"apa\" (having an abductory-adductory gesture for the p) as \"aba\" (having no abductory-adductory gesture). Surprisingly enough, they can learn to do this well before the age of two by listening only to the voices of adults around them who have voices much different from their own, and even though the laryngeal movements causing these phonetic differentiations are deep in the throat and not visible to them.\n", "Section::::Development.:Adulthood.:Impact of hormones.\n", "Section::::Genetic applications to humans.\n", "Section::::Neurobiology.:In humans.\n", "Section::::Development.:Adulthood.:Impact of phonation.\n", "Generally speaking, the mechanism for generating the human voice can be subdivided into three parts; the lungs, the vocal folds within the larynx (voice box), and the articulators. The lung, the \"pump\" must produce adequate airflow and air pressure to vibrate vocal folds. The vocal folds (vocal cords) then vibrate to use airflow from the lungs to create audible pulses that form the laryngeal sound source. The muscles of the larynx adjust the length and tension of the vocal folds to ‘fine-tune’ pitch and tone. The articulators (the parts of the vocal tract above the larynx consisting of tongue, palate, cheek, lips, etc.) articulate and filter the sound emanating from the larynx and to some degree can interact with the laryngeal airflow to strengthen it or weaken it as a sound source.\n", "In primates, only humans are known to be capable of complex vocal learning. Similar to the first hypothesis relating to birds, one explanation is that vocal learning evolved independently in humans. An alternative hypothesis suggests evolution from a primate common ancestor capable of vocal learning, with the trait subsequently being lost at least eight other times. Considering the most parsimonious analysis, it seems unlikely that the number of independent gains (one in humans) would be exceeded so greatly by the number of independent losses (at least eight), which supports the independent evolution hypothesis.\n\nSection::::Neurobiology.\n\nSection::::Neurobiology.:Neural pathways in avian vocal learners.\n", "Males and females have different vocal fold sizes. Adult male voices are usually lower pitched due to longer and thicker folds. The male vocal folds are between 1.75 cm and 2.5 cm (approx 0.75\" to 1.0\") in length, while female vocal folds are between 1.25 cm and 1.75 cm (approx 0.5\" to 0.75\") in length. The vocal folds of children are much shorter than those of adult males and females. The difference in vocal fold length and thickness between males and females causes a difference in vocal pitch. Additionally, genetic factors cause variations between members of the same sex, with males' and females' voices being categorized into voice types.\n", "Even further complicating the original binary classification is evidence from recent studies that suggests that there is greater variability in a non-learner's ability to modify vocalizations based on experience than previously thought. Findings in suboscine passerine birds, non-human primates, mice, and goats, has led to the proposal of the vocal learning continuum hypothesis by Erich Jarvis and Gustavo Arriaga. Based on the apparent variations seen in various studies, the continuum hypothesis reclassifies species into non-learner, limited vocal learner, moderate vocal learning, complex vocal learner and high vocal learner categories where higher tiers have fewer species. Under this system, previously identified non-human vocal learners like songbirds are considered complex learners while humans fall under the “high” category; non-human primates, mice, and goats, which are traditionally classified as non-learners, are considered limited vocal learners under this system.\n", "Speech is considered to be the major method of communication between humans. Humans alter the way they speak and hear according to many factors, like the age, gender, native language and social relationship between talker and listener. Speech intelligibility may also be affected by pathologies such as speech and hearing disorders.\n\nFinally, speech intelligibility is influenced by the environment or limitations on the communication channel. How well a spoken message can be understood in a room is influenced by the \n\nBULLET::::- background noise,\n\nBULLET::::- reverberation, and\n\nBULLET::::- frequency response of the room, as well as the\n", "The anterior vocal pathway (also known as vocal learning pathway) is associated with learning, syntax, and social contexts, starting with projections from the magnocellular nucleus of the anterior nidopallium (MAN) to the striatal nucleus Area X. Area X then projects to the medial nucleus of dorsolateral thalamus (DLM), which ultimately projects back to MAN in a loop The lateral part of MAN (LMAN) generates variability in song, while Area X is responsible for stereotypy, or the generation of low variability in syllable production and order after song crystallization.\n", "BULLET::::- Bottlenose dolphins can show spontaneous vocal mimicry of computer-generated whistles.\n\nBULLET::::- Killer whales can mimic the barks of California sea lions.\n\nBULLET::::- Harbor seals can mimic in a speech-like manner one or more English words and phrases\n\nBULLET::::- Elephants can imitate trunk sounds.\n\nBULLET::::- Lesser spear-nosed bat can learn their call structure from artificial playback.\n\nBULLET::::- An orangutan has spontaneously copied the whistles of humans.\n\nSection::::Nonhuman animals.:Apes.\n", "When goats are placed in different social groups, they modify their calls to show more similarity to that of the group, which provides evidence they may be limited vocal learners according to Erich Jarvis' continuum hypothesis.\n\nSection::::Evolution.\n\nAs vocal learning is such a rare trait that evolved in distant groups, there are many theories to explain the striking similarities between vocal learners, especially within avian vocal learners.\n\nSection::::Evolution.:Adaptive advantage.\n\nThere are several proposed hypotheses that explain the selection for vocal learning based on environment and behavior. These include:\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-17518	If the female hemp plant contains THC, how do farmers make sure they don't grow it?	The main way to ensure you don’t get the wrong gendered plant is cloning; once you have a male plant, you can basically just cut a piece of stem off and put it in a pod and it will root and begin to grow into a new plant with the same genetics and thus gender. I know you can also buy feminized seeds so maybe there’s the same for male seeds, although I’m not entirely sure how that process works. You can also grow female plants that are high in CBD and just extract the CBD from them (that’s how my company did it).	[ "Propagation in finger millet farming is done mainly by seeds. In rainfed cropping, four sowing methods are used:\n\nBULLET::::- Broadcasting: Seeds are directly sown in the field. This is the common method because it is the easiest way and no special machinery is required. The organic weed management with this method is a problem, because it is difficult to distinguish between weed and crop.\n", "BULLET::::- Hemp grown for fiber is harvested before flowering,\n\nBULLET::::- Cannabis grown for cloning is not allowed to flower at all.\n\nBULLET::::- Cannabis grown for smoking\n\nA typical indicator that a plant is ready to be harvested for smoking, is when most trichomes have turned cloudy and 5% to 15% of the trichomes have turned a reddish brown/amber.\n\nIn general, harvesting consists of drying and curing. Curing is an oxidization and polymerization process which takes place in sealed containers of cannabis, over time.\n\nBULLET::::- Dry: Buds placed in a controlled atmosphere for removing moisture content\n", "A method used by organic growers and promulgated by the cannabis breeder Soma, is called 'Rodelization', or letting un-pollinated female plants live several weeks longer than the normal harvest time. In such plants a hermaphroditic trait self-expresses in an effort to continue the genetic line.\n", "Section::::Cultivation.:Harvesting.\n\nSmallholder plots are usually harvested by hand. The plants are cut at 2 to 3 cm above the soil and left on the ground to dry. Mechanical harvesting is now common, using specially adapted cutter-binders or simpler cutters.\n\nThe cut hemp is laid in swathes to dry for up to four days. This was traditionally followed by \"retting\", either water retting (the bundled hemp floats in water) or dew retting (the hemp remains on the ground and is affected by the moisture in dew, and by molds and bacterial action).\n\nSection::::Cultivation.:Location and crop rotation.\n", "Since 2011 EIHA has been a member of the technical committee \"bio-based products\" CEN/TC411 of the European Committee for Standardization (CEN). Since 2013 EIHA has been a member of the \"Expert Group on Bio-based Products\". Since 2013 EIHA has also been a member of the expert committee of the \"Bioeconomy Panel\" of the European Commission.\n", "Hemp plants can be vulnerable to various pathogens, including bacteria, fungi, nematodes, viruses and other miscellaneous pathogens. Such diseases often lead to reduced fiber quality, stunted growth, and death of the plant. These diseases rarely affect the yield of a hemp field, so hemp production is not traditionally dependent on the use of pesticides.\n\nSection::::Cultivation.:Environmental impact.\n", "Results indicate that high yield of hemp may require high total nutrient levels (field plus fertilizer nutrients) similar to a high yielding wheat crop.\n\nSection::::Producers.\n", "The amount of time to grow a cannabis plant indoors in the vegetative stage depends on the size of the flower, the light used, the size of the space, and how many plants are intended to flower at once, and how big the strain gets in \"the stretch\" (i.e., the first two weeks of flowering).\n\nCannabis cultivators employ fertilizers high in N (nitrogen) and K (potassium) during the vegetative stage, as well as a complete micro nutrient fertilizer. The strength of the fertilizer is gradually increased as the plants grow and become more hardy.\n\nAdvanced cultivation methods include:\n", "Australia's National Cannabis Prevention and Information Centre (NCPIC) states that the buds (flowers) of the female cannabis plant contain the highest concentration of THC, followed by the leaves. The stalks and seeds have \"much lower THC levels\". The UN states that leaves can contain ten times less THC than the buds, and the stalks one hundred times less THC.\n", "Integrated management of invasive aquatic weeds, with financial support from the African Development Bank from 2006 to 2011, produced a manual for mechanical and biological weed control. Total weed coverage in the Tano and Volta Rivers was , and 20 community water-weed committees cleared and maintained of weedy areas by 2011. At the end of the project, two weed harvesters were purchased to clear all weeds in the Volta and were commissioned in 2012 by the Minister of Environment, Science and Technology.\n", "The was conducted under the auspices of the Kentucky Department of Agriculture. Research at the University of Kentucky's Spindletop Research Farm sought to improved agronomy and includes research on optimizing cannabinoid yield. The first research crops at Spindletop and Murray State University were planted in May 2014, with seed obtained from California and, after a legal battle with the DEA, imported from Italy. The researchers are also engineering new mechanical harvesters that can reach the high flowers of tall-growing hemp. The first 500-acre commercial crop was planted in Harrison County in 2017, and research permits were issued for over that year.\n", "Weed scientists have tended to focus on results and progress. Modern agriculture in the world's developed nations has addressed but not eliminated most weed problems through extensive use of herbicides and the more recent development of herbicide resistant crops through genetic modification. These methods while undeniably successful for their intended purpose also have created environmental, non-target species, and human health problems. Farmers in the world's developing nations use some herbicides but newer herbicides and the necessary application technology are often unavailable or too expensive. Weeds are always present in these farmer's fields but often the most available, affordable control methods are mechanical weeding, usually with animal power, or by hand, and most of the labor is provided by women. Neither the hypothesis that more energy is expended for the weeding man's crops than for any other single human task nor the corollary hypothesis that women do most of the world's weeding has been verified, but they are widely accepted. \n", "Recent advancements in LED technology have allowed for diodes that emit enough energy for cannabis cultivation. These diodes can emit light in a specific nanometer range, allowing for total control over the spectrum of the light. LEDs are able to produce all of their light in the photosynthetically active range (PAR) of the spectrum.\n", "The flowering phase varies from about 6 to 22 weeks for pure indicas with their shorter flowering time than pure sativas. Mixed indica/sativa strains have an intermediate flowering time. The sex is clearly revealed in the first flowering phase. Males produce little ball-like flowers clustered together like grapes called panicles. Most plants (except auto flowering strains that flower independently of photoperiod) begin to flower under diminishing light. In nature, cannabis plants sense the forthcoming winter as the Earth revolves about the Sun and daylight reduces in duration (see also season). If females are not pollinated (fertilized by male pollen) they start to produce buds that contain sticky white resin glands or trichomes in a final attempt for pollination by windborne male pollen. The trichomes produce resins that contain the largest amounts of THC and CBN, the two main psychoactive substances. Fertilized females continue to produce resinous trichomes but more plant energy is consumed by the production of seeds, which can be half the mass of a fertilized bract; thus, to maximize resin per gram, infertile cultivation is preferred.\n", "\"Cannabis\" plants produce a unique family of terpeno-phenolic compounds called cannabinoids, some of which produce the \"high\" which may be experienced from consuming marijuana. There are 483 identifiable chemical constituents known to exist in the cannabis plant, and at least 85 different cannabinoids have been isolated from the plant. The two cannabinoids usually produced in greatest abundance are cannabidiol (CBD) and/or Δ-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), but only THC is psychoactive. Since the early 1970s, \"Cannabis\" plants have been categorized by their chemical phenotype or \"chemotype\", based on the overall amount of THC produced, and on the ratio of THC to CBD. Although overall cannabinoid production is influenced by environmental factors, the THC/CBD ratio is genetically determined and remains fixed throughout the life of a plant. Non-drug plants produce relatively low levels of THC and high levels of CBD, while drug plants produce high levels of THC and low levels of CBD. When plants of these two chemotypes cross-pollinate, the plants in the first filial (F) generation have an intermediate chemotype and produce intermedite amounts of CBD and THC. Female plants of this chemotype may produce enough THC to be utilized for drug production.\n", "Instability of gender is a desirable trait in the wild, where reproduction is the most urgent goal. In cultivation, gender predictability is more helpful, because female plants that have not been pollinated are the most productive of the psychotropic material. It is possible to use a combination of cloning and \"shocking\" of plants to get them to produce feminized seeds that reliably produce female offspring. A clone retains the same sex throughout its life, so the clone of a female plant is also female.\n\nEnvironmental stresses sometimes create pollen bearing male flowers on female plants—known as hermaphroditism or 'hermying'.\n", "Section::::Methods of controlling.:Detecting their growth cycle.\n\nOne of the best ways of dealing with broadleaf weeds is to detect their growth cycle. This requires proper monitoring. Most plants experts use this method since it has been proven to be the most effective. It involves discovering how broadleaf weeds grow and deprive them on them that growth cycle. \n\nSection::::Methods of controlling.:Using a weed killer.\n", "To generate optimum quantities of THC-containing resin, the plant needs a fertile soil and long hours of daylight. This means THC production for outdoor growth occurs optimally anywhere within 35° of the equator. Typical growing regions include Mexico, Nepal, Northern India, many parts of Africa, Afghanistan, the United States and Australia.\n\nIn most places of the subtropics, cannabis is germinated from late spring to early summer and harvested from late summer to early autumn.\n", "Section::::Plant training.:SCROG.\n", "Non-licensed making of hashish (including through the use of a simple grinder) or making brownies may include life imprisonment., however, licensed medical users can make and possess these products.\n\nSection::::Feral hemp research.\n\nIn 2018 Hempyre Genetics was hired to research strains of feral cannabis growing at undisclosed locations in Oklahoma, in order to advise legal hemp farmers as to what genetic traits were thriving in the state.\n", "The modification of a plant's growth habit is called training. Indoor cultivators employ many training techniques to encourage shorter plants and denser canopy growth. For example, unless the crop is too large to be extensively pruned, cultivators remove adventitious growth shoots, often called suckers, that are near the bottom of the plant and/or receive little light and will produce poor quality buds. Some cultivators employ plant training techniques to increase yields indoors:\n\nSection::::Plant training.:Topping.\n", "The seeds are sown with grain drills or other conventional seeding equipment to a depth of 1.27 to 2.54 cm. Greater seeding depths result in increased weed competition. Nitrogen should not be placed with the seed, but phosphate may be tolerated. The soil should have available 89 to 135 kg/ha of nitrogen, 46 kg/ha phosphorus, 67 kg/ha potassium, and 17 kg/ha sulfur. Organic fertilizers such as manure are one of the best methods of weed control.\n\nSection::::Cultivation.:Cultivars.\n", "Many cultivators face the risk of fire. Fires normally originate from faulty electrical equipment or wiring. Shoddy fixtures and sockets, improperly grounded equipment, and overloaded circuit breakers are some of the most prevalent causes. Because of the large amount of electricity needed for large-scale cultivation, old or damaged wiring is prone to melt and short. Some commercial growers steal power to hide electricity use, and many do not ensure that their wiring is safe. Many growers adapt light cycles so that the lights are on when they are home and off when they are away.\n", "Weeds are controlled in much of the world by hand or with crude hoes. The size of a farmer's holding and yield per unit area are limited by several things and paramount among them is the rapidity with which a family can weed its crops. More human labor may be expended to weed crops than on any other single human enterprise, and most of that labor is expended by women. Weed control in the Western world and other developed areas of the world is done by sophisticated machines and by substituting chemical energy (herbicides) for mechanical and human energy. There is a relationship between the way farmers control weeds and the ability of a nation to feed its people. Successful weed management is one of the essential ingredients to maintain and increase food production. \n", "Section::::Plant training.:SOG.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-03721	Why must countries borrow from the World Bank but not banks with lower interest rate?	First, the amount of money may exceed the bank's abilities. My local bank couldn't loan me 80 billion dollars. Even the world largest banks sometimes have trouble providing the level of liquid capital (i.e. cash) to a nation, given the size and scale. Second, sometimes the banks don't trust the country. The world has a fairly recent history of countries defaulting or nearly defaulting on their debts. That level of uncertainty is bad for business. I loan you 100billion and I might get back 140billion, I might get back 70billion, or you might declare me an enemy of the state and give me the shaft. Lots of banks have divested/given-up on bond purchases and large loans to developing nations, or those with a history of debt repayment issues. It's to this end that the World Bank is supposed to function, as a sometimes "bank of last resort" for countries.	[ "Borrowers can use 25 per cent of the ECB to repay rupee debt and the remaining 75 per cent should be used for new projects. A borrower can not refinance its entire existing rupee loan through ECB. The money raised through ECB is cheaper given near-zero interest rates in the US and Europe, Indian companies can repay part of their existing expensive loans from that.\n", "Section::::IMF SAPs versus World Bank SAPs.\n\nWhile both the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank loan to depressed and developing countries, their loans are intended to address different problems. The IMF mainly lends to countries that have balance of payment problems (they can not pay their international debts), while the World bank offers loans to fund particular development projects. However, the World Bank also provides balance of payments support, usually through adjustment packages jointly negotiated with the IMF.\n\nSection::::IMF SAPs versus World Bank SAPs.:IMF SAPs.\n", "Though conceptually simple, there is much variation in the methodologies used by governments to implement limits on lending rates. While some countries use a vanilla interest rate cap written into all regulations for licensed financial institutions, others have attempted a more flexible approach.\n\nThe most simple interest rate control puts an upper limit on any loans from formal institutions. This might simply say that no financial institution may issue a loan at a rate greater than, say, 40% interest per annum, or 3% per month.\n", "Another possibility used to estimate the risk-free rate is the inter-bank lending rate. This appears to be premised on the basis that these institutions benefit from an implicit guarantee, underpinned by the role of the monetary authorities as 'the lendor of last resort.' (In a system with an endogenous money supply the 'monetary authorities' may be private agents as well as the central bank - refer to Graziani 'The Theory of Monetary Production'.) Again, the same observation applies to banks as a proxy for the risk-free rate – if there is any perceived risk of default implicit in the interbank lending rate, it is not appropriate to use this rate as a proxy for the risk-free rate.\n", "The leadership of the member countries task the bank with developing a strong pipeline of projects and responding in a fast and flexible manner to aspirations and interests of its members.\n\nAs of 6 March 2019, the NDB Board of Directors approved 30 projects with loans aggregating over approx. USD 8 bln.\n\nThe Bank has begun non-sovereign operations with loans approved in Brazil, South Africa, and Russia.\n\nSection::::Activities.:Bonds.\n", "In addition, the IMF negotiates conditions on lending and loans under their policy of conditionality, which was established in the 1950s. Low-income countries can borrow on concessional terms, which means there is a period of time with no interest rates, through the Extended Credit Facility (ECF), the Standby Credit Facility (SCF) and the Rapid Credit Facility (RCF). Nonconcessional loans, which include interest rates, are provided mainly through Stand-By Arrangements (SBA), the Flexible Credit Line (FCL), the Precautionary and Liquidity Line (PLL), and the Extended Fund Facility. The IMF provides emergency assistance via the Rapid Financing Instrument (RFI) to members facing urgent balance-of-payments needs.\n", "It also does not mean that a commercial bank's overnight reserves can become \"negative\", in these countries. The central bank will \"always\" step in to lend the necessary reserves if necessary so that this does not happen; this is sometimes described as \"defending the payment system\". Historically a central bank might once have run out of reserves to lend and so have had to suspend redemptions, but this can no longer happen to modern central banks because of the end of the gold standard worldwide, which means that all nations use a fiat currency.\n", "• This is the model used in Zambia, where banks are able to lend at nine percentage points over the policy rate and microfinance lending is priced as a multiple of this.\n\n• Elsewhere, governments have linked the lending rate to the deposit rate and regulated the spread that banks and deposit taking MFIs can charge between borrowing and lending rates.\n\nAs some banks look to get around lending caps by increasing arrangement fees and other costs to the borrower, governments have often tried to limit the total price of the loan.\n", "As a consequence, even those central banks that strictly limit foreign exchange interventions often recognize that currency markets can be volatile and may intervene to counter disruptive short-term movements (that may include speculative attacks). Thus, intervention does not mean that they are defending a specific exchange rate level. Hence, the higher the reserves, the higher is the capacity of the central bank to smooth the volatility of the Balance of Payments and assure consumption smoothing in the long term.\n\nSection::::Reserve accumulation.\n", "Talking about the relations with AIIB, officials from the NDB's member-states point out the difference in the member-states of the NDB and AIIB as well as a potential to complement in working together to meet development and infrastructural needs.\n", "At the 2009 G20 Pittsburgh summit, in September, the G20 national leaders asked the IMF \"to prepare a report for our next meeting with regard to the range of options countries have adopted or are considering as to how the financial sector could make a fair and substantial contribution toward paying for any burdens associated with government interventions to repair the banking system.\"\n\nSection::::History.:IMF responds to G20 request.\n\nWhen the IMF presented its interim report for the G20 on April 16, 2010, it set out three options, each of which is distinct from another:\n", "Countries such as the Nordic countries were proponents of such a United Nations (UN) controlled fund. However, the fund was opposed by developed countries, especially by the United States who was wary of the Third World dominating such a funding and preferred it to be under the auspices of the World Bank. The concept of SUNFED was dropped to form the Special Fund. This Special Fund was a compromise over the SUNFED concept, it did not provide investment capital, but only helped to bring pre-conditions for private investment.\n", "Other governments have attempted to set different caps for different forms of lending instrument.\n\nBULLET::::- In South Africa, the National Credit Act (2005) identified eight sub-categories of loan, each with their own prescribed maximum interest rate.\n\nMortgages(RRx2.2)+5% per annum, Credit facilities(RRx2.2)+10% per annum, Unsecured credit transactions (RRx2.2)+20% per annum, Developmental credit agreements for the development of a small business, RRx2.2)+20% per annum\n\nDevelopmental credit agreements for low income housing (unsecured)(RRx2.2)+20% per annum, Short-term transactions, 5% per month, Other credit agreements(RRx2.2)+10% per annum, Incidental credit agreements 2% per month.\n\nSection::::The impact of interest caps.\n\nSection::::The impact of interest caps.:Supply side.\n", "The researcher articulates that there is also evidence to suggest capping lending rates for licensed MFIs incentives, NGO-MFIs, and other finance sources for the poor to stay outside of the regulatory system. In Bolivia, the imposition of a lending cap led to a notable fall in the licensing of new entities, . Keeping lenders out of the system should be unattractive to governments as it increases the potential for predatory lending and lack of consumer protection.\n\nSection::::The impact of interest caps.:Supply side.:Price rises.\n", "At the end of every day, a commercial bank will have to examine the status of their reserve accounts. Those that are in deficit have the option of borrowing the required funds from the central bank, where they may be charged a \"lending rate\" (sometimes known as a \"discount rate\") on the amount they borrow. On the other hand, the banks that have excess reserves can simply leave them with the central bank and earn a \"support rate\" from the central bank. Some countries, such as Japan, have a support rate of zero.\n", "Before 1974, the reconstruction and development loans provided by the World Bank were relatively small. The Bank's staff were aware of the need to instill confidence in the bank. Fiscal conservatism ruled, and loan applications had to meet strict criteria.\n", "These loan conditions ensure that the borrowing country will be able to repay the IMF and that the country will not attempt to solve their balance-of-payment problems in a way that would negatively impact the international economy. The incentive problem of moral hazard—when economic agents maximise their own utility to the detriment of others because they do not bear the full consequences of their actions—is mitigated through conditions rather than providing collateral; countries in need of IMF loans do not generally possess internationally valuable collateral anyway.\n", "Calls for an ILLR arose following the Mexican crisis (1994–1995) and the Asian and Russian financial crises of the late 1990s. While no comprehensive mechanism has been implemented, in late 1997 the International Monetary Fund instituted the supplemental reserve facility (SRF), designed to make large short-term loans with policy conditions at penalty rates during crises. To date, only Korea, Russia and Brazil have made use of the SRF.\n", "Section::::Mandate.\n\nThe Inspection Panel's mandate allows it to investigate projects funded by the IDA and IBRD, both part of the World Bank Group, and to determine whether they are complying with their policies and procedures in the design, appraisal, and implementation of a project. These policies and procedures are not limited to the Bank's social and environmental safeguard policies, but include other operational policies, bank procedures, and operational directives, as well as other Bank procedural documents.\n\nSection::::Operation.\n\nSection::::Operation.:Organization.\n", "Section::::Impact on savings and pensions.\n\nFinancial economists such as researchers have argued that durably low interest rates in most G20 countries will have an adverse impact on the funding positions of pension funds as “without returns that outstrip inflation, pension investors face the real value of their savings declining rather than ratcheting up over the next few years” \n", "There are risks associated with these types of mortgages and the borrower must be prepared to accept an (often limited) increase in the value of their debt if there are adverse movements in the currency markets.\n\nA successful currency manager may be able to use the currency markets to pay off a borrower's loan (through a combination of debt reduction and interest rate savings) within the normal lifetime of the loan, while the borrower pays on an interest only basis.\n", "That is exactly what the Report of the International Financial Institution Advisory Commission accuses the IMF of doing when it lends to emerging economies: \"By preventing or reducing losses by international lenders, the IMF had implicitly signalled that, if local banks and other institutions incurred large foreign liabilities and government guaranteed private debts, the IMF would provide the foreign exchange needed to honour the guarantees.\" Investors are protected against the downside of their investment and, at the same time, receive higher interest rates to compensate them for their risk. That encourages risk-taking and reduces the necessary diversification and led the Commission to conclude, \"The importance of the moral hazard problem cannot be overstated.\"\n", "During the 1970s and 1980s with the expansions in cross-border lender by financial institutions, banks became increasingly concerned to ensure that foreign companies to whom they lent money provided a foreign legal opinion certifying the legal validity of the loan transaction and the enforceability of the banks' rights (including any security interests). In time these requires came to be reflected in the Basel capital adequacy requirements for banks, resulting in different, more favourable, capital weighting for loans supported by opinions.\n\nSection::::Format.\n", "The IMF is supported solely by its member states, while the World Bank funds its loans with a mix of member contributions and corporate bonds. Currently there are 185 Members of the IMF (As Of February 2007) and 184 members of the World Bank. Members are assigned a quota to be reevaluated and paid on a rotating schedule. The assessed quota is based upon the donor country's portion of the world economy. One of the critiques of SAPs is that the highest donating countries hold too much influence over which countries receive the loans and the SAPs that accompany them.\n", "The role and suggested functions of an ILLR in a crisis is like domestic lender of last resort but one at an international level that can bailout one or several countries. A number of different proposals and structures have been suggested and some have been implemented but with limited success. One such example is the International Monetary Fund's supplemental reserve facility (SRF). Some suggested ILLR's have been limited to supranational regions such as the Eurozone where agreements and funding are easier to achieve.\n\nSection::::Antecedents, current arrangements, and related proposals.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-05253	Why does the video feed cut out when a Falcon 9 lands on the drone ship?	The satellite link gets disrupted. You have to aim the antenna at the satellite, and that is rather hard when something [this big]( URL_0 ) is landing right on the platform.	[ "The booster was then retired to the SpaceX facility in Hawthorne California.\n\nSection::::Test program.:Falcon 9 booster post-mission flight tests.:Near-misses on the oceans.\n\nFalcon 9 Flight 21 launched the Jason-3 satellite on January 17, 2016, and attempted to land on the floating platform \"Just Read the Instructions\", located for the first time about out in the Pacific Ocean.\n\nApproximately 9 minutes into the flight, the live video feed from the drone ship went down due to the losing its lock on the uplink satellite.\n", "In February 2018, the Falcon Heavy Test Flight's central core exploded upon impact next to \"OCISLY\" that damaged two of the four thrusters on the drone ship. Two thrusters were removed from the \"Marmac 303\" barge in order to repair \"OCISLY\".\n\nSection::::History.:The active ASDS fleet.:\"Just Read the Instructions\".\n\nThe third ASDS barge, using the \"Marmac 303\" hull, was built during 2015 in a Louisiana shipyard, and the barge transited the Panama Canal in June 2015 carrying its wing extensions as cargo on the deck because the ASDS, when complete, would be too wide to pass through the canal.\n", "when the first stage was approximately high and moving at a velocity of .\n\nThe SpaceX webcast indicated that the boostback burn and reentry burns for the descending first stage occurred, and that the descending rocket then went \"below the horizon,\" as expected, which eliminated the live telemetry signal, so that the retropropulsive landing attempt was not shown live. Shortly thereafter, SpaceX released information that the rocket did get to the drone ship as planned, but \"landed hard ... Ship itself is fine. Some of the support equipment on the deck will need to be replaced.\"\n", "SpaceX attempted a landing on the drone ship on 10 January. Many of the test objectives were achieved, including precision control of the rocket's descent to land on the platform at a specific point in the south Atlantic Ocean and a large amount of test data was obtained from the first use of grid fin control surfaces used for more precise reentry positioning. However, the rocket was destroyed due to a hard landing. Musk said that one of the possible problems was the grid fins running out of hydraulic fluid.\n", "SES CTO Martin Halliwell had informed SpaceX that they were willing to use the same rocket twice to power another satellite to orbit. This idea became reality in March 2017 with the SES-10 mission flying with the reused booster from CRS-8.\n\nBy March 21, 2016, the hole in the deck of the drone ship had been nearly repaired.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- SES S.A.\n\nBULLET::::- List of Falcon 9 launches\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- SES site\n\nBULLET::::- SES-9 Mission Press kit\n\nBULLET::::- Flight 22 launch video, including photography of 2nd stage separation and drift apart from the first stage, plus fairing separation.\n", "BULLET::::- Flight 14, CRS-5, added grid fins, first attempt at landing on drone ship, popular video\n\nBULLET::::- Flight 15, DSCOVR, first mission passing escape velocity to the Sun-Earth L1 point, a solar orbit beyond the Moon distance\n\nBULLET::::- Flight 16, ABS-3A and Eutelsat 115 West B, first launch of a dual satellite stack, innovative Boeing 702SP satellites using full electric propulsion with electrostatic ion thrusters\n\nBULLET::::- Flight 19, CRS-7, total loss of mission due to structural failure and helium overpressure in the second stage\n", "As expected, booster recovery failed: the spent first stage \"landed hard\", damaging the drone ship, but the controlled-descent and atmospheric re-entry, as well as navigation to a point in the Atlantic ocean over away from the launch site, were successful and returned significant test data on bringing back a high-energy Falcon 9.\n\nThe controlled descent through the atmosphere and landing attempt for each booster is an arrangement that is not used on other orbital launch vehicles.\n", "BULLET::::- SpaceX uses its reusable Falcon 9 rocket to launch a U.S. national security payload for the first time, launching the National Reconnaissance Office′s NROL-76 satellite into orbit from the Kennedy Space Center at Cape Canaveral, Florida. The Falcon 9's reusable first stage returns for a successful soft landing. The launch had originally been scheduled for 30 April, but had been postponed due to what SpaceX describes as a \"sensor issue.\"\n", "In February 2017, SpaceX's CRS-10 launch was the first operational launch utilizing the new Autonomous Flight Safety System (AFSS) that is built into Falcon 9 Full Thrust launch vehicles. For all SpaceX launches after 16 March 2017, the autonomous AFSS has replaced \"the ground-based mission flight control personnel and equipment with on-board Positioning, Navigation and Timing sources and decision logic. The benefits of AFSS include increased public safety, reduced reliance on range infrastructure, reduced range spacelift cost, increased schedule predictability and availability, operational flexibility, and launch slot flexibility.\"\n", "A second flight was launched on 11 August 2011. The unmanned Falcon HTV-2 successfully separated from the booster and entered the mission's glide phase, but again lost contact with control about nine minutes into its planned 30-minute Mach 20 glide flight. Initial reports indicated it purposely impacted the Pacific Ocean along its planned flight path as a safety precaution. Some analysts thought that the second failure would result in an overhaul of the Falcon program.\n\nSection::::Refocus.\n", "Photographers shooting a feature of the drones for CBS television program 60 Minutes reportedly almost abandoned attempts to film the drones as their size and speed made getting a focussed image difficult.\n\nSection::::Design.\n", "Free Flight 13 on May 22, 2014. First flight of ALHAT and Morpheus Lander with the ALHAT having closed loop control of the lander. The correct landing location was identified and flown to. There was a disagreement between the ALHAT and the Morpheus's guidance, navigation, and control over the lander's current location.\n", "On August 23, 2013 Bravo lander successfully performed Tethered Test 29 at JSC. During the ~50 second flight Bravo's actions included ignition, ascent and a 3-meter lateral translation. There was a 10 seconds hover at the apex, and a slant descent to the crane \"landing\" using free flight guidance.\n\nOn August 29, 2013 Bravo lander successfully performed the ~63 second Tethered Test 30 flight at JSC. After an ascent of 5 meters with 15 seconds of hover at the apex, a 3-meter backwards lateral translation was performed. Followed by another 15 seconds of hover, and a forward slant descent.\n", "BULLET::::- Video of 8th and final low-altitude Grasshopper v1.0 test flight, to , October 7, 2013.\n\nBULLET::::- Low-resolution photograph of the Falcon 9 booster controlled-descent test on September 29, 2013, just moments before impacting the Atlantic ocean.\n\nBULLET::::- Video of Falcon 9 Reusable Development vehicle no. 1 (F9R Dev1) 1st test flight, to , hovering and then landing just next to the launch stand, April 17, 2014.\n\nBULLET::::- Video of CRS-3 booster stage landing test, April 2014: low quality, corrupted data and higher quality, after video frames recovered by open-source recovery effort by NSF team.\n", "After a year of delays, B1046 was completed and transported to SpaceX's McGregor facility for testing in preparation for its maiden flight.\n\nSection::::Flight history.\n\nThis Falcon 9 was first launched on May 11, 2018, carrying Bangabandhu-1, Bangladesh's first geostationary communications satellite. This marked the 54th flight of the Falcon 9 and the first flight of the Falcon 9 Block 5. After completing a successful ascent, B1046 separated from the second stage and landed on the drone ship \"Of Course I Still Love You\". This marked the 11th successful landing on OCISLY and the 25th successful landing of the Falcon 9.\n", "BULLET::::- (CRS-8) finally achieving a stable landing at sea in the Atlantic on the drone ship \"Of Course I Still Love You\" in April 2016 after four previous attempts ended in destruction of the booster upon impact;\n\nBULLET::::- flights (JCSAT-14) and 25 (Thaicom 8) returning at higher speed from GTO missions at sea on a drone ship in May 2016;\n\nBULLET::::- flight 27 (CRS-9) returning to LZ-1 in July 2016;\n\nBULLET::::- flight 28 (JCSAT-16) landing on a drone ship in August 2016;\n", "In January 2017 a 23 year old UAV operator from Xiaoshan was detained because of footage taken from a drone flying near airliners descending to land at Hangzhou Xiaoshan International Airport. The incident came to light when footage was uploaded to QQ. This was an eight-second clip from a ten-minute recording taken from an altitude of 450m. The operator had flown it to photograph a sunset, but had also recorded several airliners flying past. The model used was a DJI Mavic and the manufacturer strongly condemned the incident.\n\nSection::::Aircraft near-miss incidents.:France.\n", "On June 15, 2016, Falcon 9 flight 26 successfully delivered the Eutelsat 117W B and ABS 2A satellites into GTO. The first stage conducted a re-entry burn and successfully deployed its grid fins, before attempting a landing on the barge. The landing failed in its final moments due to low thrust on one of the first stage engines, caused by the exhaustion of its liquid oxygen fuel supply. That caused the engines to shut down early while the first stage was just above the drone's deck, causing a landing failure.\n\nSection::::Test flights.:Landing attempts.:Flight 27.\n", "Section::::Launch operations.:Post-mission landing test.\n\nFollowing word from SES that SpaceX had allocated some of the normal propellant reserve margins for landing to placing the SES-9 satellite in a higher (and more energetic) orbit than originally planned,\n\nSpaceX confirmed in February that they would still attempt a secondary goal of executing a controlled-descent and vertical landing flight test of the first stage on the SpaceX east-coast Autonomous spaceport drone ship (floating landing platform) named \"Of Course I Still Love You\".\n", "BULLET::::- After several unsuccessful attempts, SpaceX successfully lands the first stage of its Falcon 9 rocket on a platform – which SpaceX refers to as an \"autonomous spaceport drone ship\" – floating in the Atlantic Ocean off Florida after a launch from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. The landing occurs nine minutes after liftoff.\n", "The home port for the \"Marmac 303\" is the Port of Los Angeles, at the AltaSea marine research and business campus in San Pedro's outer harbor. The landing platform and tender vessels began docking there in July 2015 in advance of the main construction of AltaSea which is scheduled for 2017.\n\nSpaceX announced that the \"Marmac 303\" would be the second ASDS to be named \"Just Read the Instructions\" (\"JRtI\") in January 2016, shortly before its first use as a landing platform for Falcon 9 Flight 21.\n", "A mini camera can be included in the CanSat to photograph anything during the time the CanSat is descending in the air. Bearing in mind that the CanSat can not receive orders to operate the camera when the robot is in air so the microprocessor must be the one that orders the camera to take a picture.\n\nThis is an example of a camera for CanSat:\n\nBULLET::::- CameraC328\n\nSection::::Operation of the CanSat.:Secondary elements.:Accelerometer.\n", "Starting in January 2015, SpaceX positioned stable floating platforms a few hundred miles off the coast along the rocket trajectory; those transformed barges were called autonomous spaceport drone ships. On April 8, 2016, Falcon 9 Flight 23, the third flight of the full-thrust version, delivered the SpaceX CRS-8 cargo on its way to the International Space Station while the first stage conducted a boostback and re-entry maneuver over the Atlantic ocean. Nine minutes after liftoff, the booster landed vertically on the drone ship \"Of Course I Still Love You\", 300 km from the Florida coastline, achieving a long-sought-after milestone for the SpaceX reusability development program.\n", "An early report from Elon Musk suggested that the first stage made a hard landing on the drone ship.\n\nMusk later clarified that the bipropellant valve was stuck, and therefore the control system could not react rapidly enough for a successful landing.\n\nOn April 15, SpaceX released a video of the terminal phase of the descent, the landing, the tip over, and the resulting deflagration as the stage broke up on the deck of the ASDS.\n\nSection::::Test flights.:Landing attempts.:Flight 20: first landing on ground pad.\n", "The controller and camera are very similar to Phantom 3 Pro\n\nThe maximum video transmission technology on the Phantom 4 is same as the ones on Phantom 3 Pro and Adv, which is Lightbridge 2, it has a maximum FCC flying range of 5 km.\n\nOn April 13, DJI announced the end of the Phantom 4's lifespan for April 30, 2017.\n\nSection::::Phantom Drones (Legacy).:Phantom 3.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00077	How does the reusable gel heating pads work?	There is a chemical mixture inside, that when excited (by the metallic disk being clicked) produces a self-sustaining exothermic reaction. What this means in layman speak is that the reaction, once started, will continue on its own until it runs out of material, and that the reaction releases heat. When you heat the pads afterwards, you are using heat to cause an endothermic reaction; ie. a reaction that requires heat. You can think of it as melting the stuff back to liquid (or gel) so you can re-use it.	[ "Disposable chemical pads employ a one-time exothermic chemical reaction. One type, frequently used for hand warmers, is triggered by unwrapping an air-tight packet containing slightly moist iron powder and salt or catalysts which rusts over a period of hours after being exposed to oxygen in the air. Another type contains separate compartments within the pad; when the user squeezes the pad, a barrier ruptures and the compartments mix, producing heat such as the enthalpy change of solution of calcium chloride dissolving.\n", "Heating packs can also be made by filling a container with a material that has a high specific heat capacity, which then gradually releases the heat over time. A hot water bottle is the most familiar example of this type of heating pad.\n", "Often, aromatic compounds will also be added to the filler mixture to create a pleasant or soothing smell when heated. The source of these can vary significantly, ranging from adding essential oils to ground up spices such as cloves and nutmeg, or even dried rose petals.\n\nSection::::High specific-heat capacity materials.:Phase-change materials.\n\nPhase change materials can be used for heating pads intended to operate at a fixed temperature. The heat of fusion is used to release the thermal energy. This results in the pad heating up.\n\nSection::::Function.\n", "PTC rubber sheets can be used as thin flexible PTC heaters. These heaters will provide high power when they are cold and rapidly heat up themselves to a constant temperature and remain there virtually unaffected by changes in the ambient conditions. They can be powered with any voltage between 5 and 230 V, AC or DC.\n", "Thermacare heatwraps have been studied in 13 randomized controlled clinical trials for muscle pain relief efficacy.\n\nSection::::How it works.\n\nThe heat is generated from a chemical reaction, iron oxidation, when the pads are unsealed and exposed to air. Iron oxidation is also involved in the rusting of metal, and the transportation of oxygen in blood. The pads' ingredients include activated carbon, iron powder, sodium chloride, sodium thiosulfate, sodium polyacrylate and water, according to the Themacare FAQ\n", "Garments that use gel have cloth pouches or pockets where plastic packages of the gel can be inserted in the garment. Prior to going outdoors, the gel is heated in a microwave. Once outdoors, the gel pack retains its heat for 30 minutes to two hours, depending on the size of the gel pack, the thickness of the insulation protecting the gel pack from the outdoor temperatures, and wind conditions.\n\nSection::::Types.:Technology.:Chemical.\n", "A 2012 special edition Generation 6 Intimidator was also released with multi-colored anodizing and the body surface milled into the shape of flames. This limited release is intended to be a modern incarnation of the ultra rare flame milled Intimidators of generations past, of which only two are known to exist.\n\nSection::::Operation.\n", "The company has developed two versions of the Embrace infant warmer: Embrace Nest, and Embrace Care. The infant warmers are composed of three components: an infant-sized sleeping bag or baby interface, a pouch of phase change material (PCM), and a heater. The pouch, when warmed in the heater and placed into a compartment of the sleeping bag, maintains the World Health Organisation recommended temperature of 37 °C for a period of up to 8 hours. The product was designed to complement skin-to-skin care.\n", "Section::::Method.:Gel properties and polymerization time.\n", "The pad can be reused by placing it in boiling water for 10–15 minutes, which redissolves the sodium acetate trihydrate in the contained water and recreates a supersaturated solution. Once the pad has returned to room temperature it can be triggered again. Triggering the pad before it has reached room temperature results in the pad reaching a lower peak temperature, as compared to waiting until it had completely cooled.\n\nSection::::High specific-heat capacity materials.\n", "The PTC rubber material is a self-regulating heater. It produces the same amount of heat in each point of the heater as is conducted and radiated away from the heater to the object it is attached to, and its surroundings. It is in constant thermal equilibrium with the environment, point by point. A measure of the power produced by the heater is actually a measurement of the heat transfer between the heater and the object. Hence, it can be used as a heat transfer sensor.\n", "One brand of self-heating rations uses 7.5 grams of a powdered magnesium-iron alloy, consisting of 95 % magnesium and 5 % iron by weight, 0.5 grams of salt, in addition to an inner filler and anti-foaming agent. Upon adding 30 milliliters of water, this mixture can heat a 230 gram meal packet by 100 °F in about 10 minutes, releasing approximately 50 kilojoules of heat energy at about 80 watts.\n\nSection::::Confined space hazard.\n", "Section::::Process.\n\nThe process utilizes a closed mold with pre-vacuum, followed by freezing to maintain uniform bubble geometry. Carbon dioxide (CO) is flooded through the frozen, open foam matrix to form carbonic acid (CO+HO→ HCO). Much like the addition of sodium fluorosilicate (NaSiF) in the Dunlop process, the carbonic acid lowers the pH, thereby causing gellation. In the next process step, vulcanization locks the foam into a uniform bubble distribution.\n\nSection::::Process.:Molding.\n", "Section::::Modern innovations.\n\nModern thermal cyclers are equipped with a heated lid that presses against the lids of the reaction tubes. This prevents condensation of water from the reaction mixtures on the insides of the lids. Traditionally, a layer of mineral oil was used for this purpose. Some thermal cyclers are equipped with a fully adjustable heated lid to allow for nonstandard or diverse types of PCR plasticware.\n", "The Kramer brothers sold tunnels for toy train layouts as part of their Life-Like line. The original supplier was making the tunnels from papier mache, but was unable to deliver on a consistent basis. At the same time, they learned about a German manufacturing process to mold expanded polystyrene foam into shapes that could later be painted and decorated. They imported the technology and began making tunnels out of the polystyrene foam. According to son Jay Kramer, workers at the factory discovered the insulating properties of the foam tunnels could be used to keep their lunches hot or cold. Soon after, the company began producing foam ice chest coolers under the Lifoam name in 1954.\n", "BULLET::::- Phase-change materials (PCM): Naturally sticky materials, used in place of thermal greases. Its application is similar to solid pads. After achieving a melting point of - 55-60 degrees, it changes to a half liquid status and fills all gaps between the heat source and the heat sink.\n", "industrially heaters of this type have an isolated heating element embedded in a glass fibre mat. Silicone coated drum heaters are suitable for steel drums, whereas polyester coatings at lower temperatures can be used for plastic containers. As these heaters are flexible and wrap around the container they may also be called band heaters. Up to three band heaters can be applied to a standard 200 litre barrel. \n\nThere is no additional insulation so heat is lost by radiation into the surrounding air and the surface temperatures can be hot enough to burn unprotected hands.\n", "After cross-linking, the sheet is stretched by feeding it into a machine that heats it up, stretches it and cools it down. Because the sheet has been cross-linked, after stretching, it will want to recover to its original length when re-heated.\n\nIn recent years, many manufacturers had already developed their technologies of extruding and expansion of polyolefin backing. In the past, the production process of backing was done by extruding, cross-linking and expansion. However, in order to increase the production efficiency, some of manufacturers expand the backing during extruding, and then send the backing to e-beam for the cross-linking process.\n", "The first high-tech thermo molded cycling pads date back to the early 1990s; gel inserts also make their first appearance and are used in addition to polyurethane foams for extra comfort.\n", "The heaters are preferably made of PTC material, e.g. PTC rubber, to avoid overheating and potentially destroying the heaters. These heaters are self-limiting and require no regulating electronics; they cannot overheat and require no overheat protection.\n\nSection::::Approaches.:Aircraft.\n", "When manufacturing a panel with a polyurethane core pressure and heat are both generated from the expansion of the foam during the foaming process. The skins are set in a large clamping device which functions as a mold. The skins must be held apart from each other to allow the liquid polyurethane materials to flow into the device. Once in the device, the foam begins to rise. The mold/press is generally configured to withstand the heat and the pressures generated from the chemical foaming. The SIP Panel is left in the mold/press to cure slightly and when removed will continue to cure for several days.\n", "Linear Heat Detection (LHD) cable is essentially a two-core cable terminated by an end-of-line resistor (resistance varies with application). The two cores are separated by a polymer plastic, that is designed to melt at a specific temperature (commonly 68 °C for building applications), and without which causes the two cores to short. This can be seen as a change in resistance in the wire.\n\nThere are a limited states the LHD cable can be in:\n\nBULLET::::1. Open-circuit - Effectively an infinite resistance\n\nBULLET::::2. Normal Operating Condition - Apparent resistance will be the same as the end-of-line resistor\n", "Section::::Electro-active SMPs.\n", "Examples of industries where HMA is used includes: \n\nBULLET::::- Closing the flaps of corrugated boxes and paperboard cartons in the packaging industry\n\nBULLET::::- Spine gluing in the bookbinding industry\n\nBULLET::::- Profile-wrapping, product assembly and laminating applications in the woodworking industry\n\nBULLET::::- Disposable diapers are constructed through the use of HMA, bonding the non-woven material to both the backsheet and the elastics\n\nBULLET::::- Many electronic device manufacturers may also use an HMA to affix parts and wires. or to secure, insulate, and protect the device's components\n", "BULLET::::- Conductive heat transfer: The flow of thermal energy through a substance from a higher to a lower temperature region. Foam thermoset plastics reduce conductive heat transfer due in part to having very loose molecular bonds; In addition the cells of the installed spray foam are either filled with air in the case of open cell foam or 245fa in closed cell foam.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04754	How does obesity lead to increased risk of cancer?	Being obese raises the amount of insulin and other hormones like oestrogen in your body. Hormones are basically like little messengers that go around telling cells what to do. This encourages cells to divide. Basically it’s like making your cells age much faster. The more they split, the more likely they are to improperly copy themselves, the DNA gets all messed up, then you have more messed up cells than your body is able to deal with, this is cancer.	[ "Both general and central obesity are associated with an increased risk of colorectal cancer (CRC). The relative risk among obese people relative to those of normal weight has been reported to be 1.334. An association between increased BMI and risk of colorectal adenoma has been reported, as has a dose–response relationship between BMI and colorectal adenoma risk. Increased BMI also increases all-cause mortality and mortality from CRC specifically among people diagnosed with CRC.\n\nSection::::Association by cancer site.:Lung cancer.\n\nObesity has been found to protect against lung cancer, especially among those who smoke or have smoked cigarettes.\n", "Obesity and cancer\n\nThe association between obesity, as defined by a body mass index of 30 or higher, and risk of a variety of types of cancer has received a considerable amount of attention in recent years. Obesity has been associated with an increased risk of esophageal cancer, \n\npancreatic cancer, colorectal cancer, breast cancer (among postmenopausal women), endometrial cancer, kidney cancer, thyroid cancer, liver cancer and gallbladder cancer. Obesity may also lead to increased cancer-related mortality.\n\nSection::::Importance of obesity in causing cancer.\n", "About 75-80% of all cancers in the United States are preventable, if risk factors are avoided (also see (Cancer prevention). Obesity appears to be the third most important risk factor for cancer in the United States, just behind tobacco and diet (see Figure). Obesity is the source of about 15% of all preventable cancers.\n", "In the United States, excess body weight is associated with the development of many types of cancer and is a factor in 14–20% of all cancer deaths. Every year, nearly 85,000 new cancer diagnoses in the United States are related to obesity. Individuals who underwent bariatric surgery for weight loss have reduced cancer incidence and mortality.\n", "Obesity is associated with an increased risk of bladder cancer.\n\nSection::::Association by cancer site.:Breast cancer.\n\nObesity has been found to decrease the risk of breast cancer among African and Caucasian women, but increase it among Asian women. Obesity is also associated with decreased survival among women with breast cancer, regardless of whether the cancer is pre- or post-menopausal.\n\nSection::::Association by cancer site.:Colorectal cancer.\n", "Diet, physical inactivity and obesity are related to up to 30–35% of cancer deaths. In the United States, excess body weight is associated with the development of many types of cancer and is a factor in 14–20% of cancer deaths. A UK study including data on over 5 million people showed higher body mass index to be related to at least 10 types of cancer and responsible for around 12,000 cases each year in that country. Physical inactivity is believed to contribute to cancer risk, not only through its effect on body weight but also through negative effects on the immune system and endocrine system. More than half of the effect from diet is due to overnutrition (eating too much), rather than from eating too few vegetables or other healthful foods.\n", "Diet and cancer\n\nDietary factors are recognized as having a significant effect on the risk of cancers, with different dietary elements both increasing and reducing risk. Diet and obesity may be related to up to 30-35% of cancer deaths, while physical inactivity appears to be related to 7% risk of cancer occurrence. One review in 2011 suggested that total caloric intake influences cancer incidence and possibly progression.\n", "In 2018, Chinese researchers performed a systematic review and comprehensive quantitative meta‐analysis of cohort studies reporting body mass index (BMI) and the risk of 23 cancer types, providing epidemiological evidence supporting the association between BMI and cancer risk. The strongest positive association between BMI and cancer risk was found among patients in North America.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms.\n", "The mechanisms by which obesity may increase the risk of cancer are not well understood, but it is believed that the combined effects of the adipose tissue environment and the endocrine alterations that accompany it among obese people both interact to promote tumor initiation and progression. Adipose tissue also creates an inflammatory environment that enhances the ability of tumor cells to metastatize.\n", "In a study by Donmez-Altuntas et al., 83 obese, 21 over-weight and 21 normal-weight subjects were tested. Frequencies of DNA damages as measured by frequencies of micronuclei, nucleoplasmic bridges and nuclear buds were found to be significantly higher in lymphocytes of obese subjects than in normal-weight and over-weight subjects (p0.01 and p0.05) respectively.\n", "The relationship between diet and the development of particular cancers may partly explain differences in cancer incidence in different countries. For example, gastric cancer is more common in Japan due to the frequency of high-salt diets and colon cancer is more common in the United States due to the increased intake of processed and red meats. Immigrant communities tend to develop the cancer risk profile of their new country, often within one to two generations, suggesting a substantial link between diet and cancer.\n\nSection::::Lifestyle.:Obesity.\n", "There is an associated between obesity and colon cancer, post-menopausal breast cancer, endometrial cancer, kidney cancer, and esophageal cancer. Obesity has also been linked with the development of liver cancer. The current understanding regarding the mechanism of cancer development in obesity relates to abnormal levels of metabolic proteins (including insulin-like growth factors) and sex hormones (estrogens, androgens and progestogens). Adipose tissue also creates an inflammatory environment which may contribute to the development of cancers.\n", "Women that are obese at age 18 have a greater than twofold increased risk of MS.\n\nSection::::Cancer (or oncological).\n\nMany cancers occur at increased frequency in those who are overweight or obese. A study from the United Kingdom found that approximately 5% of cancer is due to excess weight. These cancers include:\n", "DNA damage appears to be the primary cause of cancer (see Carcinogenesis). It is not clear which factor(s) altered by obesity are major source(s) of the DNA damages causing increased cancer risk in obese individuals. However, both reduced DNA repair and increased DNA damage are observed in obese individuals.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms.:Reduced DNA repair.\n\nAs first noted in 2005, there is evidence that overweight/obesity is associated with reduced DNA repair capacity. This was shown, in particular, in women with breast cancer.\n\nLymphocytes from postmenopausal obese women also have reduced DNA repair capacity compared to non-obese postmenopausal women.\n", "Physical inactivity is believed to contribute to cancer risk not only through its effect on body weight but also through negative effects on immune system and endocrine system. More than half of the effect from diet is due to overnutrition rather than from eating too little healthy foods.\n\nSection::::Hormones.\n\nSome hormones play a role in the development of cancer by promoting cell proliferation. Insulin-like growth factors and their binding proteins play a key role in cancer cell growth, differentiation and apoptosis, suggesting possible involvement in carcinogenesis.\n", "An 8-fold and 5.6-fold increase in nuclear damage was observed in lymphocytes of obese and overweight children respectively, compared to children of normal weight, evaluated by the gamma-H2AX focus assay. The gamma-H2AX assay generally reflects the presence of double-strand breaks in DNA, though the assay may indicate other DNA damages as well. Similarly, there was a 2.7-fold and 2.5-fold increase in micronuclei in lymphocytes of obese and overweight children respectively, compared to children of normal weight. Micronuclei are usually a sign of genotoxic events and chromosomal instability (see Micronucleus).\n", "While many dietary recommendations have been proposed to reduce the risk of cancer, few have significant supporting scientific evidence. Obesity and drinking alcohol have been correlated with the incidence and progression of some cancers. Lowering the drinking of beverages sweetened with sugar is recommended as a measure to address obesity. A diet low in fruits and vegetables and high in red meat has been implicated but not confirmed, and the effect may be small for well-nourished people who maintain a healthy weight.\n", "Obesity is a physical risk factor that has been found to increase the risk of gastric adenocarcinoma by contributing to the development of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). The exact mechanism by which obesity causes GERD is not completely known. Studies hypothesize that increased dietary fat leading to increased pressure on the stomach and the lower esophageal sphincter, due to excess adipose tissue, could play a role, yet no statistically significant data has been collected. However, the risk of gastric cardia adenocarcinoma, with GERD present, has been found to increase more than 2 times for an obese person. There is a correlation between iodine deficiency and gastric cancer.\n", "If DNA repair is reduced by obesity, this would allow DNA damages to accumulate. Excess DNA damages, when present in replicating cells, can cause an increase in oncogenic mutations through error-prone translesion synthesis during replication.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms.:Increased DNA damage.\n", "Other factors are relevant: obese people have higher levels of some hormones associated with cancer and a higher rate of those cancers. Women who take hormone replacement therapy have a higher risk of developing cancers associated with those hormones. On the other hand, people who exercise far more than average have lower levels of these hormones and lower risk of cancer. Osteosarcoma may be promoted by growth hormones. Some treatments and prevention approaches leverage this cause by artificially reducing hormone levels and thus discouraging hormone-sensitive cancers.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Autoimmune diseases.\n", "Before menopause, obesity can increase a person's risk of ovarian cancer, but this risk is not present after menopause. This risk is also relevant in those who are both obese and have never used HRT. A similar association with ovarian cancer appears in taller people.\n\nSection::::Risk factors.:Genetics.\n\nA family history of ovarian cancer is a risk factor for ovarian cancer. People with hereditary nonpolyposis colon cancer (Lynch syndrome), and those with BRCA-1 and BRCA-2 genetic abnormalities are at increased risk.\n", "Hofer et al., used the enzyme formamidopyrimidine DNA glycosylase (FPG) and gel electrophoresis to measure levels of DNA damage (oxidized purines). They found two factors that can affect DNA damage in a young healthy population. These were fruit intake (high intake; lower DNA damage) and BMI (high BMI; higher DNA damage).\n\nIn the study by Tafurt-Cardona et al., described above, where they found reduced DNA repair in obese postmenopausal women, they also found increased DNA damages, as measured by frequencies of chromosome aberrations, in the obese postmenopausal women.\n\nSection::::Association by cancer site.\n\nSection::::Association by cancer site.:Bladder cancer.\n", "Some specific foods are linked to specific cancers. A high-salt diet is linked to gastric cancer. Aflatoxin B1, a frequent food contaminant, causes liver cancer. Betel nut chewing can cause oral cancer. National differences in dietary practices may partly explain differences in cancer incidence. For example, gastric cancer is more common in Japan due to its high-salt diet while colon cancer is more common in the United States. Immigrant cancer profiles mirror those of their new country, often within one generation.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Infection.\n", "The study and its analysis is ongoing, but key results of the study retrieved in 2008 are:\n\nBULLET::::- Lowered sodium from salt intake, high potassium from fruit and vegetable consumption promote healthy blood pressure levels\n\nBULLET::::- High physical activity, involving some high impact activities is a good indicator of longevity and low risk of bone fractures\n\nBULLET::::- High dietary fibre protects against bowel cancer\n\nBULLET::::- Obesity increases a number of cancer risks\n\nBULLET::::- High levels of sex hormones increase risk of breast cancer\n\nBULLET::::- Increased fat intake increases the risk of breast cancer\n", "Low immune function has also been implicated in endometrial cancer. High blood pressure is also a risk factor, but this may be because of its association with obesity. Sitting regularly for prolonged periods is associated with higher mortality from endometrial cancer. The risk is not negated by regular exercise, though it is lowered.\n\nSection::::Risk factors.:Protective factors.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-05010	How do we get hens to lay larger eggs?	Genetic engineering, or as its more commonly known, husbandry. You have a flock of hens who lay eggs of varying sizes. You take the ones who lay the biggest eggs, fertilise some of their eggs and wait till they hatch. Use the roosters from them to fertilize more eggs, fertilize the eggs of the daughter hens that lay the biggest ones, repeat ad infinitum. Keep this going for a few thousand generations, we humans have been doing since we figured out agriculture even if we only understood the actual mechanism far later thanks to Gregor Mendel, and you have chickens in general that lay large eggs. In effect you are just doing natural selection but artificially, you are promoting certain traits within your chicken population over time. There are almost definitely more micro ways to increase egg size in individual hens rather than just the whole population over time, like the environment you keep the hens in, their food, etc. But I have no idea about that stuff, cant help there.	[ "Meat chickens, commonly called broilers, are floor-raised on litter such as wood shavings, peanut shells, and rice hulls, indoors in climate-controlled housing. Under modern farming methods, meat chickens reared indoors reach slaughter weight at 5 to 9 weeks of age, as they have been selectively bred to do so. In the first week of a broiler’s life, it can grow up to 300 percent of its body size. A nine-week-old broiler averages over 9 pounds in body weight. At nine weeks, a hen will average around 7 pounds and a rooster will weigh around 12 pounds, having a nine-pound average.\n", "Egg-laying chickens include the two groups, Bantams and Standards. Often raised as pets, Bantams are the smaller variety of chickens that require less space and feed. These smaller chickens provide smaller eggs, but still produce a large quantity of eggs. Standards rage from heavy to light breeds and produce the average sized eggs.\n\nSection::::Chick care.\n\nSection::::Chick care.:Purchasing chickens.\n\nChicken owners need to find a place to purchase chickens. Oftentimes, people purchase chickens at local feed stores, or through a hatchery.\n\nSection::::Chick care.:Creating a brooder.\n", "In some countries, flocks of commercial layer hens are force-moulted to reinvigorate egg-laying. This usually involves complete withdrawal of their food and sometimes water for 7–14 days or up to 28 days under experimental conditions, which presumably reflect standard farming practice in some countries. This causes a body weight loss of 25 to 35%, which stimulates the hen to lose her feathers, but also reinvigorates egg-production. Some flocks may be force-moulted several times. In 2003, more than 75% of all flocks were force-moulted in the US. Other methods of inducing a moult include low-density diets (e.g. grape pomace, cotton seed meal, alfalfa meal) or dietary manipulation to create an imbalance of a particular nutrient(s). The most important among these include manipulation of minerals including sodium (Na), calcium (Ca), iodine (I) and zinc (Zn), with full or partially reduced dietary intakes.\n", "Environmental conditions are often automatically controlled in egg-laying systems. For example, the duration of the light phase is initially increased to prompt the beginning of egg-laying at 16–20 weeks of age and then mimics summer day length which stimulates the hens to continue laying eggs all year round; normally, egg production occurs only in the warmer months. Some commercial breeds of hen can produce over 300 eggs a year.\n\nSection::::Egg-laying chickens.:Free-range.\n", "BULLET::::- If more than one level is used, a height of at least 45 cm between the levels\n\nBULLET::::- One nest for every seven hens (or 1 m of nest space for every 120 hens if group nests are used)\n\nBULLET::::- Litter (e.g. wood shavings) covering at least one-third of the floor surface, providing at least 250 cm of littered area per hen\n\nBULLET::::- 15 cm of perching space per hen.\n\nIn addition to these requirements, free-range systems must also provide the following:\n", "Larger poultry hatcheries are related to industrial poultry meat or egg production. This is a multibillion dollar industry, with highly regimented production systems used to maximize bird size or egg production versus feed consumed. Generally large numbers are produced at one time so the resulting birds are uniform in size and can be harvested (for meat) or brought into production (for eggs) at the same time. A large hatchery produces 15 million chicks annually.\n", "Commercial hens usually begin laying eggs at 16–20 weeks of age, although production gradually declines soon after from approximately 25 weeks of age. This means that in many countries, by approximately 72 weeks of age, flocks are considered economically unviable and are slaughtered after approximately 12 months of egg production, although chickens will naturally live for 6 or more years. However, in some countries, rather than being slaughtered, the hens are force molted to re-invigorate egg-laying for a second, and sometimes subsequent, laying phase.\n", "When the rooster mates with the hen, sperm enter the hen's oviduct and are stored within sperm storage glands. These glands can store more than half a million sperm, and sperm can remain viable for up to 3 weeks. However, a hen will have maximum fertility for only about 3 to 4 days after one mating. Therefore, the male-to-female ratio in a flock must be enough to ensure mating of every hen every 3 days or so. To maintain fertility, younger roosters may be introduced as the flock ages.\n", "With dairy cattle, culling may be practised by inseminating inferior cows with beef breed semen and by selling the produced offspring for meat production.\n\nWith poultry, males which would grow up to be roosters have little use in an industrial egg-producing facility. Approximately half of the newly hatched chicks will be male and would grow up to be roosters, which do not lay eggs. For this reason, the hatchlings are culled based on gender. Most of the male chicks are usually killed shortly after hatching.\n\nSection::::Wildlife.\n", "On average, a chicken lays one egg a day for a number of days (a \"clutch\"), then does not lay for one or more days, then lays another clutch. Originally, the hen presumably laid one clutch, became broody, and incubated the eggs. Selective breeding over the centuries has produced hens that lay more eggs than they can hatch. Some of this progress was ancient, but most occurred after 1900. In 1900, average egg production was 83 eggs per hen per year. In 2000, it was well over 300.\n", "The modern hatchery manager’s goal is to produce large numbers of uniform, robust, day-old chicks. Robustness is a health criterion, originating in the embryonic life stage of the chicken – and correlating directly with the performance and resistance of individual chicks under differing farm conditions. Incubating different species of birds at the same time is possible within the same incubator.\n\nSection::::Incubation methods.\n", "Section::::Courtship and mating.:Offspring.\n\nHens build nests and lay and incubate their eggs under the cover of sagebrush. The hen uses grass and forbs between patches of sagebrush for additional cover.\n\nChicks can walk as soon as they are hatched and are able to fly short distances within two weeks. Within five weeks they are able to fly longer distances.\n\nSection::::Conservation status.\n", " in the US, broiler chickens has an FCR of 1.6 based on body weight gain, and mature in 39 days. At around the same time the FCR based on weight gain for broilers in Brazil was 1.8.\n\nFor hens used in egg production in the US, the FCR was about 2, with each hen laying about 330 eggs per year.\n", "Section::::Egg-laying chickens.:Battery cage.\n", "Section::::Current status.\n\nToday, eggs are produced on large egg ranches on which environmental parameters are controlled. Chickens are exposed to artificial light cycles to stimulate egg production year-round. In addition, it is a common practice to induce molting through manipulation of light and the amount of food they receive in order to further increase egg size and production.\n", "Section::::Production methods.:Physiological basis.:Pre feeding phase.\n\nThe pre-force feeding phase consists of three stages.\n\nBULLET::::- The first stage (\"start-up\") lasts from 1 to 28 days of age (0–4 weeks). During this stage, the young birds are housed in large, indoor groups (e.g. 2,100), usually on straw.\n", "Poultry generally start with naturally (most species) or artificially (turkeys and Cornish-related chicken breeds) inseminated hens that lay eggs; the eggs are cleaned and shells are checked for soundness before being put into the incubators. Incubators control temperature and humidity, and turn the eggs until just before they hatch. Three days before the eggs are scheduled to hatch, they are moved into a hatcher unit, where they are no longer turned so the embryos have time to get properly oriented for their exit from the shell, and the temperature and humidity are optimum for hatching. Once the eggs hatch and the chicks are a few days old, they are often vaccinated.\n", "Section::::Egg-laying chickens.:Furnished cage.\n", "Due to modern selective breeding, laying hen strains differ from meat production strains (broilers). In the United States, males are culled in egg production, since males \"don’t lay eggs or grow large enough to become broilers\".\n\nDucklings and goslings are also culled in the production of foie gras. However, because males put on more weight than females in this production system, the females are culled.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Commercial hens usually begin laying eggs at 16–21 weeks of age, although production gradually declines soon after from approximately 25 weeks of age. This means that in many countries, by approximately 72 weeks of age, flocks are considered economically unviable and are slaughtered after approximately 12 months of egg production, although chickens will naturally live for 6 or more years. In some countries, hens are force moulted to re-invigorate egg-laying.\n", "Worldwide, the primary sector produced 417 million parent stock (PS) per year.\n\nA single pedigree-level hen might have 25000 parent stock bird descendants, which in turn might produce 3 million broilers.\n\nNumerous techniques are used to assess the pedigree stock. For example, birds might be examined with ultrasound or x-rays to study the shape of muscles and bones. The blood oxygen level is measured to determine cardiovascular health. The walking ability of pedigree candidates is observed and scored.\n", "Chick sexing is optionally done to improve uniformity – since males grow faster, the weights are more uniform if males and females are raised separately. The birds are bred so that males and females have unique feather patterns or color differences. Unlike egg-laying poultry, males are not culled.\n\nTypical hatchability rate in Canada in 2011 was 82.2%. (i.e. 82.2% of eggs set for incubation produced a saleable chick). A UK source estimates 90% hatchability.\n\nSection::::Broiler industry structure.:Broiler farms.\n\nThe chicks are delivered to the actual broiler \"Grow-Out\" farms.\n", "Enrichment of laying hen cages ultimately results in better bone quality. This is a result of the increased activity in the hens from the additional space and enrichment provided in the furnished housing system.\n", "Broiler breeder farms raise parent stock which produce fertilized eggs. A broiler hatching egg is never sold at stores and is not meant for human consumption. The males and females are separate genetic lines or breeds. The chicks they produce will therefore be crossbreeds or \"crosses\". Since the birds are bred mainly for efficient meat production, producing eggs can be a challenge. In Canada, the average producer houses 15,000 birds that begin laying hatching eggs at 26 weeks of age. Each bird will lay about 150 hatching eggs for the next 34 to 36 weeks. This cycle is then repeated when the producer puts another flock of 26 week-old birds into his barns to begin the process again. As a general rule, each farmer produces enough broiler hatching eggs to supply chicks for 8 chicken producers. (Other sources indicate a parent hen will lay about 180 eggs in a 40-week production period.)\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.\n\nA presumptive diagnosis can be made in flocks of laying hens, usually based on a history of decreasing egg production, anaemia and mortalities in young or ill birds. Blood spots on eggs indicate infestation within the cloaca of an affected hen. Definitive diagnosis is only achieved following identification of eggs, feces or the mites themselves.\n\nSection::::Prevention and treatment.\n\nThere are several methods for preventing infestation in hen houses including:\n\nBULLET::::- Heating the henhouse to temperatures above 55 °C/131 °F.\n\nBULLET::::- Regular washing down of the housing system.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00751	why is it impossible to duplicate crypto currencies and can we do somethimg simialiar with digital movies and games to counter piracy?	You can duplicate crypto currencies quite easily- it's just copying a file on a hard drive. What you can't do is spend it twice, because in order to spend a crypto currency you have to announce to every other user of the currency that "I am sending this coin to this other wallet" and they're going to be like "no, our records show that you no longer have that coin" because the blockchain keeps a list of all of the past transactions. It's theoretically possible to trick the network into accepting some different record as true, but coming up with another record that it would think is valid would require every computer on Earth to work on this problem for several thousand years.	[ "Most cryptocurrencies are designed to gradually decrease production of that currency, placing a cap on the total amount of that currency that will ever be in circulation. Compared with ordinary currencies held by financial institutions or kept as cash on hand, cryptocurrencies can be more difficult for seizure by law enforcement. This difficulty is derived from leveraging cryptographic technologies.\n\nSection::::Architecture.:Blockchain.\n", "Section::::DES Challenges.\n", "While cryptocurrencies are digital currencies that are managed through advanced encryption techniques, many governments have taken a cautious approach toward them, fearing their lack of central control and the effects they could have on financial security. Regulators in several countries have warned against cryptocurrency and some have taken concrete regulatory measures to dissuade users. Additionally, many banks do not offer services for cryptocurrencies and can refuse to offer services to virtual-currency companies. Gareth Murphy, a senior central banking officer has stated \"widespread use [of cryptocurrency] would also make it more difficult for statistical agencies to gather data on economic activity, which are used by governments to steer the economy\". He cautioned that virtual currencies pose a new challenge to central banks' control over the important functions of monetary and exchange rate policy. While traditional financial products have strong consumer protections in place, there is no intermediary with the power to limit consumer losses if bitcoins are lost or stolen. One of the features cryptocurrency lacks in comparison to credit cards, for example, is consumer protection against fraud, such as chargebacks.\n", "Currencies in science fiction face particular problems due to futuristic technology allowing matter replication and hence forgery. Authors have proposed currencies that are incapable of replication such as the non-replicable \"latinum\" used by the Ferengi in the \"Star Trek\" universe, or the currency in \"Pandora's Millions\" by George O. Smith, which is booby-trapped to explode if scanned by a replicating machine. Money in fantasy fiction faces analogous challenges from the use of magic; in the \"Harry Potter\" series by J. K. Rowling, magically-created currency is time-limited, while in Ursula K. Le Guin's fictional realm of Earthsea, the world's equilibrium is unbalanced when something is created from nothing.\n", "Many existing digital currencies have not yet seen widespread usage, and may not be easily used or exchanged. Banks generally do not accept or offer services for them. There are concerns that cryptocurrencies are extremely risky due to their very high volatility and potential for pump and dump schemes. Regulators in several countries have warned against their use and some have taken concrete regulatory measures to dissuade users. The non-cryptocurrencies are all centralized. As such, they may be shut down or seized by a government at any time. The more anonymous a currency is, the more attractive it is to criminals, regardless of the intentions of its creators. Bitcoin has also been criticised for its energy inefficient SHA-256-based proof of work.\n", "Section::::Export of cryptography from the United States.:Current status.\n", "Cryptocurrencies are a potential tool to evade economic sanctions for example against Russia, Iran, or Venezuela. In April 2018, Russian and Iranian economic representatives met to discuss how to bypass the global SWIFT system through decentralized blockchain technology. Russia also secretly supported Venezuela with the creation of the petro (El Petro), a national cryptocurrency initiated by the Maduro government to obtain valuable oil revenues by circumventing US sanctions.\n\nIn August 2018, the Bank of Thailand announced its plans to create its own cryptocurrency, the Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC).\n\nSection::::Legality.:Advertising bans.\n", "A cryptocurrency is a digital currency using cryptography to secure transactions and to control the creation of new currency units. Since not all virtual currencies use cryptography, not all virtual currencies are cryptocurrencies. Cryptocurrencies are generally not legal tender. Ecuador is the first country attempting a government run digital currency -no cryptocurrency; during the introductory phase from Christmas Eve 2014 until mid February 2015 people can open accounts and change passwords. At the end of February 2015 transactions of electronic money will be possible.\n\nSection::::Regulation.\n", "In May 2018, Bitcoin Gold (and two other cryptocurrencies) were hit by a successful 51% hashing attack by an unknown actor, in which exchanges lost estimated $18m. In June 2018, Korean exchange Coinrail was hacked, losing US$37 million worth of altcoin. Fear surrounding the hack was blamed for a $42 billion cryptocurrency market selloff. On 9 July 2018 the exchange Bancor had $23.5 million in cryptocurrency stolen.\n\nThe French regulator Autorité des marchés financiers (AMF) lists 15 websites of companies that solicit investment in cryptocurrency without being authorised to do so in France.\n\nSection::::Legality.:Darknet markets.\n", "Virtual currencies lack many of the regulations and consumer protections that legal tender currencies have. Under U.S. law, a cardholder of a credit card is protected from liability in excess of $50 if the card was used for an unauthorized transaction.\n", "There are also purely technical elements to consider. For example, technological advancement in cryptocurrencies such as bitcoin result in high up-front costs to miners in the form of specialized hardware and software. Cryptocurrency transactions are normally irreversible after a number of blocks confirm the transaction. Additionally, cryptocurrency private keys can be permanently lost from local storage due to malware, data loss or the destruction of the physical media. This prevents the cryptocurrency from being spent, resulting in its effective removal from the markets.\n", ", over 1,800 cryptocurrency specifications existed. Within a cryptocurrency system, the safety, integrity and balance of ledgers is maintained by a community of mutually distrustful parties referred to as miners: who use their computers to help validate and timestamp transactions, adding them to the ledger in accordance with a particular timestamping scheme.\n", "Virtual currencies pose challenges for central banks, financial regulators, departments or ministries of finance, as well as fiscal authorities and statistical authorities.\n\nGareth Murphy, Central Bank of Ireland, described the regulatory challenges posed by virtual currencies as relating to:\n\nBULLET::::- Economic statistics\n\nBULLET::::- Monetary and exchange rate policy\n\nBULLET::::- Tax leakage\n\nBULLET::::- Payment systems and settlement infrastructure\n\nBULLET::::- Consumer protection\n\nBULLET::::- Anti-money laundering\n\nBULLET::::- Impact of financial regulation on financial service providers\n\nSection::::Regulation.:US Treasury guidance.\n", "Darknet markets present challenges in regard to legality. Bitcoins and other forms of cryptocurrency used in dark markets are not clearly or legally classified in almost all parts of the world. In the U.S., bitcoins are labelled as \"virtual assets\". This type of ambiguous classification puts pressure on law enforcement agencies around the world to adapt to the shifting drug trade of dark markets.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "Szabo proposes that smart contract infrastructure can be implemented by replicated asset registries and contract execution using cryptographic hash chains and Byzantine fault-tolerant replication. Askemos implemented this approach\n\nin 2002 using Scheme\n\n(later adding SQLite) as contract script language.\n\nOne proposal for using bitcoin for replicated asset registration and contract execution is called \"colored coins\". Replicated titles for potentially arbitrary forms of property, along with replicated contract execution, are implemented in different projects.\n\n, UBS was experimenting with \"smart bonds\" that use the bitcoin blockchain\n\nin which payment streams could hypothetically be fully automated, creating a self-paying instrument.\n\nSection::::Security issues.\n", "Such an attack, difficult to fix quickly, was successfully executed on The DAO in June 2016, draining in Ether while developers attempted to come to a solution that would gain consensus. The DAO program had a time delay in place before the hacker could remove the funds; a hard fork of the Ethereum software was done to claw back the funds from the attacker before the time limit expired.\n", "BULLET::::- Schnorr signatures have been proposed as a scaling solution by long-time developer and Blockstream co-founder Pieter Wuille.\n\nBULLET::::- Merkelized Abstract Syntax Trees (MAST) is a proposal by Johnson Lau which reduces the size of smart contracts (complex scripts), and increases their privacy.\n\nBULLET::::- A 2006 paper by Mihir Bellare enables signature aggregation in O(1) size, which means that it will not take more space to have multiple signers. Bellare-Neven reduces to Schnorr for a single key. Bellare-Neven has been implemented.\n\nSection::::\"Layer 2\" systems.\n", "There are many official currencies worldwide but not all currencies are traded actively in the forex market. Currencies backed by economically and politically stable nations or unions such as USD and EUR are traded actively. Also, the more liquid the currency, the more demand there is for that currency. For example, United States dollar is world's most actively traded currency due to the size and strength of the United States economy and global acceptance of USD.\n", "The validity of each cryptocurrency's coins is provided by a blockchain. A blockchain is a continuously growing list of records, called \"blocks\", which are linked and secured using cryptography. Each block typically contains a hash pointer as a link to a previous block, a timestamp and transaction data. By design, blockchains are inherently resistant to modification of the data. It is \"an open, distributed ledger that can record transactions between two parties efficiently and in a verifiable and permanent way\". For use as a distributed ledger, a blockchain is typically managed by a peer-to-peer network collectively adhering to a protocol for validating new blocks. Once recorded, the data in any given block cannot be altered retroactively without the alteration of all subsequent blocks, which requires collusion of the network majority.\n", "In March 2018, the Marshall Islands became the first country to issue their own cryptocurrency and certify it as legal tender; the currency is called the \"sovereign\".\n\nCanada\n\nThe Bank of Canada have explored the possibility of creating a version of its currency on the blockchain.\n", "Berenberg, a German bank, believes that blockchain is an \"overhyped technology\" that has had a large number of \"proofs of concept\", but still has major challenges, and very few success stories.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Video games.\n\nA blockchain game \"CryptoKitties\", launched in November 2017. The game made headlines in December 2017 when a cryptokitty character - an in-game virtual pet - was sold for more than US$100,000. \"CryptoKitties\" illustrated scalability problems for games on Ethereum when it created significant congestion on the Ethereum network with about 30% of all Ethereum transactions being for the game.\n", "Virtual currencies have been called \"closed\" or \"fictional currency\" when they have no official connection to the real economy, for example, currencies in massively multiplayer online role-playing games such as World of Warcraft. While there may be a grey market for exchanging such currencies or other virtual assets for real-world assets, this is usually forbidden by the games' terms of service.\n\nSection::::Categorization by currency flow.:Virtual currencies with currency flow into one direction.\n", "Identity-based security mechanisms cannot authorise an operation without authenticating the claiming entity. This means that no interaction can occur unless both parties are known by their authentication frameworks. Spontaneous interactions would, therefore, require a single, or a few trusted certificate authorities (CAs). In the present context, PKI has not been considered since they have issues, thus it is unlikely that they will establish themselves as a reference standard in the near future. A user who wishes to collaborate with another party can choose between enabling security and thereby disabling spontaneous collaboration, or disabling security and enabling spontaneous collaboration. It is fundamental that mobile users and devices can authenticate in an autonomous way without relying on a common authentication infrastructure. In order to face this problem, we need to examine the challenges introduced by \"global computing\", a term coined by the EU for the future of the global information society, and to identify their impact on security.\n", "On 20 February 2017, a malicious coding attack on Zerocoin protocol created 370,000 fake tokens which perpetrators sold for over 400 Bitcoins ($440,000). Zcoin team announced that a single-symbol error in a piece of code \"allowed an attacker to create Zerocoin spend transactions without a corresponding mint\". Unlike Ethereum during the DAO event, developers have opted not to destroy any coins or attempt to reverse what happened with the newly generated ones.\n", "In the United States, electronic money is governed by Article 4A of the Uniform Commercial Code for wholesale transactions and the Electronic Fund Transfer Act for consumer transactions. Provider's responsibility and consumer's liability are regulated under Regulation E.\n\nSection::::Regulation.\n\nVirtual currencies pose challenges for central banks, financial regulators, departments or ministries of finance, as well as fiscal authorities and statistical authorities.\n\nSection::::Regulation.:U.S. Treasury guidance.\n\nOn 20 March 2013, the Financial Crimes Enforcement Network issued a guidance to clarify how the U.S. Bank Secrecy Act applied to persons creating, exchanging, and transmitting virtual currencies.\n\nSection::::Regulation.:Securities and Exchange Commission guidance.\n" ]	[ "It is not possible to duplicate cryptocurrency.", "Crypto is impossible to duplicate." ]	[ "Cryptocurrency can be duplicated but can't be spent twice.", "Crypto can be duplicated by copying a file on a hard drive, it just can't be spent more than once. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "It is not possible to duplicate cryptocurrency.", "Crypto is impossible to duplicate." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Cryptocurrency can be duplicated but can't be spent twice.", "Crypto can be duplicated by copying a file on a hard drive, it just can't be spent more than once. " ]
2018-13434	Why do emergency broadcasts over the radio have such horrible sound quality?	The emergency broadcast system was originally built during the cold war. Today we use it largely for storm warnings, but it also has the capacity to operate during major natural disasters and national security events. Basically, the equipment is supposed to withstand a nuclear bombing and deliver instructions to the survivors. So fancy power hungry high-fidelity radio equipment isn't important. Rugged, low power wartime radios that can run from a bunker are. It sounds like a cold war era doomsday radio message because it is.	[ "BULLET::::- An EBS Test from WPGC in Washington D.C., c. 1981 Windows Media Player is required to hear this file.\n\nBULLET::::- A tornado warning from WNAS Cable-TV in New Albany, IN for Clark County, IN, c. 1990\n\nBULLET::::- North Carolina EBS Training Video, c. 1990\n\nBULLET::::- A history of CONELRAD to EBS to EAS from Filcro Media 1951 - 2008, c 2008 The convergent role of each government agency\n\nBULLET::::- WFIL's pre recorded attack warning message\n\nBULLET::::- WCCO-AM Minneapolis/St. Paul, MN pre recorded attack warning messages from 1961 and aircheck of 1971 EBS mistake\n", "Section::::Testing the system.:Original plan.\n", "A battery-powered radio may be helpful to get reports of fallout patterns and clearance. However, radio and other electronic equipment may be disabled by electromagnetic pulse. For example, even at the height of the cold war, EMP protection had been completed for only 125 of the approximately 2,771 radio stations in the United States Emergency Broadcast System. Also, only 110 of 3,000 existing Emergency Operating Centers had been protected against EMP effects. The Emergency Broadcast System has since been supplanted in the United States by the Emergency Alert System.\n", "BULLET::::- \"\"This is a test of the Emergency Broadcast System. The broadcasters of your area in voluntary cooperation with the FCC and other authorities\" (or, in later years, \"federal, state and local authorities\") \"have developed this system to keep you informed in the event of an emergency.\"\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"\"This is a test of the Emergency Broadcast System. Broadcasters, in cooperation with the FCC and other authorities\" (or, in later years, \"federal, state and local authorities\") \"have developed this system to keep you informed in the event of an emergency.\"\"\n", "By the early 1980s, it was easier for stations to record and relay messages from a primary station, and the risk of hostile bombers using broadcast signals to navigate lessened due to the development of ICBMs. As a result, the requirement to shut down during an activation of the system was dropped, and the message became:\n\nBULLET::::- \"\"If this had been an actual emergency, the Attention Signal you just heard would have been followed by official information, news, or instructions.\"\n", "Section::::Broadcast technologies.:Infrastructure-independent.\n\nBroadcast technologies that do not depend on man-made infrastructure to convey communication may be least susceptible to disruption during disasters and emergencies. Some examples of infrastructure-independent technologies are:\n\nBULLET::::- Short-wave Radio\n\nBULLET::::- Two-way Radio\n\nBULLET::::- Weather Radio\n\nBULLET::::- Internet Based Communication\n\nEach device has its own pros and cons given the emergency situation.\n\nSection::::Broadcast technologies.:Infrastructure-dependent.\n\nBroadcast technologies that depend on man-made infrastructure to convey communication are susceptible to disruption if any part of that infrastructure is overloaded, damaged or otherwise destroyed. Some examples of infrastructure-dependent technologies are:\n\nBULLET::::- Audio Public Address Systems\n\nBULLET::::- WMT Public Address Systems\n", "Section::::Testing the system.:Purpose of the test and cultural impact.\n\nThe purpose of the test was to allow the FCC and broadcasters to verify that EBS tone transmitters and decoders were functioning properly. In addition to the weekly test, test activations of the entire system were conducted periodically for many years. These tests showed that about 80% of broadcast outlets nationwide would carry emergency programming within a period of five minutes when the system was activated.\n", "Section::::History.:Cold War.:Emergency Broadcast System.\n\nIn 1963, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) created the Emergency Broadcast System to replace CONELRAD. The EBS served as the primary alert system through the Cold War ICBM era and well into the 1990s. In addition to these, air raid sirens such as the Thunderbolt siren pictured to the right, would sound an alert.\n\nSection::::History.:Post–Cold War.\n", "The weekly broadcasts of the EBS attention signal and test script made it a significant part of the American cultural fabric of its time, and became the subject of a great number of jokes and skits, such as the sung versions of the test script in the late 1970s. In addition, many people have testified to being frightened by the test patterns and attention signal as children.\n\nSection::::Criticism.\n", "Section::::Testing the system.:Later test pattern.\n\nBeginning in 1976, the old CONELRAD signaling method (the \"EBS Stress Test\") was scrapped in favor of the following procedure:\n\n1. Normal programming was suspended, though tests were typically done during commercial breaks for continuity reasons. Television stations would transmit a video slide such as the one illustrated at the beginning of the article; numerous designs were available over the years. One of the following announcements was transmitted:\n", "BULLET::::- Personal remembrance of the 1971 false alarm with scans of relevant Teletype messages and immediately following UPI story\n\nBULLET::::- EBS Authenticator Word List & more\n\nBULLET::::- An atypical EBS Test from WHEN Syracuse c. 1975, arranged in the style of a radio jingle Real Audio\n\nBULLET::::- Another example of WHEN Syracuse's sung version of the EBS Test announcement, c. 1975\n\nBULLET::::- A test of the EBS from WNBC-TV in New York City, 1980-12-24\n\nBULLET::::- A test of the EBS from WHAS-TV Louisville, KY, c. 1994\n\nBULLET::::- An EBS Test from KGO-TV in San Francisco, c. 1990\n", "\"\"...But Lucas, like some other radio managers, wonders whether the high standards of IBA studio specifications are always necessary. 'A significant proportion of studio costs comes in sound-proofing them'; says Lucas. 'Would it really matter if the listener heard the occasional lorry rumbling past outside? With most stations operating on close mic techniques anyway, peripheral noise can be minor'\".\"\n", "The design of most of the products used sealed cases (no ventilation) and linear power supplies. This resulted in very long life, particularly when used in dirty environments. The sealed cases meant that the electronics were protected from dirt and corrosion. Products such as the exciters, audio failure detectors and radio links remain in regular use around the world, despite being 20–30 years old.\n\nSection::::Locations.\n", "The solutions developed by WCRB were not just about getting high fidelity audio from remote locations to the studio. Often they involved solutions to problems that nobody anticipated. On November 9, 1965, the northeastern US experienced a massive power blackout. WCRB had a backup power generator at its Waltham studios and also at its Needham FM transmitter site. Within a few minutes of the power failure, WCRB was back on the air. At first, nobody knew how long the power failure would last, or its extent.\n", "Communication failures have been a defining part of natural disasters and even some human-generated events such as the September 11 attacks that occurred in New York City in 2001. A lack of communication between firefighters at the World Trade Center contributed directly to the deaths of 300 of those firefighters. Amateur radio provides a means of communication \"when all else fails\".\n\nSection::::Historical operations.\n", "Depending on the location, time, and nature of the emergency, a large variety of limitations could present themselves when it comes to communicating details of an emergency and any resultant actions that may need to be taken to protect life and property. For example, an audio public address system might be rendered ineffective if the emergency happens to be an explosive event which renders most or all of those affected deaf. Another common example might be the limitation of a fire alarm's siren component in a deaf school. Yet another example of a limitation could be the overloading of public services (such as cellular phone networks), resulting in the delay of vital SMS messages until they are too late, such as occurred during the Boston Marathon bombing.\n", "There were a number of variations for the second half of the statement. During the system's early days, stations other than the designated primary station for an operational area were required to shut down in the event of an emergency (reminiscent of the CONELRAD days), and the message was a variation of:\n\nBULLET::::- \"\"If this had been an actual emergency, you would have been instructed to tune to one of the broadcast stations in your area.\"\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"\"If this had been an actual emergency, you would have been instructed where to tune in your area for news and official information.\"\"\n", "Although the Emergency Alert System and its predecessor, the Emergency Broadcast System and an even earlier predecessor CONELRAD, have always allowed the transmission of both video and audio, there have been limitations that would be eliminated by the DEAS. For example, the DEAS allowed the ability to broadcast \"bottomless\" audio messages (i.e. a message with no definite ending) and streaming video. It also allowed near-instantaneous transmission without the delays that occur as EAS alerts trickle through the system.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Broadcast technologies.\n\nPerhaps the oldest or most basic forms of public communication are staples such as over-the-air television, sirens, and radio. More modern components (using the same concept) might include lights and Giant Voice systems. These all have one thing in common: they broadcast indiscriminately to anyone who has the means to receive the message; whether they are simply in the immediate area or require some sort of receiving device.\n\nBroadcast technologies use point-to-point communications methodology and may either require infrastructure or not. Examples of broadcast technologies requiring infrastructure might include such things as Reverse 911 and broadcast-affiliate networks.\n", "As official information began to emerge from various sources, non-primary stations were to broadcast it according to the following priority list:\n\nBULLET::::- Messages from the President of the United States\n\nBULLET::::- Statewide emergency information\n\nBULLET::::- Local emergency information (for a station's operational area, i.e. evacuation and sheltering plans, and severe weather)\n\nBULLET::::- National programming and news (other than a presidential message)\n", "BULLET::::- \"\"This is a test. This station is conducting a test of the Emergency Broadcast System. This is only a test.\"\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"\"This is a test of the Emergency Broadcast System. This is only a test.\"\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"\"The following is a test of the Emergency Broadcast System.\"\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"\"This is a test of the Emergency Broadcast System. Important information will follow this tone.\"\"\n\nAlternatively, the name \"Emergency Broadcasting System\" could be used.\n", "With large high power transmitters, the protective circuits can comprise a significant fraction of the total design complexity and cost.\n\nSection::::Power supplies.\n", "Section::::Broadcast and reception.\n", "Broadcast studios also use many of the same principles such as sound isolation, with adaptations suited to the live on-air nature of their use. Such equipment would commonly include a telephone hybrid for putting telephone calls on the air, a POTS codec for receiving remote broadcasts, a dead air alarm for detecting unexpected silence, and a broadcast delay for dropping anything from coughs to profanity. In the U.S., stations licensed by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) also must have an Emergency Alert System decoder (typically in the studio), and in the case of full-power stations, an encoder that can interrupt programming on all channels which a station transmits in order to broadcast urgent warnings.\n", "\"The system was established to provide the President of the United States with an expeditious method of communicating with the American public in the event of war, threat of war, or grave national crisis.\" The Emergency Broadcast System replaced CONELRAD on August 5, 1963. In later years, it was expanded for use during peacetime emergencies at the state and local levels.\n\nAlthough the system was never used for a national emergency, it was activated more than 20,000 times between 1976 and 1996 to broadcast civil emergency messages and warnings of severe weather hazards.\n\nSection::::National Level EBS.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00768	why doesn’t glue stick to the inside of the glue bottle?	Glue needs air to cure, or a second component in case of two component glue. That is also why glue bottles clog up so quicky once they are open, since the opening has contact to air.	[ "As the loads are usually fixed, an acceptable design will result from combination of a material selection procedure and geometry modifications, if possible. In adhesively bonded structures, the global geometry and loads are fixed by structural considerations and the design procedure focuses on the material properties of the adhesive and on local changes on the geometry.\n\nIncreasing the joint resistance is usually obtained by designing its geometry so that:\n\nBULLET::::- The bonded zone is large\n\nBULLET::::- It is mainly loaded in mode II\n\nBULLET::::- Stable crack propagation will follow the appearance of a local failure.\n\nSection::::Shelf life.\n", "That being said, in order to avoid delamination, selection of an adhesive tape needs to be based upon the conditions that the tape will experience over its lifetime. This selection process will reduce the chains of adhesive tape degradation and failure occurring during the lifetime of the tape though there is not guarantee that this process will completely avoid the possibility.\n\nSection::::Lifetime.:Effects on recycling.\n", "Fugitive glues are frequently used in marketing, where some object—product sample or a return envelope—is glued to another, usually paper, object—a mailing envelope or a magazine. They tend to perform best on smooth, non-porous surfaces. In these applications, fugitive glues are not resealable pressure-sensitive adhesives such as are used on pressure-sensitive tapes or post-it notes, although resealable formulations are available.\n\nFugitive glues are usually available in hot melt or latex form, with low VOC emissions. They can be also applied in liquid form.\n", "Where hide glue is in occasional use, excess glue may be held in a freezer, to prevent spoilage from the growth of microorganisms. Hide glue has some gap filling properties, although modern gap-filling adhesives, such as epoxy resin, are better in this regard.\n", "BULLET::::- Sister: Yvonne Lawson\n", "Several wood glues have poor \"gap-filling\" ability, meaning they either soak into the wood and leave the gap empty, or remain to fill the gap but have little structural integrity. Therefore, woodworkers commonly use tight-fitting joints that need surprisingly little glue to hold large pieces of wood. Most wood glues need to be clamped while the glue sets. Epoxy resins and some other glues can be thickened with structural fillers (or with thicker formulations of the resin) to help fill gaps, however it is preferable to try to minimize gaps in the first place so the problem is not faced.\n", "Fugitive glue\n\nFugitive glue, also called credit card glue, E-z-release glue, or (colloquially) booger glue, snot glue, or gooey glue, is a low-tack adhesive that produces a removable, non-permanent joint. Fugitive glue contains a high amount of alcohol and is delivered to the substrate at a glue station when wet. The type of bond it produces is temporary in nature and is intended to hold two pieces of material together through the duration of folding and gluing operations. It will eventually evaporate without causing damage to either one of the separated substrate.\n", "If the BCB is hard-baked (far over 50%), it loses its adhesives properties and results in an increased amount of void formation. But also if the soft-curing is above 210 °C the adhesive cures too much, so that the material is not soft and sticky enough to achieve a high bonding strength.\n", "Hide glue that is liquid at room temperature is also possible through the addition of urea. In stress tests performed by Mark Schofield of Fine Woodworking Magazine, \"liquid hide glue\" compared favourably to normal hide glue in average strength of bond. \"However, any liquid hide glue over six months old can be suspect because the urea eventually hydrolyzes the protein structure of the glue and weakens it – even though the product was 'protected' with various bactericides and fungicides during manufacture.\"\n\nSection::::Types and uses.:Hide glue.:Production.\n", "When preparing a surface for adhesive bonding, all oil and grease contamination must be removed in order to form a strong bond. Although the surface may appear to be clean, it is important to still use the degreasing process. Prior to performing the degreasing process, the compatibility of the solvent used and the adherend must be considered to prevent irreversible damage of the surface or part.\n\nSection::::Surface preparation of plastics.:Degreasing.:Vapor degreasing.\n", "Section::::Consequences.\n\nBecause each component is independent (i.e. it is unaware of its relations and is only connected to another component through glue code), the behavior of a component and its interactions can change during the execution of the script. In addition, a different version of one of the components may behave differently, breaking the glue code.\n", "Foamcore does not adhere well to some glues, such as superglue, and certain types of paint. The foam tends to melt away and dissolve. Some glue works well in casual settings, however, the water in the glue can warp the fibers in the outer layers. Best results are typically obtained from higher-end spray adhesives. A hot glue gun can be used as a substitute, although the high viscosity of hot glues can affect finished projects in the form of board warping, bubbles, or other unsightly blemishes.\n", "BULLET::::- Fracture can also occur in the adherend if the adhesive is tougher than the adherend. In this case, the adhesive remains intact and is still bonded to one substrate and remnants of the other. For example, when one removes a price label, the adhesive usually remains on the label and the surface. This is cohesive failure. If, however, a layer of paper remains stuck to the surface, the adhesive has not failed. Another example is when someone tries to pull apart Oreo cookies and all the filling remains on one side; this is an adhesive failure, rather than a cohesive failure.\n", "One method of degreasing is that of vapor degreasing, in which the adherend is dipped in a solvent. When removed from the solvent, the vapors condense on the surface of the adherend and dissolve any contaminants that had existed. These contaminants then drip off the adherend with the condensed vapors.\n\nSection::::Surface preparation of plastics.:Degreasing.:In lieu of vapor degreasing.\n", "Section::::Lifetime.\n\nA pressure-sensitive adhesive will experience a range of conditions throughout its lifetime. These conditions affect one of the following parts of the tape: the surface or the bulk. The surface is merely the part of the tape that is exposed to the environment through the whole of its lifetime. The bulk is everything under the surface of the tape, that is the interactions that occur between the substrate and the adhesive part of the tape.\n\nSection::::Lifetime.:Surface exposure conditions.\n", "A rubber-like backing may be placed on each hold in an effort to prevent the holds from spinning. This technique has had mixed success, as eventually the rubber backing begins to peel away from the wall, providing a similar unintended handhold as the chipped resin might. The softer mixture is more durable than a brittle resin, but with uneven climbing walls and overtightening these holds develop slow cracks that eventually render the hold useless.\n", "BULLET::::- Peelable – Adhesion is fairly strong and will not fall off in normal circumstances, but the label can be removed relatively easily without tearing the base stock or leaving adhesive behind on the old surface. The adhesive is usually strong enough to be applied again elsewhere. This type is frequently known as 'removable'. There are many different types of removable adhesives, some are almost permanent, some are almost 'ultra peelable'.\n", "\"Cohesive fracture\" is obtained if a crack propagates in the bulk polymer which constitutes the adhesive. In this case the surfaces of both adherends after debonding will be covered by fractured adhesive. The crack may propagate in the center of the layer or near an interface. For this last case, the cohesive fracture can be said to be \"cohesive near the interface\".\n\nSection::::Failure.:Adhesive fracture.\n\n\"Adhesive fracture\" (sometimes referred to as \"interfacial fracture\") is when debonding occurs between the adhesive and the adherend. In most cases, the occurrence of adhesive fracture for a given adhesive goes along with smaller fracture toughness.\n", "Section::::Early materials.:Polyester resin.\n", "The other method of degreasing requires a cloth or rag soaked in solvent, which can be used to wipe down the surface of the adherend to remove contaminants. It is important that all residue that had been left behind from the solvents be removed, so that there is no detrimental effects to the adhesive bonding.\n\nSection::::Surface preparation of plastics.:Degreasing.:Following degreasing process.\n", "In the early days, most companies that manufactured holds used a resin mixture. Early mixtures of polyester resin had issues with wear and tear, often becoming chipped and cracked. The chipped or broken edge of a resin hold can often provide an unintended place to grab that can be sharp or otherwise dangerous to the climber. Because resin holds are not flexible, they may crack if they are being tightened down on a wall that is not completely flat. Modern polyester mixes have largely overcome these problems. A final problem is the weight of resin holds. As hold sizes have grown and grown, in many cases resin has become an impractical material to use. However, using a process known as hollow-backing the weight of the hold can be dramatically reduced. Modern production methods such as hollow-backing are keeping polyester as the preferred choice for many climbing walls and hold production companies.\n", "Billy Bunter is glued into a chair with seccotine in The Magnet #100 (1910).\n\nIn the C.S. Lewis novel \"That Hideous Strength\" (1945) a character is described as having a cigarette \"seccotined\" to her lip.\n\nIn the E. Nesbit novel \"The Story of the Amulet\" (1906) a broken saucer would never be the same again even if bits were joined \"with Seccotine or the white of an egg.\"\n", "Section::::Properties.:Electric charge.\n\nAll glueballs would have an electric charge of zero as gluons themselves do not have an electric charge.\n\nSection::::Properties.:Mass and parity.\n", "There are several commercial combinations of multi-component adhesives in use in industry. Some of these combinations are:\n\nBULLET::::- Polyester resin – polyurethane resin\n\nBULLET::::- Polyols – polyurethane resin\n\nBULLET::::- Acrylic polymers – polyurethane resins\n\nThe individual components of a multi-component adhesive are not adhesive by nature. The individual components react with each other after being mixed and show full adhesion only on curing. The multi-component resins can be either solvent-based or solvent-less. The solvents present in the adhesives are a medium for the polyester or the polyurethane resin. The solvent is dried during the curing process.\n", "Section::::Application.:Environmental factors.\n" ]	[ "Glue should stick to inside of bottle.", "Conditions inside a glue bottle are the same as outside of a glue bottle. " ]	[ "Glue needs air to cure and dry.", "Conditions inside a glue bottle are not the same as outside a glue bottle, and opening a glue bottle and exposing the glue to air will cure the glue. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Glue should stick to inside of bottle.", "Conditions inside a glue bottle are the same as outside of a glue bottle. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Glue needs air to cure and dry.", "Conditions inside a glue bottle are not the same as outside a glue bottle, and opening a glue bottle and exposing the glue to air will cure the glue. " ]
2018-16308	How do offices generate money? Industries create products and generate money by selling them. What about offices? How do those guys make money by doing desk jobs?	All of the inventory and purchasing, invoicing, HR, training, health and safety, and other general day to day management is usually handled in an office environment. They don't generally make any money but an efficient office will allow the other parts of the business to focus on making money instead of handling the paperwork. Some office jobs are in sales however, where they would actually generate income.	[ "Another problem here may be called the \"false recipe\" syndrome where the metaphor is that of the chef who, unconsciously or otherwise, neglects to communicate subtle but important elements of a recipe. Managers often lose the support of labor in initiating productivity improvement exercise because, rightly or wrongly, they are perceived as designed to put workers out of a job.\n\nSection::::Product and process.\n\nIn managing intellectual capital there are at least two distinct things that are being managed. Figure 2 illustrates these two streams flowing from the development of human capital. (Figure 2 source.)\n\nSection::::Product and process.:Stock.\n", "Section::::Roots.:Definition.\n\nCapital is something owned which provides ongoing services. In the national accounts, or to firms, capital is made up of durable investment goods, normally summed in units of money. Process capital, in practice, embraces the practical knowledge of operations, techniques, and employee programs in the effort to extend and enhance the efficiency of manufacturing or the delivery of products and services for long-term value.\n", "The concept of the 'core economy', first articulated by Neva Goodwin and subsequently developed by Edgar S. Cahn, is helpful in explaining this further.\n", "Owners may manage their businesses themselves, or employ managers to do so for them. Whether they are owners or employees, managers administer three primary components of the business' value: financial resources, capital (tangible resources), and human resources. These resources are administered in at least six functional areas: legal contracting, manufacturing or service production, marketing, accounting, financing, and human resources.\n\nSection::::Management.:Restructuring state enterprises.\n", "Alternatively, one can think of these transactions in terms of the monetary flows that occur. Businesses provide individuals with income (in the form of compensation) in exchange for their labor. That income is spent on the goods and services businesses produce.\n\nThese activities are represented by the blue lines in the diagram above.\n", "The key principle illustrated in Figure 1 is that no element of intellectual capital by itself creates ongoing value for the firm but is value creating only when interacting with other elements of the intellectual capital model. Thus, the true nature of the intellectual capital machine within the firm is dynamic and with reference to measurement issues. Measuring one elements may affect the measurement of another and once measurements are made of the element its magnitude and direction of flow may have already changed. Total knowledge of the intellectual capital system through measurement is impossible.\n", "Purchasing controls a large part of costs in retail and wholesale operations, approximately 75% of all costs are for purchased goods. Outside of retail and wholesale operations, facilitating goods are a much smaller part of total costs reaching a low of 10% for most professional services. Both manufacturing and service organizations purchase goods and must deal with outsourcing and offshoring, as well as, domestic products.\n\nService inputs are critical for manufacturing including capital from banks, energy, information systems and human resources. Services are part of the manufacturing supply chain, just like the physical inputs of products from other manufacturing companies.\n", "BULLET::::3. Processes (activities specifically focused on the knowledge and collaborative activities generated by organizational structure – such as silo impacts, internal politics, etc.) and\n\nBULLET::::4. Absence (annual leave, sick leave, holidays, etc.).\n\nDespite the lack of formal ownership, firms can and do gain from high levels of training, in part because it creates a corporate culture or vocabulary teams use to create cohesion.\n", "Many office buildings also have kitchen facilities and a staff room, where workers can have lunch or take a short break. Many office spaces are now also serviced office spaces, which means that those occupying a space or building can share facilities.\n\nSection::::Office and retail rental rates.\n", "Shared services are services provided by the corporate headquarters for various business units. Owing to the aggregation of demand for these services, the headquarters can realize scale effects and provide them at lower total costs. Typical shared services are HR, IT, and marketing services.\n\nSection::::Roles of corporate headquarters.:Value creation.\n", "Before the 19th century, and the spread of the industrial revolution around the globe, nearly all offices were small offices and/or home offices, with only a few exceptions. Most businesses were small, and the paperwork that accompanied them was limited. The industrial revolution aggregated workers in factories, to mass-produce goods. In most circumstances, the white collar counterpart—office work—was aggregated as well in large buildings, usually in cities or densely populated suburban areas.\n", "A revolving fund gets its name from the cyclic nature of the cash flow. Income from customer purchases is used to finance a service providers' continuing operations, i.e., the business areas in a working capital fund sell goods or services with the intent of recovering the total cost incurred in providing those goods and services. Income from sales is then used to buy or replace inventory and finance the production of future goods and services.\n\nSection::::NWCF funding process summary.\n\nBULLET::::1. Congress provides a one-time cash corpus to begin operation and in advance of customer orders.\n", "By the late 1990s there were some signs that productivity in the workplace been improved by the introduction of IT, especially in the United States. In fact, Erik Brynjolfsson and his colleagues found a significant positive relationship between IT investments and productivity, at least when these investments were made to complement organizational changes. A large share of the productivity gains outside the IT-equipment industry itself have been in retail, wholesale and finance. A major advance was computerized stock market transaction processing, which replaced the system that had been in place since the Civil War but by the last half of 1968 caused the U. S. stock market to close most Wednesday afternoons processing.\n", "There is a general understanding of the main determinants or drivers of productivity growth. Certain factors are critical for determining productivity growth. The Office for National Statistics (UK) identifies five drivers that interact to underlie long-term productivity performance: investment, innovation, skills, enterprise and competition. (ONS 3, 20)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Investment\" is in physical capital — machinery, equipment and buildings. The more capital workers have at their disposal, generally the better they are able to do their jobs, producing more and better quality output.\n", "In 2006 Accenture launched the Institute for Public Service Value (IPSV), to explore how public value is created in government organizations. Greg Parston, co-founder and former Chief Executive of the Office for Public Management, and a collaborator with Professor Moore, was appointed Director. Among many other studies, IPSV conducted the Global Cities Forum in 2007-2009, which facilitated citizens' deliberations on their experiences and expectations of public value in 17 cities around the world. \n", "Money income from activities that is ordinary for a particular corporation, company, partnership, or sole-proprietorship. For some businesses, such as manufacturing or grocery, most revenue is from the sale of goods. Service businesses such as law firms and barber shops receive most of their revenue from rendering services. Lending businesses such as car rentals and banks receive most of their revenue from fees and interest generated by lending assets to other organizations or individuals.\n", "This model applies to the service apartment space and other commercial establishments, such as retail or business centers that generate revenue. In this case, the property manager signs an agreement with the property owner, with the right to convert the property into a revenue generating business such as a business center, service apartment, etc. Instead of paying rent to the owner, the management company shares a percentage of revenue. There are also hybrid structures here, where a combination of a fixed rent and a share of revenue is shared with the property owner.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Access control\n", "With Office's cloud abilities, IT department can create a set of apps for their business employees in order to increase their productivity. When employees go to the Office Store, they'll see their company's apps under \"My Organization\". The apps that employees have personally downloaded will appear under \"My Apps\". Developers can use web technologies like HTML5, XML, CSS3, JavaScript, and APIs for building the apps.\n", "This includes office equipment such as printer, fax machine, computers, refrigerator, etc. They are equipment that do not directly result in sales and profits as they are only used for supporting functions that they can provide to business operations. However, equipment can vary between administrative overheads and manufacturing overheads based on the purpose of which they are using the equipment. For example, for a printing company a printer would be considered a manufacturing overhead.\n\nSection::::Administrative overheads.:Examples.:External legal and audit fees.\n", "As mercantilism became the dominant economic theory of the Renaissance, merchants tended to conduct their business in the same buildings, which might include retail sales, warehousing and clerical work. During the 15th century, population density in many cities reached the point where stand-alone buildings were used by merchants to conduct their business, and there was a developing a distinction between church, government/military, and commerce uses for buildings.\n\nSection::::History.:Emergence of the modern office.\n", "Organisations invest in process capital in order to build a company’s unique infrastructure for achieving operational and strategic goals. Given the dynamics of industry and technology, the development of process capital evolves and interacts with environmental changes. Organisations have invested in information technology (IT) and organisational change programs to build process capital for achieving business excellence through customer satisfaction. The vast investments include: IT infrastructure implementation, quality-improvement projects, process-redesign projects, and various process integration projects. Although process capital plays an important role in organising resources, processing information, interacting with stakeholders, and delivering organisational values, few studies have discussed its specific content, and it is rare to focus attention on the level of its management. Instead, process capital has usually been hidden in the measurement of IT investment or organisational intellectual capital as an intangible element of organisational assets. Failure to treat process capital as a separate and unique management issue is widespread among both businesses and researchers because most of the systems and processes within the organisations are interdependent. Therefore, a systematic approach to measuring process capital is necessary in order to manage process potential to its full extent.\n", "In 1994, then–North America president Shelly Lazarus and Beers helped win the entire global account of information technology corporation IBM for the agency. Worth an estimated $500 million in billings, it was the largest account shift in the history of advertising.\n", "Several ranges of products, such as the armoire desk and all-in-one printer, are designed specifically for the SOHO market. A number of books and magazines have been published and marketed specifically at this type of office. These range from general advice texts to specific guidebooks on such challenges as setting up a small PBX for the office telephones.\n\nTechnology has also created a demand for larger businesses to employ individuals who work from home. Sometimes these people remain as independent businesspersons, and sometimes they become employees of a larger company.\n", "The basic calculation of working capital is based on the entity’s gross current assets.\n\nformula_1\n\nSection::::Calculation.:Inputs.\n\nCurrent assets and current liabilities include four accounts which are of special importance. These accounts represent the areas of the business where managers have the most direct impact:\n\nBULLET::::- cash and cash equivalents (current asset)\n\nBULLET::::- accounts receivable (current asset)\n\nBULLET::::- inventory (current asset), and\n\nBULLET::::- accounts payable (current liability)\n", "The type of revenue model that is available to a firm depends, in large part, on the activities the firm performs, and how it charges for those. Various models by which to generate revenue include:\n\nSection::::Types.:Production model.\n\nIn the production model, the business that creates the product or service sells it to customers who value and thus pay for it. An example would be a company that produces paper, who then sells it to either the direct public or to other businesses, who pay for the paper, thus generating revenue for the paper company.\n\nSection::::Types.:Production model.:Manufacturing model.\n" ]	[ "Offices make money.", "Offices make money for the company." ]	[ "Most offices are used to handle the part of the business that doesn't generate money directly, unless it is a sales office. ", "Offices don't directly make money, they just handle the things that the rest of the company don't handle and allow the rest of the company to make money. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Offices make money.", "Offices make money for the company." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Most offices are used to handle the part of the business that doesn't generate money directly, unless it is a sales office. ", "Offices don't directly make money, they just handle the things that the rest of the company don't handle and allow the rest of the company to make money. " ]
2018-00505	How did the United States become so powerful, in such a short amount of time?	The rest of the industrialized world was devastated by the Second World War. Because the war did not impact the mainland US and the US maximized their industrial processes to fight the war, this left the US as the only major western power intact. On top of this, the US used their financial and industrial might to help rebuild the rest of the world which gave direct access to these markets for US goods. Unionized labor in the US combined with increased immigration and technological advances also allowed for huge increases in the US standard of living.	[ "Founded in 1776 by thirteen coastal colonies that declared their independence from Great Britain, the United States began its westward expansion following the end of the American Revolutionary War and the recognition of U.S. sovereignty in the 1783 Treaty of Paris. The treaty bequeathed to the nascent republic all land between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River, and Americans began migrating there in large numbers at the end of the 18th Century, resulting in the displacement of Native American cultures, often through native peoples' forcible deportation and violent wars of eviction. These efforts at expansion were greatly strengthened by the 1787 Constitutional Convention, which resulted in the ratification of the United States Constitution and transformed the U.S. from a loose confederation of semi-autonomous states into a federal entity with a strong national core. In 1803, the United States acquired Louisiana from France, doubling the country's size and extending its borders to the Rocky Mountains.\n", "In an unprecedented wave of European immigration, 27.5 million new arrivals between 1865 and 1918 provided the labor base necessary for the expansion of industry and agriculture, as well as the population base for most of fast-growing urban America.\n\nBy the late nineteenth century, the United States had become a leading global industrial power, building on new technologies (such as the telegraph and steel), an expanding railroad network, and abundant natural resources such as coal, timber, oil, and farmland, to usher in the Second Industrial Revolution.\n", "Section::::Development.:Production.\n", "In addition to the huge domestic market for consumer items, the United States became \"the world's factory\", as it was the only major power whose soil had been untouched by the war. American money and manufactured goods flooded into Europe, South Korea, and Japan and helped in their reconstruction. US manufacturing dominance would be almost unchallenged for a quarter-century after 1945.\n", "Facing the Soviet Union, whose power had also strengthened and whose territorial influence had expanded, the U.S. assumed the role of leader of the capitalist camp. The rise of the postwar U.S. as the world's leading industrial, monetary, and military power was rooted in the fact that the mainland U.S. was untouched by the war, in the instability of the national states in postwar Europe, and the wartime devastation of the Soviet and European economies.\n", "Section::::Ancient Near East.:Ancient Iran.:Achaemenid Empire.\n\nBULLET::::- 550 BC–330 BC\n", "In the last third of the 19th century the United States entered a phase of rapid economic growth which doubled per capita income over the period. By 1895, the United States leaped ahead of Britain for first place in manufacturing output. For the first time, exports of machinery and consumer goods became important. For example, Standard Oil led the way in exporting kerosene; Russia was its main rival in international trade. Singer Corporation led the way in developing a global marketing strategy for its sewing machines.\n", "Energy was a key to the economy, especially electricity and oil. As electrification reached all the cities and towns, consumers demanded new products such as light bulbs, refrigerators, and toasters. Factories installed electric motors and saw productivity surge. With the oil booms in Texas, Oklahoma, and California, the United States dominated world petroleum production, now even more important in an age of automobiles and trucks.\n\nSection::::Roaring Twenties.:Prosperity.:Herbert Hoover.\n", "Expert on earlier civilizations, Toynbee, further developed the subject of World War III leading to world empire:\n\nThe year this volume of A Study of History was published, US Secretary of State John Foster Dulles announced \"a knock-out blow\" as an official doctrine, a detailed Plan was elaborated and \"Fortune\" magazine mapped the design. Section VIII, \"Atomic Armaments\", of the famous National Security Council Report 68 (NSC 68), approved by President Harry Truman in 1951, uses the term \"blow\" 17 times, mostly preceded by such adjectives as \"powerful\", \"overwhelming\", or \"crippling\". Another term applied by the strategists was \"Sunday punch\".\n", "Section::::Early modern powers.:Early Spanish Empire.\n\nBULLET::::- 1492–1815\n", "Over time, the relative power of these five nations fluctuated, which by the dawn of the 20th century had served to create an entirely different balance of power. Some, such as the United Kingdom and Prussia (as the founder of the newly formed German state), experienced continued economic growth and political power. Others, such as Russia and Austria-Hungary, stagnated. At the same time, other states were emerging and expanding in power, largely through the process of industrialization. These countries seeking to attain great power status were: Italy after the Risorgimento era, Japan during the Meiji era, and the United States after the Reconstruction era. By the dawn of the 20th century, the balance of world power had changed substantially since the Congress of Vienna. The Eight-Nation Alliance was a belligerent alliance of eight nations against the Boxer Rebellion in China. It formed in 1900 and consisted of the five Congress powers plus Italy, Japan, and the United States, representing the great powers at the beginning of the 20th century.\n", "This period of rapid economic growth and soaring prosperity in the North and the West (but not in the South) saw the U.S. become the world's dominant economic, industrial, and agricultural power. The average annual income (after inflation) of non-farm workers grew by 75% from 1865 to 1900, and then grew another 33% by 1918.\n", "Paleo-Indians migrated from Siberia to the North American mainland at least 12,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century. The United States emerged from the thirteen British colonies established along the East Coast. Following the French and Indian War, numerous disputes between Great Britain and the colonies led to the American Revolution, which began in 1775, and the subsequent Declaration of Independence in 1776. The war ended in 1783 with the United States becoming the first country to gain independence from a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, with the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, being ratified in 1791 to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. The United States expanded across North America throughout the 19th century until it spanned the continent by 1848. During the second half of the 19th century, the Civil War led to the abolition of slavery. The United States emerged from as a global superpower and a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council. The end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the world's sole superpower.\n", "Section::::20th century.:Imperialism.\n\nThe United States emerged as a world economic and military power after 1890. The main episode was the Spanish–American War, which began when Spain refused American demands to reform its oppressive policies in Cuba. The \"splendid little war\", as one official called it, involved a series of quick American victories on land and at sea. At the Treaty of Paris peace conference the United States acquired the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Guam.\n", "International relations scholar Joseph Nye argues that U.S. power is more and more based on \"soft power\", which comes from cultural hegemony rather than raw military or economic force. This includes such factors as the widespread desire to emigrate to the United States, the prestige and corresponding high proportion of foreign students at U.S. universities, and the spread of U.S. styles of popular music and cinema. Mass immigration into America may justify this theory, but it is hard to know for sure whether the United States would still maintain its prestige without its military and economic superiority.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "One of the most accepted distinctions between earlier empires and the American Empire is the latter's “global” or “planetary” scope. French former Foreign Minister Hubert Vedrine wondered: \"The situation is unprecedented: What previous empire subjugated the entire world...?\" The quests for universal empire are old but the present quest outdoes the previous in \"the notable respect of being the first to actually be global in its reach.\" For Historian Eric Hobsbawm, a \"key novelty of the US imperial project is that all other great powers and empires knew that they were not the only ones...\" Another Historian Paul Kennedy, who made his name in the 1980s with his prediction of the imminent US “imperial overstretch,” in 2002 acknowledged about the present world system: \n", "Section::::Events in the 20th century.:The post-war world.\n\nFollowing World War II, the majority of the industrialized world lay in ruins as a result of aerial bombings, naval bombardment, and protracted land campaigns. The United States was a notable exception to this; barring Pearl Harbor and some minor incidents, the U.S. had suffered no attacks upon its territory. The United States and the Soviet Union, which, despite the devastation of its most populated areas, rebuilt quickly, found themselves the world's two dominant superpowers.\n", "Technology inflows from abroad have played an important role in the development of the United States, especially in the late nineteenth century. A favorable U.S. security environment that allowed relatively low defense spending. High trade barriers encouraged the development of domestic manufacturing industries and the inflow of foreign technologies.\n\nSection::::American applied science.\n", "Industry and trade are two of the most prevalent motivations of imperialism. American intervention in both Latin America and Hawaii resulted in multiple industrial investments, including the popular industry of Dole bananas. If the United States was able to annex a territory, in turn they were granted access to the trade and capital of those territories. In 1898, Senator Albert Beveridge proclaimed that an expansion of markets was absolutely necessary, \"American factories are making more than the American people can use; American soil is producing more than they can consume. Fate has written our policy for us; the trade of the world must and shall be ours.\"\n", "Section::::History.:Great powers at war.\n", "The first such industrial-technological power was the British Empire in the 19th century. As a maritime power, its strength and ability to project power to further its interests lay in the Royal Navy. A worldwide system of naval bases and coaling stations, a large logistical bureaucracy to oversee shipbuilding, the supply of coal, food, water, and sailors, and an industrial base for the manufacture and technological enhancement of the fleet were among the essential ingredients for this capability. During the First Opium War (1839–42), it was this capacity that enabled a British expeditionary force of 15 barracks ships, 4 steam-powered gunboats and 25 smaller boats with 4,000 marines to successfully defend its interests 6,000 miles from the fleet's home port. The era of gunboat diplomacy that this inaugurated was an exercise in Western power projection, and was normally used in the defence of commercial and political interests.\n", "Section::::Development.\n\nSection::::Development.:Conception.\n", "American colonies gained independence in 1783 just as profound changes in industrial production and coordination were beginning to shift production from artisans to factories. Growth of the nation's transportation infrastructure with internal improvements and a confluence of technological innovations before the Civil War facilitated an expansion in organization, coordination, and scale of industrial production. Around the turn of the 20th century, American industry had superseded its European counterparts economically and the nation began to assert its military power. Although the Great Depression challenged its technological momentum, America emerged from it and World War II as one of two global superpowers. In the second half of the 20th century, as the United States was drawn into competition with the Soviet Union for political, economic, and military primacy, the government invested heavily in scientific research and technological development which spawned advances in spaceflight, computing, and biotechnology.\n", "The maximum geographical extension of American direct political and military control happened in the aftermath of World War II, in the period after the surrender and occupations of Germany and Austria in May and later Japan and Korea in September 1945 and before the independence of the Philippines in July 1946.\n", "Throughout the book he reiterates his early statement (page 71): \"Military and naval endeavors may not always have been the \"raison d'être\" of the new nations-states, but it certainly was their most expensive and pressing activity\", and it remains such until the power's decline. He concludes that declining countries can experience greater difficulties in balancing their preferences for guns, butter and investments.\n\nKennedy states his theory in the second paragraph of the introduction as follows: \n\nKennedy adds on the same page:\n\nSection::::Summary.:Early modern era.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04753	Why do most restaurants/fast food places use foamy soap?	The soap is the same as normal hand soap. It is the dispenser that makes the soap foam. These dispensers help to reduce waste by making it seem like you have more soap than you really do. It doesn't take a lot of soap to effectively wash your hands either.	[ "The Lano soap bar was introduced in 1934, and is today dominant soap bar in the Norwegian market. In 1959, Lano introduced \"Lano-ungen\", or \"the Lano-kid\", a competition where one entered a picture of a child which could then be picked out to represent the soap for the whole coming year, as well as receive various prizes. Lano liquid hand soap was launched in 1989, with a compact soap dispenser being introduced in 1993. Around the turn of the millennium, Lano introduced a liquid shower gel, packed in a special container with a plastic hook for easy hanging inside a shower enclosure.\n", "Foam (culinary)\n\nIn cuisine, foam is a gelling or stabilizing agent in which air is suspended. Foams have been present in many forms over the history of cooking, such as whipped cream, meringue and mousse. In these cases, the incorporation of air or another gas creates a lighter texture and a different mouth feel. Foams add flavor without significant substance, and thus allow cooks to integrate new flavors without changing the physical composition of a dish.\n", "Solid soap, because of its reusable nature, may hold bacteria acquired from previous uses. A small number of studies which have looked at the bacterial transfer from contaminated solid soap have concluded transfer is unlikely as the bacteria are rinsed off with the foam. The CDC still states \"liquid soap with hands-free controls for dispensing is preferable\".\n\nSection::::Substances used.:Soap and detergents.:Antibacterial soap.\n", "Foam containers are the most commonly used takeout box for Chinese cuisines in East and Southeast Asia. It is standard for Cantonese cuisine in Hong Kong and many parts of China and sometimes used overseas in various restaurants, particularly in the United States and Canada.\n\nSection::::Environmental issues.\n", "Lano (soap)\n\nLano is a leading brand of soap in Norway. It comes in varieties of shower gels and liquid hand wash as well as the original soap bar. Lano is produced by Lilleborg Commodities, a hygiene product manufacturer owned in turn by the Orkla Group.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The slogan for the original Ajax scrubbing powder was \"Stronger than dirt!\", a reference to the muscular hero Ajax of Greek mythology. Some Ajax dish soaps now feature the trademarked slogan \"Stronger than grease!\" Another early slogan was \"Ajax... the foaming cleanser!\"\n", "A bar of wet soap relies on ventilation to dry. A number of design elements may be used to increase ambient airflow around the soap, including vented surfaces or surfaces interspersed with bumps, ridges, or slats. Mechanical ventilation has not yet become a widespread design element in soap dishes.\n\nSection::::Design elements.:Cleanliness.\n", "Sodium laureth sulfate, or sodium lauryl ether sulfate (SLES), is a detergent and surfactant found in many personal care products (soaps, shampoos, toothpastes, etc.). It is an inexpensive and effective foamer. Sodium lauryl sulfate (also known as sodium dodecyl sulfate or SDS) and ammonium lauryl sulfate (ALS) are commonly used alternatives to SLES in consumer products. \n\nSection::::Blowing agents.\n", "Packaging of fast food and take-out food is necessary for the customer but involves a significant amount of material that ends up in landfills, recycling, composting, or litter. Foam containers for fast-food were the target of environmentalists in the U.S. and were largely replaced with paper wrappers among large restaurant chains.\n", "The term \"B.O.\", short for \"body odor\", is often thought to have been invented by Lifebuoy for an advertising campaign. It was actually coined by a company that made deodorant for women called Odo-Ro-No in 1919, but Lifebuoy made the term famous. The Lifebuoy radio ad, parodied by several Warner Brothers' \"Looney Tunes\" cartoons and MGM Cartoons, used a foghorn followed by a \"B.O.\" sound created using a Sonovox.\n", "Though utilitarian in purpose, soap dishes may be given aesthetic treatment. A soap dish in the form of a whale, for example, was patented in 1961 by Sonia Adelson, with \"the mouth portion thereof being adapted to receive and dispense a bar of soap in an amusing, novel and useful manner\". Another example is the \"Bodoni Soap Dish\", a February 2013 design by David Strauss that was inspired by the legacy of Massimo Vignelli.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nA soap dish played a role in a seminal event in the 7th century when Byzantine Emperor Constans II (630-668) was assassinated with one.\n", "Section::::Recreation.\n\nSection::::Recreation.:Use in play.\n\nSoap bubbles have been used as entertainment for at least 400 years, as evidenced by 17th-century Flemish paintings showing children blowing bubbles with clay pipes. The London-based firm A. & F. Pears created a famous advertising campaign for its soaps in 1886 using a painting by John Everett Millais of a child playing with bubbles. The Chicago company Chemtoy began selling bubble solution in the 1940s, and bubble solution has been popular with children ever since. According to one industry estimate, retailers sell around 200 million bottles annually.\n\nSection::::Recreation.:Colored bubbles.\n", "More recently, foams have become a part of molecular gastronomy technique. In these cases, natural flavors (such as fruit juices, infusions of aromatic herbs, etc.) are mixed with a neutrally-flavored gelling or stabilizing agent such as agar or lecithin, and either whipped with a hand-held immersion blender or extruded through a whipped cream canister equipped with nitrous oxide cartridges. Some famous food-foams are foamed espresso, foamed mushroom, foamed beet and foamed coconut. An espuma or thermo whip is commonly used to make these foams through the making of a stock, creating a gel and extruding through the nitrous oxide canister.\n", "In the early 1900s, other companies began to develop their own liquid soaps. Such products as Pine-Sol and Tide appeared on the market, making the process of cleaning things other than skin, such as clothing, floors, and bathrooms, much easier.\n\nLiquid soap also works better for more traditional or non-machine washing methods, such as using a washboard.\n\nSection::::Soap-making for hobbyists.\n", "Because of their intended use in wet and potentially hazardous environments, most soap dishes are designed with safety in mind. Such features include unbreakable materials, non-slip surfaces, rounded edges, and secure installation elements (e.g., wall mount hardware, a suction cup, or non-skid feet). Depositing or retrieving a slippery bar of soap is facilitated by an open (or semi-open) sided design or by a shallow lip.\n\nSection::::Design elements.:Ventilation.\n", "A variety of methods are available for hobbyists to make soap. Most soapmakers use processes where the glycerol remains in the product, and the saponification continues for many days after the soap is poured into molds. The glycerol is left during the hot-process method, but at the high temperature employed, the reaction is practically completed in the kettle, before the soap is poured into molds. This simple and quick process is employed in small factories all over the world.\n", "Section::::Characteristics.\n\nLano is a mild, low-perfume soap, which has led to it being very popular as an all-round family cleaning product. This is reflected in its motto, \"Lano for liten og Lano for stor\", which translates very roughly into \"Lano for small and grown-ups alike\".\n\nSection::::Environment.\n\nThe liquid varieties of the soap is available in refill bags, and all wrappings supposedly contains as high a percentage of recycled materials as possible. According to Lilleborg, no materials harmful that are harmful to the environment upon burning or disposal are used in the product wrappings, and PVC is not used.\n", "BULLET::::- Once a Shop went to the city, saw aromatic soaps on a stand and, thinking that they were something to eat, bought a piece. He began to eat it but soon his mouth was filled with foam. He said: \"Foam or not, it cost money, I shall eat it.\" (\"Пеняви се, не пеняви, пари съм давал, че го ядем.\")\n", "Although Lifebuoy is no longer produced in the US and UK, it is still being mass-produced by Unilever in Cyprus for the UK, EU, US and Brazilian markets, in Trinidad and Tobago for the Caribbean market, and in India for the Asian market. Unilever in Cyprus and Trinidad and Tobago is manufacturing the Red Lifebuoy Soap with a carbolic fragrance, but as of 1976 it no longer contains phenol. The Lifebuoy soap manufactured in India and Indonesia for other markets including South and South East Asia has been updated to use red and other colours with ‘modern’ aromas.\n", "Elements in the design of a soap dish include safety, ventilation, cleanliness, placement, aesthetics, and cost. When a soap dish is part of a bath accessories set, coordinated group design may be utilized. Notable soap dish designs include Leonard L Hierath's May 2018 US Patent #US-9962042 Article Support (soap dish) US Patent and Trademark Office; Robert A. Pitton's 1956 US patent for a reversible, hemispherical soap dish and Bernard Cohen's October 2017 design for the \"SoapAnchor\" (patent pending).\n\nSection::::Design elements.:Safety.\n", "Green Slime Shampoo was the first soap-related compound based on \"You Can't Do That on Television\". Its premise was to \"get slimed in your own shower\". It had green shampoo that got you clean instead of getting slimed (hence its slogan: \"Gets you clean, but won't turn you green!\"). This was also featured as a prize on a few episodes of \"Double Dare\".\n\nSection::::Compounds.:Fisher-Price (1986–1991).:Green Slime Liquid Soap.\n", "Section::::Construction and composition.\n\nFoam take-out containers are made from EPS foam, or another type of polystyrene foam, and produced by injecting the foam into a mold. They are usually white in color, although they may be printed or impressed with a company logo or other message.\n", "Section::::References in popular culture.\n\nWhen the Philadelphia Phillies played at the Baker Bowl during the 1930s, an outfield wall advertisement for Lifebuoy stated, \"The Phillies use Lifebuoy\". One night in 1935, a vandal added, \"And they still stink\". Variations of the joke were also employed by detractors of other losing teams.\n", "5 kilos of human fat are mixed with 10 liters of water and 500 or 1,000 grams of caustic soda. All this is boiled 2 or 3 hours and then cooled. The soap floats to the surface while the water and other sediment remain at the bottom. A bit of salt and soda is added to this mixture. Then fresh water is added and the mixture again boiled 2 or 3 hours. After having cooled, the soap is poured into molds.\"\n", "Seipler and Till started their company in Orlando, Florida and used meat-grinders and other kitchen utensils to cook the soap into clean bars. The first soap donor was the Holiday Inn at the Orlando International Airport. Within three years, the home business became an \"international charity that...distributed 9.5 million bars of recycled soap in 45 countries.\" In 2011, Laguna Beach became the first city in the United States to have all hotels participate in Clean the World.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "The soap used in restaurants is foamy." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "The soap used in restaurants is the same as any other soap. It is the dispenser that makes the soap foam." ]
2018-04271	How did they get the resistivity from any material (example copper)?	R= rhoL/A where R is resistance, rho is resitivity, L is length of your sample, A is your cross sectional area. Slightly oversimplified, you can think of it as the resistance is the resistivity L (because the longer your sample, the more "crap" it has to bump past), and divided by A (the wider pipe, the easier for it to "flow") Then you would measure some kind of test sample (say, a cylinder). If you can get R (say, via Ohm's Law, V=I*R). Originally, it would've been experimentally observed (the proper name that no one uses is Pouillet's Law). Like Ohm's Law (or Law's in general) , it's an observed fact of the universe. You can derive it via Maxwell's Equations/QED but they're nontrivial. edit: > how did they know it’s THAT resistivity when it can change depending of the dimensions of that piece of copper and other stuff In the earliest days, usually it's often taking the data, and fitting it to something. Then trying to find a simple model that makes sense. Ie, if you started with a cylinder, test with a longer/shorter fatter/thinner one. Eventually you'll notice correlations You can often make analogies to things like hydraulics (although that doesn't always work) as well, to give yourself a basic guide. Or trying to picture what physically happens to an electron moving through a material. You know the electron is going to move in a direction. So, what happens in a real material? It's going to bump into atoms. So the longer you make it (more junk to bump into) should be harder. More area means more room for electrons to "slip past" things. Very crude. And if you don't get lucky and it's not nice and linear, it gets much harder quickly. We like nice linear systems for a reason :)	[ "A number of high voltage dry piles were invented between the early 19th century and the 1830s in an attempt to determine the answer to this question, and specifically to support Volta’s hypothesis of contact tension. The Oxford Electric Bell is one example. Francis Ronalds in 1814 was one of the first to realise that dry piles also worked through chemical reaction rather than metal to metal contact, even though corrosion was not visible due to the very small currents generated.\n\nSection::::Triboelectric contact.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nAs far back as 1965 there are reports of semiconductor materials exhibiting electrical conductivities that are strongly affected by ambient gases and vapours. However, it was not until 1985 that Wohltjen and Snow coined the term \"chemiresistor\". The chemiresistive material they investigated was copper phthalocyanine, and they demonstrated that its resistivity decreased in the presence of ammonia vapour at room temperature.\n", "Both \"resistance\" and \"resistivity\" describe how difficult it is to make electrical current flow through a material, but unlike resistance, resistivity is an \"intrinsic property\". This means that all pure copper wires (which have not been subjected to distortion of their crystalline structure etc.), irrespective of their shape and size, have the same \"resistivity\", but a long, thin copper wire has a much larger \"resistance\" than a thick, short copper wire. Every material has its own characteristic resistivity. For example, rubber has a far larger resistivity than copper.\n", "Because of its superior conductivity, annealed copper became the international standard to which all other electrical conductors are compared. In 1913, the International Electrotechnical Commission defined the conductivity of commercially pure copper in its International Annealed Copper Standard, as 100% IACS = 58.0 MS/m at 20 °C, decreasing by 0.393%/°C. Because commercial purity has improved over the last century, copper conductors used in building wire often slightly exceed the 100% IACS standard.\n", "Similar work was performed at Bell Labs by Gordon K. Teal and Morgan Sparks, with a US Patent issued in 1953.\n\nWoodyard's prior patent proved to be the grounds of extensive litigation by Sperry Rand .\n\nSection::::Carrier concentration.\n\nThe concentration of the dopant used affects many electrical properties. Most important is the material's charge carrier concentration. In an intrinsic semiconductor under thermal equilibrium, the concentrations of electrons and holes are equivalent. That is,\n\nIn a non-intrinsic semiconductor under thermal equilibrium, the relation becomes (for low doping):\n", "Section::::History of semiconductor device development.:Development of the diode.\n\nArmed with the knowledge of how these new diodes worked, a vigorous effort began to learn how to build them on demand. Teams at Purdue University, Bell Labs, MIT, and the University of Chicago all joined forces to build better crystals. Within a year germanium production had been perfected to the point where military-grade diodes were being used in most radar sets.\n\nSection::::History of semiconductor device development.:Development of the transistor.\n", "Sometime around 1913 several copper samples from 14 important refiners and wire manufacturers were analyzed by the U.S. Bureau of Standards. The average resistance of the samples was determined to be 0.15292 Ω for copper wires with a mass of 1 gram of uniform cross section and 1 meter in length at 20 °C. In the United States this is usually written as \"0.15292 ohm (meter, gram) at 20 °C\".\n", "The application of the tendency of electrical conductors to increase their electrical resistance with rising temperature was first described by Sir William Siemens at the Bakerian Lecture of 1871 before the Royal Society of Great Britain. The necessary methods of construction were established by Callendar, Griffiths, Holborn and Wein between 1885 and 1900.\n", "The RRL conducted considerable work on chaff, light-weight aluminum strips dropped in clouds from aircraft to confuse enemy radars. Fred L. Whipple, an astronomer, made detailed analytical studies of this and devised a formula giving radar cross-section at a given wavelength per kilogram of chaff.\n", "In addition to geometry and material, there are various other factors that influence resistance and conductance, such as temperature; see below.\n\nSection::::Conductors and resistors.\n\nSubstances in which electricity can flow are called conductors. A piece of conducting material of a particular resistance meant for use in a circuit is called a resistor. Conductors are made of high-conductivity materials such as metals, in particular copper and aluminium. Resistors, on the other hand, are made of a wide variety of materials depending on factors such as the desired resistance, amount of energy that it needs to dissipate, precision, and costs.\n\nSection::::Ohm's law.\n", "The resistance of a given object depends primarily on two factors: What material it is made of, and its shape. For a given material, the resistance is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area; for example, a thick copper wire has lower resistance than an otherwise-identical thin copper wire. Also, for a given material, the resistance is proportional to the length; for example, a long copper wire has higher resistance than an otherwise-identical short copper wire. The resistance and conductance of a conductor of uniform cross section, therefore, can be computed as\n", "However, there were certain observations, demonstrations, and implementations that closely preceded this work. Permittivity of metals, with values that could be stretched from the positive to the negative domain, had been studied extensively. In other words, negative permittivity was a known phenomenon by the time the first metamaterial was produced. Contemporaries of Kock were involved in this type of research. The concentrated effort was led by the US government for researching interactions between the ionosphere and the re-entry of NASA space vehicles.\n", "By developing a basic refractory material adapted to the matte refining process (in magnesia bricks), Cappelen Smith and William H. Peirce found a way to drastically increase the lifetime of the lining. It has been stated that, in some cases, the process allowing an increase from 10 to 2500 tons of copper produced without relining the converters. A reduction of the cost of copper converting from 15–20 USD to 4–5 USD has been stated.\n", "The DCVG method was invented by Australian John Mulvany, an ex Telecom engineer, in the early 1980s. This technique was used by Telecom Australia to identify damaged insulation on buried metallic cable. At that time Santos in Adelaide was keen to use coating defect techniques for buried pipelines suffering corrosion in the Moomba area. Dr John Leeds, a professional corrosion engineer, was employed by Santos to engage companies with relevant expertise. Initially international companies utilising the \"CIPS\" and \"Pearson\" technique were engaged.\n", "The semiconductors of the periodic table of the chemical elements were identified as the most likely materials for a \"solid-state vacuum tube\". Starting with copper oxide, proceeding to germanium, then silicon, the materials were systematically studied in the 1940s and 1950s. Today, monocrystalline silicon is the main substrate used for ICs although some III-V compounds of the periodic table such as gallium arsenide are used for specialized applications like LEDs, lasers, solar cells and the highest-speed integrated circuits. It took decades to perfect methods of creating crystals with minimal defects in semiconducting materials' crystal structure.\n", "Thomas Johann Seebeck was the first to notice an effect due to semiconductors, in 1821. In 1833, Michael Faraday reported that the resistance of specimens of silver sulfide decreases when they are heated. This is contrary to the behavior of metallic substances such as copper. In 1839, Alexandre Edmond Becquerel reported observation of a voltage between a solid and a liquid electrolyte when struck by light, the photovoltaic effect. In 1873 Willoughby Smith observed that selenium resistors exhibit decreasing resistance when light falls on them. In 1874 Karl Ferdinand Braun observed conduction and rectification in metallic sulfides, although this effect had been discovered much earlier by Peter Munck af Rosenschold () writing for the Annalen der Physik und Chemie in 1835, and Arthur Schuster found that a copper oxide layer on wires has rectification properties that ceases when the wires are cleaned. William Grylls Adams and Richard Evans Day observed the photovoltaic effect in selenium in 1876.\n", "Brattain started working on building such a device, and tantalizing hints of amplification continued to appear as the team worked on the problem. Sometimes the system would work but then stop working unexpectedly. In one instance a non-working system started working when placed in water. Ohl and Brattain eventually developed a new branch of quantum mechanics, which became known as surface physics, to account for the behaviour. The electrons in any one piece of the crystal would migrate about due to nearby charges. Electrons in the emitters, or the \"holes\" in the collectors, would cluster at the surface of the crystal where they could find their opposite charge \"floating around\" in the air (or water). Yet they could be pushed away from the surface with the application of a small amount of charge from any other location on the crystal. Instead of needing a large supply of injected electrons, a very small number in the right place on the crystal would accomplish the same thing.\n", "with \"k\" a constant. For pure metals such as copper, silver, etc. \"k\" is large, so the thermal conductivity is high. At higher temperatures the mean free path is limited by the phonons, so the thermal conductivity tends to decrease with temperature. In alloys the density of the impurities is very high, so \"l\" and, consequently \"k\", are small. Therefore, alloys, such as stainless steel, can be used for thermal insulation.\n\nSection::::Theoretical prediction.:Lattice waves.\n", "The success of the thermal break profile series led to the creation of NV Erap, Reynaers' own production company for the insulation of profiles.\n", "Their understanding solved the problem of needing a very small control area to some degree. Instead of needing two separate semiconductors connected by a common, but tiny, region, a single larger surface would serve. The electron-emitting and collecting leads would both be placed very close together on the top, with the control lead placed on the base of the crystal. When current flowed through this \"base\" lead, the electrons or holes would be pushed out, across the block of semiconductor, and collect on the far surface. As long as the emitter and collector were very close together, this should allow enough electrons or holes between them to allow conduction to start.\n", "A unified explanation of these phenomena required a theory of solid-state physics which developed greatly in the first half of the 20th Century. In 1878 Edwin Herbert Hall demonstrated the deflection of flowing charge carriers by an applied magnetic field, the Hall effect. The discovery of the electron by J.J. Thomson in 1897 prompted theories of electron-based conduction in solids. Karl Baedeker, by observing a Hall effect with the reverse sign to that in metals, theorized that copper iodide had positive charge carriers. Johan Koenigsberger classified solid materials as metals, insulators and \"variable conductors\" in 1914 although his student Josef Weiss already introduced the term \"Halbleiter\" (semiconductor in modern meaning) in PhD thesis in 1910. Felix Bloch published a theory of the movement of electrons through atomic lattices in 1928. In 1930, B. Gudden stated that conductivity in semiconductors was due to minor concentrations of impurities. By 1931, the band theory of conduction had been established by Alan Herries Wilson and the concept of band gaps had been developed. Walter H. Schottky and Nevill Francis Mott developed models of the potential barrier and of the characteristics of a metal–semiconductor junction. By 1938, Boris Davydov had developed a theory of the copper-oxide rectifier, identifying the effect of the p–n junction and the importance of minority carriers and surface states.\n", "Both of these methods, as Maxwell points out, had succeeded in explaining the propagation of light as an electromagnetic phenomenon while at the same time the fundamental conceptions of what the quantities concerned are, radically differed. The mathematicians assumed that insulators were barriers to electric currents; that, for instance, in a Leyden jar or electric condenser the electricity was accumulated at one plate and that by some occult action at a distance electricity of an opposite kind was attracted to the other plate.\n", "A bar of brass (70% Cu, 30% Zn) was used as a core, with molybdenum wires stretched along its length, and then coated in a layer of pure copper. Molybdenum was chosen as the marker material due to it being very insoluble in brass, eliminating any error due to the markers diffusing themselves. Diffusion was allowed to take place at 785 °C over the course of 56 days, with cross-sections being taken at six times throughout the span of the experiment. Over time, it was observed that the wire markers moved closer together as the zinc diffused out of the brass and into the copper. A difference in location of the interface was visible in cross sections of different times. Compositional change of the material from diffusion was confirmed by x-ray diffraction.\n", "Amongst the first to produce ceramic insulators were companies in the United Kingdom, with Stiff and Doulton using stoneware from the mid-1840s, Joseph Bourne (later renamed Denby) producing them from around 1860 and Bullers from 1868. Utility patent number 48,906 was granted to Louis A. Cauvet on 25 July 1865 for a process to produce insulators with a threaded pinhole: pin-type insulators still have threaded pinholes.\n", "In 1821, the Estonian-German physicist, Thomas Johann Seebeck, demonstrated the electrical potential in the juncture points of two dissimilar metals when there is a temperature difference between the joints. He joined a copper wire with a bismuth wire to form a loop or circuit. Two junctions were formed by connecting the ends of the wires to each other. He then accidentally discovered that if he heated one junction to a high temperature, and the other junction remained at room temperature, a magnetic field was observed around the circuit.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04883	Why do toddlers like to see their own reflections so much?	"It looks like me, but I'm right here, it moves the same as me too, I must observe the specimen."	[ "Section::::Live performance.\n", "Reflective Parenting\n\nReflective Parenting is a theory of parenting developed from the work of psychoanalyst Peter Fonagy and his colleagues at the Tavistock Clinic in London. Fonagy introduced the concept of “reflective functioning”, which is defined as the ability to imagine mental states in self and others. Through this capacity for reflection, we develop the ability to understand our own behavioral responses and the responses of others as a meaningful attempt to communicate those inner mental states. As Fonagy describes it, “reflective function is the… uniquely human capacity to make sense of each other”.\n", "Section::::Title and artwork.\n", "At around 18 months old and later, children begin to develop reflective self-awareness, which is the next stage of bodily awareness and involves children recognizing themselves in reflections, mirrors, and pictures. Children who have not obtained this stage of bodily self-awareness yet will tend to view reflections of themselves as other children and respond accordingly, as if they were looking at someone else face to face. In contrast, those who have reached this level of awareness will recognize that they see themselves, for instance seeing dirt on their face in the reflection and then touching their own face to wipe it off.\n", "Numerous researchers have studied how reflective functioning works in the parent-child relationship. They have learned that a mother with high reflective functioning has the ability to see her child as a separate, autonomous individual with “a mind of his own.” As a result, she attributes thoughts, feelings, intentionality and desires to her child, and can recognize her \"own\" thoughts, feelings, intentions and desires. This research has demonstrated that when a parent has this capacity, it 1) strengthens the parent-child relationship 2) teaches the child how to understand and regulate his behavior, and 3) supports cognitive development.\n", "Self-awareness is another milestone that helps parents understand how a toddler is reacting. Around 18 months of age, a child will begin to recognize himself or herself as a separate physical being with his/her own thoughts and actions. A parent can test if this milestone has been reached by noticing if the toddler recognizes that their reflection in a mirror is in fact themselves. One way to test this is the rouge test: putting lipstick on the child's face and showing them their own reflection. Upon seeing the out-of-the-ordinary mark, if the child reaches to his or her own face, the child has achieved this important milestone. Along with self recognition comes feelings of embarrassment and pride that the child had not previously experienced.\n", "It is to be kept in mind that as an infant comes into this world, they have no concept of what is around them, nor for the significance of others around them. It is throughout the first year that they gradually begin to acknowledge that their body is actually separate from that of their mother, and that they are an \"active, causal agent in space\". By the end of the first year, they additionally realize that their movement, as well, is separate from movement of the mother. That is a huge advance, yet they are still quite limited and cannot yet know what they look like, \"in the sense that the infant cannot recognize its own face\". By the time an average toddler reaches 18–24 months, they will discover themselves and recognize their own reflection in the mirror, however in many African populations this is not the case until the age of six. They begin to acknowledge the fact that the image in front of them, who happens to be them, moves; indicating that they appreciate and can consider the relationship between cause and effect that is happening. By the age of 24 months the toddler will observe and relate their own actions to those actions of other people and the surrounding environment. Once an infant has gotten a lot of experience, and time, in front of a mirror, it is only then that they are able to recognize themselves in the reflection, and understand that it is them. For example, in a study, an experimenter took a red marker and put a fairly large red dot (so it is visible by the infant) on the infant's nose, and placed them in front of a mirror. Prior to 15 months of age, the infant will not react to this, but after 15 months of age, they will either touch their nose, wondering what it is they have on their face, or point to it. This indicates the appearance that they recognize that the image they see in the reflection of the mirror is themselves. There is somewhat of the same thing called the mirror-self recognition task, and it has been used as a research tool for numerous years, and has given, and lead to, key foundations of the infant's sense/awareness of self. For example, \"for Piaget, the objectification of the bodily self occurs as the infant becomes able to represent the body's spatial and causal relationship with the external world (Piaget, 1954). Facial recognition places a big pivotal point in their development of self-awareness. By 18 months, the infant can communicate their name to others, and upon being shown a picture they are in, they can identify themselves. By two years old, they also usually acquire gender category and age categories, saying things such as \"I am a girl, not a boy\" and \"I am a baby or child, not a grownup\". Evidently, it is not at the level of an adult or an adolescent, but as an infant moves to middle childhood and onwards to adolescence, they develop a higher level of self-awareness and self-description.\n", "BULLET::::5. 12–18 months: Tertiary Circular Reaction – The child gains means-end knowledge and is able to solve new problems. The child is now able to retrieve an object when it is hidden several times within his or her view, but cannot locate it when it is outside their perceptual field.\n", "Arietta Slade and her colleagues at Yale Child Study Center, John Grienenberger and his team at the Wright Institute in Los Angeles, Daniel Schechter and his colleagues at Columbia University and Alicia Lieberman and Patricia Van Horn at UC San Francisco are some of the first researchers and clinicians in the United States to use this research to develop reflective parenting programs and interventions. These programs share a common focus; to develop and enhance parents’ capacity for reflective thinking. They teach parents to understand and respond to a child’s motivations instead of her actions, in the belief that reflection is more productive for healthy family relationships than addressing specific actions.\n", "Section::::Critical reception.\n", "Section::::Critical reception.\n", "Section::::Stages.\n\nIn Piaget's formulation, there are six stages of object permanence. These are:\n\nBULLET::::1. 0–1 months: Reflex Schema Stage – Babies learn how the body can move and work. Vision is blurred and attention spans remain short through infancy. They aren't particularly aware of objects to know they have disappeared from sight. However, babies as young as seven minutes old prefer to look at faces. The three primary achievements of this stage are: sucking, visual tracking, and hand closure.\n", "Research indicates that teachers can benefit from video-based reflection, even when done apart from a group. Individuals using this mode of reflection tend to write longer and have more specific reflections than when writing a reflection using memory alone. This practice has also been shown to help pre-service and novice teachers focus their attention on their students' learning rather than on their own experiences.\n\nSection::::In the education field.:Video clubs.\n", "ducking the fiery balls and snarling monsters' mugs. Although he was aware that what he was experiencing could not possible be true, he was unable to break the illusion. Left with no choice but to play the game, he completed all levels. When he finished in morning, the illusion ended and he found himself back in the real world, badly covered with bruises.\n", "Section::::Related phenomena.\n\nSection::::Related phenomena.:Evanescent wave (qualitative explanation).\n", "Section::::Studies.:Self reflection study in children.:Findings.\n", "Section::::Characters in \"Labyrinth of Reflections\".\n\nSection::::Characters in \"Labyrinth of Reflections\".:Major Characters.\n", "Harry Stack Sullivan first coined the term reflected appraisal in 1953 when he published \"The Interpersonal Theory of Psychiatry\", though Charles H. Cooley was the first to describe the process of reflected appraisal when he discussed his concept of the looking-glass self (1902). Although some of our self-views are gained by direct experience with our environment, most of what we know about ourselves is derived from others.\n", "However, Mary Ryan has noted that students are often asked to \"reflect\" without being taught how to do so, or without being taught that different types of reflection are possible; they may not even receive a clear definition or rationale for reflective practice. Many new teachers do not know how to transfer the reflection strategies they learned in college to their classroom teaching.\n", "Experimentation has proven that dogs can distinguish between complex visual images such as that of a cube or a prism. Dogs also show attraction to static visual images such as the silhouette of a dog on a screen, their own reflections, or videos of dogs; however, their interest declines sharply once they are unable to make social contact with the image.\n\nSection::::Senses.:Hearing.\n", "Some animals' retinas act as retroreflectors (see \"tapetum lucidum\" for more detail), as this effectively improves the animals' night vision. Since the lenses of their eyes modify reciprocally the paths of the incoming and outgoing light the effect is that the eyes act as a strong retroreflector, sometimes seen at night when walking in wildlands with a flashlight.\n\nA simple retroreflector can be made by placing three ordinary mirrors mutually perpendicular to one another (a corner reflector). The image produced is the inverse of one produced by a single mirror. \n", "Section::::Rouge test.:Implications.\n\nThe rouge test is a measure of self-concept; the child who touches the rouge on his own nose upon looking into a mirror demonstrates the basic ability to understand self-awareness. Animals, young children, and people who have their sight restored after being blind from birth, sometimes react to their reflection in the mirror as though it were another individual.\n", "From the age of 6 to 12 months, the child typically sees a \"sociable playmate\" in the mirror's reflection. Self-admiring and embarrassment usually begin at 12 months, and at 14 to 20 months most children demonstrate avoidance behaviours. Finally, at 18 months half of children recognise the reflection in the mirror as their own and by 20 to 24 months self-recognition climbs to 65%. Children do so by evincing mark-directed behaviour; they touch their own nose or try to wipe the mark off.\n", "The technique appears in English Romantic poetry, particularly in the poetry of Wordsworth, and was defined in the following way by Samuel Taylor Coleridge, in his \"Biographia Literaria\": \"To carry on the feelings of childhood into the powers of manhood; to combine the child's sense of wonder and novelty with the appearances which every day for perhaps forty years had rendered familiar ... this is the character and privilege of genius.\" \n\nSection::::Usage.:In Russian literature.\n", "Reflected appraisals occur when a person observes how others respond to them. The process was first explained by the sociologist Charles H. Cooley in 1902 as part of his discussion of the \"\"looking-glass self\"\", which describes how we see ourselves reflected in other peoples' eyes. He argued that a person's feelings towards themselves are socially determined via a three-step process:\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01800	if someone is strangled but can still be revived with CPR - why can their body not start breathing again on its own ?	When someone is strangled the problem is not lack of oxygen (or excess CO2), since the body can handle that for a few minutes. Instead, blocking the respiratory tract results in a strong negative pressure in the lungs as they try to breathe against the blockage. This pulls fluid out of the veins and into the air sacs, so it’s much more like drowning. Thus cardiac resuscitation alone won’t work, because the lungs are full of fluid that is hard to remove.	[ "While the heart is asystolic, there is no blood flow to the brain unless CPR or internal cardiac massage (when the chest is opened and the heart is manually compressed) is performed, and even then it is a small amount. After many emergency treatments have been applied but the heart is still unresponsive, it is time to consider pronouncing the patient dead. Even in the rare case that a rhythm reappears, if asystole has persisted for fifteen minutes or more, the brain will have been deprived of oxygen long enough to cause brain death.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Agonal heart rhythm\n", "The purpose of cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) during cardiac arrest is ideally reversal of the clinically dead state by restoration of blood circulation and breathing. However, there is great variation in the effectiveness of CPR for this purpose. Blood pressure is very low during manual CPR, resulting in only a ten-minute average extension of survival. Yet there are cases of patients regaining consciousness during CPR while still in full cardiac arrest. In absence of cerebral function monitoring or frank return to consciousness, the neurological status of patients undergoing CPR is intrinsically uncertain. It is somewhere between the state of clinical death and a normal functioning state.\n", "The theory behind this invasive approach is that the artificial restoration of oxygenation and end-organ perfusion allows treating physicians more time to mitigate and reverse pathology which contributes to cardiac arrest and refractory shock. It has been well documented that the likelihood of return of spontaneous circulation and furthermore eventual discharge from hospital, after ten minutes of CPR falls significantly. Once circulation is established, the patient is able to be transferred, for further investigation and intervention, to facilities such as a cardiac cath lab and an intensive care unit.\n", "When medical institutions explain DNR, they describe survival from CPR, in order to address patients' concerns about outcomes. After CPR in hospitals in 2017, 7,000 patients survived to leave the hospital alive, out of 26,000 CPR attempts, or 26%. After CPR outside hospitals in 2018, 8,000 patients survived to leave the hospital alive, out of 80,000 CPR attempts, or 10%. Success was 21% in a public setting, where someone was more likely to see the person collapse and give help than in a home. Success was 35% when bystanders used an Automated external defibrillator (AED), outside health facilities and nursing homes.\n", "For bystanders, CPR which involves only chest compressions results in better outcomes as compared to standard CPR for those who have gone into cardiac arrest due to heart issues. Mechanical chest compressions (as performed by a machine) are no better than chest compressions performed by hand. It is unclear if a few minutes of CPR before defibrillation results in different outcomes than immediate defibrillation. If cardiac arrest occurs after 20 weeks of pregnancy someone should pull or push the uterus to the left during CPR. If a pulse has not returned by four minutes emergency Cesarean section is recommended.\n\nSection::::Management.:Defibrillation.\n", "\"Cough CPR\" in the sense of \"resuscitating\" oneself is impossible because a prominent symptom of cardiac arrest is unconsciousness, which makes coughing impossible. In cases of myocardial infarction (heart attack), during which the person may well remain conscious but which is not by itself a form of arrest, attempting \"cough CPR\" will increase the workload on the heart and will likely prove harmful.\n", "Rescuers should provide CPR as soon as an unresponsive victim is removed from the water. In particular, rescue breathing is important in this situation.\n\nA lone rescuer is typically advised to give CPR for a short time before leaving the victim to call emergency medical services.\n\nSince the primary cause of cardiac arrest and death in drowning and choking victims is hypoxia, it is more important to provide rescue breathing as quickly as possible in these situations, whereas for victims of VF cardiac arrest chest compressions and defibrillation are more important.\n\nSection::::United States.:Hypothermia.\n", "Clinical death that occurs unexpectedly is treated as a medical emergency. CPR is initiated. In a United States hospital, a Code Blue is declared and Advanced Cardiac Life Support procedures used to attempt to restart a normal heartbeat. This effort continues until either the heart is restarted, or a physician determines that continued efforts are useless and recovery is impossible. If this determination is made, the physician pronounces legal death and resuscitation efforts stop.\n", "Performing CPR is advised as a last resort intervention, for when a person is not breathing and therefore would certainly die without it.\n\nSurvival rates: In US hospitals in 2017, 26% of patients who received CPR survived to hospital discharge.\n\nIn 2017 in the US, outside hospitals, 16% of people whose cardiac arrest was witnessed survived to hospital discharge.\n\nSince 2003, widespread cooling of patients after CPR \n\nand other improvements have raised survival and reduced mental disabilities.\n\nSection::::Consequences.:Organ donation.\n", "Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is a key part of the management of cardiac arrest. It is recommended that it be started as soon as possible and interrupted as little as possible. The component of CPR that seems to make the greatest difference in most cases is the chest compressions. Correctly performed bystander CPR has been shown to increase survival; however, it is performed in less than 30% of out of hospital arrests . If high-quality CPR has not resulted in return of spontaneous circulation and the person's heart rhythm is in asystole, discontinuing CPR and pronouncing the person's death is reasonable after 20 minutes. Exceptions to this include those with hypothermia or who have drowned. Longer durations of CPR may be reasonable in those who have cardiac arrest while in hospital. Bystander CPR, by the lay public, before the arrival of EMS also improves outcomes.\n", "After successfully entering the house, Owen reaches Parker, an old man linked up to many ventilators and medical machines. The man says he suffered a failed bypass and three heart attacks, but is being kept alive by a glowing object he calls \"the Pulse\". Owen explains that it isn’t keeping him alive; hope is doing the job. Owen promises to help Parker face his fear of death, but Parker suffers another heart attack. Unable to draw breath himself, Owen cannot perform CPR, and Parker dies.\n", "Ethical dilemmas occur when a patient with a DNR attempts suicide and the necessary treatment involves ventilation or CPR. In these cases it has been argued that the principle of beneficence takes precedence over patient autonomy and the DNR can be revoked by the physician. Another dilemma occurs when a medical error happens to a patient with a DNR. If the error is reversible only with CPR or ventilation there is no consensus if resuscitation should take place or not.\n", "Gordon initially did not support rescue breathing until he performed a study of his own using pediatric patients, reproducing Elam's results. Safar had also been working on the feasibility of rescue breathing, so they agreed that a concerted effort would be much more valuable than each working separately and possibly reproducing each other's work.\n", "Section::::Concept.\n\nSimilar to the concept of elective cardiopulmonary bypass, used in open heart surgery, oxygenation and perfusion can be maintained with an ECMO device in patients undergoing cardiovascular collapse. In the setting of cardiac arrest, ECPR involves percutaneous cannulation of a femoral vein and artery, followed by the activation of the device, which subsequently maintains circulation until an appropriate recovery is made.\n", "Either a bag valve mask or an advanced airway may be used to help with breathing. High levels of oxygen are generally given during CPR. Tracheal intubation has not been found to improve survival rates or neurological outcome in cardiac arrest and in the prehospital environment may worsen it. Endotracheal tube and supraglottic airways appear equally useful. When done by EMS 30 compressions followed by two breaths appear better than continuous chest compressions and breaths being given while compressions are ongoing.\n", "CPR has continued to advance, with recent developments including an emphasis on constant, rapid heart stimulation, and a de-emphasis on the respiration aspect. Studies have shown that people who had rapid, constant heart-only chest compression are 22% more likely to survive than those receiving conventional CPR that included breathing. What's more, because people tend to be reluctant to do mouth-to-mouth, chest-only CPR nearly doubles the chances of survival overall, by increasing the odds of receiving CPR in the first place.\n\nSection::::Other animals.\n", "Many hospice patients, though not all, have made decisions against receiving CPR should their heart or breathing stop. If a patient does decide to request CPR, that service may not be provided by the hospice; the family may need to contact Emergency Medical Services to provide CPR. The principle of not extending life and withdrawing diagnostic or curative treatments is often the greatest barrier for patients in accepting hospice care. In some cases, medical professionals may feel conflict in attempting to provide it.\n", "At the onset of clinical death, consciousness is lost within several seconds. Measurable brain activity stops within 20 to 40 seconds. Irregular gasping may occur during this early time period, and is sometimes mistaken by rescuers as a sign that CPR is not necessary. During clinical death, all tissues and organs in the body steadily accumulate a type of injury called ischemic injury.\n\nSection::::Limits of reversal.\n", "Sandra masters Dr. McCarron's novel (for the 1930s) breathing method intended to help her through childbirth. However, when she goes into labor and is on the way to the hospital on an icy winter night, her taxi crashes and she is decapitated. McCarron arrives at the crash site and realizes that Sandra is somehow still alive. Her lungs in her decapitated body are still pumping air, as her head, some feet away, is working to sustain the breathing method so that the baby can be born. McCarron manages to deliver the infant alive and well.\n", "When done by trained responders, 30 compressions interrupted by two breaths appears to have a slightly better result than continuous chest compressions with breaths being delivered while compressions are ongoing.\n\nThere is a higher proportion of patients who achieve spontaneous circulation (ROSC), where their heart starts beating on its own again, than ultimately survive to be discharged from hospital (see table above). \n\n59% of CPR survivors lived over a year; 44% lived over 3 years, based on a study of CPR done in 2000-2008.\n\nSection::::Consequences.\n", "BULLET::::- Advanced age precludes an extended ICU admission requiring mechanical support\n\nBULLET::::- No appropriately trained or equipped staff available to initiate ECPR\n\nSection::::The Role of ECPR.:Complications of ECPR.\n\nThe application of ECMO in any circumstance is technically difficult and invasive. The risk associated with the initial process of connecting a patient to an extracorporeal life support device is potentially exacerbated by the emergent nature of ECMO CPR.\n\nFour recent observational studies reported complications in approximately one quarter of patients. The studies included complication of the initial application and from remaining on the extracorporeal oxygenation circuit. The complications included:\n", "Cardiopulmonary criteria for death are met when a physician determines that efforts to restart a stopped heart during cardiac arrest are futile, or that no attempt should be made to restart a stopped heart, such as when there is a Do Not Resuscitate (DNR) order. In the latter case, irreversible is understood to mean that heartbeat and breathing cannot return on their own and will not be restored by medical intervention.\n", "In one experiment performed around 2006, 12 of 14 dogs survived EPR, whereas 0 of 7 dogs survived the CPR control group. EPR can utilize equipment like catheters and pumps found in any trauma center.\n\nIn the future, advances in technology might allow a paramedic to use EPR in the field until a patient can be taken to hospital.\n\nSection::::Human trials.\n", "Several years later James Elam met Peter Safar, also an anesthesiologist, convincing him to join the effort to convince the world that expired air ventilation was effective. Safar set out on a series of experiments using paralysed individuals to show that the technique could maintain adequate oxygenation. Peter Safar describes the experiments:\n", "Mouth-to-mouth resuscitation is also part of cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) making it an essential skill for first aid. In some situations, mouth to mouth is also performed separately, for instance in near-drowning and opiate overdoses. The performance of mouth to mouth in its own is now limited in most protocols to health professionals, whereas lay first aiders are advised to undertake full CPR in any case where the patient is not breathing sufficiently.\n\nSection::::Types.:Mechanical ventilation.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00757	Why can't a barcode/qr code store an executable virus?	Barcodes, whether one or two dimensional, are rarely used for more than a few hundred bytes. It would be difficult to place malicious code in such a space, and that code would have to exploit a weakness in a particular scanning application, which could be patched relatively quickly.	[ "Also, some older virus scanners simply report all compressed executables as viruses because the decompressor stubs share some characteristics with those. Most modern virus scanners can unpack several different executable compression layers to check the actual executable inside, but some popular anti-virus and anti-malware scanners have had troubles with false positive alarms on compressed executables. In an attempt to solve the problem of malware obfuscated with the help of runtime packers the IEEE Industry Connections Security Group has introduced a software taggant system.\n", "Some viruses employ polymorphic code in a way that constrains the mutation rate of the virus significantly. For example, a virus can be programmed to mutate only slightly over time, or it can be programmed to refrain from mutating when it infects a file on a computer that already contains copies of the virus. The advantage of using such slow polymorphic code is that it makes it more difficult for antivirus professionals and investigators to obtain representative samples of the virus, because \"bait\" files that are infected in one run will typically contain identical or similar samples of the virus. This will make it more likely that the detection by the virus scanner will be unreliable, and that some instances of the virus may be able to avoid detection.\n", "Another security mechanism is that code files can only be created by trusted compilers. Malicious programmers cannot create a program and call it a compiler – a program could only be converted to be a compiler by an operator with sufficient privileges with the 'mc' make compiler operator command.\n\nThe MCP implements a Journaling file system, providing fault tolerance in case of disk failure, loss of power, etc. It is not possible to corrupt the file system (except by the operating system or other trusted system software with direct access to its lower layers) .\n", "In order to protect from these macros viruses, a scanner has to detect all elements of the chain and remove them properly.\n\nSection::::Solutions.:Macro viruses.:‘Mating’ Macro Viruses.\n\nThe anti-virus has to detect all macros of the virus but also any remnants of them. In the example of \"Colors\", the anti-virus must not detect that Microsoft's ScanProt (macro virus protection tool) contains remnants of the virus but the problem is that ScanProt does contain parts of the virus.\n", "Adleman's proof is perhaps the deepest result in malware computability theory to date and it relies on Cantor's diagonal argument as well as the halting problem. Ironically, it was later shown by Young and Yung that Adleman's work in cryptography is ideal in constructing a virus that is highly resistant to reverse-engineering by presenting the notion of a cryptovirus. A cryptovirus is a virus that contains and uses a public key and randomly generated symmetric cipher initialization vector (IV) and session key (SK). \n", "The basic Virus analogue modeled oscillators between the Virus A and TI are identical with the only difference being the number of voices available as well as the additional Hypersaw oscillator and digital wavetable oscillators of the Virus TI. Additionally, the raw Virus oscillators have much less high frequency content than the oscillators found on other subtractive virtual analogues such as the Clavia Nord Lead and Roland JP-8000. This partially explains the Virus's characteristically dark and bass heavy sound.\n", "In the case of no software exploits, malicious QR codes combined with a permissive reader can still put a computer's contents and user's privacy at risk. This practice is known as \"attagging\", a portmanteau of \"attack tagging\". They are easily created and can be affixed over legitimate QR codes. On a smartphone, the reader's permissions may allow use of the camera, full Internet access, read/write contact data, GPS, read browser history, read/write local storage, and global system changes.\n", "The Virus also has a complement of DSP effects, including a distortion unit that allows for rectification, analogue modelled and digital distortion, as well as bit-reducing and sample rate-reducing effects. The Virus C and TI also includes a 3-band EQ. \n\nLastly, the Virus has always been 16 parts multitimbral for multilayered patches and ensemble performances. However, up until the Virus TI, this aspect of the Virus has been severely flawed and is often considered unusable because of the polyphonic limitations of the Virus A, B and C.\n", "Traditionally, the mechanisms used to control the correct behavior of software are implemented at the operating system level. The operating system handles several possible security violations such as memory access violations, stack overflow violations, access control violations, and many others. This is a crucial part of security in computer systems, however by securing the behavior of software on a more specific level, even stronger security can be achieved. Since a lot of properties and behavior of the software is lost in compilation, it is significantly more difficult to detect vulnerabilities in machine code. By evaluating the source code, before the compilation, the theory and implementation of the programming language can also be considered, and more vulnerabilities can be uncovered.\n", "Risks include linking to dangerous web sites with browser exploits, enabling the microphone/camera/GPS, and then streaming those feeds to a remote server, analysis of sensitive data (passwords, files, contacts, transactions), and sending email/SMS/IM messages or DDOS packets as part of a botnet, corrupting privacy settings, stealing identity, and even containing malicious logic themselves such as JavaScript or a virus. These actions could occur in the background while the user is only seeing the reader opening a seemingly harmless web page. In Russia, a malicious QR code caused phones that scanned it to send premium texts at a fee of US$6 each.\n", "Section::::Discovery.\n\nOn November 5, 2015, Dr. Web, a Russian anti-malware company added to its virus database Linux.Encoder.1. The company then published the malware description the day after. This ransomware is written in C using the PolarSSL library.\n\nSection::::Operation.\n\nSection::::Operation.:Propagation.\n\nAccording to Bitdefender Labs, the most common infection vector is through a flaw in Magento, a shopping cart software. CheckPoint, reported this vulnerability in April 2015. After this report, Magento issued a fix. However, a lot of small e-commerce sites did not apply this critical update. Linux host might also be attacked using other exploits.\n\nSection::::Operation.:File encryption.\n\nSection::::Operation.:File encryption.:Encrypted files.\n", "Indeed, the viruses which are detected by virus-specific scanners are just the ones knew by the producers of the software (so, more updates are needed than others types of scanners). Moreover, this type of anti-virus is really weak against morphing viruses (cf.section above), if a macro virus change its content (so, its signature), it can no more be detected by the virus-specific scanners even if it's the same virus which do the same actions. Its signature doesn't match the one declare in the virus scanner.\n", "The developers of one anti-virus software, Malwarebytes, have said that they did not add the EICAR test file to their database, because \"adding fake malware and test files like EICAR to the database takes time away from malware research, and proves nothing in the long run.\" \n\nSection::::Design.\n", "The main limitation of CyberCode is its extremely limited capacity. Holding only 24 data bits plus 7 error correction bits (or 48+14 in a double-sized variant), the number of objects it can identify is limited.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n", "Cohen's faculty advisor, Leonard Adleman, presented a rigorous proof that, in the general case, algorithmic determination of the presence of a virus is undecidable. This problem must not be mistaken for that of determination within a broad class of programs that a virus is not present. This problem differs in that it does not require the ability to recognize all viruses. \n", "Anti-virus programmers set the EICAR string as a verified virus, similar to other identified signatures. A compliant virus scanner, when detecting the file, will respond in more or less the same manner as if it found a harmful virus. Not all virus scanners are compliant, and may not detect the file even when they are correctly configured. Neither the way in which the file is detected nor the wording with which it is flagged are standardized, and may differ from the way in which real malware is flagged, but should prevent it from executing as long as it meets the strict specification set by European Institute for Computer Antivirus Research.\n", "With WebPlus for example, the original X7 disc media was open to the use of third party codes. However Serif's downloadable patches for X7 to v15.0.2.31, v15.0.3.35 and v15.0.4.38 (final), reported detection of these \"unauthorised code\"s but allowed the software to continue to operate. Conversely the publicly downloadable WebPlus X8 installation file from Serif appears to accept a third party key during installation, but reports an \"unauthorised code\" and then terminates the program operation on startup.\n\nSection::::Program Withdrawal.\n", "There is another problem, if a virus B is created by modifying some macros of a virus A which consists in a set of macros, then the virus B could be detected as a remnant of A but the anti-virus would only identify (and remove) the non-modified macros.\n\nAfter that, in some cases, the replication of the virus (which does not contain original macros of A now) could be successful. In fact, the anti-virus would have created a new virus.\n\nSection::::Solutions.:Macro viruses.:Macro Virus Mutators.\n", "The U.S. Trademark for the word \"QR Code\" is Trademark 2435991 and was filed on 29 September 1998 with an amended registration date of 13 March 2001, assigned to Denso Corporation.\n\nSection::::Risks.\n\nThe only context in which common QR codes can carry executable data is the URL data type. These URLs may host JavaScript code, which can be used to exploit vulnerabilities in applications on the host system, such as the reader, the web browser or the image viewer, since a reader will typically send the data to the application associated with the data type used by the QR code.\n", "Some systems allow code executed by a user to access all rights of that user, which is known as over-privileged code. This was also standard operating procedure for early microcomputer and home computer systems. Malware, running as over-privileged code, can use this privilege to subvert the system. Almost all currently popular operating systems, and also many scripting applications allow code too many privileges, usually in the sense that when a user executes code, the system allows that code all rights of that user. This makes users vulnerable to malware in the form of e-mail attachments, which may or may not be disguised.\n", "All complex retroviruses face the problem of exporting unspliced and partially spliced mRNAs. Some use systems similar to Rev/RRE; these include HIV-2 and SIV (Simian Immunodeficiency Virus) which use their own Rev-RRE systems, some betaretroviruses, which use a Rem/RmRE system, and all deltaretroviruses which use a Rex/RxRRE systems.\n", "In late November 2010, a new version called Gpcode.ax was reported. It uses stronger encryption (RSA-1024 and AES-256) and physically overwrites the encrypted file, making recovery nearly impossible.\n\nKaspersky Lab has been able to make contact with the author of the program, and verify that the individual is the real author, but have so far been unable to determine his real world identity.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Kaspersky Lab\n\nBULLET::::- Kaspersky Lab blog posts\n\nBULLET::::- Kaspersky Lab forum dedicated to GPCode\n\nBULLET::::- Kaspersky Lab virus descriptions\n\nBULLET::::- StopGPCode trojan removal utilities\n\nBULLET::::- Other virus description databases\n\nBULLET::::- F-Secure\n\nBULLET::::- Symantec\n", "The pieces used to build the decryptor are usually too common to be detected with signatures. However, most oligomorphic viruses aren't able to generate more than just a few hundred different decryptors, so detecting them with simple signatures is still possible. Another method to detect an oligomorphic decryptor is to make a signature for each possible piece of code, group pieces that can substitute each other together and scan the file for a chain of decryptor pieces from alternating groups. Emulation may be used to detect the virus, but it can take more resources than necessary.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "If an operating system can mark some or all writable regions of memory as non-executable, it may be able to prevent the stack and heap memory areas from being executable. This helps to prevent certain buffer-overflow exploits from succeeding, particularly those that inject and execute code, such as the Sasser and Blaster worms. These attacks rely on some part of memory, usually the stack, being both writeable and executable; if it is not, the attack fails.\n\nSection::::OS implementations.\n", "A dope vector reduces these problems by storing a small amount of metadata along with an array (or other object). With dope vectors, a compiler can easily (and optionally) insert code that prevents accidentally writing beyond the end of an array or other object. Alternatively, the programmer can access the dope vector when desired, for safety or other purposes.\n\nSection::::Description.\n\nThe exact set of metadata included in a dope vector varies from one language and/or operating system to another, but a dope vector for an array might contain: \n" ]	[ "QR Cods cannot store a virus." ]	[ "They can store a virus it would just be difficult to fit in the space and would be easily fixed. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "QR Cods cannot store a virus." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "They can store a virus it would just be difficult to fit in the space and would be easily fixed. " ]
2018-04570	How does hand sanitizer "evaporate"?	Hand sanitizer has a high alcohol content which requires less energy to evaporate than water. Also, because it's on your hands, it is pulling heat from you very quickly (you'll notice it makes your hands cold).	[ "There have been reported incidents of people drinking the gel in prisons and hospitals, where alcohol consumption is not allowed, to become intoxicated leading to its withdrawal from some establishments.\n\nSection::::Safety.:Non-alcohol based.\n", "Section::::Safety.\n\nSection::::Safety.:Fire.\n\nAlcohol gel can catch fire, producing a translucent blue flame. This is due to the flammable alcohol in the gel. Some hand sanitizer gels may not produce this effect due to a high concentration of water or moisturizing agents. There have been some rare instances where alcohol has been implicated in starting fires in the operating room, including a case where alcohol used as an antiseptic pooled under the surgical drapes in an operating room and caused a fire when a cautery instrument was used. Alcohol gel was not implicated. \n", "Alcohol-free hand sanitizer efficacy is heavily dependent on the ingredients and formulation, and historically has significantly under-performed alcohol and alcohol rubs. More recently, formulations that use benzalkonium chloride have been shown to have persistent and cumulative antimicrobial activity after application, unlike alcohol, which has been shown to decrease in efficacy after repeated use, probably due to progressive adverse skin reactions.\n\nSection::::Substances used.:Ash or mud.\n", "A hand sanitizer or hand antiseptic is a non-water-based hand hygiene agent. In the late 1990s and early part of the 21st century, alcohol rub non-water-based hand hygiene agents (also known as alcohol-based hand rubs, antiseptic hand rubs, or hand sanitizers) began to gain popularity. Most are based on isopropyl alcohol or ethanol formulated together with a thickening agent such as Carbomer into a gel, or a humectant such as glycerin into a liquid, or foam for ease of use and to decrease the drying effect of the alcohol.\n", "Section::::Production.\n\nThere are multiple production protocols used to synthesize gelatin microparticles. These production protocols include spray drying, precipitation, solvent evaporation, and emulsification. Water in water (w/w) emulsification is the most popular method of production. W/w was developed in order to address the loss of parrtical-product bioactivity which is associated with chemically induced preparation.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n", "Soaking is typically the most common application of this process. The material is left to soak until all the dirt or contaminates are removed from the surface. However, the work piece may also be sprayed or have solvent directly whipped on it. These two applications are typically used for spot cleaning\n", "Section::::Implementation and operation.:Operation technique.\n", "For health care, optimal disinfection requires attention to all exposed surfaces such as around the fingernails, between the fingers, on the back of the thumb, and around the wrist. Hand alcohol should be thoroughly rubbed into the hands and on the lower forearm for a duration of at least 30 seconds and then allowed to air dry.\n\nUse of alcohol-based hand gels dries skin less, leaving more moisture in the epidermis, than hand washing with antiseptic/antimicrobial soap and water.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Not indicated.\n", "Applying the spreadsheet of the theoretical model to a barrel set as in figure, the residence time obtained as a function of withdrawn quantity and evaporation rate is plotted in the concerning graph.\n\nSection::::Chemical composition.\n", "The World Health Organization (WHO) and the CDC recommends \"persistent\" antiseptics for hand sanitizers. Persistent activity is defined as the prolonged or extended antimicrobial activity that prevents or inhibits the proliferation or survival of microorganisms after application of the product. This activity may be demonstrated by sampling a site several minutes or hours after application and demonstrating bacterial antimicrobial effectiveness when compared with a baseline level. This property also has been referred to as \"residual activity.\" Both substantive and nonsubstantive active ingredients can show a persistent effect if they substantially lower the number of bacteria during the wash period.\n", "Section::::Applying solvent methods.:Solvent dispenser method.\n\nA dispenser is used to precisely control the amount of solvent applied on each surface.\n\nSection::::Thermoplastic and solvent compatibility.\n", "Hand sanitizers are most effective against bacteria and less effective against some viruses. Alcohol-based hand sanitizers are almost entirely ineffective against norovirus or Norwalk type viruses, the most common cause of contagious gastroenteritis.\n\nEnough hand antiseptic or alcohol rub must be used to thoroughly wet or cover both hands. The front and back of both hands and between and the ends of all fingers are rubbed for approximately 30 seconds until the liquid, foam or gel is dry. As well as finger tips must be washed well too rubbing them in both palms alternatively.\n", "In the next step, 70% ethanol is added to the pellet, and it is gently mixed to break the pellet loose and wash it. This removes some of the salts present in the leftover supernatant and bound to DNA pellet making the final DNA cleaner. This suspension is centrifuged again to once again pellet DNA and the supernatant solution is removed. This step is repeated once.\n", "The balance of these forces varies with change in temperature or solvent properties. The total osmotic pressure acting on the system is the sum osmotic pressure of the gel. It is further shown that the phase transition can be induced by the application of an electric field across the gel. The volume change at the transition point is either discrete (as in a first-order Ehrenfest transition) or continuous (second order Ehrenfest analogy), depending on the degree of ionization of the gel and on the solvent composition.\n\nSection::::Structural relaxation.:Elastic continuum.\n", "When the process is applied to food and the water is evaporated and removed, the food can be stored for long periods of time without spoiling. It is also used when boiling a substance at normal temperatures would chemically change the consistency of the product, such as egg whites coagulating when attempting to dehydrate the albumen into a powder.\n\nThis process was invented by Henri Nestlé in 1866, of Nestlé Chocolate fame, although the Shakers were already using a vacuum pan earlier than that (see condensed milk).\n", "In most such processes, acetone is first used to wash away all water, exploiting the complete miscibility of these two fluids. The acetone is then washed away with high pressure liquid carbon dioxide, the industry standard now that freon is unavailable. The liquid carbon dioxide is then heated until its temperature goes beyond the critical point, at which time the pressure can be gradually released, allowing the gas to escape and leaving a dried product.\n", "In spray drying, a slurry of very small solids is rapidly dried by suspension in a hot gas. The slurry is first atomized into very small liquid droplets which are then sprayed into a stream of hot dry air. The liquid rapidly evaporates leaving behind dry powder or dry solid granules. The dry powder or solid granules are recovered from the exhaust air by using cyclones, bag filters or electrostatic precipitators.\n\nSection::::Natural flash evaporation.\n", "In situations where hand washing with soap is not an option (e.g., when in a public place with no access to wash facilities), a water less hand sanitizer such as an alcohol hand gel can be used. They can be used in addition to hand washing to minimize risks when caring for \"at risk\" groups. To be effective, alcohol hand gels should contain not less than 60%v/v alcohol.\n", "Section::::Contrast with spray drying.\n\nSpray drying is sometimes seen as a form of flash evaporation. However, although it is a form of liquid evaporation, it is quite different from flash evaporation.\n", "Hand rubs also prove to have more effective microbiological properties as compared to antiseptic soaps.\n\nThe same ingredients used in over-the-counter hand-rubs are also used in hospital hand-rubs: alcohols such ethanol and isopropanol, sometimes combined with quaternary ammonium cations (quats) such as benzalkonium chloride. Quats are added at levels up to 200 parts per million to increase antimicrobial effectiveness. Although allergy to alcohol-only rubs is rare, fragrances, preservatives and quats can cause contact allergies. These other ingredients do not evaporate like alcohol and accumulate leaving a \"sticky\" residue until they are removed with soap and water.\n", "The coating is sprayed together with water in the space between the creping blade and the press through a spray bar with nozzles. Only the narrow space between this spray bar and the press is the one in which the water coming with the coating shall be evaporated and the polymer has to cure. For this reason for the base coating increasingly pre-cured polymers are used.\n", "Despite their effectiveness, non-water agents do not cleanse the hands of organic material, but simply disinfect them. It is for this reason that hand sanitizers are not as effective as soap and water at preventing the spread of many pathogens, since the pathogens still remain on the hands.\n", "The most common brands of alcohol hand rubs include Aniosgel, Avant, Sterillium, Desderman and Allsept S. All hospital hand rubs must conform to certain regulations like EN 12054 for hygienic treatment and surgical disinfection by hand-rubbing. Products with a claim of \"99.99% reduction\" or 4-log reduction are ineffective in hospital environment, since the reduction must be more than \"99.99%\".\n", "Section::::Preparation.:Drying.\n", "Section::::Implementation.\n\nSection::::Implementation.:JavaScript.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-16646	I am from germany, what can I or others from the EU do against Article 13+11?	Contact your representatives and tell them that you are against the bill. If they vote for it anyway take note and if your country elects your EU reps vote for someone else.	[ "As of 21 March 2019, 100 MEPs have signed in support of the directive, while 126 have agreed to vote against it. On 20 March 2019 74 MEPs asked for Article 13 to be deleted from the directive. In the end, 348 voted for and 274 voted against.\n", "The publishers argue that licensed content providers such as Spotify and Netflix are also negatively affected by the current copyright regime, which they say benefits user-driven platforms such as YouTube (owned by the parent company of Google) and Facebook. They claim reports of spambots flooding MEPs with so many anti-copyright emails that they can no longer carry out their work.\n\nWhile some publishers support the proposal, European Innovative Media Publishers, a publishing industry lobbying organisation, was founded in 2015 specifically to oppose Article 11.\n\nSection::::Positions.:Newspapers.\n", "The trilogue negotiations were completed on 13 February 2019, the final text still retaining the controversial Articles 11 and 13. At this point, the text was reviewed by the European Parliament Committee on Legal Affairs, and then presented to the full European Parliament for a vote. The vote in Parliament was held on 26 March 2019, with the Directive passing by a vote of 348 MPs to 274 against. After corrections of mistaken votes, the result was a vote of 338 MPs to 284. The main support for the directive came from the centre-right (EPP). In terms of countries, most votes in favour came from France (62), Italy (39), Germany (38), Spain (34) and the UK (31), while the most votes against it came from Germany (49), Poland (33), UK (30), Italy (27) and the Netherlands (17). While there had been an additional vote on an amendment to have a separate vote on the inclusion of the two controversial Articles (draft Articles 11 and 13, Directive Articles 15 and 17), the amendment narrowly failed to pass, with at least 13 MEPs stating they mistakenly voted the wrong way on this vote; if these had been voted as the MEP had intended, the amendment would have passed and required the additional vote.\n", "Before the vote on the directive, a vote was held on whether to consider amendments, which would have allowed the possibility of separating Articles 11 and 13 into separate votes. The proposal fell short by 5 votes. It was reported after the fact that 13 MEPs had requested that their votes be changed, since they voted incorrectly due to alleged confusion over the order of voting. The revised results added 10 votes in favour of amendments. However, these corrections are strictly for parliamentary records only, and do not change the result of the vote.\n\nSection::::Controversy.:Bomb threat.\n", "A number of public protests have been held in opposition to the proposed directive, mainly concerning Article 11 and 13. European wide protests on 23 March 2019 saw tens to hundreds of thousands of people marching. One estimate put the number at 40,000 people in Munich and 15,000 in Berlin. Another estimate indicated 30,000 people in Berlin and more than 100,000 in Germany overall. A 16 February 2019 protest organised by German YouTube stars in Cologne attracted a significant crowd despite having only been announced two days earlier. German news media gave reports of attendance, with one report describing \"several hundred participants\", another \"over 1000\", and a third \"1500\" based on police reports. A second protest in Cologne on 23 February 2019 had a reported attendance of more than 3000. Demonstrators attributed problems of the bill to Axel Voss and the CDU party. A protest in Berlin on 2 March attracted roughly 3,500. The protests are being organised by a grassroots movement and are raising funds by Gofundme.\n", "Article 11 was moved to Article 15 in the final draft from the trilogue negotiations issued 26 March 2019 and approved by the Parliament and Council.\n\nSection::::Content.:Draft Article 13 (Directive Article 17).\n", "In 2017, Human Rights Watch and Reporters Without Borders were among the signatories of an open letter opposing Article 13. 145organisations from the areas of human and digital rights, media freedom, publishing, libraries, educational institutions, software developers, and Internet service providers signed a letter opposing the proposed legislation on 26 April 2018. Some of those opposed include the Electronic Frontier Foundation, Creative Commons, European Digital Rights, the Max Planck Society, GitHub, various Wikimedia chapters, and the Wikimedia Foundation (the parent organisation of Wikipedia).\n", "Experts expect that the short and rigid deletion periods and the high threat of fines would lead the networks to prefer to remove contributions in case of doubt, even if the freedom of expression guaranteed by fundamental rights would require a context-related consideration, for example in the differentiation between prohibited insult and permitted satire. In April 2017, an alliance of business associations, network politicians, civil rights activists, scientists and lawyers joined forces to protest against the law. In a manifesto they warned of \"catastrophic consequences for freedom of expression\".\n", "The day before the Parliament vote, the \"Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung\" reported that Germany may have caved in to support the Directive at the last minute in exchange for France's approval of the controversial Nord Stream 2 project, a natural gas pipeline from Russia. MEP Tiemo Wölken, a member of the SDP and opponent of the Directive, claimed that this had been rumoured before the report was published.\n\nSection::::Positions.:Non-governmental organisations.\n", "After its passing, Pirate Party MEP Julia Reda pointed out that Article 13 may violate the Canada/EU Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA), which states that its parties must provide \"limitations or exceptions\" on the liability of intermediary communications service providers in regards to copyright infringement, and that they must not be \"conditioned on the service provider monitoring its service, or affirmatively seeking facts indicating infringing activity.\"\n\nSection::::Controversy.:Public protests.\n", "German politician Kevin Kühnert, federal chairperson of the Social Democratic Party's youth organisation, has voiced opposition to Article 13, claiming that it violates the coalition agreement between the SDP and the CDU/CSU. Petra Sitte, vice-chair of the democratic socialist party The Left, also stated that the effective endorsement of upload filters violates the coalition agreement, calling the copyright directive a \"compromise between the interests of different large corporations\" (\"\"Kompromiss zwischen den Interessen verschiedener Großkonzerne\"\") and \"a grave threat to freedom of expression\" (\"\"eine ernsthafte Gefahr für die Meinungsfreiheit\"\").\n", "BULLET::::- institute proceedings to the Court against an act addressed to them or a \"direct and individual concern to them\" (article 263; e.g. a subjective right or a legitimate interest). Such a type includes direct \"proceedings against the EU institutions for annulment and for failure to act\";\n\nBULLET::::- comply actions to the Court for a failure to act, which happens when the couterpart, after two months from the call upon act, has failed to produce and address \"any act other than a recommendation or an opinion\" (article 265).\n", "BULLET::::- Amendment 11: A proposal that certain areas of retained EU Law cannot be amended or repealed after Exit by Ministers, but only through primary legislation (i.e. an Act of Parliament), was passed by 314 to 217 – a majority of 97. These areas of retained EU Law are: (a) employment entitlements, rights and protection; (b) equality entitlements, rights and protection; (c) health and safety entitlements, rights and protection; (d) consumer standards; and (e) environmental standards and protection. Even technical changes to the retained EU Law in these areas can only be made with approval of both Houses of Parliament, and following 'an enhanced scrutiny procedure'.\n", "BULLET::::- Child abuse\n\nBULLET::::- Drug trafficking\n\nBULLET::::- Fraud\n\nBULLET::::- Human trafficking\n\nBULLET::::- Political corruption\n\nBULLET::::- Terrorism\n\nBULLET::::- Trafficking of arms\n\nSection::::New provisions.:Solidarity clause.\n\nThe new solidarity clause of the TCE specifies that any member state which falls victim to a terrorist attack or other disaster will receive assistance from other member states, if it requests it. The type of assistance to be offered is not specified. Instead, the arrangements will be decided by the Council of Ministers should the situation arise.\n\nSection::::New provisions.:European Public Prosecutor.\n", "EU also has guillotine clauses in the EEA agreements with Norway (2001), Iceland (2001), and Liechtenstein (2008), which must directly accept both existing and added EU directives within several fields relating to trade (except food) free movement and the internal market. Refusing such directives would give the EU the right to terminate the entire EEA agreement and so the EEA countries have avoided doing so.\n", "The restrictions that, pursuant to this Convention, may be placed on the enjoyment or exercise of the rights or freedoms recognized herein may not be applied except in accordance with the laws enacted for reasons of general interest and in accordance with the purpose for which such restrictions have been established.\n\nSection::::Application.\n\nArticle 18 must always operate in tandem with another article of the ECHR, although that Article need not necessarily be violated, as explained by the Court in Gusinskiy v Russia:\n", "There were altogether 164 proposals for amendments filed by MEPs that sought to change the text negotiated in the Trialogue. However, under the Rules of Procedure of the European Parliament Art. 53(3), any provisional agreement reached in the Trialogue under Art 69f(4) \"shall be given priority in voting and shall be put to a single vote\". MEP Dita Charanzová put forward a motion on behalf of the ALDE Group that would allow voting on the MEPs' proposals for changes, arguing that the plenary \"has never had the opportunity to take the position on this important text as it was negotiated directly by the Committee, therefore I ask all my colleagues to vote in favor of this request which would simply allow all members to express their opinions\". Vicky Ford then argued that these amendments had been debated in the Committee, discussed with the Council and ultimately rejected by the Member States. She argued that adopting the amendments would \"destabilize the entire agreement\", throwing away \"all the hard work\" and \"success that the Parliament has had in improving the text\". Charanzová's proposal was rejected by unknown margin, as, according to chair \"the vote was absolutely clear for everyone to see, there is no point in having a check\" with no record of number of votes cast being made.\n", "BULLET::::1. where confirmed not to be 'by object', carry out a case-by-case ('individual') assessment confirming whether the arrangement produces restrictive 'effects' within the meaning of Article 101(1) TFEU\n\nBULLET::::5. if the agreement is found to be restrictive (whether 'by object' or 'effect'), assess whether the agreement benefits from an 'individual exemption' under Article 101(3) TFEU (i.e. generates incremental economic benefits which, amongst other requirements, outweigh the restrictive effects identified).\n\nSection::::Article 101 TFEU.:Exemptions from Article 101 TFEU.\n\nThere are cases where certain types of agreements automatically fall outside the scope of Article 101 TFEU, e.g.:\n", "Under Article 3(1), Members States can be censured in the European Court of Justice if their civil procedures on the infringement of intellectual property rights are \"unnecessarily complicated or costly, or entail unreasonable time-limits or unwarranted delays\". Otherwise the Directive harmonises the rules on standing, evidence, interlocutory measures, seizure and injunctions, damages and costs and judicial publication.\n\nSection::::Subject-matter and scope.\n", "Draft Article 11 (Article 15 of the directive) extends the 2001 Copyright Directive to grant publishers direct copyright over \"online use of their press publications by information society service providers\". Under current EU law, publishers instead rely on authors assigning copyright to them and must prove rights ownership for each individual work. The version of the directive voted on by the European Parliament Committee on Legal Affairs contained explicit exemptions for the act of hyperlinking and \"legitimate private and non-commercial use of press publications by individual users\".\n", "In 2018, support in the European Parliament was led by the European People's Party group and the Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats, the parliament's two largest groups. Major national parties in support include Germany's ruling Christian Democratic Union and their coalition partners the Social Democratic Party, the United Kingdom's ruling Conservative Party and opposition Labour Party, and Poland's main opposition party, Civic Platform.\n", "As part of this series of actions, Peng! published five legislative proposals for the renewal of the War Weapons Control Act and for the \"Rescue of Article 26 GG\".\n\nSection::::Projects.:Deutschland Geht Klauen.\n", "After the European People's Party tried to move the vote on the directive ahead to circumvent the planned protests on 23 March 2019, demonstrations were organised at short notice in ten German cities, including Berlin, between 5 and 9 March 2019. Following public protests, the European People's Party claimed that they did not try to move the vote forwards despite evidence to the contrary. Additionally, the request to move the vote forwards may not have been withdrawn as of 5 March 2019.\n", "More than 200 academics have criticised the directive, emphasising concerns about the effectiveness of Article 11's impact on the readership of online publication and of Article 13's obligations on service providers that will \"benefit big players\". SPARC Europe called for the removal of Article 11, arguing that it would \"make the last two decades of news less accessible to researchers and the public, leading to a distortion of the public's knowledge and memory of past events\", and if extended to academic publishing, would \"in effect ask readers to pay publishers for access to works for which authors, institutions or research funders had already paid publishers to make freely accessible to all under 'open access' terms\". Twenty-five research centres common on concerns that the financial benefits from the proposed directive will occur to large rightsholders rather than creators, with creators simple being used as \"frontmen/women\".\n", "A number of citizens, several members of parliament, and the Die Linke party in the Bundestag challenged the constitutionality of the ESM and petitioned the Constitutional Court to issue a preliminary injunction prohibiting President Joachim Gauck from signing the treaty. The President declared that he would postpone his signature until after the Court had ruled on the injunction. If the injunction was rejected, the President would sign the treaty, while if the Court granted the injunction the merits of the case would be decided while ratification remained on hold. If the Court ultimately decided that the treaty was unconstitutional, the treaty could not go into force in its current form. The Court heard oral arguments on 10 July 2012. A group of German academics filed an appeal to the Court requesting that the decision be delayed until the ECJ had issued a verdict on the legality of the treaty in the case referred to it by the Irish Supreme Court. While this could have delayed ratification by months, a spokesman for the court stated that \"our understanding is that the court’s decision will go ahead\". After the European Central Bank announced their intention to buy unlimited amounts of government bonds from troubled ESM states, another court challenge was launched requesting that ratification stop until this decision was reversed. While the court quickly rejected this case on procedural grounds, it didn't rule out the possibility that the case could be refiled.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01472	Why do whales surface to exhale, and when do they inhale?	Exhaling under water decreases buoyancy. Try it next time you're at a pool - humans generally float with full lungs but sink after fully exhaling. Exhaling before surfacing makes it more difficult to surface.	[ "A 2008 study found that sperm whales sleep in vertical postures just under the surface in passive shallow 'drift-dives', generally during the day, during which whales do not respond to passing vessels unless they are in contact, leading to the suggestion that whales possibly sleep during such dives.\n\nSection::::Behaviour.:Diving.\n", "\"Logging\" is a behaviour that whales exhibit when at rest and appear like \"logs\" at the surface. It is defined as lying without forward movement at the surface of the water with the dorsal fin or parts of the back are exposed. Whales often rest for periods of time under the surface in order to sleep in mainly horizontal positions, although sperm whales also rest vertically. However, as they consciously need to breathe at the surface, they can rest only one-half of their brain at a time, known as unihemispheric slow-wave sleep. This sleep pattern has been identified in all five cetacean species that have been tested for it thus far. Cetaceans intermittently come to the surface in order to breathe during these sleep periods and exhibit logging behaviour. Logging can occur interchangeably with surface resting behaviour when cetaceans are travelling slowly, which is particularly common in mother-calf pairs, as the young tire quickly during swimming. Logging is common, particularly in right whales, sperm whales, pilot whales and humpback whales. Another behaviour that may be mistaken for logging is \"milling\", where a group of cetaceans at the surface have little or no directional movement but instead socialise with each other. This behaviour is particularly common in large groups of pilot whales.\n", "Whales are air-breathing mammals who must surface to get the air they need. The stubby dorsal fin is visible soon after the blow (exhalation) when the whale surfaces, but disappears by the time the flukes emerge. Humpbacks have a , heart-shaped bushy blow through the blowholes.\n\nThey do not generally sleep at the surface, but they must continue to breathe. Possibly only half of their brain sleeps at one time, with one half managing the surface-blow-dive process without awakening the other half.\n\nSection::::Behavior.:Migration.\n", "As with other dolphins, orcas are very vocal animals. They produce a variety of clicks and whistles that are used for communication and echolocation. The vocalization types vary with activity. While resting they are much quieter, merely emitting an occasional call that is distinct from those heard when engaging in more active behaviour.\n", "While diving, the animals reduce their oxygen consumption by lowering the heart activity and blood circulation; individual organs receive no oxygen during this time. Some rorquals can dive for up to 40 minutes, sperm whales between 60 and 90 minutes and bottlenose whales for two hours. Diving depths average about . Species such as sperm whales can dive to , although more commonly .\n\nSection::::Behaviour.:Social relations.\n", "A 2008 study found that sperm whales sleep in vertical postures just under the surface in passive shallow 'drift-dives', generally during the day, during which whales do not respond to passing vessels unless they are in contact, leading to the suggestion that whales possibly sleep during such dives.\n\nSection::::Ecology.\n\nSection::::Ecology.:Foraging and predation.\n", "Cetacean surfacing behaviour or breaching is a group of behaviours demonstrated by the Cetacea infraorder when they come to the water's surface to breathe. Time intervals between surfacing can vary depending on the species, surfacing style or the purpose of the dive, and some species have been known to dive for up to 85 minutes at a time when hunting. In addition to respiration, cetaceans have developed and used surface behaviours for many other functions such as display, feeding and communication. All regularly observed members of the order Cetacea, including whales, dolphins and porpoises, show a range of surfacing behaviours. Cetacea is usually split into two suborders, Odontoceti and Mysticeti, based on the presence of teeth or baleen plates in adults respectively. However, when considering behaviour, Cetacea can be split into whales (cetaceans more than 10 m long such as sperm and most baleen whales) and dolphins and porpoises (all Odontocetes less than 10 m long including orca) as many behaviours are correlated with size. Although some behaviours such as spyhopping, logging and lobtailing occur in both groups, others such as bow riding or peduncle throws are exclusive to one or the other. It is these energetic behaviours that humans observe most frequently, which has resulted in a large amount of scientific literature on the subject and a popular tourism industry.\n", "polar bear. All are air-breathing, and while some such as the sperm whale can dive for prolonged periods, all must return to the surface to breathe.\n\nSection::::Marine habitats.\n", "The haul-out patterns of female Weddell seal are heavily influenced by the age of their pups. In the first week post parturition, haul-out frequency is high and females remain hauled-out for longer periods prior to the pups starting to swim. Haul-out frequency decreases as the pups are weaned and mating begins.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Walruses.\n", "In the Monterey Bay area, focal follows of minke whales showed that they respired an average of 3.74 times during a surfacing sequence. These short duration dives averaged 37.8 seconds and were followed by a long duration dive of an average of 4.43 minutes. In the San Juan Islands, the number of exhalations and the duration of dives depended on whether the whale was lunge feeding or feeding with birds. In the former method of feeding, whales made short dives – about 22 seconds long – up to seven times in rapid succession before making a long dive of about 3.8 minutes, while during the latter method they made longer short dives of about 65 seconds followed by shorter long dives of about 1.5 minutes.\n", "Section::::Travelling surface behaviour.\n\nSection::::Travelling surface behaviour.:Breaching and lunging.\n", "Weddell seals are non-migratory phocids that move regionally to follow the distribution of breathing holes in the ice between seasons. Weddell seals dive to forage for food, maintain breathing holes in fast ice, and explore to find more ice holes. These seals exhibit a diurnal haul-out pattern. A higher frequency of seals haul out during the afternoon, usually around 4:00 PM, because of warmer air temperatures.\n\nSection::::Behavior.:Breeding.\n", "When in stressful situations, pilot whales produce \"shrills\" or \"plaintive cries\", which are variations of their whistles.\n\nSection::::Behavior and life history.:Stranding.\n", "Whales are adapted for diving to great depths. In addition to their streamlined bodies, they can slow their heart rate to conserve oxygen; blood is rerouted from tissue tolerant of water pressure to the heart and brain among other organs; haemoglobin and myoglobin store oxygen in body tissue; and they have twice the concentration of myoglobin than haemoglobin. Before going on long dives, many whales exhibit a behaviour known as sounding; they stay close to the surface for a series of short, shallow dives while building their oxygen reserves, and then make a sounding dive.\n\nSection::::Biology.:Senses.\n", "Weddell seals' metabolism is relatively constant during deep-water dives, so another way to compensate for functioning with a lack of oxygen over an extended period of time must exist. Seals, unlike other terrestrial mammals such as humans, can undergo anaerobic metabolism for these extended dives, which causes a build-up of lactic acid in the muscles. The seals can also release oxygenated blood from their spleens into the rest of their bodies, acting as an oxygen reserve.\n\nSection::::Behavior.:Vocalizing.\n", "Section::::Stationary surface behaviour.:Lobtailing and slapping.:Gallery.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Whales with raised tail\" on Wikimedia Commons.\n\nSection::::Stationary surface behaviour.:Peduncle throw.\n", "Cetaceans have lungs, meaning they breathe air. An individual can last without a breath from a few minutes to over two hours depending on the species. Cetacea are deliberate breathers who must be awake to inhale and exhale. When stale air, warmed from the lungs, is exhaled, it condenses as it meets colder external air. As with a terrestrial mammal breathing out on a cold day, a small cloud of 'steam' appears. This is called the 'spout' and varies across species in shape, angle and height. Species can be identified at a distance using this characteristic.\n", "Section::::Stationary surface behaviour.:Logging.\n", "Whale watching is carried out on every continent, with an estimated 13 million people participating in 2008. This, when combined with the sustained increase in boat vessel traffic, has likely affected the surface activity of cetaceans. When boats and other whale watching vessels approach, most cetaceans will either avoid or seek interactions. The occasions where no effect is seen is predominantly when the cetaceans are travelling or feeding, but not when they are showing surface activity. In the case of avoidance, the animals may dive rather than staying submerged near the surface or move horizontally away from the vessels. For example, when sperm whales are approached by boats they surface less, shorten the intervals between breathes and do not show their fluke before diving as often. Cetaceans may also reduce their acrobatic surfacing behaviours, such as when humpback whale groups without calves are approached by vessels to within 300 m. Avoidance behaviour is typical of whales, but interactions are more common in whale groups that contain calves and also in the smaller Odontocetes. For example, studies on killer whales in North America have shown that the focal animals increased their tail-slapping behaviour when approached by boats within 100 m, and that 70% of surface active behaviours (SABs) in these orca were seen when a boat was within 225 m. Similarly, dusky dolphins also jump, change direction and form tighter groups more when boats are present, particularly when they do not adhere to the regulations about approach. As an increase in SABs is beneficial to the whale watching tours’ participants, the tours may be encouraged to approach cetaceans closer than recommended by guidelines. There is a lack of understanding about the long-term effects of whale-watching on the behaviour of cetaceans, but it is theorised that it may cause avoidance of popular sites, or a decrease in the energy budget for individuals involved.\n", "Cetaceans use sound to communicate, using groans, moans, whistles, clicks or the 'singing' of the humpback whale.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Echolocation.\n", "Most toothed whales are adapted for diving to great depths, porpoises are one exception. In addition to their streamlined bodies, they can slow their heart rate to conserve oxygen; blood is rerouted from tissue tolerant of water pressure to the heart and brain among other organs; haemoglobin and myoglobin store oxygen in body tissue; and they have twice the concentration of myoglobin than haemoglobin. Before going on long dives, many toothed whales exhibit a behaviour known as sounding; they stay close to the surface for a series of short, shallow dives while building their oxygen reserves, and then make a sounding dive.\n", "Earless seals sleep bihemispherically like most mammals, under water, hanging at the water surface or on land. They hold their breath while sleeping under water, and wake up regularly to surface and breathe. They can also hang with their nostrils above water and in that position have REM sleep, but they do not have REM sleep underwater.\n", "Section::::Travelling surface behaviour.:Porpoising.\n", "Section::::Lifestyle.:Feeding and diving.\n\nSatellite tracking revealed the seals spend very little time on the surface, usually a few minutes for breathing. They dive repeatedly, each time for more than 20 minutes, to hunt their prey—squid and fish—at depths of . They are the deepest diving air-breathing non-cetaceans and have been recorded at a maximum of in depth.\n", "Section::::Ecology and behaviour.:Vocalisations and echolocation.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-15655	If a person were to place their body across one or more boundaries/jurisdictions, how would it be decided where they were located if he or she committed a crime?	Well anyone can be extradited to an adjacent county to be charged for a crime in the United states. They would find out where you committed the crime, or which county you were in prior to the crime and charge you there. However, judges and DAs can do some crazy stuff. If they wanted it to happen, you could be tried in both counties for the same crime. If you are on a state line, you could be charged with crimes in either state but also have additional charges for inter-state criminal acts. If you are on the border of 2 countries, I do not know what would happen.	[ "The court district governing Wyoming is currently the only court district in the US to have jurisdiction over land in other states. This is due to the fact that all of Yellowstone National Park, which includes parts of Wyoming, Idaho, and Montana, is part of the Wyoming judicial district. Any criminal discovered to have committed a crime in that district would usually be brought to Cheyenne, Wyoming, where the court for the Wyoming district is. However, the Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution decrees that a trial must happen both within the district \"and\" state of where the crime was committed. Because of this, a crime committed in the \"Zone of Death\" would be constitutionally required to be tried in and include only jury members from Zone.\n", "Other councils have set up small natural burial zones: Marsden Valley in 2011, Motueka in 2012, and Hamilton in 2014. Although these have all based on the approach used by Natural Burials, they have not been certified by the organisation.\n\nSection::::Locations.:United States.\n", "For the purposes of constitutional venue, the boundaries of the states are questions of law to be determined by the judge, but the location of the crime is a question of fact to be determined by the jury.\n", "The people named by the ICLVR as having been killed and buried in undisclosed locations are:\n\nBULLET::::- Seamus Wright (A member of the IRA accused of being a British Army agent) (1972) (remains found summer 2015)\n\nBULLET::::- Kevin McKee (A member of the IRA accused of being a British Army agent) (1972)\n\nBULLET::::- Jean McConville (Civilian accused of being a British spy) (1972) (corpse recovered August 2003)\n\nBULLET::::- Joseph Lynskey (A member of the IRA accused of breaching IRA orders) (1972)\n\nBULLET::::- Peter Wilson (no reason given) (1973) (corpse recovered November 2010)\n", "Underlying theories that help explain spatial behavior of criminals include environmental criminology, which was devised in the 1980s by Patricia and Paul Brantingham, routine activity theory, developed by Lawrence Cohen and Marcus Felson and originally published in 1979, and rational choice theory, developed by Ronald V. Clarke and Derek Cornish, originally published in 1986. In recent years, crime mapping and analysis has incorporated spatial data analysis techniques that add statistical rigor and address inherent limitations of spatial data, including spatial autocorrelation and spatial heterogeneity. Spatial data analysis helps one analyze crime data and better understand why and not just where crime is occurring.\n", "The \"where the said Crimes shall have been committed\" language refers to the locus delicti, and a single crime may often give rise to several constitutionally permissible venues. \"[T]he \"locus delicti\" must be determined from the nature of the crime alleged and the location of the act or acts constituting it.\" Thus, venue may be constitutionally permissible even if an individual defendant was never personally present in the relevant state. For example, conspiracy may be prosecuted wherever the agreement occurred or wherever any overt act was committed.\n", "The \"where the said Crimes shall have been committed\" language refers to the locus delicti. \"[T]he \"locus delicti\" must be determined from the nature of the crime alleged and the location of the act or acts constituting it.\" Thus, a single crime may often give rise to several constitutionally permissible venues, and venue may be constitutionally permissible even if an individual defendant was never personally present in the relevant state. For example, conspiracy may be prosecuted wherever the agreement occurred or wherever any overt act was committed.\n", "Individuals who are buried at the expense of the local authorities and buried in potter's fields may be buried in mass graves. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was once believed to have been buried in such a manner, but today it is known that such burials were never allowed in Mozart's Vienna whose Magistrate refused to agree to the burial regulations decreed by Joseph II. In some cases, the remains of unidentified individuals may be buried in mass graves in potter's fields, making exhumation and future identification troublesome for law enforcement.\n", "All 50 states have their own penal codes. Therefore, for any particular crime somewhere, it would be necessary to look it up in that jurisdiction. However, statutes derive from the common law. For example, if a state's murder statute does not define \"human being,\" that state's courts will rely on the common-law definition.\n\nSection::::Sources of law.:Statutes.:State vs. federal.\n", "No known felonies have been committed in the Zone of Death since Kalt's discovery. However, a hunter named Michael Belderrain illegally shot an elk in the Montana section of Yellowstone. While that section of the park does have enough residents to form a jury, it might be difficult to put together a standing and fair one due to travel or unwillingness of members of the small population there to serve. A judge ruled that Belderrain should be tried in the nearest Montana district rather than the sparsely populated Wyoming district. Belderrain cited Kalt's paper \"The Perfect Crime\" to explain why he believed it was illegal to have his trial conducted in a different district than where the crime was committed. The judge disagreed, and Belderrain plead guilty before a trial in either district could be conducted.\n", "Following the March 24 murder of Maralynn Skelton, police from the five separate jurisdictions where the murderer had abducted or disposed of the bodies of his victims formally combined resources in an effort to compare information and identify the perpetrator. Although investigators had informally exchanged information with agencies from other jurisdictions on an irregular basis since the previous summer, no coordination to combine efforts and resources had ensued until the discovery of the third victim definitely linked to the series. By early April, each of these law enforcement agencies had collectively assigned 20 investigators to work exclusively upon the four homicides.\n", "BULLET::::- Eamon Molloy (A member of the IRA accused of being a British Army agent) (1975) (corpse recovered 1999)\n\nBULLET::::- Columba McVeigh (Civilian accused of being a British spy) (1975)\n\nBULLET::::- Robert Nairac (British Army Officer and alleged member of the SAS) (1977)\n\nBULLET::::- Brendan McGraw (Civilian accused of being a British spy) (1978)\n\nBULLET::::- John McClory (Accused of stealing IRA weapons to use in robberies) (1978) (corpse recovered June 1999)\n\nBULLET::::- Brian McKinney (Accused of stealing IRA weapons to use in robberies) (1978) (corpse recovered June 1999)\n", "An episode of the Fox detective series \"Bones\" (\"The Plain in the Prodigy\") deals with human remains found scattered along a long stretch of railroad track. Temperance \"Bones\" Brennan and Seeley Booth determine by their forensic study of the skeletal human body parts that they are the remains of a young Amish boy on Rumspringa. In addition, they learn who murdered him and why.\n\n\"Cold Case\" season 5, episode 3 [entitled \"Running Around\"] is about the Rumspringa of a teenage Amish girl and a homicide.\n", "Its functions include receiving information as to the whereabouts of the remains of a victim of violence and disclosing such information for the purpose of facilitating the location of the remains to which the information relates.\n\nBULLET::::- The remit and powers of the Commission are defined by the Northern Ireland (Location of Victims' Remains) Act 1999 which came into force on 26 May 1999 and the Republic of Ireland has passed similar legislation: the Criminal Justice (Location of Victims' Remains) Act, 1999.\n", "If murder is committed within the borders of a state, that state has jurisdiction, and in a similar way, if the crime is committed in the District of Columbia, the D.C. Superior Court (the equivalent of a state court in the District) retains jurisdiction, though in some cases involving U.S. government property or personnel, the federal courts may have exclusive jurisdiction.\n", "Bunk Moreland and Lester Freamon scour Baltimore looking for bodies they can tie to Marlo Stanfield in the hope of finding Lex. They check with the coroner's office, in the sewers and Leakin Park. Freamon recalls coming to the park to look for a body as a cadet and being warned to only take an interest in bodies matching their description or they would need more time. When they return to the office empty-handed, Bunk convinces Freamon to turn his attention back to investigating real murders.\n", "Venue and territorial jurisdiction are closely related for practical purposes. A change of venue may be sought either within the territorial jurisdiction of a court, or with the consent of the receiving jurisdiction and the parties, within the jurisdiction of another court, provided it has jurisdiction over the same laws.\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- \"A Dissertation on the Nature and Extent of the Jurisdiction of the Courts of the United States\", Peter Stephen Du Ponceau (1824).\n\nBULLET::::- \"Conflict of Criminal Laws\", Edward S. Stimson (1936) Foundation Press\n\nBULLET::::- \"Jurisdiction over Federal Areas within the States\" (1954)\n", "In 2008, Hans Reiser was convicted of first degree murder of his wife, Nina Reiser. After conviction and before sentencing, Reiser pleaded guilty to the lesser charge of second degree murder in exchange for disclosing the location of his wife's body.\n\nSection::::Other modern cases.:2010s.\n\nIn 2012, in Scotland the prosecution twice won a conviction without a body in the murder of Suzanne Pilley and the murder of Arlene Fraser.\n", "Searched for objects obviously include clandestine graves of murder victims, but also include unmarked burials in graveyards and cemeteries, weapons used in criminal activities and environmental crime illegally dumping material.\n", "The state of Florida prohibits the sale or purchase of human remains and \"Authorizes certain science centers located in this state to transport plastinated bodies into, within, or out of this state and exhibit such bodies for the purpose of public education without the consent of this state's anatomical board if the science center notifies the board of any such transportation or exhibition, as well as the location and duration of any exhibition, at least 30 days before such transportation or exhibition\".\n\nSection::::Regulatory framework.:United States.:Hawaii.\n", "The next night on patrol, Tom and Jo stumble upon the scene of someone dumping what appears to be a wrapped body off a bridge. Tom destroys the suspect's car but the unidentified individual escapes. Divers retrieve the body only to find it to be merely a bunch of rugs, which leads to Tom and Jo being humiliated by their peers.\n", "BULLET::::- In September 2017, the body of Randy Potter, 53, of Lenexa, Kansas, was found in his truck in Economy Lot B. It had decomposed to the point where its race and gender was not obvious; Potter had gone to the airport one morning in January and killed himself with a gun. His family had at the time of his apparent disappearance given the license plate number of his truck to airport authorities, who assured him that they recorded the plates of all vehicles parked in the lots on a daily basis and would check it against that data base regularly. The apparent failure of this system to locate Potter's truck for eight months has led to an investigation by the city government.\n", "For the purposes of constitutional venue, the boundaries of the states are questions of law to be determined by the judge, but the location of the crime is a question of fact to be determined by the jury.\n", "The decision was substantially overturned in \"Braden v. 30th Judicial Circuit Court of Kentucky\" (1973), which held that territorial jurisdiction is derived from the location of the custodian, those responsible for the indictment, rather than the location of the detention.\n\nSection::::Overview.\n", "Brent Hendricks' memoir, \"A Long Day at the End of the World: A Story of Desecration and Revelation in the Deep South\" (Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2013), traces his quest to discover whether his father's remains were among those discovered at the crematory.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Biomedical Tissue Services\n\nBULLET::::- Organ harvesting\n\nBULLET::::- Body snatching\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Orders/Motions in the Criminal Tri-State Crematory Case Court documents in .pdf format\n\nBULLET::::- The master complaint, class action suit \n\nBULLET::::- Class-action in the state of Tennessee decertified \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01218	why do you get all achy when you're sick with the flu?	Inflammation from your immune response. It helps fight the infection but makes you feel pretty awful.	[ "In infection, there is often weakness, fever and chills. If due to a bacterial infection, the sputum may be slightly streaked with blood and coloured yellow or green.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nAs the lungs tend to be vulnerable organs due to their exposure to harmful particles in the air, several things can cause an acute exacerbation of COPD:\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nClassic signs and symptoms of anaplasmosis include fever, a decreased number of white blood cells, platelets in the bloodstream, and abnormally elevated levels of liver enzymes. The erythema chronicum migrans rash may be seen with anaplasmosis as it is co-transmitted in 10% of Lyme disease cases.\n\nAnemia may be severe and result in cardiovascular changes such as an increase in heart rate. Blood in the urine may occur due to the lysis of red blood cells. General systemic signs such as diarrhea, anorexia, and weight loss may also be present.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Section::::Symptoms and signs of disease.\n", "Bacterial and fungal infections are common in ALF, with one study demonstrating culture-proven infection in 80% of ALF patients. Defective cellular and humoral immunity as well as presence of indwelling catheters, coma, broad-spectrum antibiotics, and medications that suppress immunity all predispose to infection. Localizing symptoms of infection such as fever and sputum production are frequently absent and the only clues to an underlying infectious process may be worsening of encephalopathy or renal function. There must be a low threshold for obtaining frequent cultures (blood, urine, and sputum), chest radiographs, and paracentesis. Bacteria that enter through the skin, such as streptococci and staphylococci, tend to predominate. Aggressive surveillance is essential as prophylactic antibiotics have shown little benefit. Fungal infections, particularly in the setting of broad-spectrum antibiotics, are also common, and disseminated fungemia is a poor prognostic sign.\n", "BULLET::::- Maintaining good fluid intake and humidifying the home, in order to help reduce the formation of thick sputum and chest congestion.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Oxygen.\n\nOxygen therapy should be initiated if there is significantly low blood oxygen. High flow oxygen may be harmful in those with an acute exacerbation of COPD. In the prehospital environment those given high flow O rather than titrating their O saturations to 88% to 92% had worse outcomes.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Medications.\n", "BULLET::::- Respiratory infection, being responsible for approximately half of COPD exacerbations. Approximately half of these are due to viral infections and another half appears to be caused by bacterial infections. Common bacterial pathogens of acute exacerbations include \"Haemophilus influenzae\", \"Streptococcus pneumoniae\" and \"Moraxella catarrhalis\". Less common bacterial pathogens include \"Chlamydia pneumoniae\" and \"MRSA\". Pathogens seen more frequently in patients with impaired lung function (FEV<35% of predicted) include \"Haemophilus parainfluenzae\" (after repeated use of antibiotics), \"Mycoplasma pneumoniae\" and gram-negative, opportunistic pathogens like \"Pseudomonas aeruginosa\" and \"Klebsiella pneumoniae\".\n\nBULLET::::- Allergens, e.g., pollens, wood or cigarette smoke, pollution\n", "Section::::Pathogenicity.\n\nLiver fluke infections cause serious medical and veterinary diseases. Fasciolosis of sheep, goats and cattle, is the major cause of economic losses in dairy and meat industry. Fasciolosis of humans produces clinical symptoms such as fever, nausea, swollen liver, extreme abdominal pain, jaundice and anemia.\n", "Inflamm-aging has been also associated with persistent Cytomegalovirus infection. Cytomegalovirus drives up production of a variety of inflammatory cytokines and also results in expansion of CMV specific memory T cells. Other possible factors that may lead to inflamm-aging include overnutrition, altered gut microbiome, impaired intestinal epithlial barrier, and chronic stress occurring in any stage of the individual's life. Cytokines with inflammatory properties can also be secreted by fat tissue.\n", "About 60% of all ALF patients fulfil the criteria for systemic inflammatory syndrome irrespective of presence or absence of infection. This often contributes towards multi organ failure. Impaired host defence mechanism, due to impaired opsonization, chemotaxis and intracellular killing, substantially increases risk of sepsis. Bacterial sepsis mostly due to gram positive organisms and fungal sepsis are observed in up to 80% and 30% patients, respectively.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Metabolic derangements.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nApproximately 33% of people with influenza are asymptomatic.\n\nSymptoms of influenza can start quite suddenly one to two days after infection. Usually the first symptoms are chills and body aches, but fever is also common early in the infection, with body temperatures ranging from 38 to 39°C (approximately 100 to 103°F). Many people are so ill that they are confined to bed for several days, with aches and pains throughout their bodies, which are worse in their backs and legs.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Symptoms of influenza.\n\nBULLET::::- Fever and chills\n\nBULLET::::- Cough\n\nBULLET::::- Nasal congestion\n\nBULLET::::- Runny nose\n", "Less common symptoms and physical exam findings of mild-to-moderate babesiosis:\n\nIn more severe cases, symptoms similar to malaria occur, with fevers up to 40.5 °C (105 °F), shaking chills, and severe anemia (hemolytic anemia). Organ failure may follow, including adult respiratory distress syndrome. Sepsis in people who have had a splenectomy can occur rapidly, consistent with Overwhelming post-splenectomy infection. Severe cases are also more likely to occur in the very young, very old, and persons with immunodeficiency, such as HIV/AIDS patients.\n", "The respiratory reactions to NSAIDs vary in severity, ranging from mild nasal congestion and eye watering to lower respiratory symptoms including wheezing, coughing, an asthma attack, and in rare cases, anaphylaxis. In addition to the typical respiratory reactions, about 10% of patients with AERD manifest skin symptoms such as urticaria and/or gastrointestinal symptoms such as abdominal pain or vomiting during their reactions to aspirin.\n", "Flu Season (Parks and Recreation)\n\n\"Flu Season\" (sometimes referred to as \"The Flu\") is the second episode of the third season of the American comedy television series \"Parks and Recreation\", and the 32nd overall episode of the series. It originally aired on NBC in the United States on January 27, 2011. In the episode, a flu outbreak leaves Leslie ill, but she insists on making a public presentation about her proposed harvest festival. Meanwhile, Andy and Ron bond, and a hospital-bound April torments the nurse Ann.\n", "BULLET::::- Glossitis\n\nBULLET::::- Pustule\n\nAlopecia (loss of hair from the scalp, eyebrows, and eyelashes) may occur. Skin lesions may be secondarily infected by bacteria such as \"Staphylococcus aureus\" or fungi such as \"Candida albicans\". These skin lesions are accompanied by diarrhea.\n\nSection::::Genetics.\n", "Section::::Pathophysiology.:Host factors.\n", "BULLET::::- Illness: During illness like the flu, cold, and pneumonia, phlegm becomes more excessive as an attempt to get rid of the bacteria or viral particles within the body. A major illness associated with excess phlegm is acute bronchitis. A major symptom of acute bronchitis is an excess amount of phlegm and is usually caused by a viral infection, and only bacterial infections, which are rare, are to be treated with an antibiotic.\n", "BULLET::::- Familial Mediterranean Fever. For some patients with FMF, episodes of knee or joint inflammation may be the only presenting symptom during an acute inflammatory episode. The MEFV gene mutations associated with FMF have been implicated in the pathogenesis of both palindromic rheumatism and IH.\n\nBULLET::::- Other conditions for consideration (or exclusion) are other periodic arthropathies, crystal arthopathy, prepatellar bursitis (housemaids knee), pigmented villonodular synovitis, trauma and infectious causes.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "Septic arthritis due to anaerobic bacteria is frequently associated with contiguous or hematogenous infection spread, prosthetic joints and trauma. Most septic arthritis cases caused by anaerobic bacteria are monomicrobial. The predominant anaerobic bacteria isolated are Peptostreptococcus spp. and \"P. acnes\" (frequently found in prosthetic joint infection),\" B. fragilis\" and \"Fusobacterium\" spp. (frequently found in infections of hematogenic origin), and \"Clostridium\" spp. (frequently found in infections after trauma).\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Bacteremia.\n", "Fungal infections associated with nonepidural injections were also reported. They were related to injections in a peripheral joint space, such as a knee, shoulder, or ankle. People injected in peripheral joints were at risk for joint infections but were not believed to be at risk for meningitis.\n", "The most typical symptom, in chronic cases, is the swelling of the wattles. It is more frequent in resistant local breeds. Rather than a general infection, localized infections are more characteristic. These often occur in the respiratory tract including the sinuses and pneumatoics bones, hock joints, sternal bursa, foot pads, peritoneal cavity and oviducts.\n", "It is native to the Levant and other parts of the Mediterranean Basin, and has been naturalized in North America, North Africa, Europe, Western Asia, and Australia\n\nSection::::Toxicity.\n\n\"Arum palaestinum\" is toxic at low doses, and this has traditionally been considered to be due to oxalate salts, but this is not certain.\n\nThe symptoms caused by exposure to the raw plant include mucous membrane irritation, and burning, and consuming larger doses causes nausea, diarrhea, and cramping. Because exposure to skin can cause irritation it is often handled lightly, or with gloves.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The most commonly observed adverse effect is mild bone pain after repeated administration, and local skin reactions at the site of injection. Other observed adverse effects include serious allergic reactions (including a rash over the whole body, shortness of breath, wheezing, dizziness, swelling around the mouth or eyes, fast pulse, and sweating), ruptured spleen (sometimes resulting in death), alveolar hemorrhage, acute respiratory distress syndrome, and hemoptysis. Severe sickle cell crises, in some cases resulting in death, have been associated with the use of filgrastim in patients with sickle cell disorders.\n\nSection::::Interactions.\n", "Washing the infected area with an antiseptic solution is part of the treatment for mud fever. However, washing a horse's legs repeatedly can remove the natural oils in the skin and may allow the condition to become established. The legs should be dried thoroughly after washing with antibacterial shampoo using paper towels,\n\nSection::::Prevention.:Care products.\n", "BULLET::::- Intra-amniotic infection\n\nIn addition, locations of inflammation where infection is the most common cause include pneumonia, meningitis and salpingitis.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nThe symptoms of an infection depends on the type of disease. Some signs of infection affect the whole body generally, such as fatigue, loss of appetite, weight loss, fevers, night sweats, chills, aches and pains. Others are specific to individual body parts, such as skin rashes, coughing, or a runny nose.\n", "Section::::Eosinophilic meningitis.:Clinical signs and symptoms.\n\nAccording to a group case study, the most common symptoms in mild eosinophilic meningitis tend to be headache (with 100% of people in the study suffering from this symptom), photophobia or visual disturbance (92%), neck stiffness (83%), fatigue (83%), hyperesthesias (75%), vomiting (67%), and paresthesias (50%). Incubation period is often 3 weeks, but can be 3–36 days and even 80 days.\n\nPossible clinical signs and symptoms of mild and severe eosinophilic meningitis are:\n\nBULLET::::- Fever is often minor or absent, but the presence of high fever suggests severe disease.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-12937	Why did the Soviet government change their opinion on Shostakovich after the 5th Symphony?	Shostakovich fell out of favor with the Soviet government because his works were at odds with their notion of how classical music should sound. The Bolshevik authorities wanted artists to create works that could easily be appreciated by the masses, and Shostakovich wasn't doing that. His work was dissonant and not especially tuneful, and he was accused of "formalism." The 5th Symphony is more traditional. It's tonal. It has tunes you can hum. It was more like the kind of music the authorities expected composers to create - supposedly easier for people to appreciate and enjoy. This gave the appearance of his having acquiesced to their demands, and he was returned to their good graces.	[ "The composer's response to his denunciation was the Fifth Symphony of 1937, which was musically more conservative than his earlier works. Premiered on 21 November 1937 in Leningrad, it was a phenomenal success. The Fifth brought many to tears and welling emotions. Later, Shostakovich's purported memoir, \"Testimony\", stated: \"I'll never believe that a man who understood nothing could feel the Fifth Symphony. Of course they understood, they understood what was happening around them and they understood what the Fifth was about.\"\n", "Despite these criticisms, Shostakovich continued work on the symphony—though he simultaneously refused to allow a concert performance of the last act of \"Lady Macbeth\". He explained to a friend, \"The audience, of course, will applaud—it's considered \"bon ton\" to be in the opposition, and then there'll be another article with a headline like 'Incorrigible Formalist.'\"\n", "The revision of the First Symphony was part of Henze’s first great purge on his early work during 1963. The revised sheet music contains a number of rhythmic, harmonic and melodic cells from the original version, and the slow movement is largely unaltered. Otherwise everything is, in the composer’s own words, ‘different and better.’ A fourth, theme and variation movement has completely disappeared, and the work was re-scored for chamber orchestra. Further revision followed in 1991.\n", "Shostakovich was formally rehabilitated with the premiere of his Fifth Symphony in November 1937. Encouraged by \"Muddle Instead of Music\" and other slander, he simplified his music to suit the prescriptions of socialist realism. The Fifth was an official success; Party members who had attacked him before acknowledged that he had \"seen his errors\" and improved.\n\nSection::::Authorship.\n", "I did depict Stalin in my next symphony, the Tenth. I wrote it right after Stalin's death and no one has yet guessed what the symphony is about. It's about Stalin and the Stalin years. The second part, the scherzo, is a musical portrait of Stalin, roughly speaking. Of course, there are many other things in it, but that's the basis.\n", "Taneyev's opinion carried considerable weight. In the 19 years between the première of the original \"Little Russian\" and his appraisal of both versions, Taneyev had not only developed into an outstanding teacher of composition but also earned a reputation as one of the finest craftsmen among all Russian composers. He felt strongly enough about the matter to write the composer's brother Modest, \"It seems to me that in some future concert you ought to let people hear the real Second Symphony, in its original form ... When I see you I will play both versions and you will probably agree with me about the superiority of the first.\"\n", "Section::::Biography.:First denunciation.:Withdrawal of the Fourth Symphony.\n", "Despite the increasingly repressive political atmosphere, Shostakovich continued to plan for the symphony's premiere, scheduled by the Leningrad Philharmonic Orchestra for 11 December 1936 under the orchestra's music director, Fritz Stiedry, a Viennese musician active in the Soviet Union since 1933. The composer also played the score on piano for Otto Klemperer, who responded enthusiastically and planned to conduct the symphony's first performance outside the USSR.\n\nSection::::Historical overview.:Withdrawal.\n", "Somehow, Ross notes, the authorities saw this as an endorsement of the Soviet regime. He argues that in this piece, Western musical history is re-created as a barrage of garbled transmissions, a radio receiving many stations on one channel. Despite its veneer of goofiness, this triumph of planned anarchy has a simple and serious effect. It produces the sound of music, rather than music itself—what is overheard by a society that no longer knows how to listen. The society in question need not be Soviet.\n", "Second to the \"Babi Yar\" movement, \"Fears\" was the most viciously attacked of the movements by the bureaucrats. To keep the symphony in performance, seven lines of the poem were altered, replacing references to imprisonment without trial, to neglect of the poor and to the fear experienced by artists.\n\nSection::::Overview.:Choral symphony or symphonic cantata?\n", "Ross regards it as surprising that the work was ever passed by the Soviet authorities, even though by the 1970s the regime had become less hardline. Schnittke himself noted:\n\nWhile composing the symphony for four years, I simultaneously worked on the music to M. Romm's film \"I Believe...\". Together with the shooting crew I looked through thousands of meters of documentary film. Gradually they formed in my mind a seemingly chaotic but inwardly orderly chronicle of the 20th century. \n", "Once he completed the score, Shostakovich was apparently uncertain how to proceed. His new symphony did not emulate the style of Nikolai Myaskovsky's socialist realist Sixteenth Symphony, \"The Aviators\", or Vissarion Shebalin's song-symphony \"The Heroes of Perekop\", and contained nothing placatory at all in it, having been conceived before the \"Pravda\" attacks. Showing the new symphony to friends did not help. One asked, frightened, what Shostakovich thought the reaction from \"Pravda\" would be. Shostakovich jumped up from the piano, scowling, replying sharply, \"I don't write for \"Pravda\", but for myself.\"\n", "Khrushchev didn't give a damn about the music in this instance, he was angered by Yevtushenko's poetry. But some fighters on the musical front really perked up. There, you see, Shostakovich has proved himself untrustworthy once more. Let's get him! And a disgusting poison campaign began. They tried to scare off everyone from Yevtushenko and me.\n", "Shostakovich, half-finished with his Fourth Symphony, was in Archangelsk on a concert tour when he read the article in \"Pravda\". Ten days later another scathing editorial appeared in the newspaper, this time about his ballet \"The Limpid Stream\". Named \"Ballet Falsehood\", the piece unleashed more castigation, calling the composer a musical charlatan and a peddler of \"aesthetic formalism\". The ballet's librettist, Adrian Piotrovsky, was arrested and shot the next year. Though shaken by the attacks, Shostakovich continued writing his Fourth Symphony and completed it in April 1936. He booked a premiere for December and distributed the score to the Leningrad Philharmonic for rehearsals, which began in autumn. His friends expressed fear that the authorities would be angered by the work, which is influenced by Gustav Mahler (disliked by the Party) and is structurally unconventional. Late in the year Shostakovich was summoned for a meeting with a representative of the Union of Soviet Composers, who advised him to withdraw the symphony on threat of \"administrative measures\" for noncompliance. The composer submitted to the demands and cancelled the premiere.\n", "Section::::Overview.:Composition.:Chorus: “To October”.\n\nBULLET::::- Russian\n\npoem\n\nBULLET::::- English translation\n\npoem\n\nSection::::Overview.:Reception.\n\nIn the Soviet Union the orchestral section initially confused listeners — many of whom were workers worn out by the October Revolution, yet listening patiently to the first performance — while they were very much at home with the setting of characteristic revolutionary rhetoric to music. In the West the opposite was true: listeners appreciated the orchestral section but not the choral emotionalism that followed. While some Soviet critics acclaimed it at the time of the premiere, the Second Symphony did not attain lasting success.\n\nSection::::Notable recordings.\n", "Scriabin first showed his symphony to his teacher Safonov at the piano, then to Lyadov when he came to St. Petersburg. Scriabin had prevaricated over the definitive text of the choral finale, which he himself had written, but the artistic committee which presided over the acceptance of works to be published by the publishing house (headed by Rimsky-Korsakov, Glazunov and Lyadov) declared: \"the vocal part in the sixth movement of your symphony is unperformable, and in such a form this movement of the symphony cannot be published\".\n", "Dmitri Shostakovich composed his Symphony No. 4 in C minor, Opus 43, between September 1935 and May 1936, after abandoning some preliminary sketch material. In January 1936, halfway through this period, \"Pravda\"—under direct orders from Joseph Stalin—published an editorial \"Muddle Instead of Music\" that denounced the composer and targeted his opera \"Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk\". Despite this attack, and despite the oppressive political climate of the time, Shostakovich completed the symphony and planned its premiere for December 1936 in Leningrad. After rehearsals began, the orchestra's management cancelled the performance, offering a statement that Shostakovich had withdrawn the work. He may have agreed to withdraw it to relieve orchestra officials of responsibility. The symphony was premiered on 30 December 1961 by the Moscow Philharmonic Orchestra led by Kirill Kondrashin.\n", "Shostakovich abandoned sketches for the symphony some months earlier and began anew. On 28 January 1936, when he was about halfway through work on the symphony, \"Pravda\" printed an unsigned editorial entitled \"Muddle Instead of Music,\" which singled out his internationally successful opera \"Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk\" for particularly savage condemnation. The fact that the editorial was unsigned indicated that it represented the official Party position. Rumors circulated for a long time that Stalin had directly ordered this attack after he attended a performance of the opera and stormed out after the first act.\n", "Section::::Overview.:Reception.:Re-evaluation.\n\nWhen \"Testimony\" was published in the West in 1979, Shostakovich's overall anti-Stalinist tone and specific comments about the anti-totalitarian content hidden in the Fifth, Seventh and Eleventh Symphonies were held suspect initially. They were in some ways a complete about-face from the comments the West had received over the years, many times in the composer's words. Questions also arose over Solomon Volkov's role—to what degree he was a compiler of previously written material, a transcriber of the composer's actual words from interviews, or an author essentially putting words into the composer's mouth.\n", "Even with these changed lines, the symphony enjoyed relatively few performances — two with the revised text in Moscow in February 1963, one performance in Minsk (with the original text) shortly afterward, as well as Gorky, Leningrad and Novosibirsk. After these performances, the work was effectively banned in the Soviet bloc, the work's premiere in East Berlin occurring only because the local censor had forgotten to clear the performance with Moscow beforehand. Meanwhile, a copy of the score with the original text was smuggled to the West, where it was premiered and recorded in January 1970 by the Philadelphia Orchestra under Eugene Ormandy.\n", "Shostakovich began the Fourth Symphony in September 1935. His second and third symphonies, completed in 1927 and 1929, had been patriotic works with choral finales, but the new score was different. Toward the end of 1935 he told an interviewer, \"I am not afraid of difficulties. It is perhaps easier, and certainly safer, to follow a beaten path, but it is also dull, uninteresting and futile.\"\n", "To fit the larger scale of a socialist realist symphony, the second movement's revision basically doubles its length. It is extended primarily by repeating many thematic statements that only appeared once in Opus 47.\n\nIn this movement, the four-measure introduction is extended by four measures and supplemented with\n", "Section::::Overview.\n\nSection::::Overview.:Composition.\n\nShostakovich originally intended the Eleventh Symphony to mark the 50th anniversary of the Russian Revolution of 1905 and would have written it in 1955. Several personal factors kept him from composing the work until 1957. These factors included his mother's death, his tumultuous second marriage and the arrival of many newly freed friends from the Gulag. Events in Hungary in 1956 may have stirred Shostakovich out of his compositional inertia and acted as a catalyst for his writing the symphony.\n\nSection::::Overview.:Requiem for a generation.\n", "During 1936 and 1937, in order to maintain as low a profile as possible between the Fourth and Fifth symphonies, Shostakovich mainly composed film music, a genre favored by Stalin and lacking in dangerous personal expression.\n\nSection::::Biography.:First denunciation.:Fifth Symphony and return to favor.\n", "The title, The Year 1905, recalls the start of the first Russian Revolution of 1905, which was partially fired by the events on 9 January (9 January by the Julian calendar still in use in Russia at the time, modern date of 22 January 1905) of that year. Some Western critics characterized the symphony as overblown \"film music\"—in other words, as an agitprop broadsheet lacking both substance and depth. Many now consider the work to carry a much more reflective attitude, one that looks at Russian history as a whole from the standpoint of 1957, four years after the death of Stalin.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-14295	How are cows so muscular?	Selective breeding, and sometimes hormones and steroids. Humans, for centuries, have only bred the very best candidates from their pool of livestock. That often means we're forcing the continuation of genes that increase body mass accumulation, muscle formation, etc. But many also pump their cows full of compounds that increase their size further, including hormone treatments and steroids. Makes them extra "beefy".	[ "Going along with the development of agriculture traditional cattle raising gave way in the 1990s to the use of high technology, with cultivated pastures in corrected areas; the raising of more productive breeds; maintenance of the herd with the use of mineral supplements; periodical vaccination and the use of modern techniques like embryo transfer and artificial insemination to improve the genetic quality; confinement and semi-confinement; the production of early heifers and pastures irrigated by pivot.\n", "A brief review of academic studies on the Chillingham cattle is available.\n\nSection::::Description of the Northumberland habitat.\n", "Under natural conditions, calves stay with their mother until weaning at 8 to 11 months. Heifer and bull calves are equally attached to their mothers in the first few months of life. Cattle are considered to be \"hider\" type animals, but in the artificial environment of small calving pens, close proximity between cow and calf is maintained by the mother at the first three calvings but this changes to being mediated by the calf after these. Primiparous dams show a higher incidence of abnormal maternal behavior.\n", "It also responds generously when the environmental conditions involved in production and reproduction are improved. Cows that are daughters of Frankeston bulls by natural mating have produced up to 28.1 kg. of milk a day and over 4.800 kg. per lactation, and many of the males come to increase about 1.000 grams of weight a day when they are given the right nutritional and handling conditions to not limit them their potential.\n", "Calves are capable of discrimination learning and adult cattle compare favourably with small mammals in their learning ability in the Closed-field Test.\n", "Piedmontese beef is meat from cattle having one or two copies of the \"inactive\" myostatin gene. This attribute provides a higher lean-to-fat ratio, as well as less marbling with less connective tissue than meat from cattle having the \"active\" version of the gene. The active-myostatin gene acts as a \"governor\" on muscle growth; myostatin is a protein that instructs muscles to stop growing. In effect, when inactive, as it is with Piedmontese cattle, it no longer prevents muscle development which is what allows for the hypertrophic condition sometimes referred to as \"double muscling\".\n", "Cows average in weight and in height; bulls weigh on average, with a height of At birth, calves weigh about . The average milk yield for the Gir is per lactation, with a record production of at 4.5% fat in India. In Brazil they average per lactation, with a world record production of by the cow Profana de Brasília.\n\nIn 2003 the Gir numbered about , or 37% of the 2.5 million cattle population of the Saurashtra region of Gujarat. In 2010 the population in Brazil was estimated at approximately five million.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Hariana cattle\n\nBULLET::::- Jersey cattle\n", "Section::::Reproduction.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Research at Louisiana has indicated that Brangus cows increased their weights during the summer months while Angus cows lost weight, indicating that they were more adapted to coastal climates. Calves from Brangus were heavier at birth and weaning and for total pounds produced per cow. The Angus had an advantage in conception rate and calved earlier, and the calves were more vigorous at birth and survived better to weaning. \n", "The breed tends to be large-muscled, with bulls weighing up to and cows up to . In England, a bull of this breed has reached a weight of 2 tonnes. They also tend to be a skittish breed of cattle.\n\nSection::::Distribution.\n", "The Red Brangus reaches puberty substantially earlier compared to other breeds; heifers (female cattle over 12 months but have had no calves) usually are ready to breed at 14 months of age, calving 9 months later. Similarly, bulls are matured and able to be put onto heifers and cows at around 14 months of age. Bulls, heifers and cows maintain their fertility and productivity past many other breeds, with bulls able to service cows past the age of 10, whilst cows are able to calve up to 15 years of age.\n", "Neck: Short, thick with hook, at least in the bulls, soon falls under his lower lip and comes up to the knees, including overhangs.\n\nTrunk: round side. Withers low. Ridge right, with red hair or white stripe. Rounded rump. Raised tail, short and well supplied.\n\nMammary system, developed and well set, with well-implanted teats of moderate size. The milk production often exceeds the intake capacity of calves during the first months of life but these run out in the following months until weaning.\n", "Friesian semen is once again being exported to countries with grass-based systems of milk production. The modern Friesian is pre-eminently a grazing animal, well able to sustain itself over many lactations, on both low-lying and upland grasslands, being developed by selective breeding over the last 100 years. Some outstanding examples of the breed have 12 to 15 lactations to their credit, emphasising their inherent natural fecundity. In response to demand, protein percentages have been raised across the breed, and herd protein levels of 3.4% to 3.5% are not uncommon.\n", "Galloways have a thick double-layered coat that is wavy or curly. This thick coat of hair insulates their bodies so well that they have a minimal outer layer of fat on their bodies, which would otherwise create waste at slaughter. This coat sheds out in the summer months and in warmer climates. Despite the animal's usual use in beef production, there is evidence of Galloway herds being milked in Cumberland for cheese production.\n", "After that discovery, several laboratories cloned and established the nucleotide sequence of a myostatin gene in two breeds of cattle, Belgian Blue and Piedmontese. They found mutations in the myostatin gene (various mutations in each breed) which in one way or another lead to absence of functional myostatin. Unlike mice with a damaged myostatin gene, in these cattle breeds the muscle cells multiply rather than enlarge. People describe these cattle breeds as \"double muscled\", but the total increase in all muscles is no more than 40%.\n", "Limousin muscling is intermediate to that of British cattle breeds such as Angus, Hereford, and Shorthorn and the extreme double muscling found in the European Belgian Blue and Piedmontese breeds. Studies of double-muscled cattle identified natural mutations of the myostatin gene which produce inactivated proteins that are unable to control muscle development. In Belgian Blue and Piedmontese cattle this causes an increase in muscle mass of 20–25%. Subsequent studies identified a less extreme myostatin mutation known as F94L associated with Limousins. The resulting partially active protein results in Limousins having intermediate muscle development, which avoids the extreme muscling and associated disadvantages of double muscled cattle.\n", "BULLET::::- Icelandic cattle, with a population dating from the era of Icelandic settlement; they are likely the oldest landrace in Europe, owing to their genetic isolation for most of that time.\n\nOther examples of landrace bovines include Pineywoods, Florida Cracker, Ankole-Watusi and Randall cattle.\n\nSection::::Animals.:Dogs.\n", "Gascon cows don't need to eat as much as other types of cows because they don't usually have many food sources making them adapt to these conditions, but still be able to maintain condition and settle in calf more quickly. Gascon cows have a gray coat, but are born red getting their gray coat at about the fourth month of life. Bulls are gray, but have black shading underneath. Mature cows weigh 550 to 700 kg and stand 135 cm at the shoulder; bulls average 145 cm in height and 800 to 950 kg in weight.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "On farm animal Mortimer spoke of: \n\nBULLET::::- A bull, which should have a sharp quick countenance, forehead broad and curled, eyes black and large, horns long, neck fleshy, belly long and large, hair smooth like velvet, breast big, back straight and flat, buttocks square, thighs round, legs straight, joints short.\n\nBULLET::::- The cow ought to have a broad forehead, black eyes, clean great horns, neck long and thin, large deep belly, thick thighs, round legs, short joints; white, large, deep udder, having four teats, and the feet large.\n", "BULLET::::- The stifle, it is a muscle seen from behind an animal on both sides of the rump. An animal's widest point should be its stifle, if it is not, the animal is light muscled.\n\nIt will also be very obvious looking at some cows where a lot of muscle is, because of the high muscle definition.\n\nWhen looking at bulls, there are a few things that differ from normal cattle judging that the judge will be looking out for.\n", "The average sleep time of a domestic cow is about 4 hours a day. Cattle do have a stay apparatus, but do not sleep standing up, they lie down to sleep deeply. In spite of the urban legend, cows cannot be tipped over by people pushing on them.\n\nSection::::Economy.\n", "Cachena cattle are one of the smallest cattle breeds of the world: The height must be equal or less than 110 cm (both in cows and bulls, with the last ones, being normally taller). Bulls weigh around 550 kg, cows 390 kg.\n\nSection::::Distribution.\n", "Section::::Methods.\n", "Dairy-herd milk production may be limited by the amino acid methionine; therefore, the amino acid is included in cattle rations to provide a well-balanced diet. Normally a cow receives 10-20 grams of Mepron per day, depending on performance and ration composition. According to a 2006 study, results \"suggest that RPM [rumen-protected methionine] may be needed to improve milk production in Holstein cows with a mean production of 35 kg d milk, fed with [a] diet based on alfalfa and corn silage. The optimum response was obtained with [the] addition of 16 g d of ruminally protected methionine. Further studies are needed to determine if cows may respond to lysine supply once the methionine requirements are met.\"\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00133	Why do some webpages say "if not reloaded in 10 seconds, click next to continue"?	the automatic reload feature can be turned off in some web browsers. So...if your site relies on the ability to automatically reload...how do you make it happen anyway? Well, the second best is to just tell the user to wait a bit and then press a link.	[ "For instance, in this scenario, a website visitor views seven pages (note how the pages are tracked in order the user viewed them) :\n\nTypical breadcrumbs following a hierarchical structure are shown as follows:\n\nSection::::Usage.:Software.\n\nCurrent file managers including Linux Mint's Nemo, Windows Explorer (from Windows Vista onwards), Finder (for Macintosh operating systems), GNOME's Nautilus, KDE's Dolphin, Xfce's Thunar, MATE's Caja, and SnowBird allow breadcrumb navigation, often replacing or extending an address bar.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nThere are three types of Web breadcrumbs:\n\nBULLET::::- Location: location breadcrumbs are static and show where the page is located in the website hierarchy.\n", "If an error occurs at any instance in the above events, the browser will trigger an error event and stop the process. Given below are a few errors that can occur when re-downloading resources.\n\nBULLET::::- Page Not Found (HTTP error 404) or Page Permanently Gone (HTTP error 410).\n\nBULLET::::- Failure to download the HTML page that pointed to the manifest.\n\nBULLET::::- The cache manifest changed while the update occurred.\n\nBULLET::::- The cache manifest was changed but the browser did not download a resource in the manifest.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- HTML5\n\nBULLET::::- HTML5 in mobile devices\n\nBULLET::::- Offline reader\n", "Early versions had the counter-intuitive step of \"closing the file\" which required a special operation before saving and exiting the file. If this step was omitted, the file could not be opened again. No warnings were issued beforehand. This was eliminated in newer versions of Scripsit.\n\nSection::::Printing support.\n", "The Temporary Internet Files cache can be useful in certain situations. For example, if no Internet connection is available, previously cached websites are still available offline. Certain online media files (such as embedded Flash movies) are not easily accessed directly through Internet Explorer, but are automatically saved into the cache after viewing them. Depending on the type of website and how often it is updated, the cached data may not reflect the online version of the website. The cache is also useful for police to collect forensic evidence.\n", "BULLET::::- codice_10 Event - this will take place if the cache manifest has not changed.\n\nBULLET::::- codice_7 Event - if the cache manifest has changed the resources the files will be downloaded again.\n\nBULLET::::- codice_8 Event - this contains information of how many files have been downloaded and how many files are left to be downloaded.\n\nBULLET::::- codice_13 Event - after the re-downloading is complete, this event is triggered, indicating that the new offline version is ready to be used.\n", "In Example 4, the fallback section consists of a single line. i.e., \"/ /offline.html\". The single character (\"/\") before ‘offline’ will match any URL pattern on one's site. If the browser does not find the page in the appcache, the application will display the page /offline.html.\n\nSection::::Event flow.\n\nEvents are under the codice_5 JavaScript object.\n\nIf the browser visits a web page, has NOT seen the web page before and as a result does not recognize the manifest file, the following events will ensue.\n", "BULLET::::3. Fallback section with the header FALLBACK.\n\nNote: Example 1 and Example 2 above, do not indicate any section header and are therefore considered an explicit section by default.\n\nSection::::File headers.:Online whitelist section with the header NETWORK.\n\nExample 3:\n\nThis example consists of headers. The line, NETWORK: is the start of the \"online whitelist\" section. The resources listed under this section are never cached and are not available offline. As a result, an error will occur when an attempt is made offline to load the resource.\n", "Netscape introduced the meta refresh feature which refreshes a page after a certain amount of time. This can specify a new URL to replace one page with another. This is supported by most web browsers. A timeout of zero seconds effects an immediate redirect. This is treated like a 301 permanent redirect by Google, allowing transfer of PageRank to the target page.\n\nThis is an example of a simple HTML document that uses this technique:\n", "BULLET::::3. The order of posted items does not change as may sometimes happen in memo-post systems when the memos are deleted and re-processed.\n\nBULLET::::4. Memo-posting systems often need to go off-line while the database is re-loaded to prepare for the next day's business. Real-time systems do not need that re-load window.\n", "In contrast, the POST method is not necessarily idempotent, and therefore sending an identical POST request multiple times may further affect state or cause further side effects (such as financial transactions). In some cases this may be desirable, but in other cases this could be due to an accident, such as when a user does not realize that their action will result in sending another request, or they did not receive adequate feedback that their first request was successful. While web browsers may show alert dialog boxes to warn users in some cases where reloading a page may re-submit a POST request, it is generally up to the web application to handle cases where a POST request should not be submitted more than once.\n", "The browser holds the pushed data in a temporary \"quarantine\" zone until it decides to use it. Later, every time the browser is going to make an actual request, it examines the contents of any received push promises to see if it is similar enough to the request it wants to make. However, the server need not wait until that moment to start sending data for the promised resource. After the PUSH_PROMISE frame has been sent on the browser-initiated stream, the server can send what would be response headers using a HEADERS frame in the new server-initiated stream, and later it can send the data of the resource using DATA frames. And at any point in time, the browser can interrupt any transfer by using RST_STREAM.\n", "All check-ins in StarTeam are atomic. Whenever more than one file is checked in as the result of a single transaction all of the files, and their associated process items, are updated in a single action. If for some reason, the check-in fails, none of the files are checked in, and the status of the associated process items is not updated. \n", "Introduced in 2009 in Internet Explorer 8 was a new HTTP header codice_1 which offered a partial protection against clickjacking and was shortly after adopted by other browsers (Safari, Firefox, Chrome, and Opera). The header, when set by website owner, declares its preferred framing policy: values of codice_5, codice_2, or codice_7 will prevent any framing, framing by external sites, or allow framing only by the specified site, respectively. In addition to that, some advertising sites return a non-standard codice_8 value with the intention to allow framing their content on any page (equivalent of not setting X-Frame-Options at all).\n", "In some systems, such as Internet Explorer, moving the pointer over a link (or other GUI control) and waiting for a split-second (that can range from 0.004 to 0.7 s) can cause a tooltip to be displayed.\n\nSection::::Single click.\n", "BULLET::::- In HTTP persistent connections, the web server saves opened connections (which consume CPU time and memory). The web client does not have to send an \"end of requests series\" signal. Connections are closed (timed out) after five minutes of inactivity; this ensures that the connections do not persist indefinitely.\n\nBULLET::::- In a timed light switch, both energy and lamp's life-span are saved. The user does not have to switch off manually.\n\nBULLET::::- Tablet computers and smartphones commonly turn off their backlight after a certain time without user input.\n", "An issue inherent to indiscriminate link prefetching involves the misuse of \"safe\" HTTP methods. The HTTP GET and HEAD requests are said to be \"safe\", i.e., a user agent that issues one of these requests should expect that the request results in no change on the recipient server. However, it is common for website operators to use these requests outside of this constraint. Plain hyperlinks (which almost universally result in GET requests) are often used to implement logout functionality and account verification, e.g., when a user completes an account creation form, and an automated service sends a verification e-mail to the user's given e-mail address. Similarly, it is entirely possible for a hosting service to provide a Web front end to manage files, including links that delete one or more files. Users who visit pages containing these types of links, (whilst using a browser which employs an indiscriminate link prefetcher), might find that they have been logged out or that their files have been deleted.\n", "BULLET::::- The web server returns an HTTP error code, such as 500, 502, 503, 504, 408, or even 404, which is inappropriate for an overload condition.\n\nBULLET::::- The web server refuses or resets (interrupts) TCP connections before it returns any content.\n\nBULLET::::- In very rare cases, the web server returns only a part of the requested content. This behavior can be considered a bug, even if it usually arises as a symptom of overload.\n\nSection::::Load limits.:Anti-overload techniques.\n\nTo partially overcome above average load limits and to prevent overload, most popular web sites use common techniques like:\n", "BULLET::::- 1xx (Informational): The request was received, continuing process\n\nBULLET::::- 2xx (Successful): The request was successfully received, understood and accepted\n\nBULLET::::- 3xx (Redirection): Further action needs to be taken in order to complete the request\n\nBULLET::::- 4xx (Client Error): The request contains bad syntax or cannot be fulfilled\n\nBULLET::::- 5xx (Server Error): The server failed to fulfill an apparently valid request\n\nSection::::1xx Informational response.\n", "BULLET::::- Quick Launch was removed in favor of 'pinned' applications. It is possible to revert to Quick Launch by manually adding it as a custom toolbar referencing \"%AppData%\\Microsoft\\Internet Explorer\\Quick Launch\" (check citation for how-to), although Windows 7 and later have issues with Quick Launch getting automatically disabled and all its settings getting reset after a logoff or restart.\n\nBULLET::::- Clicking a grouped application's taskbar button or thumbnail when it is active (in the foreground) does not minimize it. Only ungrouped application buttons minimize upon being clicked again.\n", "With one change of the codice_6 file, all pages that include the file will display the latest daily quotation. The inclusion is not limited to files, and may also be the text output from a program, or the value of a system variable such as the current time.\n\nSection::::Directives.\n\nSection::::Directives.:Common.\n\nThe following are SSI directives from the times of NCSA HTTPd (the 1990s). They are supported by all implementations.\n\nSection::::Directives.:Control directives.\n", "BULLET::::- The Quick Launch bar, introduced on Windows 95 and Windows NT 4.0 through the Windows Desktop Update for Internet Explorer 4 and bundled with Windows 95 OSR 2.5 Windows 98, contains shortcuts to applications. Windows provides default entries, such as \"Launch Internet Explorer Browser\", and the user or third-party software may add any further shortcuts that they choose. A single click on the application's icon in this area launches the application. This section may not always be present: for example it is turned off by default in Windows XP and Windows 7.\n", "BULLET::::- Users may be exposed to more security risks by downloading more pages, or from un-requested sites (additionally compounded as drive-by downloads become more advanced and diverse).\n\nBULLET::::- Users may violate acceptable-use policies of their network or organisation if prefetching accesses unauthorised content.\n\nIn the case of mobile devices or for users with a limited bandwidth allowance, prefetching may result in an unnecessary costly drain on limited bandwidth.\n\nIn the case of prerendering, Google warns that improper use may result in the aforementioned increased bandwidth usage, slower loading of other links, and slightly stale content.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Cache prefetching\n", "BULLET::::- There are limitations to opening more than 15 selected files in a single operation, i.e. by selecting more than 15 files and pressing Enter. The \"Open\" verb is not present in the context menu when more than 15 files are selected.\n\nBULLET::::- Single click to rename after selecting an item is not available in the navigation (left) pane.\n\nBULLET::::- Arrows indicating subfolders in the left pane cannot be set to always show. They disappear when dragging and dropping if the user clicks in the right pane before starting to drag to the left pane.\n", "BULLET::::- A new kind of control called a \"Command link\" provides a single-click operation to choose from a short list of options.\n\nBULLET::::- The notion of \"Commit pages\" is introduced, where it is made clear that the next step will be the actual process that the wizard is being used to enact. If no follow-up information needs to be communicated, these are the last pages in a wizard. Typically a commit page has a button at the bottom-right that is labeled with the action to be taken, such as \"Create account\".\n", "Each time a user visits a website using Microsoft Internet Explorer, files downloaded with each web page (including HTML and Javascript code) are saved to the Temporary Internet Files folder, creating a web cache of the web page on the local computer's hard disk drive, or other form of digital data storage. The next time the user visits the cached website, only changed content needs to be downloaded from the Internet; the unchanged data is available in the cache.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04922	why is it better to get some diseases when you’re a child (chicken pox for instance) because they are less severe in childhood than adulthood? Especially when you consider that children have weaker immune systems than adults.	it is because adult chicken pox tends to cause complications like pneumonia and encephalitis while childhood chicken pox does not. Adults’ immune systems are stronger and employ more antibodies (rather than white blood cells) than children’s immune systems do, which is what triggers the immune response and the subsequent symptoms. Some strains of the flu are like this, too, such as the 1918 pandemic. The Spanish Flu killed young adults instead of the usual flu victims (old people and kids) because that strain triggered a severe immune reaction called a cytokine storm which basically shut down the bodies of infected people. A stronger immune system=stronger immune reaction=worse symptoms.	[ "Infection occurs more easily as one ages, as the immune system starts to slow and become less effective. Aging also changes how the immune system reacts to infection, making new infections harder to detect and attack. Essentially, the immune system has a higher chance of being compromised the older one gets.\n\nSection::::Contemporary and classic theories.:Adult neurogenesis and neuroplasticity.\n", "For pregnant women with negative antibody titers, indicating no previous exposure to \"T. gondii\", serology testing as frequent as monthly is advisable as treatment during pregnancy for those women exposed to \"T. gondii\" for the first time dramatically decreases the risk of passing the parasite to the fetus. Since a baby's immune system does not develop fully for the first year of life, and the resilient cysts that form throughout the body are very difficult to eradicate with antiprotozoans, an infection can be very serious in the young.\n", "It is well known that the probability of getting a disease is not constant in the time. Some diseases are seasonal, such as the common cold viruses, which are more prevalent during winter. With childhood diseases, such as measles, mumps, and rubella, there is a strong correlation with the school calendar, so that during the school holidays the probability of getting such a disease dramatically decreases.\n\nAs a consequence, for many classes of diseases one should consider a force of infection with periodically ('seasonal') varying contact rate\n\nwith period T equal to one year.\n\nThus, our model becomes\n", "Holoendemic\n\nA disease is holoendemic when essentially every individual in a population is infected.\n\nAlthough the infection is ubiquitous, symptoms of disease do not appear equally across age groups. The young are more likely to express pathogenic responses, whilst the older hosts will carry the disease asymptomatically, or with reduced damage, due to adaptive immunity.Therefore, holoendemic diseases differ from hyperendemic diseases, of which symptoms are expressed equally by members across all age groups of a population.\n", "Charles Janeway Sr. is generally credited with the first description of a case of CVID in 1953. The case involved a 39-year-old who had recurrent infections, bronchiectasis, and meningitis. Though described in 1953, there was no standard definition for CVID until the 1990s, which caused widespread confusion during diagnosis. During the 1990s, the European Society for Immunodeficiency (ESID) and Pan-American Group for Immunodeficiency (PAGID) developed diagnostic criteria, including minimum age of diagnosis and the need to exclude other conditions, to describe the disease. These criteria were published in 1999 and since that time, some aspects, like increasing the minimum age, have been changed.\n", "There are currently no studies detailing the long term outcome of chronic granulomatous disease with modern treatment. Without treatment, children often die in the first decade of life. The increased severity of X-linked CGD results in a decreased survival rate of patients, as 20% of X-linked patients die of CGD-related causes by the age of 10, whereas 20% of autosomal recessive patients die by the age of 35.\n\nbr\n\nRecent experience from centers specializing in the care of patients with CGD suggests that the current mortality has fallen to under 3% and 1% respectively.\n", "There have been a number of studies that not only take incomplete fossil records into consideration, but have attempt to specifically identify the barriers presented by this condition. For example, Kieran McNulty covers the potential utilities and constraints of using incomplete fossil taxa to examine longitudinal development in Australopithecus africanis.\n\nMany studies on development have been human-specific. In his 2011 paper, Bernard Crespi focused on adaptation and genomic conflict in childhood diseases. He considers the evolution of childhood diseases and their risk levels, and finds that both risk and disease have evolved.\n", "Childhood chronic illness\n\nSome common childhood onset chronic illnesses are cystic fibrosis, cerebral palsy, juvenile diabetes, juvenile rheumatoid arthritis, and cancer. Chronic illness is often a risk factor for developing psychopathologies, due to the psychological toll it takes on the children and their developing brains. Approximately 10 million children in the United States suffer from a childhood onset chronic illness.\n\nSection::::Chronic illness and development.\n", "A complete explanation of how environmental factors play a role in autoimmune diseases has still not been proposed. However epidemiological studies, such as the meta analysis by Leonardi-Bee, et al., have helped to establish the link between parasitic infestation and autoimmune disease development, in other words, exposure to parasites reduces incidence of an autoimmune disease developing.\n\n\"Early life exposure to microbes (i.e., germs) is an important determinant of adulthood sensitivity to allergic and autoimmune diseases such as hay fever, asthma and inflammatory bowel disease.\"\n", "As a person ages, their immune system undergoes a series of changes, in a process referred to as immunosenescence. Notable among these changes is a decreased production of naive T cells and naive B cells. The reduced number of naive lymphocytes (T and B cells) is attributed to the fact that the telomeres in hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), degenerate over time and, consequently, limit the proliferation of HSCs and production of lymphoid progenitor cells. This is compounded by the fact that, with time, HSCs tend to favor the production of myeloid progenitor cells over lymphoid progenitor cells. Mature lymphocytes are also unable to proliferate indefinitely. Compounded, the reduction in number of naive lymphocytes and limitations of the proliferative abilities of mature lymphocytes contribute to a limited number and variety of lymphocytes to respond to pathogens presented in a vaccine.\n", "Risk factors such as a person's background; lifestyle and environment are known to increase the likelihood of certain non-communicable diseases. They include age, gender, genetics, exposure to air pollution, and behaviors such as smoking, unhealthy diet and physical inactivity which can lead to hypertension and obesity, in turn leading to increased risk of many NCDs. Most NCDs are considered preventable because they are caused by modifiable risk factors.\n", "The idea of a link between parasite infection and immune disorders was first suggested in 1968. The original formulation of the hygiene hypothesis dates from 1989, when David Strachan proposed that lower incidence of infection in early childhood could be an explanation for the rise in allergic diseases such as asthma and hay fever during the 20th century.\n", "The respiratory system is very prone to developing infections in the lungs. Infants and older adults are more likely to develop infections in their lungs, because their lungs are not as strong in fighting off these infections. Most of these infections used to be fatal, but with new research and medicine, they are now treatable. With bacterial infections, antibiotics are prescribed, while viral infections are harder to treat, but still curable.\n\nThe common cold/flu is the most common cause for the upper respiratory tract infection, which can cause more serious illness that can develop in the lower respiratory \n", "Germ-line mutations are often at least in part the cause of disease onset at an earlier age. Though many germ-line mutations are deleterious, the genetic lens through which they may be viewed may provide insights to treatment, possibly through genetic counseling.\n", "Diarrhea caused by the parasitic disease Giardiasis is associated with lower IQ. Parasitic worms (helminths) are associated with nutritional deficiencies that are known to be a risk to child development. In particular, intestinal parasitism being one of the most neglected tropical diseases in the developed world. Harboring of this parasite could adverse several health implications in children affecting childhood development and morbidity. Reducing the prevalence of the parasite can be a benefit in child growth, development, and educational outcome.\n\nSection::::Risk factors.:Poisoning.\n", "Diseases are often categorized by their ages of onset as congenital, infantile, juvenile, or adult. Missed or delayed diagnosis often occurs if a disease that is typically diagnosed in juveniles (such as asthma) is present in adults, and vice versa (such as arthritis). Depending on the disease, ages of onset may impact features such as phenotype, as is the case in Parkinson's and Huntington's diseases. For example, the phenotype for juvenile Huntington's disease clearly differs from adult-onset Huntington's disease and late-onset Parkinson's exhibits more severe motor and non-motor phenotypes. \n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.:Symptomatic diagnostics.\n\nThe diagnosis is aided by the presenting symptoms in any individual with an infectious disease, yet it usually needs additional diagnostic techniques to confirm the suspicion. Some signs are specifically characteristic and indicative of a disease and are called pathognomonic signs; but these are rare. Not all infections are symptomatic.\n\nIn children the presence of cyanosis, rapid breathing, poor peripheral perfusion, or a petechial rash increases the risk of a serious infection by greater than 5 fold. Other important indicators include parental concern, clinical instinct, and temperature greater than 40 °C.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Microbial culture.\n", "There is also reason to believe that the immune system of a baby will be healthier if, during pregnancy, the mother's immune system was regularly stimulated by exposure to pathogens.\n\nSection::::Period of origin.:Postpartum.\n\nAcquired disorder\n\nSeason of birth\n\nSection::::Period of origin.:Childhood.\n\nIt is posited that the absence of exposure to parasites, bacteria, and viruses is playing a significant role in the development of autoimmune diseases in the more sanitized Western industrialized nations. Lack of exposure to naturally occurring pathogens may result in an increased incidence of autoimmune diseases. (See hygiene hypothesis.)\n", "Infectious diseases can be caused by pathogens and microorganisms such as viruses, prions, bacteria, parasites, and fungi.\n\nFor infectious, environmental, and genetically predisposed conditions,\n\nlifestyle choices such as exercise, nutrition, stress level, hygiene, home and work environments, use or abuse of legal and illegal drugs, and access to healthcare (including an individual's financial ability and personal willingness to seek medical attention) especially in the early stages of an illness all combine to determine a person's risk factors for developing a disease or condition.\n\nPrecancerous condition\n\nProgressive disease\n\nlocalized disease to spread to other area of the body.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Diet.\n", "Early diagnosis and treatment are very important for invasive pneumococcal disease. Most of the time it is treated with antibiotics, but many strains have become resistant to the antibiotics used to treat these infections. In some areas of the United States, up to 15% of infections are resistant to penicillin. With is success of the pneumococcal disease vaccine, much less antibiotic-resistant infections have been seen.\n\nSection::::Polio.\n", "The \"microbial diversity\" hypothesis, proposed by Paolo Matricardi and developed by von Hertzen, holds that diversity of microbes in the gut and other sites is a key factor for priming the immune system, rather than stable colonization with a particular species. Exposure to diverse organisms in early development builds a \"database\" that allows the immune system to identify harmful agents and normalize once the danger is eliminated.\n", "The \"old friends hypothesis\" proposed in 2003 may offer a better explanation for the link between microbial exposure and inflammatory diseases. This hypothesis argues that the vital exposures are not common childhood and other recently evolved infections, which are no older than 10,000 years, but rather microbes already present in hunter-gatherer times when the human immune system was evolving. Conventional childhood infections are mostly \"crowd infections\" that kill or immunise and thus cannot persist in isolated hunter-gatherer groups. Crowd infections started to appear after the neolithic agricultural revolution, when human populations increased in size and proximity. The microbes that co-evolved with mammalian immune systems are much more ancient. According to this hypothesis, humans became so dependent on them that their immune systems can neither develop nor function properly without them.\n", "BULLET::::- Group B streptoccus infection\n\nBULLET::::- tetanus\n\nBULLET::::- Ureaplasma urealyticum infection\n\nBULLET::::- respiratory Syncytial Virus infection\n\nBULLET::::- rhinovirus; common cold\n\nSection::::Diseases of older children.\n\nBULLET::::- Common cold\n\nBULLET::::- AIDS\n\nBULLET::::- Anemia\n\nBULLET::::- Asthma\n\nBULLET::::- Bronchiolitis\n\nBULLET::::- Cancer\n\nBULLET::::- Candidiasis (\"Thrush\")\n\nBULLET::::- Chagas disease\n\nBULLET::::- Chickenpox\n\nBULLET::::- Croup\n\nBULLET::::- Cystic fibrosis\n\nBULLET::::- Cytomegalovirus (the virus most frequently transmitted before birth)\n\nBULLET::::- dental caries\n\nBULLET::::- Diabetes (Type 1)\n\nBULLET::::- Diphtheria\n\nBULLET::::- Duchenne muscular dystrophy\n\nBULLET::::- Fifth disease\n\nBULLET::::- Congenital Heart Disease\n\nBULLET::::- Infectious mononucleosis\n\nBULLET::::- Influenza\n\nBULLET::::- Intussusception (medical disorder)\n\nBULLET::::- Juvenile idiopathic arthritis\n\nBULLET::::- Leukemia\n\nBULLET::::- Measles\n\nBULLET::::- Meningitis\n", "Chronic illness can affect a child’s development at any stage. During infancy and childhood chronic illness can be detrimental to the development of secure attachment, interpersonal trust, self-regulation, and/or peer relation skills. During middle adolescence, chronic illness can prevent a child from being in school on a regular basis. This can affect a child's academic and social competence. During adolescence, chronic illness can affect the development of autonomy and self-image. It can also interfere with peer & romantic relationships, and the desire for independence can lead to poor treatment compliance.\n\nSection::::Children's perception of pain.\n", "Immunodeficiencies occur when one or more of the components of the immune system are inactive. The ability of the immune system to respond to pathogens is diminished in both the young and the elderly, with immune responses beginning to decline at around 50 years of age due to immunosenescence. In developed countries, obesity, alcoholism, and drug use are common causes of poor immune function. However, malnutrition is the most common cause of immunodeficiency in developing countries. Diets lacking sufficient protein are associated with impaired cell-mediated immunity, complement activity, phagocyte function, IgA antibody concentrations, and cytokine production. Additionally, the loss of the thymus at an early age through genetic mutation or surgical removal results in severe immunodeficiency and a high susceptibility to infection.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-15538	why dishwashers have sault compartment to soften water and washing machine do not ?	The salt in the water can ruin the glass and dishes immediately but your clothes are more durable.	[ "Hand dishwashing is generally performed in the absence of a dishwashing machine, when large \"hard-to-clean\" items are present, or through preference. Some dishwashing liquids can harm household silver, fine glassware, anything with gold leaf, disposable plastics, and any objects made of brass, bronze, cast iron, pewter, tin, or wood, especially when combined with hot water and the action of a dishwasher. When dishwashing liquid is used on such objects it is intended that they be washed by hand.\n", "Section::::Design.:Features.\n\nMid-to-higher end North American dishwashers often come with hard food disposal units, which behave like miniature garbage (waste) disposal units that eliminate large pieces of food waste from the wash water. One manufacturer that is known for omitting hard food disposals is Bosch, a German brand; however, Bosch does so in order to reduce noise. If the larger items of food waste are removed before placing in the dishwasher, pre-rinsing is not necessary even without integrated waste disposal units.\n", "Automatic dishwashing involves the use of a dishwashing machine or other apparatus. It is generally chosen through convenience, sanitation, or personal preference. The cleaning is less reliant on the detergent's surfactants but more reliant on machine's hot water as well as the detergent's builders, bleach, and enzymes. Automatic dishwashing detergents' surfactants generally have less foam to avoid disrupting the machine.\n\nSection::::Informal uses.\n", "Knives and other cooking tools that are made of carbon steel, semi-stainless steels like D2, or specialized, highly hardened cutlery steels like ZDP189 corrode in the extended moisture bath of dishwashers, compared to briefer baths of hand washing. Cookware is made of austenitic stainless steels, which are more stable.\n", "Section::::Design.\n\nSection::::Design.:Size and capacity.\n", "If a dishwasher has a built-in water softener there will be a special compartment inside the dishwasher where the salt is to be added when needed. This salt compartment is separate from the detergent compartment, and generally located at the bottom of the wash cabinet (this is below the bottom basket). On most dishwashers, an automatic sensing system will notify the user when more dishwasher salt is required.\n", "However, the most successful of the hand-powered dishwashers was invented in 1887 by Josephine Cochrane together with mechanic George Butters in Josephine's tool shed in Shelbyville, Illinois when Cochrane (a wealthy socialite) wanted to protect her china while it was being washed. Her invention was unveiled at the 1893 World's Fair in Chicago, Illinois under the name of Lavadora but was changed to Lavaplatos as another machine invented in 1858 already held that name. Cochrane's inspiration was her frustration at the damage to her good china that occurred when her servants handled it during cleaning.\n", "Washing soda (sodium carbonate) is used for dishwashing, and may be used in areas with hard water. It was used for dishwashing before detergents were invented in Germany during World War I. Liquid detergent used for dishwashing was first manufactured in the middle of the 20th century. Dishwashing detergent producers started production in the United States in the 1930–1940s. Teepol, the first such in Europe, commenced production in 1942.\n\nIn 2005, dishwashing detergent retail sales totaled nearly USD $10 billion worldwide.\n\nSection::::Types.\n", "Limited product versatility:-\n\nAnother major limitation of rising film evaporators is the requirement for the products to be of low viscosity and have minimal fouling tendencies. Competitive process designs like plate-type evaporators can handle liquids that are more viscous with higher fouling tendencies because the inner parts are more easily accessible for cleaning and maintenance.\n\nSection::::Main characteristic and assessments.\n", "Items contaminated by chemicals such as wax, cigarette ash, poisons, mineral oils, wet paints, oiled tools, furnace filters, etc. can contaminate a dishwasher, since the surfaces inside small water passages cannot be wiped clean as surfaces are in hand-washing, so contaminants remain to affect future loads. Objects contaminated by solvents may explode in a dishwasher.\n\nSection::::Differences between dishwashers and hand washing.:Environmental comparison.\n\nDishwashers use less water, and therefore less fuel to heat the water, than hand washing, except for small quantities washed in wash bowls without running water.\n", "Governmental agencies often recommend air-drying dishes by either disabling or stopping the drying cycle to save energy.\n\nSection::::Differences between dishwashers and hand washing.\n\nSection::::Differences between dishwashers and hand washing.:Dishwasher detergent.\n", "By the 1970s, dishwashers had become commonplace in domestic residences in North America and Western Europe. By 2012, over 75 percent of homes in the United States and Germany had dishwashers.\n", "Because of their intended use in wet and potentially hazardous environments, most soap dishes are designed with safety in mind. Such features include unbreakable materials, non-slip surfaces, rounded edges, and secure installation elements (e.g., wall mount hardware, a suction cup, or non-skid feet). Depositing or retrieving a slippery bar of soap is facilitated by an open (or semi-open) sided design or by a shallow lip.\n\nSection::::Design elements.:Ventilation.\n", "A 2009 study showed that the microwave and the dishwasher were both more effective ways to clean domestic sponges than handwashing.\n\nSection::::Adoption.\n\nSection::::Adoption.:Commercial use.\n\nLarge heavy duty dishwashers are available for use in commercial establishments (e.g. hotels, restaurants) where a large number of dishes must be cleaned.\n", "However, higher-temperature washing uses more energy, and many fabrics and elastics are damaged at higher temperatures. Temperatures exceeding have the undesirable effect of inactivating the enzymes when using biological detergent.\n\nMany machines are cold-fill, connected to cold water only, which they heat to operating temperature. Where water can be heated more cheaply or with less carbon dioxide emission than by electricity, cold-fill operation is inefficient.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nThe first mechanical dishwashing device was registered in 1850 in the United States by Joel Houghton. This device was made of wood and was cranked by hand while water sprayed onto the dishes.This device was both slow and unreliable. Another patent was granted to L.A. Alexander\n\nin 1865 that was similar to the first but featured a hand-cranked rack system. Neither device was practical or widely accepted.\n", "Europe's first domestic dishwasher with an electric motor was invented and manufactured by Miele in 1929.\n", "The customer's choice of unit primarily depends on either actual or perceived sensitivity of their product to contamination, and the overall ability to clean their specific product type from the bottle. Those with a lower contamination risk are prime candidates for the washed units. With the exception of products produced in \"clean rooms\" (GMP - good manufacturing practices), the decision of a washed over a new is usually a matter of availability or appearance.\n", "The inside of a dishwasher in the North American market is either stainless steel or plastic. Stainless steel tubs resist hard water, and preserve heat to dry dishes more quickly. They also come at a premium price. Older models used baked enamel tubs, while some used a vinyl coating bonded to a steel tub, which provided protection of the tub from acidic foods and provided some sound attenuation. European-made dishwashers feature a stainless steel interior as standard, even on low-end models. The same is true for a built-in water softener.\n\nSection::::Design.:Washing elements.\n", "Conventional water-softening appliances intended for household use depend on an ion-exchange resin in which \"hardness ions\"—mainly Ca and Mg—are exchanged for sodium ions. As described by NSF/ANSI Standard 44, ion-exchange devices reduce the hardness by replacing magnesium and calcium (Mg and Ca) with sodium or potassium ions (Na and K).\"\n", "North American dishwashers tend to use heat-assisted drying via an exposed element. European machines and some high end North American machines use passive methods for drying – a stainless steel interior helps this process and some models use heat exchange technology between the inner and outer skin of the machine to cool the walls of the interior and speed up drying. Most dishwashers feature a drying sensor and as such, a dish-washing cycle is always considered complete when a drying indicator, usually in the form of an illuminated \"end\" light, or in more modern models on a digital display or audible sound, exhibits to the operator that the washing and drying cycle is now over.\n", "Early models were subject to complaints about the noise that they made when washing. This has been improved on with later models.\n", "Most dishwasher detergents are incompatible for use with silver, brass, cast iron, bronze, pewter, and goldleaf. They can also harm disposable plastic, anything wood, knives with hollow handles, and fine glassware.\n\nSection::::Types.\n", "Commercial dishwashers often have significantly different plumbing and operations than a home unit, in that there are often separate spray arms for washing and rinsing/sanitizing. The wash water is heated with an in-tank electric heat element and mixed with a cleaning solution, and is used repeatedly from one load to the next. The wash tank usually has a large strainer basket to collect food debris, and the strainer may not be emptied until the end of the day's kitchen operations.\n", "Some dishwashers include a child-lockout feature to prevent accidental starting or stopping of the wash cycle by children. A child lock can sometimes be included to prevent young children opening the door during a wash cycle. This prevents accidents with hot water and strong detergents used during the wash cycle.\n\nSection::::Process.\n\nSection::::Process.:Energy use and water temperatures.\n\nIn the European Union, the energy consumption of a dishwasher for a standard usage is shown on a European Union energy label. In the United States, the energy consumption of a dishwasher is defined using the energy factor.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-11677	When you go to the ocean or a water park with a wave pool, why can you still feel the waves hours later when you’ve gone home?	> In order for you to estimate your location, your brain combines information from a variety of sources, including sight, touch, joint position, the inner ear and its internal expectations. Internal expectations, in particular, provide a useful predictive component to this mental motion processing. Under most circumstances, the senses and internal expectations all agree. When they disagree, there is imprecision and ambiguity about motion estimation, which can result in loss of balance and motion sickness. > > On boats, seasickness may develop because of conflict between sensory input and internal expectations about motion. Developing "sea legs" is nature's cure for seasickness: you become accustomed to anticipating the boat's movements and prepare to adjust your posture accordingly. When you finally go ashore, you may feel your body continuing to do this for hours or even days afterwards, making it seem as if the room is moving and sometimes even leading to nausea. > > A few unfortunate people experience persistent symptoms lasting months or even years. This is known as mal de debarquement syndrome. Exactly why their symptoms persist so long isn't understood, but they can be treated. > > Sailing isn't the only activity that causes illusory motion after-effects. Overnight rail passengers sometimes say they can feel the "clickety-clack" of the track in their legs after they leave the train. And astronauts returning to Earth commonly experience vertigo, nausea, difficulty walking and sensory flashbacks. In all cases, the longer one is exposed to the unfamiliar motion environment, the more prominent and long-lasting are the after-effects. > > Timothy Hain, Department of physical therapy and human movement sciences, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, US > > Charles Oman, Man Vehicle Laboratory, MIT, Cambridge, Massachusetts, US URL_0	[ "By use of validated numerical models, the availability of metocean data can be extended. For instance, consider the case of a coastal location where no wave measurements are available. If there is long-term wave data available in a nearby offshore location (e.g. from satellites), a wind wave model can be employed to transform the offshore wave statistics to the nearshore location (provided the bathymetry is known).\n", "There is no published information on wave heights in the Abrolhos. In the open ocean, waves are typically a little over two metres high all year round. Nearer the mainland, they are usually less than 1.2 metres, with a calmer period in March and April, and another in October and November.\n\nSection::::Climate.\n", "The City of Huntington Beach beach headquarters provides beach conditions and surf reports are updated throughout the day on the City of Huntington Beach website and at an automated phone line (714-536-9303). The reports include surf, water, wind, and tide information such as surf height, water temperature, and wind speed, and high and low tide times.\n\nSection::::Special events.\n", "Section::::Tourism.:Attractions.:Bicycling.\n\nThe boardwalk is a natural draw for bicyclists. Beach cruiser bikes can be rented at several places on the Balboa Peninsula. Bicyclists are also drawn to Back Bay Drive and the bike paths around Upper Newport Bay; the hilly roads winding through Newport Coast and the San Joaquin Hills; and the mountain biking trails in the San Joaquin Hills and Crystal Cove State Park. Pacific Coast Highway provides access to these areas and is a major bicycle route through the region, despite being shared with heavy motor vehicle traffic.\n", "The summer months average from lows of to highs of , with water temperatures rising from to around by August. The spring and fall are typically milder seasons. The fall and winter are usually warmer than areas inland, while the spring and the summer are often slightly cooler due to the moderating effects of being surrounded by water.\n\nSection::::Sandbridge Beach.\n", "According to the U.S. Census, 28.1% of the population over twenty-five (vs. a national average of 24%) hold a bachelor's degree or higher, and 90.4% (vs. 80% nationally) have a high school diploma or equivalent.\n", "Being a teenager while being an elite athlete means Zeuner has to balance schoolwork with her competition. She has found a school that gives her flexibility as she tries to reach her goals in skateboarding. \n\n“It’s five times a week, there’s a little homeschooling, but it’s cool because the teachers understand when you have to go and why,” she said. “They try to get you caught up before you leave because there’s no such thing as doing work when you’re at an event. They understand that.”\n\nSection::::Career.\n", "Beach Haven, New Jersey\n\nBeach Haven is a borough in Ocean County, New Jersey, United States, that is located on Long Beach Island (LBI) and borders the Atlantic Ocean. As of the 2010 United States Census, the borough's population was 1,170, reflecting a decline of 108 (-8.5%) from the 1,278 counted in the 2000 Census, which had in turn declined by 197 (-13.4%) from the 1,475 counted in the 1990 Census.\n", "Earthquake-generated seiches can be observed thousands of miles away from the epicentre of a quake. Swimming pools are especially prone to seiches caused by earthquakes, as the ground tremors often match the resonant frequencies of small bodies of water. The 1994 Northridge earthquake in California caused swimming pools to overflow across southern California. The massive Good Friday earthquake that hit Alaska in 1964 caused seiches in swimming pools as far away as Puerto Rico. The earthquake that hit Lisbon, Portugal in 1755 caused seiches 2,000 miles (3,000 km) away in Loch Lomond, Loch Long, Loch Katrine and Loch Ness in Scotland and in canals in Sweden. The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake caused seiches in standing water bodies in many Indian states as well as in Bangladesh, Nepal and northern Thailand. Seiches were again observed in Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal in India as well as in many locations in Bangladesh during the 2005 Kashmir earthquake.\n", "This rushing to the coast is exhibited in property value. A study by Bourassa et al. (2004) found that in Auckland, New Zealand, wide sea views contributed on average an additional 59% to the value of a waterfront property. This effect diminished rapidly the further the property was from the coast. In another study, it was found that moving 150 m away from the Gulf of Mexico lowered property values by 36%.\n", "There are many other factors that affect the wave quality at a specific surf break, including wind conditions and tides. In general, wave quality for surfing is usually better with less wind. If there is wind, wave quality is better if the wind is blowing gently offshore (away from the coast, towards the water.) This offshore airflow helps to hold up the face of breaking waves slightly longer, allowing a surfer to have more time to maneuver on the face of the wave.\n", "Beach Haven, known as the \"Queen City,\" is a late 19th century beach-front resort originally established in 1873 to house wealthy summer residents from Philadelphia. Although some of the major structures, including several hotels and a boardwalk, were lost to storms in the 1940s including the Great Atlantic Hurricane of 1944, a large portion of the town retains its Victorian and Edwardian character. The Beach Haven Historic District listed in the New Jersey and the National Register of Historic Places in the early 1980s, encompasses the most intact buildings at the core of the resort.\n\nSection::::Geography.\n", "\"A lineatus\" and other surface wave detecting fish have a limited range in which they can detect surface waves. The ratio of source distance/swim distance ranges between 0.84 and 1.20, and the means range from 0.98 to 1.07. This translates to an accuracy of 85% or higher when stimuli are 6–19 cm from the fish, decreasing to 76% at 14 cm. As the wave source gets farther from a fish, the fish's ability to accurately determine distance decreases until it can no longer detect the waves.\n", "Newport Beach also became a hub for tennis stars, especially from Australia. Australian professionals Rod Laver, Roy Emerson, Syd Ball and Phil Dent all lived in Newport Beach at various stages in their careers. This in turn spawned a new generation of tennis stars from Newport Beach, Taylor Dent, Carsten Ball and Antony Emerson. \n", "During the summer months, frequent episodes of high humidity occur. Occasionally, heat index values exceed 95 °F (35 °C). During most summer afternoons, a sea breeze dominates the coastline keeping high temperatures several degrees cooler compared to areas farther inland. During most nights, relatively mild ocean waters keep the coastline several degrees warmer than areas farther inland. During the winter months, wind chill values occasionally fall below 0 °F (-18 °C). On average, the snowiest month of the year is February which corresponds with the annual peak for nor'easter activity.\n\nSection::::Sports.\n", "According to the 2010 United States Census, Manhattan Beach had a median household income of $139,259, with 3.4% of the population living below the federal poverty line.\n\nSection::::Economy.\n", "East coasts also receive heavy winter swells when low-pressure cells form in the sub-tropics, where slow moving highs inhibit their movement. These lows produce a shorter fetch than polar fronts, however, they can still generate heavy swells since their slower movement increases the duration of a particular wind direction. The variables of fetch and duration both influence how long wind acts over a wave as it travels since a wave reaching the end of a fetch behaves as if the wind died.\n", "For example, according to the Irish Marine Institute:\n\nSection::::Measurement.\n\nAlthough most measuring devices estimate the significant wave height from a wave spectrum, satellite radar altimeters are unique in measuring directly the significant wave height thanks to the different time of return from wave crests and troughs within the area illuminated by the radar. The maximum ever measured wave height from a satellite is 20.1m during a North Atlantic storm in 2011.\n\nSection::::Weather forecasts.\n", "Water levels in anchialine pools often fluctuate with tidal changes due to the coastal location and the connection with the ocean. The range in water levels fluctuations will be decreased (damped) and delayed compared to the range and time observed for the adjacent tide. The primary controls on the damping and lag are the distance from the coast, and the hydraulic conductivity of the geological materials.\n", "Ocean waves are defined as a collection of dislocated water parcels that undergo a cycle of being forced past their normal position and being restored back to their normal position. Wind caused ripples and eddies form waves that gradually gain speed and distance (fetch). Waves increase in energy and speed, and then become longer and stronger. The fully developed sea has the strongest wave action that experiences storms lasting 10-hours and creates 15 meter wave heights in the open ocean.\n", "Jeff Clark grew up in Half Moon Bay, watching Mavericks from Half Moon Bay High School and Pillar Point. At that time the location was thought too dangerous to surf. He conceived the possibility of riding Hawaii-sized waves in Northern California. In 1975 at age 17 and with the waves topping out at , Clark paddled out alone to face the break. He caught multiple left-breaking waves, thereby becoming the first documented person to tackle Mavericks head-on.\n", "Section::::Government.:Federal, state and county representation.\n\nBeach Haven is located in the 2nd Congressional District and is part of New Jersey's 9th state legislative district. Prior to the 2010 Census, Beach Haven had been part of the , a change made by the New Jersey Redistricting Commission that took effect in January 2013, based on the results of the November 2012 general elections.\n\nSection::::Government.:Politics.\n", "Lastly, of course, are the city's abundant and ample indoor recreational facilities, which often include basketball and racquetball courts, weight and fitness training rooms, and swimming pools. These centers also play host to many special programs for children, youth and adults. The Bayside facility, for example, offers classes in yoga and pilates, as well as various types and styles of dance, not to mention seasonal offerings for young children and senior citizens.\n", "BULLET::::- Piers usually have deep channels directly under them which can form sandbars on the sides, making better waves at the pier.\n\nBULLET::::- Jetties Smaller jetties cause sand to build up on the tip, allowing good sandbars to form. Large jetties can actually cause the waves to reflect off the jetty and wedge into the next wave making larger and better waves. The impact of jetties is especially evident at the breaks in Newport Beach.\n", "Certain species of fish spend a substantial portion of their lives near the surface of the water in order to feed, usually on insects that are struggling at the surface. Species that detect surface waves typically use them to localize such prey. When the hunting posture is assumed (which may be neutral posture) as specific mechanosensitive organ is held in contact with the surface of the water in order that mechanoreceptors can receive surface waves. The animal will wait a small amount of time (typically 1s) before initiating a response towards the prey, should the surface waves perceived fall within the preferred stimulus range. Response towards prey typically follows the pattern orientation towards prey, swimming towards prey, and then prey capture. This ability is sometimes referred to as a sense of \"distant touch.\"\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-06932	Why does Adobe Acrobat Reader have so many updates?	The short answer is it's not a simple document viewer. Think about Chrome or firefox, they "Just view HTML documents", and well that means a lot of things, new features get added to HTML itself, people find ways to do stuff faster, and better ways to integrate other things into the browser. Like HTML, PDF is a document format that supports a lot of features, you can have a simple reader that supports the common things, or a complex one that supports everything in a PDF, Adobe has gone even further and added their own extensions and extra features. In the end this makes the Adobe products very complex, they support a lot of new and old features, many very obscure. But this makes them very complex, and it's a very old code base (so it's slow, and may be difficult to fix bugs, which can lead to bugs on it's own).	[ "Version 15.2 was released on November 13, 2015, supporting iOS 8.0 and above. The new features include:\n\nBULLET::::- Integration with Dropbox to open and save files. Connect your Dropbox account to Acrobat Reader to:\n\nBULLET::::- Browse and open your Dropbox files\n\nBULLET::::- Annotate, edit and sign PDF files\n\nBULLET::::- Save changes back to Dropbox\n\nSection::::Reader for iOS.:15.3.\n\nVersion 15.3 was released on January 5, 2016, supporting iOS 8.0 and above. The new features include:\n\nBULLET::::- Sign PDFs using the new e-signature panel:\n\nBULLET::::- Capture your handwritten signature via camera\n\nBULLET::::- Save your e-signature to use each time you sign\n", "BULLET::::- Automatically sync your e-signature to use with Adobe Acrobat Pro, Standard, or Reader on desktop\n\nBULLET::::- Fixed:\n\nBULLET::::- Bugs that caused lost comments and annotations\n\nBULLET::::- Crashes and improved stability\n\nSection::::Reader for iOS.:15.4.\n\nVersion 15.4 was released on January 23, 2016, supporting iOS 8.0 and above. The new features include:\n\nBULLET::::- Improved reading experience for PDFs with bookmarks\n\nBULLET::::- Changed bookmark destinations to ignore zoom settings\n\nBULLET::::- Fixed:\n\nBULLET::::- Intermittent crashes\n\nBULLET::::- Crashes when opening certain documents\n\nBULLET::::- Bug in PDF rendering where content was not visible\n\nSection::::Reader for iOS.:16.02.23.\n", "The UI had major changes with the introduction of Acrobat DC in 2015, which supports Windows 7 and later, and OS X 10.9 and later. Version numbers are now identified by the last two digits of the year of major release, and the month and year is specified; the previous version was 12, but examples of the DC (Document Cloud) Acrobat product family versions are DC June 2016, version 15.016.20045, released 2 June 2016 and DC Classic January 2016, version 15.006.30119, released 12 January 2016. From DC 2015 the Acrobat family is available in two tracks, the original track, now named Classic, and the Continuous track. Updates for the Classic track are released quarterly, and do not include new features, whereas updates for the Continuous track are issued more frequently, and implemented silently and automatically.\n", "Version 15.0.1 was released on April 18, 2015, supporting iOS 8.0 and above. The new features include:\n\nBULLET::::- Easily access free annotation tools! Select “Comment” from the Tool Switcher\n\nBULLET::::- Find files faster. File list now defaults to Local Files\n\nBULLET::::- Bug fixes\n\nSection::::Reader for iOS.:15.0.2.\n\nVersion 15.0.2 was released on April 24, 2015, supporting iOS 8.0 and above. The new features include:\n\nBULLET::::- Tap on My Documents to easily find files\n\nBULLET::::- Access free commenting tools from the Viewer\n\nBULLET::::- Enjoy performance improvements for large files\n\nBULLET::::- Bug fixes\n\nSection::::Reader for iOS.:15.2.\n", "Section::::Security.\n\nA comprehensive list of security bulletins for most Adobe products and related versions is published on their \"Security bulletins and advisories\" page and in other related venues. In particular, the detailed history of security updates for all versions of Adobe Acrobat has been made public. \n", "Adobe Acrobat version history\n\nSee Adobe Acrobat for full details on this product.\n\nSection::::Reader Touch.\n\nSection::::Reader Touch.:1.0.\n", "BULLET::::- Bug fixes.\n\nSection::::Reader for iOS.:16.11.22.\n\nVersion 16.11.22 was released on November 17, 2016, supporting iOS 9.0 and above. The new features include:\n\nBULLET::::- Scan anything with your device camera:\n\nBULLET::::- Snap a photo of a document, whiteboard, form, picture, receipt, or note and save it as a PDF.\n\nBULLET::::- Scan multiple document pages into a single PDF and reorder as desired.\n\nBULLET::::- Save and share scanned PDFs.\n\nBULLET::::- Enhance your camera images with improved boundary detection, perspective correction, and text sharpness.\n\nBULLET::::- Requires iPhone 5s+, iPad 3+, iPad Mini 2+, and iOS 9+.\n\nSection::::Reader for iOS.:16.12.13.\n", "Originally called Adobe Reader For Windows Tablets (Version 1.0) was released on the Microsoft Windows Store on the second week of December 2012, based on the Adobe Reader Mobile engine found in the iOS, Android, Blackberry and Windows phone versions, is the first application written by Adobe Systems for the Windows 8/RT Metro Style interface. The current versions offers only basic PDF reading features, subsequent patches will bring more complex features to catch up with the more feature complete iOS and Android versions. Adobe Reader for Windows Tablets supports both ARM and Intel x86/x86_64 architectures and can be used both via touch and the more classic keyboard+mouse combination.\n", "BULLET::::- Smoother Pinch-Zoom experience\n\nBULLET::::- Visibly less \"white\" as you navigate the document\n\nBULLET::::- Intermediate rendering feedback for complex documents\n\nBULLET::::- Support for viewing PDFs protected with Adobe LiveCycle Rights Management\n\nBULLET::::- Higher Quality image rendering\n\nSection::::Reader for Android.:10.5.\n\nVersion 10.5 was released on the Google Play Store the 6 March 2013, this major update brings many new features and improvements to Reader For Android:\n\nBULLET::::- Go to Page\n\nBULLET::::- Night Mode\n\nBULLET::::- Smart Zoom\n\nBULLET::::- Screen Brightness Lock\n\nBULLET::::- Undo In Freehand Annotation\n\nBULLET::::- Sync last position on Acrobat.com\n\nBULLET::::- Forms Central PDF Validation\n\nBULLET::::- Google Cloud Print\n", "Section::::Reader for iOS.:16.03.15.\n\nVersion 16.03.15 was released on March 10, 2016, supporting iOS 8.0 and above. Features include:\n\nBULLET::::- Expanded support for Dropbox: Use Create PDF and Export PDF on files stored in Dropbox. (Subscription required.)\n\nBULLET::::- Improved performance when tapping on form fields and comments in certain PDFs.\n\nSection::::Reader for iOS.:16.04.05.\n\nVersion 16.04.05 was released on March 30, 2016, supporting iOS 8.0 and above. Features include:\n\nBULLET::::- Ability to remove individual items from Recent files list.\n\nBULLET::::- Improved palm rejection to remove marks from resting your palm on the screen when using Apple Pencil with iPad Pro.\n\nBULLET::::- Fixed:\n", "BULLET::::- View Comments\n\nBULLET::::- Faster document open time and flips\n\nBULLET::::- Smoother Pinch-Zoom experience\n\nBULLET::::- Visibly less \"white\" as you navigate the document\n\nBULLET::::- Intermediate rendering feedback for complex documents\n\nBULLET::::- Support for viewing PDFs protected with Adobe LiveCycle Rights Management\n\nBULLET::::- Higher Quality image rendering\n\nBULLET::::- Security and stability Improvements\n\nSection::::Reader for iOS.:10.5.\n\nVersion 10.5 was released on the Apple Store the 9 March 2013, this major update brings many new features and improvements to Reader For iOS:\n\nBULLET::::- Go to Page\n\nBULLET::::- Night Mode\n\nBULLET::::- Smart Zoom\n\nBULLET::::- Screen Brightness Lock\n\nBULLET::::- Undo In Freehand Annotation\n", "Adobe has identified critical vulnerabilities in Adobe Reader and Acrobat XI (11.0.01 and earlier) for Windows and Macintosh, 9.5.3 and earlier 9.x versions. These vulnerabilities could cause the application to crash and potentially allow an attacker to take control of the affected system. There have been reports of these vulnerabilities being exploited to trick Windows users into clicking on a malicious PDF file delivered in an email message. Adobe recommended users update their product installations.\n\nSection::::Security.:January 2016 warning.\n", "BULLET::::- Easily accomplish frequent tasks from the new Tools menu\n\nBULLET::::- View recent files across computers and devices with Mobile Link\n\nBULLET::::- Use free Adobe Fill & Sign to fill, sign, and send forms on your iPad\n\nBULLET::::- Edit text on your iPad with font matching, sizing, colors, and more\n\nBULLET::::- Organize pages: reorder, rotate, and delete pages in PDF files\n\nBULLET::::- Undo and redo changes including highlights, comments, and text edits\n\nBULLET::::- Open files stored in your Creative Cloud account\n\nBULLET::::- Sign in with support for Enterprise IDs\n\nSection::::Reader for iOS.:15.0.1.\n", "BULLET::::- Ability to buy Adobe ExportPDF service using in app purchase\n\nBULLET::::- Export PDF files to various formats (Word, excel, etc..) for editing using ExportPDF service\n\nSection::::Reader for iOS.:11.2.\n\nBULLET::::- Updated UI to be iOS7 native\n\nBULLET::::- Updated recent documents UI\n\nBULLET::::- Improved file management\n\nBULLET::::- Integrated help\n\nBULLET::::- Improved accuracy of text selection\n\nBULLET::::- Added monthly option for PDF Pack Subscription\n\nBULLET::::- Upgraded navigation\n\nBULLET::::- Fixed crashes\n\nSection::::Reader for iOS.:15.0.0.\n\nAdobe Reader is now Adobe Acrobat DC. Version 15.0.0 was released on April 7, 2015, supporting iOS 8.0 and above. The new features include:\n", "The last pre-DC version, Acrobat XI, was updated to 11.0.23 version (and this was the final release) on November 14, 2017, support for which ended on October 15, 2017.\n\n, the main members of the Acrobat family include:\n\nBULLET::::- Acrobat Pro DC (for Windows and macOS)\n\nBULLET::::- Acrobat Standard DC (for Windows only)\n\nBULLET::::- Acrobat Reader DC (for Windows, macOS, Android, iOS and Windows Phone)\n\nBULLET::::- Fill & Sign (for Android or iOS)\n\nBULLET::::- Sign (for Android or iOS)\n\nBULLET::::- Scan (for Android or iOS)\n\nBULLET::::- Document Cloud (web service with desktop clients)\n\nSection::::Internationalization and localization.\n\nSection::::Internationalization and localization.:Language availability.\n", "Version 1.1 was released on April 11, 2013. The changes include:\n\nBULLET::::- Printing\n\nBULLET::::- Keyboard shortcuts for Find, Open, Print and Close\n\nSection::::Reader Touch.:1.2.\n\nVersion 1.2 was released on June 27, 2013. This update adds:\n\nBULLET::::- Go To Page for quicker navigation\n\nBULLET::::- Notes to your document\n\nBULLET::::- Highlight, Strikeout and Underline with Selection and Markup Tool to text\n\nBULLET::::- View Notes attached to text markup\n\nBULLET::::- Save and Save As functionality\n\nSection::::Reader Touch.:1.3.\n\nBULLET::::- Fill and Save PDF Forms\n\nBULLET::::- Change Color of Highlight, Underline and Strikeout text markups\n\nSection::::Reader for Android.\n\nSection::::Reader for Android.:10.0.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Back\" after clicking an internal link or bookmark\n\nSection::::Reader for Android.:11.1.\n\nBULLET::::- Ability to Purchase Adobe PDF Pack and Adobe ExportPDF Services directly from Adobe Reader\n\nBULLET::::- Conversion of Documents and Images in PDF with Adobe PDF Pack\n\nBULLET::::- Export PDF File in Word or Excel format with Adobe ExportPDF\n\nBULLET::::- New and improved search experience\n\nBULLET::::- Online Help\n\nBULLET::::- New and improved UI with MultiWindow support\n\nSection::::Reader for Android.:11.2.\n\nBULLET::::- Support for user-added bookmarks\n\nBULLET::::- Read out loud and UI navigation with accessibility mode\n\nBULLET::::- Telephone hyperlinks for automatic dialing from within PDF\n", "The first Android edition of Adobe Reader X was released to the Android Market (now Google Play Store) on November 18, 2010. Main features include:\n\nBULLET::::- Text Search\n\nBULLET::::- Password Protected Documents\n\nBULLET::::- Quick Jump Between Pages In Documents\n\nBULLET::::- Sharing A Document\n\nBULLET::::- Fit-To-Screen Viewing Mode\n\nBULLET::::- PDF Portfolios\n\nBULLET::::- Performance & Security Enhancements\n\nSection::::Reader for Android.:10.1.\n\nVersion 10.1 was released on October 9, 2011 With added support for Android Tablets, The new features include:\n\nBULLET::::- Tablet-friendly UI\n\nBULLET::::- Navigation using Bookmarks\n\nBULLET::::- Text selection copy\n\nBULLET::::- View comments\n\nBULLET::::- Faster document open time and flips\n", "Version 16.06.28 was released on June 16, 2016, supporting iOS 9.0 and above. The new features include:\n\nBULLET::::- Reflow text and images using Reading Mode:\n\nBULLET::::- Display text in an easy-to-read format for smaller devices.\n\nBULLET::::- Pinch or double-tap to change text size.\n\nSection::::Reader for iOS.:16.08.09.\n\nVersion 16.08.09 was released on August 9, 2016, supporting iOS 9.0 and above. The new features include:\n\nBULLET::::- Connect to storage providers with More Locations: Select, open, and save documents stored in iCloud Drive and other document storage providers like Box, Microsoft OneDrive, and Google Drive.\n\nBULLET::::- Bug fixes.\n\nSection::::Reader for iOS.:16.09.20.\n", "In April 2015, Adobe introduced the \"Document Cloud\" branding (alongside its Creative Cloud) to signify its adoption of the cloud storage and the software as a service model. Apps under this branding received a \"DC\" suffix. In addition, \"Reader\" was renamed back to \"Acrobat Reader\". Following the introduction of Document Cloud, Acrobat.com was discontinued as their features were integrated into the desktop and mobile apps.\n", "Version 16.09.20 was released on September 16, 2016, supporting iOS 9.0 and above. The new features include:\n\nBULLET::::- Quickly find PDFs directly from the Home screen using Spotlight Search. Touch your finger to the screen and drag down to get started.\n\nBULLET::::- Compatible with iOS 10.\n\nBULLET::::- Bug fixes.\n\nSection::::Reader for iOS.:16.11.01.\n\nVersion 16.11.01 was released on October 26, 2016, supporting iOS 9.0 and above. The new features include:\n\nBULLET::::- View opened PDF filenames in the top bar.\n\nBULLET::::- Fixed:\n\nBULLET::::- Issue with printing PDFs with form fields and comments.\n\nBULLET::::- Ability to open files from search results.\n", "From Version 3.02 onwards, Acrobat Reader has included support for JavaScript. This functionality allows a PDF document creator to include code which executes when the document is read. Malicious PDF files that attempt to attack security vulnerabilities can be attached to links on web pages or distributed as email attachments. While JavaScript is designed without direct access to the file system to make it \"safe\", vulnerabilities have been reported for abuses such as distributing malicious code by Acrobat programs. Adobe applications had already become the most popular client-software targets for attackers during the last quarter of 2009. McAfee predicted that Adobe software, especially Reader and Flash, would be the primary target for software attacks in the year 2010.\n", "BULLET::::- Version 8.4 (June 2018) New Message Editing Features in The Bat! (including HTML Styling) and Voyager v8.4\n\nBULLET::::- Version 8.5 (June 2018) TLS 1.2 in The Bat! 8.5\n\nBULLET::::- Version 8.6 (August 2018) New Features in Message Editor\n\nBULLET::::- Version 8.7 (December 2018) Major Maintenance Release\n\nBULLET::::- Version 8.8 (February 2019) Major Maintenance Release\n\nBULLET::::- Version 8.8.9 (June 2019) 8.8.9 With Improvements to the MailTicker\n\nSection::::System requirements.\n", "Adobe Acrobat came to being in 1993 and had to compete with other products and proprietary formats that aimed to create digital documents:\n\nBULLET::::- Common Ground from No Hands Software Inc.\n\nBULLET::::- Envoy from WordPerfect Corporation\n\nBULLET::::- Folio Views from NextPage\n\nBULLET::::- Replica from Farallon Computing\n\nBULLET::::- WorldView from Interleaf\n\nBULLET::::- DjVu from AT&T Laboratories\n", "BULLET::::- Acrobat XI Pro (for Windows and macOS)\n\nBULLET::::- Acrobat XI Standard (for Windows only)\n\nBULLET::::- Reader XI (for Windows, macOS, Android and iOS)\n\nBULLET::::- FormsCentral (web service with desktop client)\n\nBULLET::::- EchoSign (web service)\n\nBULLET::::- Acrobat.com (web service)\n\nBULLET::::- PDF Pack (web service)\n\nBULLET::::- Send (web service)\n\nUnlike most other Adobe products, such as members of Adobe Creative Suite family, the Acrobat products do not have icons that display two letters on a colored rectangle.\n\nSection::::History.:Document Cloud.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-10738	Why do the US and UK have the same Father’s Day but different Mother’s Days?	In the UK they dont celebrate "Mothers day" they celebrate "Mothering Sunday" (although it is named interchangeably). It is celebrated on the Sunday closest to March 25th, because it is nine months prior to Christmas, meaning it is approximately the time Jesus would have been conceived (well. Except he probably wasn't born on Christmas, but that's a whole other story). In the US the date for Mothers day is loosely chosen on the founder's mother's day of death. Tldr, religion in the UK (Anglicanism, Catholicism, doesnt matter; they are similar in beliefs and practices) created the different day; fathers day has no such religious connection	[ "Section::::International history and traditions.:Europe.:Lithuania.\n\nIn [[Lithuania]], Father's Day (\"Tėvo diena\") is celebrated on the first Sunday of June and is a public holiday.\n\nSection::::International history and traditions.:Europe.:Malta.\n\nMalta has followed the international trend and celebrates Father’s Day on the third Sunday in June.\n", "Section::::International history and traditions.:North America.\n\nSection::::International history and traditions.:North America.:Canada.\n\nIn Canada, Father's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of June and is not a public holiday. Father's Day typically involves spending time with one's father or the father figures in one's life. Small family gatherings and the giving of gifts may be part of the festivities organized for Father's Day.\n\nSection::::International history and traditions.:North America.:Costa Rica.\n", "Section::::International history and traditions.:Europe.:Hungary.\n\nIn [[Hungary]], Father's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of June and is not a public holiday.\n\nSection::::International history and traditions.:Europe.:Ireland.\n\nIn Ireland, Father's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of June and is not a public holiday.\n\nSection::::International history and traditions.:Europe.:Italy.\n\nIn [[Italy]], according to the Roman Catholic tradition, Father's Day is celebrated on Saint Joseph's Day, commonly called the Feast of Saint Joseph (\"Festa di San Giuseppe\"), March 19. It was a public holiday until 1977.\n\nSection::::International history and traditions.:Europe.:Latvia.\n", "Father's Day is a celebration honoring fathers and celebrating fatherhood, paternal bonds and the influence of fathers in society. In Catholic countries of Europe, it has been celebrated on March 19 (Saint Joseph's Day) since the Middle Ages. This celebration was brought by the Spanish and Portuguese to Latin America, where March 19 is often still used for it, though many countries in Europe and the Americas have adopted the U.S. date, which is the third Sunday of June. It is celebrated on various days in many parts of the world, most commonly in the months of March, April and June according to the home nation's customs. It complements similar celebrations honoring family members, such as Mother's Day, Siblings Day and Grandparents' Day. \n", "In the Coptic Church, the celebration of fatherhood is also observed on St Joseph's Day, but the Copts observe this celebration on July 20. This Coptic celebration may date back to the fifth century.\n\nSection::::History.:In the United States.\n\nSection::::History.:In the United States.:Beginnings.\n\nFather's Day was not celebrated in the US, outside Catholic traditions, until the 20th century. As a civic celebration in the US, it was inaugurated in the early 20th century to complement Mother's Day by celebrating fathers and male parenting.\n", "Section::::International history and traditions.:Oceania.:Australia.\n\nIn Australia, Father's Day is celebrated on the first Sunday of September, which is the first Sunday of spring in Australia, and is not a public holiday. At school, children often handcraft a present for their fathers. Consumer goods companies have all sorts of special offers for fathers: socks, ties, electronics, suits, and men's healthcare products. Most families present fathers with gifts and cards, and share a meal to show appreciation, much like Mother's Day.\n", "In Kenya, Father's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of June and is not a public holiday.\n\nSection::::International history and traditions.:Africa.:Morocco.\n\nIn Morocco, the third Sunday in June is the dedicated day to celebrate the Father's Day.\n\nSection::::International history and traditions.:Africa.:Mozambique.\n\nWhile Mozambique recognizes International Fathers' Day on June 16th in most small towns they consider Father's day to be just about every Friday.\n\nSection::::International history and traditions.:Africa.:Seychelles.\n\nIn Seychelles, Father's Day is celebrated on June 16 and is not a public holiday.\n\nSection::::International history and traditions.:Africa.:South Africa.\n", "The custom was still popular by the start of the 19th century, but with the Industrial Revolution, traditions changed and the Mothering Day customs declined. By 1935, Mothering Sunday was less celebrated in Europe. Constance Penswick-Smith worked unsuccessfully to revive the festival in the 1910s–1920s. However, US World War II soldiers brought the US Mother's Day celebration to the UK, and the holiday was merged with the Mothering Sunday traditions still celebrated in the Church of England. By the 1950s, the celebration became popular again in the whole of the UK, thanks to the efforts of UK merchants, who saw in the festival a great commercial opportunity. People from UK started celebrating Mother's Day on the fourth Sunday of Lent, the same day on which Mothering Sunday had been celebrated for centuries. Some Mothering Sunday traditions were revived, such as the tradition of eating cake on that day, although celebrants now eat simnel cake instead of the cakes that were traditionally prepared at that time. The traditions of the two holidays are now mixed together and celebrated on the same day, although many people are not aware that the festivities have quite separate origins.\n", "As in the case of Mother’s Day, the introduction of Father’s Day celebrations in Malta was encouraged by [[Frans Said\|Frans H Said]] (Uncle Frans of the children’s radio programmes). The first mention of Father’s Day was in June 1977, and the day is now part of the local events calendar. (The Times of Malta 11 June 2017) ( Il-Mument - Maltese newspaper- 18 June 2017)\n\nSection::::International history and traditions.:Europe.:Netherlands.\n", "In Samoa, Mother's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday in May, and as a recognised national holiday on the Monday following.\n\nSection::::International history and tradition.:By country (N–S).:Singapore.\n\nIn Singapore, Mother's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of May. It is not recognized as a holiday by the government.\n\nSection::::International history and tradition.:By country (N–S).:Slovakia.\n", "Section::::International history and traditions.:Roman Catholic tradition.\n\nIn the Roman Catholic tradition, Fathers are celebrated on Saint Joseph's Day, commonly called the Feast of Saint Joseph, March 19, though in certain countries Father's Day has become a secular celebration. It is also common for Catholics to honor their \"spiritual father,\" their parish priest, on Father's Day.\n\nSection::::International history and traditions.:Africa.\n\nSection::::International history and traditions.:Africa.:Algeria.\n\nIn Algeria, the third Sunday in June is the dedicated day to celebrate the Father's Day.\n\nSection::::International history and traditions.:Africa.:Kenya.\n", "Section::::International history and traditions.:Europe.:Norway.\n\nIn [[Norway]], Father's day (\"Farsdag\"), is celebrated on the second Sunday of November. It is not a public holiday.\n\nSection::::International history and traditions.:Europe.:Poland.\n\nIn [[Poland]], Father's Day (in Polish: Dzień Ojca) is celebrated on June 23 and is not a public holiday.\n\nSection::::International history and traditions.:Europe.:Portugal.\n\nFather's Day (\"Dia do Pai\") is celebrated on March 19 (see Roman Catholic tradition below) in Portugal. It is not a bank holiday.\n\nSection::::International history and traditions.:Europe.:Romania.\n", "Section::::International history and traditions.:Europe.:Germany.\n\n[[Image:Hiking tour on father's day.JPG\|thumb\|Hiking tour on father's day with smaller wagons.]]\n", "In Samoa, Father's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday in August, and is a recognised national holiday on the Monday following.\n\nSection::::International history and traditions.:South America.\n\nSection::::International history and traditions.:South America.:Argentina.\n\nFather's Day in [[Argentina]] is celebrated on the third Sunday of June.\n", "In the [[Netherlands]] (including [[Kingdom of the Netherlands#Constituent countries\|its constituent countries]] in the [[Caribbean]]), Father's Day (\"Vaderdag\") is celebrated on the third Sunday of June and is not a public holiday. Traditionally, as on Mother's Day, fathers get breakfast in bed made by their children and families gather together and have dinner, usually at the grandparents' house. In recent years, families also started having dinner out, and as on Mother's Day, it is one of the busiest days for restaurants. At school, children handcraft presents for their fathers. Consumer goods companies have all sorts of special offers for fathers: socks, ties, electronics, suits, and men's healthcare products.\n", "In addition to Father's Day, International Men's Day is celebrated in many countries on November 19 for men and boys who are not fathers.\n", "Father–Daughter Day\n\nFather–Daughter Day (sometimes called National Father–Daughter Day) is a holiday recognized annually on the second Sunday of October in the United States, honoring the relationship between a father and a daughter. Unlike Mother's Day and Father's Day, it is not federally recognized.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nThe U.S. holiday was originally conceived by Smokey Robinson to honor his relationship with his six daughters. In human development the relationship between fathers and sons overshadows the bond with daughters. This holiday promotes the development of young women through their father.\n", "In [[New Zealand]], Fathers' Day is celebrated on the first Sunday of September and it is not a public holiday. Fathers' Day was first observed at [[St Matthew's, Auckland\|St Matthew's Church]], [[Auckland]] on 14 July 1929 and first appeared in commercial advertising the following year. By 1931 other churches had adopted the day and in 1935 much of Australia moved to mark the day at the beginning of September. New Zealand followed this, with a [[Wellington]] advert in 1937 and a [[Christchurch]] Salvation Army service in 1938.\n\nSection::::International history and traditions.:Oceania.:Samoa and American Samoa.\n", "In [[Austria]], Father's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of June and it is not a public holiday.\n\nSection::::International history and traditions.:Europe.:Belgium.\n\nIn [[Belgium]], Father's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of June and it is not a public holiday. Except for Antwerp, where it's celebrated on March 19.\n\nSection::::International history and traditions.:Europe.:Croatia.\n\nIn [[Croatia]], according to the Roman Catholic tradition, fathers are celebrated on [[Saint Joseph's Day]] (\"Dan svetog Josipa\"), March 19. It is not a public holiday.\n\nSection::::International history and traditions.:Europe.:Denmark.\n", "Section::::International history and traditions.:North America.:Trinidad and Tobago.\n\nIn [[Trinidad and Tobago]], Father's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday in June and is not a public holiday.\n\nSection::::International history and traditions.:North America.:United States.\n\nIn the US, Father's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of June. Typically, families gather to celebrate the father figures in their lives.\n\nIn recent years, retailers have adapted to the holiday by promoting [[greeting cards]] and gifts such as electronics and tools. Schools (if in session) and other children's programs commonly have activities to make Father's Day gifts.\n\nSection::::International history and traditions.:Oceania.\n", "Section::::International history and tradition.:By country (N–S).:Switzerland.\n\nIn Switzerland, the \"règle de Pentecôte\" law allows Mother's Day to be celebrated a week late if the holiday falls on the same day as Pentecost. In 2008, merchants declined to move the date.\n\nSection::::International history and tradition.:By country (T–Z).\n\nSection::::International history and tradition.:By country (T–Z).:Taiwan.\n", "In its modern form it was founded by Sonora Smart Dodd.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Early history.\n", "In [[Sweden]], Father's day (\"Fars dag\"), is celebrated on the second Sunday of November, but is not a public holiday.\n\nSection::::International history and traditions.:Europe.:United Kingdom.\n\n[[File:A_Royal_Navy_Officer_Hugs_His_Daughter_After_Returning_from_a_Long_Deployment_on_HMS_Chiddingfold_MOD_45153053.jpg\|alt=\|thumb\|A [[Royal Navy\|Royal Navy Officer]] hugs his daughter after returning from a long deployment on HMS \"Chiddingfold\"\|border]]\n\nIn the [[United Kingdom]], Father's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of June. The day does not have a long tradition; \"The English Year\" (2006) states that it entered British popular culture \"sometime after the Second World War, not without opposition\".\n\nSection::::International history and traditions.:Europe.:Ukraine.\n\nIn [[Ukraine]], Father's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of June.\n", "In [[Haiti]], Father's Day (\"Fête des peres\") is celebrated on the last Sunday of June and is not a public holiday. Fathers are recognized and celebrated on this day with cards, gifts, breakfast, lunch brunch or early Sunday dinner; whether enjoying the day at the beach or mountains, spending family time or doing favourite activities.\n\nChildren exclaim \"\"bonne fête papa\"\", while everyone wishes all fathers \"\"bonne Fête des Pères\"\". (Happy Father's Day)\n\nSection::::International history and traditions.:North America.:Mexico.\n\nIn [[Mexico]], Father's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of June and is not a public holiday.\n", "Section::::International history and tradition.:By country (N–S).:Sri Lanka.\n\nIn Sri Lanka, Mother's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of May.\n\nSection::::International history and tradition.:By country (N–S).:Sweden.\n" ]	[ "Mother's Day is celebrated in the UK." ]	[ "In the UK, the holiday celebrating mothers is called Mothering Sunday." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Mother's Day is celebrated in the UK.", "Mother's Day is celebrated in the UK." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "In the UK, the holiday celebrating mothers is called Mothering Sunday.", "In the UK, the holiday celebrating mothers is called Mothering Sunday." ]
2018-03619	How does our body know when to wake up after getting used to an earlier/later schedule?	A wonderful little hormone called melatonin! Think of it as the gears in your internal clock. Your pineal gland, a little lump on the base of your brain, produces melatonin in the absence of light (aka nighttime). Different species are programmed to respond to melatonin differently. A build up encourages wakefulness in nocturnal species whereas it encourages sleepiness in diurnal species, like us. You can program your own response to melatonin through repetition and practice. That's why you can train yourself to get up at certain hours of the day/night. Additionally, too much screen time into the night can result in a lack of melatonin production, potentially disrupting your internal clock (and your normal sleep cycle). It's a super cool little hormone and commercially available over the counter to aid in sleep regulation.	[ "In most cases, it is not known what causes the abnormality in the biological clocks of DSPD patients. DSPD tends to run in families, and a growing body of evidence suggests that the problem is associated with the hPer3 (human period 3) gene and CRY1 gene. There have been several documented cases of DSPD and non-24-hour sleep–wake disorder developing after traumatic head injury. There have been cases of DSPD developing into non-24-hour sleep–wake disorder, a severe and debilitating disorder in which the individual sleeps later each day.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "Section::::In mammals.:Biological markers and effects.\n\nThe classic phase markers for measuring the timing of a mammal's circadian rhythm are:\n\nBULLET::::- melatonin secretion by the pineal gland,\n\nBULLET::::- core body temperature minimum, and\n\nBULLET::::- plasma level of cortisol.\n", "Humans, like most living organisms, have various biological rhythms. These biological clocks control processes that fluctuate daily (e.g. body temperature, alertness, hormone secretion), generating circadian rhythms. Among these physiological characteristics, our sleep-wake propensity can also be considered one of the daily rhythms regulated by the biological clock system. Our sleeping cycles are tightly regulated by a series of circadian processes working in tandem, which allow us to experience moments of consolidated sleep during the night and a long wakeful moment during the day. Conversely, disruptions to these processes and the communication pathways between them can lead to problems in sleeping patterns, which are collectively referred to as Circadian rhythm sleep disorders.\n", "Melatonin is absent from the system or undetectably low during daytime. Its onset in dim light, \"dim-light melatonin onset\" (DLMO), at roughly 21:00 (9 p.m.) can be measured in the blood or the saliva. Its major metabolite can also be measured in morning urine. Both DLMO and the midpoint (in time) of the presence of the hormone in the blood or saliva have been used as circadian markers. However, newer research indicates that the melatonin \"offset\" may be the more reliable marker. Benloucif et al. found that melatonin phase markers were more stable and more highly correlated with the timing of sleep than the core temperature minimum. They found that both sleep offset and melatonin offset are more strongly correlated with phase markers than the onset of sleep. In addition, the declining phase of the melatonin levels is more reliable and stable than the termination of melatonin synthesis.\n", "Today, many humans wake up with an alarm clock; however, people can also reliably wake themselves up at a specific time with no need for an alarm. Many sleep quite differently on workdays versus days off, a pattern which can lead to chronic circadian desynchronization. Many people regularly look at television and other screens before going to bed, a factor which may exacerbate disruption of the circadian cycle. Scientific studies on sleep have shown that sleep stage at awakening is an important factor in amplifying sleep inertia.\n\nSection::::Timing.\n", "Section::::Research findings and highlights.\n\nBULLET::::- 1987: Demonstrated that sleep timing can be shifted by bright light\n\nBULLET::::- 1988: Identified gender differences in human sleep\n\nBULLET::::- 1994/5: Characterized the circadian process regulating human sleep\n\nBULLET::::- 1999: Discovered how circadian regulation of sleep changes with ageing\n\nBULLET::::- 2004: Discovered melatonin's effects on human sleep timing\n\nBULLET::::- 2007: Demonstrated the effects of changes in a 'clock' gene on human sleep and performance\n\nBULLET::::- 2008: Conducted first large scale field trial to test the effect of blue light in the workplace\n", "Section::::In circadian rhythms.:Melatonin.\n\nThe phase response curve for melatonin is roughly twelve hours out of phase with the phase response curve for light. At spontaneous wake-up time, exogenous (externally administered) melatonin has a slight phase-delaying effect. The amount of phase-delay increases until about eight hours after wake-up time, when the effect swings abruptly from strong phase delay to strong phase advance. The phase-advance effect diminishes as the day goes on until it reaches zero about bedtime. From usual bedtime until wake-up time, exogenous melatonin has no effect on circadian phase.\n", "Some misconceptions regarding circadian rhythms and sleep commonly mislabel irregular sleep as a circadian rhythm sleep disorder. In order to be diagnosed with CRSD, there must be either a misalignment between the timing of the circadian oscillator and the surrounding environment, or failure in the clock entrainment pathway. Among people with typical circadian clock function, there is variation in chronotypes, or preferred wake and sleep times, of individuals. Although chronotype varies from individual to individual, as determined by rhythmic expression of clock genes, people with typical circadian clock function will be able to entrain to environmental cues. For example, if a person wishes to shift the onset of a biological activity, like waking time, light exposure during the late subjective night or early subjective morning can help advance one's circadian cycle earlier in the day, leading to an earlier wake time. \n", "The timing of sleep in humans depends upon a balance between homeostatic sleep propensity, the need for sleep as a function of the amount of time elapsed since the last adequate sleep episode, and circadian rhythms which determine the ideal timing of a correctly structured and restorative sleep episode. The homeostatic pressure to sleep starts growing upon awakening. The circadian signal for wakefulness starts building in the (late) afternoon. As Harvard professor of sleep medicine Charles A. Czeisler notes, \"The circadian system is set up in a beautiful way to override the homeostatic drive for sleep.\"\n", "Circadian clock\n\nA circadian clock, or circadian oscillator, is a biochemical oscillator that cycles with a stable phase and is synchronized with solar time.\n\nSuch a clock's \"in vivo\" period is necessarily almost exactly 24 hours (the earth's current solar day). In most living things, internally synchronized circadian clocks make it possible for the organism to anticipate daily environmental changes corresponding with the day–night cycle and adjust its biology and behavior accordingly.\n", "It is not, however, clear precisely what signal (or signals) enacts principal entrainment to the many biochemical clocks contained in tissues throughout the body. See section \"regulation of circadian oscillators\" below for more details.\n\nSection::::Transcriptional and non-transcriptional control.\n", "Sleep timing is controlled by the circadian clock (Process C), sleep–wake homeostasis (Process S), and to some extent by individual will.\n\nSection::::Timing.:Circadian clock.\n", "BULLET::::- Melatonin, a naturally occurring biological hormone with circadian rhythmicity, has been shown to promote sleep and entrainment to external cues when administered in drug form (0.5-5.0mg). Melatonin administered in the evening causes phase advances in sleep-wake times while maintaining duration and quality of sleep. Similarly, when administered in the early morning, Melatonin can cause phase delays. It has been shown most effective in cases of Shift work sleep disorder and Delayed phase sleep disorder, but has not been proven particularly useful in cases of jet lag.\n", "The International Classification of Sleep Disorders classifies Circadian Rhythm Sleep Disorder as a type of sleep dyssomnia. Although studies suggest that 3% of the adult population suffers from a CRSD, many people are often misdiagnosed with insomnia instead of a CRSD. Of adults diagnosed with sleep disorders, an estimated 10% have a CRSD and of adolescents with sleep disorders, an estimated 16% may have a CRSD. Patients diagnosed with circadian rhythm sleep disorders typically express a pattern of disturbed sleep, whether that be excessive sleep that intrudes on working schedules and daily functions, or insomnia at desired times of sleep. Note that having a preference for extreme early or late wake times are not related to a circadian rhythm sleep disorder diagnosis. There must be distinct impairment of biological rhythms that affects the person's desired work and daily behavior. For a CRSD diagnosis, a sleep specialist gathers the history of a patient's sleep and wake habits, body temperature patterns, and dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO). Gathering this data gives insight into the patient's current schedule as well as the physiological phase markers of the patient's biological clock. \n", "Familial advanced sleep-phase syndrome known to be associated with mutations in the mammalian Per2 gene. People suffering from the disorder have a shorter period and advanced phase where they go to sleep in the early evening (around 7pm) and wake up before sunrise (around 4am). In 2006, a lab in Germany identified particular phosphorylated residues of PER2 that are mutated in people suffering of FASPS. Chronotherapy is sometimes used as a treatment, as an attempt to alter the phase of the individual's clock using cycles of bright light.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Clock gene\n\nBULLET::::- Suprachiasmatic nucleus\n\nBULLET::::- Timeless (gene)\n", "Homeostatic sleep propensity (the need for sleep as a function of the amount of time elapsed since the last adequate sleep episode) must be balanced against the circadian element for satisfactory sleep. Along with corresponding messages from the circadian clock, this tells the body it needs to sleep. A person who regularly awakens at an early hour will generally not be able to sleep much later than his or her normal waking time, even if moderately sleep-deprived. The timing is correct when the following two circadian markers occur after the middle of the sleep episode and before awakening: maximum concentration of the hormone melatonin, and minimum core body temperature.\n", "The hormones cortisol and melatonin are effected by the signals light sends through the body's nervous system. These hormones help regulate blood sugar to give the body the appropriate amount of energy that is required throughout the day. Cortisol is levels are high upon waking and gradual decrease over the course of the day, melatonin levels are high when the body is entering and exiting a sleeping status and are very low over the course of waking hours. The earth's natural light-dark cycle is the basis for the release of these hormones.\n", "Sleep timing depends greatly on hormonal signals from the circadian clock, or Process C, a complex neurochemical system which uses signals from an organism's environment to recreate an internal day–night rhythm. Process C counteracts the homeostatic drive for sleep during the day (in diurnal animals) and augments it at night. The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), a brain area directly above the optic chiasm, is presently considered the most important nexus for this process; however, secondary clock systems have been found throughout the body.\n", "The secretion of many hormones is affected by sleep-wake cycles. For example, melatonin, a hormonal timekeeper, is considered a strongly circadian hormone, whose secretion increases at dim light and peaks during nocturnal sleep, diminishing with bright light to the eyes. In some organisms melatonin secretion depends on sleep, but in humans it is independent of sleep and depends only on light level. Of course, in humans as well as other animals, such a hormone may facilitate coordination of sleep onset. Similarly, cortisol and thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) are strongly circadian and diurnal hormones, mostly independent of sleep. In contrast, other hormones like growth hormone (GH) & prolactin are critically sleep-dependent, and are suppressed in the absence of sleep. GH has maximum increase during SWS while prolactin is secreted early after sleep onset and rises through the night. In some hormones whose secretion is controlled by light level, sleep seems to increase secretion. Almost in all cases, sleep deprivation has detrimental effects. For example, cortisol, which is essential for metabolism (it is so important that animals can die within a week of its deficiency) and affects the ability to withstand noxious stimuli, is increased by waking and during REM sleep. Similarly, TSH increases during nocturnal sleep and decreases with prolonged periods of reduced sleep, but increases during total acute sleep deprivation. \n", "Free-running organisms that normally have one or two consolidated sleep episodes will still have them when in an environment shielded from external cues, but the rhythm is not entrained to the 24-hour light–dark cycle in nature. The sleep–wake rhythm may, in these circumstances, become out of phase with other circadian or ultradian rhythms such as metabolic, hormonal, CNS electrical, or neurotransmitter rhythms.\n\nRecent research has influenced the design of spacecraft environments, as systems that mimic the light–dark cycle have been found to be highly beneficial to astronauts.\n\nSection::::Importance in animals.:Arctic animals.\n", "However, a clear understanding about the impact of sleep-wake disturbances on the subjective experience of a person with AD still lacking. Therefore, further studies exploring this field have been highly recommended, mainly considering the increasing expectancy of life and significance of neurodegenerative diseases in clinical practices.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nPossible treatments for circadian rhythm sleep disorders include:\n\nBULLET::::- Chronotherapy, best shown to effectively treat Delayed sleep phase disorder, acts by systematically delaying an individual's bedtime until their sleep-wake times coincide with the conventional 24-hr day.\n", "Other additional ways to classify the nature of a patient's sleep and biological clock are the Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire and the Munich ChronoType Questionnaire, both of which have fairly strong correlations with accurately reporting phase advanced or delayed sleep. Questionnaires like the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) and the Insomnia Severity Index (ISI) help gauge the severity of sleep disruption. Specifically, these questionnaires can help the professional assess the patient's problems with sleep latency, undesired early-morning wakefulness, and problems with falling or staying asleep.\n\nSection::::Types.\n", "An organism whose circadian clock exhibits a regular rhythm corresponding to outside signals is said to be \"entrained\"; an entrained rhythm persists even if the outside signals suddenly disappear. If an entrained human is isolated in a bunker with constant light or darkness, he or she will continue to experience rhythmic increases and decreases of body temperature and melatonin, on a period which slightly exceeds 24 hours. Scientists refer to such conditions as free-running of the circadian rhythm. Under natural conditions, light signals regularly adjust this period downward, so that it corresponds better with the exact 24 hours of an Earth day.\n", "Both melatonin administration and light therapy work by shifting circadian rhythms according to a phase response curve (PRC), with the melatonin PRC being essentially the inverse of the light PRC. Furthermore, light can suppress melatonin secretion. Both have a duration of approximately 12 hours, in opposite phase: light PRC spikes at the beginning of the day and lowers throughout the day with a depression after 8 hours for the last 4 hours, whereas natural melatonin spikes at the start of the biological night and drops around the time of waking up or light perception. The first 8 hours are called the \"advance zone\" whereas the last few hours the \"delay zone\". The change from advancement to delay zones is progressive, passing through a long area of no effect (a \"dead zone\"), but the change from delay to advancement is abrupt, occurring a few hours before wake-up time or bedtime for light or melatonin respectively. When melatonin supplementation is taken in the melatonin PRC advance zone (i.e., the last few hours before bedtime), it resets the clock earlier; when taken in the melatonin PRC delay zone (i.e., few hours before and after wake-up time), it shifts the clock later. In other words, melatonin has most effect when it is taken at times when natural melatonin is not normally present, thus during the day: when taken in the morning, melatonin causes phase delays (shifts to a later time), and when taken in the afternoon/evening it causes phase advances (shifts to an earlier time). However, for a sleep phase delayed person, the time of biological morning and biological afternoon/evening might differ depending on the circadian clock shift in the affected person. This means that if melatonin is taken during the usual bedtime and wake-up time (i.e., usual nighttime), it may have no effect. Therefore, successful entrainment depends on both the melatonin dosage and the appropriate timing of melatonin administration. The accuracy needed for successfully timing the administration of melatonin might require a period of trial and error, as does the dosage. However, entrainment was also observed when giving a dose of melatonin as low as 0.05 mg and without any timing, by just continuing melatonin administration at the same time everyday until the non-24 sufferer's circadian rhythm shifted enough to coincide with melatonin administration (which took from 1 to 2 months).\n", "Since the SCN is responsible for mediating the production of melatonin by the pineal gland, it creates a feedback loop that regulates the production of melatonin according to the master circadian clock. As was discussed previously, the MT receptor is largely thought of as the major player in sleep-promotion and the MT receptor is most strongly linked to phase shifting activity. Both major subtypes of the melatonin receptor are expressed in relatively large amounts in the SCN which allow it to both regulate sleep-wake cycles and induce phase shifting in response to natural light-dark cycles. This functional diversity of melatonin receptors helps give the SCN the ability to not only keep near 24-hour time and entrain to an exactly 24-hour period, but also regulate, among other factors, wakefulness and activity throughout this cycle.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-11037	Do plants have a predetermined number of leaves?	As someone who's finally managed to keep a chilli plant (3, actually) alive over winter I can tell you that gradually changing leaves is quite normal in perennial plants. This doesn't mean they don't also add more leaves as they grow larger, but as the upper leaves start shading the lower ones (causing the lower ones to not regrow as often) it might seem like they're keeping a constant number.	[ "Specific leaf area can be used to estimate the reproductive strategy of a particular plant based upon light and moisture (humidity) levels, among other factors. Specific leaf area is one of the most widely accepted key leaf characteristics used during the study of leaf traits.\n\nSection::::Changes in response to drought.\n", "Direct methods in evergreen species are necessarily destructive. However, they are widely used in crops and pastures by harvesting the vegetation and measuring leaf area within a certain ground surface area. It is very difficult (and also unethical) to apply such destructive techniques in natural ecosystems, particularly in forests of evergreen tree species. Foresters have developed techniques that determine leaf area in evergreen forests through allometric relationships.\n\nDue to the difficulties and the limitations of the direct methods for estimating LAI, they are mostly used as reference for indirect methods that are easier and faster to apply.\n\nSection::::Determining LAI.:Indirect methods.\n", "The mechanism is so highly specialized that it can distinguish between living prey and non-prey stimuli, such as falling raindrops; two trigger hairs must be touched in succession within 20 seconds of each other or one hair touched twice in rapid succession, whereupon the lobes of the trap will snap shut, typically in about one-tenth of a second.\n\nSection::::Arithmetic by species.:\"Arabidopsis thaliana\".\n\n\"Arabidopsis thaliana\" performs division to control starch use at night.\n", "In the Amazon rainforests of South America, the timing of leaf production and abscission has been linked to rhythms in gross primary production at several sites. Early in their lifespan, leaves reach a peak in their capacity for photosynthesis, and in tropical evergreen forests of some regions of the Amazon basin (particularly regions with long dry seasons), many trees produce more young leaves in the dry season, seasonally increasing the photosynthetic capacity of the forest.\n\nSection::::Airborne sensors.\n", "There have been attempts to give these three different levels of allocation different names (a.o. partitioning, distribution, fractionation), but so far they have been applied inconsistently.br\n\nThe fractions of biomass present in leaves and roots are also relevant variables in Plant growth analysis.\n\nSection::::Calculation and units.\n", "BULLET::::- Rows: The term, \"distichous\", literally means \"two rows\". Leaves in this arrangement may be alternate or opposite in their attachment. The term, \"2-ranked\", is equivalent. The terms, \"tristichous\" and \"tetrastichous\", are sometimes encountered. For example, the \"leaves\" (actually microphylls) of most species of \"Selaginella\" are tetrastichous, but not decussate.\n", "In some other species, such as Poplar trees, specific leaf area will decrease overall, but there will be an increase in specific leaf area until the leaf has reached its final size. After the final size has been reached, the specific leaf area will then begin decreasing.\n", "Section::::Measurement.\n\nThe most common way to measure plant cover in herbal plant communities, is to make a visual assessment of the relative area covered by the different species in a small plot (see quadrat). The visually assessed cover of a plant species is then recorded as a continuous variable between 0 and 1, or divided into interval classes as an ordinal variable. An alternative methodology, called the pin-point method (or point-intercept method), has also been widely employed.\n", "Axillary buds can be used to differentiate if the plant is single-leafed or multi-leafed. Simply count the number of leaves after an axillary bud. If there is only one leaf, then the plant is considered single-leafed, if not it is considered multi-leafed. An example of axillary buds are the eyes of the potato. \n\nSection::::Overview.:Effects of auxin.\n", "Section::::Determination.\n\nThe pattern of leaves on a plant is ultimately controlled by the local depletion of the plant hormone auxin in certain areas of the meristem. Leaves become initiated in localized areas where auxin is absent. When a leaf is initiated and begins development, auxin begins to flow towards it, thus depleting auxin from another area on the meristem where a new leaf is to be initiated. This gives rise to a self-propagating system that is ultimately controlled by the ebb and flow of auxin in different regions of the meristematic topography.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Use of the guide.\n\nTrees can be identified by examination of several characteristics. The typical leaves of a species should be secured from mature trees, not young ones. The leaflets of a compound leaf can be distinguished from simple leaves by the absence of leaf buds from the base of their stems.\n\nTo identify a tree check one of the following characteristics, and if it is present then examine the characteristics at the next level of indentation. For example, if the tree has simple leaves then check whether the leaves alternate along stem or leaves are opposite along stem.\n", "The leaves are often part of the second order from the largest side of leaves and are long and wide. The base of the leaf stalks down. Between the main part of the profile, leaves are usually in two pairs about 10 to 20 inserted part flakes. They are long and wide. Alongside sheets are pronounced at most nodes, long and wide.\n\nSection::::Distribution and Ecology.\n", "The characteristic leaf sizes, shapes and prevalence of features such as drip tips (‘leaf or foliar physiognomy’) differs between tropical rainforests (many species with large leaves with smooth edges and drip tips) and temperate deciduous forests (smaller leaf size classes common, toothed edges common), and is often continuously variable between sites along climatic gradients, such as from hot to cold climates, or high to low precipitation. This variation between sites along environmental gradients reflects adaptive compromises by the species present to balance the need to capture light energy, manage heat gain and loss, while maximising the efficiency of gas exchange, transpiration and photosynthesis. Quantitative analyses of modern vegetation leaf physiognomy and climate responses along environmental gradients have been largely univariate, but multivariate approaches integrate multiple leaf characters and climatic parameters. Temperature has been estimated (to varying degrees of fidelity) using leaf physiognomy for Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic leaf floras, principally using two main approaches:\n", "Drought and water stress have varying effects on specific leaf area. In a variety of species, drought decreases specific leaf area. For example, under drought conditions, leaves were, on average, smaller than leaves on control plants. This is a logical observation, as a relative decrease in surface area would mean that there would be fewer ways for water to be lost. Species with typically low specific leaf area values are geared for the conservation of acquired resources, due to their large dry matter content, high concentrations of cell walls and secondary metabolites, and high leaf and root longevity.\n", "The height of the plant varies greatly, ranging from depending on the growing conditions and the variety. Flowering usually appears when there are about 7 to 8 leaves on the plant or about tall. The bulk of the root system is found within a depth of and is confined to a radius of .\n", "Leaf fascicles are present in all pines, and the number of adult leaves (needles) per fascicle is an important character for identification of pine species and genera. Most species have fascicles of 2 to 5 needles; only occasional species typically have as few as one or as many as six leaves to the fascicle.\n", "where \"P\" designates the maximum primary production and formula_2 designates a crop-specific growth coefficient. This inverse exponential function is called the primary production function.\n\nLAI ranges from 0 (bare ground) to over 10 (dense conifer forests).\n\nSection::::Determining LAI.\n\nLAI can be determined directly by taking a statistically significant sample of foliage from a plant canopy, measuring the leaf area per sample plot and dividing it by the plot land surface area. Indirect methods measure canopy geometry or light extinction and relate it to LAI.\n\nSection::::Determining LAI.:Direct methods.\n", "In modern times, researchers such as Snow and Snow have continued these lines of inquiry. Computer modeling and morphological studies have confirmed and refined Hoffmeister's ideas. Questions remain about the details. Botanists are divided on whether the control of leaf migration depends on chemical gradients among the primordia or purely mechanical forces. Lucas rather than Fibonacci numbers have been observed in a few plants and occasionally the leaf positioning appears to be random.\n\nSection::::Mathematics.\n", "Alternative terminology that has been used are Leaf, Stem and Root Mass Ratios, or shoot:root or root:shoot ratios. The latter two convey less information, as they do not discriminate between leaves and stems.\n\nSection::::Normal ranges.\n", "The phylogenetic tree has the most recent common ancestor at the root, all the current species as the leaves, and intermediate nodes at each point of branching divergence. The branches are divided into segments (between one node and another node, a leaf, or the root). Each segment is assigned an ED score defined as the timespan it covers (in millions of years) divided by the number of species at the end of the subtree it forms. The ED of a species is the sum of the ED of the segments connecting it to the root. Thus, a long branch which produces few species will have a high ED, as the corresponding species are relatively distinctive, with few close relatives. ED metrics are not exact, because of uncertainties in both the ordering of nodes and the length of segments.\n", "There is variation among the parts of a mature plant resulting from the relative position where the organ is produced. For example, along a new branch the leaves may vary in a consistent pattern along the branch. The form of leaves produced near the base of the branch differs from leaves produced at the tip of the plant, and this difference is consistent from branch to branch on a given plant and in a given species.\n", "BULLET::::- Stems and leaves: Leaves usually wavey, dissected, with lateral lobes that are about as long as width of central undivided portion, usually conspicuously covered with fine hairs. The edges are serrated. Leaves alternate one leaf per node along the stem.\n\nBULLET::::- Seeds: The oldest collection of seeds recorded was 16 years; average germination change for these was from 100% to 82.5%, with a mean storage period 13 years.\n", "A common way to characterize the biomass allocation of a vegetative plant is to separate the plant in the organs of interest (e.g. leaves, stems, roots) and determine the biomass of these organs – generally on a dry mass basis - independently. The Leaf Mass Fraction (LMF) is then calculated as leaf dry mass / total plant dry mass, the Stem Mass Fraction (SMF) as stem dry mass / total plant dry mass, and Root Mass Fraction (RMF) as root dry mass / total plant dry mass. Generally, units are g g (g organ / g total plant biomass). \n", "In an opposite pattern, if successive leaf pairs are 90 degrees apart, this habit is called decussate. It is common in members of the family Crassulaceae Decussate phyllotaxis also occurs in the Aizoaceae. In genera of the Aizoaceae, such as Lithops and Conophytum, many species have just two fully developed leaves at a time, the older pair folding back and dying off to make room for the decussately oriented new pair as the plant grows.\n", "Much of the modern understanding of the genus comes from the work of Graham Duncan and colleagues at SANBI, Kirstenbosch. In 2002 Duncan grouped the species of \"Nerine\" by growth cycle, with three distinct patterns. \"Nerine\" species can be either evergreen or deciduous, the deciduous species either growing during the winter or the summer. Zonnefeld and Duncan (2006) examined the total amount of nuclear DNA by flow cytometry in 81 accessions from 23 species. When the species were arranged by DNA content, five groupings (A–E) were apparent, that correlated with growth cycle and leaf width, but only two of the other characteristics (filament appendages and hairy pedicels). Traub's sections were not confirmed, although a slightly better agreement was found with Norris' groups. Leaf width fell into two main groups, narrow (1–4 mm) or broad (6–37 mm). When taken together these characteristics confirm Duncan's original three groups based on growth cycle alone.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-02912	What makes a painting worth so much?	because people agree its worth that much... though they dont really have to back that up with cold hard cash very often. art is about providence and history. it feeds on itself, just need one small thing to get the ball rolling and the hivemind will hype it up until its hype is its own justification.	[ "Three kinds of economic agents determine these values. Specific experts like gallery owners or museum directors use the first, social value. Experts like art historians and art professors use the second, artistic value. Buyers who buy works of art as an investment use the third, the price history and expectations for future price increases.\n\nSection::::Market for artworks.:Art market and investment.\n", "Components of a work of art, like raw stone, tubes of paint or unpainted canvas, in general have a value much lower than the finished products, such as a sculpture or a finished painting. Also, the amount of labour needed to produce an item does not explain the big price differences between works of art. It seems that the value is much more dependent on potential buyers', and experts' perception of it. This perception has three elements: First, social value, which is the social status the buyer has by owning it. The artist thus has an \"artistic capital\". Second, the artistic value, compared to contemporary works, or as importance to later generations. Third, the price history of the item, if a buyer uses this for his expectation of a future price at which he might sell the item again (given the oligopolistic market structure).\n", "Art sometimes has transient fashionability that also can affect its value: what sells well for a time may be supplanted in the market by new styles and ideas in short order. For instance, in the spring of 2008 a collector offered over $80 million for Jeff Koons' stainless-steel \"Rabbit\", and yet a year later, of four works in the fall auctions at Christie's and Sotheby's in New York, only two of his pieces sold well and one failed to sell entirely. In 2011, Christie's sold Koons' \"Balloon Flower\" sculpture for $16.9 million.\n\nSection::::The art market economic model.:Primary and secondary markets.\n", "Two segments of the market in the visual arts can be distinguished: works of art that are familiar and have a history, and contemporary works that are more easily influenced by fashion and new discoveries. Both markets, however, are oligopolistic, i.e., there are limited numbers of sellers and buyers (oligopsony). Two central questions on the working of the markets are: How are prices determined, and what is the return on artworks, compared to the return on financial assets?\n\nSection::::Market for artworks.:Price determination.\n", "One of many factors in the primary market's price of a living artist's work is a dealer's contract with an artist: many dealers, as stakeholders in their artists' success, agree to buy their own stable of artists' work at auction in order to prevent price drops, to maintain price stability, or to increase perceived value, or all three, thus dealers bidding on their own artists at auction have a direct impact on the selling price for those artists' works and as a result, the valuation of those works.\n\nSection::::Valuing art.:Research data.\n", "BULLET::::- Portrait of John Keats sold at Bonhams auction house in October 2005 for £21,600\n\nBULLET::::- A lady painting in her album sold at Bonhams auction house in November 2006 for £7,767\n\nBULLET::::- Ophelia auctioned at Sotheby's auction house in November 2011\n\nBULLET::::- Odalisque sold at Sotheby's auction house in November 2006 for £14,400\n\nBULLET::::- Rime of the Ancient Mariner sold at Sotheby's auction house in October 2006 for £32,400\n\nBULLET::::- Italian peasants on the Campagna sold at Sotheby's auction house in October 2006 for £12,000\n", "Section::::Valuing art.:Valuation trends.\n\nTrends for values from the world's top auction houses are compared for study of market direction and how that direction affects given artists and works. Valuations for art sold at the market's top houses usually carry more weight than valuations from less established houses, as most of the top houses have hundreds of years of experience.\n", "As in the housing market, \"comparables\" are used to determine what level of demand similar items have in a current market. The freshness of the comparables is important because the art market is fluid and stale comparables will yield estimates that may have little relation to a work's current value. Subject matter and the medium of a work also affect market demand, as does rarity.\n\nSection::::Valuing art.:Liquidity.\n", "Long term economic trends can have a great impact on the valuation of certain types of work. In recent decades the values of historic Russian and Chinese art have greatly benefited from increased wealth in those countries creating new and very rich collectors, as the values of Orientalist and Islamic art had earlier been boosted by oil wealth in the Arab world.\n\nSection::::Valuing art.:Participant activity.\n", "BULLET::::- Palma Vecchio, 2 pieces\n\nBULLET::::- Parmigianino, 4 pieces\n\nBULLET::::- Jan Porcellis or Julius Porcellis, 3 pieces\n\nBULLET::::- Raphael: \"Holy Family with Anne\" (this was judged to be the most valuable painting in the 1682 inventory of Duarte's collection), \"Sacrifice of Elijah\" and \"Vision of Ezekiel\"\n\nBULLET::::- Guido Reni, 1 piece\n\nBULLET::::- Jusepe de Ribera, 1 piece\n\nBULLET::::- Hans Rottenhammer, 4 pieces: one in collaboration with Paul Brill, two with Jan Brueghel the Elder\n", "The art market as a whole is affected by its two main parts: the primary art market, where new art comes to the market for the first time, and the secondary market, for existing art that has been sold at least once before. Once a work is sold on the primary market it enters the secondary market, and the prices for which it sold in the primary market have a direct bearing on the work's value in the secondary market. Supply and demand affect the secondary market more than the primary market because works new to the market, mainly contemporary art, have no market history for predictive analysis and thus valuation of such work is more difficult, and more speculative. Gallery, dealer, consultant, and agent promotion as well as collectors acting as alpha consumers (trend-setters) are the forces at work in valuing primary market works.\n", "The source of a work's artistic charisma has long been debated between artists who create and patrons who enable, but the charismatic power of artworks on those who would possess them is historically the initial driver of value. In the 1960s that charismatic power started edging over to accommodate commercialized culture and a new industry of art, when aesthetic value fell from prominence to parity with Pop art and Andy Warhol's idea of business art, a recognition that art has become a business and making money in business is an art. One of many artists to follow Warhol is Jeff Koons, a stockbroker turned artist who also borrowed imagery from popular culture and made millions.\n", "Georgia O'Keeffe holds the record for the highest price paid for a painting by a woman. On 20 November 2014 at Sotheby's, the Crystal Bridges Museum of American Art bought her 1932 painting \"Jimson Weed/White Flower No. 1\" for US$ 44.4 million (equivalent to US$ million in ).\n\nSection::::Most expensive non-Western paintings.\n", "Her 2000 painting \"Meu Limão\" \"sold [in 2012] for $2.1 million dollars at Sotheby's in California, making her the highest-priced living Brazilian artist at auction.\"\n\nSection::::Technique.\n", "Section::::Private sales.\n\nBULLET::::- Jasper Johns' 1958 \"Flag\" painting was sold by Steven A. Cohen to Jean-Christophe Castelli for ca $110 million in 2010 ($ million in dollars).\n\nBULLET::::- Privately, Damien Hirst's \"For the Love of God\" (2007), composed of diamond and platinum, sold to a consortium including the artist in August 2007 for $100 million.($ million in dollars)\n\nBULLET::::- Another Jasper Johns painting, \"False Start\" (1959), was sold by Kenneth C. Griffin to David Geffen on October 12, 2006, for a then record $80 million.($ million in dollars)\n", "Section::::Cultural industries.\n\nSome famous artworks such as the \"Mona Lisa\" painting are not reproducible (at least in the sense of creating another copy that would be seen as equivalent in value), but there are many cultural goods whose value does not depend on a single, individual copy. Books, recordings, movies get some of their value from the existence of many copies of the original. These are the products of major cultural industries, which are the book industry, the music industry and the film industry. These markets are characterized by:\n", "Works of art and culture have a specific quality, which is their uniqueness. While other economic goods, such as crude oil or wheat are generic, interchangeable commodities (given a specific grade of the product), there is only one example of a famous painting such as the Mona Lisa, and only one example of Rodin's well-known sculpture \"The Thinker\". While copies or reproductions can be made of these works of art, and while many inexpensive posters of the Mona Lisa and small factory-made replicas of \"The Thinker\" are sold, neither full-size copies nor inexpensive reproductions are viewed as substitutes for the real artworks, in the way that a consumer views a pound of Grade A sugar from Cuba as a fully equivalent substitute for a pound of Grade A sugar from United States or Dominican Republic. As there is no equivalent item or substitute for these famous works of art, classical economist Adam Smith held it was impossible to value them. Alfred Marshall noted that the demand for a certain kind of cultural good can depend on its consumption: The more you have listened to a particular kind of music, the more you appreciate. In his economic framework, these goods do not have the usual decreasing marginal utility.\n", "\"The New York Times'\" Karen Rosenberg said that \"Seven Days in the Art World\" (2008) \"was reported and written in a heated market, but it is poised to endure as a work of sociology...[Thornton] pushes her well-chosen subjects to explore the questions ‘What is an artist?’ and ‘What makes a work of art great?’\"\n", "Section::::Van Gogh, Picasso, and Warhol.\n\nVincent van Gogh, Pablo Picasso, and Andy Warhol are by far the best-represented artists in the list. Whereas Picasso and Warhol became wealthy men, Van Gogh is known to have sold only one painting in his lifetime, \"The Red Vineyard\", for 400 francs (approximately $2,000 in 2018 dollars) to the impressionist painter and heiress Anna Boch. Prices realised for just his nine paintings listed below, when adjusted for inflation to 2017, add up to over US$ 900 million.\n\nSection::::Most expensive painting by a female artist.\n", "For collectors, the emotional connection felt toward a work or collection creates subjective personal value. The weight assigned by such a collector to that subjective measure as a portion of a work's overall financial value may be greater than that by an art speculator not sharing the collector's emotional investment, however, non-economic value measures such as \"Do I like it?\" or \"Does it speak to me?\" still have economic effect because such measures can be deciding factors in a purchase.\n", "BULLET::::- Tyeb Mehta lived from 25 July 1925 to 2 July 2009. In 2002, one of his paintings sold at a Christie's auction for Rs 8 crore, which was not only the highest sum for an Indian painting at an international auction at that time, but also triggered the subsequent great Indian art boom.\n", "Section::::The value of art.\n", "The most famous paintings, especially old master works done before 1803, are generally owned or held at museums, for viewing by patrons. Since the museums rarely sell them they are considered priceless. \"Guinness World Records\" lists da Vinci's \"Mona Lisa\" as having the highest ever insurance value for a painting. On permanent display at the Louvre in Paris, the \"Mona Lisa\" was assessed at US$100 million on December 14, 1962. Taking inflation into account, the 1962 value would be around US$ million in .\n", "List of most expensive artworks by living artists\n\nThis is a progressive list of record auction prices for artworks by living artists. The current record price is $91.1 million for Jeff Koons's 1986 sculpture, \"Rabbit\", in May 2019. The most expensive painting by a living artist sold at auction is David Hockney's 1972 \"Portrait of an Artist (Pool with Two Figures)\" at $90.3 million in 2018.\n\nOverall, the highest known price paid for an artwork by a living artist was for Jasper Johns' 1958 painting \"Flag\". The 2010 sale price was estimated to be about $110 million ($ million in dollars).\n", "Some major financial institutions, banks and insurance companies, have had considerable return rates on investments in art works in the 1990s. These rates have not slowed down at the same time as the rates on stock exchanges, in the early 90's. This may indicate a diversification opportunity. Apart from this evidence of successful investment, the amount of data available has stimulated study of the market. Many works are sold on auctions. These transactions are thus very transparent. This has made it possible to establish price databases, with prices of some items going back to 1652. Empirical studies have shown that, on average, the return on works of art has been lower than that on equity, with a volatility that is at least as high. An intangible gain in terms of pleasure of having a work of art could explain this partly. However, before interpreting the figures, it should be borne in mind that art is often exempt of many kinds of taxes. In 1986, Baumol made an estimate of an average yearly rate of return of 0.55 percent for works of art, against a rate of return of 2.5 percent for financial assets, over a 20-year period.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-08786	How does an overdose kill you?	Overdosing just means you took way too much and have dangerous symptoms, so it’s not like it’s the same mechanism for each case. Overdosing doesn’t even always mean dying. A common one is like when the drug sedates you so much that it compromises a vital body function, like your breathing, so you basically suffocate. Or if it’s stimulants you can have a heart attack, maybe seizures, etc. With hallucinogens you can have psychotic episodes or permanent psych problems. All of these could be considered “overdosing”.	[ "BULLET::::- In Andrew Holleran's novel \"Dancer from the Dance\" (1978), a case of overdose in a discotheque is mentioned: \"The boy passed out on the sofa from an overdose of Tuinols [sic] was a Puerto Rican who washed dishes in the employees' cafeteria at CBS, but the doctor bending over him had treated presidents.\"\n", "The most common effects of overdose are drowsiness and tachycardia. Rare but potentially critical complications are cardiac arrest, abnormal heart rhythms, severe low blood pressure, seizures, and neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Life-threatening overdose is rare, however, as the median lethal dose is about 338 milligrams/kilogram in mice and 425 mg/kg in rats. The potential harm is increased when central nervous system depressants and antidepressants are also used; deliberate overdose often includes alcohol among other drugs.\n\nSection::::Interactions.\n", "According to the manufacturer, overdose is possible due to accumulation of the ingredients when Corvalol is used frequently and in large doses. Symptoms of overdose include central nervous system depression, confusion, dizziness, ataxia, and somnolence. In serious cases overdose may result in breathing depression, tachycardia, arrhythmia, hypotension (low blood pressure), cardiovascular collapse, and coma.\n\nSection::::Drug interactions.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nSigns and symptoms of an overdose vary depending on the drug or exposure to toxins. The symptoms can often be divided into differing toxidromes. This can help one determine what class of drug or toxin is causing the difficulties.\n", "Symptoms of opioid overdoses include slow breathing, heart rate and pulse. Opioid overdoses can also cause pinpoint pupils, and blue lips and nails due to low levels of oxygen in the blood. A person experiencing an opioid overdose might also have muscle spasms, seizures and decreased consciousness. A person experiencing an opiate overdose usually will not wake up even if their name is called or if they are shaken vigorously.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nThe drugs or toxins that are most frequently involved in overdose and death (grouped by ICD-10):\n\nBULLET::::- Acute alcohol intoxication (F10)\n\nBULLET::::- Ethyl alcohol\n\nBULLET::::- Methanol poisoning\n", "Drug overdose\n\nA drug overdose (or simply overdose or OD) is the ingestion or application of a drug or other substance in quantities greater than are recommended. Typically it is used for cases when a risk to health will potentially result. An overdose may result in a toxic state or death.\n\nSection::::Classification.\n", "Usage of illicit drugs of unexpected purity, in large quantities, or after a period of drug abstinence can also induce overdose. Cocaine users who inject intravenously can easily overdose accidentally, as the margin between a pleasurable drug sensation and an overdose is small. Unintentional misuse can include errors in dosage caused by failure to read or understand product labels. Accidental overdoses may also be the result of over-prescription, failure to recognize a drug's active ingredient, or unwitting ingestion by children. A common unintentional overdose in young children involves multi-vitamins containing iron. Iron is a component of the hemoglobin molecule in blood, used to transport oxygen to living cells. When taken in small amounts, iron allows the body to replenish hemoglobin, but in large amounts it causes severe pH imbalances in the body. If this overdose is not treated with chelation therapy, it can lead to death or a permanent coma. The term 'overdose' is often misused as a descriptor for adverse drug reactions or negative drug interactions due to mixing multiple drugs simultaneously.\n", "Overdose (disambiguation)\n\nDrug overdose is the ingestion or application of a medication or other substance in a quantity greater than that recommended.\n\nOverdose may also refer to:\n\nBULLET::::- Overdose (horse), a Hungarian racehorse\n\nBULLET::::- \"Overdose\" (album), by Pizzicato Five\n\nBULLET::::- \"Overdose\" (EP), by South Korean-Chinese boy bands EXO-K and EXO-M, and its title track\n\nBULLET::::- \"Overdose\" (Ciara song)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Overdose\" (Exo song)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Overdose\", a song by Alessia Cara\n\nBULLET::::- \"Overdose,\" a song by Little Daylight (band)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Overdose\", by Tomcraft\n\nBULLET::::- \"Overdose\", a 1995 animated cartoon produced by the National Film Board of Canada\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Dose (disambiguation)\n", "Section::::Gameplay.\n", "Section::::Mechanism.\n", "Because of their effect on the part of the brain that regulates breathing, Opioids can lead to the person not breathing (respiratory depression) during overdoses and therefore result in death. Opiate overdose symptoms and signs can be referred to as the \"opioid overdose triad\": decreased level of consciousness, pinpoint pupils and respiratory depression. Other symptoms include seizures and muscle spasms. Sometimes a person experiencing an opiate overdose can lead to such a decreased level of consciousness that he or she won't even wake up to their name being called or being shaken by another person.\n", "Reports of overdose in medical literature are generally from abuse, and often involve other drugs as well. Symptoms include vomiting, excessive sweating, coma, periods of stopped breathing, seizures, agitation, loss of psychomotor skills, and coma. Overdose can lead to death due to respiratory depression. People who overdose may die from asphyxiation from their own vomit. People that have overdosed or suspected of overdosing may need to be made to vomit, be intubated, or/and put on a respirator.\n\nSection::::Interactions.\n", "Cases of severe overdose have been reported and symptoms displayed might include prolonged deep coma or deep cyclic coma, apnea, respiratory depression, hypoxemia, hypothermia, hypotension, bradycardia, cardiac arrest, and pulmonary aspiration, with the possibility of death. Severe consequences are rare following overdose of benzodiazepines alone but the severity of overdose is increased significantly if benzodiazepines are taken in overdose in combination with other medications. Significant toxicity may result following recreation drug misuse in conjunction with other CNS depressants such as opioids or ethanol. The duration of symptoms following overdose is usually between 12 and 36 hours in the majority of cases. The majority of drug-related deaths involve misuse of heroin or other opioids in combination with benzodiazepines or other CNS depressant drugs. In most cases of fatal overdose it is likely that lack of opioid tolerance combined with the depressant effects of benzodiazepines is the cause of death.\n", "Overdosage symptoms are paradoxical, ranging from CNS depression to stimulation. Stimulation is most common in children, and is usually followed by excitement, hallucinations, ataxia, loss of coordination, muscle twitching, athetosis, hyperthermia, cyanosis, convulsions, tremors, and hyperreflexia. This may be followed by postictal depression and cardiovascular/respiratory arrest. Other common overdose symptoms include dry mouth, fixed dilated pupils, flushing of the face, and pyrexia. In adults, overdose usually leads to CNS depression, ranging from drowsiness to coma.\n\nSection::::Pharmacology.\n", "Section::::Overdose.\n\nA large overdose can cause asphyxia and death by respiratory depression if the person does not receive medical attention immediately. Overdose treatment includes the administration of naloxone. The latter completely reverses morphine's effects, but may result in immediate onset of withdrawal in opiate-addicted subjects. Multiple doses may be needed.\n\nThe minimum lethal dose of morphine sulfate is 120 mg, but in case of hypersensitivity, 60 mg can bring sudden death. In serious drug dependency (high tolerance), 2000–3000 mg per day can be tolerated.\n\nSection::::Pharmacology.\n\nSection::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacodynamics.\n", "Symptoms of midazolam overdose can include:\n\nBULLET::::- Ataxia\n\nBULLET::::- Dysarthria\n\nBULLET::::- Nystagmus\n\nBULLET::::- Slurred speech\n\nBULLET::::- Somnolence (difficulty staying awake)\n\nBULLET::::- Mental confusion\n\nBULLET::::- Hypotension\n\nBULLET::::- Respiratory arrest\n\nBULLET::::- Vasomotor collapse\n\nBULLET::::- Impaired motor functions\n\nBULLET::::- Impaired reflexes\n\nBULLET::::- Impaired coordination\n\nBULLET::::- Impaired balance\n\nBULLET::::- Dizziness\n\nBULLET::::- Coma\n\nBULLET::::- Death\n\nSection::::Side effects.:Detection in body fluids.\n", "Section::::Management.\n\nStabilization of the victim's airway, breathing, and circulation (ABCs) is the initial treatment of an overdose. Ventilation is considered when there is a low respiratory rate or when blood gases show the person to be hypoxic. Monitoring of the patient should continue before and throughout the treatment process, with particular attention to temperature, pulse, respiratory rate, blood pressure, urine output, electrocardiography (ECG) and O saturation. Poison control centers and medical toxicologists are available in many areas to provide guidance in overdoses to both physicians and the general public.\n\nSection::::Management.:Antidotes.\n", "The word \"overdose\" implies that there is a common safe dosage and usage for the drug; therefore, the term is commonly only applied to drugs, not poisons, even though some poisons are harmless at a low enough dosage. Drug overdose is caused to commit suicide, the result of intentional or unintentional misuse of medication. Intentional misuse leading to overdose can include using prescribed or unprescribed drugs in excessive quantities in an attempt to produce euphoria.\n", "Section::::Characters.:Spike Hubie.\n", "Section::::Overdose.\n\nSymptoms of an overdose include:\n\nBULLET::::- Coma\n\nBULLET::::- Hypoventilation (respiratory depression)\n\nBULLET::::- Somnolence (drowsiness)\n\nBULLET::::- Slurred speech\n\nBULLET::::- Seizures\n\nDeath can occur from triazolam overdose, but is more likely to occur in combination with other depressant drugs such as opioids, alcohol, or tricyclic antidepressants.\n\nSection::::Pharmacology.\n", "Deaths that have occurred from diflunisal usually involved mixed drugs and or extremely high dosage. The oral is 500 mg/kg. Symptoms of overdose include coma, tachycardia, stupor, and vomiting. The lowest dose without the presence of other medicines which caused death was 15 grams. Mixed with other medicines, a death at 7.5 grams has also occurred. Diflunisal usually comes in 250 or 500 mg, making it relatively hard to overdose by accident.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Diflunisal: MedlinePlus Drug Information\n\nBULLET::::- Dolobid Prescribing Information (manufacturer's website)\n\nBULLET::::- Dolobid Medication Guide (manufacturer's website)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Single dose oral diflunisal for acute postoperative pain in adults\"\n", "Section::::Mechanism of action.:Symptoms.\n\nAn overdose of ouabain can be detected by the presence of the following symptoms: rapid twitching of the neck and chest musculature, respiratory distress, increased and irregular heartbeat, rise in blood pressure, convulsions, wheezing, clicking, and gasping rattling. Death is caused by cardiac arrest.\n\nSection::::Mechanism of action.:Toxicology.\n", "Symptoms of overdose in particular include: collapse into a seizure; chest pain (possible precursor of a heart attack); fast, pounding heartbeat, which may cause raised blood pressure (hypertension); irregular heartbeat (cardiac arrhythmia), which may cause paradoxical lowered blood pressure (hypotension); nervousness and tremor; headache; dizziness and nausea/vomiting; weakness or exhaustion (medical fatigue); dry mouth; and insomnia.\n", "Total Overdose\n\nTotal Overdose: A Gunslinger's Tale in Mexico is an open world third-person shooter video game developed by Deadline Games and published by SCi Games for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 2 and Xbox.\n\nSection::::Synopsis.\n\nSection::::Synopsis.:Plot.\n", "Depending on drug interactions and numerous other factors, death from overdose can take anywhere from several minutes to several hours. Death usually occurs due to lack of oxygen resulting from the lack of breathing caused by the opioid. Heroin overdoses can occur because of an unexpected increase in the dose or purity or because of diminished opioid tolerance. However, many fatalities reported as overdoses are probably caused by interactions with other depressant drugs such as alcohol or benzodiazepines. It should also be noted that since heroin can cause nausea and vomiting, a significant number of deaths attributed to heroin overdose are caused by aspiration of vomit by an unconscious person. Some sources quote the median lethal dose (for an average 75 kg opiate-naive individual) as being between 75 and 600 mg. Illicit heroin is of widely varying and unpredictable purity. This means that the user may prepare what they consider to be a moderate dose while actually taking far more than intended. Also, tolerance typically decreases after a period of abstinence. If this occurs and the user takes a dose comparable to their previous use, the user may experience drug effects that are much greater than expected, potentially resulting in an overdose. It has been speculated that an unknown portion of heroin-related deaths are the result of an overdose or allergic reaction to quinine, which may sometimes be used as a cutting agent.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Overdose always means death." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "There are other factors involved in some overdoses leading to death." ]
2018-14134	Human skin only varies from a light cream to a dark brown. Is there a particular reason that there are no other variations of skin colour? i.e Blue, Red, Green, etc.	Other colors ARE possible, through genetic mutations. Look up the Kentucky Blue People. Basically, remember that for something to change biologically requires 2 things: a mutation, and then for that mutation to be advantageous enough for the individual to propagate themselves. A tribe of people in a jungle environment may, through some odd means, develop a mutation that turns their skin more of a green/olive shade. This helps them naturally blend into their environment, both helping them avoid predators AND stalk prey. BUT, if no mutation triggers this skin tone change, then it does not matter how much of an advantage it would provide - it still will not happen. Now, flip it. A genetic mutation happens now, causing people from the same genetic background to grow gills. (Whatever, going for extreme example). Modern society does not provide the means for such people to gain a significant survival advantage at all. Also, most people would find such a change to be very disturbing, and would actively avoid such individuals. Some extremists might even take violent or political action against them. This isolates the population, and without anyone willing to intermarry with them, eventually they stop breeding and die out. So that oddball mutation never propagates itself.	[ "Human skin shows high skin color variety from the darkest brown to the lightest pinkish-white hues. Human skin shows higher variation in color than any other single mammalian species and is the result of natural selection. Skin pigmentation in humans evolved to primarily regulate the amount of ultraviolet radiation (UVR) penetrating the skin, controlling its biochemical effects.\n", "Skin colour is a polygenic trait, which means that several different genes are involved in determining a specific phenotype. Many genes work together in complex, additive, and non-additive combinations to determine the skin colour of an individual. The skin colour variations are normally distributed from light to dark, as it is usual for polygenic traits.\n", "Human skin color\n\nHuman skin color ranges in variety from the darkest brown to the lightest hues. An individual's skin pigmentation is the result of genetics, being the product of both of the individual's biological parents' genetic makeup, and exposure to sun. In evolution, skin pigmentation in human beings evolved by a process of natural selection primarily to regulate the amount of ultraviolet radiation penetrating the skin, controlling its biochemical effects.\n", "For the same body region, individuals, independently of skin colour, have the same amount of melanocytes (however variation between different body parts is substantial), but organelles which contain pigments, called melanosomes, are smaller and less numerous in light-skinned humans.\n", "Nevertheless, some social groups favor specific skin coloring. The preferred skin tone varies by culture and has varied over time. A number of indigenous African groups, such as the Maasai, associated pale skin with being cursed or caused by evil spirits associated with witchcraft. They would abandon their children born with conditions such as albinism and showed a sexual preference for darker skin.\n", "Early humans evolved to have dark skin color around 1.2 million years ago, as an adaptation to a loss of body hair that increased the effects of UV radiation. Before the development of hairlessness, early humans had reasonably light skin underneath their fur, similar to that found in other primates. The most recent scientific evidence indicates that anatomically modern humans evolved in Africa between 200,000 and 100,000 years, and then populated the rest of the world through one migration between 80,000 and 50,000 years ago, in some areas interbreeding with certain archaic human species (Neanderthals, Denisovans, and possibly others). It seems likely that the first modern humans had relatively large numbers of eumelanin-producing melanocytes, producing darker skin similar to the indigenous people of Africa today. As some of these original people migrated and settled in areas of Asia and Europe, the selective pressure for eumelanin production decreased in climates where radiation from the sun was less intense. This eventually produced the current range of human skin color. Of the two common gene variants known to be associated with pale human skin, \"Mc1r\" does not appear to have undergone positive selection, while \"SLC24A5\" has undergone positive selection.\n", "Section::::In humans.\n", "Melanism, meaning a mutation that results in completely dark skin, does not exist in humans. Melanin is the primary determinant of the degree of skin pigmentation and protects the body from harmful ultraviolet radiation. The same ultraviolet radiation is essential for the synthesis of vitamin D in skin, so lighter colored skin - less melanin - is an adaptation related to the prehistoric movement of humans away from equatorial regions, as there is less exposure to sunlight at higher latitudes. People from parts of Africa, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and Australia have very dark skin, but this is not melanism.\n", "Data collected from studies on \"MC1R\" gene has shown that there is a lack of diversity in dark-skinned African samples in the allele of the gene compared to non-African populations. This is remarkable given that the number of polymorphisms for almost all genes in the human gene pool is greater in African samples than in any other geographic region. So, while the \"MC1R\"f gene does not significantly contribute to variation in skin colour around the world, the allele found in high levels in African populations probably protects against UV radiation and was probably important in the evolution of dark skin.\n", "International Color Consortium\n\nThe International Color Consortium (ICC) was formed in 1993 by eight vendors in order to create an open, vendor-neutral color management system which would function transparently across all operating systems and software packages.\n\nThe ICC specification, currently on version 4.3, allows for matching of color when moved between applications and operating systems, from the point of creation to the final output, whether display or print. This specification is technically identical to ISO 15076-1:2010, available from ISO.\n", "Both the amount and type of melanin produced is controlled by a number of genes that operate under incomplete dominance. One copy of each of the various genes is inherited from each parent. Each gene can come in several alleles, resulting in the great variety of human skin tones. Melanin controls the amount of ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun that penetrates the skin by absorption. While UV radiation can assist in the production of vitamin D, excessive exposure to UV can damage health.\n\nSection::::Evolution of skin color.\n", "A majority of people in the world have skin that is a shade of brown, from a very light honey brown or a golden brown, to a copper or bronze color, to a coffee color or a dark chocolate brown. Skin color and race are not the same; many people classified as \"white\" or \"black\" actually have skin that is a shade of brown. Brown skin is caused by melanin, a natural pigment which is produced within the skin in cells called melanocytes. Skin pigmentation in humans evolved to primarily regulate the amount of ultraviolet radiation penetrating the skin, controlling its biochemical effects.\n", "Section::::Geographic variation.\n", "Melanism\n\nThe term melanism refers to black pigment and is derived from the . Melanism is a development of the dark-colored pigment melanin in the skin or its appendages.\n\nPseudo-melanism, also called abundism, is another variant of pigmentation, characterized by dark spots or enlarged stripes, which cover a large part of the body of the animal, making it appear melanistic.\n\nA deficiency in or total absence of melanin pigments is called amelanism.\n\nThe morbid deposition of black matter, often of a malignant character causing pigmented tumors, is called melanosis. For a description of melanin-related disorders, see melanin and ocular melanosis.\n", "The most severe type of albinism is OCA1A, which is characterized by complete, lifelong loss of melanin production, other forms of OCA1B, OCA2, OCA3, OCA4, show some form of melanin accumulation and are less severe. The four known types of \"OCA\" are caused by mutations in the \"TYR\", \"OCA2\", \"TYRP1\", and \"SLC45A2\" genes.\n", "A person's natural skin color affects their reaction to exposure to the sun. Generally, those who start out with darker skin color and more melanin have better abilities to tan. Individuals with very light skin and albinos have no ability to tan. The biggest differences resulting from sun exposure are visible in individuals who start out with moderately pigmented brown skin: the change is dramatically visible as tan lines, where parts of the skin which tanned are delineated from unexposed skin.\n", "With the evolution of hairless skin, abundant sweat glands, and skin rich in melanin, early humans could walk, run, and forage for food for long periods of time under the hot sun without brain damage due to overheating, giving them an evolutionary advantage over other species. By 1.2 million years ago, around the time of \"Homo ergaster\", archaic humans (including the ancestors of \"Homo sapiens\") had exactly the same receptor protein as modern sub-Saharan Africans.\n", "Population and admixture studies suggest a three-way model for the evolution of human skin color, with dark skin evolving in early hominids in Africa and light skin evolving partly separately at least two times after modern humans had expanded out of Africa.\n\nFor the most part, the evolution of light skin has followed different genetic paths in Western and Eastern Eurasian populations. Two genes however, KITLG and ASIP, have mutations associated with lighter skin that have high frequencies in Eurasian populations and have estimated origin dates after humans spread out of Africa but before the divergence of the two lineages.\n", "BULLET::::- KITLG\n\nBULLET::::- ASIP\n\nSection::::Genetics.:Light skin.:Europe.\n\nA number of genes have been positively associated with the skin pigmentation difference between European and non-European populations. Mutations in SLC24A5 and SLC45A2 are believed to account for the bulk of this variation and show very strong signs of selection. A variation in TYR has also been identified as a contributor.\n", "Sub-Saharan Africa is the region in Africa situated south of the Sahara where a large number of dark-skinned populations live. Dark-skinned groups on the continent have the same receptor protein as \"Homo ergaster\" and \"Homo erectus\" had. According to scientific studies, populations in Africa also have the highest skin colour diversity. High levels of skin colour variation exists between different populations in Sub-Saharan Africa. These differences depend in part on general distance from the equator, illustrating the complex interactions of evolutionary forces which have contributed to the geographic distribution of skin color at any point of time.\n", "Light skin\n\nLight skin is a human skin color, which has little eumelanin pigmentation and which has been adapted to environments of low UV radiation. Light skin is most commonly found amongst the native populations of Europe and Northeast Asia as measured through skin reflectance. People with light skin pigmentation are often referred to as \"white\" or \"fair\", although these usages can be ambiguous in some countries where they are used to refer specifically to certain ethnic groups or populations.\n", "Skin colour seems to vary mostly due to variations in a number of genes of large effect as well as several other genes of small effect (\"TYR\", \"TYRP1\", \"OCA2\", \"SLC45A2\", \"SLC24A5\", \"MC1R\", \"KITLG\" and \"SLC24A4\"). This does not take into account the effects of epistasis, which would probably increase the number of related genes. Variations in the \"SLC24A5\" gene account for 20–25% of the variation between dark and light skinned populations of Africa, and appear to have arisen as recently as within the last 10,000 years. The Ala111Thr or rs1426654 polymorphism in the coding region of the SLC24A5 gene reaches fixation in Europe, and is also common among populations in North Africa, the Horn of Africa, West Asia, Central Asia and South Asia.\n", "Section::::Web-safe colors.:Safest web colors.\n\nDesigners were encouraged to stick to these 216 \"web-safe\" colors in their websites because there were a lot of 8-bit color displays when the 216-color palette was developed. David Lehn and Hadley Stern discovered that only 22 of the 216 colors in the web-safe palette are reliably displayed without inconsistent remapping on 16-bit computer displays. They called these 22 colors \"the reallysafe palette\"; it consists largely of shades of green, yellow, and blue, as can be seen in the table below.\n\nSection::::CSS colors.\n", "The understanding of the genetic mechanisms underlying human skin color variation is still incomplete, however genetic studies have discovered a number of genes that affect human skin color in specific populations, and have shown that this happens independently of other physical features such as eye and hair color. Different populations have different allele frequencies of these genes, and it is the combination of these allele variations that bring about the complex, continuous variation in skin coloration we can observe today in modern humans. Population and admixture studies suggest a 3-way model for the evolution of human skin color, with dark skin evolving in early hominids in sub-Saharan Africa and light skin evolving independently in Europe and East Asia after modern humans had expanded out of Africa.\n", "The hue of human skin and hair is determined by the presence of pigments called melanins. Human skin color can range from darkest brown to lightest peach, or even nearly white or colorless in cases of albinism. Human hair ranges in color from white to red to blond to brown to black, which is most frequent. Hair color depends on the amount of melanin (an effective sun blocking pigment) in the skin and hair, with hair melanin concentrations in hair fading with increased age, leading to grey or even white hair. Most researchers believe that skin darkening is an adaptation that evolved as protection against ultraviolet solar radiation, which also helps balancing folate, which is destroyed by ultraviolet radiation. Light skin pigmentation protects against depletion of vitamin D, which requires sunlight to make. Skin pigmentation of contemporary humans is clinally distributed across the planet, and in general correlates with the level of ultraviolet radiation in a particular geographic area. Human skin also has a capacity to darken (tan) in response to exposure to ultraviolet radiation.\n" ]	[ "Human skin color outside the variations of light cream to dark brown is not possible." ]	[ "Other colors of human skin are possible through genetic mutations." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Human skin color outside the variations of light cream to dark brown is not possible.", "The spectrum of human skin color only ranges from light cream to a dark brown." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Other colors of human skin are possible through genetic mutations.", "Genetic mutations can cause rare skin color such as blue or green." ]
2018-18522	Why do grapes make you thirsty?	The grapes that are drying out your mouth might be unripe, or they might be a kind bred for more tannins, like some wine grapes. Tannins are important for some kinds of wine. The tannins chemically stick to proteins in your saliva, turning the proteins into powder instead of staying dissolved in your saliva.	[ "The presence of water is essential for the survival of all plant life. In a grapevine, water acts as a universal solvent for many of the nutrients and minerals needed to carry out important physiological functions, and the vine receives these by absorbing the nutrient-containing water from the soil. In the absence of sufficient water in the soil, the root system of the vine may have difficulties absorbing these nutrients. Within the structure of the plant itself, water acts as a transport within the xylem to bring these nutrients to all ends of the plant. During the process of photosynthesis, water molecules combine with carbon derived from carbon dioxide to form glucose, which is the primary energy source of the vine, as well as oxygen as a by-product.\n", "BULLET::::- Flaccid and wilting tendrils\n\nBULLET::::- (During Flowering) Flower clusters that are dried out\n\nBULLET::::- Wilting of young grape leaves followed by maturer leaves\n\nBULLET::::- Chlorosis signaling that photosynthesis has stopped\n\nBULLET::::- Necrosis of dying leaf tissue which leads to premature leaf fall\n\nBULLET::::- Finally, the grape berries themselves start to shrivel and fall off the vine\n", "In warmer regions, where overripening is a concern, the opposite process of rehydration (dilution with water) and acidification is used. This is used in jurisdictions such as areas of California, where if the must has excess sugar for normal fermentation, water may be added to lower the concentration. In acidification, tartaric acid is added to the must to compensate for the high levels of sugar and low levels of acid naturally found in ripe grapes.\n", "It is not clear that the observed cases of renal failure following ingestion are due to grapes only. Clinical findings suggest raisin and grape ingestion can be fatal, but the mechanism of toxicity is still considered unknown.\n\nSection::::Cause and pathology.\n", "BULLET::::- Staphylus, goatherd of King Oeneus, who discovered wild grapes as he was pasturing the king's goats and saw one of them chewing on the plant. He presented it to Oeneus, who in his turn invented the way of making the grapes into a drink. When Dionysus visited Oeneus, the king served him the new drink. Dionysus suggested that the drink be named \"oinos\" (wine) after Oeneus, and the grapes \"staphyloi\" after the goatherd Staphylus.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Rhoeo\n\nBULLET::::- Staphylococcus\n\nSection::::References.\n", "In Greek mythology, the demigod Dionysus (Bacchus in Roman mythology), son of Zeus, invented the grapevine and the winepress. When his closest satyr friend died trying to bring him a vine Dionysus deemed important, Dionysus forced the vine to bear fruit. His fame spread, and he finally became a god.\n\nSection::::The grape vine.\n", "The term water stress describes the physiological states that grapevines experience when they are deprived of water. When a grapevine goes into water stress one of its first functions is to reduce the growth of new plant shoots which compete with the grape clusters for nutrients and resources. The lack of water also keeps the individual grape berries down to a smaller size which increase its skin to juice ratio. As the skin is filled with color phenols, tannin and aroma compounds, the increase in skin-to-juice ratio is desirable for the potential added complexity the wine may have. While there is disagreement over exactly how much water stress is beneficial in development grapes for quality wine production, most viticulturist agree that some water stress can be beneficial. The grapevines in many Mediterranean climates such as Tuscany in Italy and the Rhone Valley in France experience natural water stress due to the reduced rainfall that occurs during the summer growing season.\n", "FOS is extracted from the blue Agave plant as well as fruits and vegetables such as bananas, onions, chicory root, garlic, asparagus, jícama, and leeks. Some grains and cereals, such as wheat and barley, also contain FOS. The Jerusalem artichoke and its relative yacón together with the Blue Agave plant have been found to have the highest concentrations of FOS of cultured plants.\n\nSection::::Health benefits.\n", "Section::::Use in religion.\n\nChristians have traditionally used wine during worship services as a means of remembering the blood of Jesus Christ which was shed for the remission of sins. Christians who oppose the partaking of alcoholic beverages sometimes use grape juice or water as the \"cup\" or \"wine\" in the Lord's Supper.\n", "BULLET::::- Decreased activity of angiotensin, a systemic hormone causing blood vessel constriction that would elevate blood pressure\n\nBULLET::::- Increased production of the vasodilator hormone, nitric oxide (endothelium-derived relaxing factor)\n", "Because water seeps through the walls of an unglazed \"olla\", these vessels can be used to irrigate plants. The \"olla\" is buried in the ground next to the roots of the plant to be irrigated, with the neck of the \"olla\" extending above the soil. The \"olla\" is filled with water, which gradually seeps into the soil to water the roots of the plant. It is an efficient method, since little water is lost to evaporation or run-off.\n", "Section::::Viticulture.\n", "One irrigation technique known as partial rootzone drying (or PRD) involves \"tricking\" the grapevine into thinking it is undergoing water stress when it is actually receiving sufficient water supply. This is accomplished by alternating drip irrigation to where only one side of the grapevine receives water at a time. The roots on the dry side of the vine produce abscisic acid that triggers some of the vine's physiological responses to water stress - reduced shoot growth, smaller berries size, etc. But because the vine is still receiving water on the other side the stress doesn't become so severe to where vital functions such as photosynthesis is compromised.\n", "Irrigation in viticulture is the process of applying extra water in the cultivation of grapevines. It is considered both controversial and essential to wine production. In the physiology of the grapevine, the amount of available water affects photosynthesis and hence growth, as well as the development of grape berries. While climate and humidity play important roles, a typical grape vine needs 25-35 inches (635-890 millimeters) of water a year, occurring during the spring and summer months of the growing season, to avoid stress. A vine that does not receive the necessary amount of water will have its growth altered in a number of ways; some effects of water stress (particularly, smaller berry size and somewhat higher sugar content) are considered desirable by wine grape growers.\n", "Lactic acid bacteria convert L-malic acid found naturally in wine grapes. Most commercial malic acid additives are a mixture of the enantiomers D+ and L-malic acid.\n\nSection::::Role in winemaking.:Sensory influences.\n", "Section::::Emerald Riesling.\n", "An icon of Red Willow Vineyard is the Monsignor Chapel built by the Sauer family on a hill planted mostly to Syrah in homage to the many chapel vineyards in France—particularly Hermitage in the northern Rhône wine region. As the hill was cleared for cultivation, the stones removed from the hillside were saved to construct the chapel.\n\nSection::::Wineries using Red Willow grapes.\n", "Section::::Components of a grapevine.\n", "The effectiveness of water stress is an area of continuing research in viticulture. Of particular focus is the connection between yield size and the potential benefits of water stress. Since the act of stressing the vine does contribute to reduce photosynthesis-and by extension, reduce ripening since the sugars produced by photosynthesis is needed for grape development-it is possible that a stressed vine with high yields will only produce lots of under ripe grapes. Another interest of study is the potential impact on white grape varieties with enologists and viticulturists such as Cornelius Van Leeuwen and Catherine Peyrot Des Gachons contending that white grape varieties lose some of their aromatic qualities when subjugated to even mild forms of water stress.\n", "In one of the tales collected by Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm, \"Our Lady's Little Glass\", this flower is used by Our Lady to drink wine with when she helps free a wagoner's cart. The story goes on to say that \"the little flower is still always called Our Lady's Little Glass.\"\n\nSection::::Ecological impacts.\n", "The increase of sugars in the grapes comes from the storage of carbohydrates in the roots and trunk of the grapevines as well as through the process of photosynthesis. Sucrose produced by photosynthesis is transferred from the leaves to the berries as it is broken down into glucose and fructose molecules. The rate of this build up will depend on several factors including the climate (such as a string of cloudy weather which prohibits sunlight from reaching the vine) as well as the potential yield size of grape clusters and young vine shoot tips which compete for the resources of the mother grapevine. As the concentration of sugars build up, the concentration of acids decrease due, in part, to simple dilution but also to the consumption of acids in the process of plant respiration. The decrease in free acids, as well as the buildup of potassium, triggers a rise in the pH level of the grape juice.\n", "Because the exact origins of the Muscat family cannot be pinpointed, the theories as to the origins of the name \"Muscat\" are numerous. The most commonly cited belief is the name is derived from the Persian word \"muchk\". Similar etymology follows the Greek \"moskos\", Latin \"muscus\" and French \"musc\". In Italy, the Italian word \"mosca\" for fly could also be one possibility with the sweet aroma and high sugar levels of Muscat grapes being a common attractant for insects such as fruit flies.\n", "Bunches of small and often sour but edible purple grapes hang from the vines in autumn, which can be made into excellent jelly or juice. The grapes provide an important food source for a variety of wild animals, especially birds, and the foliage provides thick cover. The grapes are a common sight along the banks of the Sacramento River.\n\nSection::::Cultivation.\n\nBULLET::::- Viticulture\n\nThe wild grape is strong and robust, and viticulturists worldwide often use it as rootstock for their wine grapes. In some areas where the plant is not native it has the capacity to become a noxious weed.\n\nSection::::Cultivation.:Horticulture.\n", "In 1598, Don Juan de Oñate led Spanish colonists to the upper valleys of the Rio Grande. Franciscan monks followed the colonists to minister Christianity to the Native Americans. This area would later be known as “El Camino Real”. The Franciscan monks who settled there needed to hold daily mass; central to each mass was Holy Communion, a sacrament that includes the consumption of wine, which upon transubstantiation, becomes the blood of Christ shed for the redemptions of sinners. The monks needed a local source for their sacramental wine since the next nearest supply was several months' travel away. In this region of the Upper Río Grande is where grape vines were first introduced to New Mexico.\n", "In oxygen deprived conditions, making respiration a daily challenge, different species may possess specialized structures where lenticels can be found. For example, in a common mangrove species, lenticels appear on pneumatophores (specialized roots), where the parenchyma cells that connect to the aerenchyma structure increase in size and go through cell division. In contrast, lenticels in grapes are located on the pedicels and act as a function of temperature. If they are blocked, hypoxia and successive ethanol accumulation may result and lead to cell death.\n\nSection::::Fruits.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-15757	Why does fat seem to ‘separate’ from the arm as you go older?	As you age, your skin starts to lose collagen. It’s the skin’s ability to bounce back and stay tight.	[ "Older adults have a greater waist-to-hip ratio than young adults which indicates high levels of android fat in older adults. Computed tomography studies show that older adults have a two-fold increase in visceral fat compared to young adults.These changes in android fat distribution in older adults occurs in the absence of any clinical diseases.\n", "Section::::Variations.\n\nMany factors influence the bone, fat, and muscle composition of the upper arm, and their measurements can vary by age, gender, obesity, fitness training status, and race. (This is one reason that anthropometrists have to be careful about what reference data and correction values they employ for individuals.) The World Health Organization uses arm circumference-for-age as an anthropometric indicator for its Child growth standards.\n\nOne cause of age variations is the tendency for body fat to be deposited internally, rather that subcutaneously, as one ages.\n", "BULLET::::- The normal subacromial space in shoulder radiographs is 9–10 mm; this space is significantly greater in men, with a slight reduction with age. In middle age, a subacromial space less than 6 mm is pathological, and may indicate a rupture of the tendon of the supraspinatus muscle.\n\nThe axillary space is an anatomic space between the associated muscles of the shoulder. This space transmits the subscapular artery and axillary nerve.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Capsule.\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.:Differential diagnosis.\n\nDuring aging, a gradual decrease in the ability to maintain skeletal muscle function and mass occurs, called \"sarcopenia\". The exact cause of sarcopenia is unknown, but it may be due to a combination of the gradual failure in the \"satellite cells\", which help to regenerate skeletal muscle fibers, and a decrease in sensitivity to or the availability of critical secreted growth factors necessary to maintain muscle mass and satellite cell survival.\n", "Aging is associated with decreases in muscle mass and strength. These decreases may be partially due to losses of alpha motor neurons. By the age of 70, these losses occur in both proximal and distal muscles. In biceps brachii and brachialis, old adults show decreased strength (by 1/3) correlated with a reduction in the number of motor units (by 1/2). Old adults show evidence that remaining motor units may become larger as motor units innervate collateral muscle fibers.\n", "From the MUAFA is derived the arm fat index (AFI), a percentage of the arm that is fat, using the following formula:\n\nBULLET::::- formula_7\n\nSection::::Theory and practice.\n\nSection::::Theory and practice.:Validity.\n", "X-ray applications on most cases have brought about little outcome in most of the published case reports. As a consequence, a certain number of authors consider acrogeria mainly as a cutaneous affection, but the bone alterations are well described as part of the syndrome.\n\nFor patients who show typical alterations of acrogeria and metageria, in a concomitant way, the single term of \"Acrometageria\" has been proposed, which can refer to the widest spectrum of premature ageing syndromes. \n", "Acrogeria was originally described by Gottron in 1941, when he noticed premature cutaneous aging localized on the hands and feet in two brothers, which were present ever since birth. From that time, various cases have been published, most in the European literature and predominantly affecting women. Most patients were of short stature, in spite of a few being of normal height\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Hutchinson–Gilford syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- List of cutaneous conditions\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Familial acrogeria in a brother and sister\n\nBULLET::::- A case of acrogeria - A rare aging syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Discussion forum to share one's experience with acrogeria\n", "For example, a patient in a wheel chair who is using his arms but due to his paraplegia not his legs will suffer massive muscle and bone loss only in his legs due to the lack of usage of the legs. However the muscles and bones of the arms which are used every day will stay the same or might even be increased depending on the usage.\n", "Factors influencing the bone, fat, and muscle composition of the upper arm include age, sex, nutritional status, fitness training level, and race.\n\nSection::::Measures.\n\nThe anthropometric measures of the upper arm are divided into principal measures, which are measured directly, and derived measures, which are derived from the principal measures using specific formulae and empirically-derived corrections. The derived measures attempt to provide better indicators of body composition and nutritional status than the principal measures, by accounting for the fact that external measurements of the arm necessarily compound measurements of bone, fat, and muscle.\n\nSection::::Measures.:Principal measures.\n", "If the injury occurs at age early enough to affect development (e.g. as a neonate or infant), it often leaves the patient with stunted growth in the affected arm with everything from the shoulder through to the fingertips smaller than the unaffected arm. This also leaves the patient with impaired muscular, nervous and circulatory development. The lack of muscular development leads to the arm being much weaker than the unaffected one, and less articulate, with many patients unable to lift the arm above shoulder height unaided, as well as leaving many with an elbow contracture.\n", "Like all species of sea star, this species can occasionally break off (and later regrow) one of its arms, but has less tendency to discard its limbs than most sea stars in California.\n\nSection::::Behavior.:Eating habits.\n", "With the growth in the elderly population of humans, there has been a rise to myelomalacia. Because the human body begins to deteriorate with age, and because human population is living many years longer, there has been a growth in cases of myelomalacia. As the bones in the body begin to weaken in a process known as osteopenia, the body is more vulnerable to damage. A simple fall may damage the spinal cord and myelomalacia may soon ensue.\n\nSection::::Diagnosing.\n", "Section::::Treatment.:Conservative treatment.\n\nThe chest wall is elastic, gradually stiffening over age. Non-surgical treatments have been developed that aim at gradually alleviating the pectus excavatum condition, making use of the elasticity of the chest wall, including the costal cartilages, in particular in young cases.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Exercise.\n", "Shoulder pain or tenderness and, occasionally, a bump in the middle of the top of the shoulder (over the AC joint) are signs that a separation may have occurred. Sometimes the severity of a separation can be detected by taking X-rays while the patient holds a light weight that pulls on the muscles, making a separation more pronounced.\n\nSection::::Separation.:Treatment.\n", "During aging, there is a gradual decrease in the ability to maintain skeletal muscle function and mass, known as sarcopenia. The exact cause of sarcopenia is unknown, but it may be due to a combination of the gradual failure in the \"satellite cells\" that help to regenerate skeletal muscle fibers, and a decrease in sensitivity to or the availability of critical secreted growth factors that are necessary to maintain muscle mass and satellite cell survival. Sarcopenia is a normal aspect of aging, and is not actually a disease state yet can be linked to many injuries in the elderly population as well as decreasing quality of life.\n", "BULLET::::- An os acromiale forms when any of its four ossification centers fail to fuse. These four ossification centers are called (from tip to base) pre-acromion, meso-acromion, meta-acromion, and basi-acromion. In most cases, the first three fuse at 15–18 years, whereas the base part fuses to the scapular spine at 12 years. Such failure to fuse occurs in between 1% and 15% of cases. It rarely causes pain.\n\nVertebral column:\n", "During aging, there is a gradual decrease in the ability to maintain skeletal muscle function and mass. This condition is called \"sarcopenia\", and may be distinct from atrophy in its pathophysiology. While the exact cause of sarcopenia is unknown, it may be induced by a combination of a gradual failure in the satellite cells which help to regenerate skeletal muscle fibers, and a decrease in sensitivity to or the availability of critical secreted growth factors which are necessary to maintain muscle mass and satellite cell survival.\n\nSection::::Dystrophies, myositis, and motor neuron conditions.\n", "While these changes are occurring, the bones, which at first consist principally of cartilage, are gradually becoming ossified. By the time a normal child begins to walk, the lower limbs are prepared, both by their general direction and by the rigidity of the bones which form them, to support the weight of the body.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Blount's disease.\n", "The most common manifestations of body fat redistribution are accumulations of fat in the central body in the form of a fat pad on the back of the neck and an accumulation of visceral fat in the abdomen or belly. This fat accumulation is accompanied by a loss of subcutaneous fat in the face, arms, legs, and buttocks.\n\nSection::::Adverse effects.\n", "During childhood, the growth plate contains the connecting cartilage enabling the bone to grow; at adulthood (between the ages of 18 to 25 years), the components of the growth plate stop growing altogether and completely ossify into solid bone. In an adult, the metaphysis functions to transfer loads from weight-bearing joint surfaces to the diaphysis.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.\n\nBecause of their rich blood supply and vascular stasis, metaphyses of long bones are prone to hematogenous spread of osteomyelitis in children.\n", "The arm is divided by a fascial layer (known as lateral and medial intermuscular septa) separating the muscles into two \"osteofascial compartments\": the anterior and the posterior compartments of the arm. The fascia merges with the periosteum (outer bone layer) of the humerus. The compartments contain muscles which are innervated by the same nerve and perform the same action.\n\nTwo other muscles are considered to be partially in the arm:\n", "Treatments may include medication, not walking on the affected leg, stretching, and surgery. Most of the time surgery is eventually required and may include core decompression, osteotomy, bone grafts, or joint replacement. About 15,000 cases occur per year in the United States. People 30 to 50 years old are most commonly affected. Males are more commonly affected than females.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "Having excess adipose tissue (fat) is a common condition, especially where food supplies are plentiful and lifestyles are sedentary. As much as 64% of the United States adult population is considered either overweight or obese, and this percentage has increased over the last four decades.\n", "When AVN affects the scaphoid bone, it is known as Preiser disease. Another named form of AVN is Köhler disease, which affects the navicular bone of the foot,/ primarily in children.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nA variety of methods may be used to treat the most common being the total hip replacement (THR). However, THRs have a number of downsides including long recovery times and short life spans (of the hip joints). THRs are an effective means of treatment in the older population; however, in younger people they may wear out before the end of a person's life.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-19706	How does the human body produce electricity?	Each cell pumps sodium ions out and potassium ions in producing a gradient for each ion. This produces a potential across the membrane of the cell. This potential plus the gradient can be used by the cell to transmit electrical signals	[ "Section::::Human-powered equipment.\n\nSome equipment uses human power. It may directly use mechanical power from muscles, or a generator may convert energy generated by the body into electrical power.\n", "§Bioelectrogenesis in microbial life is a prominent phenomenon in soils and sediment ecology resulting from anaerobic respiration. The microbial fuel cell mimics this ubiquitous natural phenomenon. \n", "Physiology and electricity share a common history, with some of the pioneering work in each field being done in the late 18th century by Count Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta and Luigi Galvani. Count Volta invented the battery and had a unit of electrical measurement named in his honor (the Volt). These early researchers studied \"animal electricity\" and were among the first to realize that applying an electrical signal to an isolated animal muscle caused it to twitch. The Biopac Student Lab uses procedures similar to Count Volta’s to demonstrate how muscles can be electrically stimulated.\n\nSection::::Concept.\n", "Thus, the work of many researchers enabled the use of electronics to convert signals into high frequency oscillating currents, and via suitably shaped conductors, electricity permits the transmission and reception of these signals via radio waves over very long distances.\n\nSection::::Production and uses.\n\nSection::::Production and uses.:Generation and transmission.\n", "The flow of blood can also be used to power devices. For instance, the pacemaker developed at the University of Bern, uses blood flow to wind up a spring which in turn drives an electrical micro-generator.\n\nSection::::Devices.:Photovoltaic.\n", "For electrical utilities, it is the first step in the delivery of electricity to consumers. The other processes, electricity transmission, distribution, and electrical power storage and recovery using pumped-storage methods are normally carried out by the electric power industry.\n\nElectricity is most often generated at a power station by electromechanical generators, primarily driven by heat engines fueled by chemical combustion or nuclear fission but also by other means such as the kinetic energy of flowing water and wind. There are many other technologies that can be and are used to generate electricity such as solar photovoltaics and geothermal power.\n\nSection::::References.\n", "Section::::Concepts.:Electrochemistry.\n\nThe ability of chemical reactions to produce electricity, and conversely the ability of electricity to drive chemical reactions has a wide array of uses.\n\nElectrochemistry has always been an important part of electricity. From the initial invention of the Voltaic pile, electrochemical cells have evolved into the many different types of batteries, electroplating and electrolysis cells. Aluminium is produced in vast quantities this way, and many portable devices are electrically powered using rechargeable cells.\n\nSection::::Concepts.:Electric circuits.\n", "Like all animal cells, the cell body of every neuron is enclosed by a plasma membrane, a bilayer of lipid molecules with many types of protein structures embedded in it. A lipid bilayer is a powerful electrical insulator, but in neurons, many of the protein structures embedded in the membrane are electrically active. These include ion channels that permit electrically charged ions to flow across the membrane and ion pumps that chemically transport ions from one side of the membrane to the other. Most ion channels are permeable only to specific types of ions. Some ion channels are voltage gated, meaning that they can be switched between open and closed states by altering the voltage difference across the membrane. Others are chemically gated, meaning that they can be switched between open and closed states by interactions with chemicals that diffuse through the extracellular fluid. The ion materials include sodium, potassium, chloride, and calcium.The interactions between ion channels and ion pumps produce a voltage difference across the membrane, typically a bit less than 1/10 of a volt at baseline. This voltage has two functions: first, it provides a power source for an assortment of voltage-dependent protein machinery that is embedded in the membrane; second, it provides a basis for electrical signal transmission between different parts of the membrane.\n", "Electricity is mostly generated at a power station by electromechanical generators, driven by heat engines heated by combustion, geothermal power or nuclear fission. Other generators are driven by the kinetic energy of flowing water and wind. There are many other technologies that are used to generate electricity such as photovoltaic solar panels.\n", "The fundamental principles of much electricity generation were discovered during the 1820s and early 1830s by the British scientist Michael Faraday. His basic method is still used today: electricity is generated by the movement of a loop of wire, or disc of copper between the poles of a magnet.\n\nFor electric utilities, it is the first process in the delivery of electricity to consumers. The other processes, electricity transmission, distribution, and electrical power storage and recovery using pumped-storage methods are normally carried out by the electric power industry.\n", "A characteristic of electricity is that it is not primary energy freely present in nature in remarkable amounts and it must be produced. Production is carried out in power stations (also called \"power plants\"). Electricity is most often generated at a power plant by electromechanical generators, primarily driven by heat engines fueled by combustion or nuclear fission but also by other means such as the kinetic energy of flowing water and wind. Other energy sources include solar photovoltaics and geothermal power.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Electrochemistry is the direct transformation of chemical energy into electricity, as in a battery. Electrochemical electricity generation is important in portable and mobile applications. Currently, most electrochemical power comes from batteries. Primary cells, such as the common zinc–carbon batteries, act as power sources directly, but secondary cells (i.e. rechargeable batteries) are used for storage systems rather than primary generation systems. Open electrochemical systems, known as fuel cells, can be used to extract power either from natural fuels or from synthesized fuels. Osmotic power is a possibility at places where salt and fresh water merge.\n\nSection::::Methods of generating electricity.:Photovoltaic effect.\n", "Electronic devices make use of the transistor, perhaps one of the most important inventions of the twentieth century, and a fundamental building block of all modern circuitry. A modern integrated circuit may contain several billion miniaturised transistors in a region only a few centimetres square.\n\nSection::::Electricity and the natural world.\n\nSection::::Electricity and the natural world.:Physiological effects.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nThe role of electricity in the nervous systems of animals was first observed in dissected frogs by Luigi Galvani, who studied it from 1791 to 1797. Galvani's results stimulated Alessandro Volta to develop the Voltaic pile—the earliest-known electric battery—with which he studied animal electricity (such as electric eels) and the physiological responses to applied direct-current voltages.\n", "Section::::Electrical.\n", "BULLET::::4. A photodiode or solar cell may be considered as a source of emf, similar to a battery, resulting in an electrical voltage generated by charge separation driven by light rather than chemical reaction.\n\nBULLET::::5. Other devices that produce emf are fuel cells, thermocouples, and thermopiles.\n", "Human disorders, as well as numerous mouse mutants show that bioelectric signaling is important for human development (Tables 1 and 2). Those effects are pervasively linked to channelopathies, which are human disorders that result from mutations that disrupt ion channels.\n", "Electric power is transformed to other forms of energy when electric charges move through an electric potential (voltage) difference, which occurs in electrical components in electric circuits. From the standpoint of electric power, components in an electric circuit can be divided into two categories: \n", "Electric organs have evolved at least six times in various teleost and elasmobranch fish. Notably, they have convergently evolved in the African Mormyridae and South American Gymnotidae groups of electric fish. The two groups are distantly related, as they shared a common ancestor before the supercontinent Gondwana split into the American and African continents, leading to the divergence of the two groups. A whole-genome duplication event in the teleost lineage allowed for the neofunctionalization of the voltage-gated sodium channel gene Scn4aa which produces electric discharges. Developmentally, most electric organs in electric fish are derived from skeletal muscle.\n\nSection::::Electrocytes.\n", "Section::::Chemical.\n", "BULLET::::- Active devices or power sources: If the charges are moved by an 'exterior force' through the device in the direction from the lower electric potential to the higher, (so positive charge moves from the negative to the positive terminal), work will be done \"on\" the charges, and energy is being converted to electric potential energy from some other type of energy, such as mechanical energy or chemical energy. Devices in which this occurs are called \"active\" devices or \"power sources\"; such as electric generators and batteries.\n", "Microbial fuel cells can create energy when bacteria breaks down organic material, this process a charge that is transferred to the anode. Taking something like human saliva, which has lots of organic material, can be used to power a micro-sized microbial fuel cell. This can produce a small amount of energy to run on-chip applications. This application can be used in things like biomedical devices and cell phones.\n", "Section::::Electricity production.\n", "Electricity is at the heart of many modern technologies, being used for:\n\nBULLET::::- electric power where electric current is used to energise equipment;\n\nBULLET::::- electronics which deals with electrical circuits that involve active electrical components such as vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes and integrated circuits, and associated passive interconnection technologies.\n", "Thus, all electrical energy is potential energy before it is delivered to the end-use. Once converted from potential energy, electrical energy can always be called another type of energy (heat, light, motion, etc.).\n\nSection::::Electricity generation.\n\nElectricity generation is the process of generating electrical energy from other forms of energy.\n\nThe fundamental principle of electricity generation was discovered during the 1820s and early 1830s by the British scientist Michael Faraday. His basic method is still used today: electricity is generated by the movement of a loop of wire, or disc of copper between the poles of a magnet.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02058	can biological cells only divide or can they also be create/assembled?	That's a great and exciting question. According to the [abiotic hypothesis of the origin of life]( URL_0 ), the first living organisms came to be from the "assembling" of biomolecules that came to be due the primordial environment in Earth. With that idea in mind, a branch of biology known as [synthetic biology]( URL_1 ), is trying to do exactly that: Synthesize life. They're making cutting-edge research to know which are the minimal components required to create life. If they ever get to solve that problem, you'll hear about it in the news because it will mean one thing: We have created life from scratch.	[ "Most other cells cannot divide indefinitely as after a few cycles of cell division the cells stop expressing an enzyme telomerase. The genetic material, in the form of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), continues to shorten with each cell division, and cells eventually stop dividing when they sense that their DNA is critically shortened. However, this enzyme in \"youthful\" cells replaces these lost bits (nucleotides) of DNA, thus making almost unlimited cycles of cell division possible. It is believed that the above-mentioned tissues have a constitutional elevated expression of telomerase. When ultimately many cells are produced by a single cell, \"clonal expansion\" is said to have taken place.\n", "In labile cells, it is not a speed-up in the segments of the cell cycle (i.e. G1 phase, S phase, G2 phase and M phase), but rather a short or absent G0 phase that is responsible for the cells' constant division.\n\nSection::::Hazards.\n\nConstantly dividing cells have a higher risk of becoming malignant and develop cancer, dividing uncontrollably. This is why muscle cancer is very rare, even though muscle tissue accounts for ~50% of total body weight, since muscle cells are not constantly dividing cells, and therefore not considered labile.\n", "The research that is accumulating about amitosis suggests that such processes are, indeed, involved in the production of the breathtaking 37 trillion or so cells in humans, perhaps particularly during the fetal and embryonic phases of development when the majority of these cells are produced, perhaps within the complexity of implantation, perhaps when large numbers of cells are being differentiated, and perhaps in cancerous cells.\n", "Section::::Biochemistry.\n\nIn reference to biochemistry, this is an important concept as far as kinetics is concerned in metalloproteins. This can allow for the rapid synthesis and degradation of substrates in biological systems.\n\nSection::::Biology.\n\nSection::::Biology.:Cells.\n\nLabile cells refer to cells that constantly divide by entering and remaining in the cell cycle. These are contrasted with \"stable cells\" and \"permanent cells\".\n\nAn important example of this is in the epithelium of the cornea, where cells divide at the basal level and move upwards, and the topmost cells die and fall off.\n\nSection::::Biology.:Proteins.\n", "The growth process of the cell does not refer to the size of the cell, but the density of the number of cells present in the organism at a given time. Cell growth pertains to the increase in the number of cells present in an organism as it grows and develops; as the organism gets larger so too does the number of cells present. Cells are the foundation of all organisms, they are the fundamental unit of life. The growth and development of the cell are essential for the maintenance of the host, and survival of the organisms. For this process the cell goes through the steps of the cell cycle and development which involves cell growth, DNA replication, cell division, regeneration, and cell death. The cell cycle is divided into four distinct phases: G1, S, G2, and M. The G phase – which is the cell growth phase – makes up approximately 95% of the cycle. The proliferation of cells is instigated by progenitors; the cells then differentiate to become , where cells of the same type aggregate to form tissues, then organs and ultimately systems. The G phases along with the S phase – DNA replication, damage and repair – are considered to be the inter-phase portion of the cycle, while the M phase (mitosis and ) is the cell division portion of the cycle. The cell cycle is regulated by a series of signalling factors and complexes such as cyclin-dependent kinase and p53, to name a few. When the cell has completed its growth process, and if it is found to be damaged or altered, it undergoes cell death, either by apoptosis or necrosis, in order to eliminate the threat it can cause to the organism's survival.\n", "BULLET::::3. All the granulosa cells in a Graafian follicle are in fact clones.\n\nBULLET::::4. Paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria is a disorder of bone marrow cells resulting in shortened life of red blood cells, which is also a result of clonal expansion, i.e., all the altered cells are originally derived from a single cell, which also somewhat compromises the functioning of other \"normal\" bone marrow cells.\n\nSection::::Basis of clonal proliferation.\n", "Although all the cells of an organism contain the same DNA, there can be hundreds of different types of cells in a single organism. These diverse cell shapes, behaviors and functions are created and maintained by tissue-specific gene expression patterns and these can be modified by internal and external environmental conditions.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms of constructive development.:Physical properties of cells and tissues.\n", "Among dividing cells, there are multiple levels of cell potency, the cell's ability to differentiate into other cell types. A greater potency indicates a larger number of cell types that can be derived. A cell that can differentiate into all cell types, including the placental tissue, is known as \"totipotent\". In mammals, only the zygote and subsequent blastomeres are totipotent, while in plants, many differentiated cells can become totipotent with simple laboratory techniques. A cell that can differentiate into all cell types of the adult organism is known as \"pluripotent\". Such cells are called meristematic cells in higher plants and embryonic stem cells in animals, though some groups report the presence of adult pluripotent cells. Virally induced expression of four transcription factors Oct4, Sox2, c-Myc, and Klf4 (Yamanaka factors) is sufficient to create pluripotent (iPS) cells from adult fibroblasts. A multipotent cell is one that can differentiate into multiple different, but closely related cell types. Oligopotent cells are more restricted than multipotent, but can still differentiate into a few closely related cell types. Finally, unipotent cells can differentiate into only one cell type, but are capable of self-renewal. In cytopathology, the level of cellular differentiation is used as a measure of cancer progression. \"Grade\" is a marker of how differentiated a cell in a tumor is.\n", "Cell differentiation is usually the final stage of development, preceded by several states of commitment which are not visibly differentiated. A single tissue, formed from a single type of progenitor cell or stem cell, often consists of several differentiated cell types. Control of their formation involves a process of lateral inhibition, based on the properties of the Notch signaling pathway. For example, in the neural plate of the embryo this system operates to generate a population of neuronal precursor cells in which NeuroD is highly expressed.\n\nSection::::Developmental processes.:Regeneration.\n", "Cells reproduce through a process of cell division in which the parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells. For prokaryotes, cell division occurs through a process of fission in which the DNA is replicated, then the two copies are attached to parts of the cell membrane. In eukaryotes, a more complex process of mitosis is followed. However, the end result is the same; the resulting cell copies are identical to each other and to the original cell (except for mutations), and both are capable of further division following an interphase period.\n", "Cells became available as engineering materials when scientists at Geron Corp. discovered how to extend telomeres in 1998, producing immortalized cell lines. Before this, laboratory cultures of healthy, noncancerous mammalian cells would only divide a fixed number of times, up to the Hayflick limit, before dying.\n\nSection::::Cells as building blocks.:Extraction.\n", "For the majority of isolated primary cells, they undergo the process of senescence and stop dividing after a certain number of population doublings while generally retaining their viability (described as the Hayflick limit).\n", "Many cell lines exhibit differences in growth rate or gene expression depending on the degree of confluence. Cells are typically passaged before becoming fully confluent in order to maintain their proliferation phenotype. Some cell types are not limited by contact inhibition, such as immortalized cells, and may continue to divide and form layers on top of the parent cells. To achieve optimal and consistent results, experiments are usually performed using cells at a particular confluence, depending on the cell type.\n\nSection::::Estimation.\n\nSection::::Estimation.:Rule of thumb.\n", "\"Syngenic\" or \"isogenic\" cells are isolated from genetically identical organisms, such as twins, clones, or highly inbred research animal models.\n\n\"Primary\" cells are from an organism.\n\n\"Secondary\" cells are from a cell bank.\n", "Section::::Multicellularity.\n\nSection::::Multicellularity.:Cell specialization.\n\nMulticellular organisms are organisms that consist of more than one cell, in contrast to single-celled organisms.\n\nIn complex multicellular organisms, cells specialize into different cell types that are adapted to particular functions. In mammals, major cell types include skin cells, muscle cells, neurons, blood cells, fibroblasts, stem cells, and others. Cell types differ both in appearance and function, yet are genetically identical. Cells are able to be of the same genotype but of different cell type due to the differential expression of the genes they contain.\n", "The process of cell division, called cell cycle, has four major parts called phases. The first part, called G phase is marked by synthesis of various enzymes that are required for DNA replication.\n\nThe second part of the cell cycle is the S phase, where DNA replication produces two identical sets of chromosomes. The third part is the G phase in which a significant protein synthesis occurs, mainly involving the production of microtubules that are required during the process of division, called mitosis.\n", "Section::::Synthetic cells.:The minimal cell.\n\nThe German pathologist Rudolf Virchow brought forward the idea that not only does life arise from cells, but every cell comes from another cell; \"\"Omnis cellula e cellula\"\". Until now, most attempts to create an artificial cell have only created a package that can mimic certain tasks of the cell. Advances in cell-free transcription and translation reactions allow the expression of many genes, but these efforts are far from producing a fully operational cell.\n", "These biological changes are classical in carcinomas; other malignant tumors may not need to achieve them all. For example, tissue invasion and displacement to distant sites are normal properties of leukocytes; these steps are not needed in the development of leukemia. The different steps do not necessarily represent individual mutations. For example, inactivation of a single gene, coding for the p53 protein, will cause genomic instability, evasion of apoptosis and increased angiogenesis. Not all the cancer cells are dividing. Rather, a subset of the cells in a tumor, called cancer stem cells, replicate themselves and generate differentiated cells.\n", "Additionally, it has been determined that the somatic expression of combined transcription factors can directly induce other defined somatic cell fates (transdifferentiation); researchers identified three neural-lineage-specific transcription factors that could directly convert mouse fibroblasts (skin cells) into fully functional neurons. This result challenges the terminal nature of cellular differentiation and the integrity of lineage commitment; and implies that with the proper tools, \"all\" cells are totipotent and may form all kinds of tissue.\n", "It is possible for a fully differentiated cell to return to a state of totipotency. This conversion to totipotency is complex, not fully understood and the subject of recent research. Research in 2011 has shown that cells may differentiate not into a fully totipotent cell, but instead into a \"complex cellular variation\" of totipotency. Stem cells resembling totipotent blastomeres from 2-cell stage embryos can arise spontaneously in mouse embryonic stem cell cultures and also can be induced to arise more frequently \"in vitro\" through down-regulation of the chromatin assembly activity of CAF-1.\n", "There are three different types of basic cell communication: surface membrane to surface membrane; exterior, which is between receptors on the cell; and direct communication, which means signals pass inside the cell itself. The junctions of these cells are important because they are the means by which cells communicate with one another. Epithelial cells especially rely on these junctions because when one is injured, these junctions provide the means and communication to seal these injuries. These junctions are especially present in the organs of most species. However, it is also through cell signaling that tumors and cancer can also develop. Stem cells and tumor-causing cells, however, do not have gap junctions so they cannot be affected in the way that one would control a typical epithelial cell. Upstream cells signaling pathways control the proteins and genes that are expressed, which can both create a means for cancer to develop without stopping or a means for treatment for these diseases by targeting these specific upstream signaling pathways. Much of cell communication happens when ligands bind to the receptors of the cell membrane and control the actions of the cell through this binding. Genes can be suppressed, they can be over expressed, or they can be partially inhibited through cell signaling transduction pathways. Some research has found that when gap junction genes were transfected into tumor cells that did not have the gap junction genes, the tumor cells became stable and points to the ability of gap junction genes to inhibit tumors. This stability leads researchers to believe that gap junctions will be a part of cancer treatment in the future.\n", "Section::::Cell size.:Yeast cell size regulation.\n\nThe relationship between cell size and cell division has been extensively studied in yeast. For some cells, there is a mechanism by which cell division is not initiated until a cell has reached a certain size. If the nutrient supply is restricted (after time t = 2 in the diagram, below), and the rate of increase in cell size is slowed, the time period between cell divisions is increased. Yeast cell-size mutants were isolated that begin cell division before reaching a normal/regular size (\"wee\" mutants).\n", "Section::::Cell size.:Yeast cell size regulation.:Cell polarity factors.\n", "Different cells use their cilia for different purposes, such as sensory signaling or the movement of fluid. For this reason, when cilia form and how long they are differ from cell to cell. The processes controlling ciliary formation, degradation, and length must all be regulated in some way to ensure that each cell is able to perform its necessary tasks.\n\nSection::::Regulation.:Formation and removal.\n", "Section::::Development.\n\n\"Suberites\" consist of many telomerase-positive cells, which means the cells are essentially immortal, barring cell death signal. In most cases, the signal is a lack of connection either to the extracellular matrix or other cells. Their apoptotic cells are similar to homologous to mammalian. However, maintenance of long-lived cells involves proteins such as SDLAGL that are highly similar to yeast and human homologs. Certain inorganic materials, such as iron and selenium, influence the growth of \"Suberites\", including the primmorph growth and spicule formation. \"Suberites\" undergo cell differentiation through a variety of mechanisms based on cell-cell communication.\n\nSection::::Morphology.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-17835	Why is the middle lane on the freeway considered the safest?	You can switch to right or left lane if you have to. For example, When you are in the left lane, you only have 1 option which is to go middle lane. If there is a problem, and you are in middle, you can cross to right or left, depending on which is easier.	[ "BULLET::::- the presence of injured pedestrian on the motorway was due to breakdowns, stopping in emergency lanes (40%), accidents (28%), motorway staff (3%), providing assistance (2%), or other reasons (27%).\n\nSection::::Legal view by jurisdiction.:Europe.:Germany.\n", "A recent study conducted by the National Coroners Information System (NCIS) in Australia has revealed 29 closed case fatalities (and at least a dozen case fatalities still under coronial investigation) that had been reported to Australian coroners where a person was \"struck in an emergency lane after their vehicle had stopped\" between July 2000 and November 2010.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Bus lane\n\nBULLET::::- Rumble strip\n\nBULLET::::- Wide outside lane\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Traffic Signs about Shoulders\n\nBULLET::::- Deaths in Emergency Lanes - National Coroners Information System (NCIS) Fact-Sheet, January 2011\n", "Normally, driving in the shoulder lane is forbidden, but in the case of traffic blockage in some jurisdictions, use of the shoulder may be allowed for the purpose of reaching an exit if the exit is within .\n\nOn freeways in foggy areas of California, there is an obvious break in the line of the shoulder before every exit; this is to help drivers find their exits in heavy fog (especially the dangerous tule fog).\n\nSection::::Characteristics in various countries.:United Kingdom.\n", "Most commonly, motorists will attempt to overtake the outer car on the inner lane either to continue at a fast pace or to pass a car that is going too slowly in the passing lane. On high-capacity multilane freeways (three or more lanes per direction), many motorists often pass on the inner lane, largely in response to misuse of the \"passing lane\" by slower traffic.\n", "BULLET::::- Freeway entrances (merges), exits (diverges), and weaving lanes\n\nBULLET::::- Bicycle facilities (measure of effectiveness: events per hour; events include meeting an oncoming bicyclist or overtaking a bicyclist traveling in the same direction)\n\nBULLET::::- Pedestrian facilities (HCM measure of effectiveness: pedestrians per unit area)\n\nSection::::Level-of-Service in North America.:Theoretical Considerations.\n\nThe LOS concept was first developed for highways in an era of rapid expansion in the use and availability of the private motor car. The primary concern was congestion, and it was commonly held that only the rapid expansion of the freeway network would keep congestion in check.\n", "Contrast this with motorways, which rarely have a high risk of head-on collision in spite of the high speeds involved, because of the median separation treatments such as cable barriers, concrete step barriers, Jersey barriers, metal crash barriers, and wide medians.\n\nSection::::Head-on collisions.:Countermeasures.\n\nThe greatest risk reduction in terms of head-on collision comes through the separation of oncoming traffic, also known as median separation or median treatment, which can reduce road collisions in the order of 70%. Indeed, both Ireland and Sweden have undertaken large programmes of safety fencing on 2+1 roads.\n", "By contrast, shared space is a highway design method which consciously aims to \"increase\" the level of perceived risk and uncertainty, thereby slowing traffic and reducing the number of and seriousness of injuries.\n\nSection::::Overview.\n", "BULLET::::- Cargo barriers are sometimes fitted to provide a physical barrier between passenger and cargo compartments in vehicles such as SUVs, station wagons and vans. These help prevent injuries caused by occupants being struck by unsecured cargo. They can also help prevent collapse of the roof in the event of a vehicle rollover.\n\nSection::::Active and passive safety.:Post-crash survivability.\n\nPost-crash survivability is the chance that drivers and passengers survive a crash after it occurs. Technology such as Advanced Automatic Collision Notification can automatically place calls to emergency services and send information about a vehicle collision.\n\nSection::::Active and passive safety.:Pedestrian safety.\n", "The left lane is commonly referred to as the \"fast lane\", but that is not an accurate description of the lane's purpose. The left lane is the designated passing lane, however, vehicles in the left lane must obey the posted speed limits. A common problem arising from misuse of the left lane is speeding and tailgating. These actions create road rage and increase overall danger.\n", "Safety is an important issue where car can cross the pedestrian way.\n\nBecause pedestrians are not protected by their vehicle while car occupants are, pedestrians are usually classified in the \"vulnerable road user\" category, even in Canada.\n", "Drivers will sometimes drift into the shoulder when being overtaken by passing vehicles, particularly on two-lane roads. However, it is extremely unsafe, and in most jurisdictions illegal, to abuse the shoulder by 'undertaking' passing vehicles that are nearer the center of the road.\n", "On French motorways, pedestrians are banned; in case of breakdown motorists are required to leave the car and walk away to safety, behind fences or lines marking the road boundaries, where no car can hit them. Nonetheless, some pedestrians are injured on motorways: in 2016, on the tolled motorway network:\n\nBULLET::::- 16% of fatalities were pedestrians, an average of 23 pedestrian fatalities per year on the network.\n\nBULLET::::- 69% of pedestrian motorway fatalities occurred on motorway lanes, 28% occurred on emergency lanes, and 3% in rest areas.\n", "In some states, such as Maine, Massachusetts, Missouri, Montana, New Jersey, and Washington, the center lanes on highways with three or more lanes in each direction are also passing lanes. In those states, no matter how many lanes there are on the highway, drivers must not leave the right-hand lane unless they are overtaking slower vehicles, making a left turn or exit, or obeying a move over law. \n\nIn California, at least, there is no prohibition against cruising in the left lane. However, similar to the states below, slow traffic must stay right. \n", "In some areas, such as the U.S. states of Colorado and Kentucky, vehicles in the left lane are required to yield to faster traffic only if the speed limit is above 65 miles per hour. In other areas, like Alaska, there is no law requiring slower traffic to move over for faster traffic.\n\nSection::::Misuse and common practice in the United States.:Signage.\n", "BULLET::::- Lafayette Street in Santa Clara - the center lane is used for northbound traffic on weekday mornings, southbound traffic for weekday afternoons, and as a center turning lane at other times.\n\nConnecticut\n\nBULLET::::- Asylum Avenue in Hartford\n\nFlorida\n\nBULLET::::- Bay Street in Jacksonville\n\nBULLET::::- NW 199th St in Miami between NW 27th Ave. and NW 2nd Ave. there are two lanes always dedicated to Eastbound and Westbound, west of Florida’s Turnpike there are two reversible lanes, and west of the turnpike, there is one reversible lane.\n", "BULLET::::- The upper level of the Queensboro Bridge in New York City has four lanes and can have all flowing outbound (PM peak), or two lanes each direction in normal configuration.\n\nBULLET::::- The Mid-Hudson Bridge in Poughkeepsie, New York has a reversible center lane used during rush hour.\n\nNorth Carolina\n\nBULLET::::- East 7th Street in Charlotte\n\nBULLET::::- Tyvola Road in Charlotte\n", "Behavioral studies prepared for the Federal Highway Administration and the city of San Francisco have shown that streets with shared lane arrows increase separation between motor vehicles and cyclists, encourage cyclists to ride outside of the door zone, and may reduce wrong way cycling and sidewalk cycling, which are associated with increased crash risk.\n\nHowever, another study published in the journal Injury Prevention based on hospital records shows no statistically significant reduction in injuries, and possibly a small increase.\n", "The usual designation for lanes on divided highways is the fastest lane is the one closest to the center of the road, and the slowest to the edge of the road. Drivers are usually expected to keep in the slowest lane unless overtaking, though with more traffic congestion all lanes are often used.\n\nWhen driving on the left:\n\nBULLET::::- The lane designated for faster traffic is on the right.\n\nBULLET::::- The lane designated for slower traffic is on the left.\n\nBULLET::::- Most freeway exits are on the left.\n\nBULLET::::- Overtaking is permitted to the right, and sometimes to the left.\n", "Safe Corridor\n\nThe Safe Corridor initiative is part of an effort by the New Jersey Department of Transportation, and departments from other states, to improve the safety of its roads. Roads with accident and fatality rates above the average may have some of their lengths designated as \"Safe Corridor\" areas. In these areas, traffic fines are doubled.\n", "Turns across traffic have been shown to be problematic for older drivers.\n\nSection::::Mortality.:Built-up areas.:Designing for pedestrians and cyclists.\n\nPedestrians and cyclists are among the most vulnerable road users and in some countries constitute over half of all road deaths. Interventions aimed at improving safety of non-motorised users:\n\nBULLET::::- Sidewalks of suitable width for pedestrian traffic\n\nBULLET::::- Pedestrian crossings close to the desire line which allow pedestrians to cross roads safely\n\nBULLET::::- Segregated pedestrian routes and cycle lanes away from the main highway\n\nBULLET::::- Overbridges (tend to be unpopular with pedestrians and cyclists due to additional distance and effort)\n", "In Italy, a study performed on urban motorway A56 \"Tangenziale di Napoli\" showed that reduction of speed leads to a decrease in accidents.\n\nIn Marseille, France, from June 2009 to May 2010, CEREMA, the French centre for studies on risk, mobility and environment, performed a study on \"Marius\", a network of urban motorways. This study established a link between accidents and traffic variables:\n\nBULLET::::- for single vehicle accidents, the 6-minute average speed on the fast lane; and the time headway (on every lane),\n\nBULLET::::- for multiple vehicle accidents, the occupancy, and the time headway (for the middle lane).\n", "Section::::Lane departure warnings.\n", "Section::::Reducing pedestrian injuries.\n", "In a similar manner to Canada, Italy and the United States, as described above, the shoulders located on the side of Australia's highways are normally used as an emergency lane in the case of a breakdown or by emergency vehicles in the case of road congestion. However, no mandatory regulations exist to wear a high visibility jacket when dismounting from the vehicle stopped in an emergency lane.\n", "In some jurisdictions in the United States and Canada, buses are allowed to drive on the shoulder to pass traffic jams, which is called a bus-only shoulder or bus-bypass shoulder (BBS); the term \"bus-only shoulder lane\" is incorrect from a technical and legal standpoint.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-17950	Why do planes need to dump fuel before emergency landing?	They are too heavy, and they are trying to reduce the risk of fire in the event of a crash.	[ "Since most twin jet airliners can meet these requirements, most aircraft of this type such as the Boeing 737 (all models), the DC-9/MD80 and Boeing 717, the A320 family and various regional jet (\"RJ\") aircraft do not have fuel dump systems installed. In the event of an emergency, requiring a return to the departure airport, the aircraft circles nearby in order to consume fuel to get down to within the maximum structural landing weight limit, or, if the situation demands, simply lands overweight without delay. Modern aircraft are designed with possible overweight landings in mind, but this is not done except in cases of emergency, and various maintenance inspections are required afterwards.\n", "As jets began flying with US airlines in the late 1950s and early 1960s, the FAA rule in effect at the time mandated that if the ratio between an aircraft's maximum structural takeoff weight and its maximum structural landing weight was greater than 105%, the aircraft had to have a fuel-dump system installed. Aircraft such as the Boeing 707 and 727 and the Douglas DC-8 had fuel dump systems. Any of those aircraft needing to return to a takeoff airport above the maximum landing weight would jettison an amount of fuel sufficient to reduce the aircraft's weight below that maximum landing weight limit, and then land.\n", "It is the abnormal, non-routine flight where landing weight can be a problem. If a flight takes off at the maximum takeoff weight and then faces a situation where it must return to the departure airport (due to certain mechanical problems, or a passenger medical problem for instance), there will not be time to consume the fuel meant for getting to the original destination, and the aircraft may exceed the maximum landing weight to land at the departure point. If an aircraft lands at more than its maximum allowable weight, it might suffer structural damage, or even break apart on landing. At the very least, an overweight landing would require a thorough inspection for damage.\n", "Aircraft have two major types of weight limits: the maximum takeoff weight and the maximum structural landing weight, with the maximum structural landing weight almost always being the lower of the two. This allows an aircraft on a normal, routine flight to take off at the higher weight, consume fuel en route, and arrive at a lower weight. There are other variables involving takeoff and landing weights, but they are omitted from this article for the sake of simplicity.\n", "737s are not equipped with fuel dump systems. The original aircraft were too small to require them, and adding a fuel dump system to the later, larger variants would have incurred a large weight penalty. Boeing instead demonstrated an \"equivalent level of safety\". Depending upon the nature of the emergency, 737s either circle to burn off fuel or land overweight. If the latter is the case, the aircraft is inspected by maintenance personnel for damage and then returned to service if none is found.\n\nSection::::Design.:Engines.\n", "Airliners frequently make emergency landings, and almost all of them are uneventful. However, because of their inherent uncertain nature, they can quickly become crash landings or worse. Some notable instances include United Airlines Flight 232, which broke up while landing at Sioux City, Iowa, United States on July 19, 1989; and Air Canada Flight 797, which burned after landing at Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport on June 2, 1983 after a fire started in the cabin.\n", "Normally the portion of the aircraft's weight that exceeds the maximum landing weight (but falls within the maximum take-off weight) is entirely composed of fuel. As the aircraft flies, the fuel burns off, and by the time the aircraft is ready to land, it is below its maximum landing weight. However, if an aircraft must land early, sometimes the fuel that remains aboard still keeps the aircraft over the maximum landing weight. When this happens, the aircraft must either burn off the fuel (by flying in a holding pattern) or dump it (if the aircraft is equipped to do this) before landing to avoid damage to the aircraft. In an emergency, an aircraft may choose to land overweight, but this may damage it, and at the very least an overweight landing will mandate a thorough inspection to check for any damage.\n", "Fuel dumping\n\nFuel dumping (or a fuel jettison) is a procedure used by aircraft in certain emergency situations before a return to the airport shortly after takeoff, or before landing short of its intended destination (emergency landing) to reduce the aircraft's weight.\n\nSection::::Aircraft fuel dump.\n", "A large-scale fuel dumping occurred on September 11, 2001, when U.S. airspace was closed due to the September 11 attacks. International flights en route to the U.S. were either turned back to their point of origin or diverted to land in Canada and other countries. Many of these flights were fueled for travel well into the American interior; for those mid-flight aircraft unable to land due to excessive fuel weight, dumping was necessary.\n\nSection::::Aircraft fuel dump.:Dump rates.\n", "The average rate of descent of the dumped fuel is approximately 500 feet per minute. The Air Traffic Control, after receiving information by the pilots executing the dumping procedure, usually separates other traffic by 2,000 feet vertically and 5 nautical miles laterally, since the dumped vapors if ingested by a jet engine might cause serious problems to the engine's normal operation.\n\nSection::::Dump-and-burn.\n", "As a rule of thumb for the Boeing 747, pilots quote dump rates ranging from a ton per minute, to two tons per minute, to a thumb formula of \"dump time = (dump weight / 2) + 5\" in minutes. In 2009, an Airbus A340-300 returning to its airport of departure shortly after takeoff dumped 53 tons of fuel in 11 minutes.\n\nSection::::Aircraft fuel dump.:Dump rates.:Dumped fuel descent rate.\n", "Fuel-dumping operations are coordinated with air traffic control, and precautions are taken to keep other aircraft clear of such areas. Fuel dumping is usually accomplished at a high enough altitude where the fuel will dissipate before reaching the ground. Fuel leaves the aircraft through a specific point on each wing, usually closer to the wingtips and farther away from engines, and initially appears as more liquid than vapor.\n", "In addition to standard fuel needs, some organizations require that a flight plan include reserve fuel if certain conditions are met. For example, an over-water flight of longer than a specific duration may require the flight plan to include reserve fuel. The reserve fuel may be planned as extra which is left over on the aircraft at the destination, or it may be assumed to be burned during flight (perhaps due to unaccounted for differences between the actual aircraft and the flight performance data).\n", "Long-range twin jets such as the Boeing 767 and the Airbus A300, A310, and A330 may or may not have fuel dump systems, depending upon how the aircraft was ordered, since on some aircraft they are a customer option. Three- and four-engine jets like the Lockheed L-1011, McDonnell Douglas DC-10 / MD-11, Boeing 747 and Airbus A340 usually have difficulty meeting the requirements of FAR 25.119 near maximum structural takeoff weight, thus most of those have jettison systems. A Boeing 757 has no fuel-dump capability as its maximum landing weight is similar to the maximum take-off weight.\n", "Hi Fly is testing serving passengers with compostable materials in the food and drink service rather than single-use plastic. A flight in December 2018 was the first ever without disposable cups, silverware, and containers.\n\nOn 29 June 2019 A Hi-Fly airlines, A340 returning to Orland Airport dumped its fuel on over 84% of the Airports Runway. The plane had been suffering hydraulic issues and was forced to return. It was not clear why the pilot dumped the fuel on the runway. \n\nSection::::Destinations.\n", "From an accountant's viewpoint, the provision of reserve fuel costs money (the fuel needed to carry the hopefully unused reserve fuel). Techniques known variously as \"reclear\", \"redispatch\", or \"decision point procedure\" have been developed, which can greatly reduce the amount of reserve fuel needed while still maintaining all required safety standards. These techniques are based on having some specified intermediate airport to which the flight can divert if necessary; in practice such diversions are rare. The use of such techniques can save several tons of fuel on long flights, or it can increase the payload carried by a similar amount.\n", "Following an engine shutdown, a precautionary landing is usually performed with airport fire and rescue equipment positioned near the runway. The prompt landing is a precaution against the risk that another engine will fail later in the flight or that the engine failure that has already occurred may have caused or been caused by other as-yet unknown damage or malfunction of aircraft systems (such as fire or damage to aircraft flight controls) that may pose a continuing risk to the flight. Once the airplane lands, fire department personnel assist with inspecting the airplane to ensure it is safe before it taxis to its parking position.\n", "The CAA recommended that the cross-feed fuel system be relocated to allow for easier maintenance and inspection and to reduce the possibility of a cockpit fire caused by fuel leakage. They also recommended that areas of leakage in the fuel line be modified so as to allow for adequate drainage.\n", "A dump-and-burn is a fuel dump in which the fuel is ignited, intentionally, using the plane's afterburner. A spectacular flame combined with high speed makes this a popular display for air shows or as a finale to fireworks. Dump-and-burns are also referred to as \"torching\" or \"zippos\".\n\nGeneral Dynamics F-111 Aardvark aircraft have been used for this purpose in Australia during the closing ceremony of the 2000 Summer Olympics and (until 2010) regularly at Brisbane's Riverfestival and the Australian Grand Prix.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "21:00 – the aircraft contacted Mather control stating, \"We would like a tanker up here and get a little fuel. We now figure we will be over the field at 14,000 pounds. That is a little light. We would like to have a tanker.\" And, control answered Doe 11 \"will be cleared for a straight in approach and will have tanker standby . . . we will not launch unless you go below 10,000 pounds.\"\n\nDoe 11's ETA to Mather at this time was given as approximately 22:30 hours after takeoff.\n", "Such necessity was illustrated when a Flight Options Beechjet experienced a double flameout over the Gulf of Mexico in July 2004. The crew was able to glide to a lower altitude and restart the engines, and the aircraft landed safely. The FAA investigators found no mechanical problems with the engines, but when fuel samples were taken, FSII concentration was only 0.02%. Either the FSII injector in the refueler was not working at the FBO where the aircraft had received fuel, or the line staff failed to turn it on.\n", "Any fueling operation can be very dangerous, and aviation operations have characteristics which must be accommodated. As an aircraft flies through the air, it can accumulate static electricity. If this is not dissipated before fueling, an electric arc could occur and ignite fuel vapors. To prevent this, aircraft are electrically bonded to the fueling apparatus before fueling begins, and are not disconnected until after fueling is complete. Some regions require the aircraft and/or fuel truck to be grounded too. Pressure fueling systems incorporate a dead man's switch to preclude unmonitored operation.\n", "These types of contamination can be introduced from many different sources throughout the supply chain of the diesel fuel as well as within the storage tank itself. Any one of these contaminants can cause complete engine failure.\n\nIn April 2010, Cathay Pacific Flight 780, an aircraft carrying over 300 passengers, had a close call when fuel contaminated with spherical particles damaged the aircraft's engines, resulting in 57 passenger injuries as the pilots had to land the aircraft at twice the normal landing speed.\n\nSection::::Symptoms of 'diesel bugs'.\n", "It is difficult to quote specific dump rates even for specific types of aircraft since the dumped fuel is not pumped but delivered by gravity feed so as to be more independent of electrical systems, which might be unavailable in a fuel-dump scenario. This means the actual rate depends on the pressure exerted by the fuel head: the more fuel on board, the higher the rate at which it flows out. This also means that the dump rate is not constant, but decreases while dumping because the fuel head and its pressure decrease.\n", "Three minutes later, at 06:26 UTC and approximately from Lajes Air Base, engine #1 also flamed out, requiring the plane to glide the remaining distance. Without engine power, the plane lost its primary source of electrical power. The emergency ram air turbine deployed automatically to provide essential power for critical sensors and instruments to fly the aircraft. However, the aircraft lost its main hydraulic power, which operates the flaps, alternate brakes, and spoilers. The slats would still be powered, however, when the flaps #1 position was selected. Five minutes later, at 6:31 UTC, the oxygen masks dropped down in the passenger cabin.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04063	why can’t you buy alcohol/enter a bar with an expired ID in the US?	I can’t really think of anything either but it must be to prevent some fake ID’s, cause you couldn’t get them renewed?	[ "New alcohol laws in the state of Queensland require some Brisbane-based pubs and bars to scan ID documents against a database of people who should be denied alcohol, for which foreign passports and driver's licences are not valid.\n\nSection::::National policies.:Oceania.:New Zealand.\n", "In the state of New York, obtaining a driver's license did not require proof of legal presence; however, New York blocked off this access in 2002, by asking all driver license applicants to provide a valid social security number. In 2019, the legislature passed the \"Driver's License Access and Privacy Act\" restoring access to drivers licenses for the illegal immigrant population.\n", "Western Australian alcohol laws only allow the following identification as legally accepted proof-of-age in licensed premises:\n\nBULLET::::- current Australian driver licence\n\nBULLET::::- current Western Australian learner driver permit card\n\nBULLET::::- current passport (Australian or foreign)\n\nBULLET::::- current Keypass Card\n\nBULLET::::- current Western Australian Photo Card, issued by the Department of Transport or a proof-of-age card issued by an Australian state or territory government\n\nSection::::Alcohol laws by state or territory.:Western Australia.:Under-age drinking at home.\n", "New South Wales alcohol laws only allow the following identification as legally accepted proof-of-age in licensed premises:\n\nBULLET::::- current Australian driver licence\n\nBULLET::::- A drivers licence issued in any country other than Australia that clearly has the date of birth in English\n\nBULLET::::- current Victorian learner driver permit card\n\nBULLET::::- current passport (Australian or foreign)\n\nBULLET::::- current NSW proof-of-age card\n\nSection::::Alcohol laws by state or territory.:Queensland.\n", "BULLET::::2. Texas Election Identification Certificate\n\nBULLET::::3. Texas Personal Identification Card\n\nBULLET::::4. Texas Handgun License\n\nBULLET::::5. U.S. Military Identification Card (with a photograph of the voter)\n\nBULLET::::6. U.S. Citizenship Certificate (with a photograph of the voter)\n\nBULLET::::7. U.S. Passport\n\nFor voters between the ages of 18-69, the above ID’s cannot be expired for more than 4 years. For voters aged over 70, any of the above valid ID’s can be expired for more than 4 years.\n", "2014 Oregon Ballot Measure 88\n\nOregon Ballot Measure 88 was a ballot measure in the U.S. state of Oregon in the 2014 midterm elections to determine whether or not to refer a \"law creating a four-year driver's card, shorter than the usual eight years for a driver's license, for those who meet all other qualifications other than proof of legal presence in the United States\". The measure was rejected.\n", "It is against the law to misrepresent one's age by using another's ID or a fake ID. The penalties for this include: \n\nBULLET::::- fines of up to $2,000,\n\nBULLET::::- imprisonment of up to 3 years, and\n\nBULLET::::- suspension or revocation of one's driver's license.\n\nIf the violator is under the age of 18, she or he may be required to attend a supervised work or alcohol rehabilitation program, and the violator's guardian(s) may be asked to withdraw consent for the violator to hold a license.\n\nSection::::Specific drugs.:Alcohol.:Drinking and Driving.\n", "Restricting illegal immigrants or legal immigrants who are unable to prove their legal status, or lack social security numbers, from obtaining driver's licenses may keep them from obtaining liability insurance and from working, causing many immigrants and foreign nationals to lose their jobs or to travel internationally in order to renew their driver's license. Furthermore, for visitors on J-1 and H1B visas, the fact that visas may expire before their legal stay is over (this happens due to the fact that J-1 visas are issued with a one-year expiration date but visitors are allowed to stay for their \"duration of status\" as long as they have a valid contract) can make the process of renewing a driver's license extremely complex and, as mentioned above, force legal foreign citizens to travel abroad only to renew a visa which would not need to be renewed if it weren't for the need to renew one's driver's license. Although the new law does allow states to offer \"not for federal ID\" licenses in these cases, and that some states (e.g., Utah and Tennessee) have already started issuing such \"driving privileges certificates/cards\" in lieu of regular driver's licenses, allowing such applicants to be tested and licensed to drive and obtain liability insurance, the majority of U.S. states do not plan to offer \"not for federal ID\" licenses. In October 2007, then-governor of New York Eliot Spitzer announced that the state will adopt a similar \"multi-tiered\" licensing scheme in which the state will issue three different kinds of driver licenses, two of which comply with the Real ID security requirements and one which will be marked as \"not for federal ID\" purposes. However, following a political outcry, Spitzer withdrew his proposal to issue licenses to those unable to prove legal residence.\n", "A Hong Kong Driving Licence carries the same number as the holder's ID card, but has no photograph. As such, it is not a legal document for proof of age for purchase of alcohol. Upon control, both must be presented. Plans to make the newly phased in Smart ID contain driver licensing information have been shelved.\n", "Section::::History.:REAL ID Act of 2005.\n\nThe REAL ID Act of 2005 mandated that state-issued IDs (such as driver's license or state ID cards) could be used as proof of identity by the federal level only if they complied with specific compliance measures. Of the various federal identification purposes to which these compliance measures were relevant, the one with the largest affected population was commercial air travel in the United States. However, since most US states have not fully implemented the standards, the date from which only compliant IDs will be accepted has been pushed back to January 22, 2018.\n", "In May 2007, it was reported that Asda stores in Scotland were operating a Challenge 25 scheme, whereby anyone who appeared to be below the age of 25, seven years above the age required to buy alcohol in the UK, could be asked to provide a form of ID such as a passport, driving licence or PASS-accredited proof of age card.\n", "When a person applies for a Real ID, either as a new driver license or ID card applicant or renewing a current license or ID card, they must present a citizenship document (US passport, certified birth certificate or citizenship certificate) or proof of legal immigrant status, proof of a Social Security number if they have been issued one, proof of any name changes if using birth certificate, and two proofs of residency in the state. The state then must verify the documents and store them either electronically or on paper. No one may have more than one Real ID at one time.\n", "Under the bill, voters who do not possess any of the seven forms of ID and are unable to obtain one through reasonable means may vote if they complete a Reasonable Impediment Declaration and show one of the following supporting forms of ID:\n\nBULLET::::1. Copy of/original government document with name and address of voter and voter registration certificate\n\nBULLET::::2. Copy of/original current utility bill\n\nBULLET::::3. Copy of/original bank statement\n\nBULLET::::4. Copy of/original government check\n\nBULLET::::5. Copy of/original paycheck\n\nBULLET::::6. Copy of/original of a certified domestic birth certificate\n", "Section::::New York.:First attempts to restore access to drivers licences for illegal immigrants.\n", "Louisiana passed House Bill 481 in 2016 which became Act 625, making Louisiana the first state with a legally accepted digital driver’s license via LA Wallet, an app created by Envoc that launched in July 2018. The law allows Louisiana residents to present driver identification using LA Wallet \"...upon demand of any officer or agent of the department or any police officer of the state, parish, or municipality...\". The Louisiana digital driver's license requires no additional hardware to accept and includes a “no-touch” policy whereby the citizen remains in possession of the mobile device at all times. In October 2018, the Louisiana Secretary of State Kyle Ardoin approved usage of LA Wallet for voter identification at the polling stations. In January 2019, the Louisiana Office of Alcohol and Tobacco Control issued a notice legally approving LA Wallet, Louisiana's Digital Driver's License app for purchase age verification for tobacco and alcohol sales. \n", "Section::::Areas of responsibility.:General identification.\n\nIn most states, a separate identification card indicating residency is optionally provided in the case that one does not have a driver's license.\n\nSection::::Areas of responsibility.:Liquor ID.\n\nA liquor identification is also provided in some jurisdictions for residents to affirm their age of majority to sellers of liquor, although a state-issued ID that proves the individual is over the legal drinking age often suffices. This is another measure to prevent minors from purchasing alcohol.\n\nSection::::Equivalent agencies in other countries.\n\nSection::::Equivalent agencies in other countries.:Other.\n\nBULLET::::- Hong Kong - Department of Transport\n", "Any Real ID Driver License or Identification Card issued before April 2019 will still be valid, however, when the applicant’s Real ID comes up for renewal, they will be required to submit an additional Residency Document to comply with the Real ID Act. The Massachusetts RMV also started this option on March 26, 2018, and the Ohio BMV on July 2, 2018.\n\nOn March 25, 2019 Missouri became the 47 state to implement and comply with the Real ID Act.\n\nSection::::Controversy and opposition.\n", "Registered persons may need to re-register or update their registration if they change residence or other relevant information. In some jurisdictions, when a person registers a change of residence with a government agency, say, for a driver's license, the government agency may forward the information to the electoral agency to automatically update the voter registration information.\n", "The information on the ID card is required to be kept updated by the owner; current address of domicile in particular. Doing otherwise can expose the citizen to certain fines or be denied service by those institutions that require a valid, up to date card. In spite of this, it is common for people to let the information lapse or go around with expired ID cards.\n\nSection::::National policies.:Europe.:European Economic Area.:Slovakia.\n", "Starting January 22, 2018, the California DMV started providing federal compliant Real ID driver licenses and ID cards as an option to customers . However, on December 24, the Department of Homeland Security has notified the California DMV that their Real ID driver licenses are not Real ID Compliant. This is because the California DMV has been requesting one “Proof of Residency” document as opposed to the minimum two as defined under Federal Law. The California DMV responded stating they will begin asking for two Residency Documents beginning in April 2019. \n", "Each state must agree to share its motor vehicle database with all other states. This database must include, at a minimum, all the data printed on the state driver's licenses and ID cards, plus drivers' histories (including motor vehicle violations, suspensions, and points on licenses). Among other motivations, the database is intended to \"improve the ability of law enforcement officers at all levels to confirm the identity of the individuals\" holding an ID.\n", "Motor vehicles may also be registered with property owners or managers to gain benefits. For example, organisations with parking facilities may require registration of a vehicle with them to allow authorised users to park there.\n\nSection::::Australia.\n", "BULLET::::- In person (by visiting a Department of Human Services centre offering Medicare services)\n\nSection::::Registration.:Identity Verification Code (IVC).\n\nIf a consumer registers over the phone, in writing, or in person an identity verification code IVC is issued to enable access to the e-Health record online for the first time. After this first log, or post 30 days from issuance the IVC becomes obsolete. \n\nThere are four steps in the registration process:\n\nBULLET::::1. Read the essential information\n\nBULLET::::2. Create a new or log into your australia.gov.au account\n\nBULLET::::3. Verify your identity\n\nBULLET::::4. Set up your e-Health record\n", "SEN. CLINTON: Well, you may say that, but what is the identification if somebody runs into you today who is an undocumented worker --\n\nSEN. DODD: There's ways of dealing with that.\n\nSEN. CLINTON: Well, but --\n\nSEN. DODD: This is a privilege, not a right.\n\nSEN. CLINTON: Well, what Governor Spitzer has agreed to do is to have three different licenses; one that provides identification for actually going onto airplanes and other kinds of security issues, another which is an ordinary driver's license, and then a special card that identifies the people who would be on the road.\n", "After 2011, \"a Federal agency may not accept, for any official purpose, a driver's license or identification card issued by a state to any person unless the state is meeting the requirements\" specified in the Real ID Act. The DHS will continue to consider additional ways in which a Real ID license can or should be used for official federal purposes without seeking the approval of Congress before doing so. States remain free to also issue non-complying licenses and IDs, so long as these have a unique design and a clear statement that they cannot be accepted for any federal identification purpose. The federal Transportation Security Administration is responsible for security check-in at airports, so bearers of non-compliant documents would no longer be able to travel on common carrier aircraft without additional screening unless they had an alternative government-issued photo ID.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04756	What properties tell you whether a substance is a strong, weak, or non-electrolyte?	The ability for a species to be an electrolyte, or its magnitude as one, is directly related to it's solubility in water to form an aqueous solution. The extent to which it can dissolve in water tells you a lot about how well it will perform as a conductor, as well as the ions that dissociate from one another. Hence, ionic compounds made from group I and II metals with hallogens, are often the strongest. These compounds will readily dissolve, produce a good amount of ions, and thus good electrolyte. There are other factors that come into play, such as ionic radius, activity coefficients, and concentraion to name a few however those only play roles in situations where theyre explicity needed such as research settings, environmental studies, and pharmeceuticals. In short, if a species can dissolve in water, leaving anions and cations separated, you have a strong electrolyte. If a species can dissolve, but not all of it (in some cases a species will appear to be dissolved, I.e. you see no particles floating around, but will stay as hydrated pairs) than its a weak electrolyte. Can't dissolve, then its a non-electrolyte. Look up dissociation constants, and Ksps for solubility and start developing a range of common strong, weak, and non-electrolytes to give yourself a better understanding as well. I know its kind of a verbose explanation but I hope this helps!	[ "Section::::Examples.:Electrolyte – non-electrolyte systems.\n\nApparent quantities can underline interactions in electrolyte – non-electrolyte systems which show interactions like salting in and salting out, but also give insights in ion-ion interactions, especially by their dependence on temperature.\n\nSection::::Multicomponent mixtures or solutions.\n", "Strong electrolytes conduct electricity \"only\" when molten or in aqueous solutions.\n\nStrong electrolytes break apart into ions completely.\n\nThe stronger an electrolyte the greater the voltage produced when used in a galvanic cell.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nStrong Acids\n\nBULLET::::- Perchloric acid HClO\n\nBULLET::::- Hydriodic acid HI\n\nBULLET::::- Hydrobromic acid HBr\n\nBULLET::::- Hydrochloric acid HCl\n\nBULLET::::- Sulfuric acid HSO\n\nBULLET::::- Nitric acid HNO\n\nBULLET::::- Chloric acid HClO\n\nBULLET::::- Bromic acid HBrO\n\nBULLET::::- Perbromic acid HBrO\n\nBULLET::::- Periodic acid HIO\n\nBULLET::::- Fluoroantimonic acid HSbF\n\nBULLET::::- Magic acid FSOHSbF\n\nBULLET::::- Carborane superacid H(CHBCl)\n\nBULLET::::- Fluorosulfuric acid FSOH\n\nBULLET::::- Triflic acid CFSOH\n\nStrong Bases\n", "Section::::Theory.:Solvent isotopic effect.\n\nThe change in conductivity due to the isotope effect for deuterated electrolytes is sizable.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n", "Supporting electrolyte\n\nA supporting electrolyte, in electrochemistry, according to an IUPAC definition, is an electrolyte containing chemical species that are not electroactive (within the range of potentials used) and which has an ionic strength and conductivity much larger than those due to the electroactive species added to the electrolyte. Supporting electrolyte is also sometimes referred to as \"inert electrolyte\" or \"inactive electrolyte\".\n", "Supporting electrolytes are widely used in electrochemical measurements when control of electrode potentials is required. This is done to increase the conductivity of the solution (to practically eliminate the so-called IR drop), to eliminate the transport of electroactive species by ion migration in the electric field, to maintain constant ionic strength, to maintain constant pH, etc.\n", "Electrolytes are commonly found in fruit juices, sports drinks, milk, nuts, and many fruits and vegetables (whole or in juice form) (e.g., potatoes, avocados).\n\nSection::::Electrochemistry.\n", "Typical weak electrolytes are weak acids and weak bases. The concentration of ions in a solution of a weak electrolyte is less than the concentration of the electrolyte itself. For acids and bases the concentrations can be calculated when the value(s) of the acid dissociation constant(s) is(are) known.\n\nFor a monoprotic acid, HA, obeying the inverse square root law, with a dissociation constant \"K\", an explicit expression for the conductivity as a function of concentration, \"c\", known as Ostwald's dilution law, can be obtained.\n", "The limiting equivalent conductivity of solutions based on mixed solvents like water alcohol has minima depending on the nature of alcohol. For methanol the minimum is at 15 molar % water, and for the ethanol at 6 molar % water.\n\nSection::::Theory.:Conductivity Versus Temperature.\n", "Strong electrolyte\n\nA strong electrolyte is a solution/solute that completely, or almost completely, ionizes or dissociates in a solution. These ions are good conductors of electric current in the solution.\n\nOriginally, a \"strong electrolyte\" was defined as a chemical that, when in aqueous solution, is a good conductor of electricity. With a greater understanding of the properties of ions in solution, its definition was replaced by the present one.\n", "where the molar concentration of the solvent \"c\" is expressible both as a function of the molalities as well as a function of the molarities:\n\nSection::::Relation to other compositional properties.:Mass concentration.\n\nThe conversions to and from the mass concentration, \"ρ\", of a single-solute solution are\n\nwhere \"ρ\" is the mass density of the solution, \"b\" is the molality, and \"M\" is the molar mass of the solute.\n\nFor the general \"n\"-solute solution, the mass concentration of the \"i\"th solute, \"ρ\", is related to its molality, \"b\", as follows:\n", "Section::::Quantifying ionic strength.\n\nThe molar ionic strength, \"I\", of a solution is a function of the concentration of \"all\" ions present in that solution.\n", "The volume of total solids (primarily protein and lipid) in a plasma sample is approximately 7%, so that only 93% is water. The main electrolytes are confined to water phase. So for example in 10 μL plasma sample, only 9.3 μL is water that contains the electrolyte. Thus if the concentration of an electrolyte, say Na is determined to be 140 mmol/L, it is the concentration in total plasma volume, not in plasma water volume.\n", "A weak electrolyte is one that is never fully dissociated (i.e. there are a mixture of ions and complete molecules in equilibrium). In this case there is no limit of dilution below which the relationship between conductivity and concentration becomes linear. Instead, the solution becomes ever more fully dissociated at weaker concentrations, and for low concentrations of \"well behaved\" weak electrolytes, the degree of dissociation of the weak electrolyte becomes proportional to the inverse square root of the concentration.\n", "where the mass concentration of the solvent, \"ρ\", is expressible both as a function of the molalities as well as a function of the mass concentrations:\n\nSection::::Relation to other compositional properties.:Equal ratios.\n\nAlternatively, we may use just the last two equations given for the compositional property of the solvent in each of the preceding sections, together with the relationships given below, to derive the remainder of properties in that set:\n\nwhere \"i\" and \"j\" are subscripts representing \"all\" the constituents, the \"n\" solutes plus the solvent.\n\nSection::::Relation to other compositional properties.:Example of conversion.\n", "The SI unit of conductivity is S/m and, unless otherwise qualified, it refers to 25 °C. Often encountered in industry is the traditional unit of μS/cm. \n", "In what follows, the solvent may be given the same treatment as the other constituents of the solution, such that the molality of the solvent of an \"n\"-solute solution, say \"b\", is found to be nothing more than the reciprocal of its molar mass, \"M\" (expressed as kg/mol):\n\nSection::::Relation to other compositional properties.:Mass fraction.\n\nThe conversions to and from the mass fraction, \"w\", of the solute in a single-solute solution are\n\nwhere \"b\" is the molality and \"M\" is the molar mass of the solute.\n", "Unlike all the other compositional properties listed in \"Relation\" section (below), molality \"depends\" on the choice of the substance to be called “solvent” in an arbitrary mixture. If there is only one pure liquid substance in a mixture, the choice is clear, but not all solutions are this clear-cut: in an alcohol–water solution, either one could be called the solvent; in an alloy, or solid solution, there is no clear choice and all constituents may be treated alike. In such situations, mass or mole fraction is the preferred compositional specification.\n\nSection::::Relation to other compositional properties.\n", "BULLET::::- formula_12 = ionic specific resistance of the electrolyte\n\nBULLET::::- formula_13 = electric specific resistance of the electrolyte.\n", "Besides the set of parameters obtained by Pitzer et al. in the 1970s mentioned in the previous section. Kim and Frederick published the Pitzer parameters for 304 single salts in aqueous solutions at 298.15 K, extended the model to the concentration range up to the saturation point. Those parameters are widely used, however, many complex electrolytes including ones with organic anions or cations, which are very significant in some\n\nrelated fields, were not summarized in their paper.\n", "Various solvents exhibit the same dissociation if the ratio of relative permitivities equals the ratio cubic roots of concentrations of the electrolytes (Walden's rule).\n\nSection::::Theory.:Higher concentrations.\n", "The existence of a so-called \"conductance minimum\" in solvents having the relative permittivity under 60 has proved to be a controversial subject as regards interpretation. Fuoss and Kraus suggested that it is caused by the formation of ion triplets, and this suggestion has received some support recently.\n\nOther developments on this topic have been done by Theodore Shedlovsky, E. Pitts, R. M. Fuoss, Fuoss and Shedlovsky, Fuoss and Onsager.\n\nSection::::Theory.:Mixed solvents systems.\n", "A large molecule with an ionized group is technically an ion, but its behavior may be largely the result of non-ionic interactions. For example, sodium stearate (the main constituent of traditional soaps) consists entirely of ions, yet it is a soft material quite unlike a typical ionic solid. There is a continuum between ionic solids and molecular solids with little ionic character in their bonding.\n\nSection::::Solids of intermediate kinds.:Metallic to molecular.\n", "To avoid the complications involved in using activities, stability constants are determined, where possible, in a medium consisting of a solution of a background electrolyte at high ionic strength, that is, under conditions in which \"Γ\" can be assumed to be always constant. For example, the medium might be a solution of 0.1 mol dm sodium nitrate or 3 mol dm sodium perchlorate. When \"Γ\" is constant it may be ignored and the general expression in theory, above, is obtained.\n", "Assuming standard conditions (T = 25 °C) and R = 8.3145 J/(K·mol), the equation above can be expressed on base—10 logarithm as shown below:\n\nSection::::Cell emf dependency on changes in concentration.:Concentration cells.\n\nA concentration cell is an electrochemical cell where the two electrodes are the same material, the electrolytes on the two half-cells involve the same ions, but the electrolyte concentration differs between the two half-cells.\n", "For multicomponent systems with more than one solute a total molality an mean apparent molar volume can be defined for the solutes together and also a mean molar mass of the solutes as if they were a single solute. In this case the first equality from above is modified with the mean molar mass M of the pseudosolute instead of the molar mass of the single solute:\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-21059	SERIOUS: Why does an alcoholic get a red nose? (This is not a joke, even though it sounds like a joke.)	Alcohol is a vasodilator, meaning it opens up blood vessels. The blood vessels under the skin get bigger and get closer to surface of skin and make it look red.	[ "BULLET::::- Alcohol-induced respiratory reactions including rhinitis and exacerbations of asthma appear, in many cases, due to the direct actions of ethanol.\n\nBULLET::::- Rosacea, also known as gin blossoms, is a chronic facial skin condition in which capillaries are excessively reactive, leading to redness from flushing or telangiectasia. Rosacea has been mistakenly attributed to alcoholism because of its similar appearance to the temporary flushing of the face that often accompanies the ingestion of alcohol.\n\nBULLET::::- Degreaser's flush—a flushing condition arising from consuming alcohol shortly before or during inhalation of trichloroethylene (TCE), an organic solvent with suspected carcinogenic properties.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Altered sense of humor.\n", "Humors, or to use the Pesian term ‘Akhlat’, are liquid humors formed in the liver and gastrointestinal system following digestion. In other words, after eating and drinking, digestion, the process of breaking down food stuff into smaller units and converting them into a substance suitable for absorption, happens.\n\nAfterwards the substances move towards the liver and will be processed again (called the second digestion in traditional medicine) which form the four liquid humors called: blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm.\n", "\"Plasmopara viticola\" is the causal agent of grapevine downy mildew.\n\nSection::::Plant specific mildews.:Hops.\n", "In extreme cases a surgical procedure known as endoscopic transthoracic sympathicotomy (ETS) is available. Pioneered by surgeons in Sweden, this procedure has recently become increasingly controversial due to its many potential adverse effects. Patients who have undergone the procedure frequently complain of compensatory sweating and fatigue, with around 5% reconsidering getting the treatment. ETS is now normally only considered in extreme cases where other treatments have been ineffective.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- The New Yorker - \"CRIMSON TIDE - What is blushing?, No one knows for sure, but it can ruin your life\" by Atul Gawande.\n", "The temporary vasocongestion of the cheeks of the face is called blushing. It may be caused by the emotions of anger or embarrassment. The illness of rosacea is a chronic vasocongestion condition of the face that primarily affects the cheeks and nose, but may include other areas such as the eyes and chin.\n\nVasocongestion of the area around the human anus can lead to the formation of hemorrhoids.\n\nSection::::Human sexual behavior.\n", "Rhinophyma\n\nRhinophyma is a condition causing development of a large, bulbous nose associated with granulomatous infiltration, commonly due to untreated rosacea.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nRhinophyma is characterised by prominent pores and a fibrous thickening of the nose, sometimes with papules. It is associated with the common skin condition rosacea. It can carry a strong psychological impact due to its effect on one's personal appearance.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nAlcoholism is mistakenly attributed as a cause of this issue. Alcohol, however, may cause increased flushing in those affected.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "Schramm stated in a 2008 interview, \"I'm not a drinker, though I come from an area where drinking is like breathing. My father was a bookie, so consequently we went to the track a lot, where there was plenty of booze. My entire family drank; on weekends, there were always plenty of cases of beer in the house. Don't ask me why, but I just didn't get that gene.\"\n\nSchramm has been credited for getting David Adkins into a career in acting when he took him to see Juilliard.\n", "Section::::Alcoholism.\n", "Section::::Racing career.:2006–2007.\n", "Section::::Cultural references.\n", "Section::::Human disease.\n", "Section::::Development.:Sanosi and alcoholism.\n", "Section::::Organisation of the barrel fields.:Barrels of the major facial whiskers.\n", "Alcohol flush reaction\n\nAlcohol flush reaction is a condition in which a person develops flushes or blotches associated with erythema on the face, neck, shoulders, and in some cases, the entire body after consuming alcoholic beverages. The reaction is the result of an accumulation of acetaldehyde, a metabolic byproduct of the catabolic metabolism of alcohol, and is caused by an aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 deficiency.\n", "There are, broadly speaking, two types of drinkers. There is the man whom we all know, stupid, unimaginative, whose brain is bitten numbly by numb maggots; who walks generously with wide-spread, tentative legs, falls frequently in the gutter, and who sees, in the extremity of his ecstasy, blue mice and pink elephants. He is the type that gives rise to the jokes in the funny papers.\n", "Alcohol flush reaction is a condition in which an individual's face or body experiences flushes or blotches as a result of an accumulation of acetaldehyde, a metabolic byproduct of the catabolic metabolism of alcohol. It is best known as a condition that is experienced by people of Asian descent. According to the analysis by HapMap Project, the rs671 allele of the ALDH2 gene responsible for the flush reaction is rare among Europeans and Africans, and it is very rare among Mexican-Americans. 30% to 50% of people of Chinese and Japanese ancestry have at least one ALDH*2 allele. The rs671 form of ALDH2, which accounts for most incidents of alcohol flush reaction worldwide, is native to East Asia and most common in southeastern China. It most likely originated among Han Chinese in central China, and it appears to have been positively selected in the past. Another analysis correlates the rise and spread of rice cultivation in Southern China with the spread of the allele. The reasons for this positive selection aren't known, but it's been hypothesized that elevated concentrations of acetaldehyde may have conferred protection against certain parasitic infections, such as \"Entamoeba histolytica\". The same SNP allele of ALDH2, also termed glu487lys, and the abnormal accumulation of acetaldehyde following the drinking of alcohol, is associated with the alcohol-induced respiratory reactions of rhinitis and asthma that occur in Eastern Asian populations.\n", "Murray attended Clarence High School in Clarence, New York. He became a fan of literature and played football. In his late teens, he broke his nose. This led to reports during his career that he had received a nose job. Murray clarified in a 2004 interview, \"I got jumped in a Burger King when I was 18 and had my nose put on the other side of my face. It was three guys – what the hell was I supposed to do? The doctors didn't even bother running X-rays. They just reset it. But it wasn't a nose job – I hate the fact that people say it was a nose job!\"\n", "Avicenna calls this humour \"the most excellent of all\" the humours. This section describes blood and compares its healthy states with its unhealthy states. Avicenna describes healthy blood as \"red in colour, has no unpleasant odour, and has a very sweet taste.\" Abnormality of the blood stems from a change in temperament or an unhealthy humour has polluted it.\n\nSection::::Book 1.:The Humours.:The serous humour.\n", "There are several key signs which point towards mucormycosis. One such sign is fungal invasion into the blood vessels which results in the formation of blood clots and surrounding tissue death due to a loss of blood supply. If the disease involves the brain, then symptoms may include a one-sided headache behind the eyes, facial pain, fevers, nasal congestion that progresses to black discharge, and acute sinusitis along with eye swelling. Affected skin may appear relatively normal during the earliest stages of infection. This skin quickly becomes reddened and may be swollen before eventually turning black due to tissue death. Other forms of mucormycosis may involve the lungs, skin, or be widespread throughout the body; symptoms may also include difficulty breathing, and persistent cough. In cases of tissue death, symptoms include nausea and vomiting, coughing up blood, and abdominal pain.\n", "Other effects include \"nausea, headache and general physical discomfort\".\n\nMany cases of alcohol-induced respiratory reactions, which involve rhinitis and worsening of asthma, develop within 1–60 minutes of drinking alcohol and are due to the same causes as flush reactions.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Section::::Prognosis.\n", "Fatty change, or steatosis is the accumulation of fatty acids in liver cells. These can be seen as fatty globules under the microscope. Alcoholism causes development of large fatty globules (macro vesicular steatosis) throughout the liver and can begin to occur after a few days of heavy drinking. Alcohol is metabolized by alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) into acetaldehyde, then further metabolized by aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) into acetic acid, which is finally oxidized into carbon dioxide () and water (). This process generates NADH, and increases the NADH/NAD+ ratio. A higher NADH concentration induces fatty acid synthesis while a decreased NAD level results in decreased fatty acid oxidation. Subsequently, the higher levels of fatty acids signal the liver cells to compound it to glycerol to form triglycerides. These triglycerides accumulate, resulting in fatty liver.\n", "When combined with the consumption of alcohol, it causes \"Coprinus syndrome\". Symptoms include facial reddening, nausea, vomiting, malaise, agitation, palpitations and tingling in limbs, and arise five to ten minutes after consumption of alcohol. The signs are similar to those induced by disulfiram (Antabuse) and subsequent alcohol consumption. If no more alcohol is consumed, the symptoms will generally subside over two or three hours. Symptom severity is proportional to the amount of alcohol consumed.\n", "Section::::Risk factors.\n\nVarious factors may affect one's susceptibility to blood vessel disorders, including behavioural (e.g. smoking), demographic (e.g. age) and genetic (family history) factors. Most of these risk factors first promote the increase in blood pressure, followed by other symptoms and signs.\n\nSection::::Risk factors.:Age.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02257	How are AR15 rifles any different than another semi-automatic firearm?	Your question is more or less the point. It isn't different than any other semi automatic weapon, at least not functionally. You could make arguments about ergonomics, I suppose, but the main issue is that people are hyper focusing on the one thing, not realizing it's actually not that uncommon. I guess in that sense, the thing that sets the AR-15 apart is it's ubiquity.	[ "Section::::AR-7 variants.:Charter Arms Explorer II pistol.:Legal note.\n", "This gun's internal design shares parts with its clone of M-16/Ar-15 body in .22 cal. See Armscor M16 22 for more info. Magazines can work between both Armscor rifles but each being designed to imitate a different style will of course not fit flush. Nor will they look like the intended imitation. In each magazine's shell housing is the same Squires Bingham magazine design.\n\nRecoil\n", "BULLET::::- AR-18, .223 Remington select-fire rifle (smaller version of the AR-16, made 1962–1964)\n\nBULLET::::- AR-180, .223 Remington semi-auto sporting rifle (civilian version of the AR-18)\n\nBULLET::::- AR-10B, .308 Win semi-auto rifle (1994–Present)\n\nBULLET::::- AR-10A, .308 Win semi-auto rifle (2006–Present) (re-designed AR-10 - most parts are not compatible with AR-10B)\n\nBULLET::::- AR-10 SuperSASS, .308 Win semi-auto sniper system (2006–Present)\n\nBULLET::::- AR-20, .50 BMG single shot rifle (1998–1999)\n\nBULLET::::- AR-22, blank firing device for the Mk 19 40 mm grenade launcher (1998–2008)\n\nBULLET::::- AR-23, sub-caliber training device for the Mk 19 40 mm grenade launcher (1998–2008)\n\nBULLET::::- AR-24, 9 mm pistol (2006–2012)\n", "List of AR platform calibers\n\nThe AR platform has become widely popular for makers of military and sporting rifles. Although the designations \"AR-10\" and \"AR-15\" are respectively trademarks of ArmaLite and Colt, variants of both are made by many manufacturers.\n\nSection::::AR-15 calibers.\n\nSection::::AR-15 calibers.:Rimfire calibers.\n\nBULLET::::- .17 Mach 2\n\nBULLET::::- .17 HMR\n\nBULLET::::- .17 Winchester Super Magnum\n\nBULLET::::- .22 Long Rifle\n\nBULLET::::- .22 Winchester Magnum Rimfire\n\nSection::::AR-15 calibers.:Centerfire calibers inch measurement.\n\nBULLET::::- .17 Mach IV\n\nBULLET::::- .17 Remington Fireball\n\nBULLET::::- .17 Remington\n\nBULLET::::- .17-223\n\nBULLET::::- .20 Practical\n\nBULLET::::- .204 Ruger\n\nBULLET::::- .222 Remington\n", "BULLET::::- Patriot Ordnance Factory rifles and carbines\n\nBULLET::::- Remington R5 RGP\n\nBULLET::::- Rock River Arms LAR-15\n\nBULLET::::- Ruger SR-556\n\nBULLET::::- Savage Arms MSR-15\n\nBULLET::::- SIG Sauer SIG516\n\nBULLET::::- SIG Sauer SIGM400\n\nBULLET::::- Smith & Wesson M&P15\n\nBULLET::::- Stag Arms STAG-15\n\nBULLET::::- Taurus T4SA\n\nBULLET::::- Wilson Combat Tactical Rifle\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of Colt AR-15 & M16 rifle variants, a list of Colt-made firearms based on the ArmaLite AR-15 design\n\nBULLET::::- List of most-produced firearms, comparison of relative production of modern firearms\n\nSection::::Bibliography.\n", "BULLET::::- .500 Auto Max\n\nSection::::Other AR pattern rifles.\n\nSome companies have created AR pattern rifles that depart from the standard AR-15 and AR-10 dimensions in order to accommodate other types of ammunition that would not fit into the those standards.\n\nExamples include:\n\nBULLET::::- .300 Winchester Magnum\n\nBULLET::::- .30-06 Springfield\n\nBULLET::::- 7mm Remington Magnum\n\nBULLET::::- .270 Winchester\n\nBULLET::::- .25-06 Remington\n\nBULLET::::- .338 Lapua Magnum\n\nBULLET::::- .458 Winchester Magnum\n\nSection::::Other AR pattern firearms.\n\nA variety of manufacturers have introduced semiautomatic shotguns whose overall designs are heavily influenced by the AR pattern rifle.\n\nBULLET::::- 12 Gauge\n\nBULLET::::- 20 Gauge\n\nBULLET::::- .410 bore\n", "BULLET::::- \"A2\": Also referred to as the \"government\" or \"gov't\" profile. Barrel profile for which the portion of the barrel in front of handguards is thickened to 0.715 inches\n\nBULLET::::- \"HBAR\": A barrel that in some portion is thicker than government-profile, usually underneath the handguards\n\nBULLET::::- \"M4\": Government barrel profile with small portion reduced to 0.575 inches to mount M203 grenade launcher\n\nBULLET::::- \"M4 HBAR\": M4 barrel with portion under handguard thickened for sustained automatic fire\n\nBULLET::::- \"Super Heavy\": Special Colt bull target/match barrel\n\nBULLET::::- \"SFW\": Special Forces Weapon profile, A2 profile with \"fat\" portion forward of the sight triangle\n", "BULLET::::- 1997–2007: Henry Repeating Arms Co. - Brooklyn, New York\n\nBULLET::::- 2007–present: Henry Repeating Arms Co. - Bayonne, New Jersey\n\nSection::::AR-7 variants.\n\nSection::::AR-7 variants.:ArmaLite AR-7 Explorer.\n", "Section::::Colt military models.\n", "Some AR-15-style rifles have features limiting use of detachable magazines to comply with state regulations. A few unusual versions are incapable of semi-automatic fire. Nearly all versions of the civilian AR-15 have a pistol grip like the military versions, and some have folding or collapsible stocks like the M4 carbine which reduce the overall length of the rifle.\n\nSection::::Comparison to military versions.\n", "Two scholars have written: \"One problem inherent in the study of [assault weapons (AW)] is that the classifications of AW are based on cosmetic features of firearms... For instance, the Colt AR-15 series of semi-automatic rifles—the civilian version of the fully automatic M-16 rifle issued to U.S. soldiers—was subject to the 1994 AW restrictions, but the Ruger Mini-14 rifle was not banned. Yet, the Mini-14 is the same caliber, has a similar barrel length, the same semi-automatic action, and can use magazines that hold 30 rounds of ammunition. The only real meaningful difference between the two firearms is cosmetic: The AR-15 rifle looks more dangerous.\"\n", "Section::::Glossary of terms.:Handguards.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Triangular\": Triangular rifle handguards\n\nBULLET::::- \"Short Triangular\": Carbine length triangular handguards\n\nBULLET::::- \"Round\": Smooth round rifle handguards\n\nBULLET::::- \"Short Round\": Carbine length smooth round handguard\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ribbed\": Ribbed round rifle handguards\n\nBULLET::::- \"Short Ribbed\": Carbine length ribbed handguards\n\nBULLET::::- \"Square LMG\": Special heavy handguards with integral vertical grip for use during sustained fire\n\nBULLET::::- \"FF Tube\": Free-Float Tube\n\nBULLET::::- \"M4\": Oval carbine handguards with double heatshields\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rail System\": Handguards are replaced with a Rail Integration System.\n", "List of ArmaLite rifles\n\nAn Armalite rifle is one of a series of rifles made by the ArmaLite company, or more generally a rifle based on one of their designs, such as the ArmaLite AR-15 rifle. Eugene Stoner, Jacques Michault, Melvin Johnson, Robert Fremont and Jim Sullivan are some of the designers credited with their development. In the United States, these rifles are generally known by their model numbers. The AR before the model number stands for \"ArmaLite Rifle\".\n\nAnd marketed the Turkish made AR-24 pistol in the U.S.\n\nSection::::In popular culture.\n", "List of Colt AR-15 & M16 rifle variants\n", "Section::::Features.:Colt ArmaLite AR-15 (Model 601 & 602).\n\nColt's first two models produced after the acquisition of the rifle from ArmaLite were the 601 and 602, and these rifles were in many ways clones of the original ArmaLite rifle (in fact, these rifles were often found stamped \"Colt ArmaLite AR-15, Property of the U.S. Government caliber .223\", with no reference to them being M16s). \n", "Section::::AR-15 calibers.:Calibers which will not feed but which are used in rifles where the receiver functions only as a trigger group.\n\nBULLET::::- .338 Lapua Magnum\n\nBULLET::::- .408 CheyTac\n\nBULLET::::- .50 BMG\n\nSection::::AR-10 calibers.\n\nSection::::AR-10 calibers.:Center fire calibers.\n\nBULLET::::- .220 Swift\n\nBULLET::::- .22-250 Remington\n\nBULLET::::- 6mm-250\n\nBULLET::::- .243 Winchester - same bolt as 7.62×51 (worn-down barrels can be re-bored to take 6.5 Creedmoor or 7.62×51)\n\nBULLET::::- 6MM Remington\n\nBULLET::::- 6MM Creedmoor\n\nBULLET::::- 257 Roberts\n\nBULLET::::- 6.5×47mm Lapua\n\nBULLET::::- 6.5mm Creedmoor - same bolt as 7.62×51, and can be formed from 7.62×51 brass\n", "b) Trial courts cannot determine if a given firearm/receiver is of the AR or AK \"series\". Prohibited weapons in AR/AK \"series\" must be specifically identified by make and model and the Department of Justice (DOJ) must promulgate this list.\n\nc) DOJ has authority to 'identify' and promulgate new members of the AR & AK \"series\" itself. This authority is limited to AR and AK series firearms/receivers.\n", "Advanced Armament Corporation builds a number of rifles and receivers for this caliber including the MPW and the AAC Honey Badger PDW.\n\nSection::::Products.:Rifles.\n\nBULLET::::- PDW, a suppressed personal defense weapon based on the AR-15 and chambered in .300 AAC Blackout.\n\nBULLET::::- MPW (Multi-Purpose Weapon), a rifle chambered in .300 AAC Blackout, made with 16\" and 12.5\" barrels.\n\nSection::::American Silencer Association.\n", "This reinterpretation had the effect of re-classifying as MSSAs many weapons previously considered to be sporting-configuration firearms, including the Heckler & Koch SL8 and USC, and the Dragunov sniper rifle. Transitional arrangements were made by the police to allow owners of such weapons to either register them, obtaining the necessary firearms endorsements if required, or dispose of them. The transitional period ended on 31 March 2010.\n", "The semi-automatic civilian AR-15 was introduced by Colt in 1963. The primary distinction between civilian semi-automatic rifles and military assault rifles is select fire. Military models were produced with firing modes, semi-automatic fire and either fully automatic fire mode or burst fire mode, in which the rifle fires several rounds in succession when the trigger is depressed. Most components are interchangeable between semi-auto and select fire rifles including magazines, sights, upper receiver, barrels and accessories. The military M4 carbine typically uses a barrel. Civilian rifles commonly have or longer barrels to comply with the National Firearms Act.\n", "Section::::Production and sales.\n", "In 2009, the term \"modern sporting rifle\" was coined by the National Shooting Sports Foundation for its survey that year as a marketing term used by the firearms industry to describe modular semi-automatic rifles including AR-15s. Today, nearly every major firearm manufacturer produces its own generic AR-15 style rifle. As Colt continues to own and use the AR-15 trademark for its line of AR-15 variants, other manufacturers must use their own model numbers and names to market their AR-15 style rifles for commercial sale.\n\nSection::::Modularity.\n", "Conversely, after the Supreme Court ruling in \"United States v. Thompson/Center Arms Co.\", modifying the pistol to accept the rifle barrel and/or stock, or modifying the rifle barrel or stock to fit the pistol is legal so long as you do not have the rifle stock attached at the same time as the pistol barrel. It is legal (as a pistol) to have the rifle barrel attached with the pistol grip; there is no federal maximum pistol barrel length.\n\nIn the United Kingdom this rifle is a section 1 firearm requiring a FAC\n\nSection::::AR-7 variants.:AR-7 Industries.\n", "The AR-180 is capable of semi-automatic fire only and was externally identical in appearance to the AR-18 with one exception; the selector has only two positions, omitting the third \"AUTO\" position found on the AR-18. There are minor differences between the variants; to select \"FIRE\" on the Howa rifles the selector lever must be pivoted 180 degrees from \"SAFE\" so it is pointing forward towards the muzzle (where \"AUTO\" would be on a selective-fire rifle), while on the Sterling rifles, the \"SEMI\" position is the same as the \"SEMI\" position on a selective-fire rifle; 90 degrees from \"SAFE\" with the selector lever pointing down. Towards the end of AR-180 production at ArmaLite's Costa Mesa shop in 1972, some unused AR-18 lowers were used to assemble AR-180s. The \"SEMI\" and \"AUTO\" positions were scrubbed and the \"AUTO\" position was relabeled \"FIRE\". The selector lever on these particular rifles would have to be pivoted 180 degrees from \"SAFE\" to \"FIRE\" the same way as Howa manufactured rifles.\n", "BULLET::::- Super Match Interdiction Rifle\n\nSection::::Products.:.22 LR.\n\nBULLET::::- Operator Pak - Consists of a .22 caliber integrally suppressed pistol, a lock knife, and a belt pouch\n\nBULLET::::- OSS High Standard - Reproduction of the original High Standard HDM pistol used by the Office of Strategic Services during World War II.\n\nBULLET::::- Mont Blanc Pen Gun - Pen gun sold only to U.S. Government, as it is designed to breach high-security situations\n\nBULLET::::- AT 10/22 QD - Short-barreled version of the Ruger 10/22 designed to use Arms Tech's QD-223 suppressor.\n\nSection::::Products.:Other.\n" ]	[ "AR15 rifles are different than another semi-automatic firearm.", "AR15 rifles are different than semi automatic weapons." ]	[ "AR15 rifles are not different than another semi-automatic firearm.", "AR15 rifles aren't really any different than semi automatic weapons at all. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "AR15 rifles are different than another semi-automatic firearm.", "AR15 rifles are different than semi automatic weapons." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "AR15 rifles are not different than another semi-automatic firearm.", "AR15 rifles aren't really any different than semi automatic weapons at all. " ]
2018-01243	Why do military websites all have certificate issues that require you to add a security exception to access on civilian computers?	"How do you trust that someone is who they say they are" is a very tricky question. The approach that most of the modern Internet uses works well enough, but still has plenty of problems. Your computer keeps a list of trusted organizations. It also has a key to verify if something came from that trusted organization. If your receives a certificate signed by a trusted organization verifying the website's identity, it trusts it. Those organizations can also sign documents saying "this other organization is trustworthy, you can trust documents they sign too". So as long as an organization trusted by an organization your computer trusts signs the certificate, your computer is also fine with it. One tricky part of this is figuring out who is trustworthy in the first place. The initial list that your computer trusts is curated by the operating system and browser writers. Different browsers and operating systems may have different lists, but they're generally all pretty close and consist of a mix of private companies and governments. The US military is not one of these default trusted organizations. They also choose not to go through any of these default trusted organizations. Instead, they sign their own certificates and you have to tell your browser "the US military is an organization that I trust" in order for them to be OK with the connection.	[ "Section::::Public HTTPS access.\n\nThe web site for distribution of LPS-Public is served over HTTPS, but uses a TLS certificate that is signed by a certificate authority managed directly by the Department of Defense through Defense Information Systems Agency. This CA is not trusted by most non-DoD operating systems and browsers. Because of this, visiting the site or downloading the ISO will generate a browser security warning indicating that the certificate is not trusted. Military-issued devices already include this certificate authority in their list of trusted CAs, and so they will not see these errors.\n", "To indicate that only the certificate authority identified by \"ca.example.net\" is authorized to issue certificates for example.com and all subdomains, one may use this CAA record:\n\nTo disallow any certificate issuance, one may allow issuance only to an empty issuer list:\n\nTo indicate that certificate authorities should report invalid certificate requests to an email address and a Real-time Inter-network Defense endpoint:\n\nTo use a future extension of the protocol, for example, one which defines a new \"future\" property, which needs to be understood by the certificate authority before they can safely proceed, one may set the \"issuer critical\" flag:\n", "The sole avenue for appeal against the Certificate is the Inspector-General of Intelligence and Security (Immigration Act 1987 s 114I(3)). It is the role of the Inspector-General to determine whether the certificate was properly issued. This is not, properly speaking, an appeal or rehearing. In doing so, he or she has privileged access to classified security information, significant powers, and wide discretion as to how to use them (They are acting, however, in a quasi-judicial capacity; \"Zaoui v Attorney-General\", unreported, High Court, Auckland, 19 December 2003, Williams J, CIV-2003-404-5872, para 28). The position of the Inspector-General was created in conjunction with the 1996 amendment to the New Zealand Security Intelligence Service Act.\n", "Using attribute certificate, the service or resource host does not need to maintain an access control list that can potentially be large or to always be connected to a network to access a central server like when using Kerberos. It is similar to the idea of capabilities in which the permission (or permissions) to use a service or resource is not stored in the service or resource itself but in the users using a tamper resistance mechanism.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Public key certificate\n\nBULLET::::- Security Assertion Markup Language\n\nBULLET::::- Shibboleth\n\nBULLET::::- Voms\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- SPKI/SDSI Certificate Documentation\n", "BULLET::::- X.509 certificate of the server\n\nBULLET::::- Is the certificate self signed?\n\nBULLET::::- Is the certificate signed by a trusted CA?\n\nBULLET::::- Has the certificate been revoked?\n\nBULLET::::- Has the certificate been changed recently?\n\nBULLET::::- Do other clients, elsewhere on the Internet, also get the same certificate?\n\nSection::::Notable instances.\n", "A user may also need to obtain several ACs from different issuers to use a particular service. For example, a company gives one of its employees a company-wide AC that specifies engineering department as the work area. To access engineering data, however, the employee also needs a security clearance AC from the head of the engineering department. In this example, the resource of engineering data needs to be preinstalled with the public keys of both the company-wide and the engineering department AC issuers.\n\nSection::::Contents of a typical attribute certificate.\n\nVersion: the version of the certificate.\n", "The key that signs a response need not be the same key that signed the certificate. The certificate's issuer may delegate another authority to be the OCSP responder. In this case, the responder's certificate (the one that is used to sign the response) must be issued by the issuer of the certificate in question, and must include a certain extension that marks it as an OCSP signing authority (more precisely, an extended key usage extension with the OID {iso(1) identified-organization(3) dod(6) internet(1) security(5) mechanisms(5) pkix(7) keyPurpose(3) ocspSigning(9)})\n\nSection::::Privacy concerns.\n", "Domain validation implementations have sometimes been a source of security vulnerabilities. In one instance, security researchers showed that attackers could obtain certificates for webmail sites because a CA was willing to use an email address like [email protected] for domain.com, but not all webmail systems had reserved the \"ssladmin\" username to prevent attackers from registering it.\n", "Tunneled EAP methods using TTLS or PEAP which encrypt the MSCHAPv2 exchange are widely deployed to protect against exploitation of this vulnerability. However, prevalent WPA2 client implementations during the early 2000s were prone to misconfiguration by end users, or in some cases (e.g. Android), lacked any user-accessible way to properly configure validation of AAA server certificate CNs. This extended the relevance of the original weakness in MSCHAPv2 within MiTM attack scenarios. Under stricter WPA2 compliance tests announce alongside WPA3, certified client software will be required to conform to certain behaviors surrounding AAA certificate validation.\n\nSection::::Security issues.:Hole196.\n", "Most web browsers may show a lock (often in grey, rather than the green lock typically used for an Extended Validation Certificate) and a DNS domain name. A legal entity is never displayed, as domain validated certificates do not include a legal entity in their subject.\n\nBULLET::::- Mozilla Firefox historically showed domain validated certificates with a grey lock, but this was modified to show a green lock for domain-validated connections after Mozilla launched Let's Encrypt (which only provides domain validated certificates).\n\nBULLET::::- Safari shows domain validated certificates with a grey lock.\n", "Prior to 2011, there was no standard list of email addresses that could be used for domain validation, so it was not clear to email administrators which addresses needed to be reserved. The first version of the CA/Browser Forum Baseline Requirements, adopted November 2011, specified a list of such addresses. This allowed mail hosts to reserve those addresses for administrative use, though such precautions are still not universal. In January 2015, a Finnish man registered the username \"hostmaster\" at the Finnish version of Microsoft Live and was able to obtain a domain-validated certificate for live.fi, despite not being the owner of the domain name.\n", "A comparable procedure to the current system for review of a Security Risk Certificate is that provided for the designation of an entity as a terrorist entity or an associated entity of a terrorist by the Prime Minister under the Terrorism Suppression Act 2002 (ss 20, 22). Under s 38 a marked departure occurs from New Zealand's open justice and adversarial process in procedures relating to such applications to challenge or to appeal such designation.\n", "There is a right of appeal to the Court of Appeal against a decision of the Inspector-General which confirms the certificate, on the ground that the decision is \"erroneous in point of law\" (Immigration Act 1987 s 114P(1)).\n\nSection::::Example.\n\nMost famously Algerian refugee Ahmed Zaoui was incarcerated in a maximum security prison in solitary confinement on the strength of a report produced by the threat assessment unit of the Police.\n", "Google launched its first certificate transparency log in March 2013. In September 2013, DigiCert became the first certificate authority to implement Certificate Transparency.\n\nGoogle Chrome began requiring Certificate Transparency for newly issued Extended Validation Certificates in 2015. It began requiring Certificate Transparency for all certificates newly issued by Symantec from June 1, 2016, after they were found to have issued 187 certificates without the domain owners' knowledge.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- - Internet Engineering Task Force\n\nBULLET::::- crt.sh, a Certificate Transparency Log search engine\n\nBULLET::::- Thawte CryptoReport, Search Certificate Transparency logs\n\nBULLET::::- Symantec CryptoReport, Search Certificate Transparency logs\n", "A web browser will give no warning to the user if a web site suddenly presents a different certificate, even if that certificate has a lower number of key bits, even if it has a different provider, and even if the previous certificate had an expiry date far into the future. However a change from an EV certificate to a non-EV certificate will be apparent as the green bar will no longer be displayed. Where certificate providers are under the jurisdiction of governments, those governments may have the freedom to order the provider to generate any certificate, such as for the purposes of law enforcement. Subsidiary wholesale certificate providers also have the freedom to generate any certificate.\n", "BULLET::::- A value of 1 is for what is commonly called \"Service certificate constraint\" (and PKIX-EE). The certificate used must match the TLSA record exactly, and it must also pass PKIX certification path validation to a trusted root-CA.\n\nBULLET::::- A value of 2 is for what is commonly called \"Trust Anchor Assertion\" (and DANE-TA). The certificate used has a valid certification path pointing back to the certificate mention in this record, but there is no need for it to pass the PKIX certification path validation to a trusted root-CA.\n", "A series of incorrectly issued certificates from 2001 onwards damaged trust in publicly trusted certificate authorities, and accelerated work on various security mechanisms, including Certificate Transparency to track mis-issuance, HTTP Public Key Pinning and DANE to block mis-issued certificates on the client-side, and CAA to block mis-issuance on the certificate authority side.\n", "BULLET::::- A value of 3 is for what is commonly called \"Domain issued certificate\" (and DANE-EE). The services uses a self-signed certificate. It is not signed by anyone else, and is exactly this record.\n\nSection::::TLSA RR.:RR data fields.:Selector.\n\nWhen connecting to the service and a certificate is received, the selector field specifies which parts of it should be checked.\n\nBULLET::::- A value of 0 means to select the entire certificate for matching.\n", "People named under certificates are exempted from legal provisions designed to prevent deportations to risk of torture or other human rights abuse. The government's position, following its interpretation of the Supreme Court Suresh ruling, is that a named individual can be deported even if it is found that they risk torture or death.\n\nSection::::Outstanding security certificates.\n\nAdil Charkaoui's security certificate was quashed in October 2009 by the Federal Court. Hassan Almrei's security certificate was quashed in December 2009. Three others remain imprisoned under house arrest. The conditions of the three people subject to outstanding certificates are as follows:\n", "Many Certificate Authorities also offer Extended Validation (EV) certificates as a more rigorous alternative to domain validated certificates. Extended validation is intended to verify not only control of a domain name, but additional identity information to be included in the certificate. Some browsers display this additional identity information in a green box in the URL bar. One limitation of EV as a solution to the weaknesses of domain validation is that attackers could still obtain a domain validated certificate for the victim domain, and deploy it during an attack; if that occurred, the difference observable to the victim user would be the absence of a green bar with the company name. There is some question as to whether users would be likely to recognise this absence as indicative of an attack being in progress: a test using Internet Explorer 7 in 2009 showed that the absence of IE7's EV warnings were not noticed by users, however Microsoft's current browser, Edge, shows a significantly greater difference between EV and domain validated certificates, with domain validated certificates having a hollow, grey lock.\n", "Section::::Providing security.:Time-stamping.\n\nTime-stamping was designed to circumvent the trust warning that will appear in the case of an expired certificate. In effect, time-stamping extends the code trust beyond the validity period of a certificate. \n\nIn the event that a certificate has to be revoked due to a compromise, a specific date and time of the compromising event will become part of the revocation record. In this case, time-stamping helps establish whether the code was signed before or after the certificate was compromised.\n\nSection::::Providing security.:Code-Signing in Xcode.\n", "BULLET::::- have \"been provided to the New Zealand Security Intelligence Service by the government of any other country or by an agency of such a government, and is information that cannot be disclosed by the Service because the government or agency by which that information has been provided will not consent to the disclosure\" (s 114B(1)(a)(iii))\n\nBULLET::::- \"prejudice the security or defence of New Zealand or the international relations of the Government of New Zealand\" (s 114B(1)(b)(i)) or\n", "A different attack was used against Comodo, a certificate authority, that resulted in forged certificates that were directed at high-profile communications websites. This necessitated an emergency patch to major browsers. These certificates were actually issued from a trusted Certificate Authority, and therefore a user would have had no warning if they had gone to a faked website, in contrast with the Syria incident, where the certificate was crudely forged, including substituting Alto Palo, for Palo Alto. and incorrect serial numbers.\n", "Despite these restrictions, DuckDuckGo launched an onion site with a self-signed certificate in July 2013; Facebook obtained the first SSL Onion certificate to be issued by a Certificate authority in October 2014, Blockchain.info in December 2014, and The Intercept in April 2015. The New York Times later joined in October 2017.\n", "BULLET::::- Like all businesses, CAs are subject to the legal jurisdictions they operate within, and may be legally compelled to compromise the interests of their customers and their users. Intelligence agencies have also made use of false certificates issued through extralegal compromise of CAs, such as DigiNotar, to carry out man-in-the-middle attacks. Another example is a revocation request of the CA of the Dutch government, because of a new Dutch law becoming active starting January 1, 2018, giving new powers for the Dutch intelligence and security services.\n\nSection::::Security.:Implementation issues.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-18232	We always hear that the military is "fighting to protect our rights." But who are they fighting and why do they want to take away our rights?	That statement is not meant to be taken literally. The implication is that if, hypothetically, someone were to bring us harm, the military would stop them. By that logic, anyone who joins the military has signed up to (maybe, someday) die for our freedom.	[ "BULLET::::- Military censorship of blogs written by military personnel claiming some include sensitive information ineligible for release. Some critics view military officials as trying to suppress dissent from troops in the field. The US Constitution specifically limits the human rights of active duty members, and this constitutional authority is used to limit speech rights by members in this and in other ways.\n\nSome laws remain controversial due to concerns that they infringe on freedom of expression. These include the Digital Millennium Copyright Act and the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act.\n", "Section::::Events.\n", "Protesting \"a pall of repression\" and referring specifically to the USA PATRIOT Act as emblematic of that repression, it accuses the executive branch of usurping \"the roles and functions of the other branches of government,\" and continues, \"We must take the highest officers of the land seriously when they talk of a war that will last a generation and when they speak of a new domestic order. We are confronting a new openly imperial policy towards the world and a domestic policy that manufactures and manipulates fear to curtail rights.\"\n", "Section::::Immigrants.\n\nCTR's most recent campaign opposes the use of U.S. military personnel in immigrant detention camps and on U.S. borders. CTR produced materials encouraging soldiers to resist the “illegal” orders in relation to immigration and they support GIs who have publicly resisted. For example, they support U.S. Army Captain Brittany DeBarros's uses social media and public statements to voice her opposition to the military's immigrant related deployments. She stated, “I didn’t take an oath to defend illegal war abroad and immigrant concentration camps at home. True leaders refuse illegal and immoral orders.”\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Iraq Veterans Against the War\n", "The journal was established in 1996 by Hank Johnston (San Diego State University). Johnston edited the journal for eleven years after which he was succeeded by Daniel J. Myers (University of Notre Dame) and then Rory McVeigh (University of Notre Dame). During Johnston's run as editor, the journal moved first from two to three issues per year and, starting with volume eleven, eventually became a quarterly journal. The current editor-in-chief is Neal Caren (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill).\n", "The goal of MDM as an organization is to educate GIs to the real causes of their oppression, and to help them move to put an end to the problem. Through a black-brown-white coalition, we will educate one another, struggle together and defend one another. Rising as one, with clenched fists, we will break the man's chains. We are not afraid of the man's stockades; we've been there. The Vietnamese freedom fighters have shown us the way: a united force of brothers and sisters determined to free themselves can defeat the U.S. military monster.\n\nSection::::Harassment and Attacks.\n", "Section::::Transition to democracy.\n", "Section::::Preamble and 12 Demands.\n\nAt this rally, MDM's spokespeople presented and explained the organization's Preamble and 12 Demands, which had also been published simultaneously in the December 1, 1970 issues of \"Duck Power\" and \"Attitude Check\". The Preamble stated \"that ending the suppression of the American serviceman is an important part of a larger struggle for basic human rights\" and pledged \"support for the self-determination of all peoples.\" It ended, \"We have been silent for a long time. We will be silent no longer.\"\n", "Section::::Controversy.:Radicalism.\n\nMDM itself was quite upfront with its radicalism. As the August 1970 \"Right-on Post\" newspaper published at Fort Ord put it:\n", "Lawyers and legal scholars said that the occupiers \"are making demands that fly in the face of the U.S. Constitution.\" Erwin Chemerinsky, the dean and Distinguished Professor of Law at the University of California, Irvine School of Law, wrote:\n", "H.R. McMaster observed that it was easier for officers in the Gulf War to connect national policy to the actual fighting than was the case during Vietnam. He concluded that the Vietnam War had actually been lost in Washington, D.C., before any fighting occurred, due to a fundamental failure on the part of the civilian and military actors involved to argue the issues adequately. McMaster, who urged a more direct debate between civilians and the military on defense policy and actions, and Summers, who argued for a clear separation between civilians and the military, both pointed out controversies over the proper roles of civilian and military leaders.\n", "\"\"We are Warfighter Logisticians and Supporters, prepared to give the shirts off our backs and boots off our feet, to support the fight. We will never say no, as long as there is one gallon of gas to give, or one bullet to give\"\"\n\nSection::::Early life and education.\n", "Section::::Spread.\n\nSection::::Spread.:San Diego.\n", "Section::::Limitations on military expression.\n\nWhile the civilian population of the United States is afforded the right to free expression under the First Amendment, the U.S. Supreme Court has affirmed the notion that service members have a reduced level of free speech. While the Court acknowledged that service members do have First Amendment rights, these rights are limited:\n\nSection::::After September 11, 2001.\n", "Attorneys Carl J. Mayer and Bruce I. Afran filed a complaint January 13, 2012, in the Southern U.S. District Court in New York City on the behalf of Chris Hedges against Barack Obama and Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta to challenge the legality of the Authorization for Use of Military Force as embedded in the latest version of the National Defense Authorization Act, signed by the president December 31. Lt. Col. Barry Wingard, a military attorney representing prisoners at Guantanamo Bay Detention Camp, noted that under the NDAA \"an American citizen can be detained forever without trial, while the allegations against you go uncontested because you have no right to see them\".\n", "Initially, many COM members wanted to stay within the military and felt they had a right to express dissenting views. In fact, their third newsletter argued that responsible dissent \"can and must be allowed to exist in the military, if it is to keep pace with the times in which we live.\" \"We believe that such expressions of our convictions are within our rights, and that in expressing them, we are following our obligations as officers to defend the Constitution.\" The organization felt the armed forces were an insular and hidebound world and explored ways to establish the right of free speech for active duty servicemen, both officers and enlisted.\n", "Ricks goes on to quote Wyly \"We must be willing to realize that our real enemy is as likely to appear within our own borders as without.\" He (Wyly) then took swipes at the two fundamental principles of U.S. military professionalism: unwavering subordination to civilian control and nonparticipation in politics. Ricks then quotes Wyly from a later article: \"If our laws and self-image of our role as military professionals do not allow for [the recognition that the real enemy may be within] we need to change them.\" Ricks writes \" Wyly raised the possibility that the Marines would refuse to enforce certain laws. Specifically, if Congress were to restrict gun ownership, then Marines would need to understand that \"enforcing such a restriction could quickly make us the enemy of constitutional freedom.\"\n", "\"smashed down the door of a San Diego store front ... to break up a peaceful meeting of Marines, Sailors and civilians.\" This was preceded by \"several hours of terror on the streets in the vicinity by the local and military police during which civilians were threatened and detained by the cops and GI's were taken into custody, physically pushed around and finally arrested on non-existent charges.\"\n\nSection::::Legacy.\n", "MRFF Senior Research Director Chris Rodda was invited to contribute an essay on religious expression in the military to the discursive volume \"Attitudes Aren't Free: Thinking Deeply About Diversity in the US Armed Forces\" published by Air University Press, the publishing arm of the Air University at Maxwell Air Force Base.\n", "Section::::Spread.:Great Lakes Naval Station.\n", "U.S. President Bill Clinton faced frequent allegations throughout his time in office (particularly after the Battle of Mogadishu) that he was ignoring military goals out of political and media pressure—a phenomenon termed the \"CNN effect\". Politicians who personally lack military training and experience but who seek to engage the nation in military action may risk resistance and being labeled \"chickenhawks\" by those who disagree with their political goals.\n", "On 30 June, Attorney-General Qoriniasi Bale said that there was no problem between the government and the military, but added, \"\"The only problem is an army leadership that thinks it rules the Government when it is supposed to be the other way around.\"\" He claimed that measures were underway to resolve the dispute. Bale was responding to concerns raised by the Nadroga-Navosa Provincial Council about the government's passage of controversial legislation in the face of opposition from the military, as well as from foreign governments.\n", "Section::::Founding.\n", "Ultimately, the cultural gap matters only if it endangers civilian control of the military or if it reduces the ability of the country to maintain an effective military force. Those who concentrate on the nature of the gap tend not to be concerned about dangerous trends. However, those who are concerned about the lack of understanding between the civilian and military worlds are uniformly convinced that the civil-military relationship in the United States is unhealthy. Specifically, they have voiced concerns about a military that may become openly contemptuous of civilian norms and values and may then feel free to openly question the value of defending such a society. Others worry whether an inexperienced civilian government will undermine the military by ineffective or inappropriate policies, thus threatening U.S. national security.\n", "War involves fighting by the armed forces in overt operations under rules laid down by the Geneva Convention and acceded to by most civilized nations. To place our uniformed military personnel in any other position is gross breach of trust on the part of their government. War must be perceived as legitimate in the eyes of the people and of the warriors entrusted to do the fighting. For these same reasons I have always firmly opposed employing U.S. military personnel in covert operations which the government can credibly deny.\n" ]	[ "The military is fighting to protect our rights." ]	[ "The statement that the military is fighting to protect our rights is not meant to be taken literally, it refers to hypothetical future events." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The military is fighting to protect our rights.", "The military is \"fighting to protect our rights.\"" ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "The statement that the military is fighting to protect our rights is not meant to be taken literally, it refers to hypothetical future events.", "The statement that the military is \"fighting to protect our rights\" is not meant to be taken literally, it refers to hypothetical future events." ]
2018-18586	How do fish live in aquariums and bowls without getting bored to death?	Actually, some fish are very aware of their surroundings. Like Oscars, they are known to sulk on the bottom of the tank when placed into a new tank. Some fish will stress out and die if their space is not adequate, or they simply will fight over territory and die that way. Fish generally spend their days looking for food, so I guess bored isn’t it, they’re so motivated to keep seeking food. Then some fish actually do create their spaces, they’ll suck up sand/gravel and spit them out in other places, they dig their little space.	[ "Section::::In the aquarium.:Feeding.\n\nThese fish will primarily feed on algae and vegetable laden wafers or tablets; though they might accept worms or such meatier fare, they do not do well on this type of diet. It is quite difficult to get a right balance in feeding these species because of their herbivorous preference.\n\nSection::::In the aquarium.:Breeding.\n", "One physiological characteristic of sleep goes by the name of \"homeostatic regulation\". This is the notion that animals need a more or less constant amount of sleep every day, so that if a subject is deprived of sleep one day, the amount of sleep tends to \"rebound\" (increase) the next few days. This has been observed in zebrafish. At night, zebrafish appear to float in the water column, either horizontally or with the head slightly up. The frequency of mouth and gill movement is reduced by almost half and they are twice as hard to arouse as during the day. If they are deprived of this sleep-like behaviour, the sleep bouts thereafter are longer and the arousal threshold is higher than usual, suggesting a rebound effect. Similarly, in the convict cichlid, activity decreases on days that follow an experimental disruption of the fish's normal rest behaviour at night.\n", "Other fish seem to sleep, however, especially when purely behavioral criteria are used to define sleep. For example, zebrafish, tilapia, tench, brown bullhead, and swell shark become motionless and unresponsive at night (or by day, in the case of the swell shark); Spanish hogfish and blue-headed wrasse can even be lifted by hand all the way to the surface without evoking a response. On the other hand, sleep patterns are easily disrupted and may even disappear during periods of migration, spawning, and parental care.\n\nSection::::Behavioural sleep.\n", "In the laboratory, periods of inactivity often alternate with periods of activity on a 24-h basis, or a near 24-h basis when the lighting conditions are constant. Circadian rhythms of activity have been documented in over 40 different fish species, including hagfish, lamprey, sharks, cyprinids, ictalurids, gymnotids, salmonids, and labrids.\n\nSection::::Physiological sleep.\n", "In Norway, live sardines are several times more expensive than frozen ones, and are valued for better texture and flavor. It was said that only one ship could bring live sardine home, and the shipmaster kept his method a secret. After he died, people found that there was one catfish in the tank. The catfish keeps swimming, and the sardines try to avoid this predator. This increased level of activity keeps the sardines active instead of becoming sedentary, according to Vince from the \"Catfish\" film.\n", "Vince, talking with Nev, tells the story about how live cod were shipped along with catfish in the same tanks to keep the cod active, and thus ensure the quality of the fish. He further explains this as a metaphor on how there are people in everyone's lives who keep them alert, active, and always thinking. It is implied that he believes Angela to be such a person.\n", "Properly kept and fed a correct diet, Siamese fighting fish generally live between 3 and 5 years in captivity, but may live between 7 and 10 years in rare cases.\n\nSection::::In the aquarium.:Aquarium size and cohabitants.\n", "Another advantage of these devices is that electronic fish feeders may also be used to feed amphibians, if they are kept in glass cages. \n", "Instead of examining brain activity for sleep patterns, an alternate approach is to examine any rest/activity cycles that might indicate \"behavioural sleep\". The following four behavioural criteria are characteristic of sleep in birds and mammals and could be extended to fishes: (1) prolonged inactivity; (2) typical resting posture, often in a typical shelter; (3) alternation with activity in a 24-h cycle; (4) high arousal thresholds. Based on these criteria, many fish species have been observed sleeping. The typical sleep posture of the brown bullhead is with the fins stretched out, the tail lying flat on the bottom, the body inclined to one side at an angle of 10-30 degrees to the vertical, the cardiac and respiratory frequencies much slower than normal, and much less sensitivity to sound and to being touched. Mozambique tilapia are motionless at the bottom at night, with a lower respiratory rate and no eye movement, and they do not respond as readily as during the day to electrical currents or food delivery. At night, Spanish hogfish, bluehead wrasse, the wrasse \"Halichoeres bivittatus\", the cunner \"Tautogolabrus adspersus\", and even requiem sharks, can be picked up by hand without eliciting a response. A 1961 observational study of approximately 200 species in European public aquaria reported many cases of apparent sleep.\n", "Sleep could also be absent during specific parts of a fish's life. Species normally quiescent at night become active day and night during the spawning season. Many parental species forego sleep at night and fan their eggs day and night for many days in a row. This has been observed in threespine stickleback, convict cichlid and rainbow cichlid, various species of damselfish, smallmouth bass and largemouth bass, and the brown bullhead. Some diurnal species, like the tautog \"Tautoga onitis\", become active day and night during migration. In the Mozambique tilapia, sleep has been observed in adults, but not in juveniles.\n", "Section::::Absence of sleep.\n", "Section::::Public aquaria.:Behavior.\n\nWhen introduced to their new habitat some mature sharks have refused food despite the abundance and variety of feeding methods used. Over a period of years this results in sharks dying of starvation amidst plenty. \n\nSharks are usually seen to live a solitary existence, rarely moving about in group events, although, a tank could house up to four or five species during the same time period. \n", "Goldfish are curious fish that will quickly become bored without items or other fish to interact with. If placed in a bare aquarium, goldfish will settle to the bottom and only move when fed or frightened by sudden jolts. However, if put in a tank with sufficient gravel, aquarium accessories or plants (real or fake) they will make themselves at home.\n", "Filefish spawn at bottom sites prepared and guarded by the males; both he and the female may guard the brood, or the male alone, depending on the species. The young filefish are pelagic; that is, they frequent open water. \"Sargassum\" provides a safe retreat for many species, both fish and weed being at the current's mercy. Juvenile filefish are at risk from predation by tuna and dolphinfish.\n\nSection::::Filefish as food.\n", "Sleep in fish\n\nWhether fish sleep is an intriguing question, to the point of having inspired the title of several popular science books. In birds and mammals, sleep is defined by eye closure and the presence of typical patterns of electrical activity in the brain, including the neocortex, but fish lack eyelids and a neocortex. Some species that always live in shoals or that swim continuously (because of a need for ram ventilation of the gills, for example) are suspected never to sleep. There is also doubt about certain blind species that live in caves.\n", "species only: 1-4 in a 10 gallon; 5-7 in a 20 gallon, 8-10 in a 30 gallon, and 11-15 in a 45. \| \n\nThese fish prefer open swimming areas as well as many caves. \| \n\nThe aquarium would optimally include a sandy bottom, robust plants, caves, and rocks. \| \n", "The benefits of electronic aquarium feeders are not only that the fish are fed when the aquarist is not at home, but they are also helpful in maintaining the fish' health. Because they are feeding small portions of food at scheduled intervals and precise feedings at appropriate times, the automatic feeders can be successfully used to feed diabetic fish. \n", "Section::::In the aquarium.\n", "Section::::Life-cycle and growth.:Life span.\n\nIn the wild, \"Peltodoris\" exhibits an annual life-cycle, but have been observed to live up to 15 months in the laboratory. They generally die a few weeks after reproduction. \n\nSection::::Diet.\n", "Captive orcas have displayed responses indicating they get bored with activities. For instance, when Paul Spong worked with the orca Skana, he researched her visual skills. However, after performing favorably in the 72 trials per day, Skana suddenly began consistently getting every answer wrong. Spong concluded that a few fish were not enough motivation. He began playing music, which seemed to provide Skana with much more motivation.\n", "The lungfish is reputed to be sluggish and inactive, but it is capable of rapid escape movements with the use of its strong tail. It is usually quiet and unresponsive by day, becoming more active in the late afternoon and evening.\n\nSection::::Breathing.\n", "Section::::Modern fishkeeping.:Live rock.\n", "Aquarium fish feeder\n\nAquarium fish feeders are electric or electronic devices that are designed to feed aquarium fish at regular intervals. They are often used to feed fish when the aquarist is on vacation or is too busy to maintain a regular feeding schedule.\n\nSection::::Design.\n", "Adults have a high survival rate and are long-lived (at least 20–25 years). A Queensland lungfish named \"Granddad\" at the Shedd Aquarium in Chicago was the oldest living fish in any Aquarium, and was already an adult when he was first placed on display in 1933; Granddad was estimated to be at least in his eighties, and possibly over one-hundred, at the time of his death on February 5, 2017.\n", "Feeding is easy, bristlenoses will graze on algae and other surface growing organisms as well as eating algae wafers or tablets, flake food, squash, spinach, cucumber, zucchini, green beans and peas. They have also been known to accept frozen bloodworms as part of their diet. Aquarium specimens may starve for lack of algae or other plant matter; algae wafers or other low-protein foods are recommended. Keepers should watch for the abdomen to take on a sunken appearance, indicating insufficient nutrition.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Fish living in a small tank do not get bored." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Fish can be aware of their surroundings and be unhappy or \"bored\"." ]
2018-16378	Why do things that fall in the shower make such a loud noise?	Guessing, but seems plausible that it's to do with the shape and material. The material is highly reflective to sound waves - as are most hard smooth materials - and the shape of the bath or shower cubicle will cause the sound waves to be focused toward the centre.	[ "BULLET::::- Much quieter and unusual discharge noise. Smaller or empty powder loads, combined with the primer discharge echoing in the casing or barrel, produce an unusual noise. This noise is often called a \"ping\" or \"pop\", rather than the expected \"bang\" of a standard shot.\n\nBULLET::::- Lighter or nonexistent felt recoil force. Lower force on the projectile, insufficient to clear the barrel, translates to a lower recoil force, which may be completely absorbed by the firearm's recoil mechanisms.\n", "Section::::Awards.\n\n\"El ruido de las cosas al caer\" won the 2011 Alfaguara Prize.\n", "BULLET::::- On Sept 3, 2017, a microburst hit in Santa Barbara, California and knocked off numerous trees and many landed on cars with many power lines down. Multiple traffic accidents occurred and 56 people were tossed into the water. A 22-foot sailboat was also overturned and was sinking into the ocean.\n", "BULLET::::- Shower handsets—Hand-set shower-faucets are connected by a flexible hose, and can also mounted and used like a fixed shower-head.\n\nBULLET::::- Ceiling-mounted faucets—Ceiling-mounted shower-faucets are typically rain-drop shower-heads mounted in one shower ceiling. Water-rains down, at low or medium pressure, using the gravity to shower on one from directly above.\n\nBULLET::::- Adjustable shower heads—Adjustable shower faucets often have numerous settings, including the pulsating massage settings and high-pressure.\n\nBULLET::::- Shower panels—Unlike a single showerhead, these are wall-mounted with sprayers aimed horizontally at various parts of the body.\n\nSection::::Use and ecology.\n", "BULLET::::- The un-mixing or segregation of unlike grains under vibration and flow. An example of this is the so-called Brazil nut effect where Brazil nuts rise to the top of a packet of mixed nuts when shaken.The cause of this effect is that when shaken, granular (and some other) materials move in a circular pattern. some larger materials (Brazil nuts) get stuck while going down the circle and therefore stay on the top.\n", "Section::::Audible effects.\n", "Section::::Safety.:Noise.\n\nMetal spraying equipment uses compressed gases, which create noise. Sound levels vary with the type of spraying equipment, the material being sprayed, and the operating parameters. Typical sound pressure levels are measured at 1 meter behind the arc.\n\nSection::::Safety.:UV light.\n", "Featured in the group show, \"Nostalgia Machines\" (2011) at David Winton Bell Gallery, \"150 prepared dc-motors, filler wire 1.0 mm.\" (2011), consists of small motors hanging at the ends of wires attached to the wall, causing the motors to bang against the wall and, according to Cate McQuaid of the \"Boston Globe\", make the sound of a “drenching rainstorm - a trigger for associations of threat and cozy shelter.” \n", "Commonly packed in 3 kg boxes by the processor, the box is usually Polystyrene#Expanded_polystyrene_(EPS) or thin wood, depending on the market demands. Holes in the box ensures that any water lost by the snails, drains out, so that they remain in better shape for longer. A label indicates the fishing zone, packaging date and any other information required by law.\n\nSection::::Human use.:Storing.\n", "Bumblebees do not have ears, and it is not known whether or how well they can hear. However, they are sensitive to the vibrations made by sound travelling through wood or other materials.\n", "Air guns are made from the highest grades of corrosion resistant stainless steel. Large chambers (i.e., greater than 1 L or 70 cu in) tend to give low frequency signals, and the small chambers (less than 1 L) give higher frequency signals.\n\nSection::::Types of sources.:Plasma sound source.\n", "BULLET::::- Noise — Sound energy emitted by a cooling tower and heard (recorded) at a given distance and direction. The sound is generated by the impact of falling water, by the movement of air by fans, the fan blades moving in the structure, vibration of the structure, and the motors, gearboxes or drive belts.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Caecum multicostatum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum musorstomi\"\n\n * \"Caecum neocaledonicum\" \n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum oahuense\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum obtusum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum occidentale\" - western caecum\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum orcutti\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum paradoxum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum parvum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum pascuanum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum patuxentium\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum plicatum\" - plicate caecum\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum pollicare\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum profundicolum\" - deepwater caecum\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum properegulare\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum pulchellum\" - beautiful caecum\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum puntagordanum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum pygmaeum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum quadratum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum rapanuiense\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum regulare\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum rehderi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum reversum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum richthofeni\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum rijgersmai\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum rosanum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum ruggerii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum rugulosum\"\n", "The major source of sound when a droplet hits a liquid surface is the resonance of excited bubbles trapped underwater. These oscillating bubbles are responsible for most liquid sounds, such as running water or splashes, as they actually consist of many drop-liquid collisions.\n\nSection::::Sound.:\"Dripping tap\" noise prevention.\n\nReducing the surface tension of a body of liquid makes possible to reduce or prevent noise due to droplets falling into it. This would involve adding soap, detergent or a similar substance to water. The reduced surface tension reduces the noise from dripping.\n\nSection::::Shape.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Caecum ryssotitum\" - minute caecum\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum searleswoodii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum senegambianum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum semilaeve\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum sepimentum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum sinuatum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum skoglundae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum smriglioi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum striatum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum strictum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum strigosum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum subannulatum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum subconicum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum subcylindratum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum subflavum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum subimpressum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum subobsoletum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum subornatum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum subspirale\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum subvolutum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum succineum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum swinneni\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum taeniatum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum tenuicostatum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum tenuiliratum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum teres\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum textile\" - textile caecum\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum tornatum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum torquetum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum tortile\" - twisted caecum\n", "Vitruvius is the source for the anecdote that credits Archimedes with the discovery of the mass-to-volume ratio while relaxing in his bath. Having been asked to investigate the suspected adulteration of the gold used to make a crown, Archimedes realised that the crown's volume could be measured exactly by its displacement of water, and ran into the street with the cry of\" Eureka!\"\n\nSection::::Roman technology.:Dewatering machines.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Caecum chinense\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum chipolanum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum cinctum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum circumvolutum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum clarkii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum clarum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum clathratum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum clava\" - club caecum\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum compactum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum condylum\" - bone caecum\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum continens\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum cooperi\" - Cooper's Atlantic caecum\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum corrugatulum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum crassum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum crebricinctum\" - many-named caecum\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum crispum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum cubitatum\" - smooth caecum\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum cuspidatum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum cycloferum\" - fatlip caecum\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum dakuwaqa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum dalli\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum debile\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum delicatulum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum derjugini\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum dextroversum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum digitulum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum diminutum\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Caecum donmoorei\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum eburneum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum elegantissimum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum eliezeri\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum elongatum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \" Caecum engli\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum eunoi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum exile\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum farcimen\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum fijiense\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum firmatum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum floridanum\" - Florida caecum\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum folini\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum glabella\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum glabriforme\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum glabrum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum gofasi\" Pizzini & Nofroni, 2001\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum greensboroense\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum gulosum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum gurgulio\" - windpipe caecum\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum hemphilli\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum heptagonum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum heterochromum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum imbricatum\" - imbricate caecum\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum imperforatum\" (\"nomen dubium\")\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum inclinatum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum infimum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caecum inflatum\"\n", "Something widely spread among insects is body hair, that can be made to swing by sonar waves. Due to the resonance phenomenon certain hairs swing stronger when exposed to a specific sonar-frequency. This specificity depends on the stiffness and the length of the hairs. That is why certain caterpillar species have evolved hair that would resonate with the sound of buzzing wasps, thus warning them of the presence of natural enemies. Moreover, mosquitoes have hair on their antennae that resonate with the flying sound of homogeneous females, enabling the males the ability to detect potential sexual partners.\n", "Shower (disambiguation)\n\nA shower is the act of bathing under a spray of water, or the apparatus used to do so.\n\nShower or showers may also refer to:\n\nSection::::Weather and astronomy.\n\nBULLET::::- Shower, a short intense precipitation\n\nBULLET::::- Meteor shower, an event at which several meteors radiate from one point\n\nBULLET::::- Particle shower, a cascade of subatomic particles\n\nSection::::People.\n\nBULLET::::- Shower (surname)\n\nBULLET::::- Showers (surname)\n\nSection::::Arts, entertainment, and media.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Shower\" (film), a 1999 Chinese drama/comedy\n\nBULLET::::- \"Shower\" (song), by Becky G\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rain Shower\", a 1959 Korean short story (also a 1979 film based on the story)\n", "Section::::Types.\n\nSection::::Types.:Domestic.\n", "Glossosomatid larvae, unlike other related families within Spicipalpia, build cases during the larva's first instar and each time the larva outgrows the case. Cases are formed from large and small pebbles found within streams; these pebbles are spliced together with pieces of silk created by the larva. The case is formed loosely so as to allow water, and dissolved oxygen, to flow freely into the case for larval respiration. There are a couple of reasons why larvae produce cases:\n\nBULLET::::1. Physical protection from predators\n\nBULLET::::2. Camouflage\n\nBULLET::::3. Water resistance\n", "The bottom of the enclosure, if it is not the ground or trays of dirt, needs be a surface more solid than screening. A snail placed in a wire-mesh-bottom pen will keep crawling, trying to get off the wires and onto solid, more comfortable ground.\n", "The shells of the very smallest micromollusks are less than one millimeter in adult size, and thus they are truly microscopic, smaller in fact than some sand grains. Many other micromollusks are from 2 to 4 mm in maximum size; even for people with small hands, this means that the shells are far too small to be picked up with the fingers using the normal grasping action.\n\nSection::::Techniques used.\n", "Miniature weights have a diameter of less than two inches or so, and magnums have a diameter greater than about 3.25 inches.\n\nCalifornia-style paperweights are made by \"painting\" the surface of the dome with colored molten glass (torchwork), and manipulated with picks or other tools. They may also be sprayed while hot with various metallic salts to achieve an iridescent look.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-13061	How does the Disney-Fox merge cause 10,000 people to lose their jobs?	First, this is an estimate from an analyst that is generally pretty bearish on Disney. Disney hasn't announced any layoffs yet. So the specific number should be taken with a grain of salt. However, it's reasonable to expect that Disney will lay off some people as a result of the merger. Disney and the portions of Fox that they're buying have a lot of people that do the same thing, and the combined company is likely to not need all of them. For example, if Disney has 100 film editors and Fox has 70 film editors (or riggers, or production assistants, or lots of other jobs), but the combined company only needs 150 film editors, then the company will look to lay off 20 of them.	[ "BULLET::::- Fox Networks Group\n\nBULLET::::- FX Networks\n\nBULLET::::- FX Productions\n\nBULLET::::- National Geographic Partners (73%)\n\nBULLET::::- Fox Networks Group Latin America\n\nBULLET::::- Fox Networks Group Europe\n\nBULLET::::- Fox Networks Group Africa\n\nBULLET::::- Fox Networks Group Asia Pacific\n\nBULLET::::- Star India\n\nBULLET::::- Endemol Shine Group (50%)\n\nBULLET::::- Hulu (United States) (30%)\n\nBULLET::::- Tata Sky (30%)\n\nBULLET::::- DraftKings (minority investment)\n\nSection::::Assets.:Spun off to Fox Corporation.\n", "It was reported on March 21, 2019 that Disney would shut down the Fox 2000 Pictures studio in 2020, following the release of \"The Woman in the Window\". On the same day it was reported that up to 4,000 people would lose their jobs as Disney commenced layoffs following the merger.\n", "Tom Rothman, chairman of the Sony Pictures Motion Picture Group and former co-chairman of Fox Filmed Entertainment, said the Disney–Fox deal was a dangerous proposition: \"Consolidation under giant corporate mandates rarely promotes creative risk-taking. And in the long run, it is always a challenge to compete against horizontal monopolistic power.\"\n", "On December 13, Disney announced a new organizational structure for its international operations and the individuals who would join the company, including Rebecca Campbell, Jan Koeoppen, Diego Lerner and Uday Shankar. Shankar who currently serves as Chairman and President Fox Networks Group Asia and Star India will lead Disney's Asian operations and will become the new Chairman of Disney India.\n\nBy December 14, the merger was subjected to regulation in Mexico, where Disney/Fox would account for 27.8% of content distribution across all genres. Disney would own 73% of all sports channels in Mexico.\n", "On June 27, the United States Department of Justice gave antitrust approval to Disney under the condition of selling Fox's 22 regional sports channels within 90 days of closing, to which the company has agreed. The next day, Disney and Fox boards scheduled July 27, 2018 as the day shareholders vote on Fox's properties being sold to Disney.\n", "On November 16, it was reported that Comcast (parent company of NBCUniversal), Verizon Communications, and Sony had also joined Disney in a bidding war for 21st Century Fox. During a recent shareholders meeting, 21st Century Fox Co-Chairman Lachlan Murdoch said Fox was not in the category of \"sub-scale\" companies that were \"finding it difficult to leverage their positions in new and emerging video platforms\", but was instead a company that had \"the required scale to continue to both execute on our aggressive growth strategy and deliver significant increased returns to shareholders\".\n", "Disney announced on March 5, 2019 Craig Hunegs would lead the combined TV operations at Disney Television Studios once the Disney–Fox deal closes. Hunegs will be president of the subisidiary, with oversight of all operations, including ABC Studios, ABC Signature, 20th Century Fox Television and Fox 21 TV studios. He'll report to Dana Walden, chairman of Fox Television Group who will be chairman of Disney Television Studios and ABC Entertainment.\n", "Writer Marc Guggenheim, known for his work for the Arrowverse for The CW, said that \"As a writer, I'm not a big fan of these big corporate consolidations. I don't think they're necessarily good for writers, directors, producers, and actors. I also, as an American, don't love these big corporate mergers. I don't think they're necessarily good for the country.\"\n\nThe potential acquisition of Fox by Disney caused concern within the entertainment industry that smaller media companies, including Viacom, CBS Corporation, Lionsgate, and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, would need to consolidate or be sold in order to remain competitive.\n", "On October 18, Disney announced a new organizational structure for the Walt Disney Studios and the individual unit heads who would join the company, including Emma Watts, Elizabeth Gabler, Nancy Utley and Stephen Gilula. Watts who currently serves as Vice Chairman and President of production at 20th Century Fox will lead Fox's film division. All Fox film units would report to Walt Disney Studios Chairman Alan Horn with Fox Family Entertainment and 20th Century Fox Animation reporting to Watts and Horn.\n", "Section::::Reactions and antitrust concerns.:Other comments.\n\nRichard Greenfield, the BTIG Research analyst, wrote that the combined Disney and Fox assets would have a 39% theatrical market share:\n", "Barton Crockett, a media analyst at B. Riley FBR, said that \"Disney is becoming the Wal-Mart of Hollywood: huge and dominant. That's going to have a big influence up and down the supply chain.\"\n\nIan Bezek, contributor to \"InvestorPlace\", questioned the underlying rationale for the merger, asking why Disney needed to acquire Fox's film production and cable sports business for such a \"high price\", given Disney's already healthy positions in both businesses:\n", "Jeff Bock of Exhibitor Relations expressed hope that the merger would force creativity in other studios like Paramount, which might focus on smaller-budget films knowing that it could not compete with Walt Disney (after the Fox acquisition) in making big-budget blockbusters.\n", "Dish Network CEO Erik Carlson said blockbuster mergers like the Disney–Fox deal could severely limit the number of content companies providing to their customers. Carlson said on CNBC's \"Squawk on the Street\" that \"We really take the position that we think about the customer and the customer first.\"\n\nSection::::Reactions and antitrust concerns.:Entertainment industry.\n\nThe Writers Guild of America West, the union that represents writers of films, television, and other media, wrote that:\n", "On December 14, 2017, The Walt Disney Company announced plans to purchase most of the 21st Century Fox assets, including 20th Century Fox, for $52.4 billion. On May 23, 2018, it was reported that Comcast was planning to out-bid Disney with an all-cash offer for approximately $60 billion. On June 13, Comcast officially announced its $65 billion all-cash offer for Fox assets. One week later, Disney counterbid with a $71.3 billion offer. On July 19, 2018, Comcast officially announced that it was dropping its bid on the Fox assets in order to focus on their bid for Sky. On July 27, 2018, Disney and Fox shareholders approved the merger between the two companies. Although the deal was completed on March 20, 2019, 20th Century Fox will not relocate to the Walt Disney Studios in Burbank, but will instead continue to be headquartered on its studio lot in Century City, which is currently leased to Disney by the Fox Corporation, 21st Century Fox's successor, for seven years. On July 3, 2019, Fox Stage Productions was moved into Disney Theatrical Group as Buena Vista Theatrical division with all top executives leaving at that time. Disney also now owns the rights to the studio's pre-merger film library (with the exception of films originally released by Fox and subsequently sold to other studios, such as the 2013–2017 DreamWorks Animation library, which is now owned by Universal Pictures, and the Movietone News library of newsreels, which is owned by Fox News).\n", "On October 10, it was reported that the new, post-merger organizational structure of \"New Fox\" would be implemented by January 1, 2019, ahead of the closure of the Disney sale (which is still expected to occur during the first half of 2019).\n", "On December 14, 2017, The Walt Disney Company (which its division, The Walt Disney Studios owns a numerous studio units including a major film studio, Walt Disney Pictures) announced its intent to acquire a key assets of 21st Century Fox (which includes another major film studio, 20th Century Fox along with Fox Searchlight Pictures and Blue Sky Studios). Both companies approved the deal on July 27, 2018 and closed on March 20, 2019. Because of the deal, the number of major film studios was reduced to 5 after 20th Century Fox became a subsidiary of The Walt Disney Studios, thus ending the era of the \"Big Six\" studios and Fox as a major studio for 83 years.\n", "On December 11, Comcast announced it was dropping its bid on the Fox assets. On December 14, Disney and Fox confirmed a $52.4 billion deal to merge the two companies, pending approval from the United States Department of Justice Antitrust Division.\n\nIn February, CNBC reported that, despite the Disney–Fox deal, Comcast might take action to outbid Disney's $52.4 billion offer, if the AT&T–Time Warner merger went through. Despite this, Fox President Peter Rice stated he was content with the Disney offer and that the Fox assets were \"a great fit for Disney.\"\n", "As both Disney and Fox produce films and television series, the deal would reduce the number of major film studios in Hollywood from six to five. Some argued the operation would still leave many competitors around since Disney may compete with Netflix in the online streaming market with Disney+ in equal conditions with its newly acquired properties. Opponents countered that these arguments do not hold much weight due to Disney's powerful box office and stock market shares, its practices, and its purchase of Fox's many assets.\n\nSection::::Reactions and antitrust concerns.:News media.\n", "On October 5, Disney announced the commencement of exchange offers and consent solicitations for 21st Century Fox. On October 8, Disney announced 21st Century Fox's top television executives would join the company, including Peter Rice, Gary Knell, John Landgraf, and Dana Walden. Rice will serve as Chairman of Walt Disney Television and Co-Chair of Disney Media Networks, succeeding Ben Sherwood while Walden is to be named Chairman of Disney Television Studios and ABC Entertainment.\n", "Because Disney owns the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) and 21st Century Fox owned the Fox Broadcasting Company, a full acquisition of Fox by Disney would have been illegal under the Federal Communications Commission (FCC)'s rules prohibiting a merger between any of two of the four major broadcast networks.\n", "Section::::Reactions and antitrust concerns.:Theaters.\n", "On July 9, a Fox shareholder filed a lawsuit to stop the acquisition from Disney citing the absence of financial projections for Hulu. On the same day, CNBC reported Comcast was looking for companies that could take over Fox's Regional Sports Networks. This would've made Comcast's anti-trust problems regarding the takeover of Fox assets easier as Comcast was preparing to make a new all cash counter-offer before July 27, 2018.\n", "James Mangold, director of Fox's Marvel adaptations \"The Wolverine\" and its R-rated sequel \"Logan\", expressed concerns that the deal might lead to the approval of a similar film that may have more limited appeal than a conventional Marvel blockbuster, thereby limiting the opportunities for certain filmmakers as well as the consumers. Mangold said that \"If they're actually changing their mandate, if what they're supposed to do alters, that would be sad to me because it just means less movies.\"\n", "American Cable Association President and CEO Matthew M. Polka lambasted the deal and called on federal regulators to \"fully investigate\" the merger. He was concerned about his smaller subscription television constituents having to negotiate multichannel deals with a behemoth that combines Fox's regional sports networks with ESPN and its cadre of collegiate-conference-focused RSNs, as well as the majority stake in Hulu:\n", "The following week, Comcast publicly announced it was looking into making an all-cash counter-offer for the Fox assets that Disney proposed to acquire. Shortly after, it was reported that Disney was looking into making its own all-cash counter-offer for Fox assets if Comcast went through with their offer.\n\nThe next day, Disney and Fox announced they had set their shareholder vote meetings for July 10, although both said Fox's meeting could be postponed if Comcast came through with their offer.\n" ]	[ "The Disney-Fox merger caused 10,000 people to lose their jobs.", "The Disney-Fox merge will cause 10,000 people to lose their jobs." ]	[ "An analyst has estimated that 10,000 people will lose their jobs due to the Disney-Fox merger; Disney has not announced any layoffs yet.", "Disney has not announced layoffs yet and 10,000 people laid off is a bearish estimate." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The Disney-Fox merger caused 10,000 people to lose their jobs.", "The Disney-Fox merge will cause 10,000 people to lose their jobs." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "An analyst has estimated that 10,000 people will lose their jobs due to the Disney-Fox merger; Disney has not announced any layoffs yet.", "Disney has not announced layoffs yet and 10,000 people laid off is a bearish estimate." ]
2018-03708	Why do old forums have 2 or 3 words or phrases in every post linked to seemingly unrelated websites, usually to sell things?	It's a type of advertising that was being pushed a little over a decade ago and it didn't go over well. Over time advertisers pushed newer types of ads (like autoplay videos) so it's mostly legacy websites that still have it installed. On a technology level most of them work via Javascript - you get served the page as normal, but once on your computer a 3rd party script in the site header runs and converts certain words into links to (supposedly relevant) ads. So if I wrote a post and mentioned video cards it would turn that into a link to a site selling video cards that pays for clicks or referrals.	[ "Finally, using the CMS SPIP, the Web site was conceived to act both as a promotional tool as well as the text collecting interface. In this project, the Web was the obvious “drop point” for messages as it allowed anyone anywhere to participate in the creation of the fortunes. It also permits for the sent messages to be filtered out. Specifically those that were distasteful, promotional, or aimed at specific individuals.\n\nStatistics for the texts so far are:\n\nBULLET::::- French texts received: 641+\n\nBULLET::::- English texts received: 1,312+\n\nBULLET::::- Texts printed: 22,000+\n\nSection::::History.:Etymology.\n", "BULLET::::- Lolcat – A collection of humorous image macros featuring cats with misspelled phrases, such as, \"I Can Has Cheezburger?\". The earliest versions of LOLcats appeared on 4chan, usually on Saturdays, which were designated \"Caturday\", as a day to post photos of cats.\n", "Some organisations situated in Switzerland use TLDs to specifically refer to their canton (such as the Belgian TLD .be for the Canton of Berne).\n\nIn Turkish, \"biz\" means \"we\", and can be used for emphasis at the end of \"we are\" sentences.\n", "In the early years of the web, all content was static, and thus all hyperlinks pointed at a filename. Soon, though, many web pages became dynamic, and many URLs began to include query terms.\n", "The \"ChangeSummary\" option began as an aid to telling which changes added interesting new content, and which were just minor adjustments of spelling, punctuation, or correction of web links. It started when some users began taking the RecentChanges page, annotating each line with a brief description of each change, and posting the result to the ChangeSummary page. This practice was highly time-consuming and rapidly petered out, but was replaced by the \"MinorEdit/RecentEdits\" feature, designed to reduce the RecentChanges clutter.\n\nSection::::WikiWikiWeb and the birth of wikis (1994–2001).:Tensions within WikiWikiWeb and the creation of sister sites.\n", "With FidoNet, echomail and netmail software would often add an origin line at the end of a message. This would indicate the FidoNet address and name of the originating system (not the user). The user posting the message would generally not have any control over the origin line. However, single-line taglines, added under user control, would often contain a humorous or witty saying. Multi-line user signature blocks were rare.\n\nHowever, a tearline standard for FidoNet was included in FTS-0004 and clarified in FSC-0068 as three dashes optionally followed by a space optionally followed by text.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Usenet reader software can intelligently track whether or not the user has already viewed the message in one newsgroup, even though they might currently be looking at another newsgroup. If multiple individual messages had been posted (i.e. the message's content was \"multiposted\"), each would appear to be a new unread message in each newsgroup.\n", "Because some microformats make use of title attribute of HTML's element to conceal machine-readable data (particularly date-times and geographical coordinates) in the \"abbr design pattern\", the plain text content of the element is inaccessible to screen readers that expand abbreviations. In June 2008 the BBC announced that it would be dropping use of microformats using the codice_13 design pattern because of accessibility concerns.\n\nSection::::Evaluation.:Comparison with alternative approaches.\n", "Keyword stuffing had been used in the past to obtain top search engine rankings and visibility for particular phrases. This method is outdated and adds no value to rankings today. In particular, Google no longer gives good rankings to pages employing this technique.\n", "Spam posts may contain anything from a single link to dozens of links. Text content is minimal, usually innocuous and unrelated to the forum's topic. Sometimes the posts may be made in old threads that are revived by the spammer solely for the purpose of spamming links. Posts may include some text to prevent the post being caught by automated spam filters that prevent posts which consist solely of external links from being submitted.\n", "A less common type of keyword advertising hyper-links individual words within the text of a page to small pop-ups displayed by mouseover. Advertising of this type is offered by Kontera, Vibrant Media, and LinkWorth. Kontera's version is named ContentLink, Vibrant Media's version is called IntelliTXT and LinkWorth's version is called LinkWords. They refer to their product as in-text placement. Advertisers choosing to test this type will want to exercise moderation to increase Internet user acceptance.\n\nSection::::Trademark issues.\n", "Between 1990 and 1994, Paul Flaherty, a Stanford student who was looking for a project, was introduced by his wife to her supervisor. The supervisor had just seen a demonstration of the World Wide Web and suggested it could be improved and better conformed to the memex described by Vannevar Bush if links did not have to be manually inserted and instead one could follow a link simply by using the words themselves. Flaherty went on to create AltaVista, the first searchable, full-text database of a large part of the Web.\n", "The [[Firefox]] Add-On [[Hyperwords]] which has been developed in cooperation with [[Doug Engelbart]] and Ted Nelson gives Web surfers the ability to issue many commands on any text on the web, not only pre-written links—a return to what users could do 40 years earlier with [[Doug Engelbart]]'s [[NLS (computer system)\|NLS]].\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- History of the word \"Hypertext\" \n\nBULLET::::- [[Hypertext]]\n\nBULLET::::- [[Timeline of hypertext technology]]\n\nBULLET::::- [[History of the Internet]]\n\nBULLET::::- [[HTML]]\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Historical Overview of Hypertext\n\nBULLET::::- The first use of \"hypertext\" (?) - TIFF image\n\nBULLET::::- A Brief History of Human Computer Interaction Technology\n\n[[Category:Hypertext\|*]]\n", "BULLET::::- In April 1998, Jeff Gold attempted to register the domain name codice_1, but he was blocked by an InterNIC filter prohibiting the \"seven dirty words\" which was active between 1996 and the transfer of control to ICANN in 1998. (\"Shitake\" is from the Japanese name for the edible fungus \"Lentinula edodes\".)\n", "Interleaving was the predominant reply style in the Usenet discussion lists, years before the existence of the WWW and the spread of e-mail and the Internet outside the academic community.\n", "BULLET::::- Automatic Complaint-Letter Generator: Created by Scott Pakin in April 1994, the site allows users to specify the name of the individual or company that the complaint is directed toward, as well as the number of paragraphs the complaint will be. After submitting the data, the computer generates sentences that are composed of arbitrary verbs, nouns, and adjectives. Still active.\n\nBULLET::::- Bianca's Smut Shack: An early web-based chatroom and online community known for raucous free speech and deviant behavior.\n\nBULLET::::- Birmingham City Council: Early local government site, initially hosted by the University of Birmingham.\n", "By 1999, many companies had created web annotation systems, where web site publishers or users could annotate web pages. Sentius Corporation, for one, developed technology that would automatically insert hyperlinks into web or text documents, from a dictionary of terms. This was used in particular to display Japanese translations of English medical terms when the mouse hovered over a term, while maintaining the look of a standard text document normally, and then extended for other purposes.\n\nSection::::Legacy.\n", "Permanence in links is desirable when content items are likely to be linked to, from, or cited by a source outside the originating organization. Before the advent of large-scale dynamic websites built on database-backed content management systems, it was more common for URLs of specific pieces of content to be static and human readable, as URL structure and naming were dictated by the entity creating that content. Increased volume of content and difficulty of management led to the rise of database-driven systems, and the resulting unwieldy and often-changing URLs necessitated deliberate policies with regard to URL design and link permanence.\n", "Although the content of web pages has been capable of some \"automated processing\" since the inception of the web, such processing is difficult because the markup tags used to display information on the web do not describe what the information means. Microformats can bridge this gap by attaching semantics, and thereby obviate other, more complicated, methods of automated processing, such as natural language processing or screen scraping. The use, adoption and processing of microformats enables data items to be indexed, searched for, saved or cross-referenced, so that information can be reused or combined.\n\nSection::::Background.\n", "This type of spam originally appeared in Internet guestbooks, where spammers repeatedly filled a guestbook with links to their own site and with no relevant comment, to increase search engine rankings. If an actual comment is given it is often just \"cool page\", \"nice website\", or keywords of the spammed link.\n", "Additionally, when a new level is created, there must be some \"seed\" of text for users to add on to. This text is created by an algorithm. In earlier levels of the Gridcosm this \"seed\" of text was not as random as it is now. Various phrases such as \"groblin attack\" and \"this should have been something better\" were often used.\n\nSection::::Gridcosm Activity report.\n", "The main LeapFish advertising programs allowed business owners to display a permanent advertisement on the top of the search results page. The ad space was granted by purchasing a keyword of the advertiser's choice. The space was sold via aggressive telemarketing with the promise that the space could be sold on at a potentially increased price at a later date.\n\nSection::::Domain appraisal.\n", "Clichés—particular words or phrases constantly reused in posts, also known as \"memes\"—often develop on forums. Some users find that these clichés add to the fun, but other users find them tedious, especially when overused. Administrators may configure the wordfilter to replace the annoying cliché with a more embarrassing phrase, or remove it altogether.\n\nSection::::Functions.:Vandalism control.\n", "In the song \"It Was There That I Saw You\": \"\"Keely had intended to conjure up the intoxicating thrill of living in Austin Texas in the mid-nineties, before America had gone to shit. The inspiration came from a girl he used to work with that he had a crush on, and several late nights spent in the company of people on drugs\"\" \n", "Douglas Davis began the \"sentence without a period\" in 1994 at the art gallery at Lehman College, inviting people to contribute \"words, photographs, video, graphics, WWW links, and sound via the Internet, the World Wide Web, email, regular mail, and personal visits.\" It was acquired by the Whitney Museum of American Art in 1995 but became plagued by technical problems such as file loss, link rot, and formatting issues. By the year 2000, the sentence had received nearly 200,000 contributions.\n\nSection::::Preservation.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-14706	Why are octopuses (octopi?) the next dominant species on earth	There are a few reasons for this theory: Octopi are one of the smartest non-human creatures on the planet. They can differentiate between different humans and remember them, they have the capacity to hold grudges (there was a story about an aquarium having an intern that, when it walked by their octopus's tank, it would unfailingly try to squirt her with water. It never did this with any other person, and she left for 6 months; when she came back the octopus resumed this, despite never doing it when she was gone to anyone else. Nobody's quite sure why the octopus seems to hold this grudge against her). If memory serves, while their intelligence is different from ours, there are estimates that place its' cognitive ability up near that of an older elementary-school-aged child (though estimates do vary, and again their brains are just fundamentally different from ours), and some argue that they experience consciousness. They can keep track of and map not just one, but multiple mazes concurrently and learn the fastest escape routes to both in relatively few tries. It's impressive as hell for animal intelligence. They can get nearly anywhere: their bodies are almost entirely amorphous, and with the exception of their beak they can squeeze any part through any opening. So they can escape anywhere that has a hole bigger than their beak (about the diameter of a quarter), and due to that intelligence, they can squeeze their tentacles through even smaller holes and undo complicated latching mechanisms on their tanks; even some of the best aquariums report octopi escaping and going to other fish tanks in the aquarium to eat fish, or retrieve toys that it wants from those tanks, and then going back to their own tank to pretend nothing had happened. They can already survive out of the water for a pretty long time. They have appendages that can manipulate tools, and have been seen using rudimentary tools, and if given access to human-made tools can typically work with that. They're very strong: it takes about half a ton of force to remove the grip of an octopus, and they can and will pull people into the water. If I had to bet my money though, I'd bet on hawks or crows. Some hawks have started using fire to hunt, and that's the first step towards civilization.	[ "In addition to competition and presumed predation, \"O. joubini\" also have to deal with anthropogenic threats such as pollution. In 1999, a harmful algal bloom wiped out an entire population of \"Octopus mercatoris\" in St Joseph’s Bay, Florida. After five years only one brooding female was collected, demonstrating the long term impact these blooms can have on species. Though research indicated that only the species \"O. mercatoris\" was affected, the predicament of this algal bloom could foreshadow possible threats to \"O. joubini,\" and other species, where pollution could cause more severe and frequent algal blooms.\n", "Section::::Evolution.\n", "Octopodidae\n\nThe Octopodidae comprise the family containing the majority of known octopus species.\n\nSection::::Genera.\n\nThe World Register of Marine Species lists these genera:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Abdopus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ameloctopus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Amphioctopus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Callistoctopus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cistopus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Euaxoctopus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Galeoctopus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Grimpella\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hapalochlaena\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Histoctopus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lepidoctopus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Macrochlaena\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Macroctopus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Macrotritopus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Octopus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Paroctopus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pinnoctopus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pteroctopus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Robsonella\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scaeurgus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Teretoctopus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Thaumoctopus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Wunderpus\"\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Tree of Life Octopodidae\n\nBULLET::::- Octopodidae movies\n\nBULLET::::- TONMO.com provides cephalopod family discussion forums, videos, etc.\n\nBULLET::::- Marine cephalopod fossil embryos (Portugal)\n", "Section::::Relationship to humans.:Fisheries and cuisine.\n", "Potential changes in octopus populations will affect upper and lower trophic levels. Lower trophic levels include all prey items, and may fluctuate inversely with octopus abundance. Higher trophic levels include all predators of octopuses, and may fluctuate inversely with octopus abundance, although many may prey upon a variety of organisms. Protection of other threatened species may affect octopus populations (the sea otter, for example), as they may rely on octopuses for food. Some research suggests that fishing other species have aided octopus populations, by taking out predators and competitors.\n\nSection::::Conservation and climate change.:RNA editing.\n", "The mimic octopus is the only currently known marine animal to be able to mimic such a wide variety of animals. Many animals can imitate a different species to avoid or intimidate predators, but the mimic octopus is the only one that can imitate as diverse a range of forms in order to elude predators.\n\nSection::::Origin and discovery.\n", "Living in the tropical Indo-Pacific seas, it was first discovered in 1998 off Sulawesi.\n\nThe mimic octopus is distinct from \"Wunderpus photogenicus\", which has fixed white markings.\n\nSection::::Habitat and range.\n", "\"Pinnoctopus cordiformis\" is closest related to \"Octopus huttoni\" however the two can be easily distinguished by comparing a range of features; \"Octopus huttoni\" is about the size of a fist when fully mature, so is considerably smaller than the \"Pinnoctopus\"; \"Octopus huttoni\" has a single row of suckers which run up each tentacle, as opposed to \"Pinnoctopus\" which has two rows of opposite suckers. Octopus species have no bone structure which allows easy escape from confined spaces, they also have an ability to avoid towed nets which makes them problematic to study and research.\n", "Section::::Predators.\n", "Section::::Intelligence.\n", "Section::::Development.:Via past extinctions (The Ghost of Competition Past).\n", "Section::::Mating.\n", "Octopus aquaculture\n\nThe development of octopus aquaculture, the farming of octopus, is being driven by strong market demands in the Mediterranean and in South American and Asian countries. Octopus live short lives, growing rapidly and maturing early. They typically reach two or three kilograms (high weights for invertebrates). There is little overlap between successive generations.\n", "Section::::Conservation and climate change.\n", "Section::::Appearance.\n", "Section::::Habitat and distribution.\n", "Section::::Internet literacy studies.\n\nSection::::Internet literacy studies.:Design.\n", "Like most octopuses, \"O. rubescens\" is thought to be among the most intelligent of invertebrates. The presence of individual personalities is a hallmark of intelligence, and \"O. rubescens\" was the first invertebrate in which individual personalities were demonstrated.\n\nSection::::Diet and foraging behavior.\n", "Section::::Lifespan and reproduction.\n", "On top of its small size it also possesses a shorter life cycle (approximately 1 year), thinner arms, and a lower ratio between head size and arm length compared to other \"Octopus\" species. It is a promising model organism for studies of the molecular basis of plasticity and adaptation to harsh environmental conditions. To enable the study of these features the genome of \"O. minor\" has been sequenced, coming to 5.09 Gb in size and having 30,010 genes.\n\nSection::::Culinary use.\n\nIn Korean cuisine, long arm octopuses are stir-fried into \"nakji-bokkeum\" (stir-fried octopus) or eaten raw as \"san-nakji\" (sliced raw octopus).\n", "Octopuses have also been depicted in cinema as hybrids, such as in \"Octaman\", which features a mutant humanoid octopus. In the Disney animated movie \"The Little Mermaid\", Ursula (the sea witch) is depicted as a human-octopus hybrid with the torso of a woman and the arms of an octopus in place of her legs. \"Monster Shark\" (1984) and \"Sharktopus\" (2010) feature fish-octopus hybrids.\n", "Section::::Behaviour and ecology.\n", "Section::::Lifespan and reproduction.\n", "Further, squid and octopuses experienced a diversification and began to outcompete belemnites by the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous. Following their extinction, holoplanktonic gastropods, namely the sea butterflies, replaced planktonic belemnite larvae at the base of the food chain after the Cretaceous.\n\nSection::::In culture.\n", "The large size of this species made it the focus of octopus wrestling championships, which reached the height of their popularity on the West Coast of the United States in the 1960s (see High, 1976:17; Norman, 2000:217; Roach, 2013).\n\nMorphological and genetic data points to \"E. dofleini\"—as currently circumscribed—encompassing a second, cryptic species, which has been called the frilled giant Pacific octopus, though it has yet to be formally described (Hollenbeck & Scheel, 2017; Hollenbeck \"et al.\", 2017).\n\nSection::::Maximum size.:Scientifically validated records.:Seven-arm octopus (\"Haliphron atlanticus\").\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Octopi will be the next dominant species on earth." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Hawks or crows will be the next dominant species because they have started using fire to hunt which is the first step towards civilization." ]
2018-00565	Why do businesses such as grocery stores have cheaper prices for "members" when membership is free? How do they benefit from that?	Customer Loyalty programs ensure that customers keep coming back to your store. It's like a sandwich shop that has a "buy 10 get 1 free" deal. These days, it also helps them collect data about who is purchasing what. Getting your phone number gives them a single unique identifier so they track your purchases and get better information about what people are buying. Beyond that, grocery stores used to offer sales all the time without a rewards/loyalty number. These days, they just require a membership to get the sales they used to have without them. It's not costing them anything extra.	[ "Collective buying allows for direct cost savings, both for the consumer as well as the business. Consumers participating in on-line buying reap the benefits of discounted prices for restaurants, spas, attractions, hotels, etc., while organizations can save money by directly reaching target markets. Participating members further benefit through \"networking opportunities and shared knowledge\" which over time can build a tipping point of group purchasing power based on a growing number of active participants.\n", "In the 1950s, supermarkets frequently issued trading stamps as incentives to customers. Today, most chains issue store-specific \"membership cards,\" \"club cards,\" or \"loyalty cards\". These typically enable the cardholder to receive special members-only discounts on certain items when the credit card-like device is scanned at check-out. Sales of selected data generated by club cards is becoming a significant revenue stream for some supermarkets.\n", "BULLET::::- 2013: Finalist in \"Overall Social Enterprise of the Year\" category at the 15th Social Enterprise Awards.\n\nBULLET::::- 2012: awarded the Green Award of trade body, The Federation of Communications Services, for the fourth year running.\n\nBULLET::::- 2008: receives the UK Government-sponsored Enterprising Solutions Award for Best Social Enterprise 2008.\n\nSection::::Accreditations.\n\nBULLET::::- 2017: Gains accreditation to the Investors in People standard.\n\nBULLET::::- 2014: In first trio of organisations accredited for the Fair Tax Mark, along with Midcounties Co-operative and Unity Trust Bank, and is accordingly named \"Fair Tax Pioneer\".\n", "BULLET::::- Relationship development and loyalty programs: In order to increase long-term relationships with customers, companies can develop loyalty programs that allow customers who check-in via social media regularly at a location to earn discounts or perks. For example, American Eagle Outfitters remunerates such customers with a tiered 10%, 15%, or 20% discount on their total purchase.\n", "From a marketing-analyst perspective, it has the added benefit that the vendor knows the number of currently active members since a subscription typically involves a contractual agreement. This so-called 'contractual' setting facilitates customer relationship management to a large extent because the analyst knows who is an active customer and who recently churned.\n\nAdditional benefits include a higher average customer lifetime value (ACLV) than that of nonrecurring business models, greater customer inertia and a more committed customer base as it transitions from purchase to opt-out decisions, and more potential for upselling and cross-selling other products or services.\n", "Membership fees to some types of organizations, such as trade unions, are also known as subscriptions. Industries that use this model include mail order book sales clubs and music sales clubs, private webmail providers, cable television, satellite television providers with pay television channels, satellite radio, telephone companies, mobile network operators, internet providers, software publishers, websites (e.g., blogging websites), business solutions providers, financial services firms, health clubs, lawn mowing and snowplowing services, and pharmaceuticals, as well as the traditional newspapers, magazines, and academic journals.\n", "Other stores such as Interio, a furniture retailer, are also joining the market with loyalty cards and store-based incentivised credit cards.\n\nLoyalty programs are also widely spread in the consumer goods Industry, where companies use this powerful tool to establish long-lasting brand-consumer relationships. The very first example of a loyalty program in the food industry has been the 2008 Lavazza Carmencita digital collection followed by many other brands such as Barilla, Casa Modena-Giravolte and Tena Lady of the Multinational Sca Hygiene Products.\n\nSection::::By continent and country.:Europe.:Latvia.\n", "BULLET::::- 2013: Accredited as a Living Wage Employer by the Living Wage Foundation.\n\nSection::::Strategy.\n", "Section::::Retail.\n\nSome retail stores add fees, mainly for \"guest passes\" at membership warehouses like Costco and Sam's Club, where membership dues have not been paid.\n", "Individuals may also take advantage of group foraging by \"joining\" members that have found food. The options to seek food or to join others that have discovered food involves information sharing and has been studied through what are termed \"producer-scrounger models\". A cost associated with group foraging is increased resource competition, which in turn may reduce anti-predatory vigilance due to the intensity of foraging. Some studies show that increased competition results in a decreased feeding rate.\n\nSection::::Food and foraging.:Foraging models.\n", "When foraging, scaly-breasted munia can search as individuals or search for others that have found food and join them. The economic consequences of the decision to join others has been modeled in two ways: the producer-scrounger model and the information sharing model. These models are based on hypotheses that differ in the degree of compatibility that is assumed between the two food and joining opportunity search modes.\n", "In September 2016, The Co-operative Group launched a new meaningful membership, which means when a member purchases Co-op products and services, 5% of the money will come back to the member, and 1% of the money spend will go to the member's local community through community partnerships. This membership spans the Food business, Funeralcare and is intended to extend to Insurance.\n\nSection::::Product ranges.\n\nCo-op Food ranges currently are (as of May 2016):\n\nBULLET::::- Co-op - standard own brand range\n\nBULLET::::- Irresistible - premium food and drink\n\nBULLET::::- Free From - suitable for customers with food allergies\n", "Growth has necessitated organisational changes within the co-op, the most significant being the creation of a 'representative structure', a departure from all members attending the fortnightly members decision-making meetings. After the group swelled beyond 15 people, members divided into teams, and individual co-op members are now represented by 'team overviews' at fortnightly 'forum' meetings.\n\nSection::::Principles.\n\nUnicorn operate within a set of guidelines, known as its 'Statement of Purpose':\n\nBULLET::::- Secure Employment. The company aims to provide secure employment for its members.\n\nBULLET::::- Equal Opportunity. The company aims to reserve some employment for members with a learning disability.\n", "PC Optimum\n\nPC Optimum is a single loyalty program operated by Canadian retail conglomerate Loblaw Companies; it was created through the merger of Loblaws' PC Plus and Shoppers Drug Mart's Shoppers Optimum programs.\n\nLaunched on 1 February 2018, the program allows shoppers to earn points based on specific purchases at Loblaw grocery store locations, including in-store promotions, personalized offers delivered via the PC Optimum website and mobile app, as well as per-dollar spent on eligible products at Shoppers Drug Mart, Esso and Mobil locations. These points can be redeemed in-store for grocery and other purchases.\n", "One-year Star Memberships are granted to members who give a monetary donation to the site. These donations help to maintain the site. After a year has passed, a Star Member reverts to a Regular Membership. There are two levels of Star Memberships:\n\nBULLET::::- US$20\n\nBULLET::::- Includes all Star Member benefits\n\nBULLET::::- US$35\n\nBULLET::::- Includes all Star Member benefits\n\nBULLET::::- Includes most recent TSC Star Member T-shirt\n\nHowever, the T-shirt option has recently been suspended.\n\nSection::::TSC Community.\n", "Paid membership or 'continuity' programs are another way to monetize existing traffic. Examples of media membership sites are the Wall Street Journal and the New York Times. In the gaming world, Blizzard's World of Warcraft has millions of members. However there are many other kinds of member sites that cover niche markets. Often people join to get access to content and expertise, or for community, such as discussion or bulletin boards. The term \"continuity\" is used because the goal is to develop income continuity. Instead of making a one-time sale of a product or service, the membership site brings new, repeated income every month. Besides news, other kinds of membership site include: health, fitness, marketing, copy writing, social media expertise, paper products, dating, paper crafting, scrap booking, coaching, writing and many other applications.\n", "Experts in the membership site field say that \"people come for content and stay for community.\" The challenge of a member site is to retain paying members. Some sites, like the New York Times, offers some content free and then charges a fee for more in-depth access, or access to special kinds of content. Some sites offer downloads of audio or video content, free graphics, free software that is only available to members with a Creative Market. Many sites also offer webinars to members. The webinars are often recorded as video, audio and also transcribed, creating more special content that is behind the pay wall.\n", "Consumers may find subscriptions convenient if they believe that they will buy a product on a regular basis and that they might save money. For repeated delivery of the product or service, the customer also saves time.\n\nSubscriptions which exist to support clubs and organizations call their subscribers \"members\" and they are given access to a group with similar interests. An example might be the Computer Science Book Club.\n", "The company has relied on various techniques aimed at increasing customer loyalty in order to compete with larger chains in the area, such as providing customers with The Choices Preferred Shopper Card which allows customers to receive discounts on specially labelled products and accumulate points when they shop., providing an in-house nutritionist to help advise customers and worked to build energy and \"theatre\" in stores through product demos, food festivals and farmer/shopper interaction.\n", "Merchants utilizing the FreedomPay Commerce Platform have the ability to create offers and loyalty programs. These offers can target users based on a number of criteria, including purchase history as well as user-input information. Users within the merchant-chosen distance can see active incentives within the mobile application, and apply them to their bill at checkout.\n", "BULLET::::- Long term customers are more likely to purchase ancillary products and high-margin supplemental products.\n\nBULLET::::- Long term customers tend to be satisfied with their relationship with the company and are less likely to switch to competitors, making market entry or competitors' market share gains difficult.\n\nBULLET::::- Regular customers tend to be less expensive to service because they are familiar with the processes involved, require less \"education,\" and are consistent in their order placement.\n", "Section::::Success factors.:A good market segment.\n\nThe concept also offers many advantages to shoppers:\n\n- the customers have money as well as a mission\n\n- the service is in demand by two stakeholders: local communities as well as unemployed disabled people. This gives access to multiple sources of support\n\n- a culture of friendly and helpful service: staff can take the time to advise and chat with customers, and customer suggestions are welcomed\n", "The Co-operative Food, the brand adopted by many of the larger members of the UK co-operative movement does not operate a traditional loyalty card scheme. Instead, as consumer co-operatives, they operate a profit sharing scheme whereby an annual dividend is paid to all member-owners which is proportional to the total spend with the businesses during the previous year. Such dividend schemes have existed since the Rochdale Pioneers of the 1840s. Paper record-keeping transformed in the 1960s into a trading stamp scheme managed by the Co-operative Wholesale Society (CWS), which was gradually withdrawn as margins declined. The loyalty card concept was used by some co-operatives to restore dividend payments at the turn of the 21st century, notably by the CWS's \"Dividend\" card, which was replaced by The Co-operative Membership card program. The current members' dividend scheme is provided using the national co-operative brand and allows members of The Co-operative Group and many of the larger regional co-operative societies to earn their 'share of the profits' based upon their spend at many of the outlets which use The Co-operative brand rather than just at their own co-operative society (e.g. The Co-operative Group or the Midcounties Co-operative).\n", "Next to discounts over personal purchases, Lyoness members receive an 0.5% commission over the purchases made by the people they have introduced to Lyoness, as well as 0.5% over the purchases made by the people introduced by the people they have brought in. Lyoness refers to this system as the ‘Friendship Bonus’.\n\nSection::::Corporate structure.\n\nSection::::Corporate structure.:International organisation.\n", "Membership fees are paid to both head office and the local group. Full membership is renewable annually at £33.75 to head office, and many local groups charge around £20 yearly. Associates pay £149 once to the Head Office to join, which includes the first attempt at the advanced test.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-19971	Why does most of the world drive and walk on the right side?	Initially, almost everyone would travel on the left side of the road, as it was the wiser choice in more violent societies since most people are right-handed, swordsmen preferred to keep to the left in order to have their right arm nearer to an opponent and their scabbard further from him. However in the 1700's, teamsters in France and the United States began using very large wagons to transport farm produce. These wagons were usually pulled by multiple horses and the driver sat on the rear left horse leaving his right hand free to control the rest of the horses. As a result these wagons preferred people passing on the left to ensure they could see how much space there was to move ensuring they don't hit any other passing wagons and eventually became a standard. & #x200B; REFERENCES [ URL_0 ]( URL_0 )	[ "In the late 1700s, traffic in the United States was RHT based on teamsters' use of large freight wagons pulled by several pairs of horses. The wagons had no driver's seat, so the (typically right-handed) postilion held his whip in his right hand and thus sat on the left rear horse. Seated on the left, the driver preferred that other wagons pass him on the left so that he could be sure to keep clear of the wheels of oncoming wagons. The first keep-right law for driving in the United States was passed in 1792 and applied to the Philadelphia and Lancaster Turnpike. New York formalized RHT in 1804, New Jersey in 1813 and Massachusetts in 1821. Today the United States is RHT except the United States Virgin Islands, which is LHT like many neighboring islands.\n", "About 33% of the world by population drive on the left, and 67% keep right. By road distances, about 28% drive on the left, and 72% on the right, even though originally most traffic drove on the left worldwide.\n\nSection::::Economics.\n", "Whenever we are driving, subject matter on the left side of the road is the domain of the driver, and the passenger has first dibs on everything on the right side.\n", "Egypt had been conquered by Napoleon before becoming a British dependency, and its traffic goes to the right.\n\nSection::::History.:North America.\n\nIn what is now Canada, LHT was introduced by the British in British Columbia, which changed to RHT in stages from 1920 to 1923, and New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island, which changed in 1922, 1923, and 1924 respectively. Newfoundland, then a British colony, changed to RHT in 1947, two years before joining Canada. Former parts of New France have always been RHT. \n", "Vietnam became RHT as part of French Indochina, as did Cambodia. In the latter country, RHD cars, many of which were smuggled from Thailand, were banned from 2001, even though they accounted for 80% of vehicles in the country.\n\nSection::::History.:Oceania.\n\nMany former British colonies in the region have always been LHT, including Australia, New Zealand, Fiji, Kiribati, Nauru, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Tonga, and Tuvalu.\n", "LHT was introduced by the British in British India (now India, Pakistan, Myanmar, and Bangladesh), British Malaya (now Malaysia, Brunei and Singapore), and British Hong Kong. All are still LHT except Myanmar, which switched to RHT in 1970, although much of its infrastructure still geared to LHT. Most cars are used RHD vehicles imported from Japan. Afghanistan was LHT until the 1950s, in line with neighbouring British India and later Pakistan.\n", "LHT was introduced in British West Africa. All of the countries formerly part of this colony have borders with former French RHT jurisdictions and have switched to RHT since decolonization. These include Ghana, The Gambia, Sierra Leone, and Nigeria. LHT was introduced by the British in the East Africa Protectorate (now Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda), Rhodesia, and the Cape Colony (now Zambia, Zimbabwe and South Africa). All of these have remained LHT. Sudan, formerly part of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan switched to RHT in 1973, as it is surrounded by neighbouring RHT countries. \n", "In the West Indies, colonies and territories drive on the same side as their parent countries, except for the United States Virgin Islands. Many of the island nations are former British colonies and drive on the left, including Jamaica, Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Dominica, Grenada, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago, and The Bahamas.\n\nSection::::History.:Asia.\n", "Where there is no sidewalk, you should walk facing the oncoming traffic. This means, in countries with a right hand traffic system (like The United States), you should walk on the left side of the road. In countries, with a left hand traffic system (like India), you should walk on the right side of the road.\n\nBULLET::::- Don't suddenly stop.\n", "Section::::History.:South America.\n\nBrazil was a colony of Portugal until the early 19th century and during this century and the early 20th century had mixed rules, with some regions still on LHT, switching these remaining regions to RHT in 1928, the same year Portugal switched sides. Other Central and South American countries that later switched from LHT to RHT include Argentina, Chile, Panama, Paraguay, and Uruguay. \n\nSuriname, along with neighbouring Guyana, are the only two remaining LHT countries in South America.\n\nSection::::Changing sides at borders.\n", "The first reference in English law to an order for LHT was in 1756, with regard to London Bridge. The United Kingdom is LHT, but its overseas territories of Gibraltar and British Indian Ocean Territory are RHT. In the late 1960s, the UK Department for Transport considered switching to RHT, but declared it unsafe and too costly for such a built-up nation. Road building standards, for motorways in particular, allow asymmetrically designed road junctions, where merge and diverge lanes differ in length. \n", "BULLET::::- As cars drive on the left side of the road in both countries, people moving forward will generally go to the left as well. When walking on the pavement (usually called the 'footpath'), one should walk on the left, whenever possible. When travelling on escalators or moving walkways, one should keep to the left when standing, or keep to the right when walking.\n\nBULLET::::- Spitting in the street or on the footpath is considered to be gross bad manners.\n\nSection::::Shared expectations.:Bars and restaurants.\n", "In most major countries, the expectation is that escalator users wishing to stand keep to one side to allow others to climb past them on the other. Due to historic design purposes, riders in Canada, Germany, Hong Kong, Taiwan, the United Kingdom, and the United States are expected to stand on the right and walk on the left. However, in Australia and New Zealand, the opposite is the case. Practice may differ from city to city within countries – in Osaka, riders stand on the right, whereas in Tokyo (and most other Japanese cities), riders stand on the left.\n", "Finland, formerly ruled as part of LHT Sweden, switched to RHT in 1858 as the Grand Duchy of Finland by Russian decree. \n\nRotterdam was LHT until 1917, although the rest of the Netherlands was RHT.\n\nRussia completely switched to driving on the right in the last days of the Tsars in February 1917.\n\nToday, four countries in Europe continue to use left-hand traffic, all island nations: the UK, Cyprus, Ireland, and Malta.\n\nSection::::History.:Africa.\n", "Ancient Greek, Egyptian, and Roman troops kept to the left when marching. In 1998, archaeologists found a well-preserved double track leading to a Roman quarry near Swindon, in southern England. The grooves in the road on the left side (viewed facing down the track away from the quarry) were much deeper than those on the right side, suggesting LHT, at least at this location, since carts would exit the quarry heavily loaded, and enter it empty. In the year 1300, Pope Boniface VIII directed pilgrims to keep left.\n\nFollowing the French Revolution, all traffic in France kept right.\n", "Historically there was less consistency in the relationship of the position of the driver to the handedness of traffic. Most American cars produced before 1910 were RHD. In 1908 Henry Ford standardised the Model T as LHD in RHT America, arguing that with RHD and RHT, the passenger was obliged to \"get out on the street side and walk around the car\" and that with steering from the left, the driver \"is able to see even the wheels of the other car and easily avoids danger.\" By 1915 other manufacturers followed Ford's lead, due to the popularity of the Model T.\n", "Except for a brief period during the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976) when the government encouraged people to drive on the left (for symbolic/ideological reasons), the convention has been to drive on the right. In practice, however, driving to the left into oncoming traffic is not uncommon in China, nor is it as stigmatized and penalized as it is in other countries. This is especially true of bicyclists, electric bicycles, and motorcycles who—unless physically prevented by barriers—are almost equally likely to be found riding on the right, left or straight down the middle of lanes of traffic.\n\nSection::::Right-of-way.\n", "Avraham Gombiner, based on Isaac Luria books, added: \"One should put both sides of the cloth on his right hand and wear the right side and then the left and have Kavanah that everything included in the idea of right and from the right comes to the left.\" He was later quoted by Israel Meir Kagan and Yaakov Chaim Sofer, but while Kagan wrote it is a good thing to do, Sofer wrote it is a thing to be careful about.\n", "RHT is used in 165 countries and territories, with the remaining 75 countries and territories using LHT. Countries that use LHT account for about a sixth of the world's area with about 35% of its population and a quarter of its roads. In 1919, 104 of the world's territories were LHT and an equal number were RHT. From 1919 to 1986, 34 of the LHT territories switched to RHT.\n", "As well this phrase describes priority of traffic flow. The New Oxford Dictionary defines it as \"the legal right of a pedestrian, vehicle, or ship to proceed with precedence over others in a particular situation or place\", and in hiking etiquette, where when two groups of hikers meet on a steep trail, a custom has developed in some areas whereby the group moving uphill has the right of way.\n\nSection::::Worldwide.\n\nSection::::Worldwide.:New Zealand.\n\nThere is extensive public access in New Zealand, including waterways and the coast, but it is \"often fragmented and difficult to locate\".\n\nSection::::Worldwide.:Republic of Ireland.\n", "The French introduced RHT in French West Africa and the Maghreb, where it is still used. Countries in this former colony include Mali, Mauritania, Ivory Coast, Burkina Faso, Benin, Niger, Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia. Other French former colonies that are RHT include Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Djibouti, Gabon, and the Republic of the Congo.\n", "\"\"I don’t mean one-way streets, like Americans or Brits going to see the world; I see a two-way street in which other nationalities will come into these cultures and energize them in their own way.\"\"\n", "In RHT jurisdictions, vehicles are configured with LHD, with the driver sitting on the left side. In LHT jurisdictions, the reverse is true. The driver's side, the side closest to the centre of the road, is sometimes called the \"offside\", while the passenger side, the side closest to the side of the road, is sometimes called the \"nearside\".\n", "The Portuguese Empire, then LHT, introduced that to Portuguese Mozambique and Portuguese Angola. Although Portugal itself switched to RHT in 1928, these territories remained LHT as they have land borders with former British colonies. Other former Portuguese colonies in Africa that switched sides in 1928 including Guinea-Bissau, São Tomé and Príncipe, and Cape Verde.\n", "Generally, the convention is to mount a motorcycle on the left, and kickstands are usually on the left which makes it more convenient to mount on the safer kerbside as is the case in LHT. Some jurisdictions prohibit fitting a sidecar to a motorcycle's offside.\n\nSection::::Road vehicle configurations.:Headlamps and other lighting equipment.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02692	How can we sometimes wake up a minute before our alarm clock goes off?	A combination of two factors: 1) Because we have a pretty damn accurate internal body clock (the [circadian clock]( URL_0 )) that keeps time to within a few minutes of 24 hr, providing it gets 'trained' by daylight signals. The researchers who discovered and explored how the clock works won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2017. 2) Confirmation bias - that is, you don't notice the times you don't wake up within a minute of your alarm, either because you woke up half an hour early or because you got woken up by the alarm. It's only notable when you wake up before the alarm by a small margin.	[ "Today, many humans wake up with an alarm clock; however, people can also reliably wake themselves up at a specific time with no need for an alarm. Many sleep quite differently on workdays versus days off, a pattern which can lead to chronic circadian desynchronization. Many people regularly look at television and other screens before going to bed, a factor which may exacerbate disruption of the circadian cycle. Scientific studies on sleep have shown that sleep stage at awakening is an important factor in amplifying sleep inertia.\n\nSection::::Timing.\n", "Section::::Alarms in technology.\n\nSection::::Alarms in technology.:Computer alarms.\n\nAlarm clock software programs have been developed for personal computers. A computer acting as an alarm clock through a website may allow a virtually unlimited number of alarm times (i.e. Personal information manager) and personalized tones.\n\nSection::::Alarms in technology.:Mobile phone alarms.\n", "Section::::Alarm problem history.\n", "Section::::Alarm management history.\n", "Alarms & Clock\n", "Alarms are triggered by a special type of toast notification for alarms. Due to hardware limitations, alarms cannot always appear on certain devices that are powered off. In order for an alarm to ring on a PC that is off, InstantGo must be included in the device. Prior to the Windows 10 Creators Update, Alarms & Clock was the only app that could make an alarm notification appear during quiet hours, but third-party alarms running on Windows 10 version 1704 or later also ring during quiet hours by default.\n\nSection::::World Clock.\n", "Real-time clock alarm\n\nA real time clock alarm is a feature that can be used to allow a computer to 'wake up' after shut down to execute tasks every day or on a certain day. It can sometimes be found in the 'Power Management' section of a motherboard's BIOS setup. However, newer BIOS setups do not include an RTC alarm option, although it can still be set from within user applications. Wake On LAN, Wake on ring, and IPMI functions could also be used to start a computer after it is turned off.\n", "Section::::In healthcare.\n", "Section::::Recording.\n", "Not a servant so faithful he found;br\n\nFor it wasted no time, and had but one desire —br\n\nAt the close of each week to be wound.br\n\nAnd it kept in its place — not a frown upon its face,br\n\nAnd its hands never hung by its side.br\n\nBut it stopped short — never to go again —br\n\nWhen the old man died.\n\nbr\n\nIt rang an alarm in the dead of the night —br\n\nAn alarm that for years had been dumb;br\n\nAnd we knew that his spirit was pluming for flight —br\n", "Section::::Types.:Residential burglar alarms.:Causes and prevention.:Improper arming and disarming of the system.\n\nThis is typically caused by simple mistakes like entering the wrong passcode or letting too much time pass before entering the code. These types of false alarms can be prevented by taking more time to disarm systems, and entering a home with at least one hand free to properly disarm one's system.\n\nSection::::Types.:Residential burglar alarms.:Causes and prevention.:Untrained users.\n", "Sleep timing is controlled by the circadian clock (Process C), sleep–wake homeostasis (Process S), and to some extent by individual will.\n\nSection::::Timing.:Circadian clock.\n", "Section::::Commercial performance.\n", "Section::::Accolades.\n", "Section::::Alarms.\n\nThe alarms are listed vertically by time of day and can be activated or deactivated with an ovular on/off switch. It is possible to delete a selection of alarms simultaneously by clicking on the list button and using the control key with or without the shift key to select alarms.\n", "Scientific studies on sleep having shown that sleep stage at awakening is an important factor in amplifying sleep inertia. Alarm clocks involving \"sleep stage monitoring\" appeared on the market in 2005. The alarm clocks use sensing technologies such as EEG electrodes and accelerometers to wake people from sleep.Dawn simulators are another technology meant to mediate these effects.\n", "The perception of time is temporarily suspended during sleep, or more often during REM sleep. This can be attributed to the altered state of consciousness associated with sleep where the person is kept unaware of their surroundings, which would make it difficult to remain informed of the passing of time. When the person awakes in the morning, they have the memory of going to bed the night before, but new memories are rarely made during sleep.\n", "Section::::Background and development.\n", "Many alarm clocks have radio receivers that can be set to start playing at specified times, and are known as \"clock radios\". Some alarm clocks can set multiple alarms. A \"progressive alarm clock\", can have different alarms for different times (see Next-Generation Alarms) and even play music of your choice. Most modern televisions, mobile phones and digital watches have alarm clock functions to turn on or make sounds at a specific time.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nSection::::Types.:Traditional.\n", "The English word \"clock\" comes from an Old French word for \"bell,\" for the striking feature of early clocks was a greater concern than their dials. Shakespeare's Sonnet XII begins, \"When I do count the clock that tells the time.\" Even after the introduction of the clock face, clocks were costly, and found mostly in the homes of aristocrats. The vast majority of urban dwellers had to rely on clock towers, and outside the sight of their dials or the sound of their bells, clock time held no sway. Clock towers did define the time of day, at least for those who could hear and see them. As the saying goes, \"a person with a clock always knows what time it is; a person with two clocks is never sure.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Alarm:Daily:Test action button: Selects one of three alarm modes. Pressing the Alarm button multiple times will set Roboboa to wake up and play an alarm that many hours in the future, i.e. two presses sets the Alarm for 2 hours. The maximum setting is 16 hours. Five seconds after the last press of Alarm, Roboboa will enter Sleep mode until the alarm time elapses. After setting an Alarm, it can be flagged as a daily recurring Alarm by holding the Alarm button for 2 seconds to activate Daily alarm mode. Test will demonstrate Roboboa's alarm sounds, lights and actions.\n", "Born William Tockman, the Clock King spends his early years taking care of his invalid sister. During one day, he finds out from a doctor's visit that he himself only has six months to live. Despairing for his sister's future, he watches the timing of a local bank's vault in order to rob it, hoping the money would provide for his sister after he was gone. His caper would have gone successfully, had he not tripped a silent alarm and been caught by the Green Arrow.\n", "The primary purpose of a clock is to \"display\" the time. Clocks may also have the facility to make a loud alert signal at a specified time, typically to waken a sleeper at a preset time; they are referred to as \"alarm clocks\". The alarm may start at a low volume and become louder, or have the facility to be switched off for a few minutes then resume. Alarm clocks with visible indicators are sometimes used to indicate to children too young to read the time that the time for sleep has finished; they are sometimes called \"training clocks\".\n", "Section::::Characters.:Ally.\n", "Because they run on electricity, digital clocks often need to be reset whenever the power is cut off, even for a very brief period of time. This is a particular problem with alarm clocks that have no \"battery\" backup, because a power outage during the night usually prevents the clock from triggering the alarm in the morning. \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-03375	why cleft palates are more prevalent in 3rd world countries	They're not more prevalent in the developing world - though they are more prevalent among people of certain races (most common in Native Americans, least common in black people). They seem more prevalent because they are less likely to be treated in poorer countries because the surgery to fix it can be expensive. In the US and other rich countries, it's likely to be fixed within a few months of birth, and with good plastic surgery, you won't even notice the scar.	[ "A look into the prevalence rates of different cultures in the U.S. when compared to country of origin begins with Africans and African Americans. One per 2500 African Americans are born with a cleft (Suleiman, Hamzah, Abusalab, & Samaan, 2005). African Americans have a lower prevalence rate of CL +/- P when compared to Caucasians. A prevalence rate of 0.61 per 1,000 and 1.05 per 1,000 live births respectively was reported by Croen, Shaw, Wasserman and Tolarova (1998). In Malawi there is a reported low prevalence rate for cleft lip and/or palate, 0.7 per 1,000 live births (Chisi, Igbibi, & Msamati, 2000). Suleiman et al. (2005) found that the prevalence rate of clefting among a group of Sudanese hospital new-borns in the city of Khartoum is 0.9 per 1,000 live births.\n", "Section::::Africans and African Americans.\n", "When looking at the countries of origin, a higher rate was seen for Asians, specifically in Pakistan, with the prevalence rate being 1.91 per 1,000 live births (Elahi, Jackson, Elahi, Khan, Mubarak, Tariq, & Mitra, 2004). Similarly, C. Oh, S. Kim, W. Kim, & J. Kim (2002) found a similar prevalence rate of 1.81 per 1,000 births in the Republic of Korea. Valid prevalence rates in the native countries of the Philippines and Pacific Islands could not be reported.\n\nSection::::References.\n", "Cleft lip and palate occurs in about 1 to 2 per 1000 births in the developed world.\n\nRates for cleft lip with or without cleft palate and cleft palate alone varies within different ethnic groups.\n\nThe highest prevalence rates for (CL ± P) are reported for Native Americans and Asians. Africans have the lowest prevalence rates.\n\nBULLET::::- Native Americans: 3.74/1000\n\nBULLET::::- Japanese: 0.82/1000 to 3.36/1000\n\nBULLET::::- Chinese: 1.45/1000 to 4.04/1000\n\nBULLET::::- Caucasians: 1.43/1000 to 1.86/1000\n\nBULLET::::- Latin Americans: 1.04/1000\n\nBULLET::::- Africans: 0.18/1000 to 1.67/1000\n", "Hawaii is a U.S. state which has an extremely diverse population consisting of 73% people of Asian and Pacific Islander descent. Forrester & Merz (2004) found that the prevalence rates of CL +/- P per 10,000 live births in Hawaii were: 10 in Caucasians, 16 in people of Far East Asian descent, 11 in people of Pacific Islander descent, and 14.5 in people of Filipino descent.\n", "Al Omari & Al-Omari (2004) reported that no study exists that has specifically looked at clefting among Jordanians prior to their investigation. Al Omari et al. (2004) examined the prevalence of clefting over an eleven-year period in Jordan and found an overall rate of 1.39 per 1,000 live births for CL +/- P. This was found to be similar with the prior studies that have examined clefting in other Arab populations.\n\nSection::::United States of America.\n", "Section::::Mestizo Americans.\n\nMestizo Americans are people of mixed European and Native American origins from Mexico, Central America and South America, and the Caribbean (Meyerson, 1990). The prevalence of Mestizo Americans is lower than that of Caucasians and Native Americans, yet it is still higher than African Americans (Croen et al., 1998). Mestizo have a prevalence of clefting of 9.7 per 10,000 live births (Kirby, Petrini & Alter, 2000). In Sucre, Bolivia the prevalence rate of CL +/- P is 1.23 per 1,000 live births (McLeod et al., 2004).\n\nSection::::Jordan.\n", "Rate of occurrence of CPO is similar for Caucasians, Africans, North American natives, Japanese and Chinese. The trait is dominant.\n\nIt caused about 4,000 deaths globally in 2010 down from 8,400 in 1990.\n\nPrevalence of \"cleft uvula\" has varied from .02% to 18.8% with the highest numbers found among Chippewa and Navajo and the lowest generally in Africans.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.:Abortion controversy.\n", "Cleft lip and/or palate is a congenital abnormality that is seen frequently around the world. On average, about 1 in every 500-750 live births result in a cleft (Hardin-Jones, Karnell, & Peterson-Falzone, 2001). Furthermore, in the U.S., the prevalence for cleft lip with or without cleft palate (CL +/- P) is 2.2 to 11.7 per 10,000 births. Cleft palate alone (CP) results in a prevalence rate of 5.5 to 6.6 per 10,000 births (Forrester & Merz, 2004). Cleft of the lip, palate, or both is one of the most common congenital abnormalities and has a birth prevalence rate ranging from 1/1000 to 2.69/1000 amongst different parts of the world (McLeod, Saeed, & Arana- Urioste, 2004).\n", "Working with medical teams in Gujrat, including Dr Ijaz Bashir, OPSA teach and train local doctors to carry out some of the work year round. Patients travel from all over Pakistan in the hope of receiving advice and treatment from the specialist UK surgical team.\n\nSection::::Facts & Figures.\n\nCleft palate occurs in around 1 to 2 of every 1000 births around the world. In Pakistan, up to 10,000 babies are born each year with cleft conditions, with the majority not being able to afford to pay for operations.\n", "Recently, single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) near MAFB have been found associated with nonsyndromic cleft lip and palate. The GENEVA Cleft Consortium study, a genomewide association study involving 1,908 case-parent trios from Europe, the United States, China, Taiwan, Singapore, Korea, and the Philippines, first identified MAFB as being associated with cleft lip and/or palate with stronger genome-wide significance in Asian than European populations. The difference in populations could reflect variable coverage by available markers or true allelic heterogeneity. In mouse models, Mafb mRNA and protein were detected in both craniofacial ectoderm and neural crest-derived mesoderm between embryonic days 13.5 and 14.5; expression was strong in the epithelium around the palatal shelves and in the medial edge epithelium during palatal fusion. After fusion, Mafb expression was stronger in oral epithelium compared to mesenchymal tissue. In addition, sequencing analysis detected a new missense mutation in the Filipino population, H131Q, that was significantly more frequent in cases than in matched controls. The gene-poor regions either side of the MAFB gene include numerous binding sites for transcription factors that are known to have a role in palate development. \n", "BULLET::::- Kirby, R., Petrini, J., & Alter, C. (2000). Collecting and interpreting birth defects surveillance data by Hispanic ethnicity: A comparative study. Teratology, 61, 21-27.\n\nBULLET::::- McLeod, N.M.H., Arana-Urioste, M.L., & Saeed, N.R. (2004). Birth prevalence of cleft lip and palate in Sucre, Bolivia. Cleft Palate-Craniofacial Journal, 41(2), 195-198.\n\nBULLET::::- Meyerson, M.D. (1990). Cultural considerations in the treatment of Latinos with craniofacial malformations. Cleft Palate Journal, 27(3), 279-288.\n", "With an average worldwide prevalence of 1/800 live births, oral clefts are one of the most common birth defects. Although over 300 malformation syndromes can include an oral cleft, non-syndromic forms represent about 70% of cases with cleft lip with or without cleft palate (CL/P) and roughly 50% of cases with cleft palate (CP) only. Non-syndromic oral clefts are considered ‘complex’ or ‘multifactorial’ in that both genes and environmental factors contribute to the etiology. Current research suggests that several genes are likely to control risk, as well as environmental factors such as maternal smoking.\n", "BULLET::::- Msamati, B.C., Igbibi, P.S., & Chisi, J.E. (2000). The incidence of cleft lip. Cleft palate, hydrocephalus, and spina bifida at Queen Elizabeth Central Hospital, Blantyre, Malawi. \"Central Africa Journal of Medicine\", 46(11), 292-296.\n\nBULLET::::- Peterson-Falzone, S.J., Hardin-Jones, M.A., & Karnell, M.P. (2001). Cleft palate speech. (3rd edition). St. Louis: Mosby, Inc.\n\nBULLET::::- Strauss, R.P. (1990). Culture, health care, and birth defects in the United States: An introduction. Cleft Palate Journal, 27(3), 275-278.\n", "BULLET::::- Elahi, M.M., Jackson, I.T., Elahi, O., Khan, A.H., Mubarak, F.M., Tariq, G.B., & Mitra, A. (2004). Epidemiology of cleft lip and cleft palate in Pakistan. Plastic & Reconstructive Surgery, 113(6), 1548-1555.\n\nBULLET::::- Forrester, M.B., & Merz, R.D. (2004). Descriptive epidemiology of oral clefts in a multiethnic population, Hawaii, 1986-2000. Cleft Palate-Craniofacial Journal, 41(6), 622-628.\n\nBULLET::::- Kim, S., Kim, W.J., Oh, C., & Kim, J.C. (2002). Cleft lip and palate incidence among the live births in the Republic of Korea. \"Journal of Korean Medical Science\", 17(1), 49-52.\n", "A craniofacial team is routinely used to treat this condition. The majority of hospitals still use craniofacial teams; yet others are making a shift towards dedicated cleft lip and palate programs. While craniofacial teams are widely knowledgeable about all aspects of craniofacial conditions, dedicated cleft lip and palate teams are able to dedicate many of their efforts to being on the cutting edge of new advances in cleft lip and palate care.\n", "Section::::Epidemiology and history.\n\nThe incidence of Malpuech syndrome has not been determined. A 1999 report by Crisponi et al. suggested that only about 12 individuals worldwide were affected by the disorder at that time. The syndrome was first reported by Guilliaume Malpuech and colleagues in 1983, observed in four children of unspecified gender in what was described as a gypsy family. The children included three siblings and their first cousin; the family was known to be highly consanguineous.\n", "An alveolar cleft is a failure of the premaxilla to fuse with the upper jaw leaving a defect in the bone. It is common in people with cleft palate and is also associated with holes between the mouth and the nose that affects speech, and allows fluid to move into the nose when eating and drinking.\n", "BULLET::::- Al Omari, F., & Al-Omari, I.K. (2004). Cleft lip and palate in Jordan: Birth prevalence rate. Cleft Palate-Craniofacial Journal, 41(6), 609-612.\n\nBULLET::::- Cheng, L.L. (1990). Asian-American cultural perspectives on birth defects: Focus on cleft palate. \"Cleft Palate Journal\", 27(3), 294-300.\n\nBULLET::::- Croen, L.A., Shaw, G.M., Wasserman, C.R., & Tolarova, M.M. (1998). Racial and ethnic variations in the prevalence of orofacial clefts in California, 1983-1992. \"American Journal of Medical Genetics\", 79, 42-47.\n", "Cleft lip and palate occurs in about 1 to 2 per 1000 births in the developed world. CL is about twice as common in males as females, while CP without CL is more common in females. In 2013, it resulted in about 3,300 deaths globally, down from 7,600 deaths in 1990. The condition was formerly known as a \"hare-lip\" because of its resemblance to a hare or rabbit, but that term is now generally considered to be offensive. \n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "Cleft lip and palate is one of the most common birth anomalies in the world, affecting roughly 1 in 700 children. A cleft occurs when the tissue of a baby's lip or the roof of their mouth do not form properly during pregnancy, causing an opening the lip, palate or both. While the type and severity of the cleft will vary from child to child, the condition typically affects more than just a child's appearance, also affecting their speech, hearing, nutrition, and ability to develop socially. \n\nSection::::Mission & Vision.\n", "The most common orbital /eye anomalies seen in children with facial clefts are colobomas and vertical dystopia.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Treatment of orbital / eye anomalies.:Coloboma.\n\nThe coloboma which occurs often in facial clefts is a cleft in the lower or upper eyelid. This should be closed as soon as possible, to prevent drought of the eye and a consecutive loss of vision.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Treatment of orbital / eye anomalies.:Vertical orbital dystopia.\n", "BULLET::::- Cleft lip and/or palate - Babies born with the defect will have opening in the vicinity of the upper lip. The size of the opening reaches anywhere from a small notch to near towards the base of the nostril, in which it would either involve one or both sides of the lip. Worldwide, clefts are estimated to affect 1 in every 700-1000 live births. Roughly 25% of cleft lip and palate cases are inherited from parents, with the other 75% believed to be the cause of a combination of lifestyle and chance factors.\n", "In 2005, a study led by Ingo Kennerknecht showed support for the proposed congenital disorder form of prosopagnosia. This study provides epidemiological evidence that congenital prosopagnosia is a frequently occurring cognitive disorder that often runs in families. The analysis of pedigree trees formed within the study also indicates that the segregation pattern of hereditary prosopagnosia (HPA) is fully compatible with autosomal dominant inheritance. This mode of inheritance explains why HPA is so common among certain families (Kennerknecht et al. 2006).\n", "In \"Inheritance\", the final title of Christopher Paolini's \"Inheritance Cycle\", the main character Eragon heals a newborn girl with this condition in a display of complicated healing magic. It is stated that those within Eragon's society born with this condition are often not allowed to live as they face a very hard life.\n" ]	[ "Cleft palates are more common in 3rd world countries." ]	[ "They are not more common they are just not treated as commonly so they are seen more often. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Cleft palates are more common in 3rd world countries." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "They are not more common they are just not treated as commonly so they are seen more often. " ]
2018-13650	Why does the number of sleep hours that we human need daily decreases as we get older?	It doesn't. Children and babies need more sleep because they're still developing and that can take additional resources. But once you settle into the 8ish hours, that doesn't change. What changes is your ability to sleep. As you age you still need sleep, you just don't get it. And cognitive performance suffers as a result.	[ "\"National Geographic Magazine\" has reported that the demands of work, social activities, and the availability of 24-hour home entertainment and Internet access have caused people to sleep less now than in premodern times. \"USA Today\" reported in 2007 that most adults in the USA get about an hour less than the average sleep time 40 years ago.\n", "Sleep behavior undergoes substantial changes during adolescence. Some of these changes may be societal in humans, but other changes are hormonal. Another important change is the decrease in the number of hours of sleep, as compared to childhood, which gradually becomes identical to an adult. It is also being speculated that homeostatic regulation mechanisms may be altered during adolescence. Apart from this, the effect of changing routines of adolescents on other behavior such as cognition and attention is yet to be studied. Ohayon et al, for example, have stated that the decline in total sleep time from childhood to adolescence seems to be more associated with environmental factors rather than biological feature.\n", "Older adults represent one of the fastest growing populations around the world. In fact, the United Nations predicted an increase of those aged 60 and above from 629 million in 2002 to approximately two billion in 2050 but increased life expectancy does not necessarily translate to a better quality of life. For this reason, research has begun to investigate methods to maintain and/or improve quality of life among older adults.\n", "Sleep is an essential component to maintaining health. In children, sleep is also vital for growth and development. Ongoing sleep deprivation has been linked to an increased risk for some chronic health problems. In addition, sleep deprivation has been shown to correlate with both increased susceptibility to illness and slower recovery times from illness. In one study, people with chronic insufficient sleep, set as six hours of sleep a night or less, were found to be four times more likely to catch a cold compared to those who reported sleeping for seven hours or more a night. Due to the role of sleep in regulating metabolism, insufficient sleep may also play a role in weight gain or, conversely, in impeding weight loss. Additionally, in 2007, the International Agency for Research on Cancer, which is the cancer research agency for the World Health Organization, declared that \"shiftwork that involves circadian disruption is probably carcinogenic to humans,\" speaking to the dangers of long-term nighttime work due to its intrusion on sleep. In 2015, the National Sleep Foundation released updated recommendations for sleep duration requirements based on age and concluded that \"Individuals who habitually sleep outside the normal range may be exhibiting signs or symptoms of serious health problems or, if done volitionally, may be compromising their health and well-being.\"\n", "The amount of sleep has an impact on mortality. People who live the longest report sleeping for six to seven hours each night. Lack of sleep (<5 hours) more than doubles the risk of death from cardiovascular disease, but too much sleep (9 hours) is associated with a doubling of the risk of death, though not primarily from cardiovascular disease. Sleeping more than 7 to 8 hours per day has been consistently associated with increased mortality, though the cause is probably other factors such as depression and socioeconomic status, which would correlate statistically. Sleep monitoring of hunter-gatherer tribes from Africa and from South America has shown similar sleep patterns across continents: their average sleeping duration is 6.4 hours (with a summer/winter difference of 1 hour), afternoon naps (siestas) are uncommon, and insomnia is very rare (tenfold less than in industrial societies).\n", "Therefore, sleep in aging is another equally important area of research. A common observation is that many older adults spend time awake in bed after sleep onset in an inability to fall asleep and experience marked decrease in sleep efficiency. There may also be some changes in circadian rhythms. Studies are ongoing about what causes these changes and how they may be reduced to ensure comfortable sleep of old adults.\n\nSection::::Brain activity during sleep.\n", "In adulthood, the sleep architecture has been showing that the sleep latency and the time spent in NREM stages 1 and 2 may increase with aging, while the time spent in REM and SWS sleep seem to decrease. These changes have been frequently associated with brain atrophy, cognitive impairment and neurodegenerative disorders in old age. For instance, Backhaus et al have pointed out that a decline in declarative memory consolidation in midlife (in their experiment: 48 to 55 years old) is due to a lower amount of SWS, which might already start to decrease around age of 30 years old. According to Mander et al, atrophy in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) gray matter is a predictor of disruption in slow activity during NREM sleep that may impair memory consolidation in older adults. And sleep disturbances, such as excessive daytime sleepiness and nighttime insomnia, have been often referred as factor risk of progressive functional impairment in Alzheimer's disease (AD) or Parkinson's disease (PD).\n", "Other researchers have questioned these claims. A 2004 editorial in the journal \"Sleep\" stated that according to the available data, the average number of hours of sleep in a 24-hour period has not changed significantly in recent decades among adults. Furthermore, the editorial suggests that there is a range of normal sleep time required by healthy adults, and many indicators used to suggest chronic sleepiness among the population as a whole do not stand up to scientific scrutiny.\n", "Section::::Sleep and aging.\n\nSleep often becomes deregulated in the elderly and can lead to or exacerbate preexisting memory decline.\n\nSection::::Sleep and aging.:Healthy older adults.\n\nThe positive correlation between sleep and memory breaks down with aging. In general, older adults suffer from decreased sleep efficiency. The amount of time and density of REM sleep and SWS decreases with age. Consequently, it is common that the elderly receive no increase in memory after a period of rest.\n", "Older people may be more easily awakened by disturbances in the environment and may to some degree lose the ability to consolidate sleep.\n\nSection::::Drugs and diet.\n", "Children need many hours of sleep per day in order to develop and function properly: up to 18 hours for newborn babies, with a declining rate as a child ages. Early in 2015, after a two-year study, the National Sleep Foundation in the US announced newly revised recommendations as shown in the table below.\n\nSection::::Functions.\n\nSection::::Functions.:Restoration.\n", "In the 21st century, one of the most significant population trends is ageing. Currently, over 11% of the world's current population are people aged 60 and older and the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) estimates that by 2050 that number will rise to approximately 22%. Ageing has occurred due to development which has enabled better nutrition, sanitation, health care, education and economic well-being. Consequently, fertility rates have continued to decline and life expectancy have risen. Life expectancy at birth is over 80 now in 33 countries. Ageing is a \"global phenomenon,\" that is occurring fastest in developing countries, including those with large youth populations, and poses social and economic challenges to the work which can be overcome with \"the right set of policies to equip individuals, families and societies to address these challenges and to reap its benefits.\"\n", "Poor sleep is one of the largest complaints among the elderly, and poor sleep can be linked to a wide variety of problems including increased cardiovascular problems, disruption of endocrine functions, decline of immune functions, stability problems, and poor cognition. Studies have shown that when the elderly are exposed to high circadian light levels during the day and dim circadian levels at night, their sleep duration and efficiency has significantly improved.\n\nSection::::Health concerns.:Depression.\n", "A third mainstream theory of ageing, the ''Disposable soma\" theory\", proposed in 1977 by Thomas Kirkwood, presumes that the body must budget the amount of energy available to it. The body uses food energy for metabolism, for reproduction, and for repair and maintenance, and the body must compromise when there is a finite supply of food. The theory states that this compromise causes the body to reallocate energy to the repair function that causes the body to gradually deteriorate with age.\n", "The ontogeny of sleep is the study of sleep across different age groups of a species, particularly during development and aging. Among mammals, infants sleep the longest. Human babies have 8 hours of REM sleep and 8 hours of NREM sleep on an average. The percentage of time spent on each mode of sleep varies greatly in the first few weeks of development and some studies have correlated this to the degree of precociality of the child. Within a few months of postnatal development, there is a marked reduction in percentage of hours spent in REM sleep. By the time the child becomes an adult, he spends about 6–7 hours in NREM sleep and only about an hour in REM sleep. This is true not only of humans, but of many animals dependent on their parents for food. The observation that the percentage of REM sleep is very high in the first stages of development has led to the hypothesis that REM sleep might facilitate early brain development. However, this theory has been contested by other studies.\n", "Section::::Research.:Sleep.\n\nCoren 's research into sleep deprivation suggests that this is contributing to accidents, psychological disturbances, and increased susceptibility to illness. This line of reasoning eventually led to the series of studies which demonstrated that simply losing one hour of sleep due to the shift to daylight saving time can cause an increase in traffic accidents and other accident related fatalities on the Monday following the time change\n\nSection::::Research.:Dog behavior and the human–canine bond.\n", "A comparison of data collected from the Bureau of Labor Statistics' American Time Use Survey from 1965–1985 and 1998–2001 has been used to show that the median amount of sleep, napping, and resting done by the average adult American has changed by less than 0.7%, from a median of 482 minutes per day from 1965 through 1985, to 479 minutes per day from 1998 through 2001.\n\nSection::::Longest periods without sleep.\n", "In the weeks after a human baby is born, as its nervous system matures, neural patterns in sleep begin to show a rhythm of REM and non-REM sleep. (In faster-developing mammals this process occurs in utero.) Infants spend more time in REM sleep than adults. The proportion of REM sleep then decreases significantly in childhood. Older people tend to sleep less overall but sleep in REM for about the same absolute time, and therefore spend a greater proportion of sleep in REM.\n", "The life-cycle model of consumption suggests that consumption is based on average lifetime income instead of income at any given age. First, young people borrow to consume more than their income, next, as their income rises through the years, their consumption rises slowly and they begin to save more. Lastly, during their retirement these individuals live off of their savings. Furthermore this theory implies that consumption is smoothed out relative to a person's income which is the reason economists set consumption proportional to potential income rather than actual income.\n", "Forecasting life expectancy and mortality forms an important subdivision of demography. Future trends in life expectancy have huge implications for old-age support programs like U.S. Social Security and pension since the cash flow in these systems depends on the number of recipients who are still living (along with the rate of return on the investments or the tax rate in pay-as-you-go systems). With longer life expectancies, the systems see increased cash outflow; if the systems underestimate increases in life-expectancies, they will be unprepared for the large payments that will occur, as humans live longer and longer.\n", "One of the causes most prevalent in the developing world is urbanization. As more of the population moves to cities, population over-crowding, increased poverty, increased levels of crime, high-density traffic, low air quality and lack of parks, sidewalks and recreational sports facilities leads to a less active lifestyle.\n\nPhysical inactivity is increasing or high among many groups in the population including: young people, women, and the elderly.\n", "However, population aging also increases some categories of expenditure, including some met from public finances. The largest area of expenditure in many countries is now health care, whose cost is likely to increase dramatically as populations age. This would present governments with hard choices between higher taxes, including a possible reweighing of tax from earnings to consumption, and a reduced government role in providing health care. However, recent studies in some countries demonstrate the dramatic rising costs of health care are more attributable to rising drug and doctor costs, and higher use of diagnostic testing by all age groups, and not to the aging population as is often claimed.\n", "As the American workforce began to shift towards sedentary employment, the prevalence of [WMSD/cognitive issues/ etc..] began to rise. In 1900, 41% of the US workforce was employed in agriculture but by 2000 that had dropped to 1.9% This coincides with an increase in growth in desk-based employment (25% of all employment in 2000) and the surveillance of non-fatal workplace injuries by OSHA and Bureau of Labor Statistics in 1971 .0-1.5 and occurs in a sitting or reclining position. Adults older than 50 years report spending more time sedentary and for adults older than 65 years this is often 80% of their awake time. Multiple studies show a dose-response relationship between sedentary time and all-cause mortality with an increase of 3% mortality per additional sedentary hour each day. High quantities of sedentary time without breaks is correlated to higher risk of chronic disease, obesity, cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes and cancer.\n", "Technology as an obesity factor plays the biggest role in those adults who spend most of their working day at a desk- behind a computer screen. Not only does an increase in time spent behind a computer screen take away from time spent outdoors, it also takes away from time spent on physical activity such as exercise. The more time an individual spends sitting down at a desk working behind a computer, the less time her or she spends outdoors, at the gym, and just moving around in general. The increase in time spent using technology doesn't just take away from time spent being active, it also changes the way people eat. With the time consumption of work many individuals tend to spend more time focusing on their work rather than on their food consumption / everyday diet. According to Ross DeVol—a chief research officer at the Milken Institute claims—'Common sense says if you sit around in front of the screen, don't exercise while you are working, change your diet…you are going to gain weight,'.\n", "There is disagreement on how much sleep debt it is possible to accumulate, and whether sleep debt is accumulated against an individual's average sleep or some other benchmark. It is also unclear whether the prevalence of sleep debt among adults has changed appreciably in the industrialized world in recent decades. Sleep debt does show some evidence of being cumulative. Subjectively, however, humans seem to reach maximum sleepiness after 30 hours of waking. It is likely that in Western societies, children are sleeping less than they previously have.\n" ]	[ "As humans age less sleep is required. ", "The number of sleep hours that we humans need daily decreases as we get older." ]	[ "As humans age sleep requirements stay the same, only the ability to sleep changes. ", "The number of sleep hours that we humans need daily does not decreases as we get older, however there is a change in our ability to sleep." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "As humans age less sleep is required. ", "The number of sleep hours that we humans need daily decreases as we get older." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "As humans age sleep requirements stay the same, only the ability to sleep changes. ", "The number of sleep hours that we humans need daily does not decreases as we get older, however there is a change in our ability to sleep." ]
2018-13283	if all clouds are made of water, what makes them different colors, even if they are next to each other?	It could possibly the the density, when more light goes through one area than another creating different shades and the way the light is, it shines more on some parts than others due to the sun's angle and clouds shape. I hope that Answered It in terms of shades, I'm not sure if you meant actual colors	[ "Section::::Classification: How clouds are identified in the troposphere.:Species and varieties.:Varieties.:Combinations.\n\nIt is possible for some species to show combined varieties at one time, especially if one variety is opacity-based and the other is pattern-based. An example of this would be a layer of altocumulus stratiformis arranged in seemingly converging rows separated by small breaks. The full technical name of a cloud in this configuration would be \"altocumulus stratiformis radiatus perlucidus\", which would identify respectively its genus, species, and two combined varieties.\n\nSection::::Classification: How clouds are identified in the troposphere.:Accessory clouds, supplementary features, and other derivative types.\n", "All cloud varieties fall into one of two main groups. One group identifies the opacities of particular low and mid-level cloud structures and comprises the varieties \"translucidus\" (thin translucent), \"perlucidus\" (thick opaque with translucent or very small clear breaks), and \"opacus\" (thick opaque). These varieties are always identifiable for cloud genera and species with variable opacity. All three are associated with the stratiformis species of altocumulus and stratocumulus. However, only two varieties are seen with altostratus and stratus nebulosus whose uniform structures prevent the formation of a perlucidus variety. Opacity-based varieties are not applied to high clouds because they are always translucent, or in the case of cirrus spissatus, always opaque.\n", "Clouds that have low densities, such as cirrus clouds, contain very little water, thus resulting in relatively low liquid water content values of around .03 g/m. Clouds that have high densities, like cumulonimbus clouds, have much higher liquid water content values that are around 1-3 g/m, as more liquid is present in the same amount of space. Below is a chart giving typical LWC values of various cloud types (Thompson, 2007).\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Maritime vs. continental.\n", "Section::::Characteristics.\n\nThe liquid water content of a cloud varies significantly depending on the type of clouds present in the atmosphere at a given location. The classification of the cloud is highly related to the liquid water content as well as the origin of the cloud. The combination of these two allows a forecaster to more readily predict the types of conditions that will be in an area based on the types of clouds that are forming or have already formed.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Relation to classification of clouds.\n", "Stratocumulus Opacus is a dark layer of clouds covering entire sky without any break. However, the cloud sheet is not completely uniform, so that separate cloud bases still can be seen. This is the main precipitating type, however any rain is usually light. If the cloud layer becomes grayer to the point when individual clouds cannot be distinguished, stratocumulus turn into stratus clouds.\n\nStratocumulus Perlucidus is a layer of stratocumulus clouds with small spaces, appearing in irregular pattern, through which clear sky or higher clouds can be seen.\n", "Section::::Luminance, reflectivity, and coloration.\n", "Genus and species types are further subdivided into \"varieties\" whose names can appear after the species name to provide a fuller description of a cloud. Some cloud varieties are not restricted to a specific altitude level or form, and can therefore be common to more than one genus or species.\n\nSection::::Classification: How clouds are identified in the troposphere.:Species and varieties.:Species.\n\nSection::::Classification: How clouds are identified in the troposphere.:Species and varieties.:Species.:Stable or mostly stable.\n", "With highly unstable atmospheric conditions, large cumulus may continue to grow into cumulonimbus \"calvus\" (essentially a very tall congestus cloud that produces thunder), then ultimately into the species \"capillatus\" when supercooled water droplets at the top of the cloud turn into ice crystals giving it a cirriform appearance.\n\nSection::::Classification: How clouds are identified in the troposphere.:Species and varieties.:Varieties.\n\nSection::::Classification: How clouds are identified in the troposphere.:Species and varieties.:Varieties.:Opacity-based.\n", "Section::::Other planets.:Mars.:Extremely high cirriform.\n\nNoctilucent clouds are known to form near the poles at altitudes similar to or higher than the same type of clouds over Earth.\n\nSection::::Other planets.:Mars.:High cirriform.\n\nThin scattered wispy cloud resembling cirrus through which the planet's surface can be seen.\n\nSection::::Other planets.:Mars.:High stratocumuliform.\n\nThin scattered wave-cloud resembling cirrocumulus.\n\nSection::::Other planets.:Mars.:Low stratocumuliform.\n\nWave-cloud resembling stratocumulus, especially as a polar cap cloud over the winter pole which is mostly composed of suspended frozen carbon dioxide.\n\nSection::::Other planets.:Mars.:Surface-based.\n\nMorning fog of water and/or carbon dioxide commonly forms in low areas of the planet.\n\nSection::::Other planets.:Jupiter and Saturn.\n", "Section::::Classification: How clouds are identified in the troposphere.:Species and varieties.:Varieties.:Pattern-based.\n", "The number and type of CCNs can affect the precipitation amount, lifetimes and radiative properties of clouds as well as the amount and hence have an influence on climate change; details are not well understood but are the subject of research. There is also speculation that solar variation may affect cloud properties via CCNs, and hence affect climate.\n\nSection::::Phytoplankton role.\n", "Some clouds can form at very high to extreme levels above the troposphere, mostly above the polar regions of Earth. Polar stratospheric clouds clouds are seen but rarely in winter at altitudes of 18 to 30 kilometers, while in summer, noctilucent clouds occasionally form at high latitudes at an altitude range of 76 to 85 kilometers. These polar clouds show some of the same forms as seen lower in the troposphere.\n\nHomospheric types determined by cross-classification of forms and levels.\n", "Noctilucent clouds have four major types based on physical structure and appearance. Type I veils are very tenuous and lack well-defined structure, somewhat like cirrostratus or poorly defined cirrus. Type II bands are long streaks that often occur in groups arranged roughly parallel to each other. They are usually more widely spaced than the bands or elements seen with cirrocumulus clouds. Type III billows are arrangements of closely spaced, roughly parallel short streaks that mostly resemble cirrus. Type IV whirls are partial or, more rarely, complete rings of cloud with dark centres.\n", "Section::::Classification: How clouds are identified in the troposphere.:Accessory clouds, supplementary features, and other derivative types.:Cloud-based supplementary features.\n\n\"Incus\" is the most type-specific supplementary feature, seen only with cumulonimbus of the species capillatus. A cumulonimbus incus cloud top is one that has spread out into a clear anvil shape as a result of rising air currents hitting the stability layer at the tropopause where the air no longer continues to get colder with increasing altitude.\n", "Section::::Classification: How clouds are identified in the troposphere.:Species and varieties.:Species.:Ragged.\n\nThe species \"fractus\" shows \"variable\" instability because it can be a subdivision of genus-types of different physical forms that have different stability characteristics. This subtype can be in the form of ragged but mostly \"stable\" stratiform sheets (stratus fractus) or small ragged cumuliform heaps with somewhat greater instability (cumulus fractus). When clouds of this species are associated with precipitating cloud systems of considerable vertical and sometimes horizontal extent, they are also classified as \"accessory clouds\" under the name \"pannus\" (see section on supplementary features).\n", "Section::::Classification: How clouds are identified in the troposphere.:Accessory clouds, supplementary features, and other derivative types.:Accessory clouds.\n\nSupplementary cloud formations detached from the main cloud are known as accessory clouds. The heavier precipitating clouds, nimbostratus, towering cumulus (cumulus congestus), and cumulonimbus typically see the formation in precipitation of the \"pannus\" feature, low ragged clouds of the genera and species cumulus fractus or stratus fractus.\n", "Supercooled nitric acid and water PSC's, sometimes known as type 1, typically have a stratiform appearance resembling cirrostratus or haze, but because they are not frozen into crystals, do not show the pastel colours of the nacreous types. This type of PSC has been identified as a cause of ozone depletion in the stratosphere. The frozen nacreous types are typically very thin with mother-of-pearl colorations and an undulating cirriform or lenticular (stratocumuliform) appearance. These are sometimes known as type 2. \n\nSection::::Polar mesospheric.\n", "Stratocumulus clouds are same in appearance to altocumulus and are often mistaken for such. A simple test to distinguish these is to compare the size of individual masses or rolls: when pointing one's hand in the direction of the cloud, if the cloud is about the size of the thumb, it is altocumulus; if it is the size of one's fist, it is stratocumulus. This often does not apply when stratocumulus is of a broken, fractus form, when it may appear as small as altocumulus. Stratocumulus is also often, though not always, darker in colour than altocumulus.\n\nSection::::Description.:Optical effects.\n", "Maritime clouds tend to have fewer water droplets than continental clouds. The majority of maritime clouds have droplet concentrations between 100 drops/cm and about 200 drops/cm (Wallace, 2006). Continental clouds have much higher droplet concentrations ranging up to around 900 drops/cm. (Wallace, 2006). However, the droplet radius in maritime clouds tend to be larger, so that the end result is that the LWC is relatively similar in both types of air masses for the same types of clouds (Linacre, 1998).\n\nSection::::Measuring techniques.\n\nThere are several ways that can be used to measure the liquid water content of clouds.\n", "Cirriform clouds have three non-convective species that can form in mostly \"stable\" airmass conditions. Cirrus fibratus comprise filaments that may be straight, wavy, or occasionally twisted by non-convective wind shear. The species \"uncinus\" is similar but has upturned hooks at the ends. Cirrus \"spissatus\" appear as opaque patches that can show light grey shading.\n", "Section::::Examples of HVCs.:Northern Hemisphere.:Complex C.\n", "Noctilucent clouds are composed of tiny crystals of water ice up to 100 nm in diameter and exist at a height of about , higher than any other clouds in Earth's atmosphere. Clouds in the Earth's lower atmosphere form when water collects on particles, but mesospheric clouds may form directly from water vapour in addition to forming on dust particles.\n", "Studies have shown that cloud liquid water path varies with changing cloud droplet size, which may alter the behavior of clouds and their albedo. The variations of the albedo of typical clouds in the atmosphere are dominated by the column amount of liquid water and ice in the cloud. Cloud albedo varies from less than 10% to more than 90% and depends on drop sizes, liquid water or ice content, thickness of the cloud, and the sun's zenith angle. The smaller the drops and the greater the liquid water content, the greater the cloud albedo, if all other factors are the same.\n", "Several clouds that form higher up in the stratosphere and mesosphere have common names for their main types. They are seen infrequently, mostly in the polar regions of Earth. Clouds have been observed in the atmospheres of other planets and moons in the Solar System and beyond. However, due to their different temperature characteristics, they are often composed of other substances such as methane, ammonia, and sulfuric acid, as well as water.\n", "High clouds form in the highest and coldest region of the troposphere from about 5 to 12 km (16,500 to 40,000 ft) in temperate latitudes. At this altitude water almost always freezes so high clouds are generally composed of ice crystals or supercooled water droplets.\n\nSection::::Cloud identification and classification in the troposphere.:High-level cirriform, stratocumuliform, and stratiform.:Genus cirrus.\n\nAbbreviation: Ci\n\nCirriform clouds tend to be wispy and are mostly transparent or translucent. Isolated cirrus do not bring rain; however, large amounts of cirrus can indicate an approaching storm system eventually followed by fair weather.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-17751	are thyroid problems a legitimate “excuse” to being overweight or is this just used by people who are uneducated on diet and exercise?	Thyroids and other hormonal issues can for sure be legitimate, doctor-diagnosed problems that affect weight loss in a variety of ways. For instance, I had a friend who gained like 50 pounds over a few months because her thyroid pretty much shut off. Once she was able to get medication, she could lose weight again. I think the problem is that a lot of people just claim "thyroid issue" when they're either lazy or uneducated about weight loss. It can be a real thing, but I'm not sure it's as common as the internet leads us to believe.	[ "Thyroid agents should not be used to treat obesity, particularly in euthyroid patients. Regular doses in hypothyroid patients are acceptable, but only in the context of treating hypothyroidism. Excessive doses (and regular doses in euthyroid patients) can result in life-threatening cardiovascular events. Patients should be advised against taking sympathomimetic agents, including stimulants and diet pills, while undergoing hypothyroid treatment, as these agents increase the risk of cardiovascular events.\n", "BULLET::::- , the FDA issued a boxed warning regarding the use of thyroid hormone stimulating agents in treatment of obesity. Data does not indicate any benefits to using these agents for weight loss. Data does indicate an increased risk of life-threatening cardiovascular events when high levels of these agents are used in hypothyroid populations. Euthyroid populations demonstrate increased CV risk at clinical doses. Hypothyroid agents should not be used in combination with sympathomimetic agents including: stimulants, and diet pills, due to increased CV risks.\n", "In adults, widespread screening of the general population is a matter of debate. Some organizations (such as the United States Preventive Services Task Force) state that evidence is insufficient to support routine screening, while others (such as the American Thyroid Association) recommend either intermittent testing above a certain age in all sexes or only in women. Targeted screening may be appropriate in a number of situations where hypothyroidism is common: other autoimmune diseases, a strong family history of thyroid disease, those who have received radioiodine or other radiation therapy to the neck, those who have previously undergone thyroid surgery, those with an abnormal thyroid examination, those with psychiatric disorders, people taking amiodarone or lithium, and those with a number of health conditions (such as certain heart and skin conditions). Yearly thyroid function tests are recommended in people with Down syndrome, as they are at higher risk of thyroid disease.\n", "A diagnosis of hypothyroidism without any lumps or masses felt within the thyroid gland does not require thyroid imaging; however, if the thyroid feels abnormal, diagnostic imaging is then recommended. The presence of antibodies against thyroid peroxidase (TPO) makes it more likely that thyroid nodules are caused by autoimmune thyroiditis, but if there is any doubt, a needle biopsy may be required.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Central.\n", "Pregnant and breastfeeding women, who require 66% more daily iodine requirement than non-pregnant women, may still not be getting enough iodine. The World Health Organization recommends a daily intake of 250 µg for pregnant and breastfeeding women. As many women will not achieve this from dietary sources alone, the American Thyroid Association recommends a 150 µg daily supplement by mouth.\n\nSection::::Screening.\n", "BULLET::::- Elevated calcitonin levels in the blood have been shown to be associated with the rare medullary thyroid cancer. However, the measurement of calcitonin levels as a diagnostic tool is currently controversial due to falsely high or low calcitonin levels in a variety of diseases other than medullary thyroid cancer.\n\nBULLET::::- Very infrequently, TBG and transthyretin levels may be abnormal; these are not routinely tested.\n", "Hypothyroidism (also called Hashimoto's disease) is an autoimmune disease that affects the thyroid in pregnant individuals. This condition can have a profound effect during pregnancy and on the child. The infant may be seriously affected and have a variety of birth defects. Many pregnant individuals with Hashimoto's disease develop an underactive thyroid. The clinician will do an exam and order one or more tests.\n\nSection::::Fetal and placental problems.\n\nThe following problems occur in the fetus or placenta, but may have serious consequences on the mother as well.\n\nSection::::Fetal and placental problems.:Ectopic pregnancy.\n", "Certain medications can have the unintended side effect of affecting thyroid function. While some medications can lead to significant hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism and those at risk will need to be carefully monitored, some medications may affect thyroid hormone lab tests without causing any symptoms or clinical changes, and may not require treatment. The following medications have been linked to various forms of thyroid disease:\n\nBULLET::::- Amiodarone (more commonly can lead to hypothyroidism, but can be associated with some types of hyperthyroidism)\n\nBULLET::::- Lithium salts (hypothyroidism)\n\nBULLET::::- Some types of interferon and IL-2 (thyroiditis)\n", "Determination of TPO antibodies may be considered as part of the assessment of recurrent miscarriage, as subtle thyroid dysfunction can be associated with pregnancy loss, but this recommendation is not universal, and presence of thyroid antibodies may not predict future outcome.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "Since 2008, consensus American and British opinion has been that in general people with TSH under 10 to 20 mIU/l do not require treatment.\n\nAmerican guidelines recommend that treatment should be considered in people with symptoms of hypothyroidism, detectable antibodies against thyroid peroxidase, a history of heart disease or are at an increased risk for heart disease, if the TSH is elevated but below 10 mIU/l.\n", "Laboratory testing of thyroid stimulating hormone levels in the blood is considered the best initial test for hypothyroidism; a second TSH level is often obtained several weeks later for confirmation. Levels may be abnormal in the context of other illnesses, and TSH testing in hospitalized people is discouraged unless thyroid dysfunction is strongly suspected. An elevated TSH level indicates that the thyroid gland is not producing enough thyroid hormone, and free T4 levels are then often obtained. Measuring T is discouraged by the AACE in the assessment for hypothyroidism. There are a number of symptom rating scales for hypothyroidism; they provide a degree of objectivity but have limited use for diagnosis.\n", "During pregnancy, women may want to see both an OB/GYN and an endocrinologist, a doctor who treats people with hormone problems. Levothyroxine is safe to use during pregnancy and necessary for the health of the baby. Women with Hashimoto's disease or an underactive thyroid who are taking levothyroxine before pregnancy may need a higher dose to maintain normal thyroid function. Clinicians may check thyroid function every 6 to 8 weeks during pregnancy. After delivery, hormone levels usually go back to the pre-pregnancy level.\n\nSection::::Breastfeeding.\n", "Experts have not reached agreement on whether all pregnant women should be routinely screened for thyroid problems. But, if an underactive thyroid with or without symptoms is found during pregnancy it will be treated to lower the risk of pregnancy problems. An underactive thyroid without symptoms occurs in 2 to 3 in every 100 pregnancies. Women can request thyroid screening.\n\nSection::::Disease prior to pregnancy.\n\nWomen being treated for Hashimoto's disease can become pregnant. It is recommended that thyroid function be well-controlled before getting pregnant.\n\nUntreated or poorly treated underactive thyroid can lead to problems for the mother, such as:\n", "Screening for hypothyroidism is performed in the newborn period in many countries, generally using TSH. This has led to the early identification of many cases and thus the prevention of developmental delay. It is the most widely used newborn screening test worldwide. While TSH-based screening will identify the most common causes, the addition of T testing is required to pick up the rarer central causes of neonatal hypothyroidism. If T determination is included in the screening done at birth, this will identify cases of congenital hypothyroidism of central origin in 1:16,000 to 1:160,000 children. Considering that these children usually have other pituitary hormone deficiencies, early identification of these cases may prevent complications.\n", "Early attempts at titrating therapy for hypothyroidism proved difficult. After hypothyroidism was found to cause a lower basal metabolic rate, this was used as a marker to guide adjustments in therapy in the early 20th century (around 1915). However, a low basal metabolic rate was known to be non-specific, also present in malnutrition. The first laboratory test to be helpful in assessing thyroid status was the serum protein-bound iodine, which came into use around the 1950s.\n", "In 1971, the thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) radioimmunoassay was developed, which was the most specific marker for assessing thyroid status in patients. Many people who were being treated based on basal metabolic rate, minimizing hypothyroid symptoms, or based on serum protein-bound iodine, were found to have excessive thyroid hormone. The following year, in 1972, a T3 radioimmunoassay was developed, and in 1974, a T4 radioimmunoassay was developed.\n\nSection::::Other animals.\n", "Prognosis is better in younger people than older ones.\n\nPrognosis depends mainly on the type of cancer and cancer stage.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n\nThyroid cancer, in 2010, resulted in 36,000 deaths globally up from 24,000 in 1990. Obesity may be associated with a higher incidence of thyroid cancer, but this relationship remains the subject of much debate.\n\nThyroid cancer accounts for less than 1% of cancer cases and deaths in the UK. Around 2,700 people were diagnosed with thyroid cancer in the UK in 2011, and around 370 people died from the disease in 2012.\n\nSection::::Notable cases.\n", "The most useful marker of thyroid gland function is serum thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) levels. TSH levels are determined by a classic negative feedback system in which high levels of T3 and T4 suppress the production of TSH, and low levels of T3 and T4 increase the production of TSH. TSH levels are thus often used by doctors as a screening test, where the first approach is to determine whether TSH is elevated, suppressed, or normal.\n\nBULLET::::- Elevated TSH levels can signify inadequate thyroid hormone production (hypothyroidism)\n\nBULLET::::- Suppressed TSH levels can point to excessive thyroid hormone production (hyperthyroidism)\n", "Thyroid disease in women is an autoimmune disease that affects the thyroid in women. This condition can have a profound effect during pregnancy and on the child. It also is called Hashimoto's thyroiditis (theye-royd-EYET-uhss). During pregnancy, the infant may be seriously affected and have a variety of birth defects. Many women with Hashimoto's disease develop an underactive thyroid. They may have mild or no symptoms at first, but symptoms tend to worsen over time. If a woman is pregnant and has symptoms of Hashimoto's disease, the clinician will do an exam and order one or more tests.\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.\n\nDiagnosis of thyroid disease depends on symptoms and whether or not a thyroid nodule is present. Most patients will receive a blood test. Others might need an ultrasound, biopsy or a radioiodine scanning and uptake study.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Blood tests.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Blood tests.:Thyroid function tests.\n", "Blood free thyroxine and TSH levels are monitored to help determine whether the dose is adequate. This is done 4–8 weeks after the start of treatment or a change in levothyroxine dose. Once the adequate replacement dose has been established, the tests can be repeated after 6 and then 12 months, unless there is a change in symptoms. Normalization of TSH does not mean that other abnormalities associated with hypothyroidism improve entirely, such as elevated cholesterol levels.\n", "Drugs with thyroid hormone activity, alone or together with other therapeutic agents, have been used for the treatment of obesity. In euthyroid patients, doses within the range of daily hormonal requirements are ineffective for weight reduction. Larger doses may produce serious or even life-threatening manifestations of toxicity, particularly when given in association with sympathomimetic amines such as those used for their anorectic effects.\n\nSection::::Pharmacology.\n", "Women with anti-TPO antibodies who are trying to become pregnant (naturally or by assisted means) may require thyroid hormone supplementation even if the TSH level is normal. This is particularly true if they have had previous miscarriages or have been hypothyroid in the past. Supplementary levothyroxine may reduce the risk of preterm birth and possibly miscarriage. The recommendation is stronger in pregnant women with subclinical hypothyroidism (defined as TSH 2.5–10 mIU/l) who are anti-TPO positive, in view of the risk of overt hypothyroidism. If a decision is made not to treat, close monitoring of the thyroid function (every 4 weeks in the first 20 weeks of pregnancy) is recommended. If anti-TPO is not positive, treatment for subclinical hypothyroidism is not currently recommended. It has been suggested that many of the aforementioned recommendations could lead to unnecessary treatment, in the sense that the TSH cutoff levels may be too restrictive in some ethnic groups; there may be little benefit from treatment of subclinical hypothyroidism in certain cases.\n", "As with most substances, either too much or too little can cause problems. Recent studies on some populations are showing that excess iodine intake could cause an increased prevalence of autoimmune thyroid disease, resulting in permanent hypothyroidism.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Disease.:Graves' disease.\n", "Section::::Uses.:Use as a fat loss supplement.\n\n3,5-Diiodo--thyronine and 3,3'-diiodo--thyronine are used as ingredients in certain over-the-counter fat-loss supplements, designed for bodybuilding. Several studies have shown that these compounds increase the metabolization of fatty acids and the burning of adipose fat tissue in rats.\n\nSection::::Alternative medicine.\n\nTriiodothyronine has been used to treat Wilson's syndrome, an alternative medical diagnosis not recognized as a medical condition by mainstream medicine. This diagnosis involves various non-specific symptoms that are attributed to the thyroid, despite normal thyroid function tests. The American Thyroid Association has raised concern that the prescribed treatment with triiodothyronine is potentially harmful.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02569	How do subtitles done on live TV?	No expert but I'm pretty sure all live TV is delayed something like 7 seconds so I assume someone types it up in the moments between	[ "On the way into the theatre, viewers pick up a reflective plastic panel mounted on a flexible stalk. The panel sits in a seat cupholder or on the floor adjacent to the seat. A large LED display is mounted on a rear wall that displays caption characters in mirror image. Viewers move the panels into position (usually below the movie screen or stage) so they can read the reflected captions and watch the presentation. Others seated alongside do not watch, or usually even see, the captions.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Same language subtitling\n\nBULLET::::- Subtitling\n\nBULLET::::- Closed Captioning\n\nBULLET::::- Karaoke\n", "Surtitles are different from subtitles, which are more often used in filmmaking and television production. Originally, translations would be broken up into small chunks and photographed onto slides that could be projected onto a screen above the stage, but most companies now use a combination of video projectors and computers.\n\nJohn Leberg developed the Surtitle system for the Canadian Opera Company when he was the company's director of operations.\n\nLotfi Mansouri, then general director of the company, first used the system in the January 1983 staging of \"Elektra\".\n", "The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) in the UK was the first broadcaster to include closed captions (subtitles in the UK) in 1979 based on the Teletext framework for pre-recorded programming.\n\nReal-time captioning, a process for captioning live broadcasts, was developed by the National Captioning Institute in 1982. In real-time captioning, court reporters trained to write at speeds of over 225 words per minute give viewers instantaneous access to live news, sports, and entertainment. As a result, the viewer sees the captions within two to three seconds of the words being spoken.\n", "Programs such as news bulletins, current affairs programs, sport, some talk shows and political and special events utilize real time or online captioning. Live captioning is increasingly common, especially in the United Kingdom and the United States, as a result of regulations that stipulate that virtually all TV eventually must be accessible for people who are deaf and hard–of–hearing. In practice, however, these \"real time\" subtitles will typically lag the audio by several seconds due to the inherent delay in transcribing, encoding, and transmitting the subtitles. Real time subtitles are also challenged by typographic errors or mis-hearing of the spoken words, with no time available to correct before transmission.\n", "User interaction via chat rooms forms a major component of live streaming. Platforms often include the ability to talk to the broadcaster or participate in conversations in chat. An extreme example of viewer interfacing is the social experiment Twitch Plays \"Pokémon\", where viewers collaborate to complete \"Pokémon\" games by typing in commands that correspond to controller inputs.\n\nSection::::Social media.\n", "Also known as \"real-time subtitling\", it differs from regular subtitling in that the subtitles are not prerecorded and are instead inserted on the spot. This mode of multimedia of translation is used for live broadcasts for those who are hard of hearing. A \"respeaker\" takes the original sound and dialogue of a live program or event and \"respeaks\" it into a speech recognition software. This new version includes punctuation marks and specific features for this audience, which is then turned into subtitles with as little delay as possible.\n\nSection::::Modes of translation.:Subtitling for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing (SDH).\n", "In the same year, another multilingual software for mobile consumer devices was developed, as an alternative to the use of subtitles in cinemas and, the following year (2012), a new head-mounted display system (multimedia glasses) was introduced, serving the same function.\n\nIn 2011-2012, the Royal Opera House Muscat carried out the most advanced multilingual custom display system to date, interactive and integrated to surtitles screened on a central LED panel.\n\nSection::::Other solutions.\n\nThe simultaneous presentation of two languages is quite unusual within the more traditional surtitling system, which is used in most cases with monolingual function.\n\nSection::::Sources.\n", "A real-time voice writer's words go through the mask's cable to an external USB digital signal processor, From there the words go into the computer's speech recognition engine, for conversion into streaming text. The reporter can send the streamed text to a) the Internet; b) a computer file; c) a television station for subtitling; d) to an end-user who is reading the captions via their laptop, tablet, smart phone, or e) software which formats the results in a way most familiar to judges, attorneys, or subtitling consumers.\n", "As of the 2010s, providers of Internet television use various technologies to provide VoD systems and live streaming. BBC iPlayer makes use of the Adobe Flash Player to provide streaming-video clips and other software provided by Adobe for its download service. CNBC, Bloomberg Television and Showtime use live-streaming services from BitGravity to stream live television to paid subscribers using the HTTP protocol.\n", "The most extensively studied mode of multimedia translation, subtitling is the linguistic practice showing written text on a screen that conveys \"a target language version of the source speech.\" Consisting of many sub-types, the one most commonly used is interlinguistic subtitling, which is usually displayed in open captions. In places where several languages are spoken, bilingual subtitles are used to show two different language versions of the source text at the same time.\n\nSection::::Modes of translation.:Voice over.\n", "Generally projected above the theatre's proscenium arch (but, alternately, on either side of the stage), surtitles are usually displayed using a supertitling machine. The text must be prepared beforehand as in subtitles. These machines can be used for events other than artistic performances, when the text is easier to show to the audience than it is to vocalize.\n", "BULLET::::6. While TV studio audiences may feel that they are at a public “live” performance, these performances are often edited and remixed for the benefit of their intended primary audience, the home audiences which are viewing the mass broadcast in private. Broadcasts of “Great Performances” by PBS and other theatrical events broadcast into private homes, give the TV viewers the sense that they are secondary viewers of a primary “live” event. In addition, archival or real-time web-casts which do not generate feedback influencing the “live” performances are not within the range of digital theatre. In each case, a visible interface such as TV or monitor screen, like a camera frames and interprets the original event for the viewers.\n", "BULLET::::- Delivering Digital Britain: Lord Carter. Recorded February 24, 2009\n\nBULLET::::- BBC/OU The Virtual Revolution Episodes 3&4. Originally broadcast on February 13, 2010 and February 20, 2010\n\nBULLET::::- Gordon Brown (PM) Building Britain’s Digital Future announcement with twitter subtitles. Recorded March 23, 2010\n\nBULLET::::- JISC10 Conference Keynotes with Twitter Subtitles. Recorded April 13, 2010\n\nBULLET::::- Leaders debate on BBC iPlayer with twitter subtitles from parliamentary candidates. Recorded May 2, 2010\n\nBULLET::::- Google I/O 2010 – Keynote Day 2 Android Demo with Twitter Subtitles. Recorded May 11, 2010\n", "Interpreting is \"the oral translation of an audiovisual product by only one speaker.\" Interpreting consists of many different types, such as simultaneous, live, consecutive or prerecorded. This mode is usually used in live interviews and news broadcasts.\n\nSection::::Modes of translation.:Surtitling.\n\nSurtitling is similar to subtitling, however it consists of one continuous line displayed with no interruption. Becoming more frequent in theatres and operahouses, the translation is displayed either above the stage or on the backs of seats. Despite being shown in real time, the translations are prepared in advance.\n\nSection::::Modes of translation.:Free commentary.\n", "Section::::Uses of captioning in other media.:Theatre.\n\nLive plays can be open captioned by a captioner who displays lines from the script and including non-speech elements on a large display screen near the stage.. Software is also now available that automatically generates the captioning and streams the captioning to individuals sitting in the theater, with that captioning being viewed using heads-up glasses or on a smartphone or computer tablet.\n\nSection::::Uses of captioning in other media.:Telephones.\n", "In the audiovisual system, even when more than one language was used, subtitles maintained their position unchanged for many years. The newest software technologies for mobile devices, which came out as an alternative to subtitling in cinemas, or the possibilities opened up by head-mounted displays, such as subtitle glasses, have made a revision of the technical terminology necessary also in the field of those performing arts that are reproducible on electronic devices.\n", "A real-time voice writer's words go through the mask's cable to an external USB digital signal processor, From there the words go into the computer's speech recognition engine, for conversion into streaming text. The reporter can send the streamed text to a) the Internet; b) a computer file; c) a television station for subtitling; d) to an end-user who is reading the captions via their laptop, tablet, smart phone, or e) software which formats the results in a way most familiar to judges, attorneys, or subtitling consumers.\n", "Dubbing, sometimes known as \"lip-synchrony\", involves both the translation and its synchronisation as well as dubbing the actors' and actresses' performance. Once considered the most comprehensive form of translation, dubbing follows the \"timing, phrasing and lip movement of the original dialogue\" as closely as possible. Although this mode is usually interlingual, there are some cases of intralingual dubbing, but it is not very common.\n\nSection::::Modes of translation.:Subtitling.\n", "Section::::Same-language captions.:Closed captions.:Real time.:Live.\n", "Section::::Technology.:Videoconferencing modes.\n\nVideoconferencing systems use two methods to determine which video feed or feeds to display.\n\n\"Continuous Presence\" simply displays all participants at the same time, usually with the exception that the viewer either does not see their own feed, or sees their own feed in miniature.\n", "Subtitles exist in two forms; open subtitles are 'open to all' and cannot be turned off by the viewer; closed subtitles are designed for a certain group of viewers, and can usually be turned on/off or selected by the viewer – examples being teletext pages, US Closed captions (608/708), DVB Bitmap subtitles, DVD/Blu-ray subtitles.\n\nWhile distributing content, subtitles can appear in one of 3 types:\n", "Section::::Uses of captioning in other media.:Sports venues.\n", "The industry standard for transcribing an audio file takes one hour for every 15 minutes of audio. For live usage, real-time text transcription services are available for captioning purposes, including Remote CART, Captioned Telephone, and live closed captioning for live broadcasts. Live transcripts are less accurate than offline transcripts, as there is no time for corrections and refinements. However, in a multistage subtitling process with a broadcast delay and access to a live audio feed it is possible to have several correction stages and for the text to be displayed at the same time as the \"live\" transmission.\n\nSection::::Interview transcription.\n", "New York City Opera was the first American opera company to use supertitles, in 1983.\n\nThe surtitle is given an insertion point in the score (piano score) for the surtitle's entry and exit. An operator will push a button at the marked point when following the music.\n\nSection::::Personal titling systems.\n\nSurtitles can be a distraction, focusing attention on the titles instead of the stage. Therefore, several systems have been developed to provide captions visible only to those individual viewers who wish to see them.\n\nSection::::Personal titling systems.:Electronic libretto system.\n", "Remote control handsets for TVs, DVDs, and similar devices in most European markets often use \"SUB\" or \"SUBTITLE\" on the button used to control the display of subtitles/captions.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Open captioning.\n\nRegular open-captioned broadcasts began on PBS's \"The French Chef\" in 1972. WGBH began open captioning of the programs \"Zoom\", \"ABC World News Tonight\", and \"Once Upon a Classic\" shortly thereafter.\n\nSection::::History.:Technical development of closed captioning.\n\nClosed captioning was first demonstrated at the First National Conference on Television for the Hearing Impaired in Nashville, Tennessee in\n" ]	[ "Because TV is live, it should not be possible for it to have any subtitles. " ]	[ "A person types the subtitles during the period of delay on live television." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Because TV is live, it should not be possible for it to have any subtitles. ", "Because TV is live, it should not be possible for it to have any subtitles. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "A person types the subtitles during the period of delay on live television.", "A person types the subtitles during the period of delay on live television." ]
2018-14906	Why can’t we eat some food raw, instead we cook/boil/steam it until we can eat it in that form?	Pretty sure you can eat agonist anything raw if you're savage enough, it's just not recommended due to bacteria etc...also most things taste better cooked...IMO	[ "Cooking increases the digestibility of many foods which are inedible or poisonous when raw. For example, raw cereal grains are hard to digest, while kidney beans are toxic when raw or improperly cooked due to the presence of phytohaemagglutinin, which is inactivated by cooking for at least ten minutes at .\n", "One review stated that \"Many raw foods are toxic and only become safe after they have been cooked. Some raw foods contain substances that destroy vitamins, interfere with digestive enzymes or damage the walls of the intestine. Raw meat can be contaminated with bacteria which would be destroyed by cooking; raw fish can contain substances that interfere with vitamin B1 (anti-thiaminases)\"\n\nSection::::Role of cooking in human evolution.\n", "While many foods can be eaten raw, many also undergo some form of preparation for reasons of safety, palatability, texture, or flavor. At the simplest level this may involve washing, cutting, trimming, or adding other foods or ingredients, such as spices. It may also involve mixing, heating or cooling, pressure cooking, fermentation, or combination with other food. In a home, most food preparation takes place in a kitchen. Some preparation is done to enhance the taste or aesthetic appeal; other preparation may help to preserve the food; others may be involved in cultural identity. A meal is made up of food which is prepared to be eaten at a specific time and place.\n", "Smoking can be done in four ways: cold smoking, warm smoking, hot smoking, and through the employment of \"liquid smoke\". However, these methods of imparting smoke only affect the food surface, and are unable to preserve food, thus, smoking is paired with other microbial hurdles, such as chilling and packaging, to extend food shelf-life.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The supporting evidence of the cooking hypothesis argues that compared to the nutrients in the raw food, nutrients in cooked food are much easier to digest for hominids as shown in the research of protein ingestion from raw vs. cooked egg. Such a feature is essential for brain evolution: through studying the metabolic activities between primate species, scientists had found that there is a limitation of energy harvesting through food sources due to limited feeding time.\n", "Cooking requires applying heat to a food which usually, though not always, chemically changes the molecules, thus changing its flavor, texture, appearance, and nutritional properties. Cooking certain proteins, such as egg whites, meats, and fish, denatures the protein, causing it to firm. There is archaeological evidence of roasted foodstuffs at \"Homo erectus\" campsites dating from 420,000 years ago. Boiling as a means of cooking requires a container, and has been practiced at least since the 10th millennium BC with the introduction of pottery.\n\nSection::::Cuisine.:Food preparation.:Cooking.:Cooking equipment.\n\nThere are many different types of equipment used for cooking.\n", "Preparing food with heat or fire is an activity unique to humans. It may have started around 2 million years ago, though archaeological evidence for it reaches no more than 1 million years ago.\n\nThe expansion of agriculture, commerce, trade, and transportation between civilizations in different regions offered cooks many new ingredients. New inventions and technologies, such as the invention of pottery for holding and boiling water, expanded cooking techniques. Some modern cooks apply advanced scientific techniques to food preparation to further enhance the flavor of the dish served.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Claims.\n\nClaims held by raw food proponents include:\n\nBULLET::::- That heating food above starts to degrade and destroy the enzymes in raw food that aid digestion. Enzymes in food play no significant role in the digestive process, prior to being digested themselves.\n\nBULLET::::- That raw foods have higher nutrient values than foods that have been cooked. In reality, whether cooking degrades nutrients or increases their availability, or both, depends on the food and how it is cooked.\n", "The use of temperatures much lower than for conventional cooking is an equally essential feature of sous-vide, resulting in much higher succulence at these lower temperatures, as cell walls in plant-based food do not burst. In the case of meat cooking, tough collagen in connective tissue can be hydrolysed into gelatin, without heating the meat’s proteins high enough that they denature to a degree that the texture toughens and moisture is wrung out of the meat. In contrast, with the cooking of vegetables, where extreme tenderness or softness is seen as undesirably overcooked, the ability of the sous-vide technique to cook vegetables at a temperature below the boiling point of water allows vegetables to be thoroughly cooked (and pasteurized, if necessary) while maintaining a firm or somewhat crisp texture. While the cell walls will generally not burst, the de-polymerization of the pectic polysaccharides that connect the vegetable cells together and/or the gelatinisation of starch in the vegetable can be achieved without overcooking.\n", "The origins of culinary began with primitive humans roughly 2 million years ago. There are various theories as to how early humans used fire to cook meat. According to anthropologist Richard Wrangham, author of \"Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human\", primitive humans simply tossed a raw hunk of meat into the flames and watching it sizzle. Another theory claims humans may first have savored roasted meat by chance when the flesh of a beast killed in a forest fire was found to be more appetizing and easier to chew and digest than the conventional raw meat.\n", "Richard Wrangham, professor of biological anthropology at Harvard University, proposes that cooked food played a pivotal role in human evolution. Evidence of a cooked diet, according to Wrangham, can be seen as far back as 1.8 million years ago in the anatomical adaptations of \"Homo erectus\". Reduction in the size of teeth and jaw in \"H. erectus\" indicate a softer diet, requiring less chewing time. This combined with a smaller gut and larger brain indicate to Wrangham that \"H. erectus\" was eating a higher quality diet than its predecessors. To explain a decreased gut providing the amount of energy required for an increased brain size, Wrangham links his research on the digestive effects of cooked versus raw foods with the lower reproductive abilities of female raw foodists, and BMI in both sexes, to support his hypothesis that cooked starches provided the energy necessary to fuel evolution from \"H. erectus\" to \"H. sapiens\".\n", "The US Food and Drug Administration has established a list of foods which are rarely consumed raw, and so cooking is recommended to kill microorganisms. Therefore, not all plant foods on the market are recommended for eating uncooked. Likewise, the preparation and packaging of plant foods may introduce pathogens from industrial equipment, and should be subsequently cooked for food safety purposes (there are warning labels on some frozen and dried foods to that effect, although ready to serve desserts, like sorbet, could contain acid resistant listeria, and a box of chocolates could include salmonella). Raw herbs and spices, as common as black pepper, may also carry microorganisms. \n", "While the majority of meat is cooked before eating, some traditional dishes such as crudos, steak tartare, kibbeh nayyeh, sushi, sashimi, raw oysters, or other delicacies call for uncooked meat. The risk of disease from ingesting pathogens found in raw meat is significantly higher than cooked meat, although both can be contaminated. Meat can be incorrectly or insufficiently cooked, allowing disease-carrying pathogens to be ingested. Also, meat can be contaminated during the production process at any time, from the slicing of prepared meats to cross-contamination of food in a refrigerator. All of these situations lead to a greater risk of disease.\n", "Raw (film)\n\nRaw () is a 2016 French-Belgian horror drama film written and directed by Julia Ducournau, and starring Garance Marillier. The plot follows a young vegetarian's first year at veterinary school when she tastes meat for the first time and develops a craving for flesh.\n", "Section::::Ingredients.\n\nMost ingredients in cooking are derived from living organisms. Vegetables, fruits, grains and nuts as well as herbs and spices come from plants, while meat, eggs, and dairy products come from animals. Mushrooms and the yeast used in baking are kinds of fungi. Cooks also use water and minerals such as salt. Cooks can also use wine or spirits.\n\nNaturally occurring ingredients contain various amounts of molecules called \"proteins\", \"carbohydrates\" and \"fats\". They also contain water and minerals. Cooking involves a manipulation of the chemical properties of these molecules.\n\nSection::::Ingredients.:Carbohydrates.\n", "Cooking can prevent many foodborne illnesses that would otherwise occur if the food is eaten raw. When heat is used in the preparation of food, it can kill or inactivate harmful organisms, such as bacteria and viruses, as well as various parasites such as tapeworms and \"Toxoplasma gondii\". Food poisoning and other illness from uncooked or poorly prepared food may be caused by bacteria such as of \"Escherichia coli\", \"Salmonella typhimurium\" and \"Campylobacter\", viruses such as noroviruses, and protozoa such as \"Entamoeba histolytica\". Bacteria, viruses and parasites may be introduced through salad, meat that is uncooked or done rare, and unboiled water.\n", "The next step would be to make some use of residual hot spots that occur in the wake of wildfires. For example, foods found in the wake of wildfires tend to be either burned or undercooked. This might have provided incentives to place undercooked foods on a hotspot or to pull food out of the fire if it was in danger of getting burned. This would require familiarity with fire and its behavior.\n", "With the adequate combination of temperature and cooking time, pathogens, such as bacteria will be killed, and pasteurization can be achieved. Because browning (Maillard reactions) can only occur at higher temperatures (above the boiling point of water), these moist techniques do not develop the flavors associated with browning. Meat will often undergo searing in a very hot pan, grilling or browning with a torch before moist cooking (though sometimes after).\n", "Eighteenth-century writers noted already that \"people cooked their meat, rather than eating it raw like animals\". Oliver Goldsmith considered that \"of all other animals we spend the least time in eating; this is one of the great distinctions between us and the brute creation\". In 1999 Wrangham published the first version of the hypothesis in \"Current Anthropology\". A short outline of the hypothesis was presented by John Allman (2000) presumably based upon Wrangham (1999).\n\nSection::::Overview.\n", "Section::::Food safety.:Mechanisms.\n\nFood safety has been practiced for thousands of years, but with the rise of heavily industrial agriculture, the demand for food safety has steadily increased, prompting more research into the ways to achieve greater food safety. A primary mechanism that will be discussed in this article is heating of food products to kill microorganisms, as this has a millennia-long history and is still extensively used. However, more recent mechanisms have been created such as application of ultraviolet light, high pressure, electric field, cold plasma, usage of ozone, and irradiation of food.\n\nSection::::Food safety.:Mechanisms.:Heating.\n", "Vitamins and minerals are required for normal metabolism but which the body cannot manufacture itself and which must therefore come from external sources. Vitamins come from several sources including fresh fruit and vegetables (Vitamin C), carrots, liver (Vitamin A), cereal bran, bread, liver (B vitamins), fish liver oil (Vitamin D) and fresh green vegetables (Vitamin K). Many minerals are also essential in small quantities including iron, calcium, magnesium, sodium chloride and sulfur; and in very small quantities copper, zinc and selenium. The micronutrients, minerals, and vitamins in fruit and vegetables may be destroyed or eluted by cooking. Vitamin C is especially prone to oxidation during cooking and may be completely destroyed by protracted cooking. The bioavailability of some vitamins such as thiamin, vitamin B6, niacin, folate, and carotenoids are increased with cooking by being freed from the food microstructure. Blanching or steaming vegetables is a way of minimizing vitamin and mineral loss in cooking.\n", "Certain cultures highlight animal and vegetable foods in a raw state. Salads consisting of raw vegetables or fruits are common in many cuisines. Sashimi in Japanese cuisine consists of raw sliced fish or other meat, and sushi often incorporates raw fish or seafood. Steak tartare and salmon tartare are dishes made from diced or ground raw beef or salmon, mixed with various ingredients and served with baguettes, brioche, or frites. In Italy, carpaccio is a dish of very thinly sliced raw beef, drizzled with a vinaigrette made with olive oil. The health food movement known as raw foodism promotes a mostly vegan diet of raw fruits, vegetables, and grains prepared in various ways, including juicing, food dehydration, sprouting, and other methods of preparation that do not heat the food above . An example of a raw meat dish is ceviche, a Latin American dish made with raw meat that is \"cooked\" from the highly acidic citric juice from lemons and limes along with other aromatics such as garlic.\n", "The other non-enzymatic reaction is the Maillard reaction. This reaction is responsible for the production of the flavor when foods are cooked. Examples of foods that undergo Maillard reaction include breads, steaks, and potatoes. It is a chemical reaction that takes place between the amine group of a free amino acid and the carbonyl group of a reducing sugar, usually with the addition of heat. The sugar interacts with the amino acid, producing a variety of odors and flavors. The Maillard reaction is the basis for producing artificial flavors for processed foods in the flavoring industry, since the type of amino acid involved determines the resulting flavor.\n", "The interaction of heat and carbohydrate is complex. Long-chain sugars such as starch tend to break down into simpler sugars when cooked, while simple sugars can form syrups. If sugars are heated so that all water of crystallisation is driven off, then caramelization starts, with the sugar undergoing thermal decomposition with the formation of carbon, and other breakdown products producing caramel. Similarly, the heating of sugars and proteins elicits the Maillard reaction, a basic flavor-enhancing technique.\n", "There are two types of pathogenic bacteria that target different categories of food. The first type is called \"Clostridium perfingen\" and targets foods such as meat and poultry, and \"Bacillus cereus\", which targets milk and cream. When stored or subjected to unruly conditions, the organisms will begin to breed apace, releasing harmful toxins that can causes\n\nSection::::Reasons.:Fungi.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "There are some foods we cannot eat raw." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "You can eat anytthing raw it just might have bacteria. " ]
2018-13841	If skin is constantly regenerated, why do blemishes persist?	The thing that everybody believes about skin being "constantly regenerated" isn't exactly true. Your skin is made up of five different layers. Blemishes are located in the lower layers. It's only the top layer (the epidermis) that falls off and is replaced. It's the same layer that peels off when you have a sunburn.	[ "Section::::Inflammaging.\n\nThis is the long-lasting inflammation that occurs as a result of aging. It affects the start and the progression of diseases that occur as a result of aging e.g. type 2 diabetes. It occurs in the skin because when exposed to the UV radiation it leads to the damaging of the epidermal cells which in turn cause inflammation to occur.\n\nSection::::Collagen loss due to increase in age.\n", "Section::::Skin defenses.:Immune system.\n\nIf activated, the immune system in the skin produces cell-mediated immunity against microbes such as dermatophytes (skin fungi). One reaction is to increase stratum corneum turnover and so shed the fungus from the skin surface. Skin fungi such as \"Trichophyton rubrum\" have evolved to create substances that limit the immune response to them. The shedding of skin is a general means to control the buildup of flora upon the skin surface.\n\nSection::::Skin diseases.\n", "As affected individuals get older, blistering is less frequent, erythroderma becomes less evident, and the skin becomes thick (hyperkeratotic), especially over joints, on areas of skin that come into contact with each other, or on the scalp or neck. This thickened skin is usually darker than normal. Bacteria can grow in the thick skin, often causing a distinct odor.\n", "The skin creates antimicrobial peptides such as cathelicidins that control the proliferation of skin microbes. Cathelicidins not only reduce microbe numbers directly but also cause the secretion of cytokine release which induces inflammation, angiogenesis, and reepithelialization. Conditions such as atopic dermatitis have been linked to the suppression in cathelicidin production. In rosacea abnormal processing of cathelicidin cause inflammation. Psoriasis has been linked to self-DNA created from cathelicidin peptides that causes autoinflammation. A major factor controlling cathelicidin is vitamin D.\n\nSection::::Skin defenses.:Acidity.\n", "Periwound skin damage caused by excessive amounts of exudate and other bodily fluids can perpetuate the non-healing status of chronic wounds. Maceration, excoriation, dry (fragile) skin, hyperkeratosis, callus and eczema are frequent problems that interfere with the integrity of periwound skin. They can create a gateway for infection as well as cause wound edge deterioration preventing wound closure.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "As skin ages, it becomes thinner and more easily damaged. Intensifying this effect is the decreasing ability of skin to heal itself as a person ages.\n\nAmong other things, skin aging is noted by a decrease in volume and elasticity. There are many internal and external causes to skin aging. For example, aging skin receives less blood flow and lower glandular activity.\n", "Wound healing is a complex and fragile process in which the skin repairs itself after injury. It is susceptible to interruption or failure that creates non-healing chronic wounds.\n\nSection::::Nutrition.\n\nAdd from\n\nBULLET::::- 2001 American Society for Clinical Nutrition Nutritional skin care: health effects of micronutrients and fatty acids Esther Boelsma, Henk FJ Hendriks, and Len Roza.\n\nSection::::Radiation.\n", "Hand washing can damage skin because the stratum corneum top layer of skin consists of 15 to 20 layers of keratin disks, corneocytes, each of which is each surrounded by a thin film of skin lipids which can be removed by alcohols and detergents.\n", "Cellular senescence is not observed in some organisms, including perennial plants, sponges, corals, and lobsters. In those species where cellular senescence is observed, cells eventually become post-mitotic when they can no longer replicate themselves through the process of cellular mitosis; i.e., cells experience \"replicative senescence\". How and why some cells become post-mitotic in some species has been the subject of much research and speculation, but it has been suggested that cellular senescence evolved as a way to prevent the onset and spread of cancer. Somatic cells that have divided many times will have accumulated DNA mutations and would therefore be in danger of becoming cancerous if cell division continued. As such, it is becoming apparent that senescent cells undergo conversion to an immunogenic phenotype that enables them to be eliminated by the immune system.\n", "Section::::Molecular mechanisms in Skin Aging.\n\nThere are many dissimilar models that have been used to give an explanation of skin aging using a molecular base such as the theory of cellular senescence, the reduction in the cell's DNA repair capacity and losing of telomeres, oxidative stress etc. Some scientists also proposed that a large portion of skin aging is caused by external factors while only 3% is caused by internal factors. In this section we will talk about the significant models and advancement in molecular mechanisms studies in relation to aging of the skin.\n\nSection::::Oxidative stress.\n", "Skin plaques start to appear as reddened areas of inflammation, thus often leading to the mistaken diagnosis of Atopic Dermatitis. Following inflammation, the red areas start keratinization, eventually forming the definitive plaques that appear brownish, dry and scaled. Following quite a precise temporal pattern of evolution, the keratinized plaques last for weeks or months, eventually leading to periods of desquamation that leads to the uncovering of \"normal\" skin. Then, a new cycle usually begins, leaving a variable number of days of delay between the cycles.\n", "BULLET::::- Skin aging is caused in part by TGF-β, which reduces the subcutaneous fat that gives skin a pleasant appearance and texture. TGF-β does this by blocking the conversion of dermal fibroblasts into fat cells; with fewer fat cells underneath to provide support, the skin becomes saggy and wrinkled. Subcutaneous fat also produces cathelicidin, which is a peptide that fights bacterial infections.\n\nSection::::Biological basis.:Damage-related factors.\n", "Keratin that is present in the hair, scales and in the epidermis of the skin is hydrolyzed in the presence of alkali (at pH values greater than 11.5). The disulfide bridges found in keratin protein are cleaved but can be reformed. Long periods of liming will result in hair removal. The main removal of keratin is performed during the unhairing operation. In traditional processing, liming and unhairing were indivisible and took place at the same time. During modern liming methods, and in particular the processing of sheepskins, the hair is removed first and then limed in a liming drum. In hair-save technology, the hides are unhaired first and then limed for a further 12–18 hours.\n", "In recent years, advances have been made in accelerating healing of chronic wounds and ulcers. Chronic wounds produce fewer growth hormones than necessary for healing tissue, and healing may be accelerated by replacing or stimulating growth factors while controlling the formation of other substances that work against them.\n", "Melanic \"B. betularia\" have been widely observed in North America. In 1959, 90% of \"B. betularia\" in Michigan and Pennsylvania were melanic. By 2001, melanism dropped to 6% of the population, following clean air legislation. The drop in melanism was correlated with an increase in species diversity of lichens, a decrease in the atmospheric pollutant sulphur dioxide, and an increase in the pale phenotype. The return of lichens is in turn directly correlated with the reduction in atmospheric sulphur dioxide.\n", "The effects of tanning dependence are/but not limited to: skin cancer, skin burns, premature skin aging, and eye damage (both short and long-term).\n\nSection::::Example cases.\n", "Overproduction of collagen is thought to result from an autoimmune dysfunction, in which the immune system starts to attack the kinetochore of the chromosomes. This would lead to genetic malfunction of nearby genes. T cells accumulate in the skin; these are thought to secrete cytokines and other proteins that stimulate collagen deposition. Stimulation of the fibroblast, in particular, seems to be crucial to the disease process, and studies have converged on the potential factors that produce this effect.\n", "Skin aging is caused in part by TGF-β, which reduces the subcutaneous fat that gives skin a pleasant appearance and texture. TGF-β does this by blocking the conversion of dermal fibroblasts into fat cells; with fewer fat cells underneath to provide support, the skin becomes saggy and wrinkled. Subcutaneous fat also produces cathelicidin, which is a peptide that fights bacterial infections. \n\nSection::::Society and culture.\n\nThe term \"skin\" may also refer to the covering of a small animal, such as a sheep, goat (goatskin), pig, snake (snakeskin) etc. or the young of a large animal.\n", "Simultaneously with angiogenesis, fibroblasts begin accumulating in the wound site. Fibroblasts begin entering the wound site two to five days after wounding as the inflammatory phase is ending, and their numbers peak at one to two weeks post-wounding. By the end of the first week, fibroblasts are the main cells in the wound. Fibroplasia ends two to four weeks after wounding.\n", "Section::::Types of aging damage and treatment schemes.:Intracellular junk—LysoSENS.\n\nOur cells are constantly breaking down proteins and other molecules that are no longer useful or which can be harmful. Those molecules which can’t be digested accumulate as junk inside our cells, which is detected in the form of lipofuscin granules. Atherosclerosis, macular degeneration, liver spots on the skin and all kinds of neurodegenerative diseases (such as Alzheimer's disease) are associated with this problem.\n", "People with acanthosis nigricans should be screened for diabetes and, although rare, cancer. Controlling blood glucose levels through exercise and diet often improves symptoms. Topical fade creams (normally used for eliminating age spots) can lighten skin cosmetically in less severe cases. Selenium Sulfide topical 2 percent applied in thin layer to dry skin ten minutes prior to bathing may clear symptoms. Selenium Sulfide applied to dry scalp or skin is an inexpensive well tolerated treatment to balance skin's biome and works by drying bacteria like tinea versicolor that can coexist with Acanthosis and exacerbate discoloration. Acanthosis nigricans maligna may resolve if the causative tumor is successfully removed.\n", "The deterioration of biological functions and ability to manage metabolic stress is one of the major consequences of the aging process. Aging is a complex, progressive process that leads to functional and esthetic changes in the skin. This process can result from both intrinsic (i.e., genetically determined) as well as extrinsic processes (i.e., environmental factors). Photoaging is attributed to continuous, long-term exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation of approximately 300–400 nm, either natural or synthetic, on an intrinsically aged skin.\n\nSection::::Effects of UV light.\n\nSection::::Effects of UV light.:Molecular and genetic changes.\n", "Normal, nonpathologic desquamation of the skin occurs when keratinocytes, after moving typically over about 14 days, are individually shed unnoticeably. Obvious but nonpathologic visible desquamation can be observed after immersion of the skin in warm or hot water, encouraging the topmost layer of dead skin cells to shed and, as such, is a common result from the use of a hot shower or bath. In pathologic desquamation, such as that seen in X-linked ichthyosis, the stratum corneum becomes thicker (hyperkeratosis), imparting a \"dry\" or scaly appearance to the skin, and instead of detaching as single cells, corneocytes are shed in clusters, forming visible scales. Desquamation of the epidermis may result from disease or injury of the skin. For example, once the rash of measles fades, there is desquamation. Skin peeling typically follows healing of a first degree burn or sunburn. Toxic shock syndrome, a potentially fatal immune system reaction to a bacterial infection such as \"Staphylococcus aureus\", can cause severe desquamation; so can mercury poisoning. Other serious skin diseases involving extreme desquamation include Stevens–Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis (TEN). Radiation can cause dry or moist desquamation.\n", "The epidermis is the most superficial layer of skin, a squamous epithelium with several strata: the stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, and stratum basale. Nourishment is provided to these layers via diffusion from the dermis, since the epidermis is without direct blood supply. The epidermis contains four cell types: keratinocytes, melanocytes, Langerhans cells, and Merkel cells. Of these, keratinocytes are the major component, constituting roughly 95% of the epidermis. This stratified squamous epithelium is maintained by cell division within the stratum basale, in which differentiating cells slowly displace outwards through the stratum spinosum to the stratum corneum, where cells are continually shed from the surface. In normal skin, the rate of production equals the rate of loss; about two weeks are needed for a cell to migrate from the basal cell layer to the top of the granular cell layer, and an additional two weeks to cross the stratum corneum.\n", "In the \"Forgotten Realms\" campaign setting, many Shadovar (citizens of the City of Shade) are shades. They are a group of Netherese wizards who fled Faerûn for the Plane of Shadow before Karsus's Folly. The City of Shade was one of five cities to survive the cataclysm.\n\nThe famous assassin Artemis Entreri absorbed the life force of a Shadovar shade using his vampiric dagger. Due to this absorption, Entreri's skin has taken on a grayish hue and his aging has slowed if not stopped altogether.\n" ]	[ "Skin is entirely regenerated.", "All skin is regenerated and should heal blemishes." ]	[ "Only the top layer of skin is regenerated. The bottom layer, where blemishes are, does not regenerate. ", "Only the top layer of skin is regenerated. Blemishes are in the lower layers. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Skin is entirely regenerated.", "All skin is regenerated and should heal blemishes." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Only the top layer of skin is regenerated. The bottom layer, where blemishes are, does not regenerate. ", "Only the top layer of skin is regenerated. Blemishes are in the lower layers. " ]
2018-07395	How does chemicals that you mix with polluted water cleanse the water to become pure?	The chemicals you treat water with are to kill organisms (bacteria, parasites, etc), not cleanse it of other chemicals. Drinking water with dead organisms in it might make you a little sick to the stomach but it won't kill you because the organisms won't multiply inside you. I suppose it's possible you could use one chemical to have a reaction with other chemicals in the water, resulting in a new chemical that isn't harmful, but I've never heard of such a thing in reality.	[ "Section::::Techniques.:Chemical treatment technologies.\n\nSection::::Techniques.:Chemical treatment technologies.:Chemical precipitation.\n\nChemical precipitation is commonly used in wastewater treatment to remove hardness and heavy metals. In general, the process involves addition of agent to an aqueous waste stream in a stirred reaction vessel, either batchwise or with steady flow. Most metals can be converted to insoluble compounds by chemical reactions between the agent and the dissolved metal ions. The insoluble compounds (precipitates) are removed by settling and/or filtering.\n\nSection::::Techniques.:Chemical treatment technologies.:Ion exchange.\n", "Section::::Treatment.:Coagulation and flocculation.\n\nOne of the first steps in most conventional water purification processes is the addition of chemicals to assist in the removal of particles suspended in water. Particles can be inorganic such as clay and silt or organic such as algae, bacteria, viruses, protozoa and natural organic matter. Inorganic and organic particles contribute to the turbidity and color of water.\n", "In flowing systems, differences in solubility often determine the dissolution-precipitation driven transport of species. This happens when different parts of the system experience different conditions. Even slightly different conditions can result in significant effects, given sufficient time.\n", "The injection of gases into the groundwater may also cause contamination to spread faster than normal depending on the site's hydrogeology. In these cases, injections downgradient of groundwater flow may provide adequate microbial destruction of contaminants prior to exposure to surface waters or drinking water supply wells.\n\nMigration of metal contaminants must also be considered whenever modifying subsurface oxidation-reduction potential. Certain metals are more soluble in oxidizing environments while others are more mobile in reducing environments.\n\nSection::::Technologies.:Soil vapor extraction.\n", "Contaminants are frequently present as mixtures in the environment. Regulatory decisions are based on mixture toxicity models that assume additivity, which can result in under or overestimation of toxic effects. Refining our understanding of mixture interactions can lead to better informed environmental management and decision making. In addition, exploring mixture interactions can elucidate the mechanisms of action for specific toxicants which, in many cases, are poorly understood.\n\nSection::::Methods.\n", "Many industrial processes rely on reactions using chemicals dissolved in water, suspension of solids in water slurries or using water to dissolve and extract substances, or to wash products or process equipment. Processes such as mining, chemical pulping, pulp bleaching, paper manufacturing, textile production, dyeing, printing, and cooling of power plants use large amounts of water, requiring a dedicated water source, and often cause significant water pollution.\n", "Toxic materials including many organic materials, metals (such as zinc, silver, cadmium, thallium, etc.) acids, alkalis, non-metallic elements (such as arsenic or selenium) are generally resistant to biological processes unless very dilute. Metals can often be precipitated out by changing the pH or by treatment with other chemicals. Many, however, are resistant to treatment or mitigation and may require concentration followed by landfilling or recycling. Dissolved organics can be \"incinerated\" within the wastewater by the advanced oxidation process.\n\nSection::::Treatment of industrial wastewater.:Removal of toxic materials.:Smart capsules.\n", "In response to this, the water industry has stated that there is no evidence of a risk to overall health as a result of exposure to these chemicals. However, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) states in its review of water pollution that many contaminants survive wastewater treatment and biodegradation, and are detectable in the environment. Therefore, the tainted source is recycled through a community, exposing more people and releasing more chemicals along the way.\n\nSection::::Circulation of pollutants.:Water cycle.\n", "Many dissolved or suspended metal salts exert harmful effects in the environment sometimes at very low concentrations. Some aquatic plants are able to remove very low metal concentrations, with the metals ending up bound to clay or other mineral particles.\n\nSection::::Organisms.\n", "Turbidity is commonly treated using either a settling or filtration process. Depending on the application, chemical reagents will be dosed into the wastewater stream to increase the effectiveness of the settling or filtration process. Potable water treatment and municipal wastewater plants often remove turbidity with a combination of sand filtration, settling tanks, and clarifiers.\n", "Many industries have a need to treat water to obtain very high quality water for demanding purposes such pure chemical synthesis or boiler feed water. Many water treatment produce organic and mineral sludges from filtration and sedimentation. Ion exchange using natural or synthetic resins removes calcium, magnesium and carbonate ions from water, typically replacing them with sodium, chloride, hydroxyl and/or other ions. Regeneration of ion exchange columns with strong acids and alkalis produces a wastewater rich in hardness ions which are readily precipitated out, especially when in admixture with other wastewater constituents.\n\nSection::::Sources of industrial wastewater.:Wood preserving.\n", "Compounds containing nitrogen, potassium or phosphorus may encourage growth of aquatic plants and thus increase the available energy in the local food-web. this can lead to increased concentrations of suspended organic material. In some cases specific micro-nutrients may be required to allow the available nutrients to be fully utilised by living organisms. In other cases, the presence of specific chemical species may produce toxic effects limiting growth and abundance of living matter.\n\nSection::::Pollutants in wastewater.:Metals.\n", "Section::::Solution concentration and purification.:Ion exchange.\n\nChelating agents, natural zeolite, activated carbon, resins, and liquid organics impregnated with chelating agents are all used to exchange cations or anions with the solution. Selectivity and recovery are a function of the reagents used and the contaminants present.\n\nSection::::Metal Recovery.\n", "Section::::Sources of industrial wastewater.:Textile Dyeing.\n\nTextile dyeing plants generate wastewater that contain synthetic and natural dyestuff, gum thickener (guar) and various wetting agents, pH buffers and dye retardants or accelerators. Following treatment with polymer-based flocculants and settling agents, typical monitoring parameters include BOD, COD, color (ADMI), sulfide, oil and grease, phenol, TSS and heavy metals (chromium, zinc, lead, copper).\n\nSection::::Sources of industrial wastewater.:Industrial oil contamination.\n", "Concentrations in surface waters, groundwater and partially treated water are typically less than 0.1 µg/l (or 100 ng/l), and concentrations in treated water are generally below 0.05 µg/l (or 50 ng/l).(ny 8 WHO) However, all water on the earth is part of the same stable pool, and as larger amounts of pharmaceuticals are consumed, there is a risk that the concentration of pharmaceuticals in drinking water will increase.\n\nSection::::Background.:Release into the environment.\n\nPharmaceuticals reach the environment mainly in three ways: \n", "BULLET::::9. In Situ Chemical Oxidation, a form of advanced oxidation processes and advanced oxidation technology, is an environmental remediation technique used for soil and/or groundwater remediation to reduce the concentrations of targeted environmental contaminants to acceptable levels. ISCO is accomplished by injecting or otherwise introducing strong chemical oxidizers directly into the contaminated medium (soil or groundwater) to destroy chemical contaminants in place. It can be used to remediate a variety of organic compounds, including some that are resistant to natural degradation\n", "BULLET::::- Oxidation Reduction reactions are forced to their natural end point within the reaction tank which speeds up the natural process of nature that occurs in wet chemistry, where concentration gradients and Solubility Products (KsP) are the chief determinants to enable reactions to reach stoichiometric completion.\n\nBULLET::::- Electrocoagulation Induced pH swings toward neutral.\n\nSection::::Water treatment.:Optimizing reactions.\n", "Ion exchange for ground water remediation is virtually always carried out by passing the water downward under pressure through a fixed bed of granular medium (either cation exchange media and anion exchange media) or spherical beads. Cations are displaced by certain cations from the solutions and ions are displaced by certain anions from the solution. Ion exchange media most often used for remediation are zeolites (both natural and synthetic) and synthetic resins.\n\nSection::::Techniques.:Chemical treatment technologies.:Carbon absorption.\n", "Section::::Principal sources.:Marinas and boating activities.\n\nChemicals used for boat maintenance, like paint, solvents, and oils find their way into water through runoff. Additionally, spilling fuels or leaking fuels directly into the water from boats contribute to nonpoint source pollution. Nutrient and bacteria levels are increased by poorly maintained sanitary waste receptacles on the boat and pump-out stations.\n\nSection::::Control.\n\nSection::::Control.:Regulation of Nonpoint Source Pollution.\n", "Section::::Solutions.\n\nSection::::Solutions.:Water Filtration Technology.\n\nIn an effort to better filter these trace pollutants out of effluent water leaving waste management plants, studies conducted by Westerhoff et. al\n\nBULLET::::- Powdered Activated Carbon (PAC): PAC is made from organic matter that has a high carbon content such as wood, coal, and coconuts. The carbon source is treated to have a large surface area with many microscopic pores and added in high content to water in the early stages of water treatment. The carbon absorbs toxins because of its molecular attraction and desire to adhere to organic charged molecules.\n", "BULLET::::3. Plumbosolvency reduction: In areas with naturally acidic waters of low conductivity (i.e. surface rainfall in upland mountains of igneous rocks), the water may be capable of dissolving lead from any lead pipes that it is carried in. The addition of small quantities of phosphate ion and increasing the pH slightly both assist in greatly reducing plumbo-solvency by creating insoluble lead salts on the inner surfaces of the pipes.\n", "There are various pathways how pharmaceutical substances may enter drinking water. Predominantly, drinking water procurement comes from drinking water reservoirs, groundwater and bank filtration. If treated waste water is discharged in catchments with drinking water procurement the not eliminated pharmaceutical substances may be detected in the drinking water. The Netherlands for example gain 37% of their drinking water from surface water, mainly from bank filtration at Rhine and Meuse. Here certain attention is paid to pharmaceutical residues. \n", "BULLET::::- Chlorinated solvents, which are dense non-aqueous phase liquids, may fall to the bottom of reservoirs, since they don't mix well with water and are denser.\n\nBULLET::::- Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs)\n\nBULLET::::- Trichloroethylene\n\nBULLET::::- Perchlorate\n\nBULLET::::- Various chemical compounds found in personal hygiene and cosmetic products\n\nBULLET::::- Drug pollution involving pharmaceutical drugs and their metabolites, this can include antidepressant drugs or hormonal medicines such as contraceptive pills. These molecules can be small and difficult for treatment plants to remove without expensive upgrades.\n\nInorganic water pollutants include:\n\nBULLET::::- Acidity caused by industrial discharges (especially sulfur dioxide from power plants)\n", "When these substances find their way into water, it is much more difficult to deal with them. Water treatment facilities use different processes in order to minimize or fully eliminate these pollutants. This is done by using sorption where suspended solids are removed by sedimentation. Another method used is biodegradation, and through this method microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi, feed on or break down these pollutants thus eliminating them from the contaminated media.\n\nSection::::Types.\n", "One of the earliest models addressing chemical dissolution in runoff and resulting transport was developed in the early 1970s under contract to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). This computer model formed the basis of much of the mitigation study that led to strategies for land use and chemical handling controls.\n\nOther computer models have been developed (such as the DSSAM Model) that allow surface runoff to be tracked through a river course as reactive water pollutants. In this case the surface runoff may be considered to be a line source of water pollution to the receiving waters.\n" ]	[ "Chemicals that you mix with polluted water cleanse the water.", "Chemicals mixed in polluted water make the water pure." ]	[ "Chemical additives to water kill organisms such bacteria and parasites, but do not cleanse the water of other chemicals.", "Chemicals mixed in polluted water kill the organisms in it, but the dead organisms are still there." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Chemicals that you mix with polluted water cleanse the water.", "Chemicals mixed in polluted water make the water pure." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Chemical additives to water kill organisms such bacteria and parasites, but do not cleanse the water of other chemicals.", "Chemicals mixed in polluted water kill the organisms in it, but the dead organisms are still there." ]
2018-19208	Why does being submerged in water feel significantly colder than walking around in the same air temperature?	Specific heat. Water has a higher specific heat than air so water will take more energy from your body than the air will. Remember, the world wants to equalize temperature (which is a measure of kinetic energy of the molecules)... Specifically temperature is proportional to how fast a molecule vibrates and if you put two molecules at different temperatures together then they will exchange energy on interaction until they are both vibrating at the same frequency. Water takes a lot of energy to change how fast it vibrates and as such your body loses a lot more energy when heating water than it does when heating air and as such it feels colder (as we feel temperature based on the exchange of energy, if we gain energy then it feels hot and if we lose energy then it feels cold).	[ "Heat transfers very well into water, and body heat is therefore lost extremely quickly in water compared to air, even in merely 'cool' swimming waters around 70F (~20C). A water temperature of can lead to death in as little as one hour, and water temperatures hovering at freezing can lead to death in as little as 15 minutes. This is because cold water can have other lethal effects on the body, so hypothermia is not usually a reason for drowning or the clinical cause of death for those who drown in cold water.\n", "BULLET::::- In lakes exposed to geothermal activity, the temperature of the deeper water may be warmer than the surface water. This will usually lead to convection currents.\n\nBULLET::::- Water at near-freezing temperatures is less dense than slightly warmer water - maximum density of water is at about 4°C - so when near freezing, water may be slightly warmer at depth than at the surface.\n", "Skin wettedness is defined as \"the proportion of the total skin surface area of the body covered with sweat.\"\n", "Section::::Models.:PMV/PPD method.:Local thermal discomfort.:Draft.\n\nWhile air movement can be pleasant and provide comfort in some circumstances, it is sometimes unwanted and causes discomfort. This unwanted air movement is called \"draft\" and is most prevalent when the thermal sensation of the whole body is cool. People are most likely to feel a draft on uncovered body parts such as their head, neck, shoulders, ankles, feet, and legs, but the sensation also depends on the air speed, air temperature, activity, and clothing.\n\nSection::::Models.:PMV/PPD method.:Local thermal discomfort.:Vertical air temperature difference.\n", "According to the laws of thermodynamics, all particles of matter are in constant random motion as long as the temperature is above absolute zero. Thus the molecules and atoms which make up the human body are vibrating, colliding, and moving. This motion can be detected as temperature; higher temperatures, which represent greater kinetic energy in the particles, feel warm to humans who sense the thermal energy transferring from the object being touched to their nerves. Similarly, when lower temperature objects are touched, the senses perceive the transfer of heat away from the body as feeling cold.\n", "Taking advantage of the cooling properties of water may help attenuate the consequences of heat sensitivity. In a study done by White et al. (2000), exercise pre-cooling via lower body immersion in water of 16–17 °C for 30 minutes allowed heat sensitive individuals with MS to exercise in greater comfort and with fewer side effects by minimizing body temperature increases during exercise. Hydrotherapy exercise in moderately cool water of 27–29 °C water can also be advantageous to individuals with MS. Temperatures lower than 27 °C are not recommended because of the increased risk of invoking spasticity.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Thermal comfort as a \"condition of mind\" is \"defined\" in psychological terms. Among the factors that affect the condition of mind (in the laboratory) are a sense of control over the temperature, knowledge of the temperature and the appearance of the (test) environment. A thermal test chamber that appeared residential \"felt\" warmer than one which looked like the inside of a refrigerator.\n\nSection::::Models.:Adaptive comfort model.:Physiological Adaptation.\n", "Section::::Influencing factors.:Relative humidity.:Interplay of temperature and humidity.\n\nVarious types of apparent temperature have been developed to combine air temperature and air humidity. \n\nFor higher temperatures, there are quantitative scales, such as the heat index.\n\nFor lower temperatures, a related interplay was identified only qualitatively:\n\nHigh humidity and low temperatures cause the air to feel chilly.\n\nCold air with high relative humidity \"feels\" colder than dry air of the same temperature because high humidity in cold weather increases the conduction of heat from the body.\n", "The opah utilizes retia mirabilia to conserve heat, making it the newest addition to the list of regionally endothermic fish. Blood traveling through capillaries in the gills must carry cold blood due to their exposure to cold water, but retia mirabilia in the opah's gills are able to transfer heat from warm blood in arterioles coming from the heart that heats this colder blood in arterioles leaving the gills. The huge pectoral muscles of the opah, which generate most of the body heat, are thus able to control the temperature of the rest of the body.\n\nSection::::Mammals.\n", "Due to body heat and moisture there is almost always higher heat and humidity inside a clothing system. This creates a differential pressure forcing the heat and humidity toward the outside. The greater the difference between the heat and humidity inside the clothing system and the outside, the greater the Differential Pressure to push that heat and humidity out.\n\nSection::::Testing.\n\nSection::::Testing.:Upright Cup test.\n", "There has been controversy over why damp cold air feels colder than dry cold air. Some believe it is because when the humidity is high, our skin and clothing become moist and are better conductors of heat, so there is more cooling by conduction.\n\nSection::::Influencing factors.:Natural ventilation.\n", "Section::::Thermal stress.\n", "The Russian immigrant professor Louis Sugarman of Little Falls, NY was the first American to become a famous ice swimmer in the 1890s. He attracted worldwide attention for his daily plunge in the Mohawk River, even when the thermometer hit 23 degrees F below zero, earning him the nickname \"the human polar bear\". \n", "Research has tested the model against experimental data and found it tends to overestimate skin temperature and underestimate skin wettedness. Fountain and Huizenga (1997) developed a thermal sensation prediction tool that computes SET.\n\nSection::::Models.:PMV/PPD method.:Local thermal discomfort.\n", "Bradycardia is the response to facial contact with cold water: the human heart rate slows down ten to twenty-five percent. Seals experience changes that are even more dramatic, going from about 125 beats per minute to as low as 10 on an extended dive. During breath-holding, humans also display reduced left ventricular contractility and diminished cardiac output, effects that may be more severe during submersion due to hydrostatic pressure.\n", "The wetness of skin in different areas also affects perceived thermal comfort. Humidity can increase wetness on different areas of the body, leading to a perception of discomfort. This is usually localized in different parts of the body, and local thermal comfort limits for skin wettedness differ by locations of the body. The extremities are much more sensitive to thermal discomfort from wetness than the trunk of the body. Although local thermal discomfort can be caused from wetness, the thermal comfort of the whole body will not be affected by the wetness of certain parts.\n", "Barefoot skiing requires a higher speed because the skier's feet are smaller than skis, providing less lift. A rule of thumb for barefoot water skiing speed in miles per hour is (M/10)+18=S, where M equals the skier's weight in pounds. In other words, a person would have to divide 175/10, which is 17.5; then simply add 17.5+18 which equals .\n", "In humans, the diving reflex is not induced when limbs are introduced to cold water. Mild bradycardia is caused by subjects holding their breath without submerging the face in water. When breathing with the face submerged, the diving response increases proportionally to decreasing water temperature. However, the greatest bradycardia effect is induced when the subject is holding his breath with his face wetted. Apnea with nostril and facial cooling are triggers of this reflex.\n", "Section::::Disciplines.:Barefoot water skiing.\n\nA barefoot water skier should use a wetsuit instead of a life jacket because the wetsuit covers more of the body in case of a fall at high speed. The wetsuit also allows the skier to do starts in the water where they lie on their back. Unlike a normal life jacket, the \"barefoot wetsuit\" allows the skier to glide on their back on top of the water once they reach a high enough speed. The barefoot wetsuit is generally thicker in the back, rear, and chest for flotation and impact absorption.\n", "Blood flow to the muscles is lower in cold water, but exercise keeps the muscle warm and flow elevated even when the skin is chilled. Blood flow to fat normally increases during exercise, but this is inhibited by immersion in cold water. Adaptation to cold reduces the extreme vasoconstriction which usually occurs with cold water immersion.\n", "Biotherm originated from mineral water. In early 20th century, the French doctor Jos Jullien discovered mineral thermal spring waters under Pyrenees mountain in the southern part of France which contained thermal plankton, supposedly a key to healthy skin and a potent skin rejuvenator. In 1952, intellectual property rights was acquired and she used it in skin care products. Thus, \"therm\" in \"Biotherm\" comes from \"thermal plankton\", an ingredient found in all Biotherm products. \"Bio\" comes from the profession of the founder \"biologist\".\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Also known as ISO – 11092 or the Ret or Hohenstein test . In this test, fabric is placed above a porous (sintered) metal plate. The plate is heated and water is channeled into the metal plate, simulating perspiration. The plate is then kept at a constant temperature. As water vapor passes through the plate and the fabric, it causes Evaporative Heat Loss and therefore more energy is needed to keep the plate at a constant temperature. Ret is the measurement of the resistance to evaporative heat loss. The lower the Ret value, the less resistance to moisture transfer and therefore higher breathability.\n", "The “radiation effect” results from radiation heat exchange between human bodies and surrounding surfaces, such as walls and ceilings. It may lead to phenomena such as houses feeling cooler in the winter and warmer in the summer at the same temperature. For example, in a room in which air temperature is maintained at 22° Celsius at all times, but in which the inner surfaces of the house is estimated to be an average temperature of 10° Celsius in the winter or 25° Celsius in the summer, heat transfer from the surfaces to the individual will occur, resulting in a difference in the perceived temperature.\n", "Heat transfer by convection is driven by the movement of fluids over the surface of the body. This convective fluid can be either a liquid or a gas. For heat transfer from the outer surface of the body, the convection mechanism is dependent on the surface area of the body, the velocity of the air, and the temperature gradient between the surface of the skin and the ambient air. The normal temperature of the body is approximately 37 °C. Heat transfer occurs more readily when the temperature of the surroundings is significantly less than the normal body temperature. This concept explains why a person feels cold when not enough covering is worn when exposed to a cold environment. Clothing can be considered an insulator which provides thermal resistance to heat flow over the covered portion of the body. This thermal resistance causes the temperature on the surface of the clothing to be less than the temperature on the surface of the skin. This smaller temperature gradient between the surface temperature and the ambient temperature will cause a lower rate of heat transfer than if the skin were not covered.\n", "Approximately 10.7% of the population that actually resides in Edgewater are not United States citizens. 14.3% of the population are foreign born United States citizens. The median house or condo value in 2009 was $199,114 and the median rent in 2009 was $702. An estimated 26.9% of the population over age 5 speak only Spanish at home. An estimated 48.9% of the housing are rentals, while 51.1% are owner occupied housing.\n\nSection::::Infrastructure.\n\nSection::::Infrastructure.:Public services.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]

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