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2018-03797	How does a country mobilize the military when it is war or when war is near?	It depends on the country. In the US we no longer have a draft. We have a fully volunteer service and those that are on active duty are the ones that get mobilized when we are in conflict. This is how most nations in the West Operate. Those with mandatory service for everyone are not too dissimilar. They have a standing army that is active duty and in many cases a semi-active reserve that they will mobilize as needed. The only time that they will "force everyone" to get into the military is with a full draft which at this point in time would require a conflict far larger than WWI and WWII combined. It would be massive, with a massive amount of death.	[ "Almost all units of the Swedish Army were not manned during peacetime. The only exception was the PB -18 Gotland Brigade, which was fully manned at all times. Usually brigades recruited their personnel in the county where they were based, with the exception of the Gotland Brigade, whose men came from all of Sweden.\n\nThe 1987 Swedish Defense bills lists the following wartime strength for the Swedish Army:\n\nBULLET::::- 7x Division commands\n\nBULLET::::- 10x Infantry brigades Type 77\n\nBULLET::::- 8x Infantry brigades Type 66M\n\nBULLET::::- 5x Norrland brigades Type 85\n\nBULLET::::- 4x Armoured brigades Type 63M\n", "Personnel may be recruited or conscripted, depending on the system chosen by the state. Most military personnel are males; the minority proportion of female personnel varies internationally (approximately 3% in India, 10% in the UK, 13% in Sweden, 16% in the US, and 27% in South Africa). While two-thirds of states now recruit or conscript only adults, as of 2017 50 states still relied partly on children under the age of 18 (usually aged 16 or 17) to staff their armed forces.\n", "Personnel may be posted to bases in their home country or overseas, according to operational need, and may be deployed from those bases on exercises or operations anywhere in the world. During peacetime, when military personnel are generally stationed in garrisons or other permanent military facilities, they mostly conduct administrative tasks, training and education activities, technology maintenance, and recruitment.\n\nSection::::Organization.:Personnel and units.:Training.\n", "The British Army first formed CA units in 1943, and by August 1944 there were 3,600 CA personnel in France with the 21st Army Group.\n\nSection::::Civil affairs worldwide.:The Netherlands.\n\nThe Royal Netherlands Army's Civil Affairs unit is 1 CIMIC Battalion. The staff consist of regular soldiers. Other personnel are reservists with a civilian occupation. Members of the battalion have been deployed to Bosnia; Macedonia; Africa and Afghanistan. The unit is, as of early 2009, based in Apeldoorn.\n\nSection::::Civil affairs in popular media.\n", "Section::::Recruitment.\n\nMilitary personnel may be conscripted (recruited by compulsion under the law) or recruited by attracting civilians to join the armed forces.\n\nIn states that do not rely entirely on conscription, the process of attracting children and young people to military employment begins in their early years by means of, for example:\n\nBULLET::::- Visits to primary and secondary schools;\n\nBULLET::::- Military schools and youth organizations such as cadet forces;\n\nBULLET::::- Advertising across television, radio, cinema, online including social media, the press, billboards, brochures and leaflets, and merchandising; and\n", "\"Note: \"Reservists\" are any members of the public who serve in the armed forces and emergency services on a part-time basis. Many will hold down regular civilian jobs and be called up on a \"when needed\" basis. Reserve forces include the Territorial Army, Royal Naval Reserve, Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve, Royal Marines Reserve, retained firefighters and the Special Constabulary. Groups like the RNLI, the Salvation Army and the WRVS are charitable organisations but are pressed into service to supplement the civil defence, the armed forces and post-attack distribution of aid.\"\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Protect and Survive\n", "The law which stopped the promulgation and which regulated the future forces of the Reserves, did not give the opportunity to be able, like in other nations of the Western World, to be an Officer, working as a civilian, being able to be promoted in his military role, by means of courses or trainings, which the State gave as an incentive for businesses to be able to dispense with their co-workers for short periods of time, during which the said could dedicate themselves to their second occupation.\n", "Section::::After World War II: Historical examples by region.:Africa.:Chad.\n", "Section::::Current work.\n", "Section::::After World War II: Historical examples by region.:Africa.:Côte d'Ivoire.\n", "Section::::In the United States.:Wartime recruitment strategies in the US.\n\nPrior to the outbreak of World War I, military recruitment in the US was conducted primarily by individual states. Upon entering the war, however, the federal government took an increased role.\n", "According to Art. 185 of the Swiss Federal Constitution The Federal Council (Bundesrat) can call up in their own competence military personnel of maximum 4000 militia for three weeks to safeguard inner or outer security (called Federal Intervention or Federal Execution, respectively). A larger number of soldiers or of a longer duration is subject to parliamentary decision. For deployments within Switzerland the principle of subsidiarity rules: as a first step, unrest has to be overcome with the aid of cantonal police units.\n\nSection::::Law in selected countries.:Syria.\n", "Many states operate military schools, cadet forces, and other military youth organisations. For example, Russia operates a system of military schools for children from age 10, where combat skills and weapons training are taught as part of the curriculum. The UK is one of many states that subsidise participation in cadet forces, where children from age 12 play out a stylised representation of military employment.\n\nSection::::Outreach and marketing.:Advertising.\n\nArmed forces commission recruitment advertising across a wide range of media, including television, radio, cinema, online including social media, the press, billboards, brochures and leaflets, and through merchandising.\n\nSection::::Outreach and marketing.:Public realm.\n", "In mid-1995, with the national service system based on universal military training, the Swedish Army consisted of 15 maneuver brigades and, in addition, 100 battalions of various sorts (artillery, engineers, rangers, air defense, amphibious, security, surveillance etc.) with a mobilization-time of between one and two days. When national service was replaced by a selective service system, fewer and fewer young men were drafted due to the reduction in size of the armed forces. By 2010 the Swedish Army had two battalions that could be mobilized within 90 days. When the volunteer system has been fully implemented by 2019, the army will consist of 7 maneuver battalions and 14 battalions of various sorts with a readiness of one week. The Home Guard will be reduced in size to 22,000 soldiers. In 2019 the Swedish armed forces, now with a restared national service system combained with volunteer forces, aimed to reach 3 brigades as maneuver units by 2025.\n", "Each region has a population, and from that population figure, the game creates a workforce, or \"Manpower Units\" (MPUs). MPUs are required to run factories, mines, oil fields, or to create new military units. Spare MPUs in each region are automatically assigned to food production, and regional food production is heavily influenced by the amount of labor available in the form of these MPUs.\n\nSection::::Gameplay.:Economic management.:Industry.\n", "Section::::Organisation.:International deployments.:Past deployments.\n\nA battalion and other units were deployed with the NATO-led peacekeeping SFOR in Bosnia and Herzegovina (1996–2000), following the Bosnian War.\n\nSwedish air and ground forces saw combat during the Congo Crisis, as part of the United Nations Operation in the Congo force. 9 army battalions were sent in all, and their mission lasted 1960–1964.\n\nSection::::Personnel.\n\nSection::::Personnel.:From national service to an all-volunteer force.\n", "BULLET::::- Auxiliary forces 'mobile' deployed in barracks throughout the country, having as main mission rapid response, in collaboration with territorial governments , the brigade of water and forests , the Civil Protection , the Moroccan Customs and the Royal Armed Forces .\n\nSection::::Armaments.\n\nAuxiliary Forces are equipped with machine guns PAMAS G1 , MAS 36 , MAT 49 , MAC 24/29 , AK-47 and FN MAG and armed armored vehicle 32 UR 416 and Panhard AML 60.\n", "In 1983, a bloody civil war was raging in Lebanon. In an effort to stop the violence in the region a Multinational Force of peacekeepers composed largely of U.S., Italian and French armed service members was created and sent to the region to attempt a restoration of order. As part of the multinational force the United States mobilized an expeditionary force composed of members of the United States Marine Corps and elements of the United States Sixth Fleet which operated out of the Mediterranean Sea.\n", "Five tactical formations are also available, including the ability to compress or expand the line of battle. When a formation is chosen, the selected units automatically reposition themselves accordingly, typically with faster moving units in the front and slower moving, vulnerable units in the rear.\n", "Cyprus invites children to begin their adult compulsory military service two years early, at age 16, with the consent of their parents.\n\nSection::::Children in the military today—by region and country.:Europe.:France.\n\nFrance enlists military personnel from age 17, and students for military technical school from age 16; 3% of its armed forces' intake is aged under 18.\n\nSection::::Children in the military today—by region and country.:Europe.:Germany.\n\nGermany enlists military personnel from age 17; in 2015 6% of its armed forces' intake was aged under 18.\n\nSection::::Children in the military today—by region and country.:Europe.:Netherlands.\n", "Most smaller countries have a single organization that encompasses all armed forces employed by the country in question. Third-world armies tend to consist primarily of infantry, while first-world armies tend to have larger units manning expensive equipment and only a fraction of personnel in infantry units.\n\nIt is worthwhile to make mention of the term \"joint\". In western militaries, a joint force is defined as a unit or formation comprising representation of combat power from two or more branches of the military.\n\nSection::::Armed services.:Internal security forces.\n", "Next, you must form your units into squads within an army. This is easily accomplished by either a simple click of a button or dragging the units into the squad header. Once an army is built, players can discuss the game in the lobby until you find someone to challenge or are challenged by someone.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nAfter a period of enhanced readiness during World War I, the Swedish Armed Forces were subject to severe downsizing during the interwar years. When World War II started, a large rearmament program was launched to once again guard Swedish neutrality, relying on mass conscription to fill the ranks.\n", "All males were expected to perform military service as part of their tax obligation. At the age of 16, males were called up for military training in their locality for one year, then they spent another year of training at the capital. However, only one male per family was liable to be called up for military training at any one time in order to ensure they still had enough men to produce crops. After that they were discharged to return home and farm with a scheduled military review every three years.\n\nSection::::Formations.\n", "The Alert Police is assigned to barracks where they are organized along military lines into squads, platoons, and 120- to 150-member training or standby companies. In most states, the \"BePo\" contingents consists of one 600- to 800-member battalion, but in six of the larger states they are organized into regiments.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04305	how do genital warts spread? can it spread through indirect contact eg pants sharing/towel sharing?	According to the US dept of health genital warts cannot be spread through towel sharing or using public toilets. It is a common excuse though. > HPV cannot be spread by touching hard surfaces, like a doorknob or toilet seat. It also cannot be passed by sharing clothes or towels. URL_0	[ "HPV types 6 and 11 are the typical cause of genital warts. It is spread through direct skin-to-skin contact, usually during oral, genital, or anal sex with an infected partner. Diagnosis is generally based on symptoms and can be confirmed by biopsy. The types of HPV that cause cancer are not the same as those that cause warts. \n", "BULLET::::- Genital warts—Genital or perianal warts increase the risk of invasive penile cancer by about 3.7 times if they occurred more than two years before the reference date. About half of men with penile cancer also have genital warts, which are caused by HPV.\n\nSection::::Risk factors.:Hygiene and injury.\n\nBULLET::::- Poor hygiene—Poor hygiene can increase a man's risk of penile cancer.\n", "The strains of HPV that can cause genital warts are usually different from those that cause warts on other parts of the body, such as the hands or feet, or even the inner thighs. A wide variety of HPV types can cause genital warts, but types 6 and 11 together account for about 90% of all cases. However, in total more than 40 types of HPV are transmitted through sexual contact and can infect the skin of the anus and genitals. Such infections may cause genital warts, although they may also remain asymptomatic.\n", "HPV is spread by direct and indirect contact from an infected host. Avoiding direct contact with infected surfaces such as communal changing rooms and shower floors and benches, avoiding sharing of shoes and socks and avoiding contact with warts on other parts of the body and on the bodies of others may help reduce the spread of infection. Infection is less common among adults than children.\n\nAs all warts are contagious, precautions should be taken to avoid spreading them. Recommendations include:\n\nBULLET::::- cover them with an adhesive bandage while swimming\n\nBULLET::::- wear flip-flops when using communal showers\n", "The types of HPV that cause warts are highly transmissible. Roughly three out of four unaffected partners of patients with warts develop them within eight months. Other studies of partner concordance suggest that the presence of visible warts may be an indicator of increased infectivity; HPV concordance rates are higher in couples where one partner has visible warts.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Latency and recurrence.\n", "In most cases, there are no symptoms of HPV infection other than the warts themselves. Sometimes warts may cause itching, redness, or discomfort, especially when they occur around the anus. Although they are usually without other physical symptoms, an outbreak of genital warts may cause psychological distress, such as anxiety, in some people.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Transmission.\n", "About 1% of people in the United States have genital warts. Many people, however, are infected and do not have symptoms. Without vaccination nearly all sexually active people will get some type of HPV at one point in their lives. The disease has been known at least since the time of Hippocrates in 300 BC.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "Although 90% of HPV infections are cleared by the body within two years of infection, it is possible for infected cells to undergo a latency (quiet) period, with the first occurrence or a recurrence of symptoms happening months or years later. Latent HPV, even with no outward symptoms, is still transmissible to a sexual partner. If an individual has unprotected sex with an infected partner, there is a 70% chance that he or she will also become infected.\n", "Traditional theories postulated that the virus remained in the body for a lifetime. However, studies using sensitive DNA techniques have shown that through immunological response the virus can either be cleared or suppressed to levels below what polymerase chain reaction (PCR) tests can measure. One study testing genital skin for subclinical HPV using PCR found a prevalence of 10%.\n\nSection::::Etymology.\n", "HPV is the sexually transmitted virus that is known to be the cause of genital warts. There are currently more than 100 different strains of HPV, half of which can cause genital infections. It is worth noting here that although it is not usually the HPV strains that cause genital warts that are associated with the oropharyngeal cancers, they are transmitted the same way through oral-genital sexual contact, and consumers should protect themselves accordingly and adhere to a routine health and dental screening schedule to monitor and maintain their health status. \n\nSection::::Detection.\n", "Some HPV vaccines can prevent genital warts as may condoms. Treatment options include creams such as podophyllin, imiquimod, and trichloroacetic acid. Cryotherapy or surgery may also be an option. After treatment warts often resolve within 6 months. Without treatment, in up to a third of cases they resolve on their own.\n", "Warts are caused by infection with a type of human papillomavirus (HPV). Factors that increase the risk include use of public showers, working with meat, eczema and a weak immune system. The virus is believed to enter the body through skin that has been damaged slightly. A number of types exist, including \"common warts\", plantar warts, \"filiform warts\", and genital warts. Genital warts are often sexually transmitted.\n", "Viral infections include human papillomavirus infection (HPV) – this is the most common STI and has many types. Genital HPV can cause genital warts. There have been links made between HPV and vulvar cancer, though HPV most often causes cervical cancer. Genital herpes is mostly asymptomatic but can present with small blisters that break open into ulcers. HIV/AIDS is mostly transmitted through sexual activity, and the vulva in some cases can be affected by sores. \n\nA highly contagious viral infection is molluscum contagiosum which is transmissible on close contact and causes water warts.\n", "Anal or genital warts may be transmitted during birth. The presence of wart-like lesions on the genitals of young children has been suggested as an indicator of sexual abuse. However, genital warts can sometimes result from autoinoculation by warts elsewhere on the body, such as from the hands. It has also been reported from sharing of swimsuits, underwear, or bath towels, and from non-sexual touching during routine care such as diapering. Genital warts in children are less likely to be caused by HPV subtypes 6 and 11 than adults, and more likely to be caused by HPV types that cause warts elsewhere on the body (\"cutaneous types\"). Surveys of pediatricians who are child abuse specialists suggest that in children younger than 4 years old, there is no consensus on whether the appearance of new anal or genital warts, by itself, can be considered an indicator of sexual abuse.\n", "In individuals with a history of previous HPV infection, the appearance of new warts may be either from a new exposure to HPV, or from a recurrence of the previous infection. As many as one-third of people with warts will experience a recurrence.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Children.\n", "HPV is the most common sexually transmitted infection globally. Most people are infected at some point in their lives. In 2018, an estimated 569,000 new cases and 311,000 deaths occurred from cervical cancer worldwide. Around 85% of these occurred in low- and middle-income countries. In the United States, about 30,700 cases of cancer due to HPV occur each year. About 1% of sexually active adults have genital warts. While cases of warts have been described since the time of ancient Greece, their viral nature was not discovered until 1907.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "An HPV infection is caused by \"human papillomavirus\", a DNA virus from the papillomavirus family, of which over 170 types are known. More than 40 types are transmitted through sexual contact and infect the anus and genitals. Risk factors for persistent sexually transmitted types include early age of first sexual intercourse, multiple partners, smoking, and poor immune function. These types are typically spread by sustained direct skin-to-skin contact, with vaginal and anal sex being the most common methods. Occasionally, it can spread from a mother to her baby during pregnancy. They do not appear to spread via common items like toilet seats. However the types that cause warts may spread via surfaces such as floors. People can become infected with more than one type of HPV. HPV affects only humans.\n", "Genital wart\n\nGenital warts are a sexually transmitted infection caused by certain types of human papillomavirus (HPV). They are generally pink in color and project out from the surface of the skin. Usually they cause few symptoms, but can occasionally be painful. Typically they appear one to eight months following exposure. Warts are the most easily recognized symptom of genital HPV infection.\n", "BULLET::::- Prosector's wart, a skin lesion, also caused by contamination with tuberculous material\n", "A \"condyloma acuminatum\" is a single genital wart, and \"condylomata acuminata\" are multiple genital warts. The word roots mean \"pointed wart\" (from Greek κόνδυλος, \"knuckle\", Greek -ωμα \"-oma\", \"disease,\" and Latin \"acuminatum\" \"pointed\"). Although similarly named, it is not the same as condyloma latum, which is a complication of secondary syphilis.\n", "Although it is not related to any pathological condition, hirsuties papillaris genitalis is occasionally mistaken for HPV warts. There are also home remedies for \"curing\" it, despite the fact that the papules are neither infectious nor detrimental to one's health and may have beneficial functions. Some of the \"home remedies\" found on the Internet and elsewhere use mild ointments or creams to soften the papules, but others are physically dangerous techniques for papule removal which can result in permanent genital mutilation.\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.\n\nThe diagnosis of genital warts is most often made visually, but may require confirmation by biopsy in some cases. Smaller warts may occasionally be confused with molluscum contagiosum. \n\nGenital warts, histopathologically, characteristically rise above the skin surface due to enlargement of the dermal papillae, have parakeratosis and the characteristic nuclear changes typical of HPV infections (nuclear enlargement with perinuclear clearing).\n\nDNA tests are available for diagnosis of high-risk HPV infections. Because genital warts are caused by low-risk HPV types, DNA tests cannot be used for diagnosis of genital warts or other low-risk HPV infections.\n", "Warts are very common, with most people being infected at some point in their lives. The estimated current rate of non-genital warts among the general population is 1–13%. They are more common among young people. The estimated rate of genital warts in sexually active women is 12%. Warts have been described at least as far back as 400 BC by Hippocrates.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nA range of types of wart have been identified, varying in shape and site affected, as well as the type of human papillomavirus involved. These include:\n", "In the mid-1970s, while working as a Specialist Gynaecological Pathologist at King George V Hospital in Sydney, Dr Laverty developed a special interest in the recognition in the Papanicolaou smear of various female genital tract infections, in particular those due to agents difficult or impossible to culture.\n\nIn the early 1970s it was thought that genital tract warts or condylomas were quite uncommon, usually vulval and merely sometimes cosmetically distressing lesions.\n", "Types of warts include:\n\nBULLET::::- Common warts are usually found on the hands and feet, but can also occur in other areas, such as the elbows or knees. Common warts have a characteristic cauliflower-like surface and are typically slightly raised above the surrounding skin. Cutaneous HPV types can cause genital warts but are not associated with the development of cancer.\n\nBULLET::::- Plantar warts are found on the soles of the feet; they grow inward, generally causing pain when walking.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02703	Why does it, when having a headache, hurt while shaking your head.	headaches, whatever their underlying causes, are usually the result of irritation of the important systems in and around your head, including muscles, nerves, and blood vessels. much like stretching your back when you have a crick in it, straining the muscles in your neck and head by shaking it is likely to further irritate the muscles causing the problem or cause your neurons to fire off more signals in your already over-stimulated neural pain pathways. headaches can also be caused by a buildup of pressure in the head (like when you get a sinus infection) and shaking your head around can cause sudden changes in pressure that make your headache worse. all that said, give your head a break when it's aching!	[ "There are varying theories as to why head shake is so frequently used to mean \"no\". One simple theory is that it is most common form of expressing negative reaction, indicating that one disagrees with the other person. It has also been stated that babies, when hungry, search for their mother's milk by moving their heads vertically, but decline milk by turning their head from side to side.\n", "However, in some Southeastern European areas such as Bulgaria and southern Albania, it is used for the opposite purpose, to indicate affirmation, meaning \"yes\". In those regions, nodding in fact means \"no\" as well, the complete reverse of most other places in the world.\n\nSection::::Origin.\n", "CSF can leak from the dura as a result of different causes such as physical trauma or a lumbar puncture, or from no known cause when it is termed a spontaneous cerebrospinal fluid leak. It is usually associated with intracranial hypotension: low CSF pressure. It can cause headaches, made worse by standing, moving and coughing, as the low CSF pressure causes the brain to \"sag\" downwards and put pressure on its lower structures. If a leak is identified, a beta-2 transferrin test of the leaking fluid, when positive, is highly specific and sensitive for the detection for CSF leakage. Medical imaging such as CT scans and MRI scans can be used to investigate for a presumed CSF leak when no obvious leak is found but low CSF pressure is identified. Caffeine, given either orally or intravenously, often offers symptomatic relief. Treatment of an identified leak may include injection of a person's blood into the epidural space (an epidural blood patch), spinal surgery, or fibrin glue.\n", "In order to try to investigate the flow dynamics of the cerebrospinal fluid, doctors utilize cisternography, which injects a radiolabeled substance into the CSF via lumbar puncture. The CSF flow is then tracked by taking pictures at incremental times. However, cisternography is declining in use with physicians who are opting to use MRI instead, to assess CSF flow.\n", "BULLET::::- In the 1986 \"Let's Go Mets\" music video, there is a scene where Joe Piscopo, standing outside the New York Mets' dugout at Shea Stadium, taps four Mets bobblehead dolls, then goes into the dugout and taps the heads of four actual Mets players (Howard Johnson, Bob Ojeda, Rick Aguilera, Kevin Mitchell) who \"bobble\" their heads in a similar fashion. Piscopo then attempts to tap a fifth player (Lee Mazzilli) but is rebuffed and subsequently tackled by all of the players.\n", "An epidural needle is inserted into the epidural space at the site of the cerebrospinal fluid leak and blood is injected. The clotting factors of the blood close the hole in the dura.\n\nIt is also postulated that the relief of the headache after an epidural blood patch is due to more of a compression effect than sealing the leak. Because the fluid column in the lumbar spine is continuous with the fluid around the brain, the blood exerts a \"squeeze\" and relieves the low pressure state in the head.\n", "An early survey of head shake and other gestures was \"The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals\", written by Charles Darwin in 1872. Darwin wrote to missionaries in many parts of the world asking for information on local gestures, and concluded that shaking head for \"no\" was common to many different groups.\n\nThe gesture is possibly ancient in origin. In the biblical book of Job, there is a reference to it:\n\n4 I also could talk as you do, were you in my place. I could declaim over you, or wag my head at you;\n", "Head injury may be associated with a neck injury. Bruises on the back or neck, neck pain, or pain radiating to the arms are signs of cervical spine injury and merit spinal immobilization via application of a cervical collar and possibly a long board.If the neurological exam is normal this is reassuring. Reassessment is needed if there is a worsening headache, seizure, one sided weakness, or has persistent vomiting.\n", "Kodhandam is the original bow of Shiva used for total destruction or \"Pralaya\". As per original Valmiki Ramayana, two bows were created by God Devendra of equal capacity which were given to Rudra and Vishnu and requested them to fight with each other to know who is the powerful one. However just before the start of the war an Aakashvani said that the war will lead to total destruction and hence the war was stopped. On hearing Aakashvani, Rudra threw his Dhanush which fell on earth to be later known as \"Shiva dhanush\". It was later found by King Devaratha, the ancestor of King Janaka. It is mentioned in the Hindu epic \"Ramayana\", when its hero Rama (another avatar of Vishnu) breaks it to marry Janaka's daughter as his wife.\n", "BULLET::::- Brain fog and fatigue are both common SCDS symptoms and are caused by the brain having to spend an unusual amount of its energy on the simple act of keeping the body in a state of equilibrium when it is constantly receiving confusing signals from the dysfunctional semicircular canal.\n\nBULLET::::- Headache and migraine are also often mentioned by patients showing other symptoms of SCDS due to the body overcompensating for poor hearing in the affected ear by tensing up nearby parts of the face, head, and neck and using them as almost a secondary eardrum.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Ramesh Shotham\n\nRamesh Shotham (born May 7, 1948 in Madras, South India) is a percussionist and drummer.\n\nSection::::Life.\n", "Decreased CSF pressure can indicate complete subarachnoid blockage, leakage of spinal fluid, severe dehydration, hyperosmolality, or circulatory collapse. Significant changes in pressure during the procedure can indicate tumors or spinal blockage resulting in a large pool of CSF, or hydrocephalus associated with large volumes of CSF.\n\nSection::::Interpretation.:Cell count.\n", "Head bobble\n\nThe head bobble, or Indian head shake refers to a common gesture found in South Asian cultures, most notably in India. The motion usually consists of a side-to-side tilting of the head in arcs along the coronal plane. A form of nonverbal communication, it may mean \"Yes\", \"Good\", \"maybe\", \"OK\" or \"I understand\", depending on the context.\n\nIn India the gesture is common everywhere. However, it is more common in South India.\n", "BULLET::::- The combined effect of all the above in the cantilevered head position, with the chin poked out, is to compress every facet joint in the cervical spine. This predisposes to acute locking episodes. At the top of the cervical spine, this often manifests as cervicogenic headache, with pain referring over the head from the C0/1, C1/2, and/or C2/3 joints, and from the insertion of the upper trapezius fibres onto the nuchal line of the occiput. In older patients, especially with osteophytes and/or where the intervertebral foramina are already diminished, this compression and further reduction of the foraminal spaces can result in irritation and impingement of the nerve roots, referring pain some distance down the arm(s).\n", "Section::::Pathophysiology.:Mechanisms of main signs and symptoms.:Pain.:Referred TMD pain.\n\nSometimes TMD pain can radiate or be referred from its cause (i.e. the TMJ or the muscles of mastication) and be felt as headaches, earache or toothache.\n", "Section::::Causes.:Other causes.\n\nCranial CSF leaks result from intracranial hypertension in a vast majority of cases. The increased pressure causes a rupture of the cranial dura mater, leading to CSF leak and intracranial hypotension. Patients with a \"nude nerve root\", where the root sleeve is absent, are at increased risk for developing recurrent CSF leaks. Lumbar disc herniation has been reported to cause CSF leaks in at least one case. Degenerative spinal disc diseases cause a disc to pierce the dura mater, leading to a CSF leak.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "BULLET::::- Accidental dural puncture with headache (common, about 1 in 100 insertions). The epidural space in the adult lumbar spine is only 3-5mm thick, which means it is comparatively easy to traverse it and accidentally puncture the dura (and arachnoid) with the needle. This may cause cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) to leak out into the epidural space, which may in turn cause a post dural puncture headache (PDPH). This can be severe and last several days, and in some rare cases weeks or months. It is caused by a reduction in CSF pressure and is characterised by postural exacerbation when the subject raises his/her head above the lying position. Mild PDPH may respond to caffeine and gabapentin administration. If severe it may be successfully treated with an epidural blood patch (a small amount of the subject's own blood given into the epidural space via another epidural needle which clots and seals the leak). Most cases resolve spontaneously with time. A change in headache pattern (e.g., headache worse when the subject lies down) should alert the physician to the possibility of development of rare but dangerous complications, such as subdural hematoma or cerebral venous thrombosis.\n", "A lumbar puncture is done by positioning the person, usually lying on the side, applying local anesthetic, and inserting a needle into the dural sac (a sac around the spinal cord) to collect cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). When this has been achieved, the \"opening pressure\" of the CSF is measured using a manometer. The pressure is normally between 6 and 18 cm water (cmHO); in bacterial meningitis the pressure is usually elevated. In cryptococcal meningitis, intracranial pressure is markedly elevated. The initial appearance of the fluid may prove an indication of the nature of the infection: cloudy CSF indicates higher levels of protein, white and red blood cells and/or bacteria, and therefore may suggest bacterial meningitis.\n", "A similar problem can also occur in videotape recordings, causing the picture to jitter slightly, or the top of the picture to wobble. This is known as flagwaving.\n\nSection::::Correction.\n", "As a final point, throughout TTH literature stress is mentioned as a factor and may be implicated via the adrenal axis. This ultimately results in downstream activation of NMDA receptor activation, NFκB activation, and upregulation of iNOS with subsequent production of NO leading to pain as described above.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n\nWith TTH the physical exam is expected to be normal with perhaps the exception of either pericranial tenderness upon palpation of the cranial muscles, or presence of either photophobia or phonophobia.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Differential Diagnosis:.\n\nBULLET::::- Migraine\n\nBULLET::::- Oromandibular dysfunction\n\nBULLET::::- Sinus disease\n\nBULLET::::- Eye disease\n\nBULLET::::- Cervical spine disease\n", "Section::::Clinical significance.:Lumbar puncture.\n\nCSF can be tested for the diagnosis of a variety of neurological diseases, usually obtained by a procedure called lumbar puncture. Lumbar puncture is carried out under sterile conditions by inserting a needle into the subarachnoid space, usually between the third and fourth lumbar vertebrae. CSF is extracted through the needle, and tested. About one third of people experience a headache after lumbar puncture, and pain or discomfort at the needle entry site is common. Rarer complications may include bruising, meningitis or ongoing post lumbar-puncture leakage of CSF.\n", "Different cultures assign different meanings to the gesture. Shaking to indicate \"no\" is widespread, and appears in a large number of diverse cultural and linguistic groups. Areas in which head shaking generally takes this meaning include the Indian subcontinent, the Middle East, Africa, Southeast Asia, Europe (Greece included), South America, North America and Australia.\n\nSection::::To indicate approval.\n", "The pathophysiology of NDPH is poorly understood. Research points to an immune-mediated, inflammatory process. Cervical joint hypermobility and defective internal jugular venous drainage have also been suggested as causes.\n\nIn 1987, Vanast first suggested autoimmune disorder with a persistent viral trigger for CDH (now referred to as NDPH). Post-infectious origins have been approximated to make up anywhere between 30–80% of NDPH patients in different studies. Viruses that have been implicated include Epstein-Barr virus, herpes simplex virus and cytomegalovirus.\n", "For further evaluation of tonsillar herniation, CINE flow studies are used. This type of MRI examines flow of CSF at the cranio-cervical joint. For persons experiencing symptoms but without clear MRI evidence, especially if the symptoms are better in the supine position and worse upon standing/upright, an upright MRI may be useful.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "The Petitioner, Galloway, claimed that his mental insanity was caused by this involvement in the military and sued the Government. The District Court granted the Government's motion for a directed verdict and held for the Government, citing Petitioner's lack of sufficient evidence to prove his claim. Petitioner appealed, stating that his Seventh Amendment rights of the United States Constitution right to a jury trial was denied because of the directed verdict.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00477	What is the legal basis for fines from HOAs, and where does the money go?	The legal basis is you sign a contract with the HOA when you move in. A HOA is a group of people who live on the same street/area that get together and pool resources for the shared good. This means on private streets they collect dues for taking care of the streets and storm water systems. The money earned from these proceedings would likely go into the HOA fund used to pay for these shared utilities. However often legal action is used to prevent you from doing the thing the HOA agreement prohibits, not making you pay after the fact. They also often decide what should be allowed. When 10 people get together and say "No splitting your property into tiny pieces and places 3-4 homes where 1 currently sits" they do so because it keeps the value of the area high. All 10 people benefit from no one else doing that and they agree not to do it themselves and screw over the others. Most people dislike HOAs because they buy into already existing ones and don't like the rules or the system gets corrupted the same way every form of government does. HOAs work best with a sense of community. When no one knows/likes each other they care far less about not screwing each other over. When suddenly HOAs get in the way of people getting ahead at other's expense those people get upset. TLDR: When you move in (or create) a HOA everyone signs that they will follow the rules they all agreed upon. If you don't follow those rules the legal basis would be breach of contract.	[ "A common example of a CAM item is the cost of cleaning the walkways in a shopping mall. It is assumed that every tenant benefits from a clean environment, and should share in that cost. An example of a CAM that is charged to only a subset of tenants might be the charges for cleaning the food court area, where all of the vendors in the court collectively cover the higher cost of cleaning the tables on a frequent schedule.\n\nSection::::Breakdown of charges.\n", "The HOA is also allowed to charge regular fees to homeowners within the development (comparable to taxes). These are used for functions like paying for security guards (including, for gated communities, the operation of a gatehouse) and maintaining common areas like corridors, walkways, parking, landscaping, swimming pools, fitness centers, tennis courts, and so on. The HOA can levy fines or sue homeowners for damages and/or injunctive relief to enforce the HOA's rules and CC&Rs.\n\nSection::::Background.\n", "Certain states are pushing for more checks and balances in HOAs. The North Carolina Planned Community Act, for example, requires a due process hearing to be held before any homeowner may be fined for a covenant violation. It also limits the amount of the fine and sets other restrictions.\n", "Once notified by a homeowner, attorney or other government official that an HOA organization is not meeting the state's statutes, the boards have the responsibility to correct their governance. Failure to do so in certain states, such as Texas, can result in the levy of misdemeanor charges against the board and open the board (and HOA) to potential lawsuits to enforce state laws of governance. In some instances, a known failure to rectify the board's governance to meet the state's statutes can open the board's members to personal liability as most insurance policies indemnifying the board members against legal action do not cover willful misconduct.\n", "Also known as reconciliations, true-ups, and billbacks, CAM Recoveries are the annual reconciliation of the actual Common Area Maintenance Charges for a fiscal year versus the monthly charges billed to the tenant.\n", "During 2012-2013, REAA found 124 complaints were consistent with unsatisfactory conduct, down from 152 in the 2011-2012 financial period, and a further 16 determinations of serious misconduct, up from 14 in the previous financial period.\n", "Each tenant pays their pro rata share of a property's total CAM charges, which prorated share is the percentage of the tenant's rented square footage of the total, rentable square footage of the property.\n", "The association really does not want to punish anyone. It tries to make rules that encourage understanding and compliance.\n\nEven though homeowners are responsible to know and follow the rules, it’s a good practice to remind residents to review the rules and regulations that are in place.\n\nThe HOA board should follow legal requirements to inform homeowners about any changes made to the rules and regulations.\n\nThe board should make sure it’s adopting fair and reasonable policies it can enforce.\n\nHOA rules are not a “quick fix” for problems a board is having with only a few homeowners.\n", "CAM charges can be broken into two subcategories—\"controllable\" and \"uncontrollable\". Uncontrollable CAM charges are security costs, utilities, and snow removal expenses. All other expenses charged as a CAM charge are considered controllable.\n\nIn certain leases, CAM charges also consists of administrative and management fees. Administrative fees are a negotiated percentage of all costs of operating and maintaining a property. Management fees are a percentage of gross rents collected, which percentage is defined in the management agreement between the management company and ownership of the property.\n\nSection::::Caps and Floors.\n", "A cap on CAM charges limits the amount by which CAM charges can rise each year, and are presented as a percentage. Again, as with the CAM charges themselves, caps are also negotiated between the tenant and landlord, and thus vary from lease to lease. Caps can be cumulative or compounded, and calculated year-over-base or year-over-year.\n", "An example of letting the indemnitor control costs is (in this case a contractor for a homeowners association-HOA), \"\"Contractor shall indemnify, defend (by counsel reasonably acceptable to Association) and hold harmless the Association\"\" Companies and HOAs also use indemnity to protect directors, since few would serve as directors if their risks were not indemnified. Negotiation is important for both parties, \" \"Just about all homeowner association management contracts have a provision which states that the HOA shall indemnify the manager under certain circumstances... There are several ways the indemnification clause can be drafted and both management and HOA must take into account what protects each the best\"\"\n", "The HOA's board may enact rules which are legally binding upon residents as long as they do not conflict with the CC&Rs or state or federal law. Board meetings, like the boards of government agencies, are generally open to HOA members, with some exceptions. As with government agencies, courts generally defer to the broad discretion HOAs enjoy in discharging their duties.\n", "Common area maintenance charges\n\nCommon Area Maintenance charges, or CAM for short, are one of the net charges billed to tenants in a commercial triple net (NNN) lease, and are paid by tenants to the landlord of a commercial property. A CAM charge is an additional rent, charged on top of base rent, and is mainly composed of maintenance fees for work performed on the common area of a property.\n", "The monthly CAM charges a tenant pays as a part of the rent are actually estimates of that tenant's monthly, pro-rated CAM charge for the current fiscal year. The estimate is created from a property's budget by the property manager. After the fiscal year ends, an audit is done of the paid CAM charges versus the actual CAM charges, and the difference is either paid to the landlord, or the tenant.\n", "In 2013, the City of Toronto Ombudsman released a report about TCHC eviction policy and evictions in 2011 and 2012. The report was sparked after the death of a senior evicted from TCHC in 2011, who died one month after being evicted. Len Koroneos, CEO during the period studied, focussed on rent collection, stating that “Good eviction prevention programs cannot be implemented at the expense of rent collection.” The TCHC Board adopted the recommendations of the Ombudsman.\n\nBULLET::::- 2013 Fraudulent billing\n", "Section::::Undemocratic.\n\nSome scholars and officials of the AARP have charged that, in a variety of ways, HOAs suppress the rights of their residents. Due to their nature as a non-governmental entity, HOA boards of directors are not bound by constitutional restrictions on governments, although they are \"de facto\" a level of government. If a homeowner believes a breach of duty has occurred by the board of directors, they may run for the board at the next election or, in extreme cases, sue the association at personal expense.\n", "\"Our neighborhood is also filled with bloody cotton balls and feces-covered wipes that were given out at Outside In,\" added the letter, which was signed by Tracy Prince, the league's vice chair. \"It is humane and necessary to hand out these items, but MCHD should put a plan in place so that these items aren't disposed of in our neighborhoods.\"\n\nSection::::Services.:Medical services.\n\nIn addition to the FQHC, Outside In's medical clinic operates two medical outreach vans and a school-based health center at Milwaukie High School.\n\nSection::::Job training programs.\n", "Relocation allowance. A city ordinance \"may\" require the owner to pay the departing tenant an allowance for moving and similar expenses, e.g., in event of no-fault termination. Each city has its own specifics. The tenant will not receive such an allowance in the event of \"just cause\" terminations, where the tenant is at fault (such as non-payment of rent, or creating a nuisance). But an owner's decision to end an existing tenancy (by written notice, by a court's eviction order) without the tenant being at fault, \"might\" trigger an owner's duty to pay the allowance. Withdrawal of a unit from the residential rental market is governed by the Ellis Act.\n", "A number of lawsuits have been filed in recent years alleging violations of the HAA. The cases have helped establish conditions where the HAA does and does not apply.\n\nSection::::Litigation involving the HAA.:\"Sequoyah Hills Homeowners Assn. v. City of Oakland\" 1993.\n", "Section::::Settlement.\n\nThe settlement was mediated by retired judge Sir Henry Brooke. Before settlement had been reached, Chris Mallender explained: \"We have reached a view that there are going to be no outright winners in this. In the circumstances we feel that it's better that we try and find a middle ground, we settle in a way that's fair to the families, but is also fair in terms of the residual burden on the council tax payer.\"\n", "Section::::Reported persecution.\n", "In Ontario, the eviction of members of a housing co-operative is governed by special section of legislation set out in the Co-operative Corporations Act. \n\nPrior to a formal hearing to terminate a member's occupancy some co-operatives issue a \"Notice of Concern\" to request the member to attend a Board of Directors meeting to attempt to resolve an issue of arrears or other behaviour contravening the co-operative's Occupancy By-law.\n", "Section::::Discussion.:Measurement and apportionment of damages.\n", "2004 Audited Financial Statements revealed that in 2004 several checks, most signed by the then CEO (Ken Krajewski) and the office administrative assistant (Suzy Villegas) —and totaling over $2.2 million—left the company over several months in a deal that The 13th's Board of Directors claim that the then-acting CEO Krajewski \"had no authority to enter into\". Liz Ross, Chairman of the Board, relieved Krajewski of his duties with pay pending an investigation. The board hired Jim Fowler as an attorney and appointed Ross as CEO. Also in 2004, the former CEO (Krajewski) \"claimed breach of contract and discrimination upon his termination. The 13th settled with the CEO in January 2005 and the settlement amount has been accrued at December 31, 2004.\"\n", "The Council is responsible for ensuring that the interests of consumers who use the services of real estate licensees are adequately protected against wrongful actions by the licensees. A wrongful action may be deliberate or may be the consequence of inadequate exercise of reasonable judgment by a licensee in carrying out their duties and responsibilities.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00103	why does antipsychotic medication mess with motor function and cause the body to tense up?	Super simplified laymans knowledge version: psych drugs affect various neurotransmitters in the brain (dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, etc), these neurotransmitters are multipurpose and some regulate motor function in addition to mood.	[ "Both generations of medication tend to block receptors in the brain's dopamine pathways, but atypicals at the time of marketing were claimed to differ from typical antipsychotics in that they are less likely to cause extrapyramidal motor control disabilities in patients, which include unsteady Parkinson's disease-type movements, body rigidity and involuntary tremors. More recent research has demonstrated the side effect profile of these drugs is similar to older drugs, causing the leading medical journal \"The Lancet\" to write in its editorial \"the time has come to abandon the terms first-generation and second-generation antipsychotics, as they do not merit this distinction.\" These abnormal body movements can become permanent even after medication is stopped. While typical antipsychotics are more likely to cause parkinsonism, atypicals are more likely to cause weight gain and type II diabetes.\n", "BULLET::::- Tardive dyskinesia appears to be more frequent with high-potency first-generation antipsychotics, such as haloperidol, and tends to appear after chronic and not acute treatment. It is characterized by slow (hence the \"tardive\") repetitive, involuntary and purposeless movements, most often of the face, lips, legs, or torso, which tend to resist treatment and are frequently irreversible. The rate of appearance of TD is about 5% per year of use of antipsychotic drug (whatever the drug used).\n\nBULLET::::- Rare/Uncommon (1% incidence for \"most\" antipsychotic drugs) adverse effects of antipsychotics include:\n", "The atypical antipsychotics differ somewhat in side effect profiles, but most have some risk of sedation, weight gain, and extrapyramidal symptoms (including tremor, stiffness, and restlessness). They may also increase the risk of metabolic syndrome, so metabolic monitoring should be performed regularly, including checks of serum cholesterol, triglycerides, and glucose, weight, blood pressure, and waist circumference. Taking antipsychotics for long periods or at high doses can also cause tardive dyskinesia- a sometimes incurable neurological disorder resulting in involuntary, repetitive body movements. The risk of tardive dyskinesia appears to be lower in second-generation antipsychotics than in first-generation antipsychotics but as with first-generation drugs, increases with time spent on medications and in older patients\n", "Section::::Adverse effects.\n\nSide effects vary among the various agents in this class of medications, but common side effects include: dry mouth, muscle stiffness, muscle cramping, tremors, EPS and weight gain. EPS refers to a cluster of symptoms consisting of akathisia, parkinsonism, and dystonia. Anticholinergics such as benztropine and diphenhydramine are commonly prescribed to treat the EPS. 4% of patients develop rabbit syndrome while on typical antipsychotics.\n", "Studies have tested the use of melatonin, high dosage vitamins, and different antioxidants in concurrence with antipsychotic drugs (often used to treat schizophrenia) as a way of preventing and treating tardive dyskinesia. Although further research is needed, studies reported a much lower percentage of individuals developing tardive dyskinesia than the current prevalence rate for those taking antipsychotic drugs. Tentative evidence supports the use of vitamin E for prevention.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Alternating movements\": Patient is told e.g. to pronate and supinate his hands in rapid succession, holding forearms vertically. In cerebellar diseases, the movements are irregular and inaccurate; in case of the pyramidal tract lesion the motion may be slowed or incomplete.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Stewart-Holmes rebound sign\": Patient tries to flex the elbow against applied resistance. When physician's grip is suddenly released, the patient should be able to deter it from rebounding. With cerebellar disease, the forearm may sway in several cycles. The patient may even strike himself if not guarded.\n", "Acute dystonia is a sustained muscle contraction that sometimes appears soon after administration of antipsychotic medications. Any muscle in the body may be affected, including the jaw, tongue, throat, arms, or legs. When the throat muscles are involved, this type of dystonia is called an acute laryngospasm and is a medical emergency because it can impair breathing. Older antipsychotics such as Haloperidol or Fluphenazine are more likely to cause acute dystonia than newer agents. Giving high doses of antipsychotics by injection also increases the risk of developing acute dystonia.\n", "Reducing the dosage of the antipsychotic drugs resulted in gradual improvement in the abnormal posture. In some cases, discontinuing the use of those drugs resulted in complete disappearance of the syndrome. The time it took for the improvement and the disappearance of the syndrome depended on the type of drug being administered or the specific cause of the syndrome itself.\n\nSection::::Treatment and Medication.:Anticholinergic drugs.\n", "The second step in the treatment process is medication. The medications focus on the chemicals released by neurotransmitters in the nervous system, which control muscle movement. The medications on the market today are anticholinergics, benzodiazepines, baclofen, dopaminergic agents/dopamine-depleting agents, and tetrabenazine. Each medication is started on a low dosage and gradually increased to higher doses as the disease progresses and the side effects are known for the individual.\n", "If all these measures fail patients are candidates for thalamus surgery. This kind of surgery can be both a thalamotomy or the implantation of a thalamic stimulator. Complications are frequent (30% in thalamotomy and 10% in deep brain stimulation) and include a worsening of ataxia, dysarthria and hemiparesis. Thalamotomy is a more efficacious surgical treatment for intractable MS tremor though the higher incidence of persistent neurological deficits in patients receiving lesional surgery supports the use of deep brain stimulation as the preferred surgical strategy.\n", "Another study was done where the onset of athetoid movement followed a thalamic stroke. The thalamus is part of a pathway that is involved with the cortical feedback loop in which signals from the cortex are relayed through the striatum, pallidus and thalamus before making it back to the cortex. The striatum receives excitatory inputs from the cortex and inhibits the pallidum. By doing so it frees the thalamus from pallidal inhibition allowing the thalamus to send excitatory outputs to the cortex. Therefore, the lesions to the thalamus or any other part of this feedback loop can result in movement disorders as they can alter the reactivity of one towards the other. Also, in a case of people with thalamic stroke, a majority suffered severe sensory deficits and ataxia. It is proposed that this loss of proprioception and the ensuing loss of synergic stabilization may also lead to abnormal movements, such as those dealt with in athetosis.\n", "In SPS patients, motor unit neurons fire involuntarily in a way that resembles a normal contraction. Motor unit potentials fire while the patient is at rest, particularly in the stiff muscles. The excessive firing of motor neurons may be caused by malfunctions in spinal and supra-segmental inhibitory networks that utilize GABA. Involuntary actions show up as voluntary on EMG scans; even when the patient tries to relax, there are agonist and antagonist contractions.\n", "Some of the high-potency antipsychotics have been formulated as the decanoate ester (e.g. fluphenazine decanoate) to allow for a slow release of the active drug when given as a deep, intramuscular injection. This has the effect of dosing a person who doesn't want to take the medication. Depot injections can also be used for involuntary commitment patients to force compliance with a court treatment order when the person would refuse to take daily oral medication. Depot preparations were limited to high-potency antipsychotics so choice was limited. The United Nations Special Rapporteur On Torture has classified this as a human rights violation and cruel or inhuman treatment .\n", "Currently, no treatment slows the neurodegeneration in any of the neuroacanthocytosis disorders. Medication may be administered to decrease the involuntary movements produced by these syndromes. Antipsychotics are used to block dopamine, anticonvulsants treat seizures and botulinum toxin injections may control dystonia. Patients usually receive speech, occupational and physical therapies to help with the complications associated with movement. Sometimes, physicians will prescribe antidepressants for the psychological problems that accompany neuroacanthocytosis. Some success has been reported with Deep brain stimulation.\n", "The fever seen with NMS is believed to be caused by hypothalamic dopamine receptor blockade. The peripheral problems (the high white blood cell and CPK count) are caused by the antipsychotic drugs. They cause an increased calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum of muscle cells which can result in rigidity and eventual cell breakdown. No major studies have reported an explanation for the abnormal EEG, but it is likely also attributable to dopamine blockage leading to changes in neuronal pathways.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Differential diagnosis.\n", "In the context of psychotic depression, the following are the most well-studied antidepressant/antipsychotic combinations\n\n\"First-generation\"\n\nBULLET::::- Amitriptyline/perphenazine\n\nBULLET::::- Amitriptyline/haloperidol\n\n\"Second-generation\"\n\nBULLET::::- Venlafaxine/quetiapine?\n\nBULLET::::- Olanzapine/fluoxetine\n\nBULLET::::- Olanzapine/sertraline\n\nIn modern practice of ECT a therapeutic clonic seizure is induced by electric current via electrodes placed on an anaesthetised, unconscious patient. Despite much research the exact mechanism of action of ECT is still not known. ECT carries the risk of temporary cognitive deficits (e.g., confusion, memory problems), in addition to the burden of repeated exposures to general anesthesia.\n\nSection::::Research.\n", "While some studies suggest that use of anticholinergics increases the risk of tardive dyskinesia (a long-term side effect of antipsychotics), other studies have found no association between anticholinergic exposure and risk of developing tardive dyskinesia, although symptoms may be worsened.\n\nDrugs that decrease cholinergic transmission may impair storage of new information into long-term memory. Anticholinergic agents can also impair time perception.\n\nSection::::Pharmacology.\n", "Patient A suffers from schizophrenia. Their treatment included a combination of ziprasidone, olanzapine, trazodone and benzotropine. The patient experienced dizziness and sedation, so they were tapered off ziprasidone and olanzapine, and transition to quetiapine. Trazodone was discontinued. The patient then experienced excessive sweating, tachycardia and neck pain, gained considerable weight and had hallucinations. Five months later, quetiapine was tapered and discontinued, with ziprasidone re-introduction into their treatment due to the excessive weight gain. Although the patient lost the excessive weight they gained, they then developed muscle stiffness, cogwheeling, tremor and night sweats. When benztropine was added they experienced blurry vision. After an additional five months, the patient was switched from ziprasidone to aripiprazole. Over the course of 8 months, patient A gradually experienced more weight gain, sedation, developed difficulty with their gait, stiffness, cogwheel and dyskinetic ocular movements. A pharmacogenomics test later proved the patient had a CYP2D6 1/41, with has a predicted phenotype of IM and CYP2C19 1/2 with predicted phenotype of IM as well.\n", "Several studies have recently been conducted comparing the prevalence rate of tardive dyskinesia with second generation, or more modern, antipsychotic drugs to that of first generation drugs. The newer antipsychotics appear to have a substantially reduced potential for causing tardive dyskinesia. However, some studies express concern that the prevalence rate has decreased far less than expected, cautioning against the overestimation of the safety of modern antipsychotics.\n", "Beers led a team from Harvard University that studied 850 residents of Boston-area nursing homes, looking at the medications they were prescribed and their case histories. The research, published in the \"Journal of the American Medical Association\" in 1988, found that many had symptoms of mental confusion and tremors that were caused by antidepressants, antipsychotics and sedatives that they had been prescribed.\n", "GABA agonists, usually diazepam but sometimes other benzodiazepines, are the primary treatment for SPS. Drugs that increase GABA activity alleviate muscle stiffness caused by a lack of GABAergic tone. They increase pathways that are dependent upon GABA and have muscle relaxant and anticonvulsant effects, often providing symptom relief. Because the condition worsens over time, patients generally require increased dosages, leading to more side effects. For this reason, gradual increase in dosage of benzodiazepines is indicated. Baclofen, a GABA agonist, is generally used when individuals taking high doses of benzodiazepines have high side effects. In some cases it has shown improvements in electrophysiological and muscle stiffness when administered intravenously. Intrathecal baclofen administration may not have long-term benefits though, and there are potential serious side effects.\n", "BULLET::::- Tardive dyskinesia — a rare, often permanent movement disorder that, more often than not, results from prolonged treatment with antidopaminergic agents such as antipsychotics. It presents with slow (hence \"tardive\"), involuntary, repetitive and purposeless movements that most often affect the facial muscles.\n\nBULLET::::- Neuroleptic malignant syndrome — a rare, life-threatening complication that results from the use of antidopaminergic agents. Its incidence increases with concomitant use of lithium (medication) salts\n", "Drug-induced myasthenia gravis is also a very rare condition in which pharmacological drugs cause a blockade or disruption of the NMJ machinery.(reference 12) Robert W. Barrons summarizes the possible causes of drug-induced myasthenia gravis: \"Prednisone was most commonly implicated as aggravating myasthenia gravis, and D-penicillamine was most commonly associated with myasthenic syndrome. The greatest frequency of drug-induced neuromuscular blockade was seen with aminoglycoside-induced postoperative respiratory depression. However, drugs most likely to impact myasthenic patients negatively are those used in the treatment of the disease. These include overuse of anticholinesterase drugs, high-dose prednisone, and anesthesia and neuromuscular blockers for thymectomy.\"(reference 39)\n", "Sometimes, however, psychomotor agitation does not relate to mental tension and anxiety.\n\nA 2010 study found that there was also a link between psychomotor agitation and nicotine, alcohol, and drug dependence.\n\nIn other cases, psychomotor agitation can be caused by antipsychotic medications.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nIntramuscular midazolam, lorazepam, or another benzodiazepine can be used to both sedate agitated patients, and control semi-involuntary muscle movements in cases of suspected akathisia.\n", "Psychogenic disorder has been linked with basal ganglia dysfunction and dopamine deficiency observed by a decrease in neuronal density in substantia nigra in elderly patients. On an in-vivo study, the absence of dopamine in the cultures perturbed the dynamics of the subthalamic nucleus (STN) and the GABAergic neurons of the globus pallidus(GP). It is believed that the activation of the indirect pathway (striatum-GP-STN-output nuclei) increases the firing rate of GP-STN neurons resulting in an excessive inhibition of basal ganglia targets. In psychogenic disorder, the activity in the indirect pathway (inhibits movement, thoughts) predominates over that on the direct pathway (increases movement, thoughts, feelings), giving rise to an increase in the globus pallidus interior (GPi) inhibitory output, which results in decrease motor activity. Specifically, it begins on the cerebral cortex sending projections to neurons in striatum. These neurons will inhibit the external segment of the Globus Pallidus (GPe), which normally inhibits the subthalamic nucleus (STN). However, the GPe is inhibited and no longer inhibit the STN and the STN will excite the GPi which finally inhibits the thalamus and prevents from exciting to the cerebral cortex and command the spinal cord for initiation of a movement. In addition, scientists have found that the degree of slowness of movement is characterized by the decrease of F-fluorodpa uptake in the striatum and nucleus accumbens complex.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-03046	How does a BIOS update 'brick' hardware?	The bios contains the basic functions of the motherboard. If it’s not properly loaded then the motherboard won’t be able to boot. If the mobo has dual bios then you can boot the other bios and flash the bad one. Otherwise you need to replace the memory chip on the motherboard that contains the bios with another one that has a good bios loaded, this is generally not user doable. Otherwise buy a new mobo or send it in for repair.	[ "Most BIOS implementations are specifically designed to work with a particular computer or motherboard model, by interfacing with various devices that make up the complementary system chipset. Originally, BIOS firmware was stored in a ROM chip on the PC motherboard. In modern computer systems, the BIOS contents are stored on flash memory so it can be rewritten without removing the chip from the motherboard. This allows easy, end-user updates to the BIOS firmware so new features can be added or bugs can be fixed, but it also creates a possibility for the computer to become infected with BIOS rootkits. Furthermore, a BIOS upgrade that fails can brick the motherboard permanently, unless the system includes some form of backup for this case. \n", "Sometimes an interrupted flash upgrade of a PC motherboard will brick the board, for example, due to a power outage (or user impatience) during the upgrade process. It is sometimes possible to unbrick such a motherboard, by scavenging a similar but otherwise broken board for a BIOS chip in the hopes that the BIOS will work even halfway, far enough to boot from floppy. Then it will be possible to retry the flash process. Sometimes it is possible to boot from a floppy, then swap the old presumably dead BIOS chip in and reflash it. On some Gigabyte boards, it can also be possible to reflash the bricked main BIOS using a backup BIOS. Some vendors put the BIOS chip in sockets, allowing the corrupted BIOS chip to be removed and reprogrammed using an external tool, like a universal programmer or an Arduino.\n", "On recent motherboards, the BIOS may also patch the central processor microcode if the BIOS detects that the installed CPU is one for which errata have been published.\n\nMany motherboards now use an update to BIOS called UEFI.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Accelerated Graphics Port\n\nBULLET::::- Computer case screws\n\nBULLET::::- CMOS battery\n\nBULLET::::- Daughterboard\n\nBULLET::::- List of computer hardware manufacturers\n\nBULLET::::- Memory Reference Code – the part of the BIOS which handles memory timings on Intel motherboards\n\nBULLET::::- Overclocking\n\nBULLET::::- Single-board computer\n\nBULLET::::- Switched-mode power supply applications\n\nBULLET::::- Symmetric multiprocessing\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Motherboard Form Factors - Silverstone Article\n", "Once the system is booted, hardware monitoring and computer fan control is normally done directly by the Hardware Monitor chip itself, which can be a separate chip, interfaced through I²C or SMBus, or come as a part of a Super I/O solution, interfaced through Low Pin Count (LPC). Some operating systems, like NetBSD with envsys and OpenBSD with sysctl hw.sensors, feature integrated interfacing with hardware monitors, which is normally done without any interaction with the BIOS.\n", "EEPROM chips are advantageous because they can be easily updated by the user; it is customary for hardware manufacturers to issue BIOS updates to upgrade their products, improve compatibility and remove bugs. However, this advantage had the risk that an improperly executed or aborted BIOS update could render the computer or device unusable. To avoid these situations, more recent BIOSes use a \"boot block\"; a portion of the BIOS which runs first and must be updated separately. This code verifies if the rest of the BIOS is intact (using hash checksums or other methods) before transferring control to it. If the boot block detects any corruption in the main BIOS, it will typically warn the user that a recovery process must be initiated by booting from removable media (floppy, CD or USB flash drive) so the user can try flashing the BIOS again. Some motherboards have a \"backup\" BIOS (sometimes referred to as DualBIOS boards) to recover from BIOS corruptions.\n", "However, in certain circumstances, the BIOS vendor also provides the underlying information about hardware monitoring through ACPI, in which case, the operating system may be using ACPI to perform hardware monitoring; this is done, for example, on some ASUSTeK motherboards with the AI Booster feature.\n\nSection::::Configuration.:Reprogramming.\n", "Apart from that, there are different stages of a bricked device. There are different steps to resolve this, such as analyzing the problem, analyzing the boot process, finding at which stage the hard bricked device is, and making changes with the help of the PC.\n\nSection::::Types.:Soft brick.\n", "The motherboard BIOS typically contains code to access hardware components necessary for bootstrapping the system, such as the keyboard, display, and storage. In addition, plug-in adapter cards such as SCSI, RAID, network interface cards, and video boards often include their own BIOS (e.g. Video BIOS), complementing or replacing the system BIOS code for the given component. Even devices built into the motherboard can behave in this way; their option ROMs can be stored as separate code on the main BIOS flash chip, and upgraded either in tandem with, or separately from, the main BIOS.\n", "At this point, the extension ROM code takes over, typically testing and initializing the hardware it controls and registering interrupt vectors for use by post-boot applications. It may use BIOS services (including those provided by previously initialized option ROMs) to provide a user configuration interface, to display diagnostic information, or to do anything else that it requires. It is possible that an option ROM will not return to BIOS, pre-empting the BIOS's boot sequence altogether.\n", "There are modded RST 13 series Option ROMs (legacy) available at certain BIOS modding sites that have been made functional for use in the X79 chipsets.\n\nWhen booting in a BIOS environment (legacy) and some / EFI, the RST option ROM is used. When booting in a true UEFI environment the Option ROM is not used as a SataDriver with the RST version takes over. In BIOS mode the legacy/BIOS booting is under CSMCORE. In true UEFI mode the RST is controlled under SataDriver in BIOS.\n", "When INT 19h is called, the BIOS attempts to locate boot loader software on a \"boot device\", such as a hard disk, a floppy disk, CD, or DVD. It loads and executes the first boot software it finds, giving it control of the PC. \n", "Much the way the system BIOS provides a set of functions that are used by software programs to access the system hardware, the video BIOS provides a set of video-related functions that are used by programs to access the video hardware as well as storing vendor-specific settings such as card name, clock frequencies, VRAM amount & voltages. The video BIOS interfaces software to the video chipset in the same way that the system BIOS does for the system chipset.\n", "A modern BIOS setup screen often features a PC Health Status or a Hardware Monitoring tab, which directly interfaces with a Hardware Monitor chip of the mainboard. This makes it possible to monitor CPU and chassis temperature, the voltage provided by the power supply unit, as well as monitor and control the speed of the fans connected to the motherboard.\n", "Intel processors have reprogrammable microcode since the P6 microarchitecture. The BIOS may contain patches to the processor microcode that fix errors in the initial processor microcode; reprogramming is not persistent, thus loading of microcode updates is performed each time the system is powered up. Without reprogrammable microcode, an expensive processor swap would be required; for example, the Pentium FDIV bug became an expensive fiasco for Intel as it required a product recall because the original Pentium processor's defective microcode could not be reprogrammed.\n\nSection::::Operating system services.:Identification.\n", "Section::::Hardware.\n", "In modern PCs the BIOS is stored in rewritable memory, allowing the contents to be replaced and modified. This rewriting of the contents is sometimes termed \"flashing\", based on the common use of a kind of EEPROM known technically as \"flash EEPROM\" and colloquially as \"flash memory\". It can be done by a special program, usually provided by the system's manufacturer, or at POST, with a BIOS image in a hard drive or USB flash drive. A file containing such contents is sometimes termed \"a BIOS image\". A BIOS might be reflashed in order to upgrade to a newer version to fix bugs or provide improved performance or to support newer hardware, or a reflashing operation might be needed to fix a damaged BIOS\n", "Mebromi is a trojan which targets computers with AwardBIOS, Microsoft Windows, and antivirus software from two Chinese companies: Rising Antivirus and Jiangmin KV Antivirus. Mebromi installs a rootkit which infects the master boot record.\n", "The controller's BIOS is normally stored in a dedicated on-board Flash Memory Device, except that when the controller is integrated into a motherboard its BIOS and the motherboard's BIOS are often combined into one. Upgrading the BIOS can be difficult at best. Some controllers have one-time programmable memory\n", "The principal duties of the main BIOS during POST are as follows:\n\nBULLET::::- verify CPU registers\n\nBULLET::::- verify the integrity of the BIOS code itself\n\nBULLET::::- verify some basic components like DMA, timer, interrupt controller\n\nBULLET::::- find, size, and verify system main memory\n\nBULLET::::- initialize BIOS\n\nBULLET::::- pass control to other specialized extension BIOSes (if installed)\n\nBULLET::::- identify, organize, and select which devices are available for booting\n\nThe functions above are served by the POST in all BIOS versions back to the very first. In later BIOS versions, POST will also:\n", "There are many methods and utilities for examining the contents of various motherboard BIOS and expansion ROMs, such as Microsoft DEBUG or the Unix dd.\n\nSection::::Extensions (option ROMs).:Boot procedure.\n", "BULLET::::- TSOP flashing: reflashing the onboard BIOS chip with a hacked BIOS to circumvent the security mechanisms. The Xbox BIOS is contained on a commodity EEPROM (the 'TSOP'), which can be made writable by the Xbox by bridging points on the motherboard. Flashing is usually carried out by using a specially crafted gamesave (see 'Game save exploit', below) to flash the onboard TSOP, but the TSOP can also be de-soldered and re-written in a standard EEPROM programmer. This method only works on 1.0 to 1.5 Xboxes, as version 1.6 (the final hardware version produced) replaced the commodity TSOP with an LPC ROM contained within a proprietary chip.\n", "Unlike some other hardware components, the video card usually needs to be active very early during the boot process so that the user can see what is going on. This requires the card to be activated before any operating system begins loading; thus it needs to be activated by the BIOS, the only software that is present at this early stage. The system BIOS loads the video BIOS from the card's ROM into system RAM and transfers control to it early in the boot sequence.\n", "Also, if an expansion ROM wishes to change the way the system boots unilaterally, it can simply hook INT 19h or other interrupts normally called from interrupt 19h, such as INT 13h, the BIOS disk service, to intercept the BIOS boot process. Then it can replace the BIOS boot process with one of its own, or it can merely modify the boot sequence by inserting its own boot actions into it, by preventing the BIOS from detecting certain devices as bootable, or both. Before the BIOS Boot Specification was promulgated, this was the only way for expansion ROMs to implement boot capability for devices not supported for booting by the native BIOS of the motherboard.\n", "Other alternatives to the functionality of the \"Legacy BIOS\" in the x86 world include coreboot and libreboot.\n\nSome servers and workstations use a platform-independent Open Firmware (IEEE-1275) based on the Forth programming language; it is included with Sun's SPARC computers, IBM's RS/6000 line, and other PowerPC systems such as the CHRP motherboards, along with the x86-based OLPC XO-1.\n", "After the motherboard BIOS completes its POST, most BIOS versions search for option ROM modules, also called BIOS extension ROMs, and execute them. The motherboard BIOS scans for extension ROMs in a portion of the \"upper memory area\" (the part of the x86 real-mode address space at and above address 0xA0000) and runs each ROM found, in order. To discover memory-mapped ISA option ROMs, a BIOS implementation scans the real-mode address space from codice_5 to codice_6 on 2 KiB boundaries, looking for a two-byte ROM \"signature\": 0x55 followed by 0xAA. In a valid expansion ROM, this signature is followed by a single byte indicating the number of 512-byte blocks the expansion ROM occupies in real memory, and the next byte is the option ROM's entry point (also known as its \"entry offset\"). A checksum of the specified number of 512-byte blocks is calculated, and if the ROM has a valid checksum, the BIOS transfers control to the entry address, which in a normal BIOS extension ROM should be the beginning of the extension's initialization routine.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-18144	Why are certain elements bad for humans but when combined together arent so harmful?	For Sodium Chloride, AKA table salt, it has to do with ionization. An atom of Chlorine (Element #17) for reasons best left unexplained on this sub, really wants to gain an extra electron. [If you look at a periodic table]( URL_0 ), all the elements on its vertical column want to do the same. These elements are called Halogens. If you move one step to the right, you get to the Noble Gases. These elements have all the electrons that they want, and as a rule of thumb, an element wants the same number of electrons as the nearest Noble Gas. Now, if you look at Sodium, its nearest Noble Gas is Neon. It wants to lose an electron. So you have Sodium that wants to gain an electron, and Chlorine that wants to lose one. Match made in the cores of very large stars. This is called an ionic bond, and is often created whenever a non-metal (All the orange, dun and light blue ones on the periodic table I linked to, except Hydrogen, sometimes) and a metal (All the rest except the brown ones, those are metalloids or semi-metals.) are combine. If you have just pure Sodium or Chlorine, however, they try to get the amount of electrons they want from other sources, like taking electrons from your lungs (Poisonous) or giving them to water (explosive). Carbon dioxide is somewhat harmful to us in large amounts, but we have mechanisms specifically designed to get rid of it. It poses no danger to healthy humans. Carbon Monoxide however, is different. If introduced to our bloodstream, say, if you breath it in, it replaces oxygen in our red blood cells- Carbon Monoxide is better at binding to them than oxygen is, and this presents a problem because you need that oxygen to survive. Feel free to ask any other questions.	[ "Organohalogens are a family of synthetic organic molecules which all contain atoms of one of the halogens. Such materials include PCBs, Dioxins, DDT, Freon and many others. Although considered harmless when first produced, many of these compounds are now known to have profound physiological effects on many organisms including man. Many are also fat soluble and become concentrated through the food chain.\n\nSection::::Hazardous materials.:Toxic metals.\n\nMany metals and their salts can exhibit toxicity to humans and many other organisms. Such metals include, Lead, Cadmium, Copper, Silver, Mercury and many of the transuranic metals.\n\nSection::::Hazardous materials.:Radioactive materials.\n", "Section::::Biological role and toxicity.\n\nThe group 12 elements have multiple effects on biological organisms as cadmium and mercury are toxic while zinc is required by most plants and animals in trace amounts.\n", "Chemical parameters tend to pose more of a chronic health risk through buildup of heavy metals although some components like nitrates/nitrites and arsenic can have a more immediate impact. Physical parameters affect the aesthetics and taste of the drinking water and may complicate the removal of microbial pathogens.\n", "Though certain amount of these metals can actually have an important role in, for example, maintaining certain biochemical and physiological, \"functions in living organisms when in very low concentrations, however they become noxious when they exceed certain threshold concentrations.\" Heavy metal are a huge part tof environmental pollutions and their toxicity \"is a problem of increasing significance for ecological, evolutionary, nutritional and environmental reasons.\"\n\nSection::::Sources of environmental toxicity.:Metals Toxicity.:Arsenic.\n", "Of the 94 naturally occurring chemical elements, 60 are listed in the table above. Of the remaining 34, it is not known how many occur in the human body.\n\nMost of the elements needed for life are relatively common in the Earth's crust. Aluminium, the third most common element in the Earth's crust (after oxygen and silicon), serves no function in living cells, but is harmful in large amounts. Transferrins can bind aluminium.\n\nSection::::Molecules.\n\nThe composition of the human body is expressed in terms of chemicals:\n\nBULLET::::- Water\n\nBULLET::::- Proteins – including those of hair, connective tissue, etc.\n", "All hazards in this category are mainly anthropogenic although there exist a number of natural carcinogens and chemical elements like radon and lead may turn up in health-critical concentrations in the natural environment:\n\nBULLET::::- Anthrax\n\nBULLET::::- Antibiotic agents in animals destined for human consumption\n\nBULLET::::- Arsenic - a contaminant of fresh water sources (water wells)\n\nBULLET::::- Asbestos - carcinogenic\n\nBULLET::::- DDT\n\nBULLET::::- Carcinogens\n\nBULLET::::- dioxins\n\nBULLET::::- Endocrine disruptors\n\nBULLET::::- Explosive material\n\nBULLET::::- Fungicides\n\nBULLET::::- Furans\n\nBULLET::::- Haloalkanes\n\nBULLET::::- Heavy metals\n\nBULLET::::- Herbicides\n\nBULLET::::- Hormones in animals destined for human consumption\n\nBULLET::::- Lead in paint\n\nBULLET::::- Marine debris\n\nBULLET::::- mercury\n", "Other heavy metals noted for their potentially hazardous nature, usually as toxic environmental pollutants, include manganese (central nervous system damage); cobalt and nickel (carcinogens); copper, zinc, selenium and silver (endocrine disruption, congenital disorders, or general toxic effects in fish, plants, birds, or other aquatic organisms); tin, as organotin (central nervous system damage); antimony (a suspected carcinogen); and thallium (central nervous system damage).\n\nSection::::Toxicity.:Nutritionally essential heavy metals.\n", "Section::::Elements.:Other elements.\n\nNot all elements which are found in the human body in trace quantities play a role in life. Some of these elements are thought to be simple bystander contaminants without function (examples: caesium, titanium), while many others are thought to be active toxics, depending on amount (cadmium, mercury, lead, radioactives). The possible utility and toxicity of a few elements at levels normally found in the body (aluminium) is debated. There is evidence that arsenic, an element normally considered a toxin in higher amounts, is essential in ultratrace quantities, in mammals such as rats, hamsters, and goats.\n", "BULLET::::- Naja G. M. & Volesky B. 2009, \"Toxicity and sources of Pb, Cd, Hg, Cr, As, and radionuclides\", in L. K. Wang, J. P. Chen, Y. Hung & N. K. Shammas, \"Heavy Metals in the Environment\", CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, .\n\nBULLET::::- Nakbanpote W., Meesungneon O. & Prasad M. N. V. 2016, \"Potential of ornamental plants for phytoremediation of heavy metals and income generation\", in M. N. V. Prasad (ed.), \"Bioremediation and Bioeconomy\", Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 179–218, .\n\nBULLET::::- Nathans M. W. 1963, \"Elementary Chemistry\", Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.\n", "Heavy metals can degrade air, water, and soil quality, and subsequently cause health issues in plants, animals, and people, when they become concentrated as a result of industrial activities. Common sources of heavy metals in this context include mining and industrial wastes; vehicle emissions; lead-acid batteries; fertilisers; paints; and treated timber; aging water supply infrastructure; and microplastics floating in the world's oceans. Recent examples of heavy metal contamination and health risks include the occurrence of Minamata disease, in Japan (1932–1968; lawsuits ongoing as of 2016); the Bento Rodrigues dam disaster in Brazil, and high levels of lead in drinking water supplied to the residents of Flint, Michigan, in the north-east of the United States.\n", "A few non-essential heavy metals have been observed to have biological effects. Gallium, germanium (a metalloid), indium, and most lanthanides can stimulate metabolism, and titanium promotes growth in plants (though it is not always considered a heavy metal).\n\nSection::::Toxicity.\n\nHeavy metals are often assumed to be highly toxic or damaging to the environment. Some are, while certain others are toxic only if taken in excess or encountered in certain forms.\n\nSection::::Toxicity.:Environmental heavy metals.\n", "All living organisms do of course need some naturally occurring elements however most can be extremely detrimental to health. There is a direct link between health and the earth because all humans ingest and breath in these chemicals and for the most part it is done unknowingly.\n\nSection::::Environment and human health.:Sources of Chemicals.\n\nThere are many ways in which humans come into contact with the earth's elements and below are only a few ways in which we become exposed to them.\n", "Section::::Causes.:Environmental toxic injuries.\n\nMany commonly found natural substances may be toxic. They can be found in our air, water or food supply. The top ten most common environmental toxins are: \n\nBULLET::::- PCBs\n\nBULLET::::- Pesticides\n\nBULLET::::- Molds\n\nBULLET::::- Phthalates\n\nBULLET::::- VOCs\n\nBULLET::::- Dioxins\n\nBULLET::::- Asbestos\n\nBULLET::::- Heavy metals\n\nBULLET::::- Chloroform\n\nBULLET::::- Chlorine\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n\nAvoiding direct exposure to toxins will reduce the risk of toxic injury.\n", "In managing waste many hazardous materials are put in the domestic and commercial waste stream. In part this is because modern technological living uses certain toxic or poisonous materials in the electronics and chemical industries. Which, when they are in use or transported, are usually safely contained or encapsulated and packaged to avoid any exposure. In the waste stream, the waste products exterior or encapsulation breaks or degrades and there is a release and exposure to hazardous materials into the environment, for people working in the waste disposal industry, those living around sites used for waste disposal or landfill and the general environment surrounding such sites.\n", "Vitamins and minerals are essential to the proper functioning and maintenance of the human body. Globally, particularly in developing nations, deficiencies in iodine, iron, and zinc among others are said to impair human health when these minerals are not ingested in an adequate quantity. There are 20 trace elements and minerals that are essential in small quantities to body function and overall human health.\n", "Heavy metals essential for life can be toxic if taken in excess; some have notably toxic forms. Vanadium pentoxide (VO) is carcinogenic in animals and, when inhaled, causes DNA damage. The purple permanganate ion MnO is a liver and kidney poison. Ingesting more than 0.5 grams of iron can induce cardiac collapse; such overdoses most commonly occur in children and may result in death within 24 hours. Nickel carbonyl (Ni(CO)), at 30 parts per million, can cause respiratory failure, brain damage and death. Imbibing a gram or more of copper sulfate (CuSO) can be fatal; survivors may be left with major organ damage. More than five milligrams of selenium is highly toxic; this is roughly ten times the 0.45 milligram recommended maximum daily intake; long-term poisoning can have paralytic effects.\n", "However, the variation generated can be used in studies of the movement and ancestry of human populations, and the mutagenic effect of \"Alu\" and retrotransposons in general has played a major role in the recent evolution of the human genome. There are also a number of cases where \"Alu\" insertions or deletions are associated with specific effects in humans:\n\nSection::::Impact of Alu in humans.:Associations with human disease.\n", "Heavy metals are found naturally in the earth. They become concentrated as a result of human caused activities and can enter plant, animal, and human tissues via inhalation, diet, and manual handling. Then, they can bind to and interfere with the functioning of vital cellular components. The toxic effects of arsenic, mercury, and lead were known to the ancients, but methodical studies of the toxicity of some heavy metals appear to date from only 1868. In humans, heavy metal poisoning is generally treated by the administration of chelating agents. Some elements otherwise regarded as toxic heavy metals are essential, in small quantities, for human health.\n", "Chromium, arsenic, cadmium, mercury, and lead have the greatest potential to cause harm on account of their extensive use, the toxicity of some of their combined or elemental forms, and their widespread distribution in the environment. Hexavalent chromium, for example, is highly toxic as are mercury vapour and many mercury compounds. These five elements have a strong affinity for sulfur; in the human body they usually bind, via thiol groups (–SH), to enzymes responsible for controlling the speed of metabolic reactions. The resulting sulfur-metal bonds inhibit the proper functioning of the enzymes involved; human health deteriorates, sometimes fatally. Chromium (in its hexavalent form) and arsenic are carcinogens; cadmium causes a degenerative bone disease; and mercury and lead damage the central nervous system.\n", "Oligodynamic effect\n\nThe oligodynamic effect (from Greek oligos \"few\", and dynamis \"force\") is a biocidal effect of metals, especially heavy metals, that occurs even in low concentrations. The health effect was known in India for more than 2700 years as their ancient texts prescribe brass utensils for purity of water and good health.\n", "Certain metals are considered essential due to their role in key biochemical and physiological pathways, while the remaining metals are characterized as being nonessential. Nonessential metals do not serve a purpose in any biological pathway and the presence and accumulation in the brain of most can lead to neurotoxicity. These nonessential metals, when found inside the body compete with essential metals for binding sites, upset antioxidant balance, and their accumulation in the brain can lead to harmful side effects, such as depression and intellectual disability. An increase in nonessential heavy metal concentrations in air, water and food sources, and household products has increased the risk of chronic exposure.\n", "Health consequences from exposure to soil contamination vary greatly depending on pollutant type, pathway of attack and vulnerability of the exposed population. Chronic exposure to chromium, lead and other metals, petroleum, solvents, and many pesticide and herbicide formulations can be carcinogenic, can cause congenital disorders, or can cause other chronic health conditions. Industrial or man-made concentrations of naturally occurring substances, such as nitrate and ammonia associated with livestock manure from agricultural operations, have also been identified as health hazards in soil and groundwater.\n", "Roles of chemical elements\n\nThis table is designed to show the role(s) performed by each chemical element, in nature and in technology.\n\nZ = Atomic numberSym. = SymbolPer. = PeriodGr. = Group\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Abundance of the chemical elements\n\nBULLET::::- Dietary mineral\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- The Role of Elements in Life Processes \| Mineral Information Institute\n\nBULLET::::- Periodic Table of the Chemical Elements and Dietary Minerals\n\nBULLET::::- What Chemical Elements Are Found Within The Human Body? - Science - Questions & Answers\n", "Organotins (tin-based chemicals), used in marine anti-fouling paints, wood catalysts, plasticizers, slimicides, in industrial water systems, and fungicides on food have recently been linked to obesogenic properties when introduced in the body. Human exposure to these major environmental sources most commonly occurs through ingestion of contaminated seafood, agricultural products, and drinking water as well as from exposure to leaching from plastics.\n", "Arsenic, one of the most important heavy metals, causes health problems within ecological and humans. It is, \"semimetallic property, is prominently toxic and carcinogenic, and is extensively available in the form of oxides or sulfides or as a salt of iron, sodium, calcium, copper, \"etc.\"\" Not only that, but it is also the most abundant element here on earth and its specific inorganic forms are very dangerous to living creatures (animals, plants, and humans) and the environment.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-17885	Why is wood so good for construction?	Wood actually hardens over time, so long as its kept dry. It can easily be treated with a variety of chemicals for mold resistance. Its a very cheap, easily sustainable resource. Its very strong a lightweight. It comes in a wide variety of types with different properties. It can flex and return to its original shape without permanent damage.	[ "BULLET::::- Larix: in Italy it grows at high altitudes around mountain tops, its timber stand sudden climatic change, from icy winds to high temperatures in sunny afternoon summers, it is excellent for use in the building of exposed structures as bridges, roofs, etc.\n", "The species that are ideal for the many uses in this type of economy are those employed by arboriculture, that are very well known for their features and the need for certain types of ground and climates.\n\nBULLET::::- Fraxinus: being a lightweight wood is easy to transport, as firewood burns easily, grows in damp environments like those present in river flooding areas, stands pollution of water and air.\n", "Section::::Construction.\n\nWood is relatively light in weight, because its specific weight is less than 500 kg/m³, this is an advantage, when compared against 2,000-2,500 kg/m³ for armed concrete or 7,800 kg/m³ for steel.\n\nWood is strong, because the efficiency of wood for structural purposes has qualities that are similar to steel.\n\nSection::::Construction.:Bridges, levees, microhydro, piers.\n\nWood is used to build bridges (as the Magere bridge in Amsterdam), as well as water and air mills, and microhydro generators for electricity.\n\nSection::::Construction.:Housing.\n", "Section::::Construction.:Shipbuilding.\n\nOne of the most enduring materials is the lumber from virginian southern live oak and white oak, specially live oak is 60% stronger than white oak and more resistant to moisture. As an example, the main component in the structure of battle ship USS Constitution, the world's oldest commissioned naval vessel afloat (launched in 1797) is white oak.\n\nSection::::History of crisis in wood economies.\n\nSection::::History of crisis in wood economies.:Classical Greece.\n", "Wood is a product of trees, and sometimes other fibrous plants, used for construction purposes when cut or pressed into lumber and timber, such as boards, planks and similar materials. It is a generic building material and is used in building just about any type of structure in most climates. Wood can be very flexible under loads, keeping strength while bending, and is incredibly strong when compressed vertically. There are many differing qualities to the different types of wood, even among same tree species. This means specific species are better suited for various uses than others. And growing conditions are important for deciding quality.\n", "Wood is used in the construction of buildings, bridges, trackways, piles, poles for power lines, masts for boats, pit props, railway sleepers, fencing, hurdles, shuttering for concrete, pipes, scaffolding and pallets. In housebuilding it is used in joinery, for making joists, roof trusses, roofing shingles, thatching, staircases, doors, window frames, floor boards, parquet flooring, panelling and cladding.\n", "Wood is used to construct carts, farm implements, boats, dugout canoes and in shipbuilding. It is used for making furniture, tool handles, boxes, ladders, musical instruments, bows, weapons, matches, clothes pegs, brooms, shoes, baskets, turnery, carving, toys, pencils, rollers, cogs, wooden screws, barrels, coffins, skittles, veneers, artificial limbs, oars, skis, wooden spoons, sports equipment and wooden balls.\n", "Wood products from responsible sources are a good choice for most green building projects – both new construction and renovations. Wood grows naturally using energy from the sun, is renewable, sustainable and recyclable. It is an effective insulator and uses far less energy to produce than concrete or steel.\n\nWood can also mitigate climate change because wood products continue to store carbon absorbed by the tree during its growing cycle, and because substituting wood for fossil fuel-intensive materials such as steel and concrete result in ‘avoided’ greenhouse gas emissions. \n", "As of 2005, the growing stock of forests worldwide was about 434 billion cubic meters, 47% of which was commercial. As an abundant, carbon-neutral renewable resource, woody materials have been of intense interest as a source of renewable energy. In 1991 approximately 3.5 billion cubic meters of wood were harvested. Dominant uses were for furniture and building construction.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nA 2011 discovery in the Canadian province of New Brunswick yielded the earliest known plants to have grown wood, approximately 395 to 400 million years ago.\n", "Wood has always been used extensively for furniture, such as chairs and beds. It is also used for tool handles and cutlery, such as chopsticks, toothpicks, and other utensils, like the wooden spoon and pencil.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Next generation wood products.\n\nFurther developments include new lignin glue applications, recyclable food packaging, rubber tire replacement applications, anti-bacterial medical agents, and high strength fabrics or composites.\n", "Wood is a primary building material for eco-housing. This is because trees grow using energy from the sun, they don’t pollute, they produce oxygen, absorb CO2, they provide a wild life habitat, they can be replanted, they can be sourced locally, the timber can easily be put to some other use after a building is demolished.\n\nSection::::Building concepts.:Sustainable materials.:Lime.\n", "Wood has been used for thousands of years for fuel, as a construction material, for making tools and weapons, furniture and paper. More recently it emerged as a feedstock for the production of purified cellulose and its derivatives, such as cellophane and cellulose acetate.\n", "Wood has been an important construction material since humans began building shelters, houses and boats. Nearly all boats were made out of wood until the late 19th century, and wood remains in common use today in boat construction. Elm in particular was used for this purpose as it resisted decay as long as it was kept wet (it also served for water pipe before the advent of more modern plumbing).\n", "Section::::Uses.\n\nThe wood is tough and durable, but also flexible in thin strips, and was used by the Algonquian people for making snowshoes and other products where toughness was required. The natural crooks located in the stumps and roots are also preferred for creating knees in wooden boats. Currently, the wood is used principally for pulpwood, but also for posts, poles, rough lumber, and fuelwood; it is not a major commercial timber species.\n", "Wood is a responsible environmental choice for construction as long as it comes from forests that are managed sustainably. Illegal logging and the international trade in illegally logged timber is a major problem for many timber-producing countries in the developing world. It causes environmental damage, costs governments billions of dollars in lost revenue, promotes corruption, undermines the rule of law and good governance and funds armed conflict. Consumer countries can use their buying power by ensuring the wood products they buy are from known and legal sources.\n", "Wood has been used as a building material for thousands of years in its natural state. Today, engineered wood is becoming very common in industrialized countries.\n", "Common materials used for centuries in architectural model building were card stock, balsa wood, basswood and other woods. Modern professional architectural model builders are taking advantage of twenty-first century materials, such as Taskboard (a flexible and lightweight wood/fiber board), plastics, wooden and wooden-plastic composites, foams, foam board and urethane compounds.\n", "BULLET::::- Woody plants, both true wood from trees and such plants as palms and bamboo, yield natural composites that were used prehistorically by mankind and are still used widely in construction and scaffolding.\n\nBULLET::::- Plywood 3400 BC by the Ancient Mesopotamians; gluing wood at different angles gives better properties than natural wood.\n\nBULLET::::- Cartonnage layers of linen or papyrus soaked in plaster dates to the First Intermediate Period of Egypt c. 2181–2055 BC and was used for death masks.\n", "Section::::Combustion.\n", "The raw material is primarily a byproduct of the hardwood logging industry, where it was traditionally regarded as a waste material. Research into forest soils and ecosystems at Laval University (Quebec, Canada) led to the recognition of the value of this material and to research into its uses. \n\nSection::::Usable types of wood.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Gonystylus velutinus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gonystylus xylocarpus\"\n\nSection::::Uses.\n\nThe white wood, harder and lighter in colour than many other hardwoods, is often used in children's furniture, window blinds, dowels, handles, blinds, and decorative mouldings.\n", "Wood to be used for construction work is commonly known as \"lumber\" in North America. Elsewhere, \"lumber\" usually refers to felled trees, and the word for sawn planks ready for use is \"timber\". In Medieval Europe oak was the wood of choice for all wood construction, including beams, walls, doors, and floors. Today a wider variety of woods is used: solid wood doors are often made from poplar, small-knotted pine, and Douglas fir.\n", "The discovery of how to make fire for the purpose of burning wood is regarded as one of humanity's most important advances. The use of wood as a fuel source for heating is much older than civilization and is assumed to have been used by Neanderthals. Today, burning of wood is the largest use of energy derived from a solid fuel biomass. Wood fuel can be used for cooking and heating, and occasionally for fueling steam engines and steam turbines that generate electricity. Wood may be used indoors in a furnace, stove, or fireplace, or outdoors in furnace, campfire, or bonfire.\n", "Section::::Uses.:Fuel.\n\nWood has traditionally been used for fuel, especially in rural areas. In less developed nations it may be the only fuel available and collecting firewood is often a time consuming task as it becomes necessary to travel further and further afield in the search for fuel. It is often burned inefficiently on an open fire. In more developed countries other fuels are available and burning wood is a choice rather than a necessity. Modern wood-burning stoves are very fuel efficient and new products such as wood pellets are available to burn.\n", "BULLET::::- In the history of art poplar was the wood of choice for painting surfaces as panels, as in Renaissance (The Mona Lisa by Leonardo da Vinci). Because of this reason, many of the products with the highest added value, extremely expensive, are made with wood from the humble but durable poplar.\n\nBULLET::::- Because of the presence of tannic acid, poplar cortex was often used in Europe for the tanning of leather.\n\nSection::::Per nation/continental area.:In Europe.:Portugal.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-13703	Why don’t raindrops hurt when they fall from the sky if they’re falling so far, or why don’t they evaporate before they hit the Earth?	They don't hurt because the air resistance slows their fall. They do evaporate a bit, but they're only falling for a short while and usually in a very humid situation (where evaporation is hard).	[ "Tenebra has an atmosphere \"consisting of water heavily laced with oxygen and oxides of sulphur\". At the surface the temperature comes close enough to the critical point of water (temperature = 374 Celsius; 705 Fahrenheit : pressure = 22.1 megaPascals; 217.755 atmospheres) that during the night the atmosphere begins to condense into the liquid state and falls as raindrops 9 to 15 meters (30 to 50 feet) wide. The naively expected density of the surface atmosphere stands at about 322 kilograms per cubic meter (compared to 1.2 kilograms per cubic meter at sea level on Earth). But the raindrops descend slowly, even in Tenebra's stiff gravity.\n", "Rainfall/runoff relationship are well defined within the field of hydrology. Surface runoff in hydrologic systems is generally conceptualized as occurring from pervious and impervious areas. It is the pervious runoff that is affected by antecedent moisture conditions, as runoff from impervious surfaces such as roads, sidewalks, and roofs will not be significantly affected by preceding moisture levels. Pervious surfaces (such as fields, woods, grassed areas, and open areas) are highly affected by antecedent moisture conditions, as they will produce a greater rate of runoff when they are wet than when they are dry.\n", "That latter statement necessitates, as Clement states in the story, that the surface pressure on Tenebra be 800 atmospheres, not 218. At 800 atmospheres of pressure the surface atmosphere, with its load of dissolved oxygen and sulphur oxides, is compressed to a density a little less than the density of liquid water (1182 kilograms per cubic meter). Only when the density of the planet's air is a little less than the density of liquid water will the raindrops descend slowly; otherwise, they would come down like meteors and make life on Tenebra impossible.\n", "BULLET::::- For large We (for which the magnitude depends on the specific surface structure), many satellite drops break off during spreading and/or retraction of the drop.\n\nSection::::On a wet solid surface.\n", "BULLET::::- \"R\"elief. The differences in the elevation in land. As air is forced to rise over a piece of land (e.g. a mountain) the temperature decreases and condensation increases. As it condensates water droplets get bigger and heavier and are forced to fall. Once the air mass goes over the mountain the temperature and evaporation increases but condensation decreases, resulting in a halt in precipitation and rain shadows.\n", "Through evapotranspiration, forests reduce water yield, except in unique ecosystems called cloud forests. Trees in cloud forests collect the liquid water in fog or low clouds onto their surface, which drips down to the ground. These trees still contribute to evapotranspiration, but often collect more water than they evaporate or transpire.\n", "When atoms move straight down through the void by their own weight, they deflect a bit in space at a quite uncertain time and in uncertain places, just enough that you could say that their motion has changed. But if they were not in the habit of swerving, they would all fall straight down through the depths of the void, like drops of rain, and no collision would occur, nor would any blow be produced among the atoms. In that case, nature would never have produced anything.\n", "If a drop is placed on a smooth, horizontal surface, it is generally not in the equilibrium state. Hence, it spreads until an equilibrium contact radius is reached (partial wetting). While taking into account capillary, gravitational, and viscous contributions, the drop radius as a function of time can be expressed as\n\nFor the complete wetting situation, the drop radius at any time during the spreading process is given by\n\nwhere\n\nSection::::Modifying wetting properties.\n\nSection::::Modifying wetting properties.:Surfactants.\n", "Coalescence occurs when water droplets fuse to create larger water droplets, or when water droplets freeze onto an ice crystal, which is known as the Bergeron process. The fall rate of very small droplets is negligible, hence clouds do not fall out of the sky; precipitati ((clouds)) on will only occur when these coalesce into larger drops. When air turbulence occurs, water droplets collide, producing larger droplets. As these larger water droplets descend, coalescence continues, so that drops become heavy enough to overcome air resistance and fall as rain.\n", "In early 2014, using data from the Herschel Space Observatory, it was discovered that there are several localized (not more than 60 km in diameter) mid-latitude sources of water vapor on Ceres, which each give off about 10 molecules (or 3 kg) of water per second. Two potential source regions, designated Piazzi (123°E, 21°N) and Region A (231°E, 23°N), have been visualized in the near infrared as dark areas (Region A also has a bright center) by the W. M. Keck Observatory. Possible mechanisms for the vapor release are sublimation from about 0.6 km2 of exposed surface ice, or cryovolcanic eruptions resulting from radiogenic internal heat or from pressurization of a subsurface ocean due to growth of an overlying layer of ice. Surface sublimation would be expected to decline as Ceres recedes from the Sun in its eccentric orbit, whereas internally powered emissions should not be affected by orbital position. The limited data available are more consistent with cometary-style sublimation. The spacecraft Dawn is approaching Ceres at aphelion, which may constrain Dawn's ability to observe this phenomenon.\n", "As a result of the slower wind speed at the earth's surface, in a region of low pressure the barometric pressure is usually significantly higher at the surface than would be expected, given the barometric pressure at mid altitudes, due to Bernoulli's principle. Hence, the secondary flow toward the center of a region of low pressure is also drawn upward by the significantly lower pressure at mid altitudes. This slow, widespread ascent of the air in a region of low pressure can cause widespread cloud and rain if the air is of sufficiently high relative humidity.\n", "One theory explaining how the behavior of individual droplets in a cloud leads to the formation of precipitation is the collision-coalescence process. Droplets suspended in the air will interact with each other, either by colliding and bouncing off each other or by combining to form a larger droplet. Eventually, the droplets become large enough that they fall to the earth as precipitation. The collision-coalescence process does not make up a significant part of cloud formation, as water droplets have a relatively high surface tension. In addition, the occurrence of collision-coalescence is closely related to entrainment-mixing processes.\n", "In some areas of the world (e.g. the mid-western USA), rainfall intensity is the primary determinant of erosivity (for a definition of \"erosivity\" check,) with higher intensity rainfall generally resulting in more soil erosion by water. The size and velocity of rain drops is also an important factor. Larger and higher-velocity rain drops have greater kinetic energy, and thus their impact will displace soil particles by larger distances than smaller, slower-moving rain drops.\n", "Section::::Non-ideal rough solid surfaces.:Cassie–Baxter to Wenzel transition.\n\nIn the Cassie–Baxter model, the drop sits on top of the textured surface with trapped air underneath. During the wetting transition from the Cassie state to the Wenzel state, the air pockets are no longer thermodynamically stable and liquid begins to nucleate from the middle of the drop, creating a \"mushroom state\" as seen in Figure 10. The penetration condition is given by:\n\nwhere\n", "BULLET::::3. The air must contain condensation nuclei, small solid particles, where condensation/sublimation starts.\n\nThe current use of fossil fuels enhances any of these three conditions. First, fossil fuel combustion generates water vapor. Additionally, this combustion also generates the formation of small solid particles that can act as condensation nuclei. Finally, all the combustion processes emit energy that enhance vertical upward movements. \n", "The presence of water within the atmosphere (usually the troposphere) complicates the process of convection. Water vapor contains latent heat of vaporization. As a parcel of air rises and cools, it eventually becomes saturated; that is, the vapor pressure of water in equilibrium with liquid water has decreased (as temperature has decreased) to the point where it is equal to the actual vapor pressure of water. With further decrease in temperature the water vapor in excess of the equilibrium amount condenses, forming cloud, and releasing heat (latent heat of condensation). Before saturation, the rising air follows the dry adiabatic lapse rate. After saturation, the rising air follows the moist adiabatic lapse rate. The release of latent heat is an important source of energy in the development of thunderstorms.\n", "In some areas of the world (e.g. the mid-western USA), rainfall intensity is the primary determinant of erosivity, with higher intensity rainfall generally resulting in more soil erosion by water. The size and velocity of rain drops is also an important factor. Larger and higher-velocity rain drops have greater kinetic energy, and thus their impact will displace soil particles by larger distances than smaller, slower-moving rain drops.\n", "Moisture can take the form of humidity, dew, rain, snow, frost or hail, depending on the ambient temperature. Moisture, in combination with solar radiation, contributes significantly to the weathering of many materials. This is due both to the mechanical stresses imposed when moisture is absorbed or desorbed and to the chemical participation of moisture in the chemical evolution (and in some instances physical effects such as impact). The span of time over which the precipitation occurs and the frequency of wetness are more important in the weathering of materials than the total amount of precipitation. The mechanical stresses induced by freeze/thaw cycling can cause structural failures in some systems, or accelerate degradation already initiated.\n", "After relaxation, the speed of some low mass members can be greater than the escape velocity of the cluster, which results in these members being lost to the cluster. This process is called evaporation. (A similar phenomenon explains the loss of lighter gases from a planet, such as hydrogen and helium from the Earth—after equipartition, some molecules of sufficiently light gases at the top of the atmosphere will exceed the escape velocity of the planet and be lost.)\n", "BULLET::::- If one of the planets is in a sign of its detriment or fall, it is not likely to have the resources to be of much assistance to the planet it rules;\n", "BULLET::::- Turbulence. Turbulent eddies in the air transfer particles which can collide. Again, there is a net flux towards lower concentrations.\n\nBULLET::::- Other processes, such as: thermophoresis, turbophoresis, diffusiophoresis and electrophoresis.\n\nSection::::Wet deposition.\n\nIn wet deposition, atmospheric hydrometeors (rain drops, snow etc.) scavenge aerosol particles. This means that wet deposition is gravitational, Brownian and/or turbulent coagulation with water droplets. Different types of wet deposition include:\n\nBULLET::::- Below-cloud scavenging. This happens when falling rain droplets or snow particles collide with aerosol particles through Brownian diffusion, interception, impaction and turbulent diffusion.\n", "BULLET::::- formula_25: most of the particles pass through quickly, but some are held up. This can happen when the main source and sink are very close together or the same. For example, most water vapor rising from the ocean surface soon returns to the ocean, but water vapor that gets sufficiently far away will probably return much later in the form of rain.\n\nSection::::Simple flow models.\n\nSection::::Simple flow models.:Plug flow reactor.\n", "BULLET::::- is the surface tension of the liquid in dynes per centimeter or newtons per meter.\n\nBULLET::::- is the acceleration due to gravity and is equal to 980 cm/s or 9.8 m/s\n\nBULLET::::- is the density of the liquid in grams per cubic centimeter or kilograms per cubic meter\n\nIn reality, the thicknesses of the puddles will be slightly less than what is predicted by the above formula because very few surfaces have a contact angle of 180° with any liquid. When the contact angle is less than 180°, the thickness is given by:\n", "Rapid precipitation from cumulonimbus clouds is possible due to the Langmuir precipitation process in which large droplets can grow rapidly by coagulating with smaller droplets which fall down slowly. It is not essential that cloudbursts occur only when a cloud clashes with a solid body like a mountain. They can also occur when hot water vapor mingles into the cold resulting in sudden condensation.\n\nSection::::Locations.\n\nSection::::Locations.:In the Indian subcontinent.\n", "Because these three surface energies form the sides of a triangle, they are constrained by the triangle inequalities, γ γ + γ meaning that not one of the surface tensions can exceed the sum of the other two. If three fluids with surface energies that do not follow these inequalities are brought into contact, no equilibrium configuration consistent with Figure 3 will exist.\n\nSection::::Ideal solid surfaces.:Minimization of energy, three phases.:Simplification to planar geometry, Young's relation.\n" ]	[ "Raindrops don't evaporate before they hit the Earth." ]	[ "Raindrops do evaporate a bit but humidity makes evaporation hard." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Raindrops don't evaporate before they hit the Earth.", "Raindrops don't evaporate before they hit the Earth." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Raindrops do evaporate a bit but humidity makes evaporation hard.", "Raindrops do evaporate a bit but humidity makes evaporation hard." ]
2018-01977	How does your body suppress sneezing/sniffling when you're asleep?	Those nerves also are asleep is the answer. So you don't receive the sneeze signal and your sleeping body doesn't sneeze	[ "Sneezing cannot occur during sleep due to REM atonia – a bodily state where motor neurons are not stimulated and reflex signals are not relayed to the brain. Sufficient external stimulants, however, may cause a person to wake from sleep to sneeze, but any sneezing occurring afterwards would take place with a partially awake status at minimum.\n\nSection::::Description.\n", "Melatonin synthesis is also regulated by the nervous system. Nerve fibers in the retinohypothalamic tract connect the retina to the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). The SCN stimulates the release of Norepinephrine from sympathetic nerve fibers from the superior cervical ganglia that synapse with the pinealocytes. Norepinephrine causes the production of melatonin in the pinealocytes by stimulating the production of cAMP. Because the release of norepinephrine from the nerve fibers occurs at night, this system of regulation maintains the body’s circadian rhythms.\n\nSection::::Melatonin.:Synthesis.\n", "Histamine plays a role in wakefulness in the brain. An allergic reaction over produces histamine causing wakefulness and inhibiting sleep Sleep problems are common in people with allergic rhinitis. A study from the N.I.H. found that sleep is dramatically impaired by allergic symptoms and that the degree of impairment is related to the severity of those symptoms s Treatment of allergies has also been shown to help sleep apnea.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Acupuncture.\n", "\"Deirdre Barrett collects stories of nocturnal inspiration, including E B White's description of how Stuart Little came to him as he slept, complete with his hat, his cane, and his brisk manner. 'I was deeply touched and felt that I was not free to change him into a grasshopper or a wallaby.'\" -\"The New Yorker\"\n", "Power management has been improved, with implementation of a new wake on demand feature supported on more recent Macintosh hardware. Wake on demand takes advantage of the sleep proxy service implemented in AirPort and Time Capsule routers, so that the computer can sleep while the router responds to mDNS queries. Should the request require the host computer to \"wake up\", the router sends the necessary special wake-up-packet to the sleeping computer.\n\nSection::::Security.\n", "When a sleep proxy sees an IPv4 ARP or IPv6 ND Request for one of the sleeping device's addresses, it answers on behalf of the sleeping device, without waking it up, giving its own MAC address as the current (temporary) owner of that address.\n\nThis may appear confusing to network administrators who are not expecting the behaviour of changing MAC addresses.\n\nSection::::Details.:Wireless magic packet.\n", "Individuals with breathing difficulties due to asthma or allergies may experience additional barriers to quality sleep that can be addressed by specific variations of sleep hygiene recommendations. Difficulty with breathing can cause disruptions to sleep, reducing the ability to stay asleep and to achieve restful sleep. For individuals with allergies or asthma, additional considerations must be given to potential triggers in the bedroom environment. Medications that might improve ability to breathe while sleeping may also impair sleep in other ways, so there must be careful management of decongestants, asthma controllers, and antihistamines.\n\nSection::::Implementation.\n", "Floyd joins the army and hides Fagan somewhere on the base. All goes well until Abbey Ames, who is on the base to entertain the troops, stumbles on Floyd and Fagan playing in the woods. Frightened, she gives her word to keep Fagan's presence a secret, but soon appears in the woods with Colonel Horne and troops in search of the lion.\n", "Dim or dark surroundings with a peaceful, quiet sound level are conducive to sleep. Retiring to a bedroom, drawing the curtains to block out daylight and closing the door are common methods of achieving this. When this is not possible, such as on an airplane, other methods may be used, such as masks and earplugs for sleeping which airlines commonly issue to passengers for this purpose.\n\nSection::::Activities.\n\nSection::::Activities.:Guided imagery.\n", "In case the low-power-mode device is communicating via Wi-Fi, the wake-up-packet is sent via Wireless Multimedia Extensions (WMM). This was not possible in previous implementations of Wake on LAN (WoL). The wireless hardware must be updated enough to include WMM support. Apple provides instructions for checking compatibility with this feature for Macintosh computers.\n\nSection::::Details.:Supported services and examples.\n\nThe sleep proxy service is able to advertise any Bonjour-supported services, while the host computer sleeps. Some examples of supported services are:\n", "That night a mysterious masked figure breaks into Blake and Mortimer's house. Awoken, the occupants confront the intruder but he is resistant to bullets and Nasir the manservant is knocked unconscious when he attempts to seize him. The intruder escapes into the night. Blake and Mortimer then discover a listening device hidden in their living room.\n", "One particular study by V. Bradley and D. O'Neill analysed the different forms of epilepsy, including nocturnal epilepsy and its relationship with sleep. They found that some patients only experienced epileptic symptoms while they are asleep (nocturnal epilepsy), and that maintaining good sleep helped in reducing epileptic symptoms. Another study determined that anti-convulsant medications can minimize epilepsy not just in people who are awake, but also in people who are asleep. However, some of these anti-convulsant medications did also have adverse effects on subjects' sleeping structures, which can exacerbate epileptic symptoms in people who suffer from nocturnal epilepsy. \n", "\"A 1978 Pentagon publication, entitled \"Biological Warfare: Secret Testing & Volunteers,\" reveals that the Army's Chemical Corps and Special Operations and Projects Divisions at Fort Detrick conducted 'tests' similar to the Avon Park experiments but the bulk of the documentation concerning this highly classified and covert work is still held secret by the Pentagon.\"\n\nSection::::Sleeping gas.\n\nSleeping gas is an oneirogenic general anaesthetic that is used to put subjects into a state in which they are not conscious of what is happening around them. Most sleeping gases have undesirable side effects, or are effective at doses that approach toxicity.\n", "Airway resistance increases by about 230% during NREM sleep. Elastic and flow resistive properties of the lung do not change during NREM sleep. The increase in resistance comes primarily from the upper airway in the retroepiglottic region. Tonic activity of the pharyngeal dilator muscles of the upper airway decreases during the NREM sleep, contributing to the increased resistance, which is reflected in increased esophageal pressure swings during sleep. The other ventilatory muscles compensate for the increased resistance, and so the airflow decreases much less than the increase in resistance.\n\nSection::::Normal.:Steady NREM (Non-REM) sleep.:Arterial blood gases.\n", "Section::::Commercial performance.\n", "During the night, melatonin regulates leptin, lowering its levels.\n\nSection::::Plants.\n", "The effects of certain medications on sleep architecture can be visualised on a hypnogram. For example, the anticonvulsant Phenytoin (PHT) can be seen to disrupt sleep by increasing the duration of NREM stage 1 and decreasing the duration of SWS; whereas the drug Gabapentin is seen to revive sleep by increasing the duration of SWS.\n\nSection::::Analysis.\n", "Following St. Maur's trail to Madeira Island off the coast of Morocco leads to several surprises, not the least of which is that The Watchmen intend to kill the President of the United States and France, and Prime Ministers of United Kingdom and West Germany. This has to be prevented, of course, but before Modesty and Willie can get a warning out they are captured by The Watchmen and imprisoned and drugged such that they can not possibly escape. The Watchmen's plan: To leave Modesty's and Willie's dead bodies at the scene of the attack, clothed in Watchmen uniforms.\n", "\"Based on the role of histamine in keeping people awake (and hence the common side effect of anti-histamines such as diphenhydramine causing sleepiness), medications that act on histamine are under development for the treatment of excessive sleepiness.\" It remains to be seen whether these H3 antagonists (i.e., compounds such as pitolisant that promote the release of the wake-promoting amine histamine) will be particularly useful as wake-promoting agents.\n\nSection::::Research.:GABA-directed medications.\n", "Like other forms of epilepsy, nocturnal epilepsy can be treated with anti-convulsants.\n\nDespite the effectiveness of anti-convulsants in people who suffer from nocturnal epilepsy, the drugs are shown to disrupt a person's sleeping structure. This may cause concern in people who suffer specifically from nocturnal epilepsy because undisrupted sleep is important for these people, as it lowers the likeliness of epileptic symptoms to arise. \n", "When the khat leaves are chewed, cathine and cathinone are released and absorbed through the mucous membranes of the mouth as well as the lining of the stomach. The action of cathine and cathinone on the reuptake of epinephrine and norepinephrine has been demonstrated in lab animals, showing that one or both of these chemicals cause(s) the body to recycle these neurotransmitters more slowly, resulting in the wakefulness and insomnia associated with khat use.\n", "Judge Forrest therefore issued a preliminary injunction which prevented the US government from enforcing section 1021 of the NDAA's \"Homeland Battlefield\" provisions pending further order of the court or an amendment to the statute by US Congress. \"There is a strong public interest in protecting rights guaranteed by the First Amendment,\" Forrest wrote in granting the temporary injunction. \"There is also a strong public interest in ensuring that due process rights guaranteed by the Fifth Amendment are protected by ensuring that ordinary citizens are able to understand the scope of conduct that could subject them to indefinite military detention.\"\n", "It is recognized with increasing frequency that patients who have both obstructive sleep apnea and asthma often improve tremendously when the sleep apnea is diagnosed and treated. CPAP is not effective in patients with nocturnal asthma only.\n\nSection::::Asthma and gastro-esophageal reflux disease.\n\nIf gastro-esophageal reflux disease (GERD) is present, the patient may have repetitive episodes of acid aspiration. GERD may be common in difficult-to-control asthma, but according to one study, treating it does not seem to affect the asthma.\n", "Gas is created during digestion, and an airtight pouch will collect this and inflate. To prevent this some pouches are available with special charcoal filtered vents that will allow the gas to escape, and prevent ballooning at night. Some odor can be expelled through the charcoal filter especially if sufficient deodorant is not used in the pouch.\n", "At a later point in the novel, the President's inner circle will even launch a chemical attack on the unsuspecting—and innocent—Justices of the Supreme Court, all nine of whom will be killed in the attack.\n\nCitizens' First Amendment rights are more and more ignored by the Administration. For example, freedom of the press is practically non-existent; many political opponents have had to go underground after the media were \"gleichgeschaltet\". Covert listening devices have been widely installed so that no one can be sure that their conversation is not being listened to, recorded, transcribed, and archived for future use.\n" ]	[ "Body supresses a sneeze during sleep." ]	[ "The nerves that cause a sneeze are also asleep so they do not fire. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Body supresses a sneeze during sleep." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The nerves that cause a sneeze are also asleep so they do not fire. " ]
2018-00825	Why is it, when travelling at high speeds, that I lose mobile phone reception	The phone network is made up of "cells" (hence the name cellphone), one signal tower represents one cell, when you move between cells one tower needs to hand your phone off to the next one, this takes a few seconds to happen. If you move too fast the towers can't switch you fast enough, the result is simply no signal.	[ "In addition, the weather may affect the strength of a signal, due to the changes in radio propagation caused by clouds (particularly tall and dense thunderclouds which cause signal reflection), precipitation, and temperature inversions. This phenomenon, which is also common in other VHF radio bands including FM broadcasting, may also cause other anomalies, such as a person in San Diego \"roaming\" on a Mexican tower from just over the border in Tijuana, or someone in Detroit \"roaming\" on a Canadian tower located within sight across the Detroit River in Windsor, Ontario. These events may cause the user to be billed for \"international\" usage despite being in their own country, though mobile phone companies can program their billing systems to re-rate these as domestic usage when it occurs on a foreign cell site that is known to frequently cause such issues for their customers.\n", "Radio waves decrease rapidly in intensity by the inverse square of distance as they spread out from a transmitting antenna. So the cell phone transmitter, which is held close to the user's face when talking, is a much greater source of human exposure than the cell tower transmitter, which is typically at least hundreds of meters away from the public on a cell tower. A user can reduce their exposure by using a headset and keeping the cell phone itself further away from their body.\n", "Section::::Reception.\n", "BULLET::::- Transmission interferences: Weather, terrain, and the range from the nearest signal point can all interfere with signal reception. Reception in tunnels, some buildings, and rural areas is often poor.\n\nBULLET::::- Potential health hazards: People who use mobile devices while driving are often distracted from driving and are thus assumed more likely to be involved in traffic accidents. (While this may seem obvious, there is considerable discussion about whether banning mobile device use while driving reduces accidents or not.) Cell phones may interfere with sensitive medical devices. Questions concerning mobile phone radiation and health have been raised.\n", "Horses and cars are often used as partial substitutes for fast travel that allow for faster, but not instantaneous movement through the world.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "A cellphone may not work at times because it is too far from a mast, or because the phone is in a location where cell phone signals are attenuated by thick building walls, hills, or other structures. The signals do not need a clear line of sight but greater radio interference will degrade or eliminate reception. When many people try to use the cell mast at the same time, e.g. during a traffic jam or a sports event, then there will be a signal on the phone display but it is blocked from starting a new connection. The other limiting factor for cell phones is the ability to send a signal from its low powered battery to the cell site. Some cellphones perform better than others under low power or low battery, typically due to the ability to send a good signal from the phone to the mast.\n", "The network used the UMTS IV frequency band, commonly known as Advanced Wireless Services or AWS-1, to provide UMTS service with HSPA data (\"3G\"). Using this band, user equipment transmitted at 1710–1755 MHz, and received at 2110–2155 MHz. The same frequencies are used by Eastlink Wireless, Wind Mobile and Vidéotron Mobile in Canada; as well as T-Mobile in the United States. Mobilicity's network was compatible with the same 3G handsets and devices offered by these carriers.\n", "Another common reason is when a phone is taken into an area where wireless communication is unavailable, interrupted, interfered with, or jammed. From the network's perspective, this is the same as the mobile moving out of the coverage area.\n", "A key issue recently identified is active traffic shaping by many ISPs on the underlying transport protocol IPSec.\n\nSection::::Issues.:Spectrum accuracy.\n", "Generally, a strong mobile phone signal is more likely in an urban area, though these areas can also have some \"dead zones\", where no reception can be obtained. Cellular signals are designed to be resistant to multipath reception, which is most likely to be caused by the blocking of a direct signal path by large buildings, such as high-rise towers. By contrast, many rural or sparsely inhabited areas lack any signal or have very weak fringe reception; many mobile phone providers are attempting to set up towers in those areas most likely to be occupied by users, such as along major highways. Even some national parks and other popular tourist destinations away from urban areas now have cell phone reception, though location of radio towers within these areas is normally prohibited or strictly regulated, and is often difficult to arrange.\n", "Because the information is transmitted over the web on a regular basis, an internet service provider will be able see entries in the named.log file that resides on its name server at times when any user with an affected phone is connected to the internet by WiFi. This method of connecting is extremely common, as many users seek to keep their cellular data charges as low as possible by also utilizing their home or corporate wireless networks.\n", "The scientific literature on the dangers of driving while sending a text message from a mobile phone, or \"texting while driving\", is limited. A simulation study at the Monash University Accident Research Centre has provided strong evidence that both retrieving and, in particular, sending text messages has a detrimental effect on a number of critical driving tasks. Specifically, negative effects were seen in detecting and responding correctly to road signs, detecting hazards, time spent with eyes off the road, and (only for sending text messages) lateral position. Surprisingly, mean speed, speed variability, lateral position when receiving text messages, and following distance showed no difference.\n", "Mobile use of Wi-Fi over wider ranges is limited, for instance, to uses such as in an automobile moving from one hotspot to another. Other wireless technologies are more suitable for communicating with moving vehicles.\n\nBULLET::::- Distance records\n\nDistance records (using non-standard devices) include in June 2007, held by Ermanno Pietrosemoli and EsLaRed of Venezuela, transferring about 3 MB of data between the mountain-tops of El Águila and Platillon. The Swedish Space Agency transferred data , using 6 watt amplifiers to reach an overhead stratospheric balloon.\n\nSection::::Performance.:Radio bands.\n", "BULLET::::- multipath reflection along the street\n\nBULLET::::- diffraction through windows, and attenuated passage through walls, into the building\n\nBULLET::::- reflection, diffraction, and attenuated passage through internal walls, floors and ceilings within the building\n\nThe combination of all these effects makes the mobile phone propagation environment highly complex, with multipath effects and extensive Rayleigh fading. For mobile phone services, these problems are tackled using:\n\nBULLET::::- rooftop or hilltop positioning of base stations\n\nBULLET::::- many base stations (usually called \"cell sites\"). A phone can typically see at least three, and usually as many as six at any given time.\n", "Section::::Reception.:Home media.\n", "The time most likely for a prepaid customer to switch to a different service provider is when the prepaid account reaches a \"zero credit balance\". Like other service providers, mobile service providers losing a mobile account call it \"churn\".\n\nSection::::Prepaid mobile phones and roaming.\n", "While this is generally transparent to the user thanks to the way that cellular networks handle cell-to-cell handoffs, when cross-border signals are involved, unexpected charges for international roaming may occur despite not having left the country at all. This often occurs between southern San Diego and northern Tijuana at the western end of the U.S./Mexico border, and between eastern Detroit and western Windsor along the U.S./Canada border. Since signals can travel unobstructed over a body of water far larger than the Detroit River, and cool water temperatures also cause inversions in surface air, this \"fringe roaming\" sometimes occurs across the Great Lakes, and between islands in the Caribbean. Signals can skip from the Dominican Republic to a mountainside in Puerto Rico and vice versa, or between the U.S. and British Virgin Islands, among others. While unintended cross-border roaming is often automatically removed by mobile phone company billing systems, inter-island roaming is typically not.\n", "Section::::Weather conditions.\n\nA signal has two important factors: frequency and wavelength. If weather is fine and temperature is normal, the signal can be transmitted within given frequency and wavelength limits. The signal travels with velocity \"c\" ≤ 3*10 m/s, which is equal to the speed of light. For frequency \"f\" Hz and wavelength \"λ\" m, we have\n\nAs such, when weather conditions deteriorate, frequency \"f\" has to be increased. This causes the wavelength \"λ\" to decrease, which means that the signal then travels lesser distance.\n", "In areas where signal reception would normally be strong, other factors can have an effect on reception or may cause complete failure (see RF interference). From inside a building with thick walls or of mostly metal construction (or with dense rebar in concrete), signal attenuation may prevent a mobile phone from being used. Underground areas, such as tunnels and subway stations, will lack reception unless they are wired for cell signals. There may also be gaps where the service contours of the individual base stations (Cell towers) of the mobile provider (and/or its roaming partners) do not completely overlap.\n", "BULLET::::- Do not use telephone in a car without an external antenna.\n\nThe use of \"hands-free\" was not recommended by the British Consumers' Association in a statement in November 2000, as they believed that exposure was increased. However, measurements for the (then) UK Department of Trade and Industry and others for the French showed substantial reductions. In 2005, Professor Lawrie Challis and others said clipping a ferrite bead onto hands-free kits stops the radio waves travelling up the wire and into the head.\n", "The uptake of femtocell services will depend on the reliability and quality of both the cellular operator’s network and the third-party broadband connection, and the broadband connection’s subscriber understanding the concept of bandwidth utilization by different applications a subscriber may use. When things go wrong, subscribers will turn to cellular operators for support even if the root cause of the problem lies with the broadband connection to the home or workplace. Hence, the effects of any third-party ISP broadband network issues or traffic management policies need to be very closely monitored and the ramifications quickly communicated to subscribers.\n", "In 2005 a film titled \"Hell on Wheels\" was released. It is a record of the 100th anniversary (but only the 90th running because of World War I and World War II) of the 2003 Tour de France in from the perspective of the then-Team Telekom.\n\nSection::::History.:T-Mobile: 2004 – November 2007.\n", "BULLET::::- India: switched from the EU limits to the US limits for mobile handsets in 2012. Unlike the US, India will not rely solely on SAR measurements provided by manufacturers; random compliance tests are done by a government-run Telecommunication Engineering Center (TEC) SAR Laboratory on handsets and 10% of towers. All handsets must have a hands free mode.\n", "Section::::Situation in specific markets.:Europe and European Union.:Germany.\n\nThe Federal Network Agency has set mobile termination rates to 1.66ct/min for 2014.\n\nLandline termination rates are significantly lower.\n\nSection::::Situation in specific markets.:Europe and European Union.:Ireland.\n\nEffective on annual basis from 1 September 2016 to 31 December 2018, the maximum MTR in Ireland is regulated to be 0.84ct/min for 2016, 0.82ct/min for 2017, and 0.79ct/min for 2018.\n\nSection::::Situation in specific markets.:Europe and European Union.:Italy.\n\nMobile termination rate in Italy was 1.5ct/min for all Mobile Operator except H3G (1.7ct/m) effective July 1, 2012, lowered to 0.98ct/min for all operators from 1 July 2013.\n", "Lower power levels at a receiver reduce the chance of successfully receiving a transmission. Low levels can be caused by at least three basic reasons: low transmit level, for example Wi-Fi power levels; far-away transmitter, such as 3G more than away or TV more than away; and obstruction between the transmitter and the receiver, leaving no clear path.\n\nNLOS lowers the effective received power. Near Line Of Sight can usually be dealt with using better antennas, but Non Line Of Sight is usually requires alternative paths or multipath propagation methods.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01602	How do people breathe when skydive?	You don't normally skydive from high enough for the thin air to have an effect (remember, you're falling really, really fast). Normal skydiving altitude is 10,000-12,000 feet (3,000-3,500 meters). If you do skydive from a great height, you bring an oxygen tank with you.	[ "Zipser started skydiving in the experimental phase of the Accelerated Freefall progression skydiving program in 1986, and immediately began experimenting with non-traditional forms of body flight. He studied and trained human aerodynamics for four months in a wind tunnel. From that experience he developed a new concept of human body flight, which he called FreeFly. First he trained friends, then he developed a professional FreeFly Training and Instruction Program so he could train others to become FreeFly teachers and instructors. \n\nSection::::The First School of Modern SkyFlying.\n\nMain article The First School of Modern SkyFlying\n", "The world's largest vertical (head down) formation took place on Friday, 31 July 2015, when a multinational team of 164 skydivers, some traveling at speeds of over 200 mph, linked over Skydive Chicago, in Ottawa, Illinois, United States. This broke the previous record of 138 linked skydivers, set on Saturday, 4 August 2012, also at Skydive Chicago.\n\nMarc Hauser set the world record for the fastest horizontal free fall at 304 km/h in Empuriabrava, Spain, without specialized equipment, in October 2012.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Vertical formation skydiving\n\nBULLET::::- Freestyle skydiving\n\nBULLET::::- Freefall\n\nBULLET::::- Parachuting\n\nBULLET::::- Vertical Wind Tunnel\n\nBULLET::::- Olav Zipser\n", "BULLET::::- \"\"'Generation 1\" Predator Skydive (1992)\n\nSection::::Beast Machines.\n\nAfter six years, the name Skydive was reused on a deluxe Maximal Pterodactyl; however he was not part of the Dinobot sub-group. Skydive did not appear in the animated series.\n", "Petra has a long list of World Records, National and International titles to back that up. She had an impressive debut at the PD Big Boy Pants event in July 2011, with Nick Batsch setting a new distance world record of 222.45 m (729 ft). One month later Nick took out the Pink Open in Klatovy and the FAI World Cup also; first in distance, speed and overall. He also won the 2011 US CP nationals on Petra.\n", "BULLET::::- The 1989 film \"The Abyss\" by James Cameron features a character using liquid breathing to dive thousands of feet without compressing. \"The Abyss\" also features a scene with a rat submerged in and breathing fluorocarbon liquid, filmed in real life.\n", "Due to the increased freefall speed and potentially faster horizontal speeds, freeflying has dangers beyond that of a normal skydive. Extra care must be taken for freefall skydive groups to stay away from belly-to-earth skydivers to avoid collisions. Since most parachutes are not designed to be opened at speeds higher than that of normal belly flying, freeflyers must transition back to the \"belly to earth\" position and slow down their descent for several seconds before deploying their parachute.\n\nWhile freeflying is a younger and more extreme addition to skydiving, it is becoming a popular event in competitions and world records.\n", "BULLET::::- Oolu – Oolu is the chief Skybax instructor at Sky City, where he trains Skybax Riders. He is also the human Aerial Ambassador at the annual Habitat Partners Conference in the Rainy Basin. His Skybax is Lightwing.\n", "Skydive (Transformers)\n\nSkydive was the name of five fictional characters in the Transformers series.\n\nSection::::Transformers: Generation 1.\n\nSkydive was part of the Aerialbot team able to form a limb of the combined robot Superion.\n", "Section::::Flights and displays.\n", "As an option, pilots can get a continuous line set allowing broken lines to be easily changed in the field without tools. A continuous line set makes losing a line during flight less stressful, since you have more attachment points between you and the canopy.\n\nSection::::Marketing.\n\nNZ Aerosports has an extensive sponsorship program of competitive canopy pilots and instructors flying Daedalus Project parachutes. At the top of the game is pilot Nick James Batsch who won Distance world Records on the JVX, and more recently set six new Distance World records on Petra.\n", "Skydive made a final appearance in an issue of the \"Generation 2\" series, helping Fortress Maximus battle Megatron. Fortress Maximus decided to blow up the Ark in an attempt to stop Megatron, and ordered Skydive to get a human scientist, Dr. Biggles-Jones, to safety.\n\nSection::::Transformers: Generation 1.:Animated series.\n", "When a skysurfer is filmed by another skydiver falling alongside them, the resulting film gives the appearance that the skysurfer is riding on the air in the same way a surfer rides on a wave. The downward motion is not very apparent and this creates the illusion that a skysurfer is gliding on air currents like a sailplane or hang glider. In fact a skysurfer always falls at a high speed comparable to any other freefalling parachutist. The competitive discipline of skysurfing is a team sport consisting of a skysurfer and a camera flyer with a video camera.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- 1994: Sheck Exley and Jim Bowden use \"heliair\" at Zacaton in the first attempt to make an open circuit scuba dive to 1000 ft. Exley, at the time holding the world record for an 881-foot dive, passes out and dies around 900 feet; Bowden aborts at 925 feet and survives despite several life-threatening obstacles.\n\nBULLET::::- 2001: The Guinness Book of records recognises John Bennett as the first scuba diver to dive to , using trimix.\n\nBULLET::::- 2005: David Shaw sets depth record for using a trimix rebreather, dying while repeating the dive.\n", "BULLET::::- In the \"\" novel \"The Children of Hamlin\" (1988) the crew of the \"Enterprise\"-D encounter an alien race whose ships contain a breathable liquid environment.\n\nBULLET::::- Peter Benchley's 1994 novel \"White Shark\" centers around a Nazi scientist's experimental attempts to create an amphibious human, whose lungs are surgically modified to breathe underwater, and trained to reflexively do so after being flooded with a fluorocarbon solution.\n\nBULLET::::- Ben Bova's novel \"Jupiter\" (2000) features a craft in which the crew are suspended in a breathable liquid that allows them to survive in the high-pressure environment of Jupiter's atmosphere.\n", "BULLET::::- In Scott Westerfeld's sci-fi novel \"The Risen Empire\" (2003), the lungs of soldiers performing insertion from orbit are filled with an oxygen-rich polymer gel with embedded pseudo-alveoli and a rudimentary artificial intelligence.\n\nBULLET::::- The novel \"Mechanicum\" (2008) by Graham McNeill, Book 9 in the \"Horus Heresy\" book series, describes physically crippled (gigantic war machine) pilots encased in nutrient fluid tanks. This allows them to continue operating beyond the limits normally imposed by the body.\n", "Since 2015, Leonid Volkov has been working on the project TunnelSport.com, where he publishes information about the flight of the body in the airflow.\n", "Section::::Ride experience.\n", "BULLET::::- 10 July 2015: Damian Hrdlicka Long time skydiver and Yahoo sponsored sky surfer, found dead with nothing out, approx. of the way through his flight path at Gitschen, Switzerland.\n\nBULLET::::- 1 October 2015: American adventurer Johnny Strange (23) crashed into the ground and died after jumping from a 2,000 metre summit in the Swiss canton of Uri.\n\nBULLET::::- 7 June 2016: Brazilian Fernando Brito (42) died while trying to jump from Pedra da Gávea, Rio de Janeiro.\n", "Skydive's sole appearance in any fiction was limited to the unreleased issue #4 of the \"Transformers: Universe - Wreckers\" comic series where he and fellow \"Beast Machines\" characters Longhorn and Che witnessed the invasion of Cybertron by the Quintessons.\n\nSection::::Beast Machines.:Fun Publications.\n\nThe finished first four pages of \"Wreckers\" #4 comic eventually printed in the Transformers Collectors Club Magazine #16.\n\nSkydive appeared in \"\" where he reported the status of the Dinobots to Snarl during the Quintesson attack on Cybertron.\n\nSection::::Beast Machines.:Toys.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Beast Machines\" Deluxe Skydive (2000)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Universe\" Deluxe Skydive\n\nSection::::Transformers: Universe.\n", "BULLET::::- In the 1995 anime \"Neon Genesis Evangelion\", the cockpits of the titular mecha are filled with a fictional oxygenated liquid called LCL which is required for the pilot to mentally sync with an Evangelion, as well as providing direct oxygenation of their blood, and dampening the impacts from battle. Once the cockpit is flooded the LCL is ionized, bringing its density, opacity, and viscosity close to that of air.\n\nBULLET::::- In the movies \"Event Horizon\" (1997) and \"Mission to Mars\" (2000), a character is depicted as being immersed in apparent breathable fluid before a high-acceleration launch.\n", "BULLET::::- The Oldest Solo United States skydiver is Milburn Hart from Seattle, Washington. He was 96 years old when achieved this feat by making a solo jump in February 2005.\n\nBULLET::::- Largest all-blind skydiving formation: 2, with Dan Rossi and John \"BJ\" Fleming on 13 September 2003.\n\nBULLET::::- The oldest civilian parachute club in the world is The Irish Parachute Club, founded in 1956 by Freddie Bond and located in Clonbullogue, Co. Offaly, Ireland.\n", "BULLET::::- Bill Dause holds the record for the most accumulated freefall time with over 420 hours (30,000+ jumps).\n\nBULLET::::- Jay Stokes holds the record for most parachute descents in a single day at 640.\n\nBULLET::::- The Oldest Male tandem skydiver, according to Guinness Book of World Records, is Bryson William Verdun Hayes (born 6 April 1916), who achieved the feat on 14 May 2017 at the age of 101 years 38 days. Bryson Hayes had earlier become the oldest ever UK sky diver, achieving the feat on 11 April 2016 when he was 100 years old\n", "Patrick Boulongne came 2nd in the European Championships and 6th overall at the World Cup with Petra in his first competition with her. He went on to win the 2011 French Canopy Piloting Nationals.\n\nBrice Bernier won the 2011 Italian CP Nationals on her, and came 2nd in the 2011 French CP nationals behind Patrick Boulongne.\n\nSince then Nick Batsch has set 5 more World Distance Records flying Petra. The current one is 169.19m run set at the 5th FAI World parachuting Championships at Z-hills Florida.\n\nSection::::Products.:Daedalus JPX Leia.\n", "On 12 March 1999, Nicholas stepped out of an aeroplane at 35,850 ft. He flew for 4 minutes, 55 seconds and covered a distance of 10 miles, establishing new world records for the longest sky dive and the furthest human flight. During the attempt the exhaust valve of his oxygen mask froze preventing him from breathing properly for about four minutes.\n\nSection::::Death.\n", "BULLET::::- In the anime series \"Aldnoah.Zero\" (2014-2015), episode 5 shows that Slaine Troyard was in a liquid-filled capsule when he crashed. Princess Asseylum witnessed the crash, helped him to get out of the capsule, then used CPR on him to draw out the liquid from his lungs.\n\nSection::::Examples in fiction.:Video games.\n\nBULLET::::- In the classic 1995 PC turn-based strategy game \"\", \"Aquanauts\" fighting in deep ocean conditions breathe a dense oxygen-carrying fluid.\n" ]	[ "People cannot breathe while skydiving." ]	[ "You can breathe just fine. If you are that high where oxygen is an issue you would have an oxygen tank. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "People cannot breathe while skydiving." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "You can breathe just fine. If you are that high where oxygen is an issue you would have an oxygen tank. " ]
2018-01408	how is it that small birds like sparrows can fly around in freezing temperatures without dying of cold in minutes?	Its because of the way their blood vessels are structured. Some birds even have a natural "anti-freeze" in their blood. URL_0	[ "BULLET::::- The capacity of some species of birds \"to fly under conditions of low temperature and low oxygen pressure\" was confirmed when a military aircraft checked out a radar station's report of an object at high altitude passing at low speed over Northern Ireland. The pilot reported that the cause was a flock of above 30 swans who were flying at an altitude of over 8,200 meters (26,900 feet or more than five miles); the air temperature was -48 °C (54 degrees below zero Fahrenheit) with a strong tailwind.\n", "In relation to temperature and precipitation, common ravens are exposed to changing seasons with climate extremes. Within the common raven species, the degree of climatic seasonality is related to the magnitude of fluctuations in basal metabolic rate and total evaporative water loss. For instance, populations living in Alberta are subjected to both extremely cold temperatures in the winter and very hot and dry weather during the summer months. Furthermore, the common raven is not known to migrate long distances to avoid the winter season, so it is required to regulate and cope with the environmental conditions.\n", "In cold weather the blood flow to the limbs of birds and mammals is reduced on exposure to cold environmental conditions, and returned to the trunk via the deep veins which lie alongside the arteries (forming venae comitantes). This acts as a counter-current exchange system which short-circuits the warmth from the arterial blood directly into the venous blood returning into the trunk, causing minimal heat loss from the extremities in cold weather. The subcutaneous limb veins are tightly constricted, thereby reducing heat loss via this route, and forcing the blood returning from the extremities into the counter-current blood flow systems in the centers of the limbs. Birds and mammals that regularly immerse their limbs in cold or icy water have particularly well developed counter-current blood flow systems to their limbs, allowing prolonged exposure of the extremities to the cold without significant loss of body heat, even when the limbs are as thin as the lower legs, or tarsi, of a bird, for instance.\n", "BULLET::::- Barnacle goose, \"Branta leucopsis\"\n\nBULLET::::- Cackling goose, \"Branta hutchinsii\" (A) (D)\n\nBULLET::::- Canada goose, \"Branta canadensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- Red-breasted goose, \"Branta ruficollis\" (A) (vulnerable)\n\nBULLET::::- Mute swan, \"Cygnus olor\"\n\nBULLET::::- Tundra swan, \"Cygnus columbianus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Whooper swan, \"Cygnus cygnus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Egyptian goose, \"Alopochen aegyptiaca\" (I)\n\nBULLET::::- Ruddy shelduck, \"Tadorna ferruginea\" (A)\n\nBULLET::::- Common shelduck, \"Tadorna tadorna\"\n\nBULLET::::- Mandarin duck, \"Aix galericulata\" (I)\n\nBULLET::::- Baikal teal, \"Sibirionetta formosa\"\n\nBULLET::::- Garganey, \"Spatula querquedula\"\n\nBULLET::::- Blue-winged teal, \"Spatula discors\" (A)\n\nBULLET::::- Northern shoveler, \"Spatula clypeata\"\n\nBULLET::::- Gadwall, \"Mareca strepera\"\n\nBULLET::::- Eurasian wigeon, \"Mareca penelope\"\n\nBULLET::::- American wigeon, \"Mareca americana\" (A)\n", "Section::::Physiology.:Osmoregulation.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Osmoregulation.:Environmental challenges on osmoregulation.\n", "Some species of Collembola tolerate extreme cold by the shedding of the mid-gut during moulting.\n", "Habitat variation often leads to changes in activity levels. Ravens engaged in flight are considered metabolically active. During periods of flight, the cells require more oxygen, and the heat generated must be dissipated to avoid hyperthermia. In response, the common raven experiences an increased heart rate and cardiac output. Another method used by many species of birds to regulate thermal conductance is by internally adjusting blood flow through shunt vessels. More specifically, arterial and venous blood vessels are organized to bypass the countercurrent heat exchange occurring in the upper portion of a bird’s legs. Countercurrent heat exchange involves arrangements of blood vessels that allow heat to transfer from warm arterial blood to cooler venous blood travelling to the body’s core. Through this mechanism, arterial blood remains warm before reaching the body’s periphery.\n", "BULLET::::- White-eyed gull, \"Ichthyaetus leucophthalmus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Sooty gull, \"Ichthyaetus hemprichii\"\n\nBULLET::::- Pallas's gull, \"Ichthyaetus ichthyaetus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Mediterranean gull, \"Ichthyaetus melanocephalus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Brown-headed gull, \"Chroicocephalus brunnicephalus\" (A)\n\nBULLET::::- Black-headed gull, \"Chroicocephalus ridibundus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Slender-billed gull, \"Chroicocephalus genei\"\n\nBULLET::::- Little gull, \"Hydrocoloeus minutus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Common gull, \"Larus canus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Great black-backed gull, \"Larus marinus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Herring gull, \"Larus argentatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Lesser black-backed gull, \"Larus fuscus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Caspian gull, \"Larus cachinnans\"\n\nBULLET::::- Armenian gull, \"Larus armenicus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Black-legged kittiwake, \"Rissa tridactyla\"\n\nBULLET::::- Gull-billed tern, \"Gelochelidon nilotica\"\n\nBULLET::::- Caspian tern, \"Hydroprogne caspia\"\n\nBULLET::::- Lesser crested tern, \"Thalasseus bengalensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- Sandwich tern, \"Thalasseus sandvicensis\"\n", "BULLET::::- Bar-tailed godwit, \"Limosa lapponica\"\n\nBULLET::::- Whimbrel, \"Numenius phaeopus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Slender-billed curlew, \"Numenius tenuirostris\"\n\nBULLET::::- Eurasian curlew, \"Numenius arquata\"\n\nBULLET::::- Spotted redshank, \"Tringa erythropus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Common redshank, \"Tringa totanus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Marsh sandpiper, \"Tringa stagnatilis\"\n\nBULLET::::- Common greenshank, \"Tringa nebularia\"\n\nBULLET::::- Green sandpiper, \"Tringa ochropus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Wood sandpiper, \"Tringa glareola\"\n\nBULLET::::- Terek sandpiper, \"Xenus cinereus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Common sandpiper, \"Actitis hypoleucos\"\n\nBULLET::::- Ruddy turnstone, \"Arenaria interpres\"\n\nBULLET::::- Little stint, \"Calidris minuta\"\n\nBULLET::::- Temminck's stint, \"Calidris temminckii\"\n\nBULLET::::- Curlew sandpiper, \"Calidris ferruginea\"\n\nBULLET::::- Dunlin, \"Calidris alpina\"\n\nBULLET::::- Ruff, \"Calidris pugnax\"\n\nBULLET::::- Red-necked phalarope, \"Phalaropus lobatus\"\n\nSection::::Gulls, terns, and skimmers.\n\nOrder: CharadriiformesFamily: Laridae\n", "BULLET::::- Great grey shrike, \"Lanius excubitor\"\n\nBULLET::::- Lesser grey shrike, \"Lanius minor\"\n\nSection::::Crows, jays, ravens and magpies.\n\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Corvidae\n\nThe family Corvidae includes crows, ravens, jays, choughs, magpies, treepies, nutcrackers and ground jays. Corvids are above average in size among the Passeriformes, and some of the larger species show high levels of intelligence. There are 120 species worldwide and 11 species which occur in Uzbekistan.\n\nBULLET::::- Eurasian jay, \"Garrulus glandarius\"\n\nBULLET::::- Eurasian magpie, \"Pica pica\"\n\nBULLET::::- Turkestan ground-jay, \"Podoces panderi\"\n\nBULLET::::- Red-billed chough, \"Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax\"\n\nBULLET::::- Yellow-billed chough, \"Pyrrhocorax graculus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Eurasian jackdaw, \"Corvus monedula\"\n", "Common ravens occupy a widespread geographical range and are found in many different habitats, including tundra, seacoasts, cliffs, mountainous forests, plains, deserts, and woodlands. Due to such a diverse habitat, this species is exposed to various temperatures and amounts of precipitation. Individuals that exist in warmer, drier environments have lower basal metabolic rates than organisms inhabiting non-arid areas. Physiologically, a reduced metabolic rate decreases endogenous heat production to prevent evaporative water loss, or more simply evaporation, and conserve energy in an environment with limited resources. A reduction of total evaporative water loss consists of decreases of both respiratory and cutaneous evaporation. In contrast, common ravens living at higher latitudes in temperate regions experience high basal metabolic rates. A higher metabolism is related to increased thermogenesis and cold tolerance.\n", "BULLET::::- Common snipe, \"Gallinago gallinago\"\n\nBULLET::::- Black-tailed godwit, \"Limosa limosa\"\n\nBULLET::::- Bar-tailed godwit, \"Limosa lapponica\"\n\nBULLET::::- Whimbrel, \"Numenius phaeopus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Slender-billed curlew, \"Numenius tenuirostris\"\n\nBULLET::::- Eurasian curlew, \"Numenius arquata\"\n\nBULLET::::- Far Eastern curlew, \"Numenius madagascariensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- Spotted redshank, \"Tringa erythropus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Common redshank, \"Tringa totanus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Marsh sandpiper, \"Tringa stagnatilis\"\n\nBULLET::::- Common greenshank, \"Tringa nebularia\"\n\nBULLET::::- Green sandpiper, \"Tringa ochropus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Wood sandpiper, \"Tringa glareola\"\n\nBULLET::::- Terek sandpiper, \"Xenus cinereus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Common sandpiper, \"Actitis hypoleucos\"\n\nBULLET::::- Ruddy turnstone, \"Arenaria interpres\"\n\nBULLET::::- Great knot, \"Calidris tenuirostris\" (A)\n\nBULLET::::- Red knot, \"Calidris canutus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Sanderling, \"Calidris alba\"\n\nBULLET::::- Little stint, \"Calidris minuta\"\n", "BULLET::::- Many arctic birds and mammals can change their heat dissipation and metabolic rate in response to changes in temperature, as different populations of the same species display different averages depending on their current climate.\n\nBULLET::::- In arctic foxes (\"Alopex lagopus),\" starvation experiments indicate that the body mass in the arctic fox is regulated according to a seasonally changing set point and not by the availability of food. The basic metabolic rate varies seasonally being lower in winter than summer. The fur thickness can increase 140% from summer to winter.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Terek sandpiper, \"Xenus cinereus\" (A)\n\nBULLET::::- Wilson's phalarope, \"Phalaropus tricolor\" (A)\n\nBULLET::::- Red-necked phalarope, \"Phalaropus lobatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Red phalarope, \"Phalaropus fulicarius\" (A)\n\nBULLET::::- Common sandpiper, \"Actitis hypoleucos\"\n\nBULLET::::- Spotted sandpiper, \"Actitis macularius\" (A)\n\nBULLET::::- Green sandpiper, \"Tringa ochropus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Solitary sandpiper, \"Tringa solitaria\" (A)\n\nBULLET::::- Gray-tailed tattler, \"Tringa brevipes\" (A)\n\nBULLET::::- Spotted redshank, \"Tringa erythropus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Greater yellowlegs, \"Tringa melanoleuca\" (A)\n\nBULLET::::- Common greenshank, \"Tringa nebularia\"\n\nBULLET::::- Lesser yellowlegs, \"Tringa flavipes\" (A)\n\nBULLET::::- Marsh sandpiper, \"Tringa stagnatilis\"\n\nBULLET::::- Wood sandpiper, \"Tringa glareola\"\n\nBULLET::::- Common redshank, \"Tringa totanus\"\n\nSection::::Pratincoles and coursers.\n\nOrder: CharadriiformesFamily: Glareolidae\n\nBULLET::::- Cream-colored courser, \"Cursorius cursor\" (A)\n", "BULLET::::- Black-headed gull, \"Chroicocephalus ridibundus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Slender-billed gull, \"Chroicocephalus genei\"\n\nBULLET::::- Little gull, \"Hydrocoloeus minutus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Gull-billed tern, \"Gelochelidon nilotica\"\n\nBULLET::::- Caspian tern, \"Hydroprogne caspia\"\n\nBULLET::::- Common tern, \"Sterna hirundo\"\n\nBULLET::::- Little tern, \"Sternula albifrons\"\n\nBULLET::::- Whiskered tern, \"Chlidonias hybrida\"\n\nBULLET::::- White-winged tern, \"Chlidonias leucopterus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Black tern, \"Chlidonias niger\"\n\nSection::::Pterocliformes.\n\nPteroclidae: sandgrouse\n\nBULLET::::- Pallas's sandgrouse, \"Syrrhaptes paradoxus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Pin-tailed sandgrouse, \"Pterocles alchata\"\n\nBULLET::::- Black-bellied sandgrouse, \"Pterocles orientalis\"\n\nSection::::Columbiformes.\n\nColumbidae: pigeons and doves\n\nBULLET::::- Rock pigeon or feral pigeon, \"Columba livia\"\n\nBULLET::::- Hill pigeon, \"Columba rupestris\"\n\nBULLET::::- Snow pigeon, \"Columba leuconota\"\n\nBULLET::::- Stock pigeon, \"Columba oenas\"\n", "Section::::Limits compatible with life.:Arthropoda.\n\nThe maximum temperatures tolerated by certain thermophilic arthropods exceeds the lethal temperatures for most vertebrates.\n\nThe most heat-resistant insects are three genera of desert ants recorded from three different parts of the world. The ants have developed a lifestyle of scavenging for short durations during the hottest hours of the day, in excess of , for the carcasses of insects and other forms of life which have succumbed to heat stress.\n", "BULLET::::- Eurasian wigeon, \"Mareca penelope\"\n\nBULLET::::- Gadwall, \"Mareca strepera\"\n\nBULLET::::- Eurasian teal, \"Anas crecca\"\n\nBULLET::::- Mallard, \"Anas platyrhynchos\"\n\nBULLET::::- Northern pintail, \"Anas acuta\"\n\nBULLET::::- Garganey, \"Spatula querquedula\"\n\nBULLET::::- Northern shoveler, \"Spatula clypeata\"\n\nBULLET::::- Marbled teal, \"Marmaronetta angustirostris\"\n\nBULLET::::- Red-crested pochard, \"Netta rufina\"\n\nBULLET::::- Common pochard, \"Aythya ferina\"\n\nBULLET::::- Ferruginous pochard, \"Aythya nyroca\"\n\nBULLET::::- Tufted duck, \"Aythya fuligula\"\n\nBULLET::::- Greater scaup, \"Aythya marila\"\n\nBULLET::::- Long-tailed duck, \"Clangula hyemalis\"\n\nBULLET::::- Common scoter, \"Melanitta nigra\"\n\nBULLET::::- Velvet scoter, \"Melanitta fusca\"\n\nBULLET::::- Common goldeneye, \"Bucephala clangula\"\n\nBULLET::::- Smew, \"Mergellus albellus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Red-breasted merganser, \"Mergus serrator\"\n\nBULLET::::- Common merganser, \"Mergus merganser\"\n", "BULLET::::- Wallcreeper, \"Tichodroma muraria\"\n\nSittidae nuthatches\n\nBULLET::::- Persian nuthatch, \"Sitta tephronota\"\n\nCerthiidae treecreepers\n\nBULLET::::- Common treecreeper, \"Certhia familiaris\"\n\nBULLET::::- Bar-tailed treecreeper, \"Certhia himalayana\"\n\nLaniidae shrikes\n\nBULLET::::- Isabelline shrike, \"Lanius isabellinus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Red-tailed shrike, \"Lanius phoenicuroides\"\n\nBULLET::::- Long-tailed shrike, \"Lanius schach\"\n\nBULLET::::- Great grey shrike, \"Lanius excubitor\"\n\nBULLET::::- Steppe grey shrike, \"Lanius excubitor pallidirostris\"\n\nBULLET::::- Lesser grey shrike, \"Lanius minor\"\n\nEmberizidae buntings\n\nBULLET::::- Yellowhammer, \"Emberiza citrinella\"\n\nBULLET::::- Pine bunting, \"Emberiza leucocephalos\"\n\nBULLET::::- Rock bunting, \"Emberiza cia\"\n\nBULLET::::- Meadow bunting, \"Emberiza cioides\"\n\nBULLET::::- Gray-hooded bunting, \"Emberiza buchanani\"\n\nBULLET::::- Ortolan bunting, \"Emberiza hortulana\"\n\nBULLET::::- Chestnut-breasted bunting, \"Emberiza stewarti\"\n\nBULLET::::- Rustic bunting, \"Emberiza rustica\"\n", "BULLET::::- Sedge warbler, \"Acrocephalus schoenobaenus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Paddyfield warbler, \"Acrocephalus agricola\"\n\nBULLET::::- Eurasian reed warbler, \"Acrocephalus scirpaceus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Blyth's reed warbler, \"Acrocephalus dumetorum\"\n\nBULLET::::- Marsh warbler, \"Acrocephalus palustris\"\n\nBULLET::::- Great reed warbler, \"Acrocephalus arundinaceus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Clamorous reed warbler, \"Acrocephalus stentoreus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Booted warbler, \"Iduna caligata\"\n\nBULLET::::- Sykes's warbler, \"Iduna rama\"\n\nBULLET::::- Eastern olivaceous warbler, \"Iduna pallida\"\n\nBULLET::::- Upcher's warbler, \"Hippolais languida\"\n\nBULLET::::- Icterine warbler, \"Hippolais icterina\"\n\nBULLET::::- Basra reed warbler, \"Acrocephalus griseldis\"\n\nSection::::Phylloscopid warblers.\n\nOrder: PasseriformesFamily: Phylloscopidae\n\nBULLET::::- Willow warbler, \"Phylloscopus trochilus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Common chiffchaff, \"Phylloscopus collybita\"\n\nBULLET::::- Mountain chiffchaff, \"Phylloscopus sindianus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Plain leaf warbler, \"Phylloscopus neglectus\"\n", "House sparrows have also been used in studies of nonphotic entrainment (i.e. synchronisation to an external cycle other than light and dark): for example, in constant darkness, a situation in which the birds would normally reveal their endogenous, non-24-hour, \"free-running\" rhythms of activity, they instead show 24-hour periodicity if they are exposed to two hours of chirp playbacks every 24 hours, matching their daily activity onsets with the daily playback onsets. House sparrows in constant dim light can also be entrained to a daily cycle based on the presence of food. Finally, house sparrows in constant darkness can be entrained to a cycle of high and low temperature, but only if the difference between the two temperatures is large (38 versus 6 °C); some of the tested sparrows matched their activity to the warm phase, and others to the cold phase.\n", "BULLET::::- Taiga bean-goose, \"Anser fabalis\" (see note)\n\nBULLET::::- Tundra bean-goose, \"Anser serrirostris\"\n\nBULLET::::- Pink-footed goose, \"Anser brachyrhynchus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Brant, \"Branta bernicla\"\n\nBULLET::::- Barnacle goose, \"Branta leucopsis\"\n\nBULLET::::- Cackling goose, \"Branta hutchinsii\"\n\nBULLET::::- Canada goose, \"Branta canadensis\" (I)\n\nBULLET::::- Red-breasted goose, \"Branta ruficollis\"\n\nBULLET::::- Mute swan, \"Cygnus olor\"\n\nBULLET::::- Tundra swan, \"Cygnus columbianus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Whooper swan, \"Cygnus cygnus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Ruddy shelduck, \"Tadorna ferruginea\"\n\nBULLET::::- Common shelduck, \"Tadorna tadorna\"\n\nBULLET::::- Mandarin duck, \"Aix galericulata\" (I)\n\nBULLET::::- Garganey, \"Spatula querquedula\"\n\nBULLET::::- Blue-winged teal, \"Spatula discors\" (R)\n\nBULLET::::- Northern shoveler, \"Spatula clypeata\"\n\nBULLET::::- Gadwall, \"Mareca strepera\"\n\nBULLET::::- Eurasian wigeon, \"Mareca penelope\"\n", "Altitude is another factor that requires the common raven to regulate. Organisms existing at elevations below 1,100 m (3,500 ft) feet have lower metabolisms than organisms living at higher altitudes. Generally, warmer temperatures are associated with lower altitudes, so less energy is required to maintain a constant internal temperature. Bergmann’s rule can also be applied to the common raven. Individuals inhabiting higher altitudes and exposed to colder temperatures are usually larger than ravens living at lower latitudes or in warmer temperatures. Also, higher altitudes are associated with lower oxygen partial pressure, so ravens living at high elevations are confronted with reduced oxygen availability. To compensate for less ambient oxygen, common ravens undergo increased respiratory rates, enhanced oxygen loading of hemoglobin at the respiratory surface, and improved oxygen affinity of hemoglobin.\n", "BULLET::::- Common redshank, \"Tringa totanus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Marsh sandpiper, \"Tringa stagnatilis\"\n\nBULLET::::- Common greenshank, \"Tringa nebularia\"\n\nBULLET::::- Green sandpiper, \"Tringa ochropus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Wood sandpiper, \"Tringa glareola\"\n\nBULLET::::- Terek sandpiper, \"Xenus cinereus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Common sandpiper, \"Actitis hypoleucos\"\n\nBULLET::::- Ruddy turnstone, \"Arenaria interpres\"\n\nBULLET::::- Sanderling, \"Calidris alba\"\n\nBULLET::::- Little stint, \"Calidris minuta\"\n\nBULLET::::- Temminck's stint, \"Calidris temminckii\"\n\nBULLET::::- Long-toed stint, \"Calidris subminuta\"\n\nBULLET::::- Curlew sandpiper, \"Calidris ferruginea\"\n\nBULLET::::- Dunlin, \"Calidris alpina\"\n\nBULLET::::- Broad-billed sandpiper, \"Calidris falcinellus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Ruff, \"Calidris pugnax\"\n\nBULLET::::- Red-necked phalarope, \"Phalaropus lobatus\"\n\nSection::::Charadriiformes.:Suborder Lari: gulls, terns, and skimmers.\n\nBULLET::::- Common gull, \"Larus canus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Pallas's gull, \"Ichthyaetus ichthyaetus\"\n", "BULLET::::- European nightjar, \"Caprimulgus europaeus\"\n\nSection::::Apodiformes.\n\nApodidae: swifts\n\nBULLET::::- Common swift, \"Apus apus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Alpine swift, \"Apus melba\"\n\nSection::::Coraciiformes.\n\nBULLET::::- Alcedinidae: kingfishers\n\nBULLET::::- Common kingfisher, \"Alcedo atthis\"\n\nMeropidae: bee-eaters\n\nBULLET::::- Blue-cheeked bee-eater, \"Merops persicus\"\n\nBULLET::::- European bee-eater, \"Merops apiaster\"\n\nCoraciidae: rollers\n\nBULLET::::- European roller, \"Coracias garrulus\"\n\nUpupidae: hoopoes\n\nBULLET::::- Hoopoe, \"Upupa epops\"\n\nSection::::Piciformes.\n\nPicidae: woodpeckers\n\nBULLET::::- Eurasian wryneck, \"Jynx torquilla\"\n\nBULLET::::- Great spotted woodpecker, \"Dendrocopos major\"\n\nBULLET::::- White-winged woodpecker, \"Dendrocopos leucopterus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Eurasian three-toed woodpecker, \"Picoides tridactylus\"\n\nSection::::Passeriformes.\n\nAlaudidae, larks\n\nBULLET::::- Calandra lark, \"Melanocorypha calandra\"\n\nBULLET::::- Bimaculated lark, \"Melanocorypha bimaculata\"\n\nBULLET::::- Black lark, \"Melanocorypha yeltoniensis\"\n", "Other methods of preservation include the storage of specimens in spirit. Such wet specimens have special value in physiological and anatomical study, apart from providing better quality of DNA for molecular studies. Freeze drying of specimens is another technique that has the advantage of preserving stomach contents and anatomy, although it tends to shrink, making it less reliable for morphometrics.\n\nSection::::Techniques.:In the field.\n" ]	[ "Small birds such as sparrows that fly during freezing temperatures should freeze to death." ]	[ "Said birds have antifreeze within their blood which allows them to survive." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Small birds such as sparrows that fly during freezing temperatures should freeze to death.", "Small birds such as sparrows that fly during freezing temperatures should freeze to death." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Said birds have antifreeze within their blood which allows them to survive.", "Said birds have antifreeze within their blood which allows them to survive." ]
2018-14427	How have we not run out of phone numbers and car license numbers?	There are more license plate options than people. 10 possible numbers and 26 possible letters in 6 to 8 possible configurations equals literally trillions of possible combinations. As for phone numbers, they just added an additional digit option for business lines and cleared a lot of clutter for residential.	[ "As cellular phones become more popular, there has been debate about releasing cell phone numbers into public 411 and reverse number directories. (S. 1963, the \"Wireless 411 Privacy Act\" 9/2004). However, opposition led by leading consumer-protection organization Consumers Union presented several privacy concerns in their congressional testimony. Right now, cell phone numbers are not available in any public 411 or reverse-number directories. However, several information companies provide reverse cell phone lookups that are obtained from utility resources, and are available online. Because there is no central database of cell phone numbers, reverse phone directories that claim to be free cannot return information on those numbers.\n", "Section::::Africa.:South Africa.\n\nIn South Africa, vital records are contained in the National Population Register, which is maintained by the national Department of Home Affairs. Any Home Affairs office can record a vital event or issue a certified copy of a vital record.\n\nSection::::Africa.:Burkina Faso.\n\nIn Burkina Faso, since 2015, a centralized CRVS (Civil Registration and Vital Statistics) is being implemented by the non governmental organization iCivil Africa. This \"new tech start up has set themselves a massive task: to register all newborn babies digitally\".\n\nSection::::Europe.\n\nSection::::Europe.:France.\n", "In 1992, ATF began creating a computerized \"index\" (based on firearm serial number and dealer license number) to the microfilmed Out-of-Business records. Data was originally captured on minicomputers and transferred to a mainframe computer database. The retrieval system, called \"CARS\" (Computer Assisted Retrieval System), was disclosed in a 1995 letter to Tanya K. Metaksa of the NRA. By 2000, ATF revealed they had indexed 100 million such records, with over 300 million additional records scheduled to be added over the following two years. (Commerce in Firearms, ATF, 2000) Over 400 million firearm transaction records were to be indexed by 2002 – about twice the total estimated number of firearms in the United States at that time.\n", "BULLET::::- Road vehicle movement tracking: Across the country efforts have been increasingly under way to track closely all road vehicle movements, initially using a nationwide network of roadside cameras connected to automatic number plate recognition systems. These have tracked, recorded, and stored the details of all journeys undertaken on major roads and through city centres and the information is stored for five years. In the longer term mandatory onboard vehicle telematics systems are also suggested, to facilitate road charging (\"see vehicle excise duty\"). Part 2, Chapter 1 of the Protection of Freedoms Act 2012 creates a new regulation for, and instructs the Secretary of State to prepare a code of practice towards, closed-circuit television and automatic number plate recognition.\n", "As the system allows for a maximum of ten million numbers to be issued, and with numbers having been issued to both the Irish and the legal immigrant population, expatriates, and many people who are now deceased, the current system will be in need of expansion in the not distant future.\n", "In Norway (and some other countries) the directory services in the 1970s distinguished between secret number, unlisted number and listed number with a hidden address. The first type secret number was typically used by celebrities (in this case the address was hidden as well). The second type unlisted number was not listed in the (paper based) phone book, but was listed on the directory service (a voice call to 018 in the 1970s). Listed number with a hidden address is useful for women's shelter etc., where the number needs to be listed, but where the address shall be hidden to the general public. Naturally there are many changes when directory services became available on the Internet, but this case shows that separate user groups may have different needs to hide various parameters relating to privacy.\n", "Printed reverse phone directories have been produced by the telephone companies (in the United States) for decades, and were distributed to the phone companies, law enforcement, and public libraries. In the early 1990s, businesses started offering reverse telephone lookups for fees, and by the early 2000s advertising-based reverse directories were available online, prompting occasional alarms about privacy concerns.\n\nSection::::Australia.\n", "Efforts to digitize the database began as early as 1968, but the database was not fully digitized until 1986. By 1994 it had come to be used in answering more than 4,000 public queries per year.\n\nSection::::Availability.\n", "BULLET::::- Driver's license: Driver's licenses issued by state departments of motor vehicles (DMVs) and registries of motor vehicles (RMVs) are the most common form of identification in the United States; the issuing agencies maintain databases of drivers, including photographs and addresses. States also issue voluntary ID cards to non-drivers, who are then also included in the DMV/RMV database. Although most American adults carry their driver's license at all times when they are outside their homes, there is no legal requirement that they must be carrying their license when not operating a vehicle. In 2005, the U.S. Congress passed the REAL ID Act, which gives the Department of Homeland Security the power to regulate the design and content of all state driver's licenses, and to require that all of the underlying state databases be linked into a single national database.\n", "In Denmark, there has been a systematic registration since 1924, however it was in 1968 that the electronic CPR register was established.\n\nIn the 1980s, the electronic system was exported to Kuwait, Jamaica, Malaysia, Thailand, Romania, Cyprus, Estonia, Latvia, Slovakia, and Saint Petersburg.\n", "Government entities are numbered in a variety of ways, but since 2003 all government entities (however small) now have EAN numbers for billing purposes. Some Government entities also have CVR numbers. Only one Government Entity (the Queen) has a CPR number.\n\nThe CPR number gives government agencies access to state-controlled databases with information about the person. The information includes: The person's marital status and spouse, parents, children, current and former addresses, the cars the person has owned, the criminal record and other information about the person.\n", "In the aftermath of the 11 September 2001 attacks, the US government determined that PNRs (both archived and real-time) were invaluable tools for investigating and thwarting terrorist attacks. Accordingly, the US government has sought the collection, transfer and retention of PNRs by the US Department of Homeland Security (DHS) Bureau of Customs and Border Protection.\n", "BULLET::::- Telephone and Internet surveillance: In 2008 plans were being made to collect data on people's phone, e-mail and web-browsing habits and were expected to be included in the Communications Data Bill. The \"giant database\" would include telephone numbers dialed, the websites visited and addresses to which e-mails are sent \"but not the content of e-mails or telephone conversations.\"\n\nSection::::European Union.:United Kingdom.:Disbanded.\n", "It is possible to obtain a Distinctive Personal Number (), only for newborn infants and it is optional and not compulsory, for a fee (US$130, 200, or 260 depending on the category).\n\nAnother local name for the Personal number is Central Population Registration (CPR) Number () which was used before the inception of the Central Informatics Organization (CIO) ().\n\nSection::::Asia.:Bangladesh.\n", "In a paper presented to the United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research in Geneva, Switzerland, published in 2003, Gary L. Thomas, Chief, Firearms Programs Division, ATF, discussed the planned digitization of Out-of-Business dealer, importer, and manufacturer records, mentioned the projected cost, and noted it would not require any legislative or regulatory changes. Shortly thereafter, the digitization project appeared in the Congressional Appropriations Bill.\n\nFrom the 2005 Appropriations Bill:\n", "BULLET::::- Sub-building information, such as apartment numbers, is rarely used - a name on the post box is usually the only method of identification of an addressee within a building.\n\nSection::::Format by country and area.:Greece.\n\nHellenic Post recommends the following format for Greek addresses:\n", "Section::::History.:116xxx telephone number issued (2009).\n\nIn 2009, Ofcom introduced the first harmonised European numbers for harmonised services of social value, allocating 116 000 to the Missing People service. This number is free to call from mobiles and landlines.\n\nSection::::Working with the police.\n", "A 2000 study found that 87 percent of the U.S. population can be identified using a combination of their gender, birthdate and zip code. Others do not think that re-identification is a serious threat, and call it a \"myth\"; they claim that the combination of zip code, date of birth and gender is rare or partially complete, such as only the year and month birth without the date, or the county name instead of the specific zip code, thus the risk of such re-identification is reduced in many instances.\n\nSection::::Legal protections of data in the United States.\n", "The Department of Health published a consultation at the end of 2008 calling for views on the usage of 084 numbers in the NHS which received more than 3000 responses. Ofcom recommended the 03 option. In 2009, Heart of Birmingham Primary Care Trust moved 22 GPs to new 0345 numbers.\n\nAlthough 0870 numbers were banned in 2005, even as late as 2010 there were NHS bodies only now just getting around to complying with that ban.\n", "Images of the missing and unidentified, including forensic facial reconstructions, tattoos, and age progressions are also posted when available for cases. Cases of murder conviction without a body are also listed, although their cases have been solved. In some instances, the victim could possibly remain unidentified. \n", "Comprehensive addressing of all buildings is still not complete, even in developed countries. For example, the Navajo Nation in the United States was still assigning rural addresses as of 2015 and the lack of addresses can be used for voter disenfranchisement in USA. In many cities in Asia, most minor streets were never named, and this is still the case today in much of Japan. A third of houses in Ireland lacked unique numbers until the introduction of Eircode in 2014.\n\nSection::::Current addressing schemes.\n\nSection::::Current addressing schemes.:House numbering or naming.\n", "In 2007, the NamUs Unidentified Persons database was launched, providing medical examiners and coroners with a tool to store and share case information with criminal justice professionals and family members of missing persons across the country. The following year, the NamUs Missing Persons (MP) database was launched, and in 2009, the databases were connected for automatic case comparisons, expanding the power of NamUs to make associations between missing and unidentified persons.\n", "The Residents Basic Registry Network or \"Juki Net“ was introduced in 2003. This is introduced to increase government efficiency with 264 government tasks to be attached to the new system. In the new system a person identification number is handed out consisting of eleven digits that can be used as a replacement for other identification documents.\n\nSection::::Asia and Oceania.:Pakistan.\n", "The community develops policies by following a formal Policy Development Process as outlined at https://www.arin.net/policy/pdp.html. The Number Resource Policy Manual, ARIN's complete set of current policies, is available at https://www.arin.net/policy/nrpm.html.\n\nMembership is not required to participate in ARIN's policy development process or to apply for Internet number resources.\n\nServices include:\n\nBULLET::::- Maintaining discussion e-mail lists\n\nBULLET::::- Conducting public policy meetings\n\nBULLET::::- Publishing policy documents\n\nSection::::Organizational structure.\n", "Although the United States for example assigns most citizens and residents a social security number intended to be unique to the recipient and information regarding birth, death and work history (in the form of contributions to the social security system) is collected, the U.S. social security system has long been intentionally restricted in the scope of information collected and maintained regarding individuals where not directly related to social security benefits—as such, no information is centrally collected regarding marriage, citizenship status, parentage, or the like, in contrast to the German and Japanese family register systems.\n" ]	[ "It is impossible for there to be enough license plates and phone numbers for every person. ", "It should not be possible that there are enough license plates and phone numbers for human beings.", "It is impossible for there to still be remaining phone numbers and license numbers." ]	[ "There is currently an excess of license plates, and some phone numbers have been cleared out, whilst others have had added digits which creates enough for every person. ", "There are more possible license plate combinations than human beings, and phone numbers have been altered with added digits and cleared out to make more available numbers for humans. ", "There are more available license plate combinations than there are people, as for phone numbers, additional digits were added and some numbers were cleared to create more available options for people." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "It is impossible for there to be enough license plates and phone numbers for every person. ", "It should not be possible that there are enough license plates and phone numbers for human beings.", "It is impossible for there to still be remaining phone numbers and license numbers.", "We have not run out of license plate numbers or phone numbers." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "There is currently an excess of license plates, and some phone numbers have been cleared out, whilst others have had added digits which creates enough for every person. ", "There are more possible license plate combinations than human beings, and phone numbers have been altered with added digits and cleared out to make more available numbers for humans. ", "There are more available license plate combinations than there are people, as for phone numbers, additional digits were added and some numbers were cleared to create more available options for people.", "Phone numbers had to be extended for businesses to reduce clutter by adding an optional extra digit. " ]
2018-23717	Why are m.2 NVMe SSDs at times cheaper or the same price as standard 2.5inch, despite being about 3-5 times faster?	Most likely because it's such a nice form factor, yes. Manufacturers are likely to have leftover stock of them, and be willing to sell them for cheap. Also, since they mount more or less directly into the motherboard, there's probably less material cost in making them - no big enclosure, less control electronics, no cables in the box, etc.	[ "Taken together, these differences make NF1 more suitable for enterprise deployment than M.2, at higher density than 2.5\" SSD (U.2) drives. As of late 2018, NF1 modules of up to 16TiB of NAND SSD storage have come to market. An NF1-based 1U server can hold up to 36 such NF1 modules (576TiB) in a single 1U rack height.\n\nM.2 Compatibility\n\nOther NVMe SSD Compatibility\n\nPCI-SIG Statement Regarding NF1 Interoperability with M.2\n", "In July 2009, Intel moved its X25-M and X18-M lines from a 50-nanometer to a 34-nanometer process. These new drives, dubbed by the press as the X25-M and X18-M G2 (or generation 2), reduced prices by up to 60 percent while offering lower latency and improved performance.\n", "Along with the emerging enterprise market, SSDs have been appearing in ultra-mobile PCs and a few lightweight laptop systems, adding significantly to the price of the laptop, depending on the capacity, form factor and transfer speeds. For low-end applications, a USB flash drive may be obtainable for anywhere from $10 to $100 or so, depending on capacity and speed; alternatively, a CompactFlash card may be paired with a CF-to-IDE or CF-to-SATA converter at a similar cost. Either of these requires that write-cycle endurance issues be managed, either by refraining from storing frequently written files on the drive or by using a flash file system. Standard CompactFlash cards usually have write speeds of 7 to 15 MB/s while the more expensive upmarket cards claim speeds of up to 60 MB/s.\n", "Recently, solid-state drives have become popular, which offer significantly higher speeds than magnetic hard drives. Though originally more expensive, the price has significantly dropped. The performance of SSD's is now considered a minimum in a \"rig,\" and some even consider them necessary even in budget pc's. \n\nCurrently M.2 drives have become the newest form of \"affordable\" fast storage. These drives connect straight into the motherboard, allowing for extremely fast data read & write speed. These drives are very fast and most NVME M.2 drives easily pass the speed of SATA SSD's. \n\nSection::::Hardware description.:Networking.\n", "In 2016, Seagate demonstrated 10GB/S transfer speeds from a 16-lane PCIe SSD and also demonstrated a 60TB SSD in a 3.5-inch form factor. Samsung also launched to market a 15.36TB SSD with a price tag of US$10,000 using a SAS interface, using a 2.5-inch form factor but with the thickness of 3.5-inch drives. This was the first time a commercially available SSD had more capacity than the largest currently available HDD. \n", "On February 1, 2010, Intel and Micron announced that they were gearing up for production of NAND flash memory using a new 25-nanometer process. In March of that same year, Intel entered the budget SSD segment with its X25-V drives with an initial capacity of 40 GB. The SSD 310, Intel's first mSATA drive was released in December 2010, providing X25-M G2 performance in a much smaller package.\n", "There are many form factors of NVMe Solid State Drive, such as AIC, U.2, M.2 etc.\n\nSection::::Form Factors.:AIC (Add in card).\n\nAlmost all early NVMe Solid State Drive are HHHL or FHHL AIC, with a PCIe 2.0 or 3.0 interface. A HHHL AIC NVMe Solid State Drive is easy to adapt to insert in to the PCIe socket of a server.\n\nSection::::Form Factors.:U.2 (SFF-8639).\n", "BULLET::::- All models support: \"MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, SSE4.2, AVX, AVX2, x86-64, NX bit, x86 virtualization, VIA PadLock (SHA, AES, RNG)\", VIA PowerSaver\n\nBULLET::::- Manufacturing in 28 nm\n\nBULLET::::- Similar to Zhaoxin ZX-C\n\nSection::::Ultra-low voltage processors.\n\nVIA Nano 1000/2000 series\n\nBULLET::::- All models support: \"MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, x86-64, NX bit, x86 virtualization (stepping 3 and higher), VIA PadLock (SHA, AES, RNG)\", VIA PowerSaver\n\nVIA Nano 3000 series \n\nBULLET::::- All models support: \"MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, x86-64, NX bit, x86 virtualization, VIA PadLock (SHA, AES, RNG)\", VIA PowerSaver\n\nBULLET::::- Manufacturing in 65 nm\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "While the price of SSDs has continued to decline over time, SSDs are () still more expensive per unit of storage than HDDs and are expected to remain so into the next decade.\n", "The M.2 standard has been designed as a revision and improvement to the mSATA standard, with the possibility of larger printed circuit boards (PCBs) as one of its primary incentives. While the mSATA took advantage of the existing PCI Express Mini Card (Mini PCIe) form factor and connector, M.2 has been designed from the ground up to maximize usage of the PCB space while minimizing the module footprint. As the result of the M.2 standard allowing longer modules and double-sided component population, M.2 SSD devices can provide larger storage capacities and can also double the storage capacity within the footprints of mSATA devices.\n", "Because HSMs are often part of a mission-critical infrastructure such as a public key infrastructure or online banking application, HSMs can typically be clustered for high availability and performance. Some HSMs feature dual power supplies and field replaceable components such as cooling fans to conform to the high-availability requirements of data center environments and to enable business continuity.\n", "Historically, most SSDs used buses such as SATA, SAS or Fibre Channel for interfacing with the rest of a computer system. Since SSDs became available in mass markets, SATA has become the most typical way for connecting SSDs in personal computers; however, SATA was designed primarily for interfacing with mechanical hard disk drives (HDDs), and it became increasingly inadequate for SSDs, which improved in speed over time. For example, within about 5 years of mass market mainstream adoption (2005–2010) many SSDs were already held back by the comparatively slow data rates available for hard drives—unlike hard disk drives, some SSDs are limited by the maximum throughput of SATA.\n", "Compared with electromechanical drives, SSDs are typically more resistant to physical shock, run silently, and have quicker access time and lower latency. SSDs store data in semiconductor cells. As of 2019, cells can contain between 1 and 4 bits of data. SSD storage devices vary in their properties according to the number of bits stored in each cell, with single bit cells (\"SLC\") being generally the most reliable, durable, fast, and expensive type, compared with 2 and 3 bit cells (\"MLC\" and \"TLC\"), and finally quad bit cells (\"QLC\") being used for consumer devices that do not require such extreme properties and are the cheapest of the four. In addition, 3D XPoint memory (sold by Intel under the Optane brand), stores data by changing the electrical resistance of cells instead of storing electrical charges in cells, and SSDs made from RAM can be used for high speed, when data persistence after power loss is not required, or may use battery power to retain data when its usual power source is unavailable. Hybrid drives or solid-state hybrid drives (SSHDs), such as Apple's Fusion Drive, combine features of SSDs and HDDs in the same unit, containing a large hard disk drive and an SSD cache to improve performance of frequently-accessed data.\n", "1T-SRAM has speed comparable to 6T-SRAM (at multi-megabit densities). It is significantly faster speed than eDRAM, and the \"quad-density\" variant is only slightly larger (10–15% is claimed). On most foundry processes, designs with eDRAM require additional (and costly) masks and processing steps, offsetting the cost of a larger 1T-SRAM die. Also, some of those steps require very high temperatures and must take place after the logic transistors are formed, possibly damaging them.\n", "Because it has a faster CPU and a wider memory space than the main unit side, it is possible to calculate faster than the main unit if it is a process without I / O.\n\nSection::::Footnote.\n\nBULLET::::1. ^ If you want to perform advanced settings, specify the RS-232C baud rate, start drive, internal and external FDD replacement, and start from a special board by activating the IPL while pressing a specific key\n", "BULLET::::- All models support: \"MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, x86-64, NX bit, x86 virtualization, VIA PadLock (SHA, AES, RNG)\", VIA PowerSaver\n\nBULLET::::- Manufacturing in 40 nm\n\nBULLET::::- Two Nano 3000 (Isaiah) in the same die\n\nVIA QuadCore Processor \n\nBULLET::::- All models support: \"MMX, SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, x86-64, NX bit, x86 virtualization, VIA PadLock (SHA, AES, RNG)\", VIA PowerSaver\n\nBULLET::::- Manufacturing in 40 nm\n\nBULLET::::- Two Nano x2 (Isaiah) in a Multi-chip module\n\nVIA QuadCore Processor\n", "Flash memory-based solutions are typically packaged in standard disk drive form factors (1.8-, 2.5-, and 3.5-inch), but also in smaller more compact form factors, such as the M.2 form factor, made possible by the small size of flash memory.\n\nLower-priced drives usually use triple-level cell (TLC) or multi-level cell (MLC) flash memory, which is slower and less reliable than single-level cell (SLC) flash memory. This can be mitigated or even reversed by the internal design structure of the SSD, such as interleaving, changes to writing algorithms, and higher over-provisioning (more excess capacity) with which the wear-leveling algorithms can work.\n", "In December 2013, Samsung introduced and launched the industry's first 1 TB mSATA SSD. In August 2015, Samsung announced a 16 TB SSD, at the time the world's highest-capacity single storage device of any type.\n\nWhile a number of companies offer SSD devices as of 2018 only five of the companies that offer them actually manufacture the Nand Flash devices that are the storage element in SSDs.\n\nSection::::Commercialization.:Quality and performance.\n", "SSDs can use traditional hard disk drive (HDD) interfaces and form factors, or newer interfaces and form factors that exploit specific advantages of the flash memory in SSDs. Traditional interfaces (e.g., SATA and SAS) and standard HDD form factors allow such SSDs to be used as drop-in replacements for HDDs in computers and other devices. Newer form factors such as mSATA, M.2, U.2, and EDSFF (formerly known as Ruler SSD) and higher speed interfaces such as NVMe over PCI Express can increase performance over HDD performance.\n\nSection::::Development and history.\n\nSection::::Development and history.:Early SSDs using RAM and similar technology.\n", "M.2 form factor, formerly known as the Next Generation Form Factor (NGFF), is a natural transition from the mSATA and physical layout it used, to a more usable and more advanced form factor. While mSATA took advantage of an existing form factor and connector, M.2 has been designed to maximize usage of the card space, while minimizing the footprint. The M.2 standard allows both SATA and PCI Express SSDs to be fitted onto M.2 modules.\n\nSection::::Configurations.:Disk-on-a-module form factors.\n", "In late 2015, Intel announced that they were producing their first consumer PCIe-based solid state drive, to be named the 750 series. These new drives would either be plugged directly into a compatible PCIe 3.0 x4 slot or into the U.2 connector on the motherboard.\n\nIn 2017, Intel launched the 900P series Optane SSDs based on 3D XPoint technology as opposed to NAND flash memory. The price and speed of Optane memory is between that of DRAM and NAND. Prices are 2x-5x that of SSDs at announcement with significantly reduced latency.\n", "Since around 2005–2007 Dennard scaling appears to have broken down. As of 2016, transistor counts in integrated circuits are still growing, but the resulting improvements in performance are more gradual than the speed-ups resulting from significant frequency increases. The primary reason cited for the breakdown is that at small sizes, current leakage poses greater challenges and also causes the chip to heat up, which creates a threat of thermal runaway and therefore further increases energy costs.\n", "According to Myricom, 141 (28.2%) of the June 2005 TOP500 supercomputers used Myrinet technology. In the November 2005 TOP500, the number of supercomputers using Myrinet was down to 101 computers, or 20.2%, in November 2006, 79 (15.8%), and by November 2007, 18 (3.6%), a long way behind gigabit Ethernet at 54% and InfiniBand at 24.2%.\n\nIn the June 2014 TOP500 list, the number of supercomputers using Myrinet interconnect was 1 (0.2%).\n", "March 2011 saw the introduction of two new SSD lines from Intel. The first, the SSD 510, used an SATA 6 Gigabit per second interface to reach speeds of up to 500 MB/s. The drive, which uses a controller from Marvell Technology Group, was released using 34 nm NAND Flash and came in capacities of 120 GB and 250 GB. The second product announcement, the SSD 320, is the successor to Intel's earlier X25-M. It uses the new 25 nm process that Intel and Micron announced in 2010, and was released in capacities of 40, 80, 120, 160, 300 and 600 GB. Sequential read performance maxes out at 270 MB/s due to the older SATA 3 Gbit/s interface, and sequential write performance varies greatly based on the size of the drive with sequential write performance of the 40 GB model peaking at 45 MB/s and the 600 GB at 220 MB/s.\n", "BULLET::::- In the real world, MLC based designs - believed less reliable than SLC designs - are often as reliable as SLC. (The findings state that \"SLC [is] not generally more reliable than MLC\")\n\nBULLET::::- Device age, measured by days in use, is the main factor in SSD reliability, and not amount of data read or written, which are measured by TBW or DWPD. Because this finding persists after controlling for early failure and other factors, it is likely that factors such as \"silicon aging\" is a cause of this trend. The correlation is significant (around 0.2 - 0.4).\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-18056	what the exponents in the Cobb-Douglas Utility function represent.	The exponents are typically called "share weights" because they are the share of income that the consumer will spend on that good. So if u(x,y)=(x\^a)\*(y\^b), the consumer will spend a/(a+b) of her income on good x and b/(a+b) of her income on good y. What that means in practice is that in a Cobb-Douglas world, if you spend $10 a week on steak, the only thing that can change how much money you spend on steak is a change in your income. If your income increases by 10%, you'd spend $11 on steak. If the price of steak went up, you'd still spend $10 on steak, but now it would buy you less. If the price of fish went down, that would have no bearing on your consumption of steak.	[ "BULLET::::- The numbers formula_58 are called the \"parameters\" of the scheme. They are also referred to as the \"structural constants\".\n\nSection::::History.\n", "This suggests that there is an optimal protection limit formula_13. If the capacity left is less than this limit demand for class 2 is rejected. If a continuous distribution formula_14 is used to model the demand, then formula_15 can be calculated using what is called \"Littlewood’s rule\":\n\nThis gives the optimal protection limit, in terms of the division of the marginal revenue of both classes.\n\nAlternatively bid prices can be calculated via\n", "The terms formula_7 and formula_8 measure first- and second-order interest rate sensitivity. These are conventionally referred to as the \"modified duration\" and \"convexity\" of the security, and are often called risk numbers.\n", "A much more applicable example is one with a certain piece of equipment that will yield benefit for a manufacturing operation over a certain period of time. For instance, the machine benefits the company $2,500.00 every year, and has a useful life of 8 years. The MARR is determined to be roughly 5%. The compound interest tables yield a different factor for different types of analysis in this scenario. If the company wishes to know the Net Present Benefit (NPB) of these benefits; then the factor is the P/A of 8 yrs at 5%. This is 6.463. If the company wishes to know the future worth of these benefits; then the factors is the F/A of 8 yrs at 5%; which is 9.549. The former gives a NPB of $16,157.50, while the latter gives a future value of $23,872.50.\n", "where the right hand-side is the reserve rate. Therefore the requirement formula_83 may be interpreted as follows: k-th outcome is included in the set formula_73 of optimal outcomes if and only if its expected revenue rate is greater than the reserve rate. The formula for the optimal fraction formula_74 may be interpreted as the excess of the expected revenue rate of k-th horse over the reserve rate divided by the revenue after deduction of the track take when k-th horse wins or as the excess of the probability of k-th horse winning over the reserve rate divided by revenue after deduction of the track take when k-th horse wins. The binary growth exponent is\n", "An interpretation of this solution is that the consumer uses a fraction formula_13 of his wealth in purchasing good .\n\nThe indirect utility function can be calculated by substituting the demand into the utility function. Ignoring a certain multiplicative constant which depends only on the formula_14s, we get:\n\nwhich is a special case of the Gorman polar form. The expenditure function is the inverse of the indirect utility function:\n\nSection::::Various representations of the production function.\n\nThe Cobb–Douglas function form can be estimated as a linear relationship using the following expression:\n\nwhere\n\nBULLET::::- formula_18\n\nBULLET::::- formula_19\n\nBULLET::::- formula_20\n", "Engineers often utilize compound interest tables to determine the future or present value of capital. These tables can also be used to determine the effect annuities have on loans, operations, or other situations. All one needs to utilize a compound interest table is three things; the time period of the analysis, the minimum attractive rate of return (MARR), and the capital value itself. The table will yield a multiplication factor to be used with the capital value, this will then give the user the proper future or present value.\n\nSection::::Examples of usage.:Examples of Present, Future, and Annuity Analysis.\n", "Based on earlier work by McBryde (1969), Gans and O'Sullivan (2000) describe an iterative approach to arrive at both formula_51 and formula_53 values in the relation formula_50, from a titration of strong acid by strong base: \n\n/math is first estimated from the acidic data according to Rossotti and Rossotti (1965), and formula_53 is initially taken to have its theoretical value;\n", "This simple result enables very quick analysis, taking into account releases associated with the entire supply chain requirements needed to provide a specific final demand, on average. The equations are based on average data in the current economy, but they can be used to make predictions for marginal changes in output (such as one more unit of a particular product) if \n\nBULLET::::1. average output and marginal output are assumed to be sufficiently close (i.e., the impact of \"one more unit\" = the impact of \"the average unit\"), and\n", "where the function formula_31 satisfies the equality:\n\nIn the special case in which all agents have the same utility function formula_33, the aggregate utility function is:\n\nSection::::Examples.:Homothetic preferences.\n\nThe indirect utility function has the form:\n\nwhich is also a special case of the Gorman form.\n\nParticularly: linear, Leontief and Cobb-Douglas utilities are homothetic and thus have the Gorman form.\n\nSection::::Proof of linearity and equality of slope of Engel curves.\n", "Since they don't know what sample would actually be obtained if one were obtained, they must average over all possible samples to obtain the expected utility given a sample:\n\nThe expected value of sample information is then defined as\n\nSection::::Computation.\n", "These correlations are the mass transfer analogies to heat transfer correlations of the Nusselt number in terms of the Reynolds number and Prandtl number. For a correlation for a given geometry (e.g. spheres, plates, cylinders, etc.), a heat transfer correlation (often more readily available from literature and experimental work, and easier to determine) for the Nusselt number (Nu) in terms of the Reynolds number (Re) and the Prandtl number (Pr) can be used as a mass transfer correlation by replacing the Prandtl number with the analogous dimensionless number for mass transfer, the Schmidt number, and replacing the Nusselt number with the analogous dimensionless number for mass transfer, the Sherwood number.\n", "we impose two conditions. The first condition is that the utility of category 1 is equal to or more than a given level:\n\nThe second condition is that the government revenue formula_20, which is equal to or more than the revenue requirement formula_21, is increased by a given amount: \n\nwhere formula_24 and formula_25 indicate the number of individuals of each type. Under these conditions, the government needs to maximise the utility formula_26 of category 2. Then writing down the Lagrange function for this problem:\n\nwhich ensures satisfaction of the self-selection constraints, we obtain the first order conditions:\n", "This is adapted from a script for the MATLAB system, and its main merit is that it actually does generate a suitable curve. In more general work, times and phases are usually referenced to GMT, and the prediction would be annotated with actual dates and times.\n\nSection::::Doodson numbers.:Usage in tidal analysis.:Results.\n", "where the left side is the subjective valuation of the gamble as a whole, formula_4 is the \"i\"th possible outcome, formula_5 is its valuation, and formula_6 is its probability. There could be either a finite set of possible values formula_7 in which case the right side of this equation has a finite number of terms; or there could be an infinite set of discrete values, in which case the right side has an infinite number of terms.\n\nWhen formula_1 can take on any of a continuous range of values, the expected utility is given by\n", "There are formula_2 agents which have different valuations for each outcome.\n\nIn general, each agent can assign a different and unrelated value to every outcome in formula_1.\n\nIn the special case of single-parameter utility, each agent formula_4 has a publicly-known outcome subset formula_5 which are the \"winning outcomes\" for agent formula_4 (e.g., in a single-item auction, formula_7 contains the outcome in which agent formula_4 wins the item).\n\nFor every agent, there is a number formula_9 which represents the \"winning-value\" of formula_4. The agent's valuation of the outcomes in formula_1 can take one of two values:\n", "BULLET::::- Aggregate analysis determines the upper bound \"T\"(\"n\") on the total cost of a sequence of \"n\" operations, then calculates the amortized cost to be \"T\"(\"n\") / \"n\".\n", "where \"A\", \"A\", and \"A\" are the weight functions that still need to be determined. Three further types of points can be employed as shown in the table. Each of these types of classes can contribute more than one set of points to the grid. In complete generality, the Lebedev scheme is\n\nwhere the total number of points, \"N\", is\n", "Beginning in 1979 with the publication of the prospect theory of Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky, a range of generalized expected utility models were developed with the aim of resolving the Allais and Ellsberg paradoxes, while maintaining many of the attractive properties of expected utility theory.\n", "A decision state, formula_5 in this example is a vector of five numbers between 0 and 1 that sum to 1, giving the proportion of future patients that will experience each of the five possible outcomes. For example, a state formula_21 denotes the case where 5% of patients are cured, 60% improve, 20% find the treatment ineffective, 10% experience mild side-effects and 5% experience dangerous side-effects.\n", "Price index formulas can be evaluated based on their relation to economic concepts (like cost of living) or on their mathematical properties. Several different tests of such properties have been proposed in index number theory literature. W.E. Diewert summarized past research in a list of nine such tests for a price index formula_46, where formula_47 and formula_48 are vectors giving prices for a base period and a reference period while formula_49 and formula_50 give quantities for these periods.\n\nBULLET::::1. Identity test:\n\nBULLET::::- formula_51\n", "When designing large-scale, continuous industrial distillation towers, it is very useful to first calculate the minimum number of theoretical plates required to obtain the desired overhead product composition.\n\nSection::::Common versions of the Fenske equation.\n\nThis is one of the many different but equivalent versions of the Fenske equation valid only for binary mixtures:\n\nwhere:\n\nBULLET::::- formula_2 is the minimum number of theoretical plates required at total reflux (of which the reboiler is one),\n\nBULLET::::- formula_3 is the mole fraction of more volatile component in the overhead distillate,\n\nBULLET::::- formula_4 is the mole fraction of more volatile component in the bottoms,\n", "in which the limiting case corresponds to a Cobb–Douglas function, formula_24 with constant returns to scale.\n\nTo see this, the log of the CES function,\n\ncan be taken to the limit by applying l'Hôpital's rule:\n\nTherefore, formula_27.\n\nSection::::Relationship to the CES production function.:Translog production function.\n", "1. It asks the agents to report their value function. I.e, each agent formula_3 should report formula_11 for each option formula_5.\n\n2. Based on the agents' report-vector formula_13, it calculates formula_14 as above.\n\n3. It pays, to each agent formula_3, a sum of money equal to the total values of the \"other\" agents:\n\n4. It pays, to each agent formula_3, an additional sum, based on an arbitrary function of the values of the other agents:\n\nwhere formula_19, that is, formula_20 is a function that only depends on the valuation of the others.\n\nSection::::Truthfulness.\n", "A table of the gears, their teeth, and the expected and computed rotations of various important gears follows. The gear functions come from Freeth et al. (2008) and those for the lower half of the table from Freeth and Jones 2012. The computed values start with 1 year/revolution for the b1 gear, and the remainder are computed directly from gear teeth ratios. The gears marked with an asterisk (*) are missing, or have predecessors missing, from the known mechanism; these gears have been calculated with reasonable gear teeth counts.\n\n\"Table notes:\"\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-18761	Why do people tell me that lemonade, coffee, soft drinks, alcohol, etc. dehydrate me when those beverages are a very high percentage water?	Alcohol dehydrates you because it is a diuretic - it makes you pee. The rest don't dehydrate you, you're just better off drinking water because it doesn't contain all that sugar.	[ "is based on the natural and non-destructive phenomenon of osmosis across cell membranes. The driving force for the diffusion of water from the tissue into the solution is provided by the higher osmotic pressure of the hyper-tonic solution. The diffusion of water is accompanied by the simultaneous counter diffusion of solutes from the osmotic solution into the tissue. Since the cell membrane responsible for osmotic transport is not perfectly selective, solutes present in the cells (organic acids, reducing sugars, minerals, flavors and pigment compounds) can also be leaked into the osmotic solution, which affects the organoleptic and nutritional characteristics of the product.\n", "Any activity or situation that promotes heavy sweating can lead to water intoxication when water is consumed to replace lost fluids. Persons working in extreme heat and/or humidity for long periods must take care to drink and eat in ways that help to maintain electrolyte balance. People using drugs such as MDMA (often referred to colloquially as \"Ecstasy\") may overexert themselves, perspire heavily, feel increased thirst, and then drink large amounts of water to rehydrate, leading to electrolyte imbalance and water intoxication – this is compounded by MDMA use increasing the levels of antidiuretic hormone (ADH), decreasing the amount of water lost through urination. Even people who are resting quietly in extreme heat or humidity may run the risk of water intoxication if they drink large amounts of water over short periods for rehydration.\n", "Drinks especially high in simple sugars, such as soft drinks and fruit juices, are not recommended as the main source of hydration, or for children under 5 years of age as they may \"increase\" diarrhea. Plain water may be used if more specific and effective ORT preparations of hydrational fluids are unavailable or are not palatable. A nasogastric tube can be used in young children to administer fluids if warranted.\n\nSection::::Preparation.\n", "Hydration\n\nHydration may refer to:\n\nBULLET::::- Hydrate, a substance that contains water\n\nBULLET::::- Hydration enthalpy, energy released through hydrating a substance\n\nBULLET::::- Hydration reaction, a chemical addition reaction where a hydroxyl group and proton are added to a compound\n\nBULLET::::- Hydration shell, a type of solvation shell\n\nBULLET::::- Hydration system, an apparatus that helps its user drink enough liquid while engaged in physical activity\n\nBULLET::::- Hydration pack, a type of hydration system composed of a carry-on pack used for hydration\n\nBULLET::::- Mineral hydration, an inorganic chemical reaction where water is added to the crystal structure of a mineral\n", "Athletes actively training and competing lose water and electrolytes by sweating, and expending energy. However, Robert Robergs, an exercise physiologist at the University of New Mexico who studied Gatorade, said that unless someone is exercising or competing in a sporting event for longer than 90 minutes, there is no reason to drink something with excess sugar and electrolytes. The Australian Institute of Sport states that excessive salt supplementation during exercise may lead to \"gastrointestinal problems or cause further impairment of fluid balance\" and may cause salt-induced cramps.\n", "Section::::Risk factors.:Psychiatric conditions.\n\nPsychogenic polydipsia is the psychiatric condition in which patients feel compelled to drink large quantities of water, thus putting them at risk of water intoxication. This condition can be especially dangerous if the patient also exhibits other psychiatric indications (as is often the case), as the care-takers might misinterpret the hyponatremic symptoms.\n\nSection::::Risk factors.:Iatrogenic.\n", "An independent test of the 2000 remote-transmission experiment was carried out in the USA by a team funded by the United States Department of Defense. Using the same experimental devices and setup as the Benveniste team, they failed to find any effect when running the experiment. Several \"positive\" results were noted, but only when a particular one of Benveniste's researchers was running the equipment. \"We did not observe systematic influences such as pipetting differences, contamination, or violations in blinding or randomization that would explain these effects from the Benveniste investigator. However, our observations do not exclude these possibilities.\"\n", "The consumption of overly sugary and/or salty foods can cause dehydration. \n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nThe treatment for minor dehydration that is often considered the most effective is drinking water and stopping fluid loss. Plain water restores only the volume of the blood plasma, inhibiting the thirst mechanism before solute levels can be replenished. Solid foods can contribute to fluid loss from vomiting and diarrhea. Urine concentration and frequency will customarily return to normal as dehydration resolves.\n", "Recently, there has been an increase in the promotion of hydration drinks. Fowhich it marketed as an exclusive hydration drink, sold only in Neiman Marcus stores. Among the drink's ingredient list were antioxidant vitamins and fruit extracts, which the company claims \"hydrate the inner and outer layer of the skin\" and protect drinkers from free radicals.\n\nGatorade has also created several drinks marketed as hydration beverages with various health benefits. Its \"Thirst Quencher\" drinks, according to advertisements, each contain an \"excellent source\" of various vitamins:\n\nBULLET::::- 25% of the RDI of B vitamins (including vitamins B, B, and B);\n", "Section::::Health concerns.:Benzene.\n\nIn 2006, the United Kingdom Food Standards Agency published the results of its survey of benzene levels in soft drinks, which tested 150 products and found that four contained benzene levels above the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines for drinking water.\n", "For healthful hydration, the current EFSA guidelines recommend total water intakes of 2.0 L/day for adult females and 2.5 L/day for adult males. These reference values include water from drinking water, other beverages, and from food. About 80% of our daily water requirement comes from the beverages we drink, with the remaining 20% coming from food. Water content varies depending on the type of food consumed, with fruit and vegetables containing more than cereals, for example. These values are estimated using country-specific food balance sheets published by the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations.\n", "Section::::Active absorption.:Active non-osmotic water absorption.\n\nThis theory was given by Thimann (1951) and Kramer (1959). According to the theory, sometimes water is absorbed against a concentration gradient. This requires expenditure of metabolic energy released from respiration of root cells. There is no direct evidence, but some scientists suggest involvement of energy from respiration. In conclusion, it is said that, the evidences supporting active absorption of water are themselves poor.\n\nSection::::Passive absorption.\n", "Section::::Commercial soft drinks.\n\nGrupo Taino LLC of the Dominican Republic markets two commercial versions of \"mabi\", both made with carbonated water. \"Seybano\" is lighter in color and made from tree bark extract and white and brown sugar, while \"Cacheo\" is darker and made from both bark and fruit extract, with spices and brown sugar. Contrary to its name, \"Mabi Cacheo\" does not include sap from the Cacheo palms (\"Pseudophoenix ekmanii\" and \"P. vinifera\").\n", "BULLET::::- Precipitation which includes rain, hail, snow, fog, etc.\n\nBULLET::::- Surface water such as rivers, streams, glaciers\n\nBULLET::::- Biological sources such as plants.\n\nBULLET::::- Desalinated seawater\n\nBULLET::::- Water supply network\n\nBULLET::::- Atmospheric water generator\n\nSprings are often used as sources for bottled waters. Tap water, delivered by domestic water systems refers to water piped to homes and delivered to a tap or spigot. For these water sources to be consumed safely, they must receive adequate treatment and meet drinking water regulations.\n", "Under normal circumstances, accidentally consuming too much water is exceptionally rare. Nearly all deaths related to water intoxication in normal individuals have resulted either from water-drinking contests, in which individuals attempt to consume large amounts of water, or from long bouts of exercise during which excessive amounts of fluid were consumed. In addition, water cure, a method of torture in which the victim is forced to consume excessive amounts of water, can cause water intoxication.\n", "BULLET::::- When obtaining water is hazardous or prohibitively expensive.\n\nBULLET::::- When using water poses a health risk.\n\nBULLET::::- When the water available is impure.\n\nBULLET::::- When you don’t have potable water.\n", "BULLET::::- Skinny Water (owned by Skinny Nutritional Corp.) and Nutrisoda's Slenderized (owned by PepsiCo) have both used a polyphenol called epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) in their products for their \" effect\".\n\nBULLET::::- A tea extract called \"Blue California\", which has a 95% EGCG content, is now on the market.\n\nSome investigators report slimming actions induced by chlorogenic acids from green coffee, but further investigations need to be performed.\n\nSection::::Market.:Sales.\n\nAs of 2008, based on dollar sales, the most popular functional beverages, in order, were:\n\nBULLET::::1. Health and wellness drinks, with 62.2% of dollar sales\n\nBULLET::::2. Hydration drinks (28%)\n", "These test results are both lower and more accurate than a previous long-term study by the FDA. In the Total Diet Study that FDA conducted from 1996 - 2001 to determine the amounts of volatile organic compounds in various foods, FDA used an analytical procedure that caused more benzene to form in the drinks during the test.\n", "The proxy metrics data show WUIs in restaurants ranging from 474 to 578 g/ksf/d in selected Colorado utilities, an average of 589 g/ksf/d in Austin, Texas, and 670 g/ksf/d in Florida. Somewhat wider range of 356 to 907 g/ksf/d was reported in an earlier study. \n", "Bottled water has lower water usage than bottled soft drinks, which average 2.02 L per 1 L, as well as beer (4 L per 1 L) and wine (4.74 L per 1 L). The larger per-litre water consumption of these drinks can be attributed to additional ingredients and production processes, such as flavor mixing and carbonization for soft drinks and fermentation for beer and wine. In the United States, bottled water production represents 0.011% of annual water consumption.\n", "When fresh water is unavailable (e.g. at sea or in a desert), seawater and ethanol will worsen the condition. Urine contains a lower solute concentration than seawater, and numerous guides advise against its consumption in survival situations. If somebody is dehydrated and is taken to a hospital, IVs are also used.\n", "BULLET::::- Drink (beverages) of particular types – drinks are liquids specifically prepared for human consumption. In addition to basic needs, beverages form part of the culture of human society. Although all beverages, including juice, soft drinks, and carbonated drinks, have some form of water in them, water itself is often not classified as a beverage, and the word beverage has been recurrently defined as not referring to water.\"See List of beverages.\"\n", "The human body contains from 55% to 78% water, depending on body size. To function properly, the body requires between of water per day to avoid dehydration; the precise amount depends on the level of activity, temperature, humidity, and other factors. Most of this is ingested through foods or beverages other than drinking straight water. It is not clear how much water intake is needed by healthy people, though the British Dietetic Association advises that 2.5 liters of total water daily is the minimum to maintain proper hydration, including 1.8 liters (6 to 7 glasses) obtained directly from beverages. Medical literature favors a lower consumption, typically 1 liter of water for an average male, excluding extra requirements due to fluid loss from exercise or warm weather.\n", "Briefly, to excrete free water from urine, the urine flow (which is solute clearance + free water clearance) will equal the rate of solute excretion divided by the urine osmolality. With a diet of only solute poor beer, only about 200–300 mOSM (normal 750 mOSM to greater than 900 mOSM) of solute will be excreted per day, capping the amount of free water excretion at four liters. Any intake above 4 liters would lead to a dilution of the serum sodium concentration and thus hyponatremia.\n", "BULLET::::- Eight glasses, or two to three liters, of water a day are not needed to maintain health. The amount of water needed varies by person (weight), activity level, clothing, and environment (heat and humidity). Water does not actually need to be drunk in pure form, but can be derived from liquids such as juices, tea, milk, soups, etc., and from foods including fruits and vegetables.\n" ]	[ "Drinks such as lemonade, coffee, soft drinks, and alcohol dehydrate a person. ", "Lemonade makes you dehydrated like alcohol." ]	[ "Alcohol dehydrates a person, but lemonade, coffee, and soft drinks do not. ", "Only alcohol actually dehydrates you, the rest just have sugar that is not needed." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Drinks such as lemonade, coffee, soft drinks, and alcohol dehydrate a person. ", "Lemonade makes you dehydrated like alcohol." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Alcohol dehydrates a person, but lemonade, coffee, and soft drinks do not. ", "Only alcohol actually dehydrates you, the rest just have sugar that is not needed." ]
2018-04327	how we can create and maintain a vaccum when drinking through a straw or from a cup, even while breathing?	Drinking through a straw does not have to involve sucking with your lungs. You seal the back of your mouth with your tongue, and seal your lips around the straw. That way, no air can enter or leave your mouth. Then you open your jaw while keeping everything sealed. That attempts to increase the empty space inside your mouth. But since air can't get in, the pressure in your mouth gets lower, and air pressure from outside pushed the drink up the straw and into your mouth.	[ "Nollet tried to seal wine containers with a pig's bladder and stored them under water. After a while the bladder bulged outwards. He noticed the high pressure that discharged after he pierced the bladder. Curious, he did the experiment the other way round: he filled the container with water and stored it in wine. The result was a bulging inwards of the bladder. His notes about this experiment are the first scientific mention of permeation (later it would be called semipermeability).\n\nSection::::History.:Thomas Graham (chemist, 1805–1869).\n", "Section::::Geography.\n\nThe town is situated close to Lough Ramor, one of the larger lakes in County Cavan, stretching approximately 7 km in length by 1 km at the narrowest point, and feeding into the Blackwater and Boyne river systems.\n\nSection::::Transport.\n", "The construction of a bucket bong (or simply a \"bucket\") calls for a large plastic bottle (about ), a large bucket or other container that both the bottle and a large amount of water will properly go into, a Hex Bit Socket used as the bowl, an aerator screen cut to fit the bowl, and a large bucket or container. The large plastic bottle's base is cut off, and the bottle's cap has a small hole in the center which will eventually hold a bowl. The screen is placed inside of the bowl. The cut nozzle is threaded into the hole outside the cap.\n", "A related technique, strawpedoing, is used for containers not easily punctured such as a glass bottles. A straw is inserted into the bottle and bent around the hole. When the bottle is tilted, the beverage quickly drains and is quickly consumed. The technique increases beverage delivery since the extra hole allows the liquid to leave while air enters simultaneously through the main hole. The bottleneck, created where air entering the container must travel through the same orifice as liquid leaving, is removed.\n", "Similar to a gravity bong, a waterfall bong utilizes both a bottle and a cap or screen rigged over the bottle's mouth to hold cannabis. In this case, however, the bottle—which has one or several holes drilled near or at the bottom—is either filled with water or placed in a larger container filled with water before the cannabis is packed. The holes are then uncovered, or the bottle is simply raised from the container, evacuating the water either onto the ground or back into the container. When heat is applied to the drug, the resultant smoke is forced into the bottle with negative gauge pressure, as with the gravity bong. Once the water is evacuated, the smoke can be inhaled from the bottle. Variations on this concept are also used.\n", "The father and son researchers, Ramette and Ramette, successfully siphoned carbon dioxide under air pressure in 2011 and concluded that molecular cohesion is not required for the operation of a siphon but that: \"The basic explanation of siphon action is that, once the tube is filled, the flow is initiated by the greater pull of gravity on the fluid on the longer side compared with that on the short side. This creates a pressure drop throughout the siphon tube, in the same sense that 'sucking' on a straw reduces the pressure along its length all the way to the intake point. The ambient atmospheric pressure at the intake point responds to the reduced pressure by forcing the fluid upwards, sustaining the flow, just as in a steadily sucked straw in a milkshake.\"\n", "Philip McGuigan\n\nPhilip McGuigan (born 1973) is a Sinn Féin member of Ballymoney Borough Council in Northern Ireland and MLA. He was raised in Swatragh, County Londonderry.\n\nHe was elected to the Assembly in 2003 representing North Antrim. He was elected to the Ballymoney Council in 2001, aged 27, with the highest vote of any of the 16 elected council and then elected to the Causeway Coast and Glens Council in 2013.\n", "Back-siphonage occurs when higher pressure fluids, gases, or suspended solids move to an area of lower pressure fluids. For example, when a drinking straw is used to consume a beverage, suction reduces the pressure of fluid inside the straw, causing liquid to move from the cup to inside the straw and then into the drinker's mouth. A significant drop of pressure in a water delivery system creates a similar suction, \"pulling\" possibly undesirable material into the system. This is an example of an indirect cross-connection.\n", "All of this careful settling of the \"yerba\" ensures that each sip contains as little particulate matter as possible, creating a smooth-running mate. The finest particles will then be as distant as possible from the filtering end of the straw. With each draw, the smaller particles would inevitably move toward the straw, but the larger particles and stems filter much of this out. A sloped arrangement provides consistent concentration and flavor with each filling of the mate.\n", "BULLET::::- Loop of Henle Descending: The liquid passes from the thin descending limb to the thick ascending limb. Water is constantly released via osmosis. Gradually there is a buildup of osmotic concentration, until 1200 mOsm is reached at the loop tip, but the difference across the membrane is kept small and constant.\n", "Most preparations of tereré begin by filling a cured yerba mate gourd, guampa 2/3 to 3/4 full of yerba mate. Then, ice cubes and/or herbs are added to the water on to the vacuum flask. The drinking vessel is then filled with ice water. At this point, a mate straw (bombilla 'or' bombilla para mate) is inserted through the mixture to the bottom of the vessel, while a thumb is kept over the bombilla tip in order to keep it from becoming clogged. The liquid is consumed through the straw, and refilled as desired.\n", "Babin, a graduate of Lamar University and the University of Texas Dental School, served in the United States Air Force from 1975 to 1979. He then opened a dental practice in Woodville and became involved in Republican politics. He worked for various state and federal campaigns and held numerous local and regional government positions, including President of the Texas State Board of Dental Examiners (1981–1987), on the Deep East Texas Council of Governments (1982–1984), Mayor of Woodville (1982–1984), on the Woodville City Council (1984–1989), on the Texas Historical Commission (1989–1995), Chairman of the Tyler County Republican Party (1990–1995), on the Woodville Independent School District Board (1992–1995) and on the Lower Neches Valley Authority (1999–2015).\n", "Additionally, he has variously served as the Mayor of Woodville (1982–1984), a Woodville City Councilman (1984–1989), Chairman of the Tyler County Republican Party (1990–1995), a member of the Woodville Independent School District Board (1992–1995) and Director of the Tyler County Chamber of Commerce. He has also served as President of the Texas State Board of Dental Examiners (1981–1987), on the Deep East Texas Council of Governments (1982–1984) and on the Texas Historical Commission (1989–1995). In 1999, he was appointed by Governor Bush to the Lower Neches Valley Authority and was reappointed to the body by Governor Rick Perry, most recently in 2013, for a term that was to expire in 2019. He resigned before being sworn into Congress.\n", "In 2007-2008, Cobey was the North Carolina campaign chairman for defeated presidential candidate Mike Huckabee, the former governor of Arkansas.\n", "Following his completion of secondary education, McGrath attended the University of Ulster Jordanstown and graduated in 1998 in Community Youth Work. He then became a youth worker in Patrician Youth Centre, Downpatrick for 17 years.\n\nSection::::Political career.\n\nMcGrath was first elected to the Down District Council in 2005 as a councillor for the SDLP. He served as both Chair and Vice-Chair, becoming the youngest ever chair of the local council. In 2014 he was elected to the newly formed Newry, Mourne & Down District Council.\n", "Michael Houston\n\nMichael 'Mickey' Houston is an Irish Gaelic football manager. He is a former manager of St. Eunan's and a selector on the county panel during Mickey Moran's tenure. While working with the senior team he quit after a public falling out with Moran. Houston has been linked with the senior Donegal job in the past.\n", "Stream Passage Pot\n\nStream Passage Pot is one of the entrances to the Gaping Gill system being located about ESE of Gaping Gill Main Shaft. It is a popular and sporting entrance into the system, featuring three well-watered big shafts. It is the highest entrance of the Gaping Gill system, so the full depth of the system, , is measured from its entrance. It lies within the designated Ingleborough Site of Special Scientific Interest.\n\nSection::::Description.\n", "Section::::Political career.\n\nColgan's public service began in 1972 when he was elected to the Prince William County Board of Supervisors, where he served as chairman for one year. In 1975, Colgan was elected to the Virginia State Senate with 61% of the vote, representing Prince William County, and the cities of Manassas and Manassas Park.\n", "The primary force that creates the capillary action movement of water upwards in plants is the adhesion between the water and the surface of the xylem conduits. Capillary action provides the force that establishes an equilibrium configuration, balancing gravity. When transpiration removes water at the top, the flow is needed to return to the equilibrium.\n", "BULLET::::4. During the expiratory pause (all valves are closed), the lung volume is at its minimal value. The measured pressure is the Positive End-expiratory Pressure (PEEP).\n\nSection::::Potential applications.\n\nStudies have shown both the efficacy and safety of liquid ventilation in normal, mature and immature newborn lungs. Overall, liquid ventilation improves gas exchange and lung compliance and prevents the lungs against ventilation-induced lung injury.\n\nSection::::Potential applications.:Respiratory support.\n", "At the start of play, the entire tube is rotated so that a hole in the base of the tube is aligned with the active player's tray. Players take turns removing a single straw from the tube while trying to minimize the number of marbles that fall through the web and into their tray. Once a player has committed themselves to a particular straw by touching it, they must remove it. The player who accumulates the fewest dropped marbles wins.\n", "McGuinness played with the Mohill Club all his career and played in their 2006 Senior Championship victory over St Mary's, the club's first title since 1971. In 2001 he was selected on the Connacht International Rules team that travelled to Australia. He also won a Connacht Vocational Schools title. In the 2009 Connacht Championship game against Roscommon he kicked two points from wing-forward. He was an accomplished hurler, and played for the County on a number of occasions in the National league, but once called up to the Leitrim football panel, he began concentrating more on the big ball game.\n", "Goold plays his club football with his local club in Macroom. He first came to prominence as a member of the club’s under-21 team in the early 2000s. He lined out in the final of the county under-21 championship in 2006, however, Beara were the winners on that occasion. Goold lined out in a second consecutive county final in that grade in 2007, however, on this occasion Castlehaven defeated Macroom. Goold has enjoyed success with his club by captaining them to Intermediate County success in 2010 by defeating Kildorrery.\n\nSection::::Playing career.:Minor & under-21.\n", "When the cup is filled, liquid rises through the second pipe up to the chamber at the top of the central column, following Pascal's principle of communicating vessels. As long as the level of the liquid does not rise beyond the level of the chamber, the cup functions as normal. If the level rises further, however, the liquid spills through the chamber into the first pipe and out the bottom. Gravity then creates a siphon through the central column, causing the entire contents of the cup to be emptied through the hole at the bottom of the stem. Some modern toilets operate on the same principle: when the water level in the bowl rises high enough, a siphon is created, flushing the toilet.\n", "Vascular permeability\n\nVascular permeability, often in the form of capillary permeability or microvascular permeability, characterizes the capacity of a blood vessel wall to allow for the flow of small molecules (drugs, nutrients, water, ions) or even whole cells (lymphocytes on their way to the site of inflammation) in and out of the vessel. Blood vessel walls are lined by a single layer of endothelial cells. The gaps between endothelial cells (cell junctions) are strictly regulated depending on the type and physiological state of the tissue.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02613	In the double split experiment, people say that, mathematically, electrons go through both slits, no slits and one slit and that all these possibilities are 'in superposition' with each other. What does this mean and do we know how/why it happens?	We don't really know how and why they move, we only know where and when we can detect them. What happens between launch and detection is pure speculation.	[ "Anton Zeilinger, referring to the prototypical example of the double-slit experiment, has elaborated regarding the creation and destruction of quantum superposition:\n", "BULLET::::- A \"cat state\" has been achieved with photons.\n\nBULLET::::- A beryllium ion has been trapped in a superposed state.\n\nBULLET::::- A double slit experiment has been performed with molecules as large as buckyballs.\n", "One example of a quantum interference phenomenon that arises from superposition is the double-slit experiment. The photon state is a superposition of two different states, one of which corresponds to the photon having passed through the left slit, and the other corresponding to passage through the right slit. The relative phase of those two states has a value which depends on the distance from each of the two slits. Depending on what that phase is, the interference is constructive at some locations and destructive in others, creating the interference pattern. By the analogy with coherence in other wave phenomena, a superposed state can be referred to as a \"coherent superposition\".\n", "BULLET::::- Replacing all other independent voltage sources with a short circuit (thereby eliminating difference of potential i.e. \"V\"=0; internal impedance of ideal voltage source is zero (short circuit)).\n\nBULLET::::- Replacing all other independent current sources with an open circuit (thereby eliminating current i.e. \"I\"=0; internal impedance of ideal current source is infinite (open circuit)).\n\nThis procedure is followed for each source in turn, then the resultant responses are added to determine the true operation of the circuit. The resultant circuit operation is the superposition of the various voltage and current sources.\n", "The first description of what is now known as the multislice theory was given in the classic paper by Cowley and Moodie . In this work, the authors describe scattering of electrons using a physical optics approach without invoking quantum mechanical arguments. Many other derivations of these iterative equations have since been given using alternative methods, such as Greens functions, differential equations, scattering matrices or path integral methods.\n", "An example of a physically observable manifestation of the wave nature of quantum systems is the interference peaks from an electron beam in a double-slit experiment. The pattern is very similar to the one obtained by diffraction of classical waves.\n\nAnother example is a quantum logical qubit state, as used in quantum information processing, which is a quantum superposition of the \"basis states\" formula_1 and formula_2.\n", "The evolution equation is also linear in probability, for fundamental reasons. If the particle has some probability for going from position \"x\" to \"y\", and from \"z\" to \"y\", the probability of going to \"y\" starting from a state which is half-\"x\" and half-\"z\" is a half-and-half mixture of the probability of going to \"y\" from each of the options. This is the principle of linear superposition in probability.\n", "Waves are usually described by variations in some parameter through space and time—for example, height in a water wave, pressure in a sound wave, or the electromagnetic field in a light wave. The value of this parameter is called the amplitude of the wave, and the wave itself is a function specifying the amplitude at each point.\n", "In any system with waves, the waveform at a given time is a function of the sources (i.e., external forces, if any, that create or affect the wave) and initial conditions of the system. In many cases (for example, in the classic wave equation), the equation describing the wave is linear. When this is true, the superposition principle can be applied.\n", "The geometry of the state space is a revealed to be a triangle. In general it is a simplex. There are special points in a triangle or simplex corresponding to the corners, and these points are those where one of the probabilities is equal to 1 and the others are zero. These are the unique locations where the position is known with certainty.\n\nIn a quantum mechanical system with three states, the quantum mechanical wavefunction is a superposition of states again, but this time twice as many quantities with no restriction on the sign:\n", "The non-classical nature of the superposition process is brought out clearly if we consider the superposition of two states, \"A\" and \"B\", such that there exists an observation which, when made on the system in state \"A\", is certain to lead to one particular result, \"a\" say, and when made on the system in state \"B\" is certain to lead to some different result, \"b\" say. What will be the result of the observation when made on the system in the superposed state? The answer is that the result will be sometimes \"a\" and sometimes \"b\", according to a probability law depending on the relative weights of \"A\" and \"B\" in the superposition process. It will never be different from both \"a\" and \"b\" [i.e, either \"a\" or \"b\"]. \"The intermediate character of the state formed by superposition thus expresses itself through the probability of a particular result for an observation being intermediate between the corresponding probabilities for the original states, not through the result itself being intermediate between the corresponding results for the original states.\"\n", "Section::::Concept.\n\nThe principle of quantum superposition states that if a physical system may be in one of many configurations—arrangements of particles or fields—then the most general state is a combination of all of these possibilities, where the amount in each configuration is specified by a complex number.\n\nFor example, if there are two configurations labelled by 0 and 1, the most general state would be\n\nwhere the coefficients are complex numbers describing how much goes into each configuration.\n\nThe principle was described by Paul Dirac as follows:\n", "The projective nature of quantum-mechanical-state space makes an important difference: it does not permit superposition of the kind that is the topic of the present article. A quantum mechanical state is a \"ray\" in projective Hilbert space, not a \"vector\". The sum of two rays is undefined. To obtain the relative phase, we must decompose or split the ray into components\n\nwhere the formula_5 and the formula_6 belongs to an orthonormal basis set. The equivalence class of formula_7 allows a well-defined meaning to be given to the relative phases of the formula_8.\n", "That means that the net amplitude caused by two or more waves traversing the same space is the sum of the amplitudes that would have been produced by the individual waves separately. For example, two waves traveling towards each other will pass right through each other without any distortion on the other side. (See image at top.)\n\nSection::::Wave superposition.:Wave diffraction vs. wave interference.\n\nWith regard to wave superposition, Richard Feynman wrote:\n\nOther authors elaborate:\n\nYet another source concurs:\n\nSection::::Wave superposition.:Wave interference.\n", "In 2010s, three photon microscopy is developed further. In January 2013, Horton, Wang and Kobat invented in vivo imaging of an intact mouse brain by employing point scanning method to three photon microscope. In May 2017, Rowlands applied wide-field three-photon excitation to three photon microscope for larger penetration depth. In Oct 2018, T Wang, D Ouzounov, and C Wu were able to image vasculature and GCaMP6 calcium using three photon microscope.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n", "The triplet phase relationship is an equation directly relating two known phases of diffracted beams to the unknown phase of another. This relationship can be easily derived via the Sayre equation, but it may also be demonstrated through statistical relationships between the diffracted beams, as shown here.\n\nFor randomly distributed atoms, the following holds true:\n\nMeaning that if:\n\nThen:\n", "When comparing two time series, the essence of the method is to: (1) define each occurrence of an event in one data sequence (series #1) as a key time; (2) extract subsets of data from the other sequence (series #2) within some time range near each key time; (3) superpose all extracted subsets from series #2 (with key times for all subsets synchronized) by adding them. (To effectively superpose data from series #2 that are recorded at different or even irregular times, data binning is often used.) This approach can be used to detect a signal (i.e., related variations in both series) in the presence of noise (i.e., unrelated variations in both series) whenever the noise sums incoherently while the signal is reinforced by the superposition.\n", "If the photon takes the short path, it is said to be in the state formula_1; if it takes the long path, it is said to be in the state formula_2. If the photon has a non-zero probability to take either path, then it is in a coherent superposition of the two states:\n\nThese coherent superpositions of the two possible states are called qubits and are the basic ingredient of Quantum information science.\n", "Section::::Hanbury Brown and Twiss Experiment.\n\nIn the Hanbury Brown and Twiss experiment (Figure 2.), a light beam is split using a beam splitter and then detected by detectors, which are equidistant from the beam splitter. Subsequently, signal measured by the second detector is delayed by time formula_50 and the coincidence rate between the original and delayed signal is counted. This experiment correlates intensities, formula_51, rather than electric fields and hence measures the second order correlation function\n\nformula_54 here measures the probability of coincidence of two photons being detected with a time difference formula_50.\n", "For example, in Laplace's equation with Dirichlet boundary conditions, \"F\" would be the Laplacian operator in a region \"R\", \"G\" would be an operator that restricts \"y\" to the boundary of \"R\", and \"z\" would be the function that \"y\" is required to equal on the boundary of \"R\".\n\nIn the case that \"F\" and \"G\" are both linear operators, then the superposition principle says that a superposition of solutions to the first equation is another solution to the first equation:\n\nwhile the boundary values superpose:\n", "BULLET::::- In mechanical engineering, superposition is used to solve for beam and structure deflections of combined loads when the effects are linear (i.e., each load does not affect the results of the other loads, and the effect of each load does not significantly alter the geometry of the structural system). Mode superposition method uses the natural frequencies and mode shapes to characterize the dynamic response of a linear structure.\n\nBULLET::::- In hydrogeology, the superposition principle is applied to the drawdown of two or more water wells pumping in an ideal aquifer.\n", "There are two widely used simulation techniques that exist in literature: the Bloch wave method, derived from Hans Bethe's original theoretical treatment of the Davisson-Germer experiment, and the multislice method. In this paper, we will primarily focus on the multislice method for simulation of diffraction patterns, including multiple elastic scattering effects. Most of the packages that exist implement the multislice algorithm along with Fourier analysis to incorporate electron lens aberration effects to determine electron microscope image and address aspects such as phase contrast and diffraction contrast. For electron microscope samples in the form of a thin crystalline slab in the transmission geometry, the aim of these software packages is to provide a map of the crystal potential, however this inversion process is greatly complicated by the presence of multiple elastic scattering.\n", "For a particle described by probability theory random walking on a line, the analogous thing is the list of probabilities formula_39, which give the probability of any position. The quantities that describe how they change in time are the transition probabilities formula_40, which gives the probability that, starting at x, the particle ends up at y time t later. The total probability of ending up at y is given by the sum over all the possibilities\n\nThe condition of conservation of probability states that starting at any x, the total probability to end up \"somewhere\" must add up to 1:\n", "The description of the two particles is much larger than the description of one particle—it is a function in twice the number of dimensions. This is also true in probability, when the statistics of two random variables are correlated. If two particles are uncorrelated, the probability distribution for their joint position is a product of the probability of finding one at one position and the other at the other position:\n", "Superposition works for voltage and current but not power. In other words, the sum of the powers of each source with the other sources turned off is not the real consumed power. To calculate power we first use superposition to find both current and voltage of each linear element and then calculate the sum of the multiplied voltages and currents.\n\nSection::::Gas pressure analogy.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-02375	Why is the word “record” pronounced differently as a verb than as a noun?	Because in modern American English, we generally put the emphasis on the first half of the word if it is a noun and the second half if it is a verb, if they are homographs. Record, project, contest, object, and so on.	[ "BULLET::::- \"record\".\n\nBULLET::::- \"permit\".\n\nSection::::Origins.\n\nIn English, since the early modern period, polysyllabic nouns tend to have an unstressed final syllable, while verbs do not. Thus, the stress difference between nouns and verbs applies generally in English, not just to otherwise-identical noun-verb pairs. The frequency of such pairs in English is a result of the productivity of class conversion.\n", "In order to use this system, the sound mixer used an intercom to the sound recordist to tell him to \"roll\", or start the system. Since this was a very mechanical system, it took some time to start and get up to proper speed. When proper speed and synchronization was reached, the recordist would use the intercom to announce, \"Speed\" and the sound mixer would relay that to the director and crew on the stage. The expression is still used, but now simply means, \"Sound is recording\".\n", "A \"backronym\" (or \"bacronym\") is a phrase that is constructed \"after the fact\" from a previously existing word. For example, the novelist and critic Anthony Burgess once proposed that the word \"book\" ought to stand for \"box of organized knowledge\". A classic real-world example of this is the name of the predecessor to the Apple Macintosh, The Apple Lisa, which was said to refer to \"Local Integrated Software Architecture\", but was actually named after Steve Jobs's daughter, born in 1978.\n", "Sometimes a backronym is reputed to have been used in the formation of the original word, and amounts to a false etymology or an urban legend. Lexicographer Jesse Sheidlower has written in his book \"The F-Word\" that acronyms were very rare in the English language prior to the 1930s, and most etymologies of common words or phrases that suggest origin from an acronym are false.\n", "Most machine language implementations and early assembly languages did not have special syntax for records, but the concept was available (and extensively used) through the use of index registers, indirect addressing, and self-modifying code. Some early computers, such as the IBM 1620, had hardware support for delimiting records and fields, and special instructions for copying such records.\n\nThe concept of records and fields was central in some early file sorting and tabulating utilities, such as IBM's Report Program Generator (RPG).\n", "BULLET::::- In the 2008 monster film \"Cloverfield\", after the credits, a broken sound recording can be heard of Rob saying \"...help us...\", as at the end, he and his girlfriend were trapped under a bridge. If reversed, it sounds like Rob saying \"...it’s still alive...\"\n", "Possessive plurals that also include apostrophes for mere pluralization and periods appear especially complex: for example, \"the C.D.'s' labels\" (the labels of the compact discs). In some instances, however, an apostrophe may increase clarity: for example, if the final letter of an abbreviation is \"S\", as in \"SOS's\" (although abbreviations ending with S can also take \"-es\", e.g. \"SOSes\"), or when pluralizing an abbreviation that has periods.\n", "The term \"phonograph\" (\"sound writing\") was derived from the Greek words (\"phonē\", \"sound\" or \"voice\") and (\"graphē\", \"writing\"). The similar related terms \"gramophone\" (from the Greek γράμμα \"gramma\" \"letter\" and φωνή \"phōnē\" \"voice\") and \"graphophone\" have similar root meanings. The roots were already familiar from existing 19th-century words such as \"photograph\" (\"light writing\"), \"telegraph\" (\"distant writing\"), and \"telephone\" (\"distant sound\"). The new term may have been influenced by the existing words \"phonographic\" and \"phonography\", which referred to a system of phonetic shorthand; in 1852 \"The New York Times\" carried an advertisement for \"Professor Webster's phonographic class\", and in 1859 the New York State Teachers Association tabled a motion to \"employ a phonographic recorder\" to record its meetings.\n", "BULLET::::- The is silent before in \"indict\" and its derivatives such as \"indictment\", in the name of the U.S. state \"Connecticut\", and in some pronunciations of \"Arctic\" and \"Antarctic\".\n\nBULLET::::- In a few cases such as facade and limacon, a soft appears before and is optionally indicated to be soft by means of attaching a cedilla to its bottom, giving \"façade\", \"limaçon\".\n", "Because the term record locator is usually used to refer to a PNR the two terms can become confused.\n\nSection::::Use.\n", "BULLET::::- flōs — flōrem\" (Old Latin flōsem\")\n\nBULLET::::- genus — generis\" (from geneses\", cf. Sanskrit \"janasas\")\n\nBULLET::::- rōbus, rōbustus\" — rōbur\", \"corrōborāre\" (verb from \"conrobosare\")\n\nBULLET::::- \"jūstus\" — \"de jūre\" (from \"de jouse\")\n\nBULLET::::- est\" — erō\" (from \"esō\")\n", "Some words whose spelling in French and Middle English did not reflect their Greco-Latin origins were refashioned with etymological spellings in the 16th and 17th centuries: \"caracter\" became \"character\" and \"quire\" became \"choir\" in the 16–17th centuries.\n", "A record can be viewed as the computer analog of a mathematical tuple, although a tuple may or may not be considered a record, and vice versa, depending on conventions and the specific programming language. In the same vein, a record type can be viewed as the computer language analog of the Cartesian product of two or more mathematical sets, or the implementation of an abstract product type in a specific language.\n\nSection::::Keys.\n", "BULLET::::- \"comptroller\" is often pronounced with ; the accepted pronunciation is \"controller\" (the \"mp\" spelling is based on the mistaken idea that the word has something to do with \"comp\"(\"u\")\"tare\" \"count, compute\", but it comes from \"contre-roll\" \"file copy\", both the verb and its agent noun meaning \"compare originals and file copies\").\n", "There are many examples of words whose etymologies show them to have lost phonemes (consonant or vowel sounds) somewhere in their histories. For example, the silent \"k\" at the start of many words in the English language was originally pronounced. The word \"knight\" derives from the word \"cniht\" in Old English. Here, two consonant sounds have been lost: not only the \"c\", but also the \"h\" were sounded, the latter being a voiceless fricative. Such changes have been happening throughout history, and few would seriously propose that we should reverse them all and pronounce \"knight\" as \"cniht\". However, when the same thing happens in the present day, the simplified forms are widely labelled as \"incorrect\". For example, the word \"Antarctic\" is etymologically derived from the word \"Arctic\" (\"ARK-tik\"), and originally both \"c\"s were pronounced in the former word, as in the latter (\"ant-ARK-tik\"). This is still the usual pronunciation of the word. However, some speakers omit the first \"c\" sound from \"Antarctic\", resulting in a pronunciation (\"ant-AR-tik\"), of which some disapprove. The word \"Arctic\" itself has undergone a similar change, with a corresponding change in spelling; it is not unusual to see the word \"Artic\" (\"AR-tik\") in names of parks and populated areas.\n", "By contrast, a backronym is \"an acronym deliberately formed from a phrase whose initial letters spell out a particular word or words, either to create a memorable name or as a fanciful explanation of a word's origin.\"\n\nFor example, the United States Department of Justice assigns to its Amber Alert program the meaning \"America's Missing: Broadcast Emergency Response,\" but the term originally referred to Amber Hagerman, a 9-year-old abducted and murdered in Texas in 1996.\n\nThe word is a blend of \"back\" and \"acronym\".\n\nSection::::Examples.\n", "IBM was the largest supplier of unit record equipment and this article largely reflects IBM practice and terminology.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Beginnings.\n", "In some cases the spelling changes when the accent moves to another syllable, as in the following verb/noun pairs which show the addition of a \"magic e\", which changes the previous vowel from lax to tense:\n\nBULLET::::- \"envelop\", \"envelope\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"unite\", \"unit\"\n\nIn British English, \"annexe\" is the noun from the verb \"annex\". The verb \"secrete\" \"conceal\" probably derives from the noun \"secret\" rather than vice versa.\n", "In the 1980s and 1990s, computers provided means by which both sound recording and reproduction could be digitized, revolutionizing audio recording and distribution. In the 2000s, multitracking hardware and software for computers was of sufficient quality to be widely used for high-end audio recordings by both professional sound engineers and by bands recording without studios using widely available programs, which can be used on a high-end laptop computer. Though magnetic tape has not been replaced as a recording medium, the advantages of non-linear editing (NLE) and recording have resulted in digital systems largely superseding tape. Even in the 2010s, with digital multitracking being the dominant technology, the original word \"track\" is still used by audio engineers.\n", "Section::::Historical and current use.:Early examples in English.\n\nThe use of Latin and Neo-Latin terms in vernaculars has been pan-European and predates modern English. Some examples of acronyms in this class are:\n\nBULLET::::- \"A.M.\" (from Latin ', \"before noon\") and \"P.M.\" (from Latin ', \"after noon\")\n\nBULLET::::- \"A.D.\" (from Latin \"\", \"in the year of our Lord\"), whose complement in English, \"B.C.\" [Before Christ], is English-sourced\n\nBULLET::::- \"O.K.\", a term of disputed origin, dating back at least to the early 19th century, now used around the world\n", "BULLET::::- \"fro\", as in \"to and fro\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"helter skelter\", as in \"scattered helter skelter about the office\", Middle English \"skelten\" to hasten\n\nBULLET::::- \"hither\", as in \"come hither\", \"hither and thither\", and \"hither and yon\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"immemorial\", as in \"time immemorial\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"jetsam\", as in \"flotsam and jetsam\", except in legal contexts (especially admiralty, property, and international law)\n\nBULLET::::- \"kith\", as in \"kith and kin\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"loggerheads\" as in \"at loggerheads\" or loggerhead turtle\n\nBULLET::::- \"neap\", as in \"neap tide\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"offing\", as in \"in the offing\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"petard\", as in \"hoist[ed] by [one's] own petard\"\n", "Section::::Disk.\n\nThe earlier word is \"disk\", which came into the English language in the middle of the 17th century. In the 19th century, \"disk\" became the conventional spelling for audio recordings made on a flat plate, such as the gramophone record. Early BBC technicians differentiated between \"disks\" (in-house transcription records) and \"discs\" (the colloquial term for commercial gramophone records, or what the BBC dubbed CGRs).\n\nSection::::UK vs. US.\n", "BULLET::::- 1931: The term \"Super Computing Machine\" is used by the New York World newspaper to describe the \"Columbia Difference Tabulator\", a one-of-a-kind special purpose tabulator-based machine made for the Columbia Statistical Bureau, a machine so massive it was nicknamed \"Packard\". The \"Packard\" attracted users from across the country: \"the Carnegie Foundation, Yale, Pittsburgh, Chicago, Ohio State, Harvard, California and Princeton.\"\n\nBULLET::::- 1933: Compagnie des Machines Bull is the new name of the reorganized H.W. Egli - Bull.\n", "In English historically represented (the voiceless velar fricative, as in the Scottish Gaelic word \"Loch\"), and still does in \"lough\" and certain other Hiberno-English words, especially proper nouns. In the dominant dialects of modern English, is almost always either silent or pronounced (see Ough). It is thought that before disappearing, the sound became partially or completely voiced to or , which would explain the new spelling - Old English used a simple - and the diphthongization of any preceding vowel.\n\nIt is also occasionally pronounced , such as in Edinburgh.\n", "BULLET::::- When there is no sound on a take, the sound no. is erased (from the slate) and the letters MOS (\"Mit Out Sound\") substituted to indicate it is a silent take. Everyone in the industry is familiar with the story of the German-accented Director who called \"without sound,\" and the phonetics-minded slateman who started a film industry tradition. Also see Figure 5-1 (Image of term as used on a camera report)\n\nBULLET::::- MOS (mit-out-sound) An expression used instead of saying silent shot.\n\nBULLET::::- M.O.S. - a silent shot (Mit out sound)\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04087	How does fiber reduce cholesterol & how does saturated/trans fat increase cholesterol ?	Fiber lowers cholesterol by encouraging the body to make more bile, a process that consumes cholesterol. URL_0	[ "Dietary fibers can change the nature of the contents of the gastrointestinal tract and can change how other nutrients and chemicals are absorbed through bulking and viscosity. Some types of soluble fibers bind to bile acids in the small intestine, making them less likely to re-enter the body; this in turn lowers cholesterol levels in the blood from the actions of cytochrome P450-mediated oxidation of cholesterol.\n", "Section::::Scientific work.:Keys equation.\n\nThe Keys equation predicts the effect of saturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids in the diet on serum cholesterol levels. Keys found that saturated fats increase total and LDL cholesterol twice as much as polyunsaturated fats lower them.\n\nSection::::Scientific work.:The sugar controversy.\n", "The production of short-chain fatty acids has several possible actions on the gut mucosa. All of the short-chain fatty acids are readily absorbed by the colonic mucosa, but only acetic acid reaches the systemic circulation in appreciable amounts. Butyric acid appears to be used as a fuel by the colonic mucosa as the preferred energy source for colonic cells.\n\nSection::::Activity in the gut.:Dietary fiber and cholesterol metabolism.\n\nDietary fiber may act on each phase of ingestion, digestion, absorption and excretion to affect cholesterol metabolism, such as the following:\n\nBULLET::::1. Caloric energy of foods through a bulking effect\n", "BULLET::::- Whole grain barley and dry milled barley\n\nBULLET::::- Soluble fiber from psyllium husk with purity of no less than 95%\n\nThe allowed label may state that diets low in saturated fat and cholesterol and that include soluble fiber from certain of the above foods \"may\" or \"might\" reduce the risk of heart disease.\n\nAs discussed in FDA regulation 21 CFR 101.81, the daily dietary intake levels of soluble fiber from sources listed above associated with reduced risk of coronary heart disease are:\n", "BULLET::::5. A further factor is an increase in the bacterial mass and activity of the ileum as some fibers e.g., pectin are digested by bacteria. The bacterial mass increases and cecal bacterial activity increases.\n\nBULLET::::6. The enteric loss of bile acids results in increased synthesis of bile acids from cholesterol which in turn reduces body cholesterol.\n\nThe fibers that are most effective in influencing sterol metabolism (e.g. pectin) are fermented in the colon. It is therefore unlikely that the reduction in body cholesterol is due to adsorption to this fermented fiber in the colon.\n", "BULLET::::3. There may also be an added osmotic effect of products of bacterial fermentation on fecal mass.\n", "More recent inquiry (independent of the dairy industry) has found in a 2008 Dutch meta-analysis that all trans fats, regardless of natural or artificial origin equally raise LDL and lower HDL levels. Other studies though have shown different results when it comes to animal based trans fats like conjugated linoleic acid (CLA). Although CLA is known for its anticancer properties, researchers have also found that the cis-9, trans-11 form of CLA can reduce the risk for cardiovascular disease and help fight inflammation.\n\nSection::::Health risks.\n", "Bulking fibers can be soluble (e.g. psyllium) or insoluble (e.g. cellulose and hemicellulose). They absorb water and can significantly increase stool weight and regularity. Most bulking fibers are not fermented or are minimally fermented throughout the intestinal tract.\n", "BULLET::::- Cooking and chewing food alters these physicochemical properties and hence absorption and movement through the stomach and along the intestine\n\nSection::::Activity in the gut.:Dietary fiber in the upper gastrointestinal tract.\n\nFollowing a meal, the stomach and upper gastrointestinal contents consist of\n\nBULLET::::- food compounds\n\nBULLET::::- complex lipids/micellar/aqueous/hydrocolloid and hydrophobic phases\n\nBULLET::::- hydrophilic phases\n\nBULLET::::- solid, liquid, colloidal and gas bubble phases.\n\nMicelles are colloid-sized clusters of molecules which form in conditions as those above, similar to the critical micelle concentration of detergents.\n", "Increasing soluble fiber consumption has been shown to reduce levels of LDL cholesterol, with each additional gram of soluble fiber reducing LDL by an average of 2.2 mg/dL (0.057 mmol/L). Increasing consumption of whole grains also reduces LDL cholesterol, with whole grain oats being particularly effective. Inclusion of 2 g per day of phytosterols and phytostanols and 10 to 20 g per day of soluble fiber decreases dietary cholesterol absorption. A diet high in fructose can raise LDL cholesterol levels in the blood.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Medication.\n", "Trans fats also occur naturally, e.g., the vaccenic acid in female breast milk, and some isomers of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA). These trans fats occur naturally in meat and dairy products from ruminants. Butter, for example, contains about 3% trans fat. Two Canadian studies have shown that vaccenic acid could be beneficial compared to hydrogenated vegetable shortening, or a mixture of pork lard and soy fat, by lowering total LDL and triglyceride levels. A study by the US Department of Agriculture showed that vaccenic acid raises both HDL and LDL cholesterol, whereas industrial trans fats only raise LDL with no beneficial effect on HDL.\n", "Dietary fibers make three primary contributions: bulking, viscosity and fermentation. Different fibers have different effects, suggesting that a variety of dietary fibers contribute to overall health. Some fibers contribute through one primary mechanism. For instance, cellulose and wheat bran provide excellent bulking effects, but are minimally fermented. Alternatively, many dietary fibers can contribute to health through more than one of these mechanisms. For instance, psyllium provides bulking as well as viscosity.\n", "BULLET::::1. There might be alterations in the end-products of bile acid bacterial metabolism or the release of short chain fatty acids which are absorbed from the colon, return to the liver in the portal vein and modulate either the synthesis of cholesterol or its catabolism to bile acids.\n\nBULLET::::2. The prime mechanism whereby fiber influences cholesterol metabolism is through bacteria binding bile acids in the colon after the initial deconjugation and dehydroxylation. The sequestered bile acids are then excreted in feces.\n", "BULLET::::2. Immobilizing of nutrients and other chemicals within complex polysaccharide molecules affects their release and subsequent absorption from the small intestine, an effect influential on the glycemic index.\n\nBULLET::::3. Molecules begin to interact as their concentration increases. During absorption, water must be absorbed at a rate commensurate with the absorption of solutes. The transport of actively and passively absorbed nutrients across epithelium is affected by the unstirred water layer covering the microvillus membrane.\n\nBULLET::::4. The presence of mucus or fiber, e.g., pectin or guar, in the unstirred layer may alter the viscosity and solute diffusion coefficient.\n", "Section::::Nutrients.:Fat.\n\nA molecule of dietary fat typically consists of several fatty acids (containing long chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms), bonded to a glycerol. They are typically found as triglycerides (three fatty acids attached to one glycerol backbone). Fats may be classified as saturated or unsaturated depending on the chemical structure of the fatty acids involved.\n\nSection::::Nutrients.:Fiber.\n", "The early studies associating the ratio of dietary SFA and PUFA with TC levels led the American Heart Association (AHA) to promulgate a set of dietary guidelines which included the recommendation to replace saturated fats found in dairy and meat products with polyunsaturated fats found in natural vegetable oils such as those derived from \"corn, cottonseed, and soya\". This first set of recommendations, published in the Journal \"Circulation\" in 1961, specifically sanctioned the use of products containing partially hydrogenated vegetable oils, \"i.e.\" margarine and vegetable shortening. Despite the lack of uncontrovertable epidemiological evidence of their effectiveness, these initial guidelines received widespread acceptance among the medical community in the US.\n", "When compared to saturated fatty acids, trans-fatty acids have a much greater ability to turn High-density lipoprotein (HDL) into Low-density lipoprotein (LDL). HDL commonly referred to as a \"good cholesterol\" due to its ability to remove cholesterol from clogs in arteries. LDL subsequently is known as a \"bad cholesterol\" since high levels of it is usually an indication of heart disease. The loss of HDL and creation of LDL is highly likely to lead to CHD complications.\n\nSection::::Health claim #3.:Beneficial fatty acids.\n", "Section::::Common fibre supplements in the market.\n\nS=Soluble, I=Insoluble\n\nC=Capsule/Tablet, P=Powder\n\nSection::::Fibre supplement claims.\n\nSection::::Fibre supplement claims.:Blood cholesterol reduction.\n\nFoods that are high in viscous fibres have been found to lower blood cholesterol by binding with bile acids. In order to compensate for this, cholesterol from the liver may be used to make more bile acids. The products of bacterial fermentation in the colon may also decrease the rate of cholesterol synthesis in the liver.\n", "BULLET::::- inulins, a group of polysaccharides\n\nBULLET::::- oligosaccharides\n\nSection::::Short-chain fatty acids.\n\nWhen fermentable fiber is fermented, short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) are produced. SCFAs are involved in numerous physiological processes promoting health, including:\n\nBULLET::::- stabilize blood glucose levels by acting on pancreatic insulin release and liver control of glycogen breakdown\n\nBULLET::::- stimulate gene expression of glucose transporters in the intestinal mucosa, regulating glucose absorption\n\nBULLET::::- provide nourishment of colonocytes, particularly by the SCFA butyrate\n\nBULLET::::- suppress cholesterol synthesis by the liver and reduce blood levels of LDL cholesterol and triglycerides responsible for atherosclerosis\n", "Overall, SCFAs affect major regulatory systems, such as blood glucose and lipid levels, the colonic environment, and intestinal immune functions.\n\nThe major SCFAs in humans are butyrate, propionate, and acetate, where butyrate is the major energy source for colonocytes, propionate is destined for uptake by the liver, and acetate enters the peripheral circulation to be metabolized by peripheral tissues.\n\nSection::::FDA-approved health claims.\n", "The effects of dietary fiber in the colon are on\n\nBULLET::::1. bacterial fermentation of some dietary fibers\n\nBULLET::::2. thereby an increase in bacterial mass\n\nBULLET::::3. an increase in bacterial enzyme activity\n\nBULLET::::4. changes in the water-holding capacity of the fiber residue after fermentation\n\nEnlargement of the cecum is a common finding when some dietary fibers are fed and this is now believed to be normal physiological adjustment. Such an increase may be due to a number of factors, prolonged cecal residence of the fiber, increased bacterial mass, or increased bacterial end-products.\n", "The lipid profile measures: (a) total cholesterol, (b) cholesterol associated with HDL (i.e. Higher Density {than water} Lipids-transported-within-proteins) particles (\"which can regress arterial disease\"), (c) triglycerides and (d) (by a calculation and assumptions) cholesterol carried by LDL (i.e. Lower Density {than water} Lipids-transported-within-proteins) particles (\"which drive arterial disease\").\n", "BULLET::::3. Fermentable fibers e.g., pectin will increase the bacterial mass in the colon by virtue of their providing a medium for bacterial growth.\n\nBULLET::::4. Other fibers, e.g., gum arabic, act as stabilizers and cause a significant decrease in serum cholesterol without increasing fecal bile acid excretion.\n\nSection::::Activity in the gut.:Dietary fiber and fecal weight.\n\nFeces consist of a plasticine-like material, made up of water, bacteria, lipids, sterols, mucus and fiber.\n\nBULLET::::1. Feces are 75% water; bacteria make a large contribution to the dry weight, the residue being unfermented fiber and excreted compounds.\n", "The fermentation of some fibers results in an increase in the bacterial content and possibly fecal weight. Other fibers, e.g. pectin, are fermented and have no effect on stool weight.\n\nSection::::Effects of fiber intake.\n\nResearch has shown that fiber may benefit health in several different ways. Lignin and probably related materials that are resistant to enzymatic degradation, diminish the nutritional value of foods.\n\nColor coding of table entries:\n\nBULLET::::- Both Applies to both soluble and insoluble fiber\n\nBULLET::::- Soluble Applies to soluble fiber only\n\nBULLET::::- Insoluble Applies to insoluble fiber only\n", "BULLET::::2. Lignin in fiber adsorbs bile acids, but the unconjugated form of the bile acids are adsorbed more than the conjugated form. In the ileum where bile acids are primarily absorbed the bile acids are predominantly conjugated.\n\nBULLET::::3. The enterohepatic circulation of bile acids may be altered and there is an increased flow of bile acids to the cecum, where they are deconjugated and 7alpha-dehydroxylated.\n\nBULLET::::4. These water-soluble form, bile acids e.g., deoxycholic and lithocholic are adsorbed to dietary fiber and an increased fecal loss of sterols, dependent in part on the amount and type of fiber.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04838	Gas Station Gasoline Grades as well as additives (Techron etc.)	The grades of gasoline are Octane measurements. Higher octanes ignite at a higher pressure. High performance engines have high compression, so a low octane fuel will explode too early which will mess with your engine, so they need high octane fuel. Regular cars don't get anything special out of high octane fuel. It's a waste to use it. Detergents like techron do actually remove carbon buildup in your engine, but you don't need to use them that often considering how much more expensive Chevron is compared to other filling stations. Some of them work really well, but the question becomes "is the buildup at any given time in my car that big of a deal?" The answer is probably no. You can go to an auto store and get a similar product you add to your own tank for around $1 (which is less expensive than paying an extra 20 cents per gallon for techron).	[ "BULLET::::- Petrochemicals are organic compounds that are the ingredients for the chemical industry, ranging from polymers and pharmaceuticals, including ethylene and benzene-toluene-xylenes (\"BTX\") which are often sent to petrochemical plants for further processing in a variety of ways. The petrochemicals may be olefins or their precursors, or various types of aromatic petrochemicals.\n\nBULLET::::- Gasoline\n\nBULLET::::- Naphtha\n\nBULLET::::- Kerosene and related jet aircraft fuels\n\nBULLET::::- Diesel fuel and Fuel oils\n\nBULLET::::- Heat\n\nBULLET::::- Electricity\n", "Section::::Maritime fuel classification.\n\nIn the maritime field another type of classification is used for fuel oils:\n\nBULLET::::- MGO (Marine gas oil) - roughly equivalent to No. 2 fuel oil, made from distillate only\n\nBULLET::::- MDO (Marine diesel oil) - A blend of heavy gasoil that may contain very small amounts of black refinery feed stocks, but has a low viscosity up to 12 cSt so it need not be heated for use in internal combustion engines\n\nBULLET::::- IFO (Intermediate fuel oil) A blend of gasoil and heavy fuel oil, with less gasoil than marine diesel oil\n", "BULLET::::- Fluid Catalytic Cracker (FCC) upgrades the heavier, higher-boiling fractions from the crude oil distillation by converting them into lighter and lower boiling, more valuable products.\n\nBULLET::::- Hydrocracker uses hydrogen to upgrade heavy residual oils from the vacuum distillation unit by thermally cracking them into lighter, more valuable reduced viscosity products.\n\nBULLET::::- Merox desulfurize LPG, kerosene or jet fuel by oxidizing mercaptans to organic disulfides.\n\nBULLET::::- Alternative processes for removing mercaptans are known, e.g. doctor sweetening process and caustic washing.\n", "Section::::Specialty and products.\n\nOil refineries will blend various feedstocks, mix appropriate additives, provide short term storage, and prepare for bulk loading to trucks, barges, product ships, and railcars.\n\nBULLET::::- Gaseous fuels such as propane, stored and shipped in liquid form under pressure in specialized railcars to distributors.\n", "BULLET::::- Fast Stop Express - Diesel (select locations only)\n\nBULLET::::- G500 (Mexico)\n\nBULLET::::- Hele\n\nBULLET::::- HFN - Hawaii Fueling Network\n\nBULLET::::- Holiday (U.S., Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- Irving Oil (U.S., Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- Kirkland Signature Gasoline (U.S., Canada, Mexico)\n\nBULLET::::- Kirkland Signature - Diesel (U.S., Canada - select locations only)\n\nBULLET::::- Kwik Star\n\nBULLET::::- Kwik Trip\n\nBULLET::::- Marathon\n\nBULLET::::- Metro Petro\n\nBULLET::::- MFA\n\nBULLET::::- Mobil (U.S. and Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- Ohana Fuels\n\nBULLET::::- Petro-Canada (Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- Phillips 66\n\nBULLET::::- PUMA (El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Panama, Puerto Rico)\n\nBULLET::::- QuikTrip (QT)\n\nBULLET::::- Ranger (U.S., Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- Ranger Mustang (U.S., Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- Ranger Stallion (U.S., Canada)\n", "BULLET::::- BP (U.S., Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- Breakaway (U.S., Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- Break Time\n\nBULLET::::- Cenex\n\nBULLET::::- Chevron (U.S., Canada, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Panama)\n\nBULLET::::- CITGO (U.S., Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- Conoco\n\nBULLET::::- Co-op (Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- Co-op Diesel (Canada - select locations only)\n\nBULLET::::- Costco Wholesale (U.S., Canada, Mexico)\n\nBULLET::::- Costco Wholesale - Diesel (U.S., Canada - select locations only)\n\nBULLET::::- Couche-Tard (U.S., Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- CountryMark\n\nBULLET::::- CountryMark Plus\n\nBULLET::::- Diamond Shamrock (U.S., Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- Energy (Mexico)\n\nBULLET::::- Esso (Canada)\n\nBULLET::::- Express Mart (U.S. - Wisconsin)\n\nBULLET::::- Exxon\n\nBULLET::::- Fast Fuel\n\nBULLET::::- Fast Stop - Diesel (select locations only)\n", "BULLET::::- reformate, produced in a catalytic reformer, has a high octane rating with high aromatic content and relatively low olefin content. Most of the benzene, toluene and xylene (the so-called BTX hydrocarbons) are more valuable as chemical feedstocks and are thus removed to some extent.\n\nBULLET::::- catalytic cracked gasoline, or catalytic cracked naphtha, produced with a catalytic cracker, has a moderate octane rating, high olefin content and moderate aromatic content.\n\nBULLET::::- hydrocrackate (heavy, mid and light), produced with a hydrocracker, has a medium to low octane rating and moderate aromatic levels.\n", "BULLET::::- Liquid fuels blending (producing automotive and aviation grades of gasoline, kerosene, various aviation turbine fuels, and diesel fuels, adding dyes, detergents, antiknock additives, oxygenates, and anti-fungal compounds as required). Shipped by barge, rail, and tanker ship. May be shipped regionally in dedicated pipelines to point consumers, particularly aviation jet fuel to major airports, or piped to distributors in multi-product pipelines using product separators called pipeline inspection gauges (\"pigs\").\n\nBULLET::::- Lubricants (produces light machine oils, motor oils, and greases, adding viscosity stabilizers as required), usually shipped in bulk to an offsite packaging plant.\n", "BULLET::::- the crude oil feed used by the refinery;\n\nBULLET::::- the grade of gasoline (in particular, the octane rating).\n\nThe various refinery streams blended to make gasoline have different characteristics. Some important streams include:\n", "BULLET::::- Sewage treatment - maceration and overboard disposal of 'black' (toilet) and 'grey' (sink and shower) water\n\nBULLET::::- Plant/service air - for powering air-driven tools, purging vessels\n\nBULLET::::- Instrument air - for operating pneumatic actuated controllers and valves\n\nBULLET::::- Electricity generation - diesel or fuel gas for diesel engine or gas turbine driven electricity generation\n\nBULLET::::- Chemical storage and injection - to aid separation of well fluids and maintain operation of facilities, may include methanol, glycol, corrosion inhibitor, scale inhibitor, oxygen scavenger, HS scavenger, emulsion breaker, foam breaker, wax inhibitor\n", "The products produced in the reaction depend on the composition of the feed, the hydrocarbon to steam ratio and on the cracking temperature and furnace residence time. Light hydrocarbon feeds such as ethane, LPGs or light naphtha give product streams rich in the lighter alkenes, including ethylene, propylene, and butadiene. Heavier hydrocarbon (full range and heavy naphthas as well as other refinery products) feeds give some of these, but also give products rich in aromatic hydrocarbons and hydrocarbons suitable for inclusion in gasoline or fuel oil.\n", "BULLET::::- Liquified gas (LPG) storage vessels for propane and similar gaseous fuels at a pressure sufficient to maintain them in liquid form. These are usually spherical vessels or \"bullets\" (horizontal vessels with rounded ends).\n\nBULLET::::- Storage tanks for storing crude oil and finished products, usually vertical, cylindrical vessels with some sort of vapour emission control and surrounded by an earthen berm to contain spills.\n\nSection::::Flow diagram of typical refinery.\n", "BULLET::::- Tricresyl phosphate (TCP) (also an AW additive and EP additive)\n\nBULLET::::- 1,2-Dibromoethane\n\nBULLET::::- 1,2-Dichloroethane\n\nBULLET::::- Fuel dyes, most common:\n\nBULLET::::- Solvent Red 24\n\nBULLET::::- Solvent Red 26\n\nBULLET::::- Solvent Yellow 124\n\nBULLET::::- Solvent Blue 35\n\nBULLET::::- Fuel additives in general\n\nBULLET::::- Ether and other flammable hydrocarbons have been used extensively as starting fluid for many difficult-to-start engines, especially diesel engines\n\nBULLET::::- Nitromethane, or \"nitro,\" is a high-performance racing fuel\n\nBULLET::::- Acetone is a vaporization additive, mainly used with methanol racing fuel to improve vaporisation at start up\n", "BULLET::::- Lubricants (produces light machine oils, motor oils, and greases, adding viscosity stabilizers as required), usually shipped in bulk to an offsite packaging plant.\n\nBULLET::::- Paraffin wax, used in the packaging of frozen foods, among others. May be shipped in bulk to a site to prepare as packaged blocks. Used for wax emulsions, construction board, matches, candles, rust protection, and vapor barriers.\n", "BULLET::::- straight-run gasoline, commonly referred to as \"naphtha\", which is distilled directly from crude oil. Once the leading source of fuel, its low octane rating required lead additives. It is low in aromatics (depending on the grade of the crude oil stream) and contains some cycloalkanes (naphthenes) and no olefins (alkenes). Between 0 and 20 percent of this stream is pooled into the finished gasoline, because the supply of this fraction is insufficient and its RON is too low. The chemical properties (namely RON and Reid vapor pressure) of the straight-run gasoline can be improved through reforming and isomerisation. However, before feeding those units, the naphtha needs to be split into light and heavy naphtha. Straight-run gasoline can also be used as a feedstock for steam-crackers to produce olefins.\n", "Petroleum products are usually grouped into four categories: light distillates (LPG, gasoline, naphtha), middle distillates (kerosene, jet fuel, diesel), heavy distillates and residuum (heavy fuel oil, lubricating oils, wax, asphalt). These require blending various feedstocks, mixing appropriate additives, providing short term storage, and preparation for bulk loading to trucks, barges, product ships, and railcars. This classification is based on the way crude oil is distilled and separated into fractions.\n\nBULLET::::- Gaseous fuel such as Liquified petroleum gas and propane, stored and shipped in liquid form under pressure.\n", "Mazut is a residual fuel oil often derived from Russian petroleum sources and is either blended with lighter petroleum fractions or burned directly in specialized boilers and furnaces. It is also used as a petrochemical feedstock. In the Russian practice, though, \"mazut\" is an umbrella term roughly synonymous with the fuel oil in general, that covers most of the types mentioned above, except US grades 1 and 2/3, for which separate terms exist (kerosene and diesel fuel/solar oil respectively — Russian practice doesn't differentiate between diesel fuel and heating oil). This is further separated in two grades, \"naval mazut\" being analogous to US grades 4 and 5, and \"furnace mazut\", a heaviest residual fraction of the crude, almost exactly corresponding to US Number 6 fuel oil and further graded by viscosity and sulfur content.\n", "BULLET::::- Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) distillation\n\nBULLET::::- Hydrogen sulphide extraction\n\nBULLET::::- Sulphur production\n\nBULLET::::- Sour water stripping\n\nBULLET::::- Oily water separation (gravity separation)\n\nRefinery products were to include those shown in the table below.\n", "BULLET::::- Amine gas treater, Claus unit, and tail gas treatment for converting hydrogen sulfide gas from the hydrotreaters into end-product elemental sulfur. The large majority of the 64,000,000 metric tons of sulfur produced worldwide in 2005 was byproduct sulfur from petroleum refining and natural gas processing plants.\n\nBULLET::::- Fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) unit: Upgrades the heavier, higher-boiling fractions from the crude oil distillation by converting them into lighter and lower boiling, more valuable products.\n\nBULLET::::- Hydrocracker unit: Uses hydrogen to upgrade heavier fractions from the crude oil distillation and the vacuum distillation units into lighter, more valuable products.\n", "CCAI and CII are two indexes which describe the ignition quality of residual fuel oil, and CCAI is especially often calculated for marine fuels. Despite this, marine fuels are still quoted on the international bunker markets with their maximum viscosity (which is set by the ISO 8217 standard - see below) due to the fact that marine engines are designed to use different viscosities of fuel. The unit of viscosity used is the centistoke (cSt) and the fuels most frequently quoted are listed below in order of cost, the least expensive first.\n", "BULLET::::- Crude Oil Distillation unit: Distills the incoming crude oil into various fractions for further processing in other units.\n\nBULLET::::- Vacuum distillation unit: Further distills the residue oil from the bottom of the crude oil distillation unit. The vacuum distillation is performed at a pressure well below atmospheric pressure.\n\nBULLET::::- Naphtha hydrotreater unit: Uses hydrogen to desulfurize the naphtha fraction from the crude oil distillation or other units within the refinery.\n\nBULLET::::- Catalytic reforming unit: Converts the desulfurized naphtha molecules into higher-octane molecules to produce \"reformate\", which is a component of the end-product gasoline or petrol.\n", "BULLET::::- ULSMGO - Ultra-Low-Sulfur Marine Gas Oil - referred to as Ultra-Low-Sulfur Diesel (sulfur 0.0015% max) in the US and Auto Gas Oil (sulfur 0.001% max) in the EU. Maximum sulfur allowable in US territories and territorial waters (inland, marine, and automotive) and in the EU for inland use.\n", "Although the schematic flow diagram above depicts the main fractionator as having only one sidecut stripper and one fuel oil product, many FCC main fractionators have two sidecut strippers and produce a light fuel oil and a heavy fuel oil. Likewise, many FCC main fractionators produce a light cracked naphtha and a heavy cracked naphtha. The terminology \"light\" and \"heavy\" in this context refers to the product boiling ranges, with light products having a lower boiling range than heavy products.\n", "Section::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Acid gas\n\nBULLET::::- H-Bio\n\nBULLET::::- AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors\n\nBULLET::::- API oil-water separator\n\nBULLET::::- Biorefinery\n\nBULLET::::- Ethanol fuel\n\nBULLET::::- Butanol fuel\n\nBULLET::::- Gas flare\n\nBULLET::::- Industrial wastewater treatment\n\nBULLET::::- K factor crude oil refining\n\nBULLET::::- List of oil refineries\n\nBULLET::::- Natural-gas processing\n\nBULLET::::- National Occupational Research Agenda Oil and gas Extraction Council\n\nBULLET::::- Nelson complexity index\n\nBULLET::::- Sour gas\n\nBULLET::::- atmospheric distillation of crude oil\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Interactive map of UK refineries\n\nBULLET::::- Searchable United States Refinery Map\n\nBULLET::::- Complete, detailed refinery description\n\nBULLET::::- Ecomuseum Bergslagen - history of Oljeön, Sweden\n", "BULLET::::- Paraffin wax, used in the packaging of frozen foods, among others. May be shipped in bulk to a site to prepare as packaged blocks.\n\nBULLET::::- Slack wax, a raw refinery output comprising a mixture of oil and wax used as a precursor for scale wax and paraffin wax and as-is in non-food products such as wax emulsions, construction board, matches, candles, rust protection, and vapor barriers.\n\nBULLET::::- Sulfur, byproduct of sulfur removal from petroleum, which contain percent of organosulfur compounds.\n\nBULLET::::- Bulk tar shipping for offsite unit packaging for use in tar-and-gravel roofing or similar uses.\n" ]	[ "Higher gasoline grades and additives have benefits." ]	[ "Regular cars do not get anything special from high octane fuel and adding a similar product from an auto store is less expensive. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Higher gasoline grades and additives have benefits.", "Higher gasoline grades and additives have benefits." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Regular cars do not get anything special from high octane fuel and adding a similar product from an auto store is less expensive. ", "Regular cars do not get anything special from high octane fuel and adding a similar product from an auto store is less expensive. " ]
2018-15162	Why does traffic happen if there’s no accidents or anything to cause it?	More cars within the same area mean those cars have to be closer together. At some point, they get so close people don't feel safe traveling at highway speeds. They slow down, which makes the cars even closer together which make even more people slow down, and you get traffic.	[ "The term originated in the United States in 1987–1988 (specifically, from Newscasters at KTLA, a local television station), when a rash of freeway shootings occurred on the 405, 110 and 10 freeways in Los Angeles, California. These shooting sprees even spawned a response from the AAA Motor Club to its members on how to respond to drivers with road rage or aggressive maneuvers and gestures.\n\nSection::::Positive impacts.\n\nCongestion has the benefit of encouraging motorists to retime their trips so that expensive road space is in full use for more hours per day.\n", "Section::::By country.:New Zealand.\n", "Traffic research still cannot fully predict under which conditions a \"traffic jam\" (as opposed to heavy, but smoothly flowing traffic) may suddenly occur. It has been found that individual incidents (such as accidents or even a single car braking heavily in a previously smooth flow) may cause ripple effects (a cascading failure) which then spread out and create a sustained traffic jam when, otherwise, normal flow might have continued for some time longer.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Separation of work and residential areas.\n", "Section::::By country.:Philippines.\n", "In some places traffic volume is consistently, extremely large, either during periods of time referred to as \"rush hour\" or perpetually. Exceptionally, traffic upstream of a vehicular collision or an obstruction, such as construction, may also be constrained, resulting in a traffic jam. Such dynamics in relation to traffic congestion is known as traffic flow. Traffic engineers sometimes gauge the quality of traffic flow in terms of level of service.\n", "Section::::Congestion mitigation.:Intelligent transportation systems.\n", "Section::::Causes.:Economic theories.\n", "Through historical data obtained at VSL sites, it has been determined that implementation of this practice reduces accident numbers by 20-30%.\n\nIn addition to safety and efficiency concerns, VSL’s can also garner environmental benefits such as decreased emissions, noise, and fuel consumption. This is due to the fact that vehicles are more fuel-efficient when at a constant rate of travel, rather than in a state of constant acceleration and deacceleration like that usually found in congested conditions.\n\nKey Background Theory\n", "People often work and live in different parts of the city. Places of work are often located away from housing areas, resulting in the need for people to commute to work. \n\nAccording to a 2011 report published by the United States Census Bureau, a total of 132.3 million people in the United States commute between their work and residential areas daily.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Movement to obtain or provide goods and services.\n\nPeople may need to move about within the city to obtain goods and services, for instance to purchase goods or attend classes in a different part of the city.\n", "The word \"traffic\" originally meant \"trade\" (as it still does) and comes from the Old Italian verb \"trafficare\" and noun \"traffico\". The origin of the Italian words is unclear. Suggestions include Catalan \"trafegar\" \"decant\", an assumed Vulgar Latin verb \"transfricare\" 'rub across', an assumed Vulgar Latin combination of \"trans-\" and \"facere\" 'make or do', Arabic \"tafriq\" 'distribution', and Arabic \"taraffaqa\", which can mean 'seek profit'. Broadly, the term covers many kinds of traffic including network traffic, air traffic, marine traffic and rail traffic, but it is often used narrowly to mean only road traffic.\n\nSection::::Rules of the road.\n", "Traffic congestion occurs when a volume of traffic or modal split generates demand for space greater than the available street capacity; this point is commonly termed saturation. There are a number of specific circumstances which cause or aggravate congestion; most of them reduce the capacity of a road at a given point or over a certain length, or increase the number of vehicles required for a given volume of people or goods. About half of U.S. traffic congestion is recurring, and is attributed to sheer weight of traffic; most of the rest is attributed to traffic incidents, road work and weather events.\n", "Pedestrians experience stress and delay at every intersection, particularly when their mobility has been compromised either temporarily or through the aging process. A delay is unwelcome to pedestrians given that their slow speed and limited range of reach; the more frequent the intersections the higher the delay. \n", "Section::::Effects.:Societal.:Wasting of time.\n\nThe time spent in traffic can be considered as unproductive or generally, a waste of time. The concept of opportunity cost comes into play especially for people who have other places to be instead of being stuck in traffic.\n\nSection::::Effects.:Societal.:Delays.\n", "Section::::Negative impacts.\n\nTraffic congestion has a number of negative effects:\n\nBULLET::::- Wasting time of motorists and passengers (\"opportunity cost\"). As a non-productive activity for most people, congestion reduces regional economic health.\n\nBULLET::::- Delays, which may result in late arrival for employment, meetings, and education, resulting in lost business, disciplinary action or other personal losses.\n\nBULLET::::- Inability to forecast travel time accurately, leading to drivers allocating more time to travel \"just in case\", and less time on productive activities.\n\nBULLET::::- Wasted fuel increasing air pollution and carbon dioxide emissions owing to increased idling, acceleration and braking.\n", "As demand approaches the capacity of a road (or of the intersections along the road), extreme traffic congestion sets in. When vehicles are fully stopped for periods of time, this is colloquially known as a traffic jam or traffic snarl-up. Traffic congestion can lead to drivers becoming frustrated and engaging in road rage.\n\nMathematically, congestion is usually looked at as the number of vehicles that pass through a point in a window of time, or a flow. Congestion flow lends itself to principles of fluid dynamics.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Traffic flow\n\nIn mathematics and transportation engineering, traffic flow is the study of interactions between travellers (including pedestrians, cyclists, drivers, and their vehicles) and infrastructure (including highways, signage, and traffic control devices), with the aim of understanding and developing an optimal transport network with efficient movement of traffic and minimal traffic congestion problems.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nAttempts to produce a mathematical theory of traffic flow date back to the 1920s, when Frank Knight first produced an analysis of traffic equilibrium, which was refined into Wardrop's first and second principles of equilibrium in 1952.\n", "Traffic control for self-similar traffic has been explored on two fronts: Firstly, as an extension of performance analysis in the resource provisioning context, and secondly, from the multiple time scale traffic control perspective where the correlation structure at large time scales is actively exploited to improve network performance.\n", "BULLET::::- School opening times arranged to avoid rush hour traffic (in some countries, private car school pickup and drop-off traffic are substantial percentages of peak hour traffic).\n\nBULLET::::- Considerate driving behaviour promotion and enforcement. Driving practices such as tailgating and frequent lane changes can reduce a road's capacity and exacerbate jams. In some countries signs are placed on highways to raise awareness, while others have introduced legislation against inconsiderate driving.\n", "However, unlike a fluid, traffic flow is often affected by signals or other events at junctions that periodically affect the smooth flow of traffic. Alternative mathematical theories exist, such as Boris Kerner's three-phase traffic theory (see also spatiotemporal ).\n", "Traffic congestion\n\nTraffic congestion is a condition on transport that as use increases, and is characterised by slower speeds, longer trip times, and increased vehicular queueing. When traffic demand is great enough that the interaction between vehicles slows the speed of the traffic stream, this results in some congestion. While congestion is a possibility for any mode of transportation, this article will focus on automobile congestion on public roads.\n", "In measured traffic data, have been found that are qualitatively the same for different highways in different countries. Some of these common features distinguish the wide moving jam and synchronized flow phases of congested traffic in Kerner's three-phase traffic theory.\n\nSection::::Congested traffic.:Rush hour.\n\nDuring business days in most major cities, traffic congestion reaches great intensity at predictable times of the day due to the large number of vehicles using the road at the same time. This phenomenon is called \"rush hour\" or \"peak hour\", although the period of high traffic intensity often exceeds one hour.\n\nSection::::Congestion mitigation.\n", "A 2011 study in \"The American Economic Review\" indicates that there may be a \"fundamental law of road congestion.\" The researchers, from the University of Toronto and the London School of Economics, analyzed data from the U.S. Highway Performance and Monitoring System for 1983, 1993 and 2003, as well as information on population, employment, geography, transit, and political factors. They determined that the number of vehicle-kilometers traveled (VKT) increases in direct proportion to the available lane-kilometers of roadways. The implication is that building new roads and widening existing ones only results in additional traffic that continues to rise until peak congestion returns to the previous level.\n", "Section::::Mitigation.\n\nIt has been said that by knowing how traffic waves are created, drivers can sometimes reduce their effects by increasing vehicle headways and reducing the use of brakes, ultimately alleviating traffic congestion for everyone in the area.\n", "Organization typically produces a better combination of travel safety and efficiency. Events which disrupt the flow and may cause traffic to degenerate into a disorganized mess include road construction, collisions, and debris in the roadway. On particularly busy freeways, a minor disruption may persist in a phenomenon known as traffic waves. A complete breakdown of organization may result in traffic congestion and gridlock. Simulations of organized traffic frequently involve queuing theory, stochastic processes and equations of mathematical physics applied to traffic flow.\n\nSection::::Etymology and types.\n", "A unique Chinese phenomenon of severe traffic congestion occurs during Chunyun Period or Spring Festival travel season. It is a long-held tradition for most Chinese people to reunite with their families during Chinese New Year. People return to their hometown to have a reunion dinner with their families on Chinese New Year. It has been described as the largest annual human migration in the world. Since the economic boom and rapid urbanization of China since the late 1970s, many people work and study a considerable distance from their hometowns. Traffic flow is typically directional, with large amounts of the population working in more developed coastal provinces needing travel to their hometowns in the less developed interior. The process reverses near the end of Chunyun. With almost 3 billion trips made in 40 days of the 2016 Chunyun Period, the Chinese intercity transportation network is extremely strained during this period.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-08374	What makes a piece of glass/mirror shatter into more pieces than another?	Different crystal patterns in the molecular structure. The shockwave that causes it to shatter travels along the edges and causes them to separate at different intervals depending on how it's structured. Rocks for example have fault lines where each mineral attaches itself without much crystalization, so when a rock shatters it's very jagged and crumbly. Glass has a more uniform pattern and there for breaks along very long, fine edges, leading to large, straight, sharp pieces.	[ "Section::::Manufacturing.:Tolerances.:Surface defects.\n", "Glass expands and contracts with changes in temperature and deflects due to wind, so almost all modern glass is set on resilient blocks at the bottom and with space for expansion at the sides and top. The gaskets holding the glass in the frame are also usually resilient to cushion the glass against wind buffeting. If no space is provided at the perimeter of the unit, the glass will bind against the frame, causing internal stresses to develop in the glass which can exceed the strength of glass, resulting in breakage.\n\nSection::::Internal defects and inclusions in the glass.\n", "It is this compressive stress that gives the tempered glass increased strength. This is because annealed glass, which has almost no internal stress, usually forms microscopic surface cracks, and in the absence of surface compression, any applied tension to the glass causes tension at the surface, which can drive crack propagation. Once a crack starts propagating, tension is further concentrated at the tip of the crack, causing it to propagate at the speed of sound in the material. Consequently, annealed glass is fragile and breaks into irregular and sharp pieces. \n", "Section::::Chemically strengthened glass.\n\nChemically strengthened glass is a type of glass that has increased strength. When broken it still shatters in long pointed splinters similar to float (annealed) glass. For this reason, it is not considered a safety glass and must be laminated if a safety glass is required. Chemically strengthened glass is typically six to eight times the strength of annealed glass.\n", "BULLET::::- Low energy: Most common type of fractures. It is caused by damage to the edge of the glass. This weakens the edge, so less stress is required to cause the failure. The probability of this type of thermal fracture cannot be determined using thermal assessment processes.\n\nBULLET::::- High energy: These are rare and require high levels of thermal stress. The probability of this type of thermal fracture can be determined using thermal assessment processes.\n\nSection::::Prevention of thermal fracture.\n\nBULLET::::- Low energy: edges of annealed laminated glasses are polished. Inspection is done to find damages in glass.\n", "The need to build structures with integrity goes back as far as recorded history. Houses needed to be able to support their own weight, plus the weight of the inhabitants. Castles needed to be fortified to withstand assaults from invaders. Tools needed to be strong and tough enough to do their jobs. However, the science of fracture mechanics as it exists today was not developed until the 1920s, when Alan Arnold Griffith studied the brittle fracture of glass.\n", "Section::::Types of failure.\n\nStructural failure can occur from many types of problems, most of which are unique to different industries and structural types. However, most can be traced to one of five main causes.\n\nBULLET::::- The first is that the structure is not strong and tough enough to support the load, due to either its size, shape, or choice of material. If the structure or component is not strong enough, catastrophic failure can occur when the structure is stressed beyond its critical stress level.\n", "Section::::Manufacturing.:Tolerances.:Wedge.\n", "In toughened glass, compressive stresses are induced on the surface of the glass, balanced by tensile stresses in the body of the glass. Due to the residual compressive stress on the surface, toughened glass is more resistant to cracks, but shatter into small shards when the outer surface is broken. A demonstration of the effect is shown by Prince Rupert's Drop, a material-science novelty in which a molten glass globule is quenched in water: Because the outer surface cools and solidifies first, when the volume cools and solidifies, it \"wants\" to take up a smaller volume than the outer \"skin\" has already defined; this puts much of the volume in tension, pulling the \"skin\" in, putting the \"skin\" in compression. As a result, the solid globule is extremely tough, able to be hit with a hammer, but if its long tail is broken, the balance of forces is upset, causing the entire piece to shatter violently.\n", "Section::::Manufacturing.:Tolerances.\n", "Section::::Notable fracture failures.\n\nFailures caused by brittle fracture have not been limited to any particular category of engineered structure. Though brittle fracture is less common than other types of failure, the impacts to life and property can be more severe. The following notable historic failures were attributed to brittle fracture:\n\nBULLET::::- Pressure vessels: Great Molasses Flood in 1919, New Jersey molasses tank failure in 1973\n\nBULLET::::- Bridges: King Street Bridge span collapse in 1962, Silver Bridge collapse in 1967, partial failure of the Hoan Bridge in 2000\n", "Nickel sulfide inclusions (\"stones\") can be present in the glass. The most common cause of these inclusions is the use of stainless-steel machinery in the glassmaking and handling process. Small shavings of stainless steel containing nickel change structure over time and grow, creating internal stresses in the glass. When these stresses exceed the strength of the glass, breakage results. This type of breakage is almost always found in tempered glass and is indicated by a distinctive \"figure eight\" pattern, with each \"loop\" of the figure eight approx. 30mm in diameter.\n", "BULLET::::- likelihood that a particular inspection method will reveal a crack\n\nBULLET::::- acceptable level of risk that a certain structure will be completely failed\n\nBULLET::::- expected duration after manufacture until a detectable crack will form\n\nBULLET::::- assumption of failure in adjacent components which may have the effect of changing stresses in the structure of interest\n", "Although all damage at the atomic level manifests as broken atomic bonds, the manifestation of damage at the macroscopic level depends on the material, and can include cracks and deformation, as well as structural weakening that is not visible.\n\nSection::::Physical damage.:Damage to objects.\n", "While glass is being moved and installed, it is easy for the glaziers to nick or chip the edges of the glass with various tools. It is also possible for fasteners such as nails or screws used to attach glass stops to nick the glass edges if these fasteners are installed at an improper angle. These small nicks or chips may not result in immediate breakage. However, over time, as the glass expands and contracts, stress concentrations can develop around the nick, leading to breakage. In the case of tempered glass the entire unit usually breaks.\n\nSection::::Binding in the frame.\n", "BULLET::::- The third type of failure is caused by manufacturing errors, including improper selection of materials, incorrect sizing, improper heat treating, failing to adhere to the design, or shoddy workmanship. This type of failure can occur at any time and is usually unpredictable.\n\nBULLET::::- The fourth type of failure is from the use of defective materials. This type of failure is also unpredictable, since the material may have been improperly manufactured or damaged from prior use.\n", "BULLET::::- The second type of failure is from fatigue or corrosion, caused by instability in the structure’s geometry, design or material properties. These failures usually begin when cracks form at stress points, such as squared corners or bolt holes too close to the material's edge. These cracks grow as the material is repeatedly stressed and unloaded (cyclic loading), eventually reaching a critical length and causing the structure to suddenly fail under normal loading conditions.\n", "The strengthening mechanism depends on the fact that the compressive strength of glass is significantly higher than its tensile strength. With both surfaces of the glass already in compression, it takes a certain amount of bending before one of the surfaces can even go into tension. More bending is required to reach the tensile strength. The other surface simply experiences more and more compressive stress. But since the compressive strength is so much larger, no compressive failure is experienced.\n", "Section::::Factors affecting thermal stress.\n\nBULLET::::- Solar absorption: the temperature of glass depends on the amount of heat absorbed by the glass. So a high performance solar control glass will absorb more heat. so it will be more prone to thermal fracture\n\nBULLET::::- Shadow: the presence of shadows will result in relatively cooler areas in glass. Thus it results in temperature difference and may result in thermal fracture.\n\nBULLET::::- Edge strength: crack will form if the tensile strength of glass edge exceeds the critical point. Clean cut glass is the strongest and after that polished edge is strongest.\n", "Incorrect temperature of glass objects can lead to possible fracture. Stabilization of temperature can help significantly in keeping them from destruction. \n\nIncorrect relative humidity in glass objects can lead to crizzling or weeping of glass. Crizzling can occur when relative humidity is below 40%, and lead to cracks in its surface. Glass weeping or sweating can occur when relative humidity is above 55% and loses luster. \n", "Section::::Manufacturing.:Tolerances.:Surface quality.\n", "Heat-strengthened glass, or tempered glass, is glass that has been heat treated to induce surface compression, but not to the extent of causing it to \"dice\" on breaking in the manner of tempered glass. On breaking, heat-strengthened glass breaks into sharp pieces that are typically somewhat smaller than those found on breaking annealed glass, and is intermediate in strength between annealed and toughened glasses.\n\nHeat-strengthened glass can take a strong direct hit without shattering, but has a weak edge. By simply tapping the edge of heat-strengthened glass with a solid object, it is possible to shatter the entire sheet. \n", "Some types of mechanical failure mechanisms are: excessive deflection, buckling, ductile fracture, brittle fracture, impact, creep, relaxation, thermal shock, wear, corrosion, stress corrosion cracking, and various types of fatigue. Each produces a different type of fracture surface, and other indicators near the fracture surface(s). The way the product is loaded, and the loading history are also important factors which determine the outcome. Of critical importance is design geometry because stress concentrations can magnify the applied load locally to very high levels, and from which cracks usually grow.\n", "where formula_2 is viscosity, \"T\" is the glass transition temperature, \"m\" is fragility, and \"T\" is temperature. Glass-formers with a high fragility are called \"fragile\"; those with a low fragility are called \"strong\". For example, silica has a relatively low fragility and is called \"strong\", whereas some polymers have relatively high fragility and are called \"fragile\". Fragility has no direct relationship with the colloquial meaning of the word \"fragility\", which more closely relates to the brittleness of a material.\n", "Section::::Notable failures.:Buildings.:Oklahoma City bombing.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-07200	Why is it that when you cut a magnet in half you get 2 magnets and not a South Pole and a North Pole?	Think of a Magnet as consisting of lot's and lot's of arrows all pointing in the same direction, a bit like this: < ------ < ------ < ------ < ------ < ------ < ------ < ------ < ------ < ------ < ------ < ------ < ------ < ------ < ------ < ------ < ------ < ------ < ------ Each arrow is like a 'mini magnet' where the Point of the arrow is the north pole and the other end is the south pole. Because they're all pointing in the same direction it allows their magnetic fields to combine into a field that's strong enough for us humans to notice. The arrows themselves are indivisible, so when you cut a magnet in half what you're actually making is this- Magnet 1- < ------ < ------ < ------ < ------ < ------ < ------ < ------ < ------ < ------ Magnet 2- < ------ < ------ < ------ < ------ < ------ < ------ < ------ < ------ < ------ Thus you now have two smaller magnets. edit- If you're interested, if a magnet ever 'lost' it's magnetism it's because this has happened- < ------ ------ > < ------ < ------ ------ > > ------ < ------ < ------ ------ > ------ > < ------ < ------ ------ > ------ > < ------ ------ > < ------ ------ > The mini-magnets are now all pointing in random directions so their individual magnetic fields cancel out instead of adding up.	[ "Although for many purposes it is convenient to think of a magnet as having distinct north and south magnetic poles, the concept of poles should not be taken literally: it is merely a way of referring to the two different ends of a magnet. The magnet does not have distinct north or south particles on opposing sides. If a bar magnet is broken into two pieces, in an attempt to separate the north and south poles, the result will be two bar magnets, \"each\" of which has both a north and south pole. However, a version of the magnetic-pole approach is used by professional magneticians to design permanent magnets.\n", "Since a bar magnet gets its ferromagnetism from electrons distributed evenly throughout the bar, when a bar magnet is cut in half, each of the resulting pieces is a smaller bar magnet. Even though a magnet is said to have a north pole and a south pole, these two poles cannot be separated from each other. A monopole—if such a thing exists—would be a new and fundamentally different kind of magnetic object. It would act as an isolated north pole, not attached to a south pole, or vice versa. Monopoles would carry \"magnetic charge\" analogous to electric charge. Despite systematic searches since 1931, , they have never been observed, and could very well not exist.\n", "In order to explain the principle of the EPM, the configuration on the following picture is presented. Two permanent magnets are assembled with two U-shape (horseshoe) iron bars. If the north pole of both magnets are pointing up we will have the configuration described on the left: The iron U in the top will see two norths on its ends and will concentrate the flux lines but it won't be able to contain the magnetic flux and the flux will flow through the air and will try to find the other iron U. In a general schema, the iron U on top will become a north pole of the big magnet and the bottom iron U will become a south pole. In this configuration we can say there is big magnet ON.\n", "As a first-order approximation, Earth's magnetic field can be modeled as a simple dipole (like a bar magnet), tilted about 10° with respect to Earth's rotation axis (which defines the Geographic North and Geographic South Poles) and centered at Earth's center. The North and South Geomagnetic Poles are the antipodal points where the axis of this theoretical dipole intersects Earth's surface. If Earth's magnetic field were a perfect dipole then the field lines would be vertical at the Geomagnetic Poles, and they would coincide with the Magnetic Poles. However, the approximation is imperfect, and so the Magnetic and Geomagnetic Poles lie some distance apart.\n", "All magnets have two poles, where the lines of magnetic flux enter and emerge. By analogy with Earth's magnetic field, these are called the magnet's \"north\" and \"south\" poles. The convention in early compasses was to call the end of the needle pointing to Earth's North Magnetic Pole the \"north pole\" (or \"north-seeking pole\") and the other end the \"south pole\" (the names are often abbreviated to \"N\" and \"S\"). Because opposite poles attract, this definition means that Earth's North Magnetic Pole is actually a magnetic \"south\" pole and Earth's South Magnetic Pole is a magnetic \"north\" pole.\n", "A very common source of magnetic field found in nature is a dipole, with a \"South pole\" and a \"North pole\", terms dating back to the use of magnets as compasses, interacting with the Earth's magnetic field to indicate North and South on the globe. Since opposite ends of magnets are attracted, the north pole of a magnet is attracted to the south pole of another magnet. The Earth's North Magnetic Pole (currently in the Arctic Ocean, north of Canada) is physically a south pole, as it attracts the north pole of a compass.\n", "If both poles are small enough to be represented as single points then they can be considered to be point magnetic charges. Classically, the force between two magnetic poles is given by:\n\nwhere\n\nThe pole description is useful to practicing magneticians who design real-world magnets, but real magnets have a pole distribution more complex than a single north and south. Therefore, implementation of the pole idea is not simple. In some cases, one of the more complex formulas given below will be more useful.\n\nSection::::Gilbert Model.:Calculating the magnetic force.:Force between two nearby magnetized surfaces of area \"A\".\n", "If we rotate one of the hard magnets (north pole point down), the iron U on top will see a north pole and a south pole. The other iron U will see exactly the opposite. In this way almost all the magnetic flux will be concentrated inside both iron U's creating a close circuit for the magnetic field (because the high permeability of the iron). Having all the flux confined inside the structure, the magnetic flux outside became almost nonexistent. In this configuration we can say the big magnet is OFF.\n", "The direction of magnetic field lines is defined such that the lines emerge from the magnet's north pole and enter into the magnet's south pole.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Since it is based on the fictitious idea of a \"magnetic charge density\", the pole model has limitations. Magnetic poles cannot exist apart from each other as electric charges can, but always come in north/south pairs. If a magnetized object is divided in half, a new pole appears on the surface of each piece, so each has a pair of complementary poles. The magnetic pole model does not account for magnetism that is produced by electric currents.\n\nSection::::Magnetic field and permanent magnets.:Amperian loop model and the B-field.\n", "Its southern hemisphere counterpart is the South Magnetic Pole. Since Earth's magnetic field is not exactly symmetrical, the North and South Magnetic Poles are not antipodal, meaning that a straight line drawn from one to the other does not pass through the geometric center of Earth.\n\nEarth's North and South Magnetic Poles are also known as Magnetic Dip Poles, with reference to the vertical \"dip\" of the magnetic field lines at those points.\n\nSection::::Polarity.\n", "As a first-order approximation, the Earth's magnetic field can be modeled as a simple dipole (like a bar magnet), tilted about 9.6° with respect to the Earth's rotation axis (which defines the Geographic North and Geographic South Poles) and centered at the Earth's center. The North and South Geomagnetic Poles are the antipodal points where the axis of this theoretical dipole intersects the Earth's surface, thus unlike the magnetic poles they always have an equal degree of latitude and supplementary degrees of longitude respectively (2017: Lat. 80.5°N, 80.5°S; Long. 72.8°W, 107.2°E). If the Earth's magnetic field were a perfect dipole then the field lines would be vertical to the surface at the Geomagnetic Poles, and they would coincide with the North and South magnetic poles. However, the approximation is imperfect, and so the Magnetic and Geomagnetic Poles lie some distance apart.\n", "Closer to the magnet, the magnetic field becomes more complicated and more dependent on the detailed shape and magnetization of the magnet. Formally, the field can be expressed as a multipole expansion: A dipole field, plus a quadrupole field, plus an octupole field, etc.\n\nAt close range, many different fields are possible. For example, for a long, skinny bar magnet with its north pole at one end and south pole at the other, the magnetic field near either end falls off inversely with the square of the distance from that pole.\n\nSection::::Units and calculations.:Calculating the magnetic force.\n", "Section::::Characteristics.:Magnetic poles.\n\nHistorically, the north and south poles of a magnet were first defined by the Earth's magnetic field, not vice versa, since one of the first uses for a magnet was as a compass needle. A magnet's North pole is defined as the pole that is attracted by the Earth's North Magnetic Pole when the magnet is suspended so it can turn freely. Since opposite poles attract, the North Magnetic Pole of the Earth is really the south pole of its magnetic field (the place where the field is directed downward into the Earth). \n", "Magnets are drawn along the magnetic field gradient. The simplest example of this is the attraction of opposite poles of two magnets. Every magnet produces a magnetic field that is stronger near its poles. If opposite poles of two separate magnets are facing each other, each of the magnets are drawn into the stronger magnetic field near the pole of the other. If like poles are facing each other though, they are repulsed from the larger magnetic field.\n", "Because the Earth's actual magnetic field is not an exact dipole, the (calculated) North and South Geomagnetic Poles do not coincide with the North and South Magnetic Poles. If the Earth's magnetic fields were exactly dipolar, the north pole of a magnetic compass needle would point directly at the North Geomagnetic Pole. In practice it does not because the geomagnetic field that originates in the core has a more complex non-dipolar part, and magnetic anomalies in the Earth's crust also contribute to the local field. \n", "The field at the surface of the Earth is approximately the same as if a giant bar magnet were positioned at the center of the Earth and tilted at an angle of about 11° off the rotational axis of the Earth (see the figure). The north pole of a magnetic compass needle points roughly north, toward the North Magnetic Pole. However, because a magnetic pole is attracted to its opposite, the North Magnetic Pole is actually the south pole of the geomagnetic field. This confusion in terminology arises because the pole of a magnet is defined by the geographical direction it points.\n", "formula_15\n\nThe force between two poles is:\n\nformula_16\n\nThis model doesn't give the correct magnetic field inside the core and thus gives incorrect results if the pole of one magnet gets too close to another magnet.\n\nSection::::Side effects.\n\nThere are several side effects which occur in electromagnets which must be provided for in their design. These generally become more significant in larger electromagnets.\n\nSection::::Side effects.:Ohmic heating.\n", "In the off position, the poles are oriented towards the non-ferrous core. The iron blocks act as keepers by bridging between both poles.In the on position, the poles are each in one iron half, which then acts as an extension. The field is effectively passing across an air gap (at the base and top). If this gap is bridged with another piece of iron (or steel in our case) it becomes part of the magnetic field's circuit and will be attracted with the full strength of the magnet.\n", "Pole pieces are used with both permanent magnets and electromagnets. In the case of an electromagnet, the pole piece or pieces simply extend the magnetic core and can even be regarded as part of it, particularly if they are made of the same material. In the case of a permanent magnet, the distinction between the magnet itself and the pole piece or pieces is more clear cut.\n\nSection::::Materials.\n", "BULLET::::2. Magnetic poles (or states of polarization at individual points) attract or repel one another in a manner similar to positive and negative charges and always exist as pairs: every north pole is yoked to a south pole.\n\nBULLET::::3. An electric current inside a wire creates a corresponding circumferential magnetic field outside the wire. Its direction (clockwise or counter-clockwise) depends on the direction of the current in the wire.\n", "Although magnets and magnetism were studied much earlier, the research of magnetic fields began in 1269 when French scholar Petrus Peregrinus de Maricourt mapped out the magnetic field on the surface of a spherical magnet using iron needles. Noting that the resulting field lines crossed at two points he named those points \"poles\" in analogy to Earth's poles. He also clearly articulated the principle that magnets always have both a north and south pole, no matter how finely one slices them.\n", "To understand the force between magnets, it is useful to examine the \"magnetic pole model\" given above. In this model, the \"-field\" of one magnet pushes and pulls on \"both\" poles of a second magnet. If this -field is the same at both poles of the second magnet then there is no net force on that magnet since the force is opposite for opposite poles. If, however, the magnetic field of the first magnet is \"nonuniform\" (such as the near one of its poles), each pole of the second magnet sees a different field and is subject to a different force. This difference in the two forces moves the magnet in the direction of increasing magnetic field and may also cause a net torque.\n", "The north pole of a magnet is defined as the pole that, when the magnet is freely suspended, points towards the Earth's North Magnetic Pole in the Arctic (the magnetic and geographic poles do not coincide, see magnetic declination). Since opposite poles (north and south) attract, the North Magnetic Pole is actually the \"south\" pole of the Earth's magnetic field. As a practical matter, to tell which pole of a magnet is north and which is south, it is not necessary to use the Earth's magnetic field at all. For example, one method would be to compare it to an electromagnet, whose poles can be identified by the right-hand rule. The magnetic field lines of a magnet are considered by convention to emerge from the magnet's north pole and reenter at the south pole.\n", "The global definition of the Earth's field is based on a mathematical model. If a line is drawn through the center of the Earth, parallel to the moment of the best-fitting magnetic dipole, the two positions where it intersects the Earth's surface are called the North and South geomagnetic poles. If the Earth's magnetic field were perfectly dipolar, the geomagnetic poles and magnetic dip poles would coincide and compasses would point towards them. However, the Earth's field has a significant non-dipolar contribution, so the poles do not coincide and compasses do not generally point at either.\n\nSection::::Magnetosphere.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-15981	How can cells, when dividing, during mitosis, produce another cell if they need more materials for the new cell. How do they get the structures for the nucleus. cell wall. mitochondira. etc. n	A cell grows in large size before splitting and creating 2 baby sized cells. The sum of the mass of baby cells is same as the original beefcake cell.	[ "BULLET::::2. Then, the nuclei on the micropylar end of the structure undergo a second round of mitosis.\n\nBULLET::::3. Next, the nuclei rearrange to form a trinucleate endosperm mother cell and the characteristic arrangement of the micropylar end, with an egg cell and two synergid cells.\n\nBULLET::::4. Cell plates form around the egg cell and synergid cells.\n\nSection::::Eudicots.\n", "Cytokinesis is not a phase of mitosis but rather a separate process, necessary for completing cell division. In animal cells, a cleavage furrow (pinch) containing a contractile ring develops where the metaphase plate used to be, pinching off the separated nuclei. In both animal and plant cells, cell division is also driven by vesicles derived from the Golgi apparatus, which move along microtubules to the middle of the cell. In plants, this structure coalesces into a cell plate at the center of the phragmoplast and develops into a cell wall, separating the two nuclei. The phragmoplast is a microtubule structure typical for higher plants, whereas some green algae use a phycoplast microtubule array during cytokinesis. Each daughter cell has a complete copy of the genome of its parent cell. The end of cytokinesis marks the end of the M-phase.\n", "The process of cell division, called cell cycle, has four major parts called phases. The first part, called G phase is marked by synthesis of various enzymes that are required for DNA replication.\n\nThe second part of the cell cycle is the S phase, where DNA replication produces two identical sets of chromosomes. The third part is the G phase in which a significant protein synthesis occurs, mainly involving the production of microtubules that are required during the process of division, called mitosis.\n", "Mitosis occurs exclusively in eukaryotic cells, but occurs in different ways in different species. For example, animal cells undergo an \"open\" mitosis, where the nuclear envelope breaks down before the chromosomes separate, while fungi such as \"Aspergillus nidulans\" and \"Saccharomyces cerevisiae\" (yeast) undergo a \"closed\" mitosis, where chromosomes divide within an intact cell nucleus. \n\nSection::::Phases.:Cytokinesis phase (separation of all cell components).\n", "The primary result of mitosis and cytokinesis is the transfer of a parent cell's genome into two daughter cells. The genome is composed of a number of chromosomes—complexes of tightly coiled DNA that contain genetic information vital for proper cell function. Because each resultant daughter cell should be genetically identical to the parent cell, the parent cell must make a copy of each chromosome before mitosis. This occurs during the S phase of interphase. Chromosome duplication results in two identical \"sister chromatids\" bound together by cohesin proteins at the \"centromere\".\n", "Because cytokinesis usually occurs in conjunction with mitosis, \"mitosis\" is often used interchangeably with \"M phase\". However, there are many cells where mitosis and cytokinesis occur separately, forming single cells with multiple nuclei in a process called endoreplication. This occurs most notably among the fungi and slime molds, but is found in various groups. Even in animals, cytokinesis and mitosis may occur independently, for instance during certain stages of fruit fly embryonic development. Errors in mitosis can result in cell death through apoptosis or cause mutations that may lead to cancer.\n\nSection::::Regulation of eukaryotic cell cycle.\n", "Section::::Phases.:Mitosis.:Prophase.\n\nDuring prophase, which occurs after G interphase, the cell prepares to divide by tightly condensing its chromosomes and initiating mitotic spindle formation. During interphase, the genetic material in the nucleus consists of loosely packed chromatin. At the onset of prophase, chromatin fibers condense into discrete chromosomes that are typically visible at high magnification through a light microscope. In this stage, chromosomes are long, thin and thread-like. Each chromosome has two chromatids. The two chromatids are joined at the centromere.\n", "Mitosis is immediately followed by cytokinesis, which divides the nuclei, cytoplasm, organelles and cell membrane into two cells containing roughly equal shares of these cellular components. Mitosis and cytokinesis together define the division of the mother cell into two daughter cells, genetically identical to each other and to their parent cell. This accounts for approximately 10% of the cell cycle.\n", "BULLET::::- Development and growth: The number of cells within an organism increases by mitosis. This is the basis of the development of a multicellular body from a single cell, i.e., zygote and also the basis of the growth of a multicellular body.\n", "There are many cells where mitosis and cytokinesis occur separately, forming single cells with multiple nuclei. The most notable occurrence of this is among the fungi, slime molds, and coenocytic algae, but the phenomenon is found in various other organisms. Even in animals, cytokinesis and mitosis may occur independently, for instance during certain stages of fruit fly embryonic development.\n\nSection::::Function.\n\nMitosis \"function\" or significance relies on the maintenance of the chromosomal set; each cell formed receives chromosomes that are alike in composition and equal in number to the chromosomes of the parent cell.\n\nMitosis occurs in the following circumstances:\n", "During mitotic progression, typically after the anaphase onset, the cell may undergo cytokinesis. In animal cells, a cell membrane pinches inward between the two developing nuclei to produce two new cells. In plant cells, a cell plate forms between the two nuclei. Cytokinesis does not always occur; coenocytic (a type of multinucleate condition) cells undergo mitosis without cytokinesis.\n\nSection::::Phases.:Interphase.\n", "At a certain point during the cell cycle in open mitosis, the cell divides to form two cells. In order for this process to be possible, each of the new daughter cells must have a full set of genes, a process requiring replication of the chromosomes as well as segregation of the separate sets. This occurs by the replicated chromosomes, the sister chromatids, attaching to microtubules, which in turn are attached to different centrosomes. The sister chromatids can then be pulled to separate locations in the cell. In many cells, the centrosome is located in the cytoplasm, outside the nucleus; the microtubules would be unable to attach to the chromatids in the presence of the nuclear envelope. Therefore, the early stages in the cell cycle, beginning in prophase and until around prometaphase, the nuclear membrane is dismantled. Likewise, during the same period, the nuclear lamina is also disassembled, a process regulated by phosphorylation of the lamins by protein kinases such as the CDC2 protein kinase. Towards the end of the cell cycle, the nuclear membrane is reformed, and around the same time, the nuclear lamina are reassembled by dephosphorylating the lamins.\n", "BULLET::::3. Three of these micronuclei disintegrate. The fourth undergoes mitosis.\n\nBULLET::::4. The two cells exchange a micronucleus.\n\nBULLET::::5. The cells then separate.\n\nBULLET::::6. The micronuclei in each cell fuse, forming a diploid micronucleus.\n\nBULLET::::7. Mitosis occurs three times, giving rise to eight micronuclei.\n\nBULLET::::8. Four of the new micronuclei transform into macronuclei, and the old macronucleus disintegrates.\n\nBULLET::::9. Binary fission occurs twice, yielding four identical daughter cells.\n\nSection::::DNA rearrangements (gene scrambling).\n", "One common means to produce very large cells is by cell fusion to form syncytia. For example, very long (several inches) skeletal muscle cells are formed by fusion of thousands of myocytes. Genetic studies of the fruit fly \"Drosophila\" have revealed several genes that are required for the formation of multinucleated muscle cells by fusion of myoblasts. Some of the key proteins are important for cell adhesion between myocytes and some are involved in adhesion-dependent cell-to-cell signal transduction that allows for a cascade of cell fusion events.\n", "In plant cells only, prophase is preceded by a pre-prophase stage. In highly vacuolated plant cells, the nucleus has to migrate into the center of the cell before mitosis can begin. This is achieved through the formation of a phragmosome, a transverse sheet of cytoplasm that bisects the cell along the future plane of cell division. In addition to phragmosome formation, preprophase is characterized by the formation of a ring of microtubules and actin filaments (called preprophase band) underneath the plasma membrane around the equatorial plane of the future mitotic spindle. This band marks the position where the cell will eventually divide. The cells of higher plants (such as the flowering plants) lack centrioles; instead, microtubules form a spindle on the surface of the nucleus and are then organized into a spindle by the chromosomes themselves, after the nuclear envelope breaks down. The preprophase band disappears during nuclear envelope breakdown and spindle formation in prometaphase.\n", "Mitosis occurs only in eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells, which lack a nucleus, divide by a different process called binary fission. Mitosis varies between organisms. For example, animal cells undergo an \"open\" mitosis, where the nuclear envelope breaks down before the chromosomes separate, whereas fungi undergo a \"closed\" mitosis, where chromosomes divide within an intact cell nucleus. Most animal cells undergo a shape change, known as mitotic cell rounding, to adopt a near spherical morphology at the start of mitosis. Most human cells are produced by mitotic cell division. Important exceptions include the gametes – sperm and egg cells – which are produced by meiosis.\n", "BULLET::::1. The removal of the cell wall of one cell of each type of plant using cellulase enzyme to produce a somatic cell called a protoplast\n\nBULLET::::2. The cells are then fused using electric shock (electrofusion) or chemical treatment to join the cells and fuse together the nuclei. The resulting fused nucleus is called heterokaryon.\n\nBULLET::::3. The formation of the cell wall is then induced using hormones\n\nBULLET::::4. The cells are then grown into calluses which then are further grown to plantlets and finally to a full plant, known as a somatic hybrid.\n", "Section::::Discovery.\n\nNumerous descriptions of cell division were made during 18th and 19th centuries, with various degrees of accuracy. In 1835, the German botanist Hugo von Mohl, described cell division in the green alga \"Cladophora glomerata\", stating that multiplication of cells occurs through cell division. In 1838, Schleiden affirmed that the formation of new cells \"in their interior\" was a general law for cell multiplication in plants, a view later rejected in favour of Mohl model, due to contributions of Robert Remak and others.\n", "\"Endoreduplication\" (or endoreplication) occurs when chromosomes duplicate but the cell does not subsequently divide. This results in polyploid cells or, if the chromosomes duplicates repeatedly, polytene chromosomes. Endoreduplication is found in many species and appears to be a normal part of development. Endomitosis is a variant of endoreduplication in which cells replicate their chromosomes during S phase and enter, but prematurely terminate, mitosis. Instead of being divided into two new daughter nuclei, the replicated chromosomes are retained within the original nucleus. The cells then re-enter G and S phase and replicate their chromosomes again. This may occur multiple times, increasing the chromosome number with each round of replication and endomitosis. Platelet-producing megakaryocytes go through endomitosis during cell differentiation.\n", "In animal cells, cell division with mitosis was discovered in frog, rabbit, and cat cornea cells in 1873 and described for the first time by the Polish histologist Wacław Mayzel in 1875.\n\nBütschli, Schneider and Fol might have also claimed the discovery of the process presently known as \"mitosis\". In 1873, the German zoologist Otto Bütschli published data from observations on nematodes. A few years later, he discovered and described mitosis based on those observations.\n", "When mitosis begins, the chromosomes condense and become visible. In some eukaryotes, for example animals, the nuclear envelope, which segregates the DNA from the cytoplasm, disintegrates into small vesicles. The nucleolus, which makes ribosomes in the cell, also disappears. Microtubules project from opposite ends of the cell, attach to the centromeres, and align the chromosomes centrally within the cell. The microtubules then contract to pull the sister chromatids of each chromosome apart. Sister chromatids at this point are called \"daughter chromosomes\". As the cell elongates, corresponding daughter chromosomes are pulled toward opposite ends of the cell and condense maximally in late anaphase. A new nuclear envelope forms around the separated daughter chromosomes, which decondense to form interphase nuclei.\n", "The rest of this article is a comparison of the main features of the three types of cell reproduction that either involve binary fission, mitosis, or meiosis. The diagram below depicts the similarities and differences of these three types of cell reproduction.\n\nSection::::Cell division.:Comparison of the three types of cell division.\n", "Telophase (from the Greek word \"τελος\" meaning \"end\") is a reversal of prophase and prometaphase events. At telophase, the polar microtubules continue to lengthen, elongating the cell even more. If the nuclear envelope has broken down, a new nuclear envelope forms using the membrane vesicles of the parent cell's old nuclear envelope. The new envelope forms around each set of separated daughter chromosomes (though the membrane does not enclose the centrosomes) and the nucleolus reappears. Both sets of chromosomes, now surrounded by new nuclear membrane, begin to \"relax\" or decondense. Mitosis is complete. Each daughter nucleus has an identical set of chromosomes. Cell division may or may not occur at this time depending on the organism.\n", "Cells reproduce through a process of cell division in which the parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells. For prokaryotes, cell division occurs through a process of fission in which the DNA is replicated, then the two copies are attached to parts of the cell membrane. In eukaryotes, a more complex process of mitosis is followed. However, the end result is the same; the resulting cell copies are identical to each other and to the original cell (except for mutations), and both are capable of further division following an interphase period.\n", "In late prometaphase, \"kinetochore microtubules\" begin to search for and attach to chromosomal kinetochores. A \"kinetochore\" is a proteinaceous microtubule-binding structure that forms on the chromosomal centromere during late prophase. A number of \"polar microtubules\" find and interact with corresponding polar microtubules from the opposite centrosome to form the mitotic spindle. Although the kinetochore structure and function are not fully understood, it is known that it contains some form of molecular motor. When a microtubule connects with the kinetochore, the motor activates, using energy from ATP to \"crawl\" up the tube toward the originating centrosome. This motor activity, coupled with polymerisation and depolymerisation of microtubules, provides the pulling force necessary to later separate the chromosome's two chromatids.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "During mitosis, a cell needs more materials for the new cell." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "A cell grows large before splitting, and the sum mass of the baby cells are the same as the original cell." ]
2018-00409	How the speed of light is constant in all reference frames	How it does so may not have a satisfying answer, but the answer mostly boils down to: because it's a basic property of the universe. Generally, we start with the fact that c is constant in all frames, then find out what that implies. A slightly more satisfying way to think about it is that time itself is relative to the observer. If we have an explosion on a railcar moving very fast (by the by, an object with mass cannot travel at the speed of light), the scientist on the ground sees everything that's on the railcar happening slower than the monkey on the railcar. The monkey in turn sees the scientist moving in slow mo. Similarly, the scientist sees the train as being shorter in length than the monkey does. The fact that time and distance don't work the same for all observers allows velocity = distance/time to make more sense when we see that the distance and time parts change for different observers.	[ "Notable attempts to incorporate a variable speed of light into physics have been made by Einstein in 1911, by Robert Dicke in 1957, and by several researchers starting from the late 1980s.\n\nThe speed of light in vacuum instead is considered a constant, and defined by the SI as 299792458 m/s. Variability of the speed of light is therefore equivalent with a variability of the SI meter and/or the SI second.\n", "It is generally assumed that fundamental constants such as \"c\" have the same value throughout spacetime, meaning that they do not depend on location and do not vary with time. However, it has been suggested in various theories that the speed of light may have changed over time. No conclusive evidence for such changes has been found, but they remain the subject of ongoing research.\n", "Section::::Various other VSL occurrences.:Varying \"c\" in quantum theory.\n", "Section::::Synchronization conventions.\n\nThe way in which distant clocks are synchronized can have an effect on all time-related measurements over distance, such as speed or acceleration measurements. In isotropy experiments, simultaneity conventions are often not explicitly stated but are implicitly present in the way coordinates are defined or in the laws of physics employed.\n\nSection::::Synchronization conventions.:Einstein convention.\n", "In this calculation \"L\" = \"c\"/\"c\" where \"c\" is light speed in flat space.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nUntil the early modern period, it was not known whether light travelled instantaneously or at a very fast finite speed. The first extant recorded examination of this subject was in ancient Greece. The ancient Greeks, Muslim scholars, and classical European scientists long debated this until Rømer provided the first calculation of the speed of light. Einstein's Theory of Special Relativity concluded that the speed of light is constant regardless of one's frame of reference. Since then, scientists have provided increasingly accurate measurements.\n\nSection::::History.:Early history.\n", "BULLET::::- Time dilation: Suppose there is a clock at rest in . If a time interval is measured at the same point in that frame, so that , then the transformations give this interval in by . Conversely, suppose there is a clock at rest in . If an interval is measured at the same point in that frame, so that , then the transformations give this interval in F by . Either way, each observer measures the time interval between ticks of a moving clock to be longer by a factor than the time interval between ticks of his own clock.\n", "In addition to the light clock used above, the formula for time dilation can be more generally derived from the temporal part of the Lorentz transformation. Let there be two events at which the moving clock indicates formula_11 and formula_12, thus\n\nSince the clock remains at rest in its inertial frame, it follows formula_14, thus the interval formula_15 is given by\n", "There are different ways to determine the value of \"c\". One way is to measure the actual speed at which light waves propagate, which can be done in various astronomical and earth-based setups. However, it is also possible to determine \"c\" from other physical laws where it appears, for example, by determining the values of the electromagnetic constants \"ε\" and \"μ\" and using their relation to \"c\". Historically, the most accurate results have been obtained by separately determining the frequency and wavelength of a light beam, with their product equalling \"c\".\n", "The simplest picture of light given by classical physics is of a wave or disturbance in the electromagnetic field. In a vacuum, Maxwell's equations predict that these disturbances will travel at a specific speed, denoted by the symbol . This well-known physical constant is commonly referred to as the speed of light. The postulate of the constancy of the speed of light in all inertial reference frames lies at the heart of special relativity and has given rise to a popular notion that the \"speed of light is always the same\". However, in many situations light is more than a disturbance in the electromagnetic field.\n", "It may be helpful to visualize this situation using spacetime diagrams. For a given observer, the \"t\"-axis is defined to be a point traced out in time by the origin of the spatial coordinate \"x\", and is drawn vertically. The \"x\"-axis is defined as the set of all points in space at the time \"t\" = 0, and is drawn horizontally. The statement that the speed of light is the same for all observers is represented by drawing a light ray as a 45° line, regardless of the speed of the source relative to the speed of the observer.\n", "Section::::History.:Increased accuracy of \"c\" and redefinition of the metre and second.\n", "and the team of Andreas Albrecht and João Magueijo in 1998 \n\nto explain the horizon problem of cosmology and propose an alternative to cosmic inflation.\n\nIn Petit's VSL model, the variation of \"c\" accompanies the joint variations of all physical constants combined to space and time scale factors changes, so that all equations and measurements of these constants remain unchanged through the evolution of the universe. This provides a universal gauge relationship and the secular variation of the parameters usually taken to be constants:\n\nformula_11\n\nformula_12\n", "where and are the coordinates of an event in two frames, where the primed frame is seen from the unprimed frame as moving with speed along the -axis, is the speed of light, and formula_3 is the Lorentz factor. When speed \"v\" is significantly lower than \"c\", the factor is negligible, but as \"v\" approaches \"c\", there is a significant effect. The value of \"v\" cannot exceed \"c\", in current understanding. \n\nExpressing the speed as formula_4 an equivalent form of the transformation is\n", "The relativity of simultaneity can be demonstrated using the Lorentz transformation, which relates the coordinates used by one observer to coordinates used by another in uniform relative motion with respect to the first.\n", "Section::::Relation to other constants and their variation.\n\nSection::::Relation to other constants and their variation.:Gravitational constant \"G\".\n\nIn 1937, Paul Dirac and others began investigating the consequences of natural constants changing with time. For example, Dirac proposed a change of only 5 parts in 10 per year of Newton's constant \"G\" to explain the relative weakness of the gravitational force compared to other fundamental forces. This has become known as the Dirac large numbers hypothesis.\n", "Section::::History.:Connections with electromagnetism.\n", "Section::::History.:Special relativity.\n\nIn 1905 Einstein postulated from the outset that the speed of light in vacuum, measured by a non-accelerating observer, is independent of the motion of the source or observer. Using this and the principle of relativity as a basis he derived the special theory of relativity, in which the speed of light in vacuum \"c\" featured as a fundamental constant, also appearing in contexts unrelated to light. This made the concept of the stationary aether (to which Lorentz and Poincaré still adhered) useless and revolutionized the concepts of space and time.\n", "The description of motion in relativity requires more than one concept of speed. Coordinate speed is the coordinate distance measured by the observer divided by the coordinate time of the observer. Proper speed is the local proper distance divided by the local proper time. For example, at the event horizon of a black hole the coordinate speed of light is zero, while the proper speed is c. The coordinate speed of light (both instantaneous and average) is slowed in the presence of gravitational fields. The local instantaneous proper speed of light is always c.\n\nbr\n", "While Einstein first mentioned a variable speed of light in 1907, he reconsidered the idea more thoroughly in 1911. In analogy to the situation in a medium, where a shorter wavelength formula_1, by means of formula_2, leads to a lower speed of light, Einstein assumed that clocks in a gravitational field run slower, whereby the corresponding frequencies formula_3 are influenced by the gravitational potential (eq.2, p. 903):\n\nEinstein commented (pages 906–907):\n\nIn a subsequent paper in 1912, he concluded that:\n", "Light-time correction occurs in principle during the observation of any moving object, because the speed of light is finite. The magnitude and direction of the displacement in position depends upon the distance of the object from the observer and the motion of the object, and is measured at the instant at which the object's light reaches the observer. It is \"independent\" of the motion of the observer. It should be contrasted with the aberration of light, which depends upon the instantaneous velocity of the observer at the time of observation, and is independent of the motion or distance of the object.\n", "Tests on the immutability of physical constants look at \"dimensionless\" quantities, i.e. ratios between quantities of like dimensions, in order to escape this problem. Changes in physical constants are not meaningful if they result in an \"observationally indistinguishable\" universe. For example, a \"change\" in the speed of light \"c\" would be meaningless if accompanied by a corresponding change in the elementary charge \"e\" so that the ratio (the fine-structure constant) remained unchanged.\n\nSection::::Fine-tuned Universe.\n", "Tests on the immutability of physical constants look at \"dimensionless\" quantities, i.e. ratios between quantities of like dimensions, in order to escape this problem. Changes in physical constants are not meaningful if they result in an \"observationally indistinguishable\" universe. \n\nFor example, a \"change\" in the speed of light \"c\" would be meaningless if accompanied by a corresponding \"change\" in the elementary charge \"e\" so that the ratio \"e\":\"c\" (the fine-structure constant) remained unchanged.\n\nNatural units are systems of units entirely based in fundamental constants.\n", "The coordinate axes in each frame are parallel (the and axes are parallel, the and axes are parallel, and the and axes are parallel), remain mutually perpendicular, and relative motion is along the coincident axes. At , the origins of both coordinate systems are the same, . In other words, the times and positions are coincident at this event. If all these hold, then the coordinate systems are said to be in standard configuration, or synchronized.\n\nIf an observer in records an event , then an observer in records the \"same\" event with coordinates\n", "Albert Einstein went through several versions of light speed theory between 1905 and 1915, eventually concluding that light speed is constant when gravity does not have to be considered but that the speed of light cannot be constant in a gravitational field with variable strength. In the same book Einstein explained that he intended light speed to be a vector when it was described by coordinates in a reference frame.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02345	If someone were to fire an object into space that was attached to a rope, would the object float or be pulled down?	What you're describing is a [space elevator]( URL_0 ) which is well studied concept. While we're far from being able to make this possible, we largely understand how it could work. The biggest hurdle is developing a material that's strong enough. It would also have to have to be exactly on the equator and extend out to exactly the right altitude. The only difference from your scenario is that it has to built from the ground up to at least extend mostly beyond the atmosphere. For a number of reasons, you can't just attach one end to a rocket on the surface and launch it.	[ "Mass drivers can be used to propel spacecraft in three different ways: A large, ground-based mass driver could be used to launch spacecraft away from Earth, the Moon, or another body. A small mass driver could be on board a spacecraft, flinging pieces of material into space to propel itself. Another variation would have a massive facility on a moon or asteroid send projectiles to assist a distant craft.\n", "In late 1943 Deutsche Arbeitsfront Director, Otto Lafferenz, proposed the idea of a towable watertight container which could hold an A4 rocket. This suggestion progressed to the design of a container of 500 tons displacement to be towed behind a U-boat. Once in firing position, the containers would be trimmed to drop their aft end to a vertical position for launch. The project was dubbed \"Projekt Schwimmweste\" and the containers themselves referred to by the codename \"Prüfstand XII\". Work on the containers was carried out by the Vulkanwerft, and a single example was completed by the end of the war, but never tested with a rocket launch.\n", "Section::::Operational history.\n\nThe first launch of Aries, carrying a dummy payload, took place on 17 October 1973; following the first two test launches, the Talos stabilizing fins were replaced by a fins of a new design, and the skirt surrounding the rocket engine nozzles was modified. Aries entered operational service, being used on over 20 flights to launch payloads such as X-ray telescopes and ultraviolet telescopes that were too heavy to be lifted by conventional sounding rockets. Payloads could be recovered using a two-stage parachute system.\n", "Rocket vessel\n\nA rocket vessel was a ship equipped with rockets as a weapon. The most famous ship of this type was HMS \"Erebus\", which at the Battle of Baltimore in 1814 provided the \"rockets' red glare\" that was memorialized by Francis Scott Key in The Star-Spangled Banner. \n", "Rocket experiments in the area of Cuxhaven\n\nBetween 1933 and 1964 numerous rocket experiments were carried out in the area of Cuxhaven, Germany.\n\nSection::::1930s and 1940s.\n\nBULLET::::- In April 1933 Gerhard Zucker launched a mail rocket, which was to fly from Duhnen to the island of Neuwerk, but which fell to Earth after flying a few meters.\n", "In the 1865 Jules Verne novel \"From the Earth to the Moon\", successful attempts are made to launch three people in a projectile with the goal of a Moon landing. In 1880, \"The Pall Mall Gazette\" described Verne’s \"Columbiad\" as a \"space-ship\" — the first recorded use of this term.\n", "In all inertial reference frames, while weightlessness is experienced, Newton's first law of motion is obeyed locally \"within the frame\". Inside the frame (for example, inside an orbiting ship or free-falling elevator), unforced objects keep their velocity relative to the frame. Objects not in contact with other objects \"float\" freely. If the inertial trajectory is influenced by gravity, the reference frame will be an accelerated frame as seen from a position outside the gravitational attraction, and (seen from far away) the objects in the frame (elevator, etc.) will appear to be under the influence of a force (the so-called force of gravity). As noted, objects subject solely to gravity do not feel its effects. Weightlessness can thus be realised for short periods of time in an airplane following a specific elliptic flight path, often mistakenly called a parabolic flight. It is simulated poorly, with many differences, in neutral buoyancy conditions, such as immersion in a tank of water.\n", "Section::::Centripetal.:Manned spaceflight.:Gemini missions.\n\nThe Gemini 11 mission attempted to produce artificial gravity by rotating the capsule around the Agena Target Vehicle to which it was attached by a 36-meter tether. They were able to generate a small amount of artificial gravity, about 0.00015 g, by firing their side thrusters to slowly rotate the combined craft like a slow-motion pair of bolas.\n\nThe resultant force was too small to be felt by either astronaut, but objects were observed moving towards the \"floor\" of the capsule.\n", "A geostationary satellite is of special interest in this context. Unlike other objects in the sky which rise and set, an object in a geostationary orbit appears motionless in the sky, apparently defying gravity. In fact, it is in a circular equatorial orbit with a period of one day.\n\nSection::::Weightlessness in Newtonian mechanics.:Relativity.\n", "Section::::Harvesting lifted mass.\n", "Siege engines of all types have been recorded as mounted on ships, with perhaps their first successful use at the Battle of Salamis (306 BCE) under the command of Demetrius \"The Besieger\". The enormous transport \"Syracusia\" possibly had the largest ship-mounted catapult of the ancient world, an machine that could fire arrows or stones up to .\n", "Mass driver\n\nA mass driver or electromagnetic catapult is a proposed method of non-rocket spacelaunch which would use a linear motor to accelerate and catapult payloads up to high speeds. All existing and contemplated mass drivers use coils of wire energized by electricity to make electromagnets. Sequential firing of a row of electromagnets accelerates the payload along a path. After leaving the path, the payload continues to move due to momentum. \n", "The lifting gas could be helium or hydrogen. Helium is not only expensive in large quantities but is also a nonrenewable resource. This makes balloons an expensive launch assist technique. Hydrogen could be used as it has the advantage of being cheaper and lighter than helium, but the disadvantage of also being highly flammable. Rockets launched from balloons, known as \" rockoons\", have been demonstrated but to date, only for suborbital (\"sounding rocket\") missions. The size of balloon that would be required to lift an orbital launch vehicle would be extremely large.\n", "A \"laser broom\" has been proposed to sweep space debris from Earth orbit. This is another proposed use of beam-powered propulsion, used on objects that were not designed to be propelled by it, for example small pieces of scrap knocked off (\"spalled\") satellites. The technique works since the laser power ablates one side of the object, giving an impulse that changes the eccentricity of the object's orbit. The orbit would then intersect the atmosphere and burn up.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- – one of the NASA Centennial Challenges\n\nBULLET::::- MagBeam\n\nBULLET::::- Thinned-array curse\n\nBULLET::::- List of laser articles\n", "Acting as gantry, the lifting frame included a number of work platforms from which crewmen serviced the rocket. Three (later two) platforms folded flat against the lifting frame, and could be folded out from the elevated lifting frame with the use of a hand winch. Each folding platform included a safety rail of folding posts and chains.\n", "On August 3, 1861, while on the James River, LaMountain made an ascent from the deck of the steam tug \"Fanny\" to observe Confederate positions, making the \"Fanny\" a balloon carrier.\n", "All current vehicles \"stage\", that is, jettison hardware on the way to orbit. Although vehicles have been proposed which would be able to reach orbit without staging, none have ever been constructed, and, if powered only by rockets, the exponentially increasing fuel requirements of such a vehicle would make its useful payload tiny or nonexistent. Most current and historical launch vehicles \"expend\" their jettisoned hardware, typically by allowing it to crash into the ocean, but some have recovered and reused jettisoned hardware, either by parachute or by propulsive landing.\n", "Based on this mode, a major proposal for the use of mass drivers involved transporting lunar-surface material to space habitats for processing using solar energy. The Space Studies Institute showed that this application was reasonably practical.\n\nIn some designs, the payload would be held in a bucket and then released, so that the bucket can be decelerated and reused. A disposable bucket, on the other hand, would avail acceleration along the whole track.\n\nSection::::Fixed mass drivers.:On Earth.\n", "Section::::Design.:Using a space tug.\n", "Konrad Kyeser described rockets in his famous military treatise Bellifortis around 1405.\n\nKyeser describes three types of rockets, swimming, free flying and captive.\n\nJoanes de Fontana in \"Bellicorum instrumentorum liber\" (c. 1420) described flying rockets in the shape of doves, running rockets in the shape of hares, and a large car driven by three rockets, as well as a large rocket torpedo with the head of a sea monster.\n", "Some concepts related to this modern baseline are not usually termed a \"Space Elevator\", but are similar in some way and are sometimes termed \"Space Elevator\" by their proponents. For example, Hans Moravec published an article in 1977 called \"A Non-Synchronous Orbital Skyhook\" describing a concept using a rotating cable. The rotation speed would exactly match the orbital speed in such a way that the tip velocity at the lowest point was zero compared to the object to be \"elevated\". It would dynamically grapple and then \"elevate\" high flying objects to orbit or low orbiting objects to higher orbit.\n", "Space tug\n\nA space tug is a type of spacecraft used to transfer spaceborne cargo from one orbit to another orbit with different energy characteristics. An example would be moving a spacecraft from a low Earth orbit (LEO) to a higher-energy orbit like a geostationary transfer orbit, a lunar transfer, or an escape trajectory. \n", "Linear acceleration, even at a low level, can provide sufficient g-force to provide useful benefits. A spacecraft under constant acceleration in a straight line would give the appearance of a gravitational pull in the direction opposite of the acceleration. This \"pull\" that would cause a loose object to \"fall\" towards the hull of the spacecraft is actually a manifestation of the inertia of the objects inside the spacecraft, in accordance with Newton's first law. \n", "The water was low on the upper Lewis river in late July, 1910, as it usually was. With \"Mascot\" unable to reach La Center, \"Spiellei\" and a barge were employed to transport freight to the frocks of the Lewis.\n\nAs \"Spiellei\" was towing the barge, loaded with 15 tons of freight, the wind caught the barge, causing it to tilt, and the cabin to give way. Feed, machinery, and other items were toppled into the river, causing a loss of about $200 in damage.\n", "The only factor that determines whether a large object rises or falls in a particular liquid is the object's density relative to the density of the liquid. If the object is denser than the liquid, it sinks to the bottom, as it is heavier than the liquid it displaces. If it is less dense, it floats on the water, and will be partially submerged until the weight of the displaced liquid becomes equal to the object's weight.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04560	How do airplanes take off?	They use their engines to push them down the runway faster and faster, until the amount of wind passing under their wings is enough to lift them into the air.	[ "Apart from some scattered reference in ancient and medieval records, resting on slender evidence and in need of interpretation, the earliest clearly verifiable human flight took place in Paris in 1783, when Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier and François Laurent d'Arlandes went in a hot air balloon invented by the Montgolfier brothers. The Wright brothers made the first sustained, controlled and powered heavier-than-air flight on December 17, 1903, in their revolutionary aircraft, the Wright Flyer.\n", "Vehicles that can fly can have different ways to takeoff and land. Conventional aircraft accelerate along the ground until sufficient lift is generated for takeoff, and reverse the process for landing. Some aircraft can take off at low speed; this is called a short takeoff. Some aircraft such as helicopters and Harrier jump jets can take off and land vertically. Rockets also usually take off and land vertically, but some designs can land horizontally.\n\nSection::::Guidance, navigation and control.\n\nSection::::Guidance, navigation and control.:Navigation.\n", "BULLET::::- Aircraft — is a machine that is able to fly by gaining support from the air. It counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or by using the dynamic lift of an airfoil, or in a few cases the downward thrust from jet engines. Common examples of aircraft include airplanes, helicopters, airships (including blimps), gliders, and hot air balloons.\n", "An airplane or aeroplane (informally plane) is a powered, fixed-wing aircraft that is propelled forward by thrust from a jet engine, propeller or rocket engine. Airplanes come in a variety of sizes, shapes, and wing configurations. The broad spectrum of uses for airplanes includes recreation, transportation of goods and people, military, and research. Worldwide, commercial aviation transports more than four billion passengers annually on airliners and transports more than 200 billion tonne-kilometres of cargo annually, which is less than 1% of the world's cargo movement. Most airplanes are flown by a pilot on board the aircraft, but some are designed to be remotely or computer-controlled such as drones.\n", "Section::::Writing and composition.\n", "Section::::Equipment.:Airplanes.\n", "The human activity that surrounds aircraft is called \"aviation\". The science of aviation, including designing and building aircraft, is called \"aeronautics.\" Crewed aircraft are flown by an onboard pilot, but unmanned aerial vehicles may be remotely controlled or self-controlled by onboard computers. Aircraft may be classified by different criteria, such as lift type, aircraft propulsion, usage and others.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Aircraft\n\nAn aircraft is a Vehicle that is able to fly by gaining support from the air. It counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or by using the dynamic lift of an airfoil, or in a few cases the downward thrust from jet engines. Common examples of aircraft include airplanes, helicopters, airships (including blimps), gliders, paramotors and hot air balloons.\n", "Early flying machines\n\nEarly flying machines include all forms of aircraft studied or constructed before the development of the modern aeroplane by 1910. The story of modern flight begins more than a century before the first successful manned aeroplane, and the earliest aircraft thousands of years before.\n\nSection::::Primitive beginnings.\n\nSection::::Primitive beginnings.:Legends.\n", "Section::::History.:Heavier than air.\n\nIn 1799, Sir George Cayley set forth the concept of the modern airplane as a fixed-wing flying machine with separate systems for lift, propulsion, and control. Early dirigible developments included machine-powered propulsion (Henri Giffard, 1852), rigid frames (David Schwarz, 1896) and improved speed and maneuverability (Alberto Santos-Dumont, 1901)\n", "Section::::History.:The GAC era.\n", "Section::::Air.\n\nHumanity's desire to fly likely dates to the first time man observed birds, an observation illustrated in the legendary stories of Daedalus and Icarus in Greek mythology, and the Vimanas in Indian mythology. Much of the focus of early research was on imitating birds, but through trial and error, balloons, airships, gliders and eventually powered aircraft and other types of flying machines were invented.\n", "Flight\n\nFlight is the process by which an object moves through an atmosphere (or beyond it, as in the case of spaceflight) without contact with the surface. This can be achieved by generating aerodynamic lift associated with propulsive thrust, aerostatically using buoyancy, or by ballistic movement.\n\nMany things can fly, from natural aviators such as birds, bats, and insects, to human inventions like aircraft, including airplanes, helicopters, balloons, and rockets which may carry spacecraft.\n", "Section::::Methods of lift.:Heavier-than-air – aerodynes.\n\nHeavier-than-air aircraft, such as airplanes, must find some way to push air or gas downwards, so that a reaction occurs (by Newton's laws of motion) to push the aircraft upwards. This dynamic movement through the air is the origin of the term \"aerodyne\". There are two ways to produce dynamic upthrust — aerodynamic lift, and powered lift in the form of engine thrust.\n", "Gliders are heavier-than-air aircraft that do not employ propulsion once airborne. Take-off may be by launching forward and downward from a high location, or by pulling into the air on a tow-line, either by a ground-based winch or vehicle, or by a powered \"tug\" aircraft. For a glider to maintain its forward air speed and lift, it must descend in relation to the air (but not necessarily in relation to the ground). Many gliders can \"soar\", \"i.e.\", gain height from updrafts such as thermal currents. The first practical, controllable example was designed and built by the British scientist and pioneer George Cayley, whom many recognise as the first aeronautical engineer. Common examples of gliders are sailplanes, hang gliders and paragliders.\n", "Section::::Teaching methods.:Hang gliding.\n", "The word \"aviation\" was coined by the French writer and former naval officer Gabriel La Landelle in 1863. He derived the term from the verb \"avier\" (an unsuccessful neologism for \"to fly\"), itself derived from the Latin word \"avis\" (\"bird\") and the suffix \"-ation\".\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Early beginnings.\n", "In the United States and Canada, the term \"airplane\" is used for powered fixed-wing aircraft. In the United Kingdom and most of the Commonwealth, the term \"aeroplane\" () is usually applied to these aircraft.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Antecedents.\n", "300 people were employed.\n\nSection::::Accidents and incidents.\n", "Section::::Principle of operation.:DME substitution.\n", "From the Cover: \"From the Wright Brothers' first controlled-powered flight in 1903 to the advent of the space shuttle - come to know the key figures in aviation history - the people and the machines that pushed the limits of daring and technology to find ways to fly faster, higher and farther. Here is a chronicle of the raw determination and pioneer spirit that carries Louis Bleriot across the Channel in 1909, and, more recently, carried Dick Rutan and Jeana Yeager around the world in their Rutan Voyager on a single tank of fuel\n\nSection::::Episodes.:2. \"The Adventures Of Flight\".\n", "Section::::Episode synopsis.:Programme 1.\n\n - Research\n\nMark visits the Popular Flying Association Rally at Cranfield to see some of the 3000 or so home-built and vintage aircraft that have flown in for the weekend. He talks to Graham Newby, the Chairman of the PFA and the Editor of Flyer Magazine who takes him through the perils and pit falls of building his own plane.\n\nSection::::Episode synopsis.:Programme 2.\n\n - Test Flight\n", "A fixed-wing aircraft, typically airplane, is a heavier-than-air flight vehicle, in which the special geometry of the wing generates lift. Fixed-wing aircraft ranges from small trainers and recreational aircraft to large airliners and military cargo aircraft. For short distances or in places without runways, helicopters can be practical. (Other types of aircraft, like autogyros and airships, are not a significant portion of air transport.)\n", "Section::::Flight as an established technology.\n", "Landing is the last part of a flight, where a flying aircraft or spacecraft (or animals) returns to the ground. When the flying object returns to water, the process is called alighting, although it is commonly called \"landing\" and \"touchdown\" as well. A normal aircraft flight would include several parts of flight including taxi, takeoff, climb, cruise, descent and landing.\n\nSection::::Horizontal takeoff and landing.:Aircraft.:Short takeoff and landing (STOL).\n\nSTOL is an acronym for \"short take-off and landing\", aircraft with very short runway requirements.\n\nSection::::Horizontal takeoff and landing.:Aircraft.:Catapult launch and arrested recovery (CATOBAR).\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02223	What happens when an adult male is castrated? Is voluntary castration a thing e.g. if a person doesn't want kids and would rather spend their effort on their job instead of the "distraction" of sexual thoughts?	Castration messes with testosterone levels, as the testis are the main place it is produced. Testosterone levels fall off a cliff following castration. Testosterone is strongly associated with motivation and drive in men, so castration certainly wouldn’t help with focusing on your job.	[ "Section::::Preventive measure.\n\n\"Voluntary\" chemical or surgical castration has been in practice in many countries—reports are available from American and European countries in particular for over eighty years (chemical for circa thirty)—as an option for treatment for people who have broken laws of a sexual nature, allowing them to return to the community from otherwise lengthy detentions. The effectiveness and ethics of this treatment are heavily debated.\n", "A \"temporary\" \"chemical castration\" has been studied and developed as a preventive measure and punishment for several repeated sex crimes, such as rape or other sexually related violence. This has also been used to punish homosexuality, such as the punishment suffered by Alan Turing.\n", "Section::::Religion.\n\nA number of religions have included castration as a central theme of their practice. These include:\n\nBULLET::::- The cult of Cybele, in which devotees castrated themselves in ecstatic emulation of Attis: see Gallus.\n\nBULLET::::- Skoptsy\n\nBULLET::::- The Valesians.\n\nSection::::Religion.:Hinduism.\n", "The counterpart of castration anxiety for females is penis envy. Penis envy, and the concept of such, was first introduced by Freud in an article published in 1908 titled \"On the Sexual Theories of Children\". The idea was presumed that females/girls envied those (mostly their fathers) with a penis because theirs was taken from them—essentially they were already \"castrated\". Freud entertained that the envy they experienced was their unconscious wish to be like a boy and to have a penis.\n", "BULLET::::- A male student who had already performed a self-castration was the subject of a 1979 case report by Kalin. The student, some time after his self-castration, also attempted to reduce the activity of his adrenal glands with an injection of bovine serum albumin, luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone and Freund's adjuvant. When this produced an abscess at the injection site, he resorted to self-surgery. His psychiatrist reported:\n", "In Freudian psychoanalysis, castration anxiety (\"Kastrationsangst\") refers to an unconscious fear of penile loss originating during the phallic stage of psychosexual development and lasting a lifetime. According to Freud, when the infantile male becomes aware of differences between male and female genitalia he assumes that the female's penis has been removed and becomes anxious that his penis will be cut off by his rival, the father figure, as punishment for desiring the mother figure.\n", "The anxiety aspect of this topic can be completely overwhelming to the individual, and can often breach other aspects of their lives. A link has been found between castration anxiety and fear of death. Although differing degrees of anxiety are common, young men who felt the most threatened in their youth tended to show chronic anxiety. Because the consequences are extreme, the fear can evolve from potential disfigurement to life-threatening situations. Essentially, castration anxiety can lead to a fear of death, and a feeling of loss of control over one's life.\n", "Chemical castration has been and is used as part of sentencing in criminal cases.\n\nIn 1952, Alan Turing—the father of computer science and the inventor of the Turing machine—was criminally prosecuted for homosexual acts and chose chemical castration as an alternative to a period of imprisonment.\n\nIn Spain, a law against castration was used to deny sex-reassignment surgery to transgender people until the Penal Code was reformed in 1983.\n\nSection::::History.:China.\n", "In 1981, in an experiment by P. Gagne, 48 males with long-standing histories of sexually deviant behaviour were given medroxyprogesterone acetate for as long as 12 months. Forty of those subjects were recorded as to have diminished desires for deviant sexual behaviour, less frequent sexual fantasies, and greater control over sexual urges. The research recorded a continuation of this more positive behaviour after the administration of the drug had ended with no evidence of adverse side effects and recommended medroxyprogesterone acetate along with counselling as a successful method of treatment for serial sex offenders.\n\nSection::::Treatment for sex offenders.:Scientific critique.\n", "BULLET::::- Susan Elliott, \"Cutting Too Close for Comfort: Paul's Letter to the Galatians in Its Anatolian Cultic Context\" Reviews in Review of Biblical Literature\n\nBULLET::::- Travis Nygard and Alec Sonsteby. \"Castration.\" In \"The Cultural Encyclopedia of the Body\", edited by Victoria Pitts, pages 502–507. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2008.\n\nBULLET::::- Theresa McCuaig, \"Understanding Castration.\" 2009.\n\nBULLET::::- English language Abstracts of the thesis\n\nBULLET::::- Research on the System of Imperial Harem in Liao Dynasty\n\nBULLET::::- Research on the System of Imperial Harem in Liao Dynasty\n\nBULLET::::- Research on the System of Imperial Harem in Liao Dynasty\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "This can also tie in with literal castration anxiety in fearing the loss of virility or sexual dominance.\n\nSection::::Relation to power and control.\n", "To feel so powerless can be detrimental to an individual's mental health. One of the most concerning problems with all of this is the idea that the individual does not recognize that their sexual desires are the cause of the emotional distress. Because of unconscious thoughts, as theorized in the ideas of psychoanalysis, the anxiety is brought to the surface where it is experienced symbolically. This will lead to the fear associated with bodily injury in castration anxiety, which can then lead to the fear of dying or being killed.\n\nSection::::Counterpart in females.\n", "In May 2009, two brothers from Haifa—convicted child molesters—agreed to undergo chemical castration to avoid committing further crimes.\n\nSection::::Treatment for sex offenders.:New Zealand.\n\nIn New Zealand, the antilibidinal drug cyproterone acetate is sold under the name Androcur. In November 2000 convicted paedophile Robert Jason Dittmer attacked a victim while on the drug. In 2009 a study into the effectiveness of the drug by Dr David Wales for the Corrections Department found that no research had been conducted in New Zealand into the effectiveness and such trials were \"ethically and practically very difficult to carry out.\"\n\nSection::::Treatment for sex offenders.:Russia.\n", "BULLET::::- Inguinal orchiectomy, the approach typically used to treat testicular cancer\n\nBULLET::::- List of transgender-related topics\n\nBULLET::::- Mad Butcher of Kingsbury Run, a serial killer who castrated his male victims\n\nBULLET::::- Neuticles\n\nBULLET::::- Penectomy\n\nBULLET::::- Penis removal\n\nBULLET::::- Spaying and neutering (for animals)\n\nSection::::Bibliography.\n\nBULLET::::- Tuotuo. Liaoshi [History of Liao]. Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1974 (or Tuotuo, \"Liaoshi\" (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1974))\n\nBULLET::::- Patrick Barbier, \"The World of the Castrati: the History of an Extraordinary Operatic Phenomenon\" Souvenir, 1996,\n", "In the modern era, removing the human penis for any such activity is very rare (with some exceptions listed below), and references to removal of the penis are almost always symbolic. Castration is less rare, and is performed as a last resort in the treatment of androgen-sensitive prostate cancer.\n\nSection::::Penis removal in medicine and psychology.\n", "Castration of cattle has historically been done without pain medications. All methods of castration cause pain and distress, which can be minimized by castrating as early as possible, preferably within the first week of life. The Canadian Code of Practice for the Care and Handling of Beef Cattle requires that, as of 2018, calves older than six months be castrated using pain control.\n", "Section::::Preventive measure.:Criticism.\n\nIn animals, the behavioral effects of gonad removal differ along lines of species and not sex, i.e. there are species where mating behavior ceases if the gonads are removed and other species where it does not cease, but removal of ovaries in females halt mating behavior in all of the same nonhuman animals in which male castration halts mating behavior. Therefore some scientists argue that the notion that castration/spaying would drastically reduce sex drive in human males but not in human females is zoologically nonsensical, citing that humans belong to the animal kingdom.\n", "In 1966, John Money became the first American to employ chemical castration by prescribing medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA, the base ingredient now used in DMPA) as a treatment for a patient dealing with pedophilic urges. The drug has thereafter become a mainstay of chemical castration in America. Despite its long history and established use, the drug has never been approved by the FDA for use as a treatment for sexual offenders.\n", "The term \"castration\" is sometimes also used to refer to the removal of the ovaries in the female, otherwise known as an oophorectomy or, in animals, spaying. Estrogen levels drop precipitously following oophorectomy, and long-term effects of the reduction of sex hormones are significant throughout the body.\n\nThe term \"castration\" may also be sometimes used to refer to emasculation where both the testicles \"and\" the penis are removed together. In some cultures, and in some translations, no distinction is made between the two. This can cause confusion.\n", "The passage of this law led to similar laws in other states such as Florida's Statute Section 794.0235 which was passed into law in 1997. As in California, treatment is mandatory after a second offense.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Background.\n\nBarring of intersex persons with ovotesticular disorder of sex development and \"pseudohermaphroditism\" like states dates back to at least as far back as 1956. Despite this John F. Patton of the Office of the Surgeon General and Center of Military History of the U.S. Army, wrote in 1988 that \"Lesser degrees of these abnormalities, however, were obviously overlooked or regarded as compatible with military service.\" Mentions of gonadal agenesis as an obstacle in military servie has been recorded since the early 1970s if not before.\n\nSection::::History.:Developments.\n", "Section::::Music.\n", "Evidence suggests that, as had happened in Italy, France and elsewhere, castration became a common practice when Portuguese parents, especially those of limited income, saw it as a way of ensuring their son's admission to a school or progression into a performing career.\n", "In the case of chemical castration, ongoing regular injections of anti-androgens are required. Chemical castration does not actually remove the testicles or ovaries of the subject, nor is it a form of sterilization.\n\nChemical castration seems to have a greater effect on bone density than physical castration. Since the development of teriparatide, this severe bone loss has been able to be reversed in nearly every case. At this time there is a limitation on the use of this medication to 24 months until the long-term use is better evaluated.\n", "In the 1960s, German physicians used antiandrogens as a treatment for sexual paraphilia.\n\nIn 2008, an experimental intervention program was launched in three Portuguese prisons: Carregueira (Belas, Sintra), Paços de Ferreira and Funchal. The program developers note the voluntary nature of the program a crucial factor in its success. They initially planned to cover ten inmates per prison, contemplating a possible enlargement to other prisons in the future. The program also included a rehabilitation component.\n" ]	[ "Castration would allow one to focus on their job instead of sex." ]	[ "Castration would reduce testosterone in men drastically which would inhibit their motivation and drive. This in turn would likely cause less focus on work." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Castration would allow one to focus on their job instead of sex." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Castration would reduce testosterone in men drastically which would inhibit their motivation and drive. This in turn would likely cause less focus on work." ]
2018-17596	Why are some allergies, like to nuts, so severe?	I’m not sure if this is really an answer to your question but peanuts in particular trigger especially violent immune reactions because they contain several proteins not found in most other foods. Roasting nuts damages the protein which can make allergic reactions worse. [Apparently, allergy rates are lower in China, where it's customary to boil peanuts, which damages the proteins less.]( URL_0 )	[ "Section::::Prevention.:Cross-reactivity.\n", "The severity of the allergy varies from person to person, and exposure can increase sensitization. For those with a milder form of the allergy, a reaction which makes the throat feel like cotton may occur. Subjects allergic to tree nut can experience asthma, skin rashes, itchy throat, swollen eyes. The most severe reaction can lead to anaphylaxis.\n\nThe raw nut protein usually causes a more severe reaction than the oil, and extra roasting or processing can reduce the allergic reaction. \n", "BBC Radio Berkshire and Company Paradiso received a Silver and Gold award at the Gillard BBC Radio Awards and were nominated for an award from Radio Broadcasting at the 2010 Mind Media Awards. The project won gold in the \"Best Community Programming\" category at the Sony Radio Awards in May 2011.\n", "One of the most common food allergies is a sensitivity to peanuts, a member of the bean family. Peanut allergies may be severe, but children with peanut allergies sometimes outgrow them. Tree nuts, including cashews, Brazil nuts, hazelnuts, macadamia nuts, pecans, pistachios, pine nuts, coconuts, and walnuts, are also common allergens. Sufferers may be sensitive to one particular tree nut or to many different ones. Also, seeds, including sesame seeds and poppy seeds, contain oils where protein is present, which may elicit an allergic reaction.\n", "Those with tree nut allergies may be allergic to one or to many tree nuts, including pecans, pistachios, pine nuts, and walnuts. Also seeds, including sesame seeds and poppy seeds, contain oils in which protein is present, which may elicit an allergic reaction.\n\nAllergens can be transferred from one food to another through genetic engineering; however genetic modification can also remove allergens. Little research has been done on the natural variation of allergen concentrations in the unmodified crops.\n\nSection::::Cause.:Latex.\n", "Peanut and tree nut allergies are less likely to be outgrown, although evidence now shows that about 20% of those with peanut allergies and 9% of those with tree nut allergies will outgrow them.\n\nIn Japan, allergy to buckwheat flour, used for soba noodles, is more common than peanuts, tree nuts or foods made from soy beans.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.:United States.\n", "Section::::Treatment.\n\nStrict dietary avoidance of the causal nut(s) remains the mainstay of treatment for nut-allergic individuals. If the food is accidentally ingested and a systemic reaction (anaphylaxis) occurs, then epinephrine should be used. People with potential anaphylaxis are recommended to carry auto-injectors at all times. Less severe reaction may be dealt with by taking an antihistamine tablet.\n\nTotal avoidance is complicated because the declaration of the presence of trace amounts of allergens in foods is not mandatory (see regulation of labelling).\n\nSection::::Society and culture.\n", "An allergy test or food challenge may be performed at an allergy clinic to determine the exact allergens.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "People with confirmed peanut allergy may have cross-reactivity to tree nut, soy, and other legumes, such as peas and lentils and lupinus. The cause of cross-reactivity results from similarity in the structures of storage proteins between the food sources. Allergenic proteins are grouped by protein families: cupins, prolamins, profilin and others. Peanuts and soybeans have proteins in the cupin, prolamin, and profilin families, while lentils contain cupin proteins. Reviews of human clinical trials report that 6–40% of people with a confirmed peanut allergy will have allergic symptoms when challenged with tree nuts or legumes.\n\nSection::::Cause.\n", "Tree nut allergy\n\nA tree nut allergy is a hypersensitivity to dietary substances from tree nuts and edible tree seeds causing an overreaction of the immune system which may lead to severe physical symptoms. Tree nuts include, but are not limited to, almonds, Brazil nuts, cashews, chestnuts, filberts/hazelnuts, macadamia nuts, pecans, pistachios, shea nuts and walnuts.\n", "Management is by avoiding eating the causal nuts or foods that contain them among their ingredients, and a prompt treatment if there is an accidental ingestion. Total avoidance is complicated because the declaration of the presence of trace amounts of allergens in foods is not mandatory in any country, with the exception of Brazil.\n\nTree nut allergies are distinct from peanut allergy, as peanuts are legumes, whereas a tree nut is a hard-shelled nut.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "This allergy tends to be lifelong; studies have shown that only about 9% of children outgrow their tree nut allergy.\n\nSection::::Cause.\n\nPeople with tree nut allergy are seldom allergic to just one type of nut, and are therefore usually advised to avoid all tree nuts, even though an individual may not be allergic to the nuts of all species of trees.\n\nSomeone allergic to walnuts or pecans may not have an allergy to cashews or pistachios, because the two groups are only distantly related and do not necessarily share related allergenic proteins.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "People with clinically confirmed tree nut allergy to one type of tree nut may have cross-reactivity to other tree nut species and also to peanuts, which are not nuts but rather part of the legume family. The cause is similarity in protein structures. Identifiable allergenic proteins are grouped into families: cupins, prolamins, profilin and others. Tree nuts have proteins in these families, as do peanuts and other legumes. Reviews of human trials report that for a confirmed tree nut allergy, up to one third of people will react to more than one type of tree nut. The cross reactivity among almond, walnut, pecan, hazelnut and Brazil nut is stronger than cross reactivity of these toward cashew or pistachio.\n", "Peanuts are legumes, not true nuts, but they share with true nuts the risk of causing allergic reactions, even in minute amounts. Pure peanut and nut-derived oils are not usually allergenic (as they do not typically contain the proteinaceous part of the plant), but avoiding them may be safer, as serious peanut and nut allergy is widespread, oil purity cannot be guaranteed, and other hypoallergenic oils are easily substituted.\n", "The most common food allergy in the US population is a sensitivity to crustacea. Although peanut allergies are notorious for their severity, peanut allergies are not the most common food allergy in adults or children. Severe or life-threatening reactions may be triggered by other allergens, and are more common when combined with asthma.\n", "In Brazil since April 2016, the declaration of the possibility of cross-contamination is mandatory when the product does not intentionally add any allergenic food or its derivatives, but the Good Manufacturing Practices and allergen control measures adopted are not sufficient to prevent the presence of accidental trace amounts. These allergens include wheat, rye, barley, oats and their hybrids, crustaceans, eggs, fish, peanuts, soybean, milk of all species of mammalians, almonds, hazelnuts, cashew nuts, Brazil nuts, macadamia nuts, walnuts, pecan nuts, pistaches, pine nuts, and chestnuts.\n\nSection::::Research.\n", "BULLET::::- Trees: such as pine (\"Pinus\"), birch (\"Betula\"), alder (\"Alnus\"), cedar (\"Cedrus\"), hazel (\"Corylus\"), hornbeam (\"Carpinus\"), horse chestnut (\"Aesculus\"), willow (\"Salix\"), poplar (\"Populus\"), plane (\"Platanus\"), linden/lime (\"Tilia\"), and olive (\"Olea\"). In northern latitudes, birch is considered to be the most common allergenic tree pollen, with an estimated 15–20% of people with hay fever sensitive to birch pollen grains. A major antigen in these is a protein called Bet V I. Olive pollen is most predominant in Mediterranean regions. Hay fever in Japan is caused primarily by sugi (\"Cryptomeria japonica\") and hinoki (\"Chamaecyparis obtusa\") tree pollen.\n", "Immunotherapy treatments are being developed for tree nut allergy, including oral immunotherapy, sublingual immunotherapy, and epicutaneous immunotherapy.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Allergy (has diagrams showing involvement of different types of white blood cells)\n\nBULLET::::- Food allergy (has images of hives, skin prick test and patch test)\n\nBULLET::::- List of allergens (food and non-food)\n\nBULLET::::- Peanut allergy (can be cross-reactive to tree nut allergy)\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Tree nut allergy at Food Allergy Initiative\n\nBULLET::::- \"Are Nut Bans Promoting Hysteria?\" by Tana Parker-Pope at \"The New York Times\" (15 Dec 2008)\n", "Section::::Society and culture.:Regulation of labelling.\n\nIn response to the risk that certain foods pose to those with food allergies, some countries have responded by instituting labeling laws that require food products to clearly inform consumers if their products contain major allergens or byproducts of major allergens among the ingredients intentionally added to foods. Nevertheless, there are no labeling laws to mandatory declare the presence of trace amounts in the final product as a consequence of cross-contamination, except in Brazil.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.:Regulation of labelling.:Ingredients intentionally added.\n", "Prevention involves an exclusion diet and vigilant avoidance of foods that may be contaminated with tree nuts, nut particles, or oils extracted from nuts. In the United States, the federal Food Allergen Labeling and Consumer Protection Act (FALCPA) requires that any packaged food product that contains tree nuts as an ingredient must list the specific tree nut on the label. Foods that almost always contain tree nuts include pesto, marzipan, Nutella, baklava, pralines, nougat, gianduja, and turrón. Other common foods that may contain tree nuts include cereals, crackers, cookies, baked goods, candy, chocolates, energy/granola bars, flavored coffee, frozen desserts, marinades, barbecue sauces, and some cold cuts, such as mortadella. Tree nut oils (especially shea nut) are also sometimes used in lotions and soaps. Asian and African restaurants, ice cream parlors, and bakeries are considered high-risk for people with tree nut allergy due to the common use of nuts and the possibility of cross contamination. \n", "Section::::Mechanisms.:Ecological mechanism.\n\nAlthough numerous ecological mechanisms for Allee effects exist, the list of most commonly cited facilitative behaviors that contribute to Allee effects in the literature include: mate limitation, cooperative defense, cooperative feeding, and environmental conditioning. While these behaviors are classified in separate categories, note that they can overlap and tend to be context dependent (will operate only under certain conditions – for example, cooperative defense will only be useful when there are predators or competitors present).\n", "They received two Canadian Screen Award nominations at the 1st Canadian Screen Awards in 2013, for Best Direction in a Variety or Sketch Comedy Program or Series (Andersen and Francis Damberger) and Best Writing in a Variety or Sketch Comedy Program or Series. At the 7th Canadian Screen Awards in 2019, the show was nominated for Best Ensemble Performance in a Sketch Comedy Program or Series and Best Writing in a Variety or Sketch Comedy Program or Series.\n", "Modifying words like \"fancy\" or \"choice\" have not historically carried any legal meaning in the United States, and they remain absent from the current regulations. In a 1915 federal case against \"fancy mixed nuts\" that were argued by competitors to be an inferior grade, \"U. S. v. 25 Bags of Nuts,\" N. J. No. 4329 (1915), the court declined to accept a trade standard. The ruling said\n\nSection::::Nutritional Benefits.\n\nBULLET::::- A Harvard University Professor of Nutrition and Epidemiology, Dr. Frank Hu, reports that recent studies found daily nut-eaters were less likely to die of cancer, heart disease and respiratory disease.\n", "Latex and banana sensitivity may cross-react. Furthermore, those with latex allergy may also have sensitivities to avocado, kiwifruit, and chestnut. These people often have perioral itching and local urticaria. Only occasionally have these food-induced allergies induced systemic responses. Researchers suspect that the cross-reactivity of latex with banana, avocado, kiwifruit, and chestnut occurs because latex proteins are structurally homologous with some other plant proteins.\n\nSection::::Cause.:Medications.\n\nAbout 10% of people report that they are allergic to penicillin; however, 90% turn out not to be. Serious allergies only occur in about 0.03%.\n\nSection::::Cause.:Insect stings.\n", "Some people (0.6% of the United States population) report that they experience allergic reactions to peanut exposure; symptoms are specifically severe for this nut, and can range from watery eyes to anaphylactic shock, which is generally fatal if untreated. Eating a small amount of peanut can cause a reaction. Because of their widespread use in prepared and packaged foods, the avoidance of peanuts can be difficult. The reading of ingredients and warnings on product packaging is necessary to avoid this allergen. Foods that are processed in facilities which also handle peanuts on the same equipment as other foods are required to carry such warnings on their labels. Avoiding cross contamination with peanuts and peanut products, (along with other severe allergens like shellfish) is a promoted and common practice which chefs and restaurants worldwide are becoming aware of.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00382	why is there no thunder or lightning during a snowstorm?	I've seen and heard lightning in a snowstorm. Worked at a ski resort as a lift operator, nothing more scary than lightning when you're sitting in a metal shack at the top of a mountain. The weather people call it thundersnow.	[ "On February 1, utility crews were working overtime to get power back to the 14,000 residents of Cheyenne River Sioux Reservation. The wind chill factor averaged about −25° and there was about 1-foot of snow on the ground on average.\n", "The British Isles and other parts of northwestern Europe occasionally report thunder and lightning during sleet or (usually wet) snow showers during winter and spring. It is also common around Kanazawa and the Sea of Japan, and even around Mount Everest. Low-pressure events in the eastern Mediterranean that originate from polar origin cause copious thundersnow occurrences during winter storms, especially over the elevated provinces of Israel and Jordan, including Amman and Jerusalem. When such storms happen at areas intended for skiing, the mountains are often evacuated for safety.\n\nSection::::Acoustic effects.\n", "Thundersnow produces heavy snowfall rates in the range of per hour. Snowfall of this intensity may limit visibilities severely, even during light wind conditions. However, thundersnow is often a part of a severe winter storm or blizzard. Winds of above tropical storm force are frequent with thundersnow. As a result, visibilities in thundersnow are frequently under . Additionally, such wind creates extreme wind chills and may result in frostbite. Finally, there is a greater likelihood that thundersnow lightning will have a positive polarity, which is associated with a greater destructive potential than the more common negatively-charged lightning.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Intra-cloud lightning most commonly occurs between the upper anvil portion and lower reaches of a given thunderstorm. This lightning can sometimes be observed at great distances at night as so-called \"sheet lightning\". In such instances, the observer may see only a flash of light without hearing any thunder.\n", "Lightning at a sufficient distance may be seen and not heard; there is data that a lightning storm can be seen at over 100 miles whereas the thunder travels about 20 miles. Anecdotally, there are many examples of people saying 'the storm was directly overhead or all-around and yet there was no thunder'. There is no coherent data available.\n\nSection::::Effects.:High-energy radiation.\n", "In general, cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning flashes account for only 25% of all total lightning flashes worldwide. Since the base of a thunderstorm is usually negatively charged, this is where most CG lightning originates. This region is typically at the elevation where freezing occurs within the cloud. Freezing, combined with collisions between ice and water, appears to be a critical part of the initial charge development and separation process. During wind-driven collisions, ice crystals tend to develop a positive charge, while a heavier, slushy mixture of ice and water (called graupel) develops a negative charge. Updrafts within a storm cloud separate the lighter ice crystals from the heavier graupel, causing the top region of the cloud to accumulate a positive space charge while the lower level accumulates a negative space charge.\n", "One unique aspect of thundersnow is that the suspended and deposited snowfall act as an acoustic suppressor of the sound of thunder. The thunder from a typical thunderstorm can be heard many miles away, while the thunder from thundersnow can usually only be heard within a radius from the lightning.\n\nSection::::Formation.\n\nThere are usually three causes of thundersnow:\n\nBULLET::::- A normal thunderstorm on the leading edge of a cold front or warm front that can either form in a winter environment, or that runs into cool air, and where the precipitation takes the form of snow\n", "An atypical vertical development of storm clouds brought unusual thundersnow to southern New England and Long Island. These storms resulted in lightning and thunder accompanying the snowfall as it fell at an hour at times.\n\nSection::::Effects.\n\nSection::::Effects.:Conditions.\n", "In Slavic mythology the highest god of the pantheon is Perun, the god of thunder and lightning.\n\nPērkons/Perkūnas is the common Baltic god of thunder, one of the most important deities in the Baltic pantheon. In both Latvian and Lithuanian mythology, he is documented as the god of thunder, rain, mountains, oak trees and the sky.\n\nIn Norse mythology, Thor is the god of thunder and the sound of thunder comes from the chariot he rides across the sky. The lightning comes from his hammer Mjölnir.\n", "In Finnish mythology, Ukko (engl. \"Old Man\") is the god of thunder, sky and weather. The Finnish word for thunder is \"ukkonen\", derived from the god's name.\n\nIn Judaism, a blessing \"...He who does acts of creation\" is to be recited, upon sighting lightning. The Talmud refers to the Hebrew word for the sky, (\"Shamaim\") – as built from fire and water (\"Esh Umaim\"), since the sky is the source of the inexplicable mixture of \"fire\" and water that come together, during rainstorms. This is mentioned in various prayers, Psalm 29, and discussed in writings of Kabbalah.\n", "Section::::Mythology and religion.\n", "The last component is the echo top or storm top temperature. This must be at least . It is generally accepted that at this temperature there is no longer any super cooled water vapour present in a cloud, but just ice crystals suspended in the air. This allows for the interaction of the ice cloud and graupel pellets within the storm to generate a charge, resulting in lightning and thunder.\n\nSection::::Formation.:Synoptic forcing.\n", "Section::::Formation.:Upslope flow.\n\nSimilar to the lake effect regime, thundersnow is usually witnessed in terrain in the cold sector of an extratropical cyclone when a shortwave aloft moves into the region. The shortwave will steepen the local lapse rates, allowing for a greater possibility of both heavy snow at elevations where it is near or below freezing, and occasionally thundersnow.\n\nSection::::Hazards.\n", "In the Dakotas a number of Indian Reservations were left without power or running water.\n\n\"There's been winters this bad before, but not with rain so bad it freezes the power lines and snaps the poles\", said Joseph Brings Plenty, the 38-year-old chairman of the Cheyenne River Sioux tribe.\n\nPower outages began with a storm in December knocking down around 5,000 power poles, and was accelerated by an ice storm Jan. 22 knocking down another 3,000 power lines on the reservation.\n", "\"Blows its horn\" refers to thunderstorms. While March thunderstorms indicate that the weather is unusually warm for that time of year (thunderstorms can occur only with a sufficiently large temperature difference between ground and sky and sufficient amounts of moisture to produce charge differential within a cloud).\n\nSection::::Calendrical lore.:July.\n", "Section::::Hazards.\n\nEach year, many people are killed or seriously injured by severe thunderstorms despite the advance warning. While severe thunderstorms are most common in the spring and summer, they can occur at just about any time of the year.\n\nSection::::Hazards.:Cloud-to-ground lightning.\n", "Contrary to popular belief, positive lightning flashes do not necessarily originate from the anvil or the upper positive charge region and strike a rain-free area outside of the thunderstorm. This belief is based on the outdated idea that lightning leaders are unipolar in nature and originating from their respective charge region.\n", "Cloud-ground lightning typically consist of two or more return strokes, from ground to cloud. Later return strokes have greater acoustic energy than the first.\n\nSection::::Perception.\n", "Weather conditions often change rapidly, and afternoon thunderstorms are common in the summertime; hailstorms and snow are possible year-round. An electrical storm on the mountain's summit was considered remarkable enough to be reported in the July 1894 issue of \"Science\".\n\nSection::::Geology.\n", "The latent heat release from condensation is the determinate between significant convection and almost no convection at all. The fact that air is generally cooler during winter months, and therefore cannot hold as much water vapor and associated latent heat, is why significant convection (thunderstorms) are infrequent in cooler areas during that period. Thundersnow is one situation where forcing mechanisms provide support for very steep environmental lapse rates, which as mentioned before is an archetype for favored convection. The small amount of latent heat released from air rising and condensing moisture in a thundersnow also serves to increase this convective potential, although minimally. There are also three types of thunderstorms: orographic, air mass, and frontal.\n", "The cloud must develop to a certain vertical extent before lightning is produced, so generally weather radar will indicate a developing storm before a lightning detector does. It is not always clear from early returns if a shower cloud will develop into a thunderstorm, and weather radar also sometimes suffers from a \"masking\" effect by attenuation, where precipitation close to the radar can hide (perhaps more intense) precipitation farther away. Lightning detectors do not suffer from a masking effect and can provide confirmation when a shower cloud has evolved into a thunderstorm.\n", "The storm system began developing on February 11 as a relatively minor system, bringing some snow along the southern Appalachian range. The low pressure center moved off-shore early February 12 before it began its rapid intensification. By early morning, snow began falling heavily, taking several forecasters by surprise who had expected about a foot of snow, at most, along the eastern fringes of the Atlantic seaboard. During the height of the storm on Sunday morning the 12th, thunder and lightning occurred as the snow fell. The presence of this thundersnow shows how energetic this storm became.\n", "Section::::Early life.\n", "Section::::Motion.\n", "In the province of Småland, Sweden, an account is recorded connecting Freyja with sheet lightning in this respect. Writer Johan Alfred Göth recalled a Sunday in 1880 where men were walking in fields and looking at nearly ripened rye, where Måns in Karryd said: \"Now Freyja is out watching if the rye is ripe\". Along with this, Göth recalls another mention of Freyja in the countryside:\n" ]	[ "Thunder or lightning is not possible during a thunderstorm.", "Lightning and/or thunder can't occur during a snow storm. " ]	[ "Thunder and lightning are possible during snow.", "Lightning and/or thunder has been witnessed in the midst of a snowstorm, therefore thunder and lightning can exist in the midst of a snowstorm. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Thunder or lightning is not possible during a thunderstorm.", "Lightning and/or thunder can't occur during a snow storm. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Thunder and lightning are possible during snow.", "Lightning and/or thunder has been witnessed in the midst of a snowstorm, therefore thunder and lightning can exist in the midst of a snowstorm. " ]
2018-01567	Why would an employer require an active security clearance for an "entry level" job?	because you are physically going to be in a space that requires a higher security clearance. they are giving you an excuse to be in and around high security individuals and information, regardless of entry level or not.	[ "Jobs that require a security clearance can be found either as positions working directly for the federal government or as authorized federal contractors. Over time, more clearance jobs are being outsourced to contractors. Due to an overall shortage in security-cleared candidates and a long time frame to obtain the credentials for an uncleared worker, those with clearance are often paid more than their non-cleared equivalent counterparts. According to one 2010 estimate, \"people with security clearances are in the top 10 percent of wage earners in the country\".\n\nSection::::United States.:Requirements for a clearance.\n", "If issues of concern surface during any phase of security processing, coverage is expanded to resolve those issues. At lower levels, \"interim\" clearances may be issued to individuals who are presently under investigation, but who have passed some preliminary, automatic process. Such automatic processes include things such as credit checks, felony checks, and so on. An interim clearance may be denied (although the final clearance may still be granted) for having a large amount of debt, having a foreign spouse, for having admitted to seeing a doctor for a mental health condition, or for having admitted to other items of security concern (such as a criminal record or a history of drug use.). When security concerns arise for an individual, which could bar them from holding a security clearance, adjudicators may also look at the Whole-Person Concept as a source of potential mitigation so that the person may still be granted a security clearance.\n", "Section::::Security clearance requirements.\n\nAn individual cannot apply for a security clearance. A cleared federal contractor or government entity must sponsor you. You must either (a) be an employee of or consultant for that cleared contractor, or (b) have received and accepted a written offer of employment from the cleared contractor. That offer must also indicate your employment will begin within 30 days of receiving your clearance, or (c) be a member of the United States Armed Forces, or (d) authorized federal employee.\n", "The validity of the clearance (which specifies a deadline for the time a visa could be issued) is based on its type, and ranges between three and 48 months. During the period of validity, posts can usually issue another visa for the applicant without requesting a new SAO if the applicant's circumstances have not changed much.\n\nSection::::Issuing time.\n", "The company further clarified that it \"does not grant security clearances and plays no role in making those determinations.\" The decision to grant or renew a clearance, said USIS, \"is the sole responsibility of the federal government agency that requested the background investigation.\" However, the OPM hired USIS to perform not only background checks but also secondary reviews of those checks to ensure that no one who shouldn’t have access to state secrets was overlooked by mistake. \n", "Section::::United States.:Hierarchy.:Public Trust Position.\n\nDespite common misconception, this designation is not a security clearance, and is not the same as the confidential designation. Certain positions which require access to sensitive information, but not information which is classified, must obtain this designation through a background check. In the USA, Public Trust Positions can either be moderate-risk or high-risk.\n\nSection::::United States.:Hierarchy.:Confidential.\n", "Section::::United States.:Dual citizenship.\n", "Employers and temporary staff agencies have bemoaned the time it takes for a worker to be cleared by the DBS and in an effort to cut waiting times the government allowed the establishment of \"Adult First\" .\n\nSection::::History.\n\nIn May 2002, the Department for Education began maintaining a list of individuals who are not suitable to work with children. This list was originally named List 99, later named the ISA Children's Barred List (maintained by the Independent Safeguarding Authority) and finally, the DBS Children's Barred List (maintained by the Disclosure and Barring Service.\n", "For the purposes of the Act, Section 16 of the Immigration and Refugee Protection Regulations defines a prescribed senior official in the service of a government as a person who\n\nSection::::Implementation.\n", "Concurrently, the Immigration Act of 1990 “increased the limits on lawful immigration to the United States,\" [...] \"established new nonimmigrant admission categories,\" and revised acceptable grounds for deportation. Most importantly, it brought to light the \"authorized temporary protected status\" for aliens of designated countries.\n\nSection::::Temporary worker: Alien Authorized to Work.\n", "In March 2019, Tricia Newbold, a White House employee working on security clearances, spoke privately to the House Oversight Committee, claiming that at least 25 Trump administration officials had been granted security clearances over the objections of career staffers. Newbold also asserted that some of these officials had previously had their applications rejected for \"disqualifying issues\", only for those rejections to be overturned with inadequate explanation.\n", "Section::::Use and travel on government aircraft.:Eligibility.\n\nStatus as a federal employee does not automatically result in authorization for use of government aircraft. There are three categories of people who require advance authorization in writing:\n\nBULLET::::- senior Federal officials\n\nBULLET::::- members of their families\n\nBULLET::::- non-Federal travelers\n\nAll authorizations must conform to the same policies as authorized agency travel.\n", "As with TS clearances, Sensitive Compartmented Information (SCI) clearances are assigned only after one has been through the rigors of a Single Scope Background Investigation and a special adjudication process for evaluating the investigation. SCI access, however, is assigned only in \"compartments\". These compartments are necessarily separated from each other with respect to organization, so that an individual with access to one compartment will not necessarily have access to another. Each compartment may include its own additional special requirements and clearance process. An individual may be granted access to, or read into, a compartment for any period of time.\n", "Section::::United States.:Jobs that require a clearance.\n\nAnyone with access to classified data requires a clearance at or higher than the level at which the data is classified. For this reason, security clearances are required for a wide range of jobs, from senior management to janitorial. According to a 2013 Washington Post article, over 1.5 million Americans had top-secret clearances; almost one-third of them worked for private companies, rather than for the U.S. government.\n", "The vetting process for a security clearance is usually undertaken only when someone is hired or transferred into a position that requires access to classified information. The employee is typically fingerprinted and asked to provide information about themselves. This becomes a starting point for an investigation into the candidate's suitability. The process has been streamlined and now requires the person who needs clearance to input the information online using E-qip; five days are allowed for data input. Having the older paper form can be helpful for collecting and organizing the information in advance. The information on an investigation and its status is stored in either JPAS or Scattered Castles.\n", "Pending a full security clearance an applicant may be granted a temporary security clearance of indefinite duration, which gives the applicant access to classified information while the original application is being vetted.\n\nThe US President can declassify previously classified information.\n\nSection::::United States.:Authority.\n", "The Immigration Reform and Control Act which introduced the requirement leading to the promulgation of the I-9 form also included anti-discrimination provisions. Under the Act, most U.S. citizens, permanent residents, temporary residents, asylees or refugees who are legally allowed to work in the United States cannot be discriminated against on the basis of national origin or citizenship status. This provision applies to employers of three or more workers and covers both hiring and termination decisions. In addition, an employer must accept any valid document or combination of documents specified in the I-9 form as long as the documents appear genuine.\n", "BULLET::::3. On the balance, it would be beneficial to the United States to waive the job offer and labor certification requirements.\n\nThe first criteria focuses on the specific endeavor the foreign national has proposed to undertake. The prospective impact may be local, national, or global in nature, but must have broad implications of national importance such as local economic improvement or a medical advance.\n", "Until 2002 INS used a limited form of a Name Check for applicants for asylum, permanent resident status, and naturalization: the applicant's fingerprints were checked against existing criminal databases for records of arrests and criminal convictions, and UNI was searched for \"main files\" to determine if the applicant has been the target of an FBI investigation. In late 2002 INS discovered a case where an individual, who has been naturalized, was involved, as a secondary party, in a terrorism investigation. Subsequently, INS changed its policy and started requiring that maximally comprehensive FBI Name Check, including the search and detailed examination of all the \"reference files\", be completed for all naturalization applicants before their applications are granted. Soon thereafter a similar policy was adopted for the adjustment of status and asylum applicants.\n", "Clearance is granted, depending on types of appointment, by individual Federal government departments or agencies or by private company security officers. Those who have contracts with Public Works and Government Services Canada are bound by the Industrial Security Program, a sub-set of the GSP.\n", "For employment-based green card applicants, the priority date needs to be current to apply for Adjustment of Status (I-485) at which time an Employment Authorization Document can be applied for. Typically, it is recommended to apply for Advance Parole at the same time so that visa stamping is not required when re-entering US from a foreign country.\n\nSection::::Interim EAD.\n", "Where reliability is the primary concern, a site access status screening (similar to a reliability status, standard screening) is conducted; where loyalty to Canada is the primary concern, a site access clearance (similar to a Secret clearance screening) is required. They are both valid for 10 years.\n\nSection::::Canada.:Legal.\n", "Executive Order 12968 required as an initial condition of access to classified information the filing of financial disclosure statements \"including information with respect to the spouse and dependent children of the employee\" with possible annual updates, as well as the reporting of all foreign travel. These requirements constituted a response to the recent Aldrich Ames spy case. In another innovation, those receiving security clearances would now have to provide information that the government previously had to acquire through its own investigations. As a counterbalance to the new burdens placed on employees, Executive Order 12968 detailed that an applicant for a security clearance had a right to a hearing and to a written explanation and documentation if denied.\n", "This perception of dual loyalty can apply even when the job in question does not require security clearance. In the United States, dual citizenship is common among politicians or government employees. For example, Arnold Schwarzenegger retained his Austrian citizenship during his service as a Governor of California while US Senator Ted Cruz renounced his Canadian citizenship birthright on May 14, 2014.\n\nIn 1999, the US Attorney General's office issued an official opinion that a statutory provision that required the Justice Department not to employ a non-\"citizen of the United States\" did not bar it from employing dual citizens.\n", "Dual citizenship is associated with two categories of security concerns: foreign influence and foreign preference. Dual citizenship in itself is not the major problem in obtaining or retaining security clearance in the USA. If a security clearance applicant's dual citizenship is \"based solely on parents' citizenship or birth in a foreign country\", that can be a mitigating condition. However, \"exercising\" (taking advantage of the entitlements of) a non-U.S. citizenship can cause problems. For example, possession and/or use of a foreign passport is a condition disqualifying from security clearance and \"is not mitigated by reasons of personal convenience, safety, requirements of foreign law, or the identity of the foreign country\" as is explicitly clarified in a Department of Defense policy memorandum which defines a guideline requiring that \"any clearance be denied or revoked unless the applicant surrenders the foreign passport or obtains official permission for its use from the appropriate agency of the United States Government\". This guideline has been followed in administrative rulings by the Department of Defense (DoD) Defense Office of Hearings and Appeals (DOHA) office of Industrial Security Clearance Review (ISCR), which decides cases involving security clearances for Contractor personnel doing classified work for all DoD components. In one such case, an administrative judge ruled that it is not clearly consistent with U.S. national interest to grant a request for a security clearance to an applicant who was a dual national of the United States and Ireland. DOHA can rule on issues involving the granting of security clearances.\n" ]	[ "Employer should not require security clearance for entry level job." ]	[ "They need you to have a security clearance because of the location you are working at. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Employer should not require security clearance for entry level job." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "They need you to have a security clearance because of the location you are working at. " ]
2018-00623	how does a creek continue to flow without a snowpack?	ahh i finally have some use for my last semesters Hydrology Course. the reason why it could run for months even after the rain in your area has ceased, is due to the the speed at which runoff happens. when it first rains, before the creek is formed, the ground becomes saturated (empty spaces filled) with water, over the entire watershed where rain fell. Once the ground has become saturated surface runoff can occur. the water on the surface will run to the lowest spots available, aka, your creek. During the storm the creek will surge with water, as rainwater travels along the surface quickly. Once the storm is over, the water levels will begin to decrease as all the surface water has entered the creek. however the creek will remain because now there is groundwater from the saturated soil which will flow to the low levels of terrain (your creek) and this takes much longer. TLDR: the reason why the creek remains so long after a rain is due to groundwater flow, instead of surface water flow.	[ "Avalanches can only occur in a standing snowpack. Typically winter seasons at high latitudes, high altitudes, or both have weather that is sufficiently unsettled and cold enough for precipitated snow to accumulate into a seasonal snowpack. Continentality, through its potentiating influence on the meteorological extremes experienced by snowpacks, is an important factor in the evolution of instabilities, and consequential occurrence of avalanches. Conversely, proximity to coastal environments moderates the meteorological extremes experienced by snowpacks, and results in a faster stabilization of the snowpack after storm cycles. The evolution of the snowpack is critically sensitive to small variations within the narrow range of meteorological conditions that allow for the accumulation of snow into a snowpack. Among the critical factors controlling snowpack evolution are: heating by the sun, radiational cooling, vertical temperature gradients in standing snow, snowfall amounts, and snow types. Generally, mild winter weather will promote the settlement and stabilization of the snowpack; conversely, very cold, windy, or hot weather will weaken the snowpack.\n", "The accumulation zone can be subdivided based on its melt conditions.\n\nBULLET::::1. The dry snow zone is a region where no melt occurs, even in the summer, and the snowpack remains dry.\n\nBULLET::::2. The percolation zone is an area with some surface melt, causing meltwater to percolate into the snowpack. This zone is often marked by refrozen ice lenses, glands, and layers. The snowpack also never reaches melting point.\n", "Snowpack\n\nSnowpack forms from layers of snow that accumulate in geographic regions and high altitudes where the climate includes cold weather for extended periods during the year. Snowpacks are an important water resource that feed streams and rivers as they melt. Therefore, snowpacks are both the drinking water source for many communities and a potential source of flooding (in case of sudden melting). Snowpacks also contribute mass to glaciers in their accumulation zone.\n", "The snowpack on slopes with sunny exposures is strongly influenced by sunshine. Diurnal cycles of thawing and refreezing can stabilize the snowpack by promoting settlement. Strong freeze-thaw cycles result in the formation of surface crusts during the night and of unstable surface snow during the day. Slopes in the lee of a ridge or of another wind obstacle accumulate more snow and are more likely to include pockets of deep snow, wind slabs, and cornices, all of which, when disturbed, may result in avalanche formation. Conversely, the snowpack on a windward slope is often much shallower than on a lee slope.\n", "Water flows can be split up into three categories in Washington: Rain dominant, snow dominant, and transient snowmelt watersheds. The change in water falling will make snow dominant regions appear to be more like transition rivers and transition more like rain dominant. Snow dominant regions have their highest water flow several months after their highest snowfall. Due to the increase in temperature, they will change and act more like transition which has two peak flows, one in the spring due to snowmelt, and the other in the winter due to water falling as rain, not snow. The transition region now will act like rain regions which have their high points in river flows right after it rains.\n", "The annual load of sediment in the main stem of Chest Creek is . About per year comes from croplands and comes from stream banks. A total of of sediment per year comes from hay and pastures, and comes from land classified by the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection as \"low-intensity development\". About of sediment per year comes from forests and per year comes from turf grass. About per year comes from land classified by the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection as \"transition\", comes from coal mines, and comes from wetlands.\n\nSection::::Geography, geology, and climate.\n", "The annual load of sediment in Kipps Run is . The largest contributor is cropland, which contributes to the stream. Stream banks contribute of sediment per year and of it comes from hay and pastures. Forested land contributes per year, comes from land designated by the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection as \"low-intensity development\", and comes from land designated by the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection as \"transitional\".\n\nSection::::Geography, geology, and climate.\n", "In the uppermost of the watershed of Toby Creek, the annual rate of precipitation ranges from , with an average of . The waters of the creek at one site have a velocity of per second. The water temperature was measured several times between January and August 1976. In January, February, and March, it ranged from .\n\nSection::::Watershed.\n", "In 2003, Martin Friday assessed streams in the watershed of Roaring Creek at 37 locations, using the United States Environmental Protection Agency's rapid assessment protocol. In 2004, Robert Wnuk carried out fisheries surveys on every named stream in the watershed. The Roaring Creek Valley Conservation Association formed in February 2006 to conserve the natural and cultural resources of the Roaring Creek watershed.\n\nSection::::Biology.\n", "The main land use in the upper part of the watershed of Silver Creek is agricultural land, which accounts for 76 percent of the watershed's area. This includes of hay and pasture land and of cropland. Another 15 percent is forested land, and the remaining 9 percent has other uses. A total of of land in this part of the watershed is transitional land. There are some areas of developed land along the creek. Tillage is done in the watershed's agricultural areas.\n", "Section::::Course.\n", "Of the Papakating's watershed's acreage, or 27.7% of agricultural land, or 0.8% is barren land, or 42.4% is forested, or 12.4% is urban development, or 15.4% is wetlands, and or 1.3% is water. According to 2002 figures, the watershed was estimated to be home to approximately 11,602 residents of Sussex County.\n", "Daytime exposure to sunlight will rapidly destabilize the upper layers of the snowpack if the sunlight is strong enough to melt the snow, thereby reducing its hardness. During clear nights, the snowpack can re-freeze when ambient air temperatures fall below freezing, through the process of long-wave radiative cooling, or both. Radiative heat loss occurs when the night air is significantly cooler than the snowpack, and the heat stored in the snow is re-radiated into the atmosphere.\n\nSection::::Dynamics.\n", "Section::::Terrain, snowpack, weather.:Snowpack structure and characteristics.\n\nThe snowpack is composed of ground-parallel layers that accumulate over the winter. Each layer contains ice grains that are representative of the distinct meteorological conditions during which the snow formed and was deposited. Once deposited, a snow layer continues to evolve under the influence of the meteorological conditions that prevail after deposition.\n", "As of 2013, the total annual sediment load for Dalmatia Creek is . Cropland is by far the largest source, accounting for per year. It is distantly followed by hay and pastures, which account for . Forested land accounts for per year, while low-intensity development accounts for per year. Stream banks account for annually, while transitional land accounts for . Pastures have the highest unit area load, while forests have the lowest. The total maximum daily load for sediment in the creek is .\n", "In the field snow scientists often excavate a snow pit within which to make basic measurements and observations. Observations can describe features caused by wind, water percolation, or snow unloading from trees.Water percolation into a snowpack can create flow fingers and ponding or flow along capillary barriers, which can refreeze into horizontal and vertical solid ice formations within the snowpack. Among the measurements of the properties of snowpacks that the \"International Classification for Seasonal Snow on the Ground\" includes are: snow height, snow water equivalent, snow strength, and extent of snow cover. Each has a designation with code and detailed description. The classification extends the prior classifications of Nakaya and his successors to related types of precipitation and are quoted in the following table:\n", "From Divide through Curtin to Anlauf, I-5 runs along Pass Creek's upper reaches. Downstream of Anlauf, concurrent highways, Oregon Route 38 and Oregon Route 99, follow the creek to Drain. Named tributaries of Pass Creek from source to mouth are Ward, Bear, Pheasant, Buck, Rock, Sand, and Fitch creeks. Further downstream are Johnson, Krewson, and Hedrick creeks.\n\nSection::::Camping.\n", "On January 12, 2018, ice that broke loose by unseasonably high temperatures and rainfall caused ice jams in Steele Creek by Ilion which caused the water to crest over on Otsego Street (NY-51).\n\nSection::::History.\n\nBULLET::::- Rudolph Stahl built the first grist mill in Ilion on the Steele Creek, at about where the Ilion Episcopal Church sits today.\n", "Section::::Watershed and hydrology.\n", "On 61% to 66% of Mugser Run, there is a road within . On 75% to 83% of the creek, there is a road within . There is no location in Mugser Run that is not within of a road.\n\nSection::::Hydrology.\n\nThe average annual amount of precipitation in the Mugser Run watershed from 1991 to 2011 was . The average annual amount of runoff in the same period was .\n", "Section::::Land Use in Wyoming.:Wild Horse Herds.\n", "In a 1989 study, both Gannett and Dinwoody glaciers were researched to determine the amount of melt water they supplied to streams. Both glaciers supply melt water which flows into Dinwoody Creek, which in turn flows into the Wind River. The melt water was found to have contributed increasingly lower amounts to the total water supplied to Dinwoody Creek. This has been attributed to the glaciers thinning and retreating, especially since 1950, when Gannett Glacier was measured to be almost 20 percent larger than in 1999. The impact on reduced stream flow from Gannett Glacier due to glacial retreat affects more than just the amount of water available for the local ecosystem and downstream agricultural and ranching interests.\n", "The average annual rate of precipitation in the upper part of the watershed of Silver Creek over a 23-year period was . The average annual rate of runoff in the watershed during a 23-year-period was .\n\nSection::::Watershed and biology.\n", "The annual sediment load in the upper creek is . The maximum load for sediment that that reach of the creek can have while still meeting water quality standards is per year. Cropland is the largest source of sediment, accounting for per year. Streambanks and hay/pasture land are the next-largest contributors, accounting for per year, respectively. Transitional land accounts for per year, low-intensity development accounts for , and forested land accounts for per year.\n\nAg Development once received a permit to discharge stormwater into Silver Creek for construction purposes.\n\nSection::::Geography, geology, and climate.\n", "\"Changes in temperature and precipitation are affecting snowpack—the amount of snow that accumulates on the ground. In most of the West, snowpack has decreased since the 1950s, due to earlier melting and less precipitation falling as snow. The amount of snowpack measured in April has declined by 20 to 60 percent at most monitoring sites in Colorado\".\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02407	Why does everyone say not to land in the water if your parachute fails or some other reason?	Water doesn't compress readily. It's also pretty heavy. So if you hit water, in order to sink, you have to accelerate a pretty massive amount of 'stuff' out of your way. This is hard to do. The result is the energy going into 'moving water' comes out of you 'going forward' (down in this case), and because moving the water is so hard (takes a lot of energy), it does so rapidly. So you slow down, fast. And slowing down fast is what causes injury (or kills you). The part of you hitting the water comes to a near stop, and the rest of you slams into it, which slows down in turn (possibly breaking in the process), and more of the rest of you slams into that, and so on. Snow, on the other hand, tends to have lots of airspaces in it. You can compress that. So if you hit snow, it'll squash under you. If it's deep enough, then that stretches out the period over which you are decelerating and, if you are lucky, results in less "smash." That being said, unless it's a hell of a snowdrift, you're still going to feel it.	[ "BULLET::::- \"Ditching\" is the same as a forced landing, only on water. After the disabled aircraft makes contact with the surface of the water, the aircraft will most likely sink if it is not designed to float, although it may float for hours, depending on damage.\n\nSection::::Procedures.\n", "For some dives the route to be followed and navigation procedures to follow the planned route may be important, either for achieving the objective, for safety, or for both. There may be known hazards that can be avoided by following a specific route or constraining the possible extent of diver excursion.\n", "There are several ways to recall divers to the surface during a dive. Some are not universally known or immediately obvious, and the chances of them being understood correctly and responded to appropriately are increased if they are specified in the dive briefing.\n", "BULLET::::- a surface marker buoy or other surface detection aid may be standard equipment in some regions to allow the surface crew and boats to monitor the diver's position.\n\nFor solo diving a bailout cylinder is considered standard for dives where there is an appreciable risk of entrapment, or where a direct controlled emergency swimming ascent is not an acceptable option to manage an out-of-air incident at any point in the planned dive profile.\n\nSection::::Standard procedures.\n", "Parachute is a \"Game & Watch\" game released as a part of the Wide Screen series on June 19, 1981. It was the first game in the Wide Screen series. It is a single-screen single-player \"Game & Watch\".\n\nThe player controls a character in a boat and has to prevent parachutists from landing in shark-infested waters. A life is lost every time the player fails to do this. In Game B, the parachutes can get stuck in trees.\n", "Early manned spacecraft launched by the United States were designed to alight on water by the splashdown method. The craft would parachute into the water, which acted as a cushion to bring the craft to a stop; the impacts were violent but survivable. Alighting over water rather than land made braking rockets unnecessary, but its disadvantages included difficult retrieval and the danger of drowning. The NASA Space Shuttle design was intended to land on a runway instead. Some future spacecraft are planning to permit water alightings (SpaceX Dragon, Boeing CST-100, etc.)\n\nSection::::Aircraft water landings.:In distress.\n", "Section::::Emergency procedures.:Dealing with vomiting in the helmet.\n", "Parachuting disciplines such as BASE jumping or those that involve equipment such as wingsuit flying and sky surfing have a higher risk factor due to the lower mobility of the jumper and the greater risk of entanglement. For this reason, these disciplines are generally practised by experienced jumpers.\n", "The SPAG can be activated at 6 hours notice, to fly to a submarine sinking incident, regardless of the operator of the vessel. The team may work in conjunction with the NATO Submarine Rescue System.\n", "A method of buoyancy control which will automatically jettison weights if the diver loses consciousness during the ascent is to take them off and hold them in a hand while surfacing. If the diver loses consciousness, the weights will drop and positive buoyancy will take the diver the rest of the way to the surface.\n\nSection::::Scuba procedures.:Controlled emergency swimming ascent (CESA).\n", "In places where the visibility is less than excellent it is necessary to use a guideline to find the way back to the anchor, because usually there is no boat handler on the surface to pick up the divers if they surface away from the boats.\n", "Splashdown\n\nSplashdown is the method of landing a spacecraft by parachute in a body of water. It was used by American manned spacecraft prior to the Space Shuttle program, and is planned for use by the upcoming Orion Multipurpose Crew Vehicle. It is also possible for the Russian Soyuz spacecraft to land in water, though this is only a contingency. The only example of an unintentional manned splashdown in Soviet history is the Soyuz 23 landing.\n", "Contingency planning covers what to do if something happenes that is not according to the planned operation. The hazard identification and risk assessment will suggest the range of foreseeable contingencies, and the specifics of how much to organise to deal with them will depend on the consequences.\n\nIn general, contigencies that have serious health and safety consequences should have plans in place to deal with them, while those which are merely an inconvenience may be accepted if they occur.\n\nSome contingency classes are listed here:\n\nBULLET::::- Environmental condition changes\n\nBULLET::::- Weather and sea state\n\nBULLET::::- Equipment malfunctions\n\nBULLET::::- Incorrect information\n", "Seaskim may have been designed as a method of overcoming the loss of streamlining caused by the absence of the fighter, which would have reduced Skydiver’s speed underwater.\n\n\"Close Up\" showed that Skydiver could go from seaskim to an emergency crash dive in a matter of seconds.\n\nSection::::Crew.\n", "Another risk is that most BASE jumping venues have very small areas in which to land. A beginner skydiver, after parachute deployment, may have a three-minute or more parachute ride to the ground. A BASE jump from will have a parachute ride of only 10 to 15 seconds.\n", "An unspecified number of Skydivers patrolled Earth's oceans. Each Skydiver was numbered and the composite sections were referred to as Sky or Diver One, Two, Three etc. Skydiver One was most frequently seen in the course of the series, and if a generic reference was made to 'Skydiver' (e.g. the command 'put Skydiver on alert') then this was the one that tended to be referred to. However, the ill-fated Skydiver Three was seen briefly in the episode \"The Psychobombs\", and in the same episode references were made to Sky 4.\n\nSection::::Operation.\n", "BULLET::::- The final option is a buoyant ascent, where buoyancy is gained by inflation of the buoyancy compensator (not always possible in an out-of-air emergency), and dropping of weights. This is recommended as a last resort where the diver is unsure of making it to the surface by swimming, as it will ensure that an unconscious diver will rise to the surface rather than sink.\n", "The first skydive performed without a parachute was by stuntman Gary Connery on 23 May 2012 at 732 m.\n\nSection::::Safety.:Most common injuries.\n", "Emergency ascent\n\nAn emergency ascent is an ascent to the surface by a diver in an emergency. More specifically it refers to any of several procedures for reaching the surface in the event of an out-of-air emergency, generally while scuba diving.\n", "A hazard is any biological, chemical, physical, mechanical or environmental agent or situation that poses a level of threat to life, health, property, or environment. The presence of a combination of several hazards simultaneously is common in diving, and the effect is generally increased risk to the diver, particularly where the occurrence of an incident due to one hazard triggers other hazards with a resulting cascade of incidents.\n\nDiving hazards may be classified under several groups:\n\nBULLET::::- The aquatic environment itself\n\nBULLET::::- Use of breathing equipment underwater\n\nBULLET::::- Exposure to a pressurised environment and pressure changes\n", "Section::::Variations.:Shallow water helmets.\n", "BULLET::::- Diving into the water presents the danger of breaking the neck, concussion, dislocation of shoulders,back or neck; if the pilot attempts to scoop the trajectory of the dive underwater against his current rotation he will be at serious risk of a back injury.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nIn 1913 the DLRG offered its first rescue swimming classes. By the year 1922, 7997 rescue swimming certificates, 2038 badges in bronze, and 676 instructors' certificates were awarded.\n\nSection::::Bronze.\n\nRequirements\n\nBULLET::::- At least 12 years old\n\nTest\n\nBULLET::::- 200 metres swim in less than 10 minutes, (100 m breaststroke and 100 m on the back without arm activity)\n\nBULLET::::- 100 metres swim in clothing in less than 4 minutes. Afterwards, taking off clothes in the water.\n\nBULLET::::- Three different jumps from springboard of 1 metre height\n\nBULLET::::- 15 metres underwater swim on one breath\n", "BULLET::::- June 21 – After his F-8 Crusader fighter catches fire during in-flight refueling from a U.S. Air Force KC-97 Stratofreighter tanker aircraft over the Pacific Ocean during a flight from California to Hawaii, United States Marine Corps First Lieutenant Cliff Judkins ejects. His main parachute fails to open, and he falls 15,000 feet (4,572 meters) into the ocean. Although he suffers several serious injuries, he survives and is rescued.\n", "There is a large range of hazards to which the diver may be exposed. These each have associated consequences and risks, which should be taken into account during dive planning. Where risks are marginally acceptable it may be possible to mitigate the consequences by setting contingency and emergency plans in place, so that damage can be minimised where reasonably practicable. The acceptable level of risk varies depending on legislation, codes of practice and personal choice, with recreational divers having a greater freedom of choice.\n\nSection::::Safety.:Hazards.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-06715	Do fishes have to drink water?	Only saltwater fish drink. In freshwater, the inside of the fish is "saltier" than the surrounding environment. Water moves into the fish by osmosis, passively, through the gills and the skin and the stomach. Fish have to eliminate all this excess water by peeing dilute urine.	[ "Some marine fish, like sharks, have adopted a different, efficient mechanism to conserve water, i.e., osmoregulation. They retain urea in their blood in relatively higher concentration. Urea damages living tissues so, to cope with this problem, some fish retain trimethylamine oxide. This provides a better solution to urea's toxicity. Sharks, having slightly higher solute concentration (i.e., above 1000 mOsm which is sea solute concentration), do not drink water like fresh water fish.\n\nSection::::In plants.\n", "As with many aquatic animals, most fish release their nitrogenous wastes as ammonia. Some of the wastes diffuse through the gills. Blood wastes are filtered by the kidneys.\n\nSaltwater fish tend to lose water because of osmosis. Their kidneys return water to the body. The reverse happens in freshwater fish: they tend to gain water osmotically. Their kidneys produce dilute urine for excretion. Some fish have specially adapted kidneys that vary in function, allowing them to move from freshwater to saltwater.\n", "Section::::Methods: Humans & Animals.:In aquatic animals.\n\nAmphibians and aquatic animals which live in freshwater do not need to drink: they absorb water steadily through the skin by osmosis. Saltwater fish, however, drink through the mouth as they swim, and purge the excess salt through the gills.\n\nSection::::Methods: Humans & Animals.:In land animals.\n", "As with many aquatic animals, most fish release their nitrogenous wastes as ammonia. Some of the wastes diffuse through the gills. Blood wastes are filtered by the kidneys.\n\nSaltwater fish tend to lose water because of osmosis. Their kidneys return water to the body. The reverse happens in freshwater fish: they tend to gain water osmotically. Their kidneys produce dilute urine for excretion. Some fish have specially adapted kidneys that vary in function, allowing them to move from freshwater to saltwater.\n\nSection::::Anatomy and physiology.:Scales.\n", "Sharks have adopted a different, efficient mechanism to conserve water, i.e., osmoregulation. They retain urea in their blood in relatively higher concentration. Urea is damaging to living tissue so, to cope with this problem, some fish retain \"trimethylamine oxide\". This provides a better solution to urea's toxicity. Sharks, having slightly higher solute concentration (i.e., above 1000 mOsm which is sea solute concentration), do not drink water like fresh water fish.\n\nSection::::Thermoregulation.\n", "Some marine fish, like sharks, have adopted a different, efficient mechanism to conserve water, i.e., osmoregulation. They retain urea in their blood in relatively higher concentration. Urea is damaging to living tissue so, to cope with this problem, some fish retain \"trimethylamine oxide\". This provides a better solution to urea's toxicity. Sharks, having slightly higher solute concentration (i.e., above 1000 mOsm which is sea solute concentration), do not drink water like marine fish.\n\nSection::::Euryhaline fish.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Acorus gramineus (Japanese sweet flag)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aldrovanda vesiculosa\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alisma canaliculatum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alisma gramineum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alisma lanceolatum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alisma nanum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alisma orientale\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alisma plantago-aquatica\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alisma subcordatum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alisma triviale\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alisma wahlenbergii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alternanthera bettzickiana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alternanthera philoxeroides\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alternanthera reineckii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alternanthera sessilis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ammania capitellata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ammannia crassicaulis\" (Synonym Nesaea crassicaulis)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ammania gracilis\" (Delicate ammania, red ammania)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ammania latifolia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ammannia pedicellata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ammannia praetemissa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ammania senegalensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Anubias afzelii\" (Narrow-leafed anubias)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Anubias barteri var. barteri\" (Broadleaved anubias)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Anubias barteri var. angustifolia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Anubias barteri var. caladiifolia\"\n", "Freshwater fish\n\nFreshwater fish are those that spend some or all of their lives in fresh water, such as rivers and lakes, with a salinity of less than 0.05%. These environments differ from marine conditions in many ways, the most obvious being the difference in levels of salinity. To survive fresh water, the fish need a range of physiological adaptations.\n", "BULLET::::- Freshwater fish of the United States: Idaho, Maryland, Oklahoma, Oregon, Washington, West Virginia, plus a List of official and unofficial fishes by state\n\nBULLET::::- Lake ecosystems\n\nBULLET::::- List of common fish names\n\nBULLET::::- List of fishes in Bangladesh\n\nBULLET::::- List of fishes of Great Britain\n\nBULLET::::- List of freshwater fishes of Greece\n\nBULLET::::- List of freshwater fishes of Korea\n\nBULLET::::- River ecosystems\n\nBULLET::::- Saltwater fish\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Borgstrøm, Reidar & Hansen, Lars Petter (red): \"Fisk i ferskvann - et samspill mellom bestander, miljø og forvaltning\", Landbruksforlaget 2000\n\nBULLET::::- Jonsson, Bror: «Fiskene» i \"Norges dyr - Fiskene 1\", Cappelen 1992\n", "Veddas are also mentioned in Robert Knox's history of his captivity by the King of Kandy in the 17th century. Knox described them as \"wild men\", but also said there was a \"tamer sort\", and that the latter sometimes served in the king's army.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Nemipterus bipunctatus\", Delagoa threadfin bream\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nemipterus japonicus\", Japanese threadfin bream\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nemipterus peronii\", Notchedfin threadfin bream\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nemipterus randalli\", Randall's threadfin bream\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nemipterus zysron\", Slender threadfin bream\n\nBULLET::::- \"Parascolopsis aspinosa\", Smooth dwarf monocle bream\n\nBULLET::::- \"Parascolopsis eriomma\", Rosy dwarf monocle bream\n\nBULLET::::- \"Parascolopsis inermis\", Unarmed dwarf monocle bream\n\nBULLET::::- \"Parascolopsis townsendi\", Scaly dwarf monocle bream\n\nBULLET::::- Nettastomatidae\n\nBULLET::::- \"Saurenchelys lateromaculatus\n\nBULLET::::- Ophichthidae\n\nBULLET::::- \"Myrophis microchir\n\nBULLET::::- \"Skythrenchelys lentiginosa\n\nBULLET::::- \"Yirrkala tenuis\", Thin sand-eel\n\nBULLET::::- Ophidiidae\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ophidion smithi\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sirembo jerdoni\", Brown-banded cusk-eel\n\nBULLET::::- Opistognathidae\n\nBULLET::::- \"Stalix davidsheni\n\nBULLET::::- Paralichthyidae\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pseudorhombus arsius\", Largetooth flounder\n", "Section::::Researches on Sri Lankan freshwater fauna.\n", "Marine teleosts also use gills to excrete electrolytes. The gills' large surface area tends to create a problem for fish that seek to regulate the osmolarity of their internal fluids. Saltwater is less dilute than these internal fluids, so saltwater fish lose large quantities of water osmotically through their gills. To regain the water, they drink large amounts of seawater and excrete the salt. Freshwater is more dilute than the internal fluids of fish, however, so freshwater fish gain water osmotically through their gills.\n", "They are typically carnivores, and often live near the surface, where the oxygen-rich water compensates for environmental disadvantages. Scheel (1968) observed the gut contents were invariably ants, others have reported insects, worms and aquatic crustaceans. Aquarium specimens are invariably seen eating protozoans from the water column and the surfaces of leaves, however these are not apparent as stomach contents. North American \"pupfish\" eat plant material as well and some have adapted to a diet very high in algae to the point where one, the American Flag Fish is well known to eat algae especially thread algae in the aquarium, despite being in a family of fishes that do not generally consume any plant material. Although even this is a slight misnomer and killifish derive from some foods the carotenoids and other chemicals required to make these pigments which come from pollen grains from on the surface of and in the gut of insects they eat from the surface of the water, simulated in culture by the use of special color enhancing foods that contain them similar the same case with red factor canaries.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Ecsenius midas\" (native) Persian blenny\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ecsenius pulcher\" (native)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Enchelyurus kraussii\" (native) Krauss' blenny\n\nBULLET::::- \"Entomacrodus striatus\" (native) Reef margin blenny\n\nBULLET::::- \"Entomacrodus vermiculatus\" (native) Vermiculated blenny\n\nBULLET::::- \"Exallias brevis\" (native) Leopard blenny\n\nBULLET::::- \"Haptogenys bipunctata\" (native)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hirculops cornifer\" (native) Highbrow rockskipper\n\nBULLET::::- \"Istiblennius dussumieri\" (native) Streaky rockskipper\n\nBULLET::::- \"Istiblennius edentulus\" (native) Rippled rockskipper\n\nBULLET::::- \"Istiblennius lineatus\" (native) Lined rockskipper\n\nBULLET::::- \"Istiblennius spilotus\" (native) Spotted rockskipper\n\nBULLET::::- \"Meiacanthus smithi\" (native) Disco blenny\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mimoblennius atrocinctus\" (native)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Omobranchus elongatus\" (native) Cloister blenny\n\nBULLET::::- \"Omobranchus fasciolatus\" (native) Arab blenny\n\nBULLET::::- \"Omobranchus ferox\" (native) Gossamer blenny\n", "BULLET::::- \"Liza carinata\", Keeled mullet\n\nBULLET::::- Myliobatidae\n\nBULLET::::- \"Manta ehrenbergii\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mobula thurstoni\", Smoothtail mobula\n\nBULLET::::- Rhincodontidae\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rhincodon typus\", Whale shark\n\nBULLET::::- Scombridae\n\nBULLET::::- \"Auxis rochei rochei\", Bullet tuna\n\nBULLET::::- \"Auxis thazard thazard\", Frigate tuna\n\nBULLET::::- \"Euthynnus affinis\", Kawakawa\n\nBULLET::::- \"Katsuwonus pelamis\", Skipjack tuna\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rastrelliger kanagurta\", Indian mackerel\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sarda orientalis\", Striped bonito\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scomber japonicus\", Chub mackerel\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scomberomorus commerson\", Narrow-barred Spanish mackerel\n\nBULLET::::- \"Thunnus albacares\", Yellowfin tuna\n\nBULLET::::- \"Thunnus tonggol\", Longtail tuna\n\nBULLET::::- Serranidae\n\nBULLET::::- \"Plectranthias klausewitzi\n\nBULLET::::- Sphyraenidae\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sphyraena chrysotaenia\", Yellowstripe barracuda\n\nBULLET::::- \"Saurida macrolepis\n\nBULLET::::- Xiphiidae\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xiphias gladius\", Swordfish\n\nSection::::Reef-associated species.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Pogostemon stellatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pontederia cordata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Potamogeton coloratus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Potamogeton crispus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Potamogeton densus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Potamogeton filiformis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Potamogeton gayi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Potamogeton gramineus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Potamogeton lucens\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Potamogeton malaianus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Potamogeton natans\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Potamogeton perfoliatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Proserpinaca palustris\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ranunculus aquatilis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ranunculus limosella\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Regnellidium diphyllum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Riccia fluitans\" (Crystalwort)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ricciocarpos natans\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rorippa aquatica\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rotala indica\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rotala macrandra\" (Giant red rotala)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rotala mexicana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rotala ramosior\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rotala rotundifolia\" (Dwarf rotala)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rotala pusilla\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rotala wallichii\" (Whorly rotala)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ruppia maritima\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sagittaria chapmani\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sagittaria eatonii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sagittaria filiformis\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Gazza achlamys\" (native), Smalltoothed ponyfish\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gazza minuta\" (native) Toothpony, Toothpony\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gazza rhombea\" (native), Rhomboid toothpony\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leiognathus berbis\" (native), Berber ponyfish\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leiognathus bindus\" (native) Orangefin ponyfish, Orangefin ponyfish\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leiognathus blochii\" (native) Twoblotch ponyfish, Twoblotch ponyfish\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leiognathus brevirostris\" (native), Shortnose ponyfish\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leiognathus daura\" (native), Goldstripe ponyfish\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leiognathus decorus\" (native) Shortnose ponyfish, Decorated ponyfish\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leiognathus dussumieri\" (native), Dussumier's ponyfish\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leiognathus elongatus\" (native), Slender ponyfish\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leiognathus equulus\" (native) Common ponyfish, Common ponyfish\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leiognathus fasciatus\" (native), Striped ponyfish\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leiognathus leuciscus\" (native), Whipfin ponyfish\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leiognathus lineolatus\" (native), Ornate ponyfish\n", "BULLET::::- \"Parablennius cyclops\n\nBULLET::::- \"Petroscirtes ancylodon\", Arabian fangblenny\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xiphasia matsubarai\", Japanese snake blenny\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xiphasia setifer\", Hairtail blenny\n\nBULLET::::- Bothidae\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bothus myriaster\", Indo-Pacific oval flounder\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bothus tricirrhitus\n\nBULLET::::- \"Engyprosopon hureaui\", Hureau's flounder\n\nBULLET::::- \"Engyprosopon latifrons\n\nBULLET::::- \"Engyprosopon macrolepis\n\nBULLET::::- \"Engyprosopon maldivensis\", Olive wide-eyed flounder\n\nBULLET::::- Callionymidae\n\nBULLET::::- \"Callionymus bentuviai\n\nBULLET::::- \"Callionymus erythraeus\", Smallhead dragonet\n\nBULLET::::- \"Callionymus filamentosus\", Blotchfin dragonet\n\nBULLET::::- \"Callionymus gardineri\", Longtail dragonet\n\nBULLET::::- \"Callionymus marleyi\", Sand dragonet\n\nBULLET::::- \"Callionymus muscatensis\", Muscat dragonet\n\nBULLET::::- \"Callionymus oxycephalus\n\nBULLET::::- \"Diplogrammus infulatus\", Sawspine dragonet\n\nBULLET::::- \"Diplogrammus randalli\n\nBULLET::::- \"Synchiropus sechellensis\n\nBULLET::::- Caproidae\n\nBULLET::::- \"Antigonia indica\n\nBULLET::::- Carcharhinidae\n", "BULLET::::- \"Rasbora jacobsoni\" Weber & de Beaufort, 1916\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rasbora kalbarensis\" Kottelat, 1991\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rasbora kalochroma\" (Bleeker, 1851)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rasbora kluetensis\" Lumbantobing, 2010\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rasbora lateristriata\" (Bleeker, 1854)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rasbora leptosoma\" (Bleeker, 1855)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rasbora maninjau\" Lumbantobing, 2014\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rasbora meinkeni\" de Beaufort, 1931\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rasbora myersi\" Brittan, 1954\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rasbora nodulosa\" Lumbantobing, 2010\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rasbora reticulata\" Weber & de Beaufort, 1915 (Nias)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rasbora rutteni\" (Weber & de Beaufort, 1916)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rasbora subtilis\" Roberts, 1989\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rasbora sumatrana\" (Bleeker, 1852)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rasbora tawarensis\" Weber & de Beaufort, 1916\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rasbora tobana\" Ahl, 1934\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rasbora tornieri\" Ahl, 1922\n", "BULLET::::- \"Exocoetus volitans\", Tropical two-wing flyingfish\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hirundichthys rondeletii\", Black wing flyingfish\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hirundichthys socotranus\n\nBULLET::::- \"Parexocoetus brachypterus\", Sailfin flyingfish\n\nBULLET::::- \"Parexocoetus mento\", African sailfin flyingfish\n\nBULLET::::- Hemiramphidae\n\nBULLET::::- \"Euleptorhamphus viridis\", Ribbon halfbeak\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hemiramphus marginatus\", Yellowtip halfbeak\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hyporhamphus xanthopterus\", Red-tipped halfbeak\n\nBULLET::::- Istiophoridae\n\nBULLET::::- \"Istiophorus platypterus\", Indo-Pacific sailfish\n\nBULLET::::- \"Makaira indica\", Black marlin\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tetrapturus audax\", Striped marlin\n\nBULLET::::- Lactariidae\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lactarius lactarius\", False trevally\n\nBULLET::::- Leiognathidae\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leiognathus oblongus\", Oblong ponyfish\n\nBULLET::::- Malacanthidae\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hoplolatilus geo\n\nBULLET::::- Molidae\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mola mola\", Ocean sunfish\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ranzania laevis\", Slender sunfish\n\nBULLET::::- Monodactylidae\n\nBULLET::::- \"Monodactylus argenteus\", Silver moony\n\nBULLET::::- Mugilidae\n", "BULLET::::- \"Paramonacanthus frenatus\", Wedgetail filefish\n\nBULLET::::- \"Paramonacanthus oblongus\", Hair-finned filefish\n\nBULLET::::- \"Paramonacanthus pusillus\n\nBULLET::::- \"Stephanolepis diaspros\", Reticulated leatherjacket\n\nBULLET::::- Mugilidae\n\nBULLET::::- \"Liza macrolepis\", Largescale mullet\n\nBULLET::::- \"Liza subviridis\", Greenback mullet\n\nBULLET::::- \"Liza tade\", Tade mullet\n\nBULLET::::- \"Valamugil cunnesius\", Longarm mullet\n\nBULLET::::- Mullidae\n\nBULLET::::- \"Upeneus pori\", Por's goatfish\n\nBULLET::::- \"Upeneus sulphureus\", Sulphur goatfish\n\nBULLET::::- Muraenesocidae\n\nBULLET::::- \"Congresox talabonoides\", Indian pike conger\n\nBULLET::::- \"Muraenesox cinereus\", Daggertooth pike conger\n\nBULLET::::- Muraenidae\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gymnothorax angusticauda\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gymnothorax herrei\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gymnothorax johnsoni\", Whitespotted moray\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gymnothorax tile\n\nBULLET::::- \"Uropterygius genie\n\nBULLET::::- \"Uropterygius golanii\n\nBULLET::::- Narcinidae\n\nBULLET::::- \"Heteronarce bentuviai\", Elat electric ray\n\nBULLET::::- Nemipteridae\n", "At the feeding of the five thousand, a boy is brought to Jesus with \"five small loaves and two fish\". The question is asked, \"But what are they, among so many?\" Jesus multiplies the loaves and fish to feed the multitude. In Matthew 13:47-50, the Parable of Drawing in the Net, Jesus compares the angels separating the righteous from the wicked at the end of this world to fishers sorting out their catch, keeping the good fish and throwing the bad fish away. In John 21:11, it is related that the disciples fished all night but caught nothing. Jesus instructed them to cast the nets on the other side of the boat, and they drew in 153 fish. In Matthew 17:24-27, upon being asked if his Teacher pays the temple (or two-drachma) tax, Simon Peter answers yes. Christ tells Peter to go to the water and cast a line, saying that a coin sufficient for both of them will be found in the fish's mouth. Peter does this and finds the coin.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Amphiprion percula\" (questionable), Orange clownfish\n\nBULLET::::- \"Amphiprion polymnus\" (questionable), Saddleback clownfish\n\nBULLET::::- \"Amphiprion sebae\" (native), Sebae anemonefish\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cheiloprion labiatus\" (native), Big-lip damsel\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chromis caerulea\" (native), Green chromis\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chromis chrysura\" (questionable), Stout chromis\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chromis dimidiata\" (native), Chocolatedip chromis\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chromis opercularis\" (native), Doublebar chromis\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chromis ternatensis\" (native), Ternate chromis\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chromis viridis\" (native), Blue green damselfish\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chromis weberi\" (native), Weber's chromis\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chrysiptera biocellata\" (native), Twinspot damselfish\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chrysiptera brownriggii\" (native), Surge damselfish\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chrysiptera cyanea\" (native), Sapphire devil\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chrysiptera glauca\" (native), Grey demoiselle\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chrysiptera unimaculata\" (native), Onespot demoiselle\n", "BULLET::::- \"Ceratopteris pteridoides\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ceratopteris thalictroides\" (water sprite)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cladophora aegagropila\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Clinopodium brownei\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Crassula aquatica\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Crassula helmsii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Crinum calamistratum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Crinum natans\" (African onion plant)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Crinum purpurascens\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Crinum thaianum\" (water onion)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cryptocoryne affinis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cryptocoryne alba\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cryptocoryne albida\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cryptocoryne aponogetifolia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cryptocoryne auriculata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cryptocoryne axelrodii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cryptocoryne balansae\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cryptocoryne beckettii\" (Beckett's Cryptocoryne)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cryptocoryne blassii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cryptocoryne bogneri\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cryptocoryne bullosa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cryptocoryne ciliata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cryptocoryne cognata\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cryptocoryne cordata\" (Giant cryptocoryne)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cryptocoryne crispatula\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cryptocoryne cruddasiana\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cryptocoryne dewitii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cryptocoryne diderici\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cryptocoryne elliptica\"\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-16633	Why does the sun make me sneeze?	It's called photic sneezing. It has has a genetic component but I don't think the pathophysiology behind it is well understood.	[ "While this phenomenon is poorly understood, recent research has shown that antihistamines being used to treat rhinitis due to seasonal allergies may also reduce the occurrence of photic sneezes in people affected by both conditions.\n\nThose affected by photic sneezing may find relief by shielding their eyes and/or faces with hats, scarves, and sunglasses.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Photic sneeze reflex\n\nThe photic sneeze reflex (also backronymed as Autosomal Compelling Helio-Ophthalmic Outburst (ACHOO) syndrome and colloquially sun sneezing) is a reflex condition that causes sneezing in response to numerous stimuli, such as looking at bright lights or periocular (surrounding the eyeball) injection. The condition affects 18–35% of the world's population, but its exact mechanism of action is not well understood.\n\nSection::::Symptoms.\n", "Section::::Pathophysiology.:Optic-trigeminal summation.\n\nStimulation of the ophthalmic branch of the trigeminal nerve may enhance the irritability of the maxillary branch, resulting in an increased probability of sneezing. This is similar to the mechanism by which photophobia develops by persistent light exposure relaying signals through the optic nerve and trigeminal nerve to produce increased sensitivity in the ophthalmic branch. If this increased sensitivity occurred in the maxillary branch instead of the ophthalmic branch, a sneeze could result instead of photophobia.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.:Parasympathetic generalization.\n", "Section::::Symptoms.:Sneezing after eating.\n", "A study conducted by the School of Optometry at the University of Alabama at Birmingham found that females represent 67% of photic sneezers, and Caucasians represent 94%. The study also found statistically significant correlations between photic sneezing and the presence of a deviated nasal septum. The study also showed that photic sneezing is more likely to be acquired than inherited.\n\nSection::::Symptoms.:Response to periocular injection.\n", "BULLET::::- Tom Wilson, M.D. (1997) \"Why do we sneeze when we look at the sun?\" \"MadSci Network\".\n\nBULLET::::- Robert Sheckley (1956), \"Protection,\" a short story about sneezing\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- The Origins of Popular Superstitions and Customs – T. Sharper Knowlson (1910), a book that listed many superstitions and customs that are still common today.\n\nBULLET::::- Cold and flu advice (NHS Direct)\n\nBULLET::::- Ancient Sneezing: A Gift from the Gods – Elaine Fantham, Professor of Classics at Princeton on NPR Radio.\n\nBULLET::::- Why do my eyes close every time I sneeze? M.G., Sherborn The Boston Globe\n", "When the trigeminal nerve is directly stimulated, there is the possibility that increased light sensitivity in the ocular nerve could result. An example of directly stimulating would be plucking an eyebrow or pulling hair. In many people who show the photic sneeze reflex, even this direct stimulation can lead to a photic sneeze which is why we find it easier to sneeze while looking at a bright light.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.:Propofol-induced inhibitory suppression.\n", "Section::::Risks.\n\nSneezing generally does not present any particular risks to the individual, and is usually more an annoyance than a risk of injury. The fits of sneezing brought about by the photic sneeze reflex can, however, have dangerous implications during certain scenarios and activities, such as operating a vehicle, or while undergoing operations (dental, optical) and having bright lights directed towards the patient's face.\n\nSection::::Risks.:Disease transmission.\n", "The photic sneeze reflex manifests itself in the form of uncontrollable sneezing in response to a stimulus which would not produce a sneeze in people without the trait. The sneezes generally occur in bursts of 1 to 10 sneezes, followed by a refractory period that can be as long as 24 hours.\n\nSection::::Symptoms.:Photic sneezing.\n\nA photic sneeze results from exposure to a bright light and is the most common manifestation of the photic sneeze reflex. This reflex seems to be caused by a change in light intensity rather than by a specific wavelength of light.\n", "Sneeze\n\nA sneeze, or sternutation, is a semi-autonomous, convulsive expulsion of air from the lungs through the nose and mouth, usually caused by foreign particles irritating the nasal mucosa. A sneeze expels air forcibly from the mouth and nose in an explosive, spasmodic involuntary action resulting chiefly from irritation of the nasal mucous membrane. This action allows for mucus to escape through the nasal cavity. Sneezing is possibly linked to sudden exposure to bright light, sudden change (fall) in temperature, breeze of cold air, a particularly full stomach, or viral infection, and can lead to the spread of disease.\n", "Perhaps the most universal risk of sneezing is the spread of disease. Bacterial infections can spread to susceptible uninfected people via the spread of microscopic organisms suspended in the droplets expelled by a sneeze. Bacteria which commonly spread by sneezing include bacterial meningitis, strep throat, and tuberculosis. Viral infections can also be spread by sneezing. When a virus is expelled by a sneeze, its mucous membrane evaporates, and the virus becomes a droplet nucleus which can be inhaled by another person, thus spreading the virulent infection. Examples of virulent infections that spread by sneezing include measles, mumps, rubella, and influenza.\n", "The photic sneeze effect is a genetic tendency to begin sneezing, sometimes many times consecutively (due to naso-ocular reflex), when suddenly exposed to bright light. This condition tends to occur more severely after one has emerged into the light after spending time in a dark environment. Although the syndrome is thought to affect about 18-35% of the human population, it is relatively harmless and not widely studied.\n", "Section::::Risks.:Vehicle operation.\n", "The photic sneeze effect has been documented for many centuries. The Greek philosopher Aristotle was one of the first to contemplate this strange phenomenon in 350 BCE, exploring why looking at the sun causes a person to sneeze in The Book of Problems: \"Why does the heat of the sun provoke sneezing?\" He hypothesized that the sun’s heat caused sweating inside the nose, which triggered a sneeze in order to remove the moisture. In the 17th century, English philosopher Francis Bacon disproved Aristotle’s theory by facing the sun with his eyes closed, which did not elicit the ordinary sneeze response. Bacon therefore guessed that the eyes played a vital part in triggering photic sneezing. He assumed that looking at the sun's light made the eyes water, and then that moisture proceeded to seep into the nose and irritate it, causing a sneeze. Although plausible, scientists later determined this theory to also be incorrect because sun-induced sneezing occurs too quickly after sunlight exposure; watering of the eyes is a slower process, so it could not play a vital part in triggering the reflex.\n", "Section::::Professional career.\n", "Another possible explanation concerns the existence of erectile tissue in the nose, which may become engorged during sexual arousal, triggering a sneeze.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nNasal decongestants may prevent sexually induced sneezing.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nThe phenomenon was noted as early as 1897 in 's remarks before the \"British Medical Association\" at a meeting in Montreal. It was later commented upon in print in 1901 in Gould and Pyle's \"Anomalies and Curiosities of Medicine\":\n", "The parasympathetic nervous system has many neighboring fibers that respond to different stimuli. When one stimulus activates multiple nerve fibers of the parasympathetic nervous system, parasympathetic generalization is occurring. There is a possibility that sensory input from the eyes could travel to the neurons in the cortex that interpret such signals, but neighboring neurons which are involved in sneezing are also activated, due to the generalization. This could lead to a sneeze in response to a stimulus other than nasal irritation.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.:Increased light sensitivity.\n", "In Ancient Greece, sneezes were believed to be prophetic signs from the gods. In 401 BC, for instance, the Athenian general Xenophon gave a speech exhorting his fellow soldiers to fight against the Persians. A soldier underscored his conclusion with a sneeze. Thinking that this sneeze was a favorable sign from the gods, the soldiers were impressed. Another divine moment of sneezing for the Greeks occurs in the story of Odysseus. His waiting wife Penelope, hearing Odysseus may be alive, says that he and his son would take revenge on the suitors if he were to return. At that moment, their son sneezes loudly and Penelope laughs with joy, reassured that it is a sign from the gods (Odyssey 17: 541-550). It may be because this belief survived through the centuries, that in certain parts of Greece today, when someone is asserting something and the listener sneezes promptly at the end of the assertion, the former responds \"bless you and I am speaking the truth\", or \"bless you and here is the truth\", \"γεια σου κι αλήθεια λέω\", \"ya sou ki alithia leo\", or \"γεια σου και να κι η αλήθεια\", \"ya sou ke na ki i alithia\"). A similar practice is also followed in India. If either the person just having made a not most obvious statement in Flemish, or some listener sneezes, often one of the listeneners will say \" 't is beniesd\", literally \"It's sneezed upon\", as if a proof of truth – usually self-ironically recalling this old superstitious habit, without either suggesting doubt or intending an actual confirmation, but making any apology by the sneezer for the interruption superfluous as the remark is received by smiles.\n", "The sun emitted a mid-level solar flare, an M7.9-class, peaking at 4:16 a.m. EDT on June 25, 2015.\n\nSection::::Events.:2015.:November.\n\nIn early November 2015, solar flares disrupted the air traffic control system in central and southern Sweden, causing heavy delays for passengers.\n\nSection::::Events.:2016.\n\nSection::::Events.:2016.:December.\n\nA sunspot group originally attributed to the new solar cycle 25 is observed. The sunspot numbers continue to decline.\n\nDuring 2016, there were 26 days with no sunspots (preliminary numbers).\n\nSection::::Events.:2017.\n\nSection::::Events.:2017.:March.\n\nAs of 31 March, preliminary reports indicate there had been 24 days during 2017 on which there were no sunspots.\n\nSection::::Events.:2017.:September.\n", "Today, scientific attention has mainly focused on a hypothesis proposed in 1964 by Henry Everett, who was the first to call light-induced sneezing “The Photic Sneeze Effect.” Since the nervous system transmits signals at an extremely fast pace, Dr. Everett hypothesized that the syndrome was linked to the human nervous system, and was perhaps caused by the confusion of nerve signals. The genetic basis of photic sneezing still remains unclear, and single genes for this condition have not been found and studied. However, the condition often occurs within families, and it has been suggested that light-induced sneezing is a heritable, autosomal-dominant trait. A 2010 study demonstrated a correlation between photic sneezing and a single-nucleotide polymorphism on chromosome 2.\n", "Section::::Risks.:Medical procedures.\n\nUncontrollable fits of sneezing are common in patients under propofol sedation who undergo periocular or retrobulbar injection. A sneeze by a sedated patient often occurs upon insertion of a needle into or around their eye. The violent and uncontrollable movement of the head during a reflexive sneeze has potential to cause damage within the patient's eye if the needle is not removed before the sneeze occurs.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "The \"Loose Rhymes of Ruan\" section says,\n", "Some people may sneeze during the initial phases of sexual arousal. Doctors suspect that the phenomenon might arise from a case of crossed wires in the autonomic nervous system, which regulates a number of functions in the body, including \"waking up\" the genitals during sexual arousal. The nose, like the genitals, contains erectile tissue. This phenomenon may prepare the vomeronasal organ for increased detection of pheromones.\n", "\"Sunquakes\" caused by solar flares were first observed during this cycle. These are running acoustic waves, as opposed to the standing waves that constitute the material of helioseismology. The flare impulse launches these waves from the photosphere, and they arc deeply into the interior of the Sun before refracting back to the surface to appear as faint ripples, expanding radially away from the flare some tens of minutes later. The flare in which these waves were first observed, SOL1996-07-09, occurred more than three years after the last previous major event.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Solar variation\n\nBULLET::::- List of solar cycles\n", "In certain parts of Eastern Asia, particularly in Chinese culture, Korean culture, Japanese culture and Vietnamese culture, a sneeze without an obvious cause was generally perceived as a sign that someone was talking about the sneezer at that very moment. This can be seen in the \"Book of Songs\" (a collection of Chinese poems) in ancient China as early as 1000 BC, and in Japan this belief is still depicted in present-day manga and anime. In China, Vietnam, South Korea, and Japan, for instance, there is a superstition that if talking behind someone's back causes the person being talked about to sneeze; as such, the sneezer can tell if something good is being said (one sneeze), something bad is being said (two sneezes in a row), even if someone is in love with them (three sneezes in a row) or if this is a sign that they are about to catch a cold (multiple sneezes).\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00313	when a wood screw is tightened into wood so much that it begins to just spin without tightening, how does it not just fall right out?	It can. But there is also a bunch of wood fibres in the space so it has friction to overcome before it can just "slide out" under pressure that screw will pop out but just the fact that the wood material is there helps hold it in place.	[ "This self-locking property is one reason for the very large use of the screw in threaded fasteners such as wood screws, sheet metal screws, studs and bolts. Tightening the fastener by turning it puts compression force on the materials or parts being fastened together, but no amount of force from the parts will cause the screw to untighten. This property is also the basis for the use of screws in screw top container lids, vises, C-clamps, and screw jacks. A heavy object can be raised by turning the jack shaft, but when the shaft is released it will stay at whatever height it is raised to.\n", "Self-locking occurs mainly in those machines with large areas of sliding contact between moving parts: the screw, inclined plane, and wedge:\n\nBULLET::::- The most common example is a screw. In most screws, applying torque to the shaft can cause it to turn, moving the shaft linearly to do work against a load, but no amount of axial load force against the shaft will cause it to turn backwards.\n", "Based on the T equation it can be found that the screw is self-locking when the coefficient of friction is greater than the tangent of the lead angle. An equivalent comparison is when the friction angle is greater than the lead angle (formula_7). When this is not true the screw will \"back-drive\", or lower under the weight of the load.\n\nThe efficiency, calculated using the torque equations above, is:\n", "Twisted material is treated in a similar way. The operator lays the timber on the bed of the machine and rocks it slowly from side to side to estimate the amount of twist. If there is, say, 20mm of twist in the board, he holds the board level and takes 10mm off one end, then repeats it for the other end.\n", "BULLET::::- A wedge can be driven into a block of wood by force on the end, such as from hitting it with a sledge hammer, forcing the sides apart, but no amount of compression force from the wood walls will cause it to pop back out of the block.\n\nA machine will be self-locking if and only if its efficiency \"η\" is below 50%:\n", "Once screw turning machines were in common use, most commercially available wood screws were produced with this method. These cut wood screws are almost invariably tapered, and even when the tapered shank is not obvious, they can be discerned because the threads do not extend past the diameter of the shank. Such screws are best installed after drilling a pilot hole with a tapered drill bit. The majority of modern wood screws, except for those made of brass, are formed on thread rolling machines. These screws have a constant diameter, threads with a larger diameter than the shank, and are stronger because the rolling process does not cut the grain of the metal.\n", "As long as the clove hitch can feed over the drum, the rope will feed through the device. In a fall, the drum is back driven by the rope as the device slides down the rope; when the drum rotation exceeds a certain angular velocity, it locks off to the frame and the increase in friction induced between the stationary drum and the rope causes the clove hitch to rapidly tighten around the locked drum to arrest the fall.\n", "The material of choice for producing these screws is stainless steel typically 18-8 (303). At the tip of the screw most commonly a stainless steel ball is either pressed or glued into place to provide a single point contact for the surface being moved. Common usage has shown the glue method of attaching the ball to be troublesome in many applications as some commonly used glues (Super Glue) tend to outgas and degrade over time in this application.\n\nSection::::Materials.:Nut/bushing.\n", "It is obvious on inspection that a buttress thread with perpendicular face, operating in a split nut, generates minimal disengagement force when tightened in the normally loaded direction, and thus it is possible to derive quick release devices to, for example, allow rapid repositioning of the movable jaw of a vise without having to rotate the screw by many turns. A screw profile, such as acme, where the thrust face is not perpendicular to the axis, generates a significant disengagement force on a split nut, therefore a more robust controlling mechanism would be required. Quick release vices are readily available. It is not known whether any of them are currently using buttress screws. An expired patent for a clamp using a buttress thread exists and this article describes a vise whose screw thread is disengaged by reverse rotation, which is likely to use a buttress thread, however no currently manufactured devices of that nature have been found at this time (October 2018).\n", "Section::::Usage.\n\nA G-clamp is used by means of turning the screw through the bottom of the frame until the desired state of pressure or release is reached. In the case that the clamp is being tightened, this is when the objects being secured are satisfactorily secured between the flat end of the screw and the flat end of the frame. If the clamp is being loosened, this is when a sufficient amount of force is released to allow the secured objects to be moved.\n\nSection::::Usage.:Woodworking.\n", "Provided that there are moderate non-negative clearances between the root and crest of the opposing threads, and everything else is ideal, if the pitch diameters of a screw and nut are exactly matched, there should be no play at all between the two as assembled, even in the presence of positive root-crest clearances. This is the case when the flanks of the threads come into intimate contact with one another, before the roots and crests do, if at all.\n", "Some pegs and pins are threaded with a shallow, fine thread. They are not tapered, but straight, and they go into straight-sided holes. \n\nLike tapered pins, threaded pins must be set in a pin block of fairly hard wood, such as cherry or white oak, or they will not stay in tune well. Some pin block woods come from endangered trees. Some specialized plywoods can also be used (piano pin block stock or the die maker's ply used for rotary dies)\n", "The duplex is technically a \"frictional rest\" escapement; the tooth resting against the roller adds some friction to the balance wheel during its swing but this is very minimal. As in the chronometer, there is little sliding friction during impulse since pallet and impulse tooth are moving almost parallel, so little lubrication is needed.\n", "Section::::Checking.\n\nCertain cracks in logs are referred to as \"checks\" or \"checking.\" Checking is part of the natural drying process of the wood and normally does not affect the structural integrity of the log. Checks are cracks that run vertically (with the grain). These checks can be as much as three-quarters of an inch in width, depending on the diameter of the log.\n", "In normal use, a nut-and-bolt joint holds together because the bolt is under a constant tensile stress called the \"preload\". The preload pulls the nut threads against the bolt threads, and the nut face against the bearing surface, with a constant force, so that the nut cannot rotate without overcoming the friction between these surfaces. If the joint is subjected to vibration, however, the preload increases and decreases with each cycle of movement. If the minimum preload during the vibration cycle is not enough to hold the nut firmly in contact with the bolt and the bearing surface, then the nut is likely to become loose.\n", "The Phillips screwdriver design may have a tendency to cam out at lower torque levels than other, newer Pozidriv-type designs. There has long been a popular belief that this was actually a \"deliberate\" feature of the design, for the purpose of assembling aluminum aircraft without overtightening the fasteners. The feature is not mentioned in the original patents. However, a subsequent refinement to the original US Patent #2,474,994 does describe it. \n", "In a cross dowel application, the two pieces of wood are aligned and a bolt hole is drilled through one piece of wood and into the other. A dowel hole is drilled laterally across the bolt hole and the cross dowel is inserted into it. A screwdriver is inserted into the slot at the end of the cross dowel and the dowel is rotated so that its threaded hole aligns with the bolt hole. The bolt is then inserted into the bolt hole and screwed into the cross dowel until the wood pieces are held tightly together.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Without the proper amount of friction to hold the peg in place, a tapered tuning peg will tend to \"slip\", making a tuning setting virtually impossible to maintain. String instruments with pegs that are slipping can be tuned briefly, but will be out of tune within minutes as soon as the peg slips again. With too much friction, adjusting the tuning at all is impossible. If the pegs or their holes are not perfectly round, or if the bearing surfaces of the pegs are indented from wear, peg dope will not remedy the resulting problems.\n\nSection::::Threaded pegs and pins.\n", "Even when designed as a bearing joint, the surface friction between the clamped elements may be sufficient to resist movement for some time, especially when the building may not yet be fully loaded – thus it operates initially as a friction joint. When the lateral force becomes sufficient to overcome this friction, the clamped elements move until the sides of the holes bear against the shank of the bolt. This movement – \"slip into bearing\" – usually starts and stops very suddenly, often releasing elastic energy in the associated elements, resulting in a loud but harmless bang.\n\nSection::::International standards.\n", "Work is equal to the force multiplied by the distance it acts, so the work done in one complete turn of the screw is formula_7 and the work done on the load is formula_8. So the \"ideal\" mechanical advantage of a screw is equal to the \"distance ratio\":\n", "A type of sawmill without a crank is known from Germany called \"knock and drop\" or simply \"drop\" -mills. In these drop sawmills, the frame carrying the saw blade is knocked upwards by cams as the shaft turns. These cams are let into the shaft on which the waterwheel sits. When the frame carrying the saw blade is in the topmost position it drops by its own weight, making a loud knocking noise, and in so doing it cuts the trunk.\n", "To straighten a piece of bowed timber, the guard is temporarily swung out of the way. The machine is switched on and the timber is slowly lowered to the machine table, with the concave side down. A few cuts are made out of the red section \"A\".\n", "Draw resonance is the most common issue that can occur during drawing of the polymer melt, regardless of polymer suitability. Resonance occurs when the rate of mass flow is not constant between the spinneret and fiber take up roller, despite being constant at each of those individual components. When the mass flow rate is not constant, the diameter of the fiber will vary to accommodate the variation. Once started, this resonance may not correct itself, requiring a complete shutdown of the extrusion line.\n", "In solid timber work it is common to counterbore a hole in the frame or carcase member to conceal the head of the screw. This also allows more of the body of the screw to penetrate the adjacent member for greater traction. After the screw has been driven into the joint, the counterbore can be filled with an appropriately sized piece of dowel or a wooden plug cut from an offcut of the same timber using a plug cutter.\n", "Where a fastener forms its own thread in the component being fastened, it is called a screw. This is most obviously so when the thread is tapered (i.e. traditional wood screws), precluding the use of a nut, or when a sheet metal screw or other thread-forming screw is used.\n\nA screw must always be turned to assemble the joint. Many bolts are held fixed in place during assembly, either by a tool or by a design of non-rotating bolt, such as a carriage bolt, and only the corresponding nut is turned.\n\nSection::::Bolt heads.\n" ]	[ "Screw will not fall out when tightened to much." ]	[ "Screw can actually fall out when over tightened. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Screw will not fall out when tightened to much." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Screw can actually fall out when over tightened. " ]
2018-00306	why is it we can it people into a medical induced coma but not any medical use to get them out of coma?	Medically induced coma is done through drugs(barbiturates). Drugs wear off, patient wakes up. Comas cause by accident are a result of damage to the brain which is slow to repair/rewire if it ever does.	[ "Controversy exists over the benefits of using barbiturates to control intracranial hypertension. Some studies have shown that barbiturate-induced coma can reduce intracranial hypertension but does not necessarily prevent brain damage. Furthermore, the reduction in intracranial hypertension may not be sustained. Some randomized trials have failed to demonstrate any survival or morbidity benefit of induced coma in diverse conditions such as neurosurgical operations, head trauma, intracranial aneurysm rupture, intracranial hemorrhage, ischemic stroke, and status epilepticus. If the patient survives, cognitive impairment may also follow recovery from the coma.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Traumatic brain injury\n\nBULLET::::- Insulin shock therapy\n", "Induced coma\n\nAn induced coma, also known as a medically induced coma, a barbiturate-induced coma, or a barb coma, is a temporary coma (a deep state of unconsciousness) brought on by a controlled dose of a barbiturate drug, usually pentobarbital or thiopental. Barbiturate comas are used to protect the brain during major neurosurgery, as a last line of treatment in certain cases of status epilepticus that have not responded to other treatments, and in refractory intracranial hypertension following traumatic brain injury.\n", "Induced coma was a feature of the Milwaukee protocol, a now-discredited method that was promoted as a means of treating rabies infection in people.\n\nInduced coma usually results in significant systemic adverse effects. The patient is likely to completely lose respiratory drive and require mechanical ventilation. Gut motility is reduced. Hypotension can complicate efforts to maintain cerebral perfusion pressure and often requires the use of vasopressor drugs. Hypokalemia often results. And the completely immobile patient is at increased risk of bed sores as well as infection from indwelling lines.\n\nSection::::Theory.\n", "About 60% of the glucose and oxygen use by the brain is meant for its electrical activity and the rest for all other activities such as metabolism. When barbiturates are given to brain injured patients for induced coma, they act by reducing the electrical activity of the brain, which reduces the metabolic and oxygen demand. The infusion dose rate of barbiturates is increased under monitoring by electroencephalography until burst suppression or cortical electrical silence (isoelectric \"flatline\") is attained. Once there is improvement in the patient's general condition, the barbiturates are withdrawn gradually and the patient regains consciousness.\n", "Modafinil has been used off-label in trials with people with symptoms of post-chemotherapy cognitive impairment, also known as \"chemobrain\", but a 2011 review found that it was no better than placebo. As of 2015 it had been studied for use in multiple sclerosis associated fatigue, but the resulting evidence was weak and inconclusive.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.:Post-anesthesia sedation.\n", "General anesthesia is required for many surgeries, but there may be lingering fatigue, sedation, and/or drowsiness after surgery has ended that lasts for hours to days. In outpatient settings wherein patients are discharged home after surgery, this sedation, fatigue and occasional dizziness is problematic. As of 2006, modafinil had been tested in one small (N=34) double-blind randomized controlled trial for this use.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Adrafinil\n\nBULLET::::- Armodafinil\n\nBULLET::::- Caffeine\n\nBULLET::::- CRL-40,940\n\nBULLET::::- CRL-40,941\n\nBULLET::::- Fluorenol\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- RxList Patient Information for modafinil users\n\nBULLET::::- U.S. National Library of Medicine: Drug Information Portal – Modafinil\n", "Treatments in psychiatric emergency service settings are typically transitory in nature and only exist to provide dispositional solutions and/or to stabilize life-threatening conditions. Once stabilized, patients suffering chronic conditions may be transferred to a setting which can provide long term psychiatric rehabilitation. Prescribed treatments within the emergency service setting vary dependent upon the patient's condition. Different forms of psychiatric medication, psychotherapy, or electroconvulsive therapy may be used in the emergency setting. The introduction and efficacy of psychiatric medication as a treatment option in psychiatry has reduced the utilization of physical restraints in emergency settings, by reducing dangerous symptoms resulting from acute exacerbation of mental illness or substance intoxication.\n", "Federal Drug Administration (FDA) cleared, in a document dated on May 27, 2005, MARS therapy for the treatment of drug overdose and poisoning. The only requirement is that the drug or poison must be susceptible to be dialysed and removed by activated charcoal or anionic exchange resins.\n", "But even with the consent of representatives, researchers have been refused grants, ethics committee approval and publication.\n\nSocial issues arise from the enormous costs that are caused by people with disorders of consciousness. Especially chronic comatose and vegetative patients, when recovery is highly unlikely and treatment in the ICU is considered futile by clinicians.\n\nIn addition to the aforementioned problems, the question rises why medical resources were being used not for the broader public good but for patients who seemed to have only little to gain from them.\n", "Novelli G \"et al.\" published their three years experience on MARS analyzing the impact of the treatment in the cerebral level for 63 patients reporting an improvement in Glasgow Coma Score (GCS) for all observed in all patients. In the last 22 patients, cerebral perfusion pressure was monitored by Doppler (mean flow velocity in middle cerebral artery), establishing a clear relationship between a clinical improvement (especially neurological) and an improvement in arterial cerebral perfusion. This study confirms other results showing similar increments in cerebral perfusion in patients treated with MARS.\n", "BULLET::::- Preventative treatment of oxygen toxicity during hyperbaric oxygen therapy\n\nDosages should be determined on an individual basis, depending on the condition being treated, severity of symptoms, patient body weight, and any other conditions the person may have.\n\nSection::::Medical uses.:Seizures.\n", "In January 2014 Brescia Civilian Hospitals' medical staff officially declared that Stamina therapy was no longer practiced in the hospital, with the exception of those cases where treatment was ordered by the courts.\n\nSection::::Patents.\n", "There has not been much research into the use of alternative medicine to treat cerebral palsy. Acupuncture has been used as a treatment for cerebral palsy since at least the 1980s, but as of 2009, there have been no Cochrane reviews of the effectiveness of acupuncture in the management of cerebral palsy. In Traditional Chinese Medicine, cerebral palsy is often covered in the traditional diagnosis of \"5 delayed syndrome\". Dolphin-assisted therapy, Adeli suits, and hyperbaric oxygen therapy have been criticised as being alternative medicine and contrary to the practice of evidence-based medicine.\n", "From May 2014, a team of surgeons from UPMC Presbyterian Hospital in Pittsburgh plan to try the above method in gunshot victims (or those suffering from similar traumatic injuries). The trials will be done on ten such severely wounded patients and compared with ten others in similar situation but who had no access to the above method. They currently refer to the procedure as Emergency Preservation and Resuscitation for Cardiac Arrest from trauma.\n\nSection::::Scientific possibilities.:Chemically induced.\n", "More recently, on December 17, 2012, MARS therapy has been cleared by the FDA for the treatment of hepatic encephalopathy due to a decompensation of a chronic liver disease Clinical trials conducted with MARS treatment in HE patients having a decompensation of chronic liver disease demonstrated a transient effect from MARS treatments to significantly decrease their hepatic encephalopathy scores by at least 2 grades compared to standard medical therapy (SMT).\n\nThe MARS is not indicated as a bridge to liver transplant. Safety and efficacy has not been demonstrated in controlled, randomized clinical trials.\n", "Most people in comas start to recover in 2–3 weeks. 2018 guidelines on disorders of consciousness say it is no longer appropriate to use the term \"permanent vegetative state.\" Mental abilities can continue to improve in the six months after discharge, and in subsequent years. For long term problems, brains form new paths to replace damaged areas.\n\nSection::::Consequences.:Injuries.\n\nInjuries from CPR vary. 87% of patients are not injured by CPR. Overall, injuries are caused in 13% (2009-12 data) of patients, including broken sternum or ribs (9%), lung injuries (3%), and internal bleeding (3%).\n", "The MARS indication for intractable pruritus is therapeutically an option that has shown to be beneficial for patients in desperate cases, although at high cost. In several studies, it was confirmed that after MARS treatments, patients remain free from pruritus for a period of time ranging from 6 to 9 months. Nevertheless, some authors have concluded that besides the good results found in the literature, application of MARS therapy in refractory pruritus requires larger evidence.\n\nSection::::Effects of MARS Treatment on Drugs and Poisons clearance.\n", "During extremely strong breaks of consciousness, a patient may very rarely develop hyperthermia, accompanied by an increasing cerebral edema and impaired cardiac activity (known as \"febrile schizophrenia\" in Russia and \"lethal catatonia\" in the west). The immediate initiation of intensive therapy can now save most of these patients.\n\nThe use of antipsychotics in lethal catatonia is considered ineffective. and very dangerous. Instead, psychiatrists recommend the use of benzodiazepines, symptomatic therapy, as well as dantrolene, bromocriptine, ketamine and amantadine for treatments of this condition.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Often reserved for spastic cerebral palsy, intrathecally-administered baclofen is done through an intrathecal pump implanted just below the skin of the abdomen, (or behind the chest wall, depending on the surgeon implanting the device, and patient preferences), with a tube (called the 'catheter') connected directly to the base of the spine, where it bathes the spinal cord using a dose about one thousand times smaller than that required by orally-administered baclofen. Intrathecal baclofen also carries none of the side effects, such as sleepiness, that typically occur with oral baclofen. However, intrathecal baclofen pumps carry serious clinical risks, such as infection or a possibly fatal sudden malfunction, that oral baclofen does not.\n", "A further development has been the increase of \"ambulatory care\". Where patients were previously admitted to hospital, it may now be possible for them to attend a clinic or an assessment area a number of times while their progress is monitored. This is now a very common approach to suspected deep vein thrombosis, but the NHS Institute for Innovation and Improvement has identified a number of other conditions that can be managed in an ambulatory emergency care setting.\n", "Barbiturates reduce the metabolic rate of brain tissue, as well as the cerebral blood flow. With these reductions, the blood vessels in the brain narrow, decreasing the amount of space occupied by the brain, and hence the intracranial pressure. The hope is that, with the swelling relieved, the pressure decreases and some or all brain damage may be averted. Several studies have supported this theory by showing reduced mortality when treating refractory intracranial hypertension with a barbiturate coma.\n", "The MARS International Registry, with data from more than 500 patients (although sponsored by the manufacturer), shows that the adverse effects observed are similar to the control group. However, in these severely ill patients it is difficult to distinguish between complications of the disease itself and side effects attributable to the technique.\n\nSection::::Health Economics.\n\nOnly three Studies addressing cost-effectivenenss of MARS therapy have been found.\n", "For CPR outside hospitals, a Copenhagen study of 2,504 patients in 2007-2011 found 21% of survivors developed moderate mental problems but could still be independent, and 11% of survivors developed severe mental problems, so they needed daily help. Two patients out of 2,504 went into comas (0.1% of patients, or 2 out of 419 survivors, 0.5%), and the study did not track how long the comas lasted.\n", "Some nootropics are also now beginning to be used to treat medical conditions such as Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease. They are also commonly used to regain brain function lost during aging.\n", "In the case of heroin-assisted treatment however, users are provided with a form of pharmaceutical-grade heroin injection solution which doctors consider fit for injection. And as doctors refrain from drastic changes in dose and provide post-injection monitoring, overdoses are rare and can be quickly treated with opioid antagonists like naloxone. Thus, patients in heroin-assisted treatment are relieved from the major complex of problems that defines illicit heroin use. Synthetic heroin taken under the aforementioned conditions is not neurotoxic and has few long-term side effects beside constipation and dependency. And while it had been speculated that the availability of such treatment options might change public perception of the risks associated with drug use and might lead to an increase in illicit drug use, the incidence of heroin abuse in Switzerland has declined sharply since the introduction of heroin-assisted treatment. As a study published in The Lancet concluded:\n" ]	[ "If there is medicine to place someone in a coma, there should also be medicine to take someone out of a coma. " ]	[ "Medicine induced comas are caused by drugs that eventually wear off, however non medically induced comas cause brain damage, which is very slow to repair." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "If there is medicine to place someone in a coma, there should also be medicine to take someone out of a coma. ", "If there is medicine to place someone in a coma, there should also be medicine to take someone out of a coma. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Medicine induced comas are caused by drugs that eventually wear off, however non medically induced comas cause brain damage, which is very slow to repair.", "Medicine induced comas are caused by drugs that eventually wear off, however non medically induced comas cause brain damage, which is very slow to repair." ]
2018-18779	Why do vehicles jerk backwards when they come to a full stop?	Suspension is the part of the vehicle that acts like a spring so when you drive over bumps they're less noticeable Inertia is the force that pushes back on you when you push into it So when you come to a stop, when the force of the brakes stop you from going forward, the vehicle is pushed forward on the suspension along with it And then it comes back to its resting position	[ "Section::::In the geometric design of roads and tracks.\n", "This is why driver training courses teach that if a car begins to slide sideways, the driver should try to steer in the same direction as the slide with no brakes. It gives the wheels a chance to regain static contact by rolling, which gives the driver some control again. An overenthusiastic driver may \"squeal\" the driving wheels trying to get a rapid start but this impressive display of noise and smoke is less effective than maintaining static contact with the road. Many stunt-driving techniques are also done by deliberately breaking and/or regaining this rolling friction.\n", "This does not preclude the mechanism from being used in e.g. movie projectors to stepwise transport the film with high reliability (very long life) and just slight noise, since the load is very low - the system drives just that part of the film which is within the corridor of projection, so a very low mass (a few centimeters thin plastic film), with low friction, at a moderate speed (2.4 m/s, 8.6 km/h) is affected.\n", "BULLET::::- High-powered sports cars offer the feeling of being pressed into the cushioning, but this is the force of the acceleration. Jerk occurs only in the very first moments, when the torque of the engine starts at zero and grows with the rotational speed, causing a remarkable of the acceleration. A slight whiplash effect is noticeable in the neck, mostly masked by the jerk of gear switching.\n", "Since forces, changing at a suitable rate in time (that is, \"suitable\" jerk) are the cause of vibrations, and vibrations significantly impair the quality of transportation, there is good reason to simply \"minimize\" jerk in transportation vehicles.\n\nAs an everyday example, driving in a car can show effects of acceleration and jerk. More skilled and experienced drivers can accelerate smoothly, but beginners often provide a \"jerky\" ride.\n", "BULLET::::- Changing gears in an average car, especially with a foot-operated clutch, offers well-known examples: although the accelerating force is limited by engine power, an inexperienced driver lets you experience \"severe\" jerk, just because of intermittent force closure over the clutch.\n", "Consider for example a Geneva drive, a device for creating an intermittent rotation of the driven wheel (blue) from a continuous rotation of the driving wheel (red). On one cycle of the driving wheel there is a variation of the angular position formula_29 of the driven wheel by one quarter of a cycle, and a constant angular position on the remainder of the cycle.\n", "Likewise, the spinning wheels of a vehicle attempt to slide backward across the ground. If the ground is not too slippery, this results in a pair of friction forces: the 'action' by the wheel on the ground in backward direction, and the 'reaction' by the ground on the wheel in forward direction. This forward force propels the vehicle.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Gravitational forces.\n", "BULLET::::- In the beginning of an (emergency) braking a body under tonicity whips forward (with respect to the car) to a bigger extent than the achieved acceleration alone accomplishes during the rest of the braking process, when the muscle tension regains control of the body. A collision can do so to an even greater degree, not allowing for a tonicity controlled body at all. Quantitative testing on living humans (and, for some, on animals) runs afoul of ethical concerns, with the effect that cadavers or crash test dummies must be substituted, which, of course, do not show the physiological reactions to jerk caused by an active control loop described above.\n", "There are also other strategies to design a motion profile, e.g. minimizing the square of the jerk for a given transition time, to be selected according to the varying applications in machines, people movers, chain hoists, automotive industries, robot design, and many more. For a sinusoidal-shaped acceleration profile, with sinusoidal-shaped speed and bounded jerk also, see above.\n\nSection::::In motion control.:In manufacturing.\n\nJerk is also important to consider in manufacturing processes. Rapid changes in acceleration of a cutting tool can lead to premature tool wear and result in uneven cuts. This is why modern motion controllers include jerk limitation features.\n", "The most common type of tripped rollover occurs when a vehicle is sliding sideways, and the tires strike a curb, dig into soft ground, or a similar event occurs that results in a sudden increase in lateral force. The physics are similar to cornering rollovers. In a 2003 report, this was the most common mechanism, accounting for 71% of single-vehicle rollovers.\n", "BULLET::::- A highly reproducible experiment to demonstrate jerk is as follows: Brake a car starting at a \"modest\" speed in two different ways:\n\nBULLET::::1. apply a constant, modest force on the pedal till the car comes to a halt, only then release the pedal;\n\nBULLET::::2. apply the same, constant, modest force on the pedal, but just before the halt, reduce the force on the pedal, optimally releasing the pedal fully, exactly when the car stops.\n", "With the series of recall campaigns, Audi made several modifications; the first adjusted the distance between the brake and accelerator pedal on automatic-transmission models. Later repairs, of 250,000 cars dating back to 1978, added a device requiring the driver to press the brake pedal before shifting out of park. As a byproduct of sudden unintended acceleration, vehicles now include gear stick patterns and brake interlock mechanisms to prevent inadvertent gear selection.\n", "If we assume an idealized spring and idealized, kinetic frictional forces, proportional to the normal force and directed oppositely to the velocity, there is another example of discontinuous acceleration. Let a mass, connected to an ideal spring, oscillate on a flat, idealized surface with friction. Each time the velocity changes sign (at the maxima of displacement), the magnitude of the force on the mass, which is the vectorial sum of the spring force and the kinetic frictional force, changes by twice the magnitude of the frictional force, since the spring force is continuous and the frictional force \"reverses\" its direction when the velocity does. Therefore the acceleration jumps by this amount divided by the mass. That is, the mass experiences a discontinuous acceleration and the jerk contains a Dirac delta, each time the mass passes through the (decreasing) maximal displacements, until it comes to a halt, because the static friction force adapts to the residual spring force, establishing equilibrium with zero net force and zero velocity.\n", "To avoid passengers in transportation losing control over their body motion, thereby endangering their physical integrity, it is not only necessary to limit the maximum acceleration, that is the force, they can safely be exposed to, but also the maximum jerk, since they need time to adapt to even limited stress changes by adjusting their muscle tension, or else suffer conditions such as whiplash. Even where occupant safety is not an issue, excessive jerk may result in an uncomfortable ride on elevators, trams, and the like; so engineers expend considerable design effort to minimize \"jerky motion\".\n", "Section::::Applications.:Delineating natural cities.\n", "The rate of change of acceleration, the third derivative of displacement is known as jerk. The SI unit of jerk is formula_30. In the UK jerk is also known as jolt.\n\nSection::::Jounce.\n\nThe rate of change of jerk, the fourth derivative of displacement is known as jounce. The SI unit of jounce is formula_31 which can be pronounced as \"metres per quartic second\".\n\nSection::::Equations of kinematics.\n\nIn case of constant acceleration, the four physical quantities acceleration, velocity, time and displacement can be related by using the Equations of motion\n\nhere,br\n\nformula_36 is the initial velocitybr\n\nformula_37 is the final velocitybr\n", "The car example relies on the way the brakes operate on a rotating drum or on a disc. As long as the disc rotates the brake pads act to decelerate the vehicle via the kinetic frictional forces which create a constant braking torque on the disk. This decreases the rotation \"linearly\" to zero with \"constant\" angular acceleration, but when the rotation reaches exactly zero, this hitherto constant frictional force \"suddenly\" drops to zero, as well as the torque, and the associated acceleration of the car. This, of course, neglects all effects of tire sliding, dipping of suspension, real deflection of all ideally rigid mechanisms, etc. A sudden drop in acceleration indicates a Dirac delta in the \"physical\" jerk, which is smoothed down by the \"real\" environment, the cumulative effects of which are analogous to damping, to the \"physiologically\" perceived \"jerk\".\n", "V is a drive system, R is the elasticity in the system, and M is the load that is lying on the floor and is being pushed horizontally. When the drive system is started, the Spring R is loaded and its pushing force against load M increases until the static friction coefficient between load M and the floor is not able to hold the load anymore. The load starts sliding and the friction coefficient decreases from its static value to its dynamic value. At this moment the spring can give more power and accelerates M. During M's movement, the force of the spring decreases, until it is insufficient to overcome the dynamic friction. From this point, M decelerates to a stop. The drive system however continues, and the spring is loaded again etc.\n", "To further increase the rate of deceleration or where the brakes have failed, several mechanisms can be used to stop a vehicle. Cars and rolling stock usually have hand brakes that, while designed to secure an already parked vehicle, can provide limited braking should the primary brakes fail. A secondary procedure called forward-slip is sometimes used to slow airplanes by flying at an angle, causing more drag.\n\nSection::::Legislation.\n\nMotor vehicle and trailer categories are defined according to the following international classification:\n\nBULLET::::- Category M: passenger vehicles.\n\nBULLET::::- Category N: motor vehicles for the carriage of goods.\n", "Roller coasters are of course also subject to these design considerations, when rolling into a loop. The acceleration values range up to 4g in this environment and it would not be possible to ride loopings without track transitions, as well as one cannot smoothly drive along a figure eight consisting of circles. Any S-shaped curve must contain some jerk-reducing transition.\n\nSection::::In motion control.\n", "Because of the necessary finite thickness of the fork making up the slot for the driving pin this device generates a discontinuity in the angular acceleration formula_42, and therefore an unbounded angular jerk formula_43 in the driven wheel.\n", "Analyses conducted in the mid to late 1990s on Jeep Cherokee and Grand Cherokee vehicles concluded that hundreds of reported sudden accelerations in these vehicles were likely caused by an undesired current leakage pathway that resulted in actuation of the cruise control servo. When this occurred, typically at shift engage (moving the shift lever from park to reverse), the engine throttle would move to the wide open position. While the brakes were operational, operator response was often not quick enough to prevent an accident. Most of these events occurred in close confines in which rapid operator response would be necessary to prevent striking a person, fixed object or another vehicle. Many of these events occurred at car washes, and the Jeep Grand Cherokee continues to experience sudden acceleration at car washes across the country. A statistical analysis of SAIs in 1991 through 1995 Jeeps revealed that the root cause of these incidents could not be human error, as had been historically posited by NHTSA and auto manufacturers.\n", "In real world environments, because of deformation, granularity at least at the Planck scale, i.e. quanta-effects, and other reasons, discontinuities in acceleration do not occur. However, frequently used idealized settings (rigid bodies, smooth representations of paths, no friction, and the like) applied to an also idealized point mass moving along a piecewise smooth and as a whole continuous path, suffice for the phenomenon of a jump-discontinuity in acceleration at the points where the path is not smooth, and accordingly for an unbounded jerk in this simplified model of classical mechanics (see two examples below). Extrapolating from the idealized settings, the effect of jerk in real situations can be qualitatively described, explained and predicted.\n", "As a general rule, to reduce the amplitude of excited stress waves, causing vibrations, any motion of massive parts has to be shaped by limiting the jerk, i.e. making the acceleration continuous and keep its slopes as flat as possible. Since the described effects are almost not amenable to abstract models anymore, the various suggested algorithms for reducing vibrations include still higher derivatives such as the jounce or suggest continuous regimes not only for the acceleration, but also for the jerk. One concept is e.g. shaping the acceleration and deceleration sinusoidal with zero-acceleration in between (see the profile to the right), making the speed look sinusoidal with constant maximal speed, too. The jerk however will remain discontinuous at the points when the acceleration enters and leaves its zero-phases.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01914	In video games, cars have a max speed. In real life if a car exceeds this max speed, what happens or could happen, if anything, to the car’s engine, chassis, etc.?	Depends on the car. Most real life street cars, the max speed is either an electronic limit (basically the gas pedal stops working once you hit it) or it's the actual limit that the engines horse power ceases to accelerate the car, this is more common in higher end cars. The max speed is thus the speed that air resistance (and other losses) matches engine horse power. Now what happens if you exceed that? Say you strapped a rocket to your sports car? The most common thing, if in gear, the engine may redline, and likely the failure mode is valve float (the valve springs are not strong enough to close the valves, and they may hit the piston), some engines the connecting rods might break from the forces. Those are the common RPM limit failure modes, and would result in a rapid unplanned disassembly of the engine. There are a bunch of other common failure modes (like lack of oil to the pistons, resulting in it seizing, and head gasket blowing resulting from too much fuel/air in the cylinder, but those are more common if the engine is supped up to provide more power than the engine block was designed for). Now if you pop the car into neutral and let the rockets power you, typically the first component to fail will be the tires, exceed their speed rating and they'll blow apart. At very high speeds, and if you have special super high speed tires, the next failure is aerodynamic, a bad bump or something and the front lifts up and you start flying. This depends a lot on the aerodynamics of the car.	[ "BULLET::::- A car crash can result from hitting rocks, drains, barriers and bridge supports at any speed, or from passing through roadworks on the Mulholland Drive track at speeds greater than 50 mph. Travelling too far up a sloped wall on the aqueduct track at high speed results in the car flipping over.\n\nBULLET::::- The King drives a 1969 Shelby GT500, with a supercharger that for Ford cars is unavailable as an upgrade within the game.\n", "Heat levels on the speeder must be monitored, as although there are no set top speeds for the vehicles, they can explode if allowed to overheat. Heat builds up from acceleration and from collisions. To counteract this, the player may activate the onboard cooler, however, this will slow the vehicle down. Designated cooling strips along the track and the Ice power-up can cool the vehicle without a speed penalty, allowing the player to continue accelerating.\n", "If the player's car doesn't have an automatic transmission, they can either \"drop their transmission\" during the race if they keep accelerator pressed while shifting gears, or blow the engine if the tachometer dial is in the red zone for too much. In either case, the player would lose the bet they made and would be transported back to the garage, where they have to get new parts for their car.\n", "In the video game, this vehicle resembles a \"Sci-Fi\" buggy with a maximum speed of and an eight-gear automatic transmission. However, the top speed of 230 miles per hour can only be achieved by drivers in their physical peak (those who exercise between 60 minutes and 120 minutes per day). The fictional timeline of this vehicle would see its origins in the year 2022 with the invention of a wearable generator by the Nike Sport Research Lab. \n", "Each vehicle has their own exclusive chassis. A Vehicle's loading capacity is decided by the maximum power of the equipped Engine. All parts besides plate armour have a certain weight so if the vehicle becomes overloaded or the engine is damaged, it will be unable to move. Every vehicle can be equipped with a C-Unit (Computer-Unit), a fire control system that affects the hit rate of equipped weapons. (In Metal Max Returns, it has more functions.) The above two are necessary for vehicles so if one of these becomes broken or unequipped, the Vehicle will be unable to move by itself.\n", "The game takes place in a cyberpunk setting in the year 2031. Old Tokyo is a deserted ruin, but a haven for Rumbling, a new form of televised combat sport involving mecha known in the game as SVs. The SVs are capable of wielding different weapons and abilities such as temporary invisibility thanks to AI installed in each SV. Players assume the role of a recent, nameless arrival intent on climbing the ranks of this sport who meets many characters involved in the sport along the way; each character has different sub-plots and problems that contribute to the setting providing an interesting distraction. Although unknown to the rest of the cast, the First Ranker of the sport along with her AI companion seem to notice something about the main character.\n", "To celebrate Christmas, the game held a special event running between December 22-27, 2015. In this event, dubbed \"Lamborghini Accademia\", the player was loaned a Lamborghini Huracán LP 610-4, and was tasked with completing a series of races under snowy condition, assisted by Bob Natale and his Little Helpers crew. The event was rerun on December 2016.\n", "The player's car, and the opponents' cars, can be damaged to zero car condition points. When that happens, retirement is forced. Car damage is shown visibly in the rendered models, as well as on a condition gauge which indicates how much more damage the car can take.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "On July 26, 2018 - Need for Speed No Limits Daybreak/Nightfall Update - The streets of Blackridge are at stake in the relentless Daybreak/Nighthunt event. Bring down your rivals in this intense special event and be rewarded with two incredible hypercars: the high-performance 2017 Pagani Huayra BC and the best-in-class 2016 Lamborghini Aventador SV. In Daybreak 7-day event which started on July 27, 2018 players were rewarded with 2017 Pagani Huayra BC and in Nighthunt 7-day event which is going to be started on August 03, 2018 players will be rewarded with 2016 Lamborghini Aventador SV. There is an third event known as Proving Grounds 7-day event which will be initiated on August 10, 2018 in which players will be rewarded with 2016 Alfa Romeo Giulia Quadrifoglio.\n", "\"Freeway Fighter\" was the first \"Fighting Fantasy\" title after \"House of Hell\" to feature an additional game mechanic: both the player's character \"and\" their vehicle have attributes for combat, as there is a combination of both individual and vehicle-based combat. The player's vehicle must also be continually supplied with petrol, with the fuel gauge reaching zero resulting in failure and ending the game. The title also features only 380 references as opposed to the typical 400.\n\nSection::::Story.\n", "The ruleset is based on six-sided and ten-sided dice and uses inches for movement and range measurements. Energy points are renewed every game turn based on the structural integrity (i.e. energy) and allocated to actions such as: movement, attack, and defense. Structural integrity is tied to the energy point supply, and damaged vehicles find themselves able to do less and less. Critical damage is also possible, leading to an immediate (and messy) destruction.\n", "Most cars in the game can be customized with wheels, body-kits, widebody kits, paint jobs, and wraps, in addition to performance upgrade. Unique cars acquired from time-limited special events (as well as Ferrari cars), however, can never be visually customized.\n\nSection::::Special events.\n", "A new hazard that racers need to be aware of is avalanches, which can be triggered by a vehicle's explosion or blowing the horn. A wave of snow will rush down the hillside in the avalanche areas and sweep away any vehicle trapped under it, regardless of the vehicles' strength rating. Ice bridges present another new obstacle unique to \"Arctic Edge\". While small vehicles can get through ice bridges, heavier vehicles can cause it to break and disintegrate, making the shortcut unusable but also preventing other competitors from using it to gain an advantage.\n\nSection::::Games.:\"MotorStorm: Apocalypse\" (2011).\n", "As the time in the game passes, visibility changes as well. When it is night in the game the player can only see the oncoming cars' taillights. As the days progress, cars will become more difficult to avoid as well. Weather and time of day are factors in how to play. During the day the player may drive through an icy patch on the road which would limit control of the vehicle, or a patch of fog may reduce visibility.\n", "Road Rage (video game)\n\nRoad Rage is a 2017 vehicular combat racing video game developed by Team 6 Studios and published by Maximum Games, released worldwide on November 14, 2017 for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One. The title was inspired by the famed Road Rash series of video games, which feature similar gameplay mechanics.\n\nSection::::Gameplay.\n", "Video game glitches that go \"out of bounds\" are mostly performed by either moving through walls or corners or jumping to places in the map that do not have invisible walls. For example, in \"Tony Hawk's Underground 2\", in the L.A. level there is a glitch that can allow players to leave the provided play area and pass through the background. Another example of this is a glitch on the Nürburgring track in Gran Turismo 5 where if the player squeezes through any gap between the walls, the car can drive through the scenery and under the paved course and can finish a lap or the race faster than usual by driving directly under the finish line in the direction of the race's path. Another example in the Need for Speed series is . In Rockport there is a spot where you can glitch in Point Camden near Bay Bridge.\n", "New vehicles in the game include supercars, superbikes, hot hatches, muscle cars and choppers. \"Apocalypse\" is the first game in the \"MotorStorm\" series to focus on an urban setting as opposed to natural environments. The city that the Festival takes place in is enduring the throes of a massive natural disaster, causing the man-made structures in the city to visibly deteriorate. As players race through the tracks, the tracks can change in real-time; bridges can buckle and twist, buildings collapse and rifts open up beneath the vehicles as they drive. Players can also customize their vehicles with vinyls, vehicle parts, and modify the vehicle's handling, boosting and offensive abilities through perks. They are able to create and design their own game rules for online tournaments. A new gameplay element is the addition of \"air cooling\" one's boost. Similar to driving through cool water in \"Pacific Rift\" would speed up the rate of boost cooling, releasing the accelerator over a large jump will also cause the boost temperature gauge to drop quicker.\n", "All Speed Dreams physics engines feature real-time car collisions based on the SOLID library. Each car model defines a bounding box according to which the physics engine detects side and bottom collisions; these produce car damages, computed on a scale ranging from 0 to 10000; damages affect only cars' performances, without producing any graphical output. A car with more than 10000 damage points is excluded from the race.\n\nSection::::Gameplay.:Sound.\n", "On May 4, 2018, The Pictorium, a 980-seat IMAX theater that opened in 1979 as the \"world's largest cinema experience\", was closed and demolished to little fanfare, just under a year away from its 40th anniversary. From August 2 through August 23, 2018, Six Flags Great America released four episodes of a teaser series entitled \"Road to Glory\" on their social media accounts. In the episodes, a racer appropriately named \"Maxx\" races around the park as referees cheer him on. On August 30, 2018, Maxx Force was officially announced along with the rest of Six Flags' 2019 attraction announcements.\n", "An event, which began on June 19, 2016, gave the player a chance to own the Nissan Skyline GT-R R34 by restoring it through a series of races over the course of five days. The car will automatically be modified with a Speedhunters kit based on the Nismo Z-Tune when won, but can be made stock. The event was rerun on August 2017.\n", "On May 01, 2018 - Need for Speed No Limits 5OKI ft. Steve Aoki - Hit the streets in two new Lamborghinis as Steve Aoki rolls into Blackridge! Jam to the new Steve Aoki 5OKI EP in-game as you take racing the roads to a whole new level. First event started at May 04, 2018 which was known as Blackridge Spirit Festival 7-day tiered reward event in which player can own 2016 Lamborghini Centenario. Second event which started at May 18, 2018 which was known as Proving Grounds 7-day event in reward player can own 2014 Lamborghini Veneno.\n", "Xenon Racer\n\nXenon Racer is a racing video game developed by Italian developer 3DClouds and published by Soedesco for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, Nintendo Switch, and Xbox One. It was released on 26 March 2019.\n\nSection::::Gameplay.\n\n\"Xenon Racer\" is a racing game set in the year 2030. Players race along courses in seven different world locations using vehicles which, according to the game, have been known to be the last cars with wheels, as the cars have been replaced by flying vehicles.\n\nSection::::Development.\n", "On January 30, 2018 - Need for Speed No Limits Xtreme Racing Championship 2 - Following from its debut in Need for Speed Payback, the hulking 2018 BMW M5 has arrived in Blackridge in time for our next update.\n\nOn March 13, 2018 - Need for Speed No Limits #ZeroToHero Event (Zero to Hero) was updated in which player can win 2016 Mazda MX-5 (Speedhunters).\n", "Section::::In video games.\n", "BULLET::::- 20 December 1936: Schalke 4:1 Dortmund\n\nBULLET::::- 7 March 1937: Dortmund 0:7 Schalke\n\nBULLET::::- Season 1937–38\n\nBULLET::::- 30 January 1938: Dortmund 3:3 Schalke\n\nBULLET::::- 6 March 1938: Schalke 4:0 Dortmund\n\nBULLET::::- Season 1938–39\n\nBULLET::::- 18 September 1938: Schalke 6:0 Dortmund\n\nBULLET::::- 12 March 1939: Dortmund 3:7 Schalke\n\nBULLET::::- Season 1939–40\n\nBULLET::::- 10 December 1939: Schalke 9:0 Dortmund\n\nBULLET::::- 4 February 1940: Dortmund 0:7 Schalke\n\nBULLET::::- Season 1940–41\n\nBULLET::::- 20 October 1940: Schalke 10:0 Dortmund\n\nBULLET::::- 2 February 1941: Dortmund 0:2 Schalke\n\nBULLET::::- Season 1941–42\n\nBULLET::::- 30 November 1941: Dortmund 1:6 Schalke\n\nBULLET::::- 22 March 1942: Schalke 6:1 Dortmund\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-19956	Phones have data plans that basically allow us internet access where ever we go. Why don’t all devices (like laptops) have this capability?	It's a moderately expensive feature with relatively little demand: most people will just connect to a phone's hotspot or a local wireless network. That being said, there are a few laptops, mainly some business-oriented models, with integrated celluar modems. There are also a few USB celluar modems.	[ "Such devices became especially popular for use with laptop computers due to the added portability they bestow. Consequently, some computer manufacturers started to embed the mobile data function directly into the laptop so a dongle or MiFi wasn't needed. Instead, the SIM card could be inserted directly into the device itself to access the mobile data services. Such 3G-capable laptops became commonly known as \"netbooks\". Other types of data-aware devices followed in the netbook's footsteps. By the beginning of 2010, E-readers, such as the Amazon Kindle and the Nook from Barnes & Noble, had already become available with embedded wireless Internet, and Apple had announced plans for embedded wireless Internet on its iPad tablet devices later that year.\n", "Businesses often provide teleworkers access to corporate in-house applications, accessible by a remote device such as a tablet or laptop. These devices are gaining popularity in the workforce but come with different underlying operating systems and therefore a variety compatibility issues. However, with the use of desktop virtualization, specifically remote desktop virtualization, any legacy application or operating system can be accessed from a mobile device, as this device is primary used as a display unit while the processing is performed on the company's internal server.\n\nSection::::Current trends.:U.S. federal government.\n", "There are several alternatives to piggybacking. Internet access is available on many data plans for smartphones and PDAs. Although it may have browsing limitations compared with Internet access from traditional Internet service providers for desktop or laptop computers, the Internet can be accessed anywhere there is an adequately strong data signal. Some mobile phone service providers offer mobile Internet service to other devices via a data connection from the mobile phone. Also known as tethering, one can interface to their phone either wirelessly using Bluetooth or Wi-Fi or wired via cable allowing access to the Internet anywhere there is a cell network signal.\n", "On average, a mobile laptop generates approximately seven times more traffic than a smartphone (3 GB vs. 450 MB/month). This ratio was forecast to fall to 5 times (10 GB vs. 2 GB/month) by 2018. Traffic from mobile devices that tether (share the data access of one device with multiple devices) can be up to 20 times higher than that from non-tethering users and averages between 7 and 14 times higher.\n\nIt has also been shown that there are large differences in subscriber and traffic patterns between different provider networks, regional markets, device and user types.\n", "A mobile phone, such as a smartphone, that connects to data or voice services without going through the cellular base station is not on the mobile Internet. A laptop with a broadband modem and a cellular service provider subscription, that is traveling on a bus through the city is on mobile Internet.\n\nA mobile broadband modem \"tethers\" the smartphone to one or more computers or other end-user devices to provide access to the Internet via the protocols that cellular telephone service providers may offer.\n", "Although systems like UPnP and Bonjour provide many of the needed capabilities and are included in some devices, a single widely supported standard was lacking, and support within existing devices was far from universal. A guest using their smart phone would likely be able to find a hot spot and connect to the Internet with ease, perhaps using Protected Setup to do so. But the same device would find streaming music to a computer or printing a file might be difficult, or simply not supported between differing brands of hardware.\n", "NetShare, another rejected app, would have enabled users to tether their iPhone to a laptop or desktop, using its cellular network to load data for the computer. Many carriers of the iPhone later globally allowed tethering before Apple officially supported it with the upgrade to the iOS 3.0, with AT&T Mobility being a relative latecomer in the United States. In most cases, the carrier charges extra for tethering an iPhone.\n", "Called mobile broadband, wireless broadband technologies include services from mobile phone service providers such as Verizon Wireless, Sprint Corporation, and AT&T Mobility, and T-Mobile which allow a more mobile version of Internet access. Consumers can purchase a PC card, laptop card, or USB equipment to connect their PC or laptop to the Internet via cell phone towers. This type of connection would be stable in almost any area that could also receive a strong cell phone connection. These connections can cost more for portable convenience as well as having speed limitations in all but urban environments.\n", "The On-device portal is also not without complications, supporting wide handset lists is a lot harder to manage than mobile web content, and updating major components is not just a case of re-publishing, but of redistributing applications. At the same time, while it is generally easy to test web content on a handful of browsers, portals need to be tested on nearly every handset which will be expected to use the on-device portal.\n\nSection::::Mobile User Experience for On-Device Portals.\n", "Newer mobile browsers are full-featured Web browsers capable of HTML, CSS, ECMAScript, as well as mobile technologies such as WML, i-mode HTML, or cHTML.\n\nTo accommodate small screens, they use Post-WIMP interfaces.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nThe first mobile browser for a PDA was PocketWeb for the Apple Newton created at TecO in 1994, followed by the first commercial product NetHopper released in August 1996.\n\nThe so-called \"microbrowser\" technologies such as WAP, NTTDocomo's i-mode platform and Openwave's HDML platform fueled the first wave of interest in wireless data services.\n", "The Internet allows greater flexibility in working hours and location, especially with the spread of unmetered high-speed connections. The Internet can be accessed almost anywhere by numerous means, including through mobile Internet devices. Mobile phones, datacards, handheld game consoles and cellular routers allow users to connect to the Internet wirelessly. Within the limitations imposed by small screens and other limited facilities of such pocket-sized devices, the services of the Internet, including email and the web, may be available. Service providers may restrict the services offered and mobile data charges may be significantly higher than other access methods.\n", "Though Internet access \"on the go\" provides advantages to many, such as the ability to communicate by email with others and obtain information anywhere, the web, accessed from mobile devices, has many limits, which may vary, depending on the device. However, newer smartphones overcome some of these restrictions. Some problems which may be encountered include:\n\nBULLET::::- Small screen size – this makes it difficult or impossible to see text and graphics dependent on the standard size of a desktop computer screen.\n", "BULLET::::- Range and bandwidth: Mobile Internet access is generally slower than direct cable connections, using technologies such as GPRS and EDGE, and more recently HSDPA, HSUPA, 3G and 4G networks and also the proposed 5G network. These networks are usually available within range of commercial cell phone towers. High speed network wireless LANs are inexpensive but have very limited range.\n", "Private hotspots may be configured on a smartphone or tablet with a mobile network data plan to allow Internet access to other devices via Bluetooth pairing or if both the hotspot device and the device/s accessing it are connected to the same Wi-Fi network.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n\nThe public can use a laptop or other suitable portable device to access the wireless connection (usually Wi-Fi) provided. Of the estimated 150 million laptops, 14 million PDAs, and other emerging Wi-Fi devices sold per year for the last few years, most include the Wi-Fi feature.\n", "Although mobility is often regarded as synonymous with having wireless connectivity, these terms are different. Not all network access by mobile users, applications and devices need be via wireless networks and vice versa. Wireless access devices can be static and mobile users can move in between wired and wireless hotspots such as in Internet cafés. Some mobile devices can be used as mobile Internet devices to access the Internet while moving but they do not need to do this and many phone functions or applications are still operational even while disconnected to the Internet. What makes the mobile device unique compared to other technologies is the inherent flexibility in the hardware and also the software. Flexible applications include video chat, Web browsing, payment systems, NFC, audio recording etc. As mobile devices become ubiquitous there, will be a proliferation of services which include the use of the cloud. Although a common form of mobile device, a smartphone, has a display, another perhaps even more common form of smart computing device, the smart card, e.g., used as a bank card or travel card, does not have a display. This mobile device often has a CPU and memory but needs to connect, or be inserted into a reader in order to display its internal data or state.\n", "In 2007, some companies with existing cell sites offered high-speed wireless services where the laptop owner purchased a PC card or adapter based on EV-DO cellular data receivers or WiMAX rather than 802.11b/g. A few high-end laptops at that time featured built-in support for these newer protocols. WiMAX is designed to implement a metropolitan area network (MAN) while 802.11 is designed to implement a wireless local area network (LAN). However, the use of cellular networks is expensive for the consumers, as they are often on limited data plans.\n", "Long range antennas can be hooked up to laptop computers with an external antenna jack - these allow a user to pick up a signal from as far as several kilometers away. Since unsecured wireless signals can be found readily in most urban areas, laptop owners may find free or open connections almost anywhere. While 2.4 and 5.8 GHz antennas are commercially available and easily purchased from many online vendors, they are also relatively easy to make. Laptops and tablets that lack external antenna jacks can rely on external Wi-Fi modems with radios - many requiring only USB or Power over Ethernet (PoE) power connections which the laptop can itself easily provide from its own battery.\n", "Mobile phones are now heavily used for data communications. such as SMS messages, browsing mobile web sites, and even streaming audio and video files. The main limiting factors are the size of the screen, lack of a keyboard, processing power and connection speed. Most cellphones, which supports data communications, can be used as wireless modems (via cable or bluetooth), to connect computer to internet. Such access method is slow and expensive, but it can be available in very remote areas.\n", "The mobile web primarily utilizes lightweight pages like this one written in Extensible Hypertext Markup Language (XHTML) or Wireless Markup Language (WML) to deliver content to mobile devices. Many new mobile browsers are moving beyond these limits by supporting a wider range of Web formats, including variants of HTML commonly found on the desktop web.\n\nSection::::Top-level domain.\n", "As of March 2019, over one hundred devices are able to boot the operating system, including 41 with WiFi support. This includes many Android smartphones and tablets, wearable devices such as Google Glass, smartwatches including as the LG G Watch and some Linux-based Nokia smartphones, such as the N900 and N9. The PostmarketOS community continues to add devices, and the progression is documented on the wiki.\n\nSection::::State of development.:Device support.:Porting to a new device.\n", "As cloud computing becomes more popular, IT organizations are looking to the cloud to host more services than ever before. IT departments now can choose where to host their apps, data, desktops, etc. in the most appropriate location whether that’s on-premises in a datacenter or a private, public or hybrid cloud. Users need access to these resources from their mobile workspace.\n\nAny device\n", "Advances in the capabilities of small, mobile devices such as mobile phones (cell phones) and Personal Digital Assistants have led to an explosion in the number of types of device that can now access the Web. Some commentators refer to the Web that can be accessed from mobile devices as the Mobile Web.\n\nThe sheer number and variety of Web-enabled devices poses significant challenges for authors of Web sites who want to support access from mobile devices. The W3C Device Independence Working Group described many of the issues in its report Authoring Challenges for Device Independence.\n", "Since enterprises are turning to cellular networks to enable full-time connectivity for their users, major vendors of rugged computers offer both built-in wireless LAN and wireless WAN capabilities, and partner with cellular carriers, such as Verizon and AT&T, as part of their offerings. During the handoff between the various wireless LAN and wireless WAN connections, a mobile VPN allows the connection to persist, creating an always-connected infrastructure that is simpler for the user and eliminates application crashes and data loss.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of emerging technologies\n\nBULLET::::- Industrial PC\n\nBULLET::::- IP68\n\nBULLET::::- Military computers\n\nBULLET::::- MIL-STD-810\n\nBULLET::::- Mobile computer\n", "There are three trends in enterprise communications pushing users to access the cloud and allowing them to do it from any device they choose, a development traditional IT communications infrastructure was not designed to handle. The first trend is increasingly distributed company operations in branches and home offices, making wide area networks cumbersome, inefficient and costly. Second, more communications devices need access to enterprise networks – iPhones, printers and VoIP handsets, for example. Third, data centers housing enterprise IT assets and applications are consolidating and are often being located and managed remotely.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n", "With increasing number of mobile devices with 802.1X interfaces, security of such mobile devices becomes a concern. While open standards such as Kismet are targeted towards securing laptops, access points solutions should extend towards covering mobile devices also. Host based solutions for mobile handsets and PDA's with 802.1X interface.\n\nSecurity within mobile devices fall under three categories:\n\nWireless IPS solutions now offer wireless security for mobile devices.\n" ]	[ "laptops don't have the capability to connect to internet basically anywhere" ]	[ "Some laptops are made that have integrated cellular modems. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "laptops don't have the capability to connect to internet basically anywhere" ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Some laptops are made that have integrated cellular modems. " ]
2018-03312	How do we know that Pi decimals never repeat ?	URL_0 Unfortunately, the proof that pi is irrational isn't really possible in ELI5 since it is complicated by necessity. Suffice it to say, we do have proofs that it is indeed irrational, and an irrational number is one whose decimal expansion goes on forever and never repeats. If it did end or repeat, it could be represented as a ratio between two integers which is what being rational means.	[ "Randomness occurs in numbers such as log (2) and pi. The decimal digits of pi constitute an infinite sequence and \"never repeat in a cyclical fashion.\" Numbers like pi are also considered likely to be normal, which means their digits are random in a certain statistical sense.\n\nPi certainly seems to behave this way. In the first six billion decimal places of pi, each of the digits from 0 through 9 shows up about six hundred million times. Yet such results, conceivably accidental, do not prove normality even in base 10, much less normality in other number bases.\n", "It can be shown that irrational numbers, when expressed in a positional numeral system (e.g. as decimal numbers, or with any other natural basis), do not terminate, nor do they repeat, i.e., do not contain a subsequence of digits, the repetition of which makes up the tail of the representation. For example, the decimal representation of the number starts with 3.14159, but no finite number of digits can represent exactly, nor does it repeat. The proof that the decimal expansion of a rational number must terminate or repeat is distinct from the proof that a decimal expansion that terminates or repeats must be a rational number, and although elementary and not lengthy, both proofs take some work. Mathematicians do not generally take \"terminating or repeating\" to be the definition of the concept of rational number.\n", "The period of formula_36 is usually \"pT\", where \"T\" is the period of formula_39. There are three known primes for which this is not true, and for those the period of formula_36 is the same as the period of formula_39 because \"p\" divides 10−1. These three primes are 3, 487, and 56598313 .\n\nSimilarly, the period of formula_42 is usually \"p\"\"T\"\n\nIf \"p\" and \"q\" are primes other than 2 or 5, the decimal representation of the fraction formula_43 repeats. An example is 1/119:\n\nwhere LCM denotes the least common multiple.\n", "The digits of have no apparent pattern and have passed tests for statistical randomness, including tests for normality; a number of infinite length is called normal when all possible sequences of digits (of any given length) appear equally often. The conjecture that is normal has not been proven or disproven.\n", "As individual terms of this infinite series are added to the sum, the total gradually gets closer to , and – with a sufficient number of terms – can get as close to as desired. It converges quite slowly, though – after 500,000 terms, it produces only five correct decimal digits of .\n\nAn infinite series for (published by Nilakantha in the 15th century) that converges more rapidly than the Gregory–Leibniz series is:\n\nThe following table compares the convergence rates of these two series:\n", "BULLET::::- The real numbers whose continued fraction eventually repeats are precisely the quadratic irrationals. For example, the repeating continued fraction is the golden ratio, and the repeating continued fraction is the square root of 2. In contrast, the decimal representations of quadratic irrationals are apparently random. The square roots of all (positive) integers, that are not perfect squares, are quadratic irrationals, hence are unique periodic continued fractions.\n\nBULLET::::- The successive approximations generated in finding the continued fraction representation of a number, that is, by truncating the continued fraction representation, are in a certain sense (described below) the \"best possible\".\n", "Since the advent of computers, a large number of digits of have been available on which to perform statistical analysis. Yasumasa Kanada has performed detailed statistical analyses on the decimal digits of and found them consistent with normality; for example, the frequencies of the ten digits 0 to 9 were subjected to statistical significance tests, and no evidence of a pattern was found. Any random sequence of digits contains arbitrarily long subsequences that appear non-random, by the infinite monkey theorem. Thus, because the sequence of 's digits passes statistical tests for randomness, it contains some sequences of digits that may appear non-random, such as a sequence of six consecutive 9s that begins at the 762nd decimal place of the decimal representation of . This is also called the \"Feynman point\" in mathematical folklore, after Richard Feynman, although no connection to Feynman is known.\n", "Being an irrational number, cannot be expressed as a common fraction (equivalently, its decimal representation never ends and never settles into a permanently repeating pattern). Still, fractions such as 22/7 and other rational numbers are commonly used to approximate . The digits appear to be randomly distributed. In particular, the digit sequence of is conjectured to satisfy a specific kind of statistical randomness, but to date, no proof of this has been discovered. Also, is a transcendental number; that is, it is not the root of any polynomial having rational coefficients. This transcendence of implies that it is impossible to solve the ancient challenge of squaring the circle with a compass and straightedge.\n", "Calculating digits of the decimal expansion of constants has been a common enterprise for many centuries. For example, German mathematician Ludolph van Ceulen of the 16th century spent a major part of his life calculating the first 35 digits of pi. Using computers and supercomputers, some of the mathematical constants, including π, \"e\", and the square root of 2, have been computed to more than one hundred billion digits. Fast algorithms have been developed, some of which — as for Apéry's constant — are unexpectedly fast.\n", "where \"s\" = \"p\"/\"a\" = 1.0453567932525329623... is the only real root of \"s\" − 2\"s\" + 23\"s\" − 23 = 0. The ratio of successive terms in the Padovan sequence approaches \"p\", which has a value of approximately 1.324718. This constant bears the same relationship to the Padovan sequence and the Perrin sequence as the golden ratio does to the Fibonacci sequence.\n\nSection::::Combinatorial interpretations.\n", "Conversely the period of the repeating decimal of a fraction \"c\"/\"d\" will be (at most) the smallest number \"n\" such that 10 − 1 is divisible by \"d\".\n\nFor example, the fraction 2/7 has \"d\" = 7, and the smallest \"k\" that makes 10 − 1 divisible by 7 is \"k\" = 6, because 999999 = 7 × 142857. The period of the fraction 2/7 is therefore 6.\n\nSection::::Repeating decimals as infinite series.\n", " is an irrational number, meaning that it cannot be written as the ratio of two integers (fractions such as are commonly used to approximate , but no common fraction (ratio of whole numbers) can be its exact value). Because is irrational, it has an infinite number of digits in its decimal representation, and it does not settle into an infinitely repeating pattern of digits. There are several proofs that is irrational; they generally require calculus and rely on the \"reductio ad absurdum\" technique. The degree to which can be approximated by rational numbers (called the irrationality measure) is not precisely known; estimates have established that the irrationality measure is larger than the measure of or but smaller than the measure of Liouville numbers.\n", "BULLET::::- The first convergent of π, [3; 7] = 22/7 = 3.1428..., was known to Archimedes, and is correct to about 0.04%. The third convergent of π, [3; 7, 15, 1] = 355/113 = 3.1415929..., found by Zu Chongzhi, is correct to six decimal places; this high accuracy comes about because π has an unusually large next term in its continued fraction representation: = [3; 7, 15, 1, 292, ...].\n", "It has long been speculated how Madhava might have found these correction terms. They are the first three convergents of a finite continued fraction which, when combined with the original Madhava's series evaluated to \"n\" terms, yields about 3\"n\"/2 correct digits:\n\nThe absolute value of the correction term in next higher order is \n\nHe also gave a more rapidly converging series by transforming the original infinite series of π, obtaining the infinite series\n\nBy using the first 21 terms to compute an approximation of π, he obtains a value correct to 11 decimal places (3.14159265359).\n\nThe value of\n", "as it sometimes is, the ellipsis does not mean that the decimals repeat (they do not), but rather that there is no end to them. It has been proved that is irrational. Another well-known number, proven to be an irrational real number, is\n\nthe square root of 2, that is, the unique positive real number whose square is 2. Both these numbers have been approximated (by computer) to trillions of digits.\n", "To find the period of 1/\"p\", we can check whether the prime \"p\" divides some number 999...999 in which the number of digits divides \"p\" − 1. Since the period is never greater than \"p\" − 1, we can obtain this by calculating formula_17 For example, for 11 we get\n\nand then by inspection find the repetend 09 and period of 2.\n\nThose reciprocals of primes can be associated with several sequences of repeating decimals. For example, the multiples of 1/13 can be divided into two sets, with different repetends. The first set is:\n\nBULLET::::- 1/13 = 0.076923 formula_2\n\nBULLET::::- 10/13 = 0.769230 formula_2\n", "A repeating or recurring decimal is decimal representation of a number whose digits are periodic (repeating its values at regular intervals) and the infinitely repeated portion is not zero. It can be shown that a number is rational if and only if its decimal representation is repeating or terminating (i.e. all except finitely many digits are zero). For example, the decimal representation of becomes periodic just after the decimal point, repeating the single digit \"3\" forever, i.e. 0.333... A more complicated example is , whose decimal becomes periodic at the \"second\" digit following the decimal point and then repeats the sequence \"144\" forever, i.e. 5.8144144144... At present, there is no single universally accepted notation or phrasing for repeating decimals.\n", "In 1989, the Chudnovsky brothers computed to over 1 billion decimal places on the supercomputer IBM 3090 using the following variation of Ramanujan's infinite series of :\n\nIn 1999, Yasumasa Kanada and his team at the University of Tokyo computed to over 200 billion decimal places on the supercomputer HITACHI SR8000/MPP (128 nodes) using another variation of Ramanujan's infinite series of . In October 2005, they claimed to have calculated it to 1.24 trillion places.\n", "The above series is a geometric series with the first term as 1/10 and the common factor 1/10. Because the absolute value of the common factor is less than 1, we can say that the geometric series converges and find the exact value in the form of a fraction by using the following formula where \"a\" is the first term of the series and \"r\" is the common factor.\n\nSection::::Multiplication and cyclic permutation.\n", "Fourier and Budan left open the problem of reducing the size of the intervals in which roots are searched in a way that, eventually, the difference between the numbers of sign variations is at most one, allowing certifying that the final intervals contains at most one root each. This problem was solved in 1834 by Alexandre Joseph Hidulph Vincent. Roughly speaking, Vincent's theorem consists of using continued fractions for replacing Budan's linear transformations of the variable by Möbius transformations.\n", "After five terms, the sum of the Gregory–Leibniz series is within 0.2 of the correct value of , whereas the sum of Nilakantha's series is within 0.002 of the correct value of . Nilakantha's series converges faster and is more useful for computing digits of . Series that converge even faster include Machin's series and Chudnovsky's series, the latter producing 14 correct decimal digits per term.\n\nSection::::History.:Irrationality and transcendence.\n", "Section::::Fundamentals.:Continued fractions.\n\nLike all irrational numbers, cannot be represented as a common fraction (also known as a simple or vulgar fraction), by the very definition of \"irrational number\" (that is, \"not a rational number\"). But every irrational number, including , can be represented by an infinite series of nested fractions, called a continued fraction:\n", "Any number that cannot be expressed as a ratio of two integers is said to be irrational. Their decimal representation neither terminates nor infinitely repeats but extends forever without regular repetition. Examples of such irrational numbers are the square root of 2 and .\n\nSection::::Background.\n\nSection::::Background.:Notation.\n\nThere are several notational conventions for representing repeating decimals. None of them are accepted universally.\n\nBULLET::::- In the United States, India, France, Germany, and Switzerland, the convention is to draw a horizontal line (a vinculum) above the repetend. (See examples in table below, column Vinculum.)\n", "The least primes \"p\" for which \"k\"/\"p\" has \"n\" different cycles () are:\n\nSection::::Fractions with prime denominators.\n\nA fraction in lowest terms with a prime denominator other than 2 or 5 (i.e. coprime to 10) always produces a repeating decimal. The length of the repetend (period of the repeating decimal segment) of 1/\"p\" is equal to the order of 10 modulo \"p\". If 10 is a primitive root modulo \"p\", the repetend length is equal to \"p\" − 1; if not, the repetend length is a factor of \"p\" − 1. This result can be deduced from Fermat's little theorem, which states that \n", "where here the dots signify not only that the decimal expression does not end after a finite number of digits, but also that the digits never enter a repeating pattern, because the number is irrational.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02995	What makes the sport Skeleton difficult and what makes certain riders faster than others?	It's all about the lines you take to maximize speed, and avoid contact with the wall. It looks easy, like most racing does, but the easier it is, the harder it is to stand out among the others, leaving the very best in front.	[ "Section::::International competitions.\n\nThe IBSF organizes four competitive circuits for international skeleton competition, in three tiers: two Continental Cups, the Intercontinental Cup (ICC), and the top level World Cup. Each athlete receives points based on their results and the level of the competition, which are used to determine both their rankings on each circuit they race in and also an overall ranking across all four circuits. \n", "Section::::International competitions.:Continental Championships.\n\nOne World Cup race a year may be designated as a continental championship for the continent on which it is held. This championship is a \"paper\" race, based only on the times in the regularly scheduled World Cup event, with the athletes representing a different continent excluded. Currently, this is done only in Europe; the 2017/18 European Championship races were the World Cup races held on 15 December 2017 at Innsbruck, Austria. The current European champions are Martins Dukurs of Latvia and Elena Nikitina of Russia.\n\nSection::::International competitions.:Senior World Championships.\n", "Unlike other sliding sports of bobsleigh and luge, the race always involves single riders. Like bobsleigh, but unlike luge, the race begins with a running start from the opening gate at the top of the course. The skeleton sled is thinner and heavier than the luge sled, and skeleton affords the rider more control, making it safer than luge. Skeleton is the slowest of the three sliding sports, as skeleton's face-down, head-first riding position is less aerodynamic than luge's face-up, feet-first ride. \n", "Previously, skeleton appeared in the Olympic program in St. Moritz, Switzerland, in 1928 and again in 1948. It was added permanently to the Olympic program for the 2002 Winter Olympics, at which stage a women's race was added.\n\nDuring elite racing the rider experiences accelerations up to 5g and reaches speeds over .\n\nSection::::History.\n", "In addition to the four race series, the IBSF also organizes World Championships, which are held at the end of every sliding season except when the Olympic Winter Games are held, and a Junior World Championships (open to athletes aged 23 and under) which are held annually without regard to the Olympics. One race each World Cup season is also designated the European Championship. The IBSF cooperates with the International Olympic Committee to supervise the skeleton races at the Olympic Winter Games, and the IBSF ranking system is used to determine the National Olympic Committees' athlete quota allocations.\n", "The skeleton originated in St. Moritz, Switzerland, as a spinoff of the popular British sport called Cresta sledding. Although skeleton \"sliders\" use equipment similar to that of Cresta \"riders\", the two sports are different: while skeleton is run on the same track used by bobsleds and luge, Cresta is run on Cresta-specific sledding tracks only. Skeleton sleds are steered using torque provided by the head and shoulders. The Cresta toboggan does not have a steering or braking mechanism, though Cresta riders use rakes on their boots in addition to shifting body weight to help steer and brake. \n", "Popularity in the sport has grown since the 2002 Winter Olympics and now includes participation by some countries that do not have or cannot have a track because of climate, terrain or monetary limitations. Athletes from such countries as Australia, New Zealand, Bermuda, South Africa, Argentina, Iraq, Israel, Mexico, Brazil, and even the Virgin Islands have become involved with the sport in recent years. The IBSF operates an support program for \"emerging nations\", which provides travel, coaching, and equipment funding assistance to countries which have neither a track nor three qualified pilots in three IBSF disciplines; in 2017, 20 national federations qualified for financial support in men's skeleton, and 11 qualified in women's skeleton.\n", "The sport is similar to, but not to be confused with, luge, another form of sled racing where the competitor rides on the back and feet-first. Often using the same courses, the racing physics are not identical.\n\nGreat Britain is the only nation to have won a medal every time skeleton has featured at the Olympic Games, and has won at least one medal in each of the five contests of Women's skeleton since its introduction with five different athletes. \n\nSection::::Medals.\n\n\"Updated after 2018 Winter Olympics.\n\nSection::::Nations.\n", "BULLET::::- 2001: Annika Becker\n\nBULLET::::- 2002: Annika Becker\n\nBULLET::::- 2003: Yvonne Buschbaum\n\nBULLET::::- 2004: Carolin Hingst\n\nBULLET::::- 2005: Silke Spiegelburg\n\nBULLET::::- 2006: Silke Spiegelburg\n\nBULLET::::- 2007: Silke Spiegelburg\n\nBULLET::::- 2008: Carolin Hingst\n\nBULLET::::- 2009: Silke Spiegelburg\n\nBULLET::::- 2010: Silke Spiegelburg\n\nBULLET::::- 2011: Martina Strutz\n\nBULLET::::- 2012: Silke Spiegelburg\n\nBULLET::::- 2013: Martina Strutz\n\nBULLET::::- 2014: Lisa Ryzih\n\nBULLET::::- 2015: Lisa Ryzih\n\nSection::::Greece.\n\nBULLET::::- 1995: Georgia Tsiligiri\n\nBULLET::::- 1996: Paraskevi Koumbou\n\nBULLET::::- 1997: Georgia Tsiligiri\n\nBULLET::::- 1998: Georgia Tsiligiri\n\nBULLET::::- 1999: Thaleia Iakovidou\n\nBULLET::::- 2000: Georgia Tsiligiri\n\nBULLET::::- 2001: Georgia Tsiligiri\n\nBULLET::::- 2002: Georgia Tsiligiri\n\nBULLET::::- 2003: Anna Fitidou\n", "As the bottom level of international skeleton competition, race results in the Continental Cups are assigned the lowest point values for ranking, with a first-place finish being with 75 points (compared to 120 points for the Intercontinental Cup and 225 points for the World Cup). Only the top 30 athletes receive ranking points; 30th place is worth 1 point. However, two races are generally held in each discipline on a single race weekend, allowing consistently competitive athletes to earn a higher ranking than if they went to a single World Cup race and finished poorly.\n\nSection::::International competitions.:Intercontinental Cup.\n", "The Intercontinental Cup (ICC) was introduced as an intermediate level between the Continental Cups and the World Cup; a first-place finish is worth 120 points in the IBSF ranking (vs. 225 points for a World Cup win). Teams with three athletes in the top 60 (top 45 for women) of the IBSF overall ranking for the previous year may send three athletes (not necessarily the same ones) to each ICC race; teams with two athletes in the top 75 (top 60 for women) may send two; and all other teams may send one athlete each. In order to be eligible to race in the ICC, athletes must have received a ranking in at least five IBSF competitions at three different tracks in the previous two years.\n", "Section::::Qualification timeline.\n", "On all of the regular competitive circuits, the race days are preceded by three or four days of pre-race training to allow athletes to learn the intricacies of each track, and each athlete must complete a certain number of successful training runs to be eligible to compete. Normally, if the same competition also includes bobsleigh races, the skeleton races will be held first, as the heavier bobsleighs do more damage to the track.\n\nSection::::International competitions.:Continental Cups.\n", "Skeleton at the 2018 Winter Olympics – Qualification\n\nThe following is the criteria, rules, and standings for qualification for the Skeleton competitions at the 2018 Winter Olympics.\n\nSection::::Qualification rules.\n", "Section::::International competitions.:World Cup.\n", "Skeleton is a winter sport featured in the Winter Olympics where the competitor rides head-first and prone (lying face down) on a flat sled. It is normally run on an ice track that allows the sled to gain speed by gravity. It was first contested at the 1928 Winter Olympics in St. Moritz and again in 1948 Winter Olympics, after which it was discontinued as an Olympic sport. Skeleton was reintroduced at the 2002 Winter Olympics, with both men's and women's events, and has been held in each Winter Olympic competition since. Skeleton is so-named as the first metal sleds introduced in 1892 were said to resemble a human skeleton.\n", "The 2016/17 World Championships were held at Königssee bobsleigh, luge, and skeleton track in Bavaria, 24–26 February 2017. Martins Dukurs of Latvia won the men's competition and Jacqueline Lölling of Germany won the women's competition. Because 2018 was an Olympic year, no World Championships were held for the 2017/18 season.\n\nSection::::International competitions.:Junior World Championships.\n", "BULLET::::- 2016: Getter Marie Lemberg\n\nBULLET::::- 2017: Lembi Vaher\n\nBULLET::::- 2018: Reena Koll\n\nSection::::Finland.\n\nBULLET::::- 1994: Birgitta Ivanoff\n\nBULLET::::- 1995: Teija Saari\n\nBULLET::::- 1996: Tiina Vilenius\n\nBULLET::::- 1997: Teija Saari\n\nBULLET::::- 1998: Teija Saari\n\nBULLET::::- 1999: Teija Saari\n\nBULLET::::- 2000: Annu Mäkelä\n\nBULLET::::- 2001: Teija Saari\n\nBULLET::::- 2002: Teija Saari\n\nBULLET::::- 2003: Hanna Palamaa\n\nBULLET::::- 2004: Saara Laaksonen\n\nBULLET::::- 2005: Aino-Maija Karvinen\n\nBULLET::::- 2006: Minna Nikkanen\n\nBULLET::::- 2007: Minna Nikkanen\n\nBULLET::::- 2008: Vanessa Vandy\n\nBULLET::::- 2009: Minna Nikkanen\n\nBULLET::::- 2010: Minna Nikkanen\n\nBULLET::::- 2011: Minna Nikkanen\n\nBULLET::::- 2012: Minna Nikkanen\n\nBULLET::::- 2013: Minna Nikkanen\n\nBULLET::::- 2014: Minna Nikkanen\n\nSection::::France.\n", "The 2017–18 Junior World Championships were held on 25 January 2018 in St. Moritz, Switzerland, and the winners were Anna Fernstädt of Germany and Nikita Tregubov of Russia.\n\nSection::::International competitions.:Olympic Winter Games.\n", "2018–19 Skeleton World Cup\n\nThe 2018–19 Skeleton World Cup was a multi-race series over a season for skeleton. The season started on 3 December 2018 in Sigulda, Latvia, and finished on 23 February 2019 in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. The World Cup was organised by the International Bobsleigh and Skeleton Federation, who also run World Cups and Championships in bobsleigh. The title sponsor of the World Cup was again BMW.\n\nSection::::Calendar.\n\nAnticipated schedule as announced by the IBSF (dates shown include practice and competition days for both skeleton and bobsleigh):\n", "BULLET::::- 2003: Anita Tørring\n\nBULLET::::- 2004: Anita Tørring\n\nBULLET::::- 2005: Anita Tørring\n\nBULLET::::- 2006: Iben Høgh-Pedersen\n\nBULLET::::- 2007: Anita Tørring\n\nSection::::Estonia.\n\nBULLET::::- 1997: Margit Randver\n\nBULLET::::- 1998: Merle Kivimets\n\nBULLET::::- 1999: Margit Randver\n\nBULLET::::- 2000: Merle Kivimets\n\nBULLET::::- 2001: Margit Randver\n\nBULLET::::- 2002: Margit Randver\n\nBULLET::::- 2003: Kristin Karu\n\nBULLET::::- 2004: Lea Saapar\n\nBULLET::::- 2005: Kristina Ulitina\n\nBULLET::::- 2006: Kristina Ulitina\n\nBULLET::::- 2007: Lembi Vaher\n\nBULLET::::- 2008: Lembi Vaher\n\nBULLET::::- 2009: Lembi Vaher\n\nBULLET::::- 2010: Lembi Vaher\n\nBULLET::::- 2011: Reena Koll\n\nBULLET::::- 2012: Lembi Vaher\n\nBULLET::::- 2013: Lembi Vaher\n\nBULLET::::- 2014: Reena Koll\n\nBULLET::::- 2015: Reena Koll\n", "Some athletes opt to attach ballasts if the combined weight of athlete and sled falls below the maximum combined weight. These ballasts may only be added to the sled, not the rider.\n\nBULLET::::- Dimensions:\n\nBULLET::::- Length:\n\nBULLET::::- Height:\n\nBULLET::::- Distance between runners:\n\nSection::::Sport.:Equipment.\n\nBULLET::::- alpine racing helmet with chin guard, or a skeleton-specific helmet\n\nBULLET::::- skin-tight racing speedsuit made of uncoated textile material\n\nBULLET::::- spiked shoes, similar to track spikes\n\nBULLET::::- goggles or face shields\n\nBULLET::::- optional elbow and shoulder pads under their suits\n\nBULLET::::- sled\n\nSection::::Olympic medal table.\n\nSection::::Olympic medal table.:Men.\n", "BULLET::::- 2002: Carmen Klausbruckner\n\nBULLET::::- 2003: Carmen Klausbruckner\n\nBULLET::::- 2004: Brigitta Pöll\n\nBULLET::::- 2005: Doris Auer\n\nBULLET::::- 2006: Carmen Klausbruckner\n\nSection::::Belgium.\n\nBULLET::::- 1995: Sophie Zubiolo\n\nBULLET::::- 1996: Sophie Zubiolo\n\nBULLET::::- 1997: Sophie Zubiolo\n\nBULLET::::- 1998: Sophie Zubiolo\n\nBULLET::::- 1999: Irena Dufour\n\nBULLET::::- 2000: Liesbet Van Roie\n\nBULLET::::- 2001: Caroline Goetghebuer\n\nBULLET::::- 2002: Irena Dufour\n\nBULLET::::- 2003: Karen Pollefeyt\n\nBULLET::::- 2004: Irena Dufour\n\nBULLET::::- 2005: Irena Dufour\n\nBULLET::::- 2006: Karen Pollefeyt\n\nBULLET::::- 2007: Karen Pollefeyt\n\nBULLET::::- 2008: Fanny Smets\n\nBULLET::::- 2009: Fanny Smets\n\nBULLET::::- 2010: Fanny Smets\n\nBULLET::::- 2011: Fanny Smets\n\nBULLET::::- 2012: Chloë Henry\n\nBULLET::::- 2013: Fanny Smets\n", "National federations are assigned athlete quota spots in the higher levels according to the overall rankings of their individual athletes during the previous season, but are free to send any qualified athlete to a competition in which they have available quota. However, individual athletes' discipline rankings are used to determine the start order for the first heat of each race: the track becomes less smooth after each successive run, so earlier starts are more desirable. In the second (fourth at the World Championships and Winter Olympics) heat, the competitors start in reverse order of their ranking after the previous heat. (At four-heat races, start order in heats two and three is in ascending order of combined time from the prior heats.)\n", "The skeleton event in the Winter Olympics uses the same two-day, four-heat format as the World Championships, but team quotas are significantly smaller. The International Olympic Committee assigns athlete quotas to national Olympic committees in cooperation with the IBSF and using the IBSF ranking system to determine qualification; 20 women and 30 men competed at the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang, Korea, with one automatic quota going to the host country (Korea) for each gender. For men, three countries received three quota spots each, six were allocated two spots, and five got one; for women, two countries received three spots, four got two, and two got one. The ranking of the countries for quota assignment was based on their third-highest, second-highest, or highest ranked athlete in total IBSF ranking over the qualification period. In addition, three quota spots are reserved for countries whose continent did not receive any representation based on this assignment procedure.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-09517	Why does salt preserve foods like meat? Can't bacteria live in salt?	Salt sucks the water out of the cells via osmosis. Compare with drying or smoking meat. Bacteria growth is highly restricted in dehydrated environment.	[ "Salting is used because most bacteria, fungi and other potentially pathogenic organisms cannot survive in a highly salty environment, due to the hypertonic nature of salt. Any living cell in such an environment will become dehydrated through osmosis and die or become temporarily inactivated.\n\nIt was discovered in the 19th century that salt mixed with nitrates (saltpeter) would color meats red, rather than grey, and consumers at that time then strongly preferred the red-colored meat. The food hence preserved stays healthy and fresh for days avoiding bacterial decay. \n\nSection::::Religious customs.\n", "Various food preservation and packaging techniques are used to extend a food's shelf life. Decreasing the amount of available water in a product, increasing its acidity, or irradiating or otherwise sterilizing the food and then sealing it in an air-tight container are all ways of depriving bacteria of suitable conditions in which to thrive. All of these approaches can all extend a food's shelf life, often without unacceptably changing its taste or texture.\n", "BULLET::::- Salt is the most frequently used additive in meat processing. It imparts flavor but also inhibits microbial growth, extends the product's shelf life and helps emulsifying finely processed products, such as sausages. Ready-to-eat meat products normally contain about 1.5 to 2.5 percent salt. Salt water or similar substances may also be injected into poultry meat to improve the taste and increase the weight, in a process called plumping.\n", "The sugar added to meat for the purpose of curing it comes in many forms, including honey, corn syrup solids, and maple syrup. However, with the exception of bacon, it does not contribute much to the flavor, but it does alleviate the harsh flavor of the salt. Sugar also contributes to the growth of beneficial bacteria such as \"Lactobacillus\" by feeding them.\n\nSection::::Chemical actions.:Nitrates and nitrites.\n", "Salt inhibits the growth of microorganisms by drawing water out of microbial cells through osmosis. Concentrations of salt up to 20% are required to kill most species of unwanted bacteria. Smoking, often used in the process of curing meat, adds chemicals to the surface of meat that reduce the concentration of salt required.\n", "Semi-dried meats like salamis and country style hams are processed first with salt, smoke, sugar, acid, or other \"cures\" then hung in cool dry storage for extended periods, sometimes exceeding a year. Some of the materials added during the curing of meats serve to reduce the risks of food poisoning from anaerobic bacteria such as species of Clostridium that release botulinum toxin that can cause botulism. Typical ingredients of curing agents that inhibit anaerobic bacteria include nitrates. Such salts are dangerously poisonous in their own right and must be added in carefully controlled quantities and according to proper techniques. Their proper use has however saved many lives and much food spoilage.\n", "Of special interest are lactic acid bacteria (LAB). Lactic acid bacteria have antagonistic properties that make them particularly useful as biopreservatives. When LABs compete for nutrients, their metabolites often include active antimicrobials such as lactic acid, acetic acid, hydrogen peroxide, and peptide bacteriocins. Some LABs produce the antimicrobial nisin, which is a particularly effective preservative.\n\nThese days, LAB bacteriocins are used as an integral part of hurdle technology. Using them in combination with other preservative techniques can effectively control spoilage bacteria and other pathogens, and can inhibit the activities of a wide spectrum of organisms, including inherently resistant Gram-negative bacteria.\n", "Section::::Necessity of curing.\n\nUntreated meat decomposes rapidly if it is not preserved, at a speed that depends on several factors, including ambient humidity, temperature, and the presence of pathogens. Most meats cannot be kept at room temperature in excess of a few days without spoiling.\n\nIf kept in excess of this time, meat begins to change color and exude a foul odor, indicating the decomposition of the food. Ingestion of such spoiled meat can cause serious food poisonings, like botulism. Salt-curing processes have been developed since antiquity in order to ensure food safety without relying on artificial anti-bacterial agents.\n", "In the food industry, processes have been developed to create low-sodium versions of existing products. The meat industry especially have developed and fine-tuned methods to decrease salt contents in processed meats without sacrificing consumer acceptance. Research demonstrates that salt substitutes such as potassium chloride, and synergistic compounds such as phosphates, can be used to decrease salt content in meat products.\n", "Salt (sodium chloride) is the primary ingredient used in meat curing. Removal of water and addition of salt to meat creates a solute-rich environment where osmotic pressure draws water out of microorganisms, slowing down their growth. Doing this requires a concentration of salt of nearly 20%. In addition, salt causes the soluble proteins to come to the surface of the meat that was used to make the sausages. These proteins coagulate when the sausage is heated, helping to hold the sausage together.\n\nSection::::Chemical actions.:Sugar.\n", "Various food preservation and packaging techniques are used to extend a food's shelf life. Decreasing the amount of available water in a product, increasing its acidity, or irradiating or otherwise sterilizing the food and then sealing it in an air-tight container are all ways of depriving bacteria of suitable conditions in which to thrive. All of these approaches can all extend a food's shelf life without unacceptably changing its taste or texture.\n", "Section::::Safety and regulatory aspects.:Microorganisms with documented history of safe use in food.\n\nThe first (non-exhaustive) inventory of microorganisms with a documented history of use in food was for the first time compiled in 2001 by the International Dairy Federation (IDF) and the European Food and Feed Cultures Association (EFFCA).\n\nIn 2012, this inventory was updated. It now covers a wide range of food applications (including dairy, fish, meat, beverages and vinegar) and features a reviewed taxonomy of microorganisms.\n\nSection::::Safety and regulatory aspects.:US.\n", "Salting (food)\n\nSalting is the preservation of food with dry edible salt. It is related to pickling in general and more specifically to brining (preparing food with brine, that is, salty water) and is one form of curing. It is one of the oldest methods of preserving food, and two historically significant salt-cured foods are salted fish (usually dried and salted cod or salted herring) and salt-cured meat (such as bacon). Vegetables such as runner beans and cabbage are also often preserved in this manner.\n", "Section::::Modern industrial techniques.\n\nTechniques of food preservation were developed in research laboratories for commercial applications.\n\nSection::::Modern industrial techniques.:Pasteurization.\n", "BULLET::::- Acidifiers, most often lactic or citric acid, can impart a tangy or tart flavor note, extend shelf-life, tenderize fresh meat or help with protein denaturation and moisture release in dried meat. They substitute for the process of natural fermentation that acidifies some meat products such as hard salami or prosciutto.\n\nSection::::Production.:Misidentification.\n\nWith the rise of complex supply chains, including cold chains, in developed economies, the distance between the farmer or fisherman and customer has grown, increasing the possibility for intentional and unintentional misidentification of meat at various points in the supply chain.\n", "The fermentation of salty foods (such as soy sauce, Chinese fermented beans, salted cod, salted anchovies, sauerkraut, etc.) often involves halobacteria, as either essential ingredients or accidental contaminants. One example is \"Chromohalobacter beijerinckii\", found in salted beans preserved in brine and in salted herring. \"Tetragenococcus halophilus\" is found in salted anchovies and soy sauce.\n", "Some methods of food preservation are known to create carcinogens. In 2015, the International Agency for Research on Cancer of the World Health Organization classified processed meat, i.e. meat that has undergone salting, curing, fermenting, and smoking, as \"carcinogenic to humans\".\n\nMaintaining or creating nutritional value, texture and flavor is an important aspect of food preservation.\n\nSection::::Traditional techniques.\n\nNew techniques of food preservation became available to the home chef from the dawn of agriculture until the Industrial Revolution.\n\nSection::::Traditional techniques.:Curing.\n", "During the Age of Discovery, salt meat was one of the main foods for sailors on long voyages, for instance in the merchant marine or the navy. In the 18th century, salted Irish beef, transported in barrels, was considered finest.\n", "Biopreservation is the use of natural or controlled microbiota or antimicrobials as a way of preserving food and extending its shelf life. Beneficial bacteria or the fermentation products produced by these bacteria are used in biopreservation to control spoilage and render pathogens inactive in food. It is a benign ecological approach which is gaining increasing attention.\n", "Preservatives have been used since prehistoric times. Smoked meat for example has phenols and other chemicals that delay spoilage. The preservation of foods has evolved greatly over the centuries and has been instrumental in increasing food security. The use of preservatives other than traditional oils, salts, paints, etc. in food began in the late 19th century, but was not widespread until the 20th century.\n", "On the same shelf as the can of salt is another can full of white grains. The doctors ask the chef what this is; he responds that this is saltpetre, used to preserve meats. Its main component is sodium nitrate. The chef also mentions that once, he accidentally refilled the salt can with saltpetre, before realising his mistake and replacing the saltpetre with the real salt.\n", "The bacteria produce lactic acid as a waste product, which lowers the pH and coagulates the proteins, reducing the meat's water-holding capacity. The bacteria-produced acid makes the meat an inhospitable environment for pathogenic bacteria and imparts a tangy flavor that distinguishes salami from machine-dried pork. Salami flavor relies as much on how these bacteria are cultivated as it does on the quality and variety of the other ingredients. Originally, makers introduced wine into the mix, favouring the growth of other beneficial bacteria. Now, they use starter cultures.\n", "Salt is essential for life in general, and saltiness is one of the basic human tastes. Salt is one of the oldest and most ubiquitous food seasonings, and salting is an important method of food preservation.\n", "Examples of hurdles in a food system are high temperature during processing, low temperature during storage, increasing the acidity, lowering the water activity or redox potential, and the presence of preservatives or biopreservatives. According to the type of pathogens and how risky they are, the intensity of the hurdles can be adjusted individually to meet consumer preferences in an economical way, without sacrificing the safety of the product.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Blast chilling\n\nBULLET::::- Food engineering\n\nBULLET::::- Food microbiology\n\nBULLET::::- Food packaging\n\nBULLET::::- Food rheology\n\nBULLET::::- Food science\n\nBULLET::::- Food spoilage\n\nBULLET::::- Freeze-drying\n\nBULLET::::- Fresherized\n\nBULLET::::- List of dried foods\n", "Some foods, such as many cheeses, wines, and beers, use specific micro-organisms that combat spoilage from other less-benign organisms. These micro-organisms keep pathogens in check by creating an environment toxic for themselves and other micro-organisms by producing acid or alcohol. Methods of fermentation include, but are not limited to, starter micro-organisms, salt, hops, controlled (usually cool) temperatures and controlled (usually low) levels of oxygen. These methods are used to create the specific controlled conditions that will support the desirable organisms that produce food fit for human consumption.\n" ]	[ "If bacteria can live in salt, then salt should not be able to preserve foods such as meats." ]	[ "Salt removes water from cells, and the growth of bacteria is restricted in a dehydrated environment." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "If bacteria can live in salt, then salt should not be able to preserve foods such as meats.", "If bacteria can live in salt, then salt should not be able to preserve foods such as meats." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Salt removes water from cells, and the growth of bacteria is restricted in a dehydrated environment.", "Salt removes water from cells, and the growth of bacteria is restricted in a dehydrated environment." ]
2018-21830	Why is the switch that controls the rear defroster almost universally on a timer rather than an on/off switch?	Heating tempered glass too hot while surrounded by such cold might cause an imbalance in the forces of compression and tension within the glass. Tempered glass is strong until it isn't, and then it just explodes practically.	[ "Sony timer\n\nThe or Sony kill switch, is an urban legend prevalently present in Japan, but which over time became known in the Western civilization. According to this legend, many electronic devices produced by Sony were equipped with a timer that, once reached a deliberately preset deadline, causing a planned obsolescence which forced buyers to buy new ones.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Types.:Mercury-displacement timers.\n", "The relevant OSHA regulation is 29 CFR Part 1926.601(b)(4) which requires \"a reverse signal alarm audible above surrounding noise level\", but only when the motor vehicle has \"an obstructed view to the rear\". The determination of the noise level is left to the employer. However, because equipment is moved from place to place, the loudest alarms are often selected.\n\nNHTSA requires electric vehicle warning sounds to alert pedestrians in electric and hybrid vehicles manufactured after 2018, for both forward and reverse travel at low speeds.\n", "In newer houses, a digital meter automatically switches to record both ranges. The wiring in the house is rarely different for Economy 7. Many consumers will however choose to set devices such as storage heaters and water heaters to turn on during the hours of Economy 7 to save money. Few houses now have devices controlled solely by the timer on the electricity meter itself.\n", "For example, a central heating timer may supply heat for a specified period during the morning and evening every weekday, and all day on weekends. A timer for an unattended slow cooker may switch on automatically at a time and for a period suitable to have food ready at mealtime. Likewise, a coffee maker may turn itself on early in the morning in time for awakening residents to have fresh coffee already brewed for them. \n", "It was from the automotive industry in the USA that the PLC was born. Before the PLC, control, sequencing, and safety interlock logic for manufacturing automobiles was mainly composed of relays, cam timers, drum sequencers, and dedicated closed-loop controllers. Since these could number in the hundreds or even thousands, the process for updating such facilities for the yearly model change-over was very time consuming and expensive, as electricians needed to individually rewire the relays to change their operational characteristics.\n", "This design, while simple to manufacture and relatively easy to program, sacrifices comfort on weekends since the program is repeated each of the seven days of the week with no variation. To overcome this deficit, a push-button is sometimes provided to allow the user to explicitly switch (once) the current period from hot period to a cold period or vice versa; the usual use of this button is to over-ride a \"set back\" that takes place during the workday when the home is normally unoccupied.\n\nThe clock mechanism is electrical. Two methods have commonly been used to operate it:\n", "Timers may do other processing or have sensors; for example, a timer may switch on lights only during hours of darkness, using a seasonal algorithm or light sensor. Combining the two allows a light to come on at sundown and go off at midnight, for example.\n", "Many other functions have been added to the turn signal stalk. Frequently headlamps and high beam controls are integrated into the turn signal control, the former requiring either a twisting motion or the use of a small switch, and the latter requiring movement of the control fore and aft.\n\nMany modern cars have a \"one-touch\" feature on their stalks. This is primarily based on (motorway) lane-switching, where a single flick of the indicator will cause it to flash between two and six times.\n", "In the 1940s, American inventor Jacob Rabinow developed a light-sensitive automatic mechanism for the wedge-type day/night mirror. Several Chrysler Corporation cars offered these automatic mirrors as optional equipment as early as 1959, but few customers ordered them for their cars and the item was soon withdrawn from the option lists. Several automakers began offering rear-view mirrors with automatic dimming again in 1983, and it was in the late 1980s that they began to catch on in popularity.\n", "Section::::Application.\n\nMost dashpot timers are used in sequential, automatic control applications where the completion of one operation causes the start of another process. Common applications include automatic milling machines, periodic lubrication, animated shop-window displays, staged start-up of pumps, automatic presses, and industrial washing machines. Dashpot timers are also used in motors, blowers, lighting, and control valves as well as in banking, retail, irrigation, and general industrial applications. Common problems with dashpot timers were variations in temperature, the entrance of dirt and other matter into the dashpot system, and general wear and tear of the system.\n", "Many modern cars have a time delay feature, first introduced by Cadillac in the 1980s, called \"retained accessory power\". This allows operation of the windows and some other accessories for ten minutes or so after the engine is stopped. Another feature is the \"express-down\" window, which allows the window to be fully lowered with one tap on the switch, as opposed to holding the switch down until the window retracts. Many luxury vehicles during the 1990s expanded on this feature, to include \"express-up\" on the driver's window, and recently, some manufacturers have added the feature on all window switches for all passengers' convenience. This is done by activating the switch until a \"click\" response is felt.\n", "In the late 1980s units began appearing in the marketplace that were digital in nature rendering the analog, unijunction, R/C timer design obsolete.\n", "Every kind of dashpot timer has seen use in different technologies, from toasters to automated factory operations. The dashpot timer, or mechanical timer, has changed the way we use technology. With its many industrial and commercial applications, to household appliances and gardening, the dashpot timer is a very important invention that has certainly led to many changes in how thing were done during the 20th century and how things are done in modern times. In modern times, even though we have electrical and digital timers, mechanical timers are still used, especially in cases where the environment is not friendly for electronics. Another advantage of mechanical timers is that they are easy to repair. The amount of precise automated systems used in modern factories shows the usefulness and precision of these timers, while their presence in many households shows their availability and inexpensiveness. Even with the small problems that are present in these systems they have proven themselves reliable enough to be used in many fields for nearly a century.\n", "The MIL appeared in the early 80s along with computerized engine controls. Even the earliest systems, such as General Motors' CCC (Computer Command Control) system had self diagnosis functionality. When the computer detected a fault, it illuminated the MIL. Up until OBDII, on most cars the MIL could output codes, when two pins on the ALDL are jumped, the light would flash the codes, for instance (blink) (pause) (blink) (blink) for code 12. Some manufacturers, such as Honda, retained this feature even after OBDII.\n", "Some American-built 1973–1976 Chrysler Corporation vehicles had a similar odometer-triggered reminder: \"Check EGR\", which was reset after service at a Chrysler dealership.\n", "RCD 1\n\nBULLET::::- Upstairs Lights,\n\nBULLET::::- Downstairs Ring Final,\n\nBULLET::::- Garage Sockets,\n\nBULLET::::- Cooker\n\nRCD 2\n\nBULLET::::- Downstairs Lights,\n\nBULLET::::- Upstairs Sockets,\n\nBULLET::::- Shower,\n\nBULLET::::- Heating,\n\nBy alternating the circuits like this, power will always be present on one floor if either RCD trips out.\n\nAnother way to protect circuits under the 17th Edition IET Wiring Regulations is by fitting Residual Current Circuit Breaker With Overload (RCBOs) to every circuit although this can be a very costly method.\n", "Most flyback chronographs are constructed with the usual crown at 3 o'clock and 2 pushpieces at 2 and 4 o'clock. Usually the flyback function is controlled by the button at 4 o'clock whereas the one at 2 o'clock is used to stop the chronograph.\n\nMany chronographs are equipped with the flyback function, especially watches meant for pilots. It is much easier from the point of view of time saving, to instantly restart the chronograph with one push of the button, instead of three.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Dashpot timer\n\nThe first automatic timer, the dashpot timer has been used in many different machines and has many variations. Pneumatic, hydraulic-action, and mercury displacement timers. Being used in a variety of things such as printing presses, motors, and even irrigation systems, the dashpot timer has seen many applications. Even in modern times with electrical and digital timers, these old mechanical timers are still in use due to their simplicity and ability to function in tough environments.\n\nSection::::Types.\n", "The front turn signals were relocated from underneath the bumper on US versions to their new location next to the headlights, as in the Japanese, Australian and European versions. Side repeater lenses were also added to the US version, but they were used as side marker lights and not turn signal repeaters.\n", "In embedded systems and control systems, watchdog timers are often used to activate fail-safe circuitry. When activated, the fail-safe circuitry forces all control outputs to safe states (e.g., turns off motors, heaters, and high-voltages) to prevent injuries and equipment damage while the fault persists. In a two-stage watchdog, the first timer is often used to activate fail-safe outputs and start the second timer stage; the second stage will reset the computer if the fault cannot be corrected before the timer elapses.\n", "In the United States, parking lights were installed next to the headlights for MY 1990–1991 within dedicated corner lenses, then incorporated with the front turn signals from 1992 to current models. Parking lights for European, Australian and Japanese versions were incorporated inside the headlights, on the outer edge. All international versions of the Legacy utilize a dedicated parking light switch installed on top of the steering column until model year 2010.\n", "Screwed-on covers are also widely used on children's electric and electronic toys, so that a parent can control certain settings such as the maximum speed of a toy electric ride-on car or the maximum volume of a video game.\n\nSection::::Locked switches.\n\nWhere lighting circuits must not be accidentally switched off (for example, school corridors), a vandal-resistant switch may be installed. These require a simple key or tool to operate, and thus discourage casual or accidental operation of the switch.\n", "Time switches can be used for many purposes, including saving electric energy by consuming it only when required, switching equipment on, off, or both at times required by some process, and home security (for example switching lights in a pattern that gives the impression that premises are attended) to reduce the likelihood of burglary or prowling.\n", "The earliest synchronous clocks from the 1930s were not self-starting, and had to be started by spinning a starter knob on the back. An interesting flaw in these \"spin-start\" clocks was that the motor could be started in either direction, so if the starter knob was spun in the wrong direction the clock would run backwards, the hands turning counterclockwise. Later manual-start clocks had ratchets or other linkages which prevented backwards starting. The invention of the shaded-pole motor allowed self-starting clocks to be made, but since the clock would restart after a power interruption, the loss of time would not be indicated.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-02149	Why do slippers squeak when they get wet?	Water in between the surface of the floor and the rubber bottom of the slipper creates a situation with incomplete grip and it’s basically the sound of the rubber sliding around.	[ "Sometimes geta are worn in rain to keep the feet dry, due to their extra height and impermeability compared to other footwear such as \"zōri\". They make a similar noise to flip-flops slapping against the heel whilst walking. When worn on water or dirt, flip-flops may flip dirt or water up the back of the legs. This does not tend to happen with the heavier Japanese geta.\n", "BULLET::::- Malta: \"ir-rabbaba\" or \"iz-zafzafa\". The instrument consists of a tin, wood or clay body with a stretched membrane of cat, goat or rabbit skin which has a stick tied in the centre. The stick is rubbed with a wet sponge.\n", "BULLET::::- Denmark: \"rummelpot\" or \"rumlepot\". In some parts of Denmark, e.g. Southern Jutland, traditionally groups of masked children go from house to house on New Year’s Eve singing songs to the rhythmic accompaniment of the rummelpot and receiving æbleskiver, sweets or fruits in return.\n\nBULLET::::- France: \"tambour à friction\", and local names (\"brau\", \"bramadèra\", \"brama-topin\", \"petador\", \"pinhaton\" in the South). \"Tambour à cordes\" is used for a string drum, not be confused with the \"tambourin à cordes\", a stringed instrument.\n", "Male double drummers also emit a distress call—a sharp fragmented irregular noise—upon being seized by a predator.\n\nSection::::Life cycle.\n", "Section::::Acoustics.\n\nThe sound of a \"suikinkutsu\" has its own name in Japanese, called \"suikin'on\". The sounds can furthermore be divided in two sub groups, \"ryūsuion\" and \"suitekion\". The \"ryūsuion\" is the sound of the first few water drops at the beginning of washing hands. The \"suitekion\" describes both the sound of a lot of water falling at the same time during washing hands and the slower drops at the end of the washing.\n", "Section::::Discography.:Singles.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Are You Behind the Shining Star?\" (2014)\n\nSection::::Appearances.\n\nThe band has performed at many national festivals including Coachella, Bonnaroo, Stagecoach, Hardly Strictly Bluegrass, Bumbershoot, and Pickathon. In 2011, they performed at several large folk music festivals such as Telluride Bluegrass Festival, Newport Folk Festival, Floydfest, Pilgrimage, and ROMP roots and branches. They played at San Francisco's Outside Lands Music and Arts Festival, the Sasquatch Festival, Bonnaroo, Lollapalooza, Austin City Limits Music Festival, Firefly Festival, Rock the Garden, All Good Music Festival and the Newport Folk Festival in 2012.\n", "\"Synodontis contractus\" is one of those catfish which can produce squeaking sounds by brushing the base of their pectoral spine against their pectoral girdle.\n\nSection::::In aquarium.\n\nSuitable water conditions are near-neutral pH (6.2 - 7.6) and temperature in range of . Bugeye squeakers can be fed with live and frozen food, including some vegetable matter.\n", "A large number of lamellophones originate in Africa, where they are known under different names including \"mbira\", \"sanza\", \"kisanji\", \"likembe\", \"kalimba\", and \"kongoma\". They play a role in southeast African Music. They were reported as early as the 16th century, but there is no doubt they have a much longer history. The Caribbean marímbula is also of this family. The marímbula can be seen as a bass variant of the mbira and is sometimes used in hiphop music.\n", "BULLET::::- 112.2 Scraped Idiophones – The player causes a scraping movement directly or indirectly; a non-sonorous object moves along the notched surface of a sonorous object, to be alternately lifted off the teeth and flicked against them; or an elastic sonorous object moves along the surface of a notched non-sonorous object to cause a series of impacts (this group must not be confused with that of friction idiophone\n\nBULLET::::- 12 Plucked idiophones such as the jew's harp\n\nBULLET::::- 13 Friction idiophones such as Rub rods\n\nBULLET::::- 2 Membranophones\n", "Another example of the stick-slip phenomenon occurs when musical notes are played with a glass harp by rubbing a wet finger along the rim of a crystal wine glass. One animal that produces sound using stick-slip friction is the spiny lobster which rubs its antennae over smooth surfaces on its head. Another, more common example which produces sound using stick-slip friction is the grasshopper.\n\nStick-slip can also be observed on the atomic scale using a friction force microscope. In such case, the phenomenon can be interpreted using the Tomlinson model.\n", "Footed drum\n\nA footed drum is a class of membranophone, of Native American and Polynesian origin, characterized by an open area at the bottom of the instrument, held by feet. This open area adds resonance to the drum's sound. It is made out of hollow wood and/or bone.\n", "Section::::Conservation.\n", "Section::::Hydrology.\n", "I'm bringin' home a baby bumblebee—Ow! He stung me!\n\nI'm bringin' home my baby dinosaur\n\nWon't my mommy kick him out the door?\n\nI'm bringin' home my baby dinosaur-Ouch! He kicked me!\n\nI'm bringin' home my baby hippopotamus\n\nWon't my mommy fuss, and fuss, and fuss?\n\nI'm bringin' home my baby hippopotamus-Ouch! He swallowed me!\n\nSection::::Uses in film.\n", "The band's song \"When The Night Feels My Song\" also appears in a 2006 T-Mobile advert in the UK as well as Teton Gravity Research's ski film, Anomaly. It was also featured in a Zellers commercial in Canada, promoting the summer season of 2006. The song \"12:59 Lullaby\" was featured in an episode of Grey's Anatomy, \"Where the Boys Are\" (Season 3, seventh episode).\n\nSection::::History.:2007–2009.\n", "Section::::History.:\"Wyoming\" (2013).\n", "The waterphone is a modern invention influenced by a Tibetan drum—encountered by the inventor in the early sixties—containing a small amount of water affecting its timbre. It is also related to the nail violin, which also used a resonator and rods (nails), and is struck or bowed.\n\nSection::::Use.\n", "Water Liars\n\nWater Liars is an American rock band from Water Valley, Mississippi, that includes songwriter/vocalist/guitarist Justin Peter Kinkel-Schuster, drummer/producer/multi-instrumentalist Andrew Bryant, and bassist GR Robinson. Their name is derived from the first story in Barry Hannah's collection \"Airships\".\n\nSection::::History.\n", "A Sound Like Someone Trying Not to Make a Sound\n\nA Sound Like Someone Trying Not to Make a Sound (Doubleday Books for Young Readers, September 28, 2004, ) is a children's picture book written by John Irving and illustrated by Tatjana Hauptmann. The title was originally used for a children's book written by a fictional character (Ted Cole) in Irving's 1998 novel \"A Widow for One Year\".\n\nSection::::Plot summary.\n", "\"Mope-Itty Mope\" would probably have fallen into complete obscurity except for fact that Mexican border blaster XEAK decided to play it in 1961 -- in fact, they played it over and over for \"72 straight hours\", stunting its new format: \"Extra News\", the first 24-hour all-news station in Southern California (and one of the first in the United States).\n\nIn 1962, The Dovells remade \"Mope-itty Mope\" as \"The Mope-itty Mope Stomp\".\n", "Each time the reed passes through the frame, it interrupts air flow. These rapid, periodic interruptions of the air flow create the audible vibrations perceived by the listener.\n", "Section::::Traditional music.:Musical instruments.:Idiophones.\n\nBamboo shakers () filled with seeds are integral to the performance of on the eastern coast of the island, although modern items such as empty insecticide tins or sweetened condensed milk cans filled with pebbles increasingly take the place of traditional bamboo. Shakers of this sort are used throughout Madagascar, commonly in conjunction with and other ceremonies. During the slave trade era, another idiophone—a scraper called the —was popularized in Madagascar after being imported there from Brazil where it is known as a \"caracacha\".\n", "Not all shoes with a soft fluffy interior are slippers. Any shoe with a rubber sole and laces is a normal outdoor shoe. In India, rubber chappals (flip-flops) are worn as indoor shoes.\n\nSection::::In popular culture.\n", "The call is a soft, high whistle or piping, transcribed as \"meh\" by the Whitney South Seas Expedition.\n", "BULLET::::- Aquavina: a dulcimer employing a metal resonator filled partially with water. The resonator is agitated while playing, producing an eerie oscillation of the harmonics.\n\nSection::::Variants.:Hybrid instruments.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bowed Dulcimers\": Dulcimers that can be played with bows; in the modern era heavily modified variants have been made exclusively for bowed playing.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02153	Why does cold soda have stronger carbonation than warm soda?	Gases are more soluble in cold liquids than in hot liquids. The hotter a liquid is, the closer to boiling it is.......the closer to boiling, the more it wants to release gases.	[ "where \"k\" is a temperature-dependent constant, \"p\" is the partial pressure and \"c\" is the concentration of the dissolved gas in the liquid. Thus the partial pressure of CO in the gas has increased until Henry's law is obeyed. The concentration of carbon dioxide in the liquid has decreased and the drink has lost some of its fizz.\n", "The amount of a gas that can be dissolved in water is described by Henry's Law. In the carbonization process water is chilled, optimally to just above freezing, to maximize the amount of carbon dioxide that can be dissolved in it. Higher gas pressure and lower temperature cause more gas to dissolve in the liquid. When the temperature is raised or the pressure is reduced (as happens when a container of carbonated water is opened), carbon dioxide effervesces, thereby escaping from the solution.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The solubility of water in the liquid carbon dioxide is measures in a range of temperature from -29°C to 22.6 °C. In these temperature, there is a range of the liquid carbon dioxide at the pressure from 15 to 50 atmosphere. \n\nSection::::Properties.:The Viscosity of Liquid Carbon Dioxide.\n\nSection::::Properties.:The Viscosity of Liquid Carbon Dioxide.:Introduction.\n", "Section::::Properties.:The Viscosity of Liquid Carbon Dioxide.:Conclusion.\n", "Section::::Warm Soda (2012–2017).\n", "Section::::Properties.:The Viscosity of Liquid Carbon Dioxide.:Method.\n", "BULLET::::2. Chemical activation: Prior to carbonization, the raw material is impregnated with certain chemicals. The chemical is typically an acid, strong base, or a salt (phosphoric acid, potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, calcium chloride, and zinc chloride 25%). Then, the raw material is carbonized at lower temperatures (450–900 °C). It is believed that the carbonization / activation step proceeds simultaneously with the chemical activation. Chemical activation is preferred over physical activation owing to the lower temperatures and shorter time needed for activating material.\n\nSection::::Classification.\n", "Beers can be carbonated with CO or with other gases such as Nitrogen. These gases are not as soluble in water as carbon dioxide, so they form bubbles that do not grow through Ostwald ripening. This means that the beer has smaller bubbles and a more creamy and stable head. This less soluble gas gives the beer a different and flatter texture. In beer terms, the mouthfeel is smooth, not bubbly like beers with normal carbonation. Nitro beer could taste less acidic than normal beer.\n\nSection::::Storage and degradation.\n", "BULLET::::- For a CO pressure typical for bottled carbonated drinks (formula_4 ~ 2.5 atm), we get a relatively acidic medium (pH = 3.7) with a high concentration of dissolved CO. These features contribute to the sour and sparkling taste of these drinks.\n\nBULLET::::- Between 2.5 and 10 atm, the pH crosses the p\"K\" value (3.60), giving [HCO] [HCO] at high pressures.\n\nBULLET::::- A plot of the equilibrium concentrations of these different forms of dissolved inorganic carbon (and which species is dominant) as a function of the pH of the solution is known as a Bjerrum plot.\n\nBULLET::::- Remark\n", "The equilibrium of CO also moves to the right towards gaseous CO when the water temperature rises. When water that contains dissolved calcium carbonate is warmed, CO leaves the water as gas, causing the equilibrium of bicarbonate and carbonate to shift to the right, increasing the concentration of dissolved carbonate. As the concentration of carbonate increases, calcium carbonate precipitates as the salt: Ca + CO ⇋ CaCO.\n\nAs new cold water with dissolved calcium carbonate/bicarbonate is added and heated, the process continues: CO gas is again removed, carbonate concentration increases, and more calcium carbonate precipitates.\n\nSection::::Related materials.\n\nSection::::Related materials.:Soap scum.\n", "The carbonator's operating temperature of 650-700 C is chosen as a compromise between higher equilibrium (maximum) capture at lower temperatures due to the exothermic nature of the carbonation step, and a decreased reaction rate. Similarly, the temperature of 850 C in the calcinator strikes a balance between increased rate of calcination at higher temperatures and reduced rate of degradation of CaO sorbent at lower temperatures.\n\nSection::::Process description.\n", "In the 1980s, Wint-O-Green Life Savers were used to create soda geysers. The tubes of candies were threaded onto a pipe cleaner and dropped into the soft drink to create a geyser. At the end of the 1990s, the manufacturer of Wintergreen Lifesavers increased the size of the mints and they no longer fit in the mouth of soda bottles. Science teachers found that Mint Mentos candies had the same effect when dropped into a bottle of any carbonated soft drink.\n", "Section::::Differences between FCBs and other drinks.\n", "The thermal mass used in Michael Reynolds' design is a combination of a liquid (i.e. water or beer) together with concrete mass. Concrete's temperature can be decreased quickly, while a liquid's (such as beer or water) with its higher thermal mass requires more energy to change temperature, holding the cold for longer. In Michael Reynolds' design, the liquid is added in the form of beer cans, placed in the back of the refrigerator.\n", "Carbonated water is a diluent mixed with alcoholic beverages where it is used to top-off the drink and provide a degree of 'fizz'.\n\nAdding soda water to 'short' drinks such as spirits dilutes them and makes them 'long' not to be confused with long drinks such as those made with vermouth. Carbonated water also works well in short drinks made with whiskey, brandy, and Campari. Soda water may be used to dilute drinks based on cordials such as orange squash. Soda water is a necessary ingredient in many cocktails, such as whiskey and soda or Campari and soda.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Cooking.\n", "BULLET::::4. The formation free energy of carbon dioxide () is almost independent of temperature, while that of carbon monoxide (CO) has negative slope and crosses the line near 700 °C. According to the Boudouard reaction, carbon monoxide is the dominant oxide of carbon at higher temperatures (above about 700 °C), and the higher the temperature (above 700 °C) the more effective a reductant (reducing agent) carbon is.\n", "Home soda siphons can carbonate flat water through the use of a small disposable steel bulb containing carbon dioxide. The bulb is pressed into the valve assembly at the top of the siphon, the gas injected, then the bulb withdrawn. Soda water made in this way tends not to be as carbonated as commercial soda water because water from the refrigerator is not chilled as much as possible, and the pressure of carbon dioxide is limited to that available from the cartridge rather than the high-pressure pumps in a commercial carbonation plant.\n\nSection::::Products for carbonating water.:Home.:Gasogene.\n", "The crystal phase that crystallizes first on cooling a substance to its liquidus temperature is termed primary crystalline phase or primary phase. The composition range within which the primary phase remains constant is known as primary crystalline phase field.\n\nThe liquidus temperature is important in the glass industry because crystallization can cause severe problems during the glass melting and forming processes, and it also may lead to product failure.\n", "Further, due to its superior thermal stability and non-flammability, direct heat exchange from high temperature sources is possible, permitting higher working fluid temperatures and therefore higher cycle efficiency. Unlike two-phase flow, the single-phase nature of s eliminates the necessity of a heat input for phase change that is required for the water to steam conversion, thereby also eliminating associated thermal fatigue and corrosion.\n", "Carbon dioxide usually behaves as a gas in air at standard temperature and pressure (STP), or as a solid called dry ice when frozen. If the temperature and pressure are both increased from STP to be at or above the critical point for carbon dioxide, it can adopt properties midway between a gas and a liquid. More specifically, it behaves as a supercritical fluid above its critical temperature () and critical pressure (), expanding to fill its container like a gas but with a density like that of a liquid.\n", "Soda–lime glass undergoes a steady increase in viscosity with decreasing temperature, permitting operations of steadily increasing precision. The glass is readily formable into objects when it has a viscosity of 10 poises, typically reached at a temperature around 900 °C. The glass is softened and undergoes steady deformation when viscosity is less than 10 poises, near 700 °C. Though apparently hardened, soda–lime glass can nonetheless be annealed to remove internal stresses with about 15 minutes at 10 poises, near 500 °C. The relationship between viscosity and temperature is largely logarithmic, with an Arrhenius equation strongly dependent on the composition of the glass, but the activation energy increases at higher temperatures.\n", "Frozen uncarbonated beverage machines differ from frozen carbonated beverage machines in that they do not require a small positive pressure to be maintained in the working volume of the evaporator, nor a source of carbon dioxide gas, nor specially trained staff. Otherwise, the design of modern frozen uncarbonated beverage machines is similar to that for frozen carbonated beverages. Frozen uncarbonated beverages often have a lower concentration of ice, and more liquid water, than frozen carbonated beverages. Frozen uncarbonated beverages machines are less complicated and cheaper than frozen carbonated beverage devices, making them more common.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Production of frozen food liquids.:Ice cream.\n", "BULLET::::- in the alkalization of cocoa powder to produce Dutch process chocolate by balancing the pH (i.e., reduce the acidity) of natural cocoa beans; it also enhances aroma. The process of adding potassium carbonate to cocoa powder is usually called \"Dutching\" (and the products referred to as Dutch-processed cocoa powder), as the process was first developed in 1828 by Coenrad Johannes van Houten, a Dutchman.\n\nBULLET::::- as a buffering agent in the production of mead or wine.\n\nBULLET::::- in antique documents, it is reported to have been used to soften hard water.\n", "In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the terms \"fizzy drink\" and the genericized trademark \"coke\" are common (though \"coke\" refers only to a cola of any brand). \"Pop\" and \"fizzy pop\" are used in Northern England, South Wales, and the Midlands, while \"mineral\" or \"lemonade\" (as a general term) are used in Ireland. In Scotland, \"fizzy juice\" or even simply \"juice\" is colloquially encountered. In Australia and New Zealand, \"fizzy drink\" or \"soft drink\" is typically used. In South African English, \"cool drink\" and \"cold drink\" are used, but in South African Indian English, \"cool drink\" is most prevalent. Older people often use the term \"mineral\".\n", "BULLET::::- The solubility is given for \"pure water\", i.e., water which contain only CO. This water is going to be acidic. For example, at 25 °C the pH of 3.9 is expected (see carbonic acid). At less acidic pH values, the solubility will increase because of the pH-dependent speciation of CO.\n\nSection::::Vapor pressure of solid and liquid.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-12301	Why do tray tables and seats have to be set back while planes are taking off and landing?	Imagine you sitting down in your seat. Seat belt unbuckled tray table down. The 100 tons of aircraft and cargo and passengers are all buckled in. The plane is landing. Now imagine a critical failure of the landing gear. Not exploding just collapsing a foot or so. The nose dives down the plane lurches forward. So does everything in the plane. Including you. That tray table has now broken your ribs or caused some internal bruising. It’s the same as holding something on your lap in a car accident. Where is the cute puppy or laptop gonna go. With the momentum of the vehicle. Stow your tray table. Put your items in the overhead. Turn off your phone or put it in airplane mode. There are reasons for all these things. Some are outdated. Most aren’t. The airlines would love to have you do whatever and not care. But liability lawsuits would cripple them.	[ "Section::::Mitigation of AOG status.\n\nWhen an aircraft \"goes AOG\" and materials required are not on hand, parts and personnel must be driven, flown, or sailed to the location of the \"grounded A/C\". Usually the problem is escalated through an internal AOG Desk, then the Manufacturer's AOG Desk, and finally competitors' AOG desks. All major air carriers have an \"\"'AOG Desk\"\". This desk is manned 24/7 by personnel trained in purchasing, hazardous materials shipping, and parts manufacturing / acquisition processes.\n", "A more elaborate device is the tray table, which is designed to accommodate a tray, or to serve as a tray itself. There are two primary kinds of tray tables. The TV tray table is typically a small table, which may have legs that fold to allow it to be carried like a tray. The airplane tray table is a tray built into the back of an airline seat, which folds down so that the person sitting in the seat behind the one containing the table can use it as a surface from which to eat meals served on the airplane.\n", "As for the future of airports, there are many trends floating around, and becoming more relevant in regards to the experience of the traveler. An example, being the need to create a “sense of place”. The seating arrangement in a waiting area, is taking on a new and fresh look, all in the hopes of creating a positive response from travelers.\n", "BULLET::::- a reminder that seat belts are securely fastened and that all aisles, bulkheads and emergency exit rows must remain clear at all times\n\nBULLET::::- that seatbacks and tray tables should be in their upright and locked position, leg- or footrest put away in premium cabins, and carry-on luggage stowed in the overhead locker or underneath a seat prior to takeoff;\n\nBULLET::::- video screen (if available) put away if it is not in the back of the seat in front of the passenger and was therefore pulled out to watch the video;\n", "Some airlines also made the switch to plastic cutlery in economy class to recover costs resulting from passenger theft, of which metal cutlery tends to be a common item targeted.\n", "Catering includes the unloading of unused food and drink from the aircraft, and the loading of fresh food and drink for passengers and crew. Airline meals are typically delivered in \"Airline service trolleys.\" Empty or trash-filled trolley from the previous flight are replaced with fresh ones. Meals are prepared mostly on the ground in order to minimize the amount of preparation (apart from chilling or reheating) required in the air.\n", "BULLET::::- the requirements for sitting in an emergency exit row (varies by country and airline); in some countries (including the United States) it must also be stated that exit row passengers may be required to assist the crew in an evacuation\n\nBULLET::::- that all passengers must leave all carry-on bags behind during an evacuation\n\nBULLET::::- some demonstrations also mention that high heeled shoes and/or any sharp objects must be removed (this is to ensure that evacuation slides are not punctured)\n", "In May 2010, concerns were raised in Australia and New Zealand over their respective flag carriers, Qantas and Air New Zealand, reusing their plastic cutlery for international flights between 10 and 30 times before replacement. Both airlines cited cost saving, international quarantine, and environmental as the reasons for the choice. Both have also said that the plastic cutlery is commercially washed and sterilized before reuse. Reusing plastic tablewares though is a regular practice among many airliners and food caterers.\n", "Like anything, updates and recreations are needed to stay relevant. Brian Alexander took the Eames's creation and added needed revamps to stay up with the hustle and bustle of airport occupants. He added an occasional table in between seats and a power plug in, which became a big hit with people traveling for work. In addition, with technology being so dominant in society, this feature allowed for convenient charging of technological devices.\n\nSection::::Variance in airport lounges.\n", "The term \"AOG\" is universally recognized throughout the airline/aviation industries. Due to the exorbitant cost of an AOG situation, it is common practice for competitive airlines to mutually support each other (sharing spare parts, tools & manpower) to minimize the duration and domino effect that can occur if an aircraft operator is required to provision their own resources.\n", "Studies have found that passengers often pause to retrieve cabin baggage during an emergency evacuation, despite instructions to the contrary in pre-flight safety briefings. This is not a new phenomenon, as it was observed during the evacuation of a Boeing 737 that caught fire in 1984. At least one passenger re-entered a Boeing 777 that crashed in 2008 to retrieve personal belongings. Video of the evacuation of a Sukhoi Superjet that caught fire on landing in 2019 clearly shows passengers on the emergency slides with large suitcases, raising questions as to whether this contributed to the loss of life. Remote locking of overhead baggage bins is being considered as a solution to the issue.\n", "Common design elements include: \n\nBULLET::::- top surfaces of various shapes, including rectangular, square, rounded, semi-circular or oval\n\nBULLET::::- legs arranged in two or more similar pairs. It usually has four legs. However, some tables have three legs, use a single heavy pedestal, or are attached to a wall.\n\nBULLET::::- several geometries of folding table that can be collapsed into a smaller volume (e.g., a TV tray, which is a portable, folding table on a stand)\n", "The design of the standard airport seating has not seen a significant change in over 50 years, and is fact known for its simplicity. The primary focus of today’s airport seating goes to the size and comfort of seating to fit to the right environment that the airport and airline caters to.\n", "BULLET::::- expansion of the table surface by insertion of \"leaves\" or locking hinged \"drop leaf\" sections into a horizontal position (this is particularly common for dining tables)\n\nSection::::Etymology.\n\nThe word \"table\" is derived from Old English \"tabele\", derived from the Latin word \"tabula\" (\"a board, plank, flat top piece\"), which replaced OE \"bord\" ; its current spelling reflects the influence of the French \"table\".\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Most of the design criticisms these days are built on crashworthiness. Even with the greatest attention to airworthiness, accidents still occur. Crashworthiness is the qualitative evaluation of how aircraft survive an accident. The main objective is to protect the passengers or valuable cargo from the damage caused by an accident. In the case of airliners the stressed skin of the pressurized fuselage provides this feature, but in the event of a nose or tail impact, large bending moments build all the way through the fuselage, causing fractures in the shell, causing the fuselage to break up into smaller sections. So the passenger aircraft are designed in such a way that seating arrangements are away from areas likely to be intruded in an accident, such as near a propeller, engine nacelle undercarriage etc. The interior of the cabin is also fitted with safety features such as oxygen masks that drop down in the event of loss of cabin pressure, lockable luggage compartments, safety belts, lifejackets, emergency doors and luminous floor strips. Aircraft are sometimes designed with emergency water landing in mind, for instance the Airbus A330 has a 'ditching' switch that closes valves and openings beneath the aircraft slowing the ingress of water.\n", "When no delays are encountered, schedule padding can give the impression that a flight has arrived early at its destination. However, the plane may be required to wait for an available gate or other ground services such as aircraft marshalling. \n\nConservative flight arrival times also help airlines reduce their financial liability under the Flight Compensation Regulation 261/2004, as compensation for delays is calculated based on the scheduled arrival time published by the airline. Moreover, financial costs can be incurred if passengers miss their connections, and airlines may incur punctuality penalties. \n", "Since most twin jet airliners can meet these requirements, most aircraft of this type such as the Boeing 737 (all models), the DC-9/MD80 and Boeing 717, the A320 family and various regional jet (\"RJ\") aircraft do not have fuel dump systems installed. In the event of an emergency, requiring a return to the departure airport, the aircraft circles nearby in order to consume fuel to get down to within the maximum structural landing weight limit, or, if the situation demands, simply lands overweight without delay. Modern aircraft are designed with possible overweight landings in mind, but this is not done except in cases of emergency, and various maintenance inspections are required afterwards.\n", "Several airlines do not allow sales of certain sharp objects in-flight due to security risk. Other objects that have sharp parts, such as model airplanes, may be bought in-flight but received at the passengers' home address for the same reason.\n\nSection::::Security considerations.:Boarding Pass / Passports.\n\nProof of travel may be requested at the checkout point to prevent airport employees from making personal purchases.\n\nSection::::Inbound duty-free.\n", "Many airlines subcontract ground handling to an airport or a handling agent, or even to another airline. Ground handling addresses the many service requirements of a passenger aircraft between the time it arrives at a terminal gate and the time it departs for its next flight. Speed, efficiency, and accuracy are important in ground handling services in order to minimize the turnaround time (the time during which the aircraft remains parked at the gate).\n", "Groundings of entire classes of aircraft out of equipment safety concerns is unusual, but this has occurred to the de Havilland Comet in 1954 after multiple crashes due to metal fatigue and hull failure, the McDonnell Douglas DC-10 in 1979 after the crash of American Airlines Flight 191 due to engine loss, the Boeing 787 Dreamliner in 2013 after its battery problems, and the Boeing 737 MAX in 2019 after two crashes preliminarily tied to a flight control system.\n\nSection::::Aviation safety hazards.\n\nSection::::Aviation safety hazards.:Foreign object debris.\n", "Before the September 11, 2001 attacks, first class passengers were often provided with full sets of metal cutlery. Afterward, common household items were evaluated more closely for their potential use as weapons on aircraft, and both first class and coach class passengers were restricted to plastic utensils. Some airlines switched from metal to all-plastic or plastic-handled cutlery during the SARS outbreak in 2003, since the SARS virus transfers from person to person easily, and plastic cutlery can be thrown away after use. Many airlines later switched back to metal cutlery. However, Singapore Airlines and Swiss International Air Lines continue to use metal utensils even in economy class as of 2019.\n", "Many tables have tops that can be adjusted to change their height, position, shape, or size, either with foldable, sliding or extensions parts that can alter the shape of the top. Some tables are entirely foldable for easy transportation, e.g. camping or storage, e.g., TV trays. Small tables in trains and aircraft may be fixed or foldable, although they are sometimes considered as simply convenient shelves rather than tables.\n", "Section::::Seat size.:Aisle chair.\n\nAn airplane \"aisle chair\" is a mobile seat designed for wheelchair-enabled patrons. While trains, buses and other forms of public transportation have space for a passenger's own wheelchair for seating and a ramp or lift assist for boarding, airplane aisles are too narrow for conventional wheelchairs. The aisle chair provided by the airline affords the wheelchair passenger assisted mobility in boarding and deplaning, as well as in-flight moving within the cabin, such as to the lavatory.\n\nSection::::Material.\n", "Departure delays are easily caused by passengers arriving late at the gate or unexpected business at the airport. Delayed flights can cause knock-on effects in terms of missing departure slots, which may be a problem in busy airspaces in which the departure time is not only determined by the schedule of the departure airport, but also the sectors the aircraft has to fly through. By padding the schedule, the aircraft is less likely to miss slots in airspaces it has to fly through, and may still arrive on time (or even ahead of schedule) at the destination airport even with a small departure and/or \"enroute\" delay. In addition, aircraft usually fly multiple flights in short succession; hence, a delay may cause later flights with the same aircraft to be delayed, or additional aircraft to be chartered on short notice. \n", "BULLET::::- If the passenger loses an electronic device under a seat, the passenger should not attempt to move the seat as this may damage the device or injure the passenger; the passenger should instead notify the flight attendants to locate the device safely\n\nBULLET::::- that passengers must ask a flight attendant prior to using electronics\n\nBULLET::::- actions required of passengers prior to takeoff (sometimes referred to as “final cabin check” and often accompanied with a physical check by crew):\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02178	How do wireless phone chargers work.	Wireless chargers use the relationship between electricity and magnetism. Electricity is basically just the movement of electrons through some form of conductor (usually a metal wire). Electrons are negatively charged particles. Since they have a charge, they are susceptible to magnetic force. A wireless charger works with two metal coils. One in the charger and one in the receiver. The charger runs an electric current through its own coil, which creates a magnetic field with a certain 'direction' (oversimplified). This magnetic field 'pulls' (again, oversimplified) the electrons in the coil of the receiver and sets them in motion. This motion is the 'electricity' that is then used to charge the device the receiver is connected to. [An exemplary visualization of the two coils.]( URL_0 ) [A picture of one of the actual coils in a smartphone.]( URL_1 )	[ "Mobile phones generally obtain power from rechargeable batteries. There are a variety of ways used to charge cell phones, including USB, portable batteries, mains power (using an AC adapter), cigarette lighters (using an adapter), or a dynamo. In 2009, the first wireless charger was released for consumer use. Some manufacturers have been experimenting with alternative power sources, including solar cells.\n", "Section::::Type.:Induction-powered charger.\n\nInductive battery chargers use electromagnetic induction to charge batteries. A charging station sends electromagnetic energy through inductive coupling to an electrical device, which stores the energy in the batteries. This is achieved without the need for metal contacts between the charger and the battery. Inductive battery chargers are commonly used in electric toothbrushes and other devices used in bathrooms. Because there are no open electrical contacts, there is no risk of electrocution. Nowadays it is being used to charge wireless phones.\n\nSection::::Type.:Intelligent charger.\n", "Conductive power transfer uses a conductor to connect two electronic devices in order to transfer energy. It is therefore not a form of wireless power transfer, which explicitly does not use conductors. In the area of cellular phone chargers, phones are equipped with an attachment such as a sleeve which, when placed on the charging board, transfers energy to the phone's battery.\n\nSection::::Conductive charging system.\n\nInductive and conductive charging are two types of wireless charging. Again, this is not to be confused with \"wireless power transfer\".\n", "Conductive wireless charging\n\nConductive wireless charging or simply conductive charging uses conductive power transfer to eliminate wires between the charger and the charging device. It requires the use of a charging board as the power transmitter to deliver the power, and a charging device, with a built-in receiver, to receive the power. Once the charging board recognizes the valid receiver, the charging begins.\n", "Section::::Examples.\n\nBULLET::::- Oral-B rechargeable toothbrushes by the Braun company have used inductive charging since the early 1990s.\n\nBULLET::::- At the Consumer Electronics Show (CES) in January 2007, Visteon unveiled its inductive charging system for in vehicle use that could charge only specially made cell phones to MP3 players with compatible receivers.\n\nBULLET::::- April 28, 2009: An Energizer inductive charging station for the Wii remote was reported on IGN.\n", "Section::::Mechanical Description.:On the OLEV.\n\nAttached beneath the vehicle, are \"pick-up\" modules, or the secondary coils, that consist of wide W-shaped ferrite cores with wires wrapped around the center. When the pick-ups \"pick up\" the flux from the primary coils, each pick-up gains about 17 kW of power from the induced current. This power is sent to the electric motor and battery through a regulator (a managing device that can distribute power based on need), thereby charging the OLEV wirelessly.\n\nSection::::Models.\n", "Inductive charging\n\nInductive charging (also known as wireless charging or cordless charging) is a type of wireless charging that uses an electromagnetic field to transfer energy between two objects using electromagnetic induction, the production of electricity across a magnetic field. Inductive charging is usually done with a charging station or inductive pad. Energy is sent through an inductive coupling to an electrical device, which can then use that energy to charge batteries or run the device. It is the technology that enables smartphone wireless charging, such as the Qi wireless charging standard.\n", "The proliferation of portable wireless communication devices such as mobile phones, tablet, and laptop computers in recent decades is currently driving the development of mid-range wireless powering and charging technology to eliminate the need for these devices to be tethered to wall plugs during charging. The Wireless Power Consortium was established in 2008 to develop interoperable standards across manufacturers. Its Qi inductive power standard published in August 2009 enables high efficiency charging and powering of portable devices of up to 5 watts over distances of 4 cm (1.6 inches). The wireless device is placed on a flat charger plate (which can be embedded in table tops at cafes, for example) and power is transferred from a flat coil in the charger to a similar one in the device. In 2007, a team led by Marin Soljačić at MIT used a dual resonance transmitter with a 25 cm diameter secondary tuned to 10 MHz to transfer 60 W of power to a similar dual resonance receiver over a distance of (eight times the transmitter coil diameter) at around 40% efficiency. \n", "Two types of circuit have been used:\n", "Researchers at the Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST) have developed an electric transport system (called Online Electric Vehicle, OLEV) where the vehicles get their power needs from cables underneath the surface of the road via inductive charging, (where a power source is placed underneath the road surface and power is wirelessly picked up on the vehicle itself.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Mobile phone charger.\n", "The electronic devices, fitted with these accessories, are placed on a charging base. The base can detect when a compatible device has been placed on it and begin the battery charging process. These charging bases are usually designed to be able to distinguish between human and metal contact so that there is no risk of electrocution.\n", "BULLET::::- At CES in January 2009, Palm, Inc. announced its new Pre smartphone would be available with an optional inductive charger accessory, the \"Touchstone\". The charger came with a required special backplate that became standard on the subsequent Pre Plus model announced at CES 2010. This was also featured on later Pixi, Pixi Plus, and Veer 4G smartphones. Upon launch in 2011, the ill-fated HP Touchpad tablet (after HP's acquisition of Palm Inc.) had a built in touchstone coil that doubled as an antenna for its NFC-like Touch to Share feature.\n", "BULLET::::- November 6, 2015 BlackBerry released its new flagship BlackBerry Priv, the first BlackBerry phone to support wireless inductive charging through both Qi and PMA compatible chargers.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Research and other.\n\nBULLET::::- Transcutaneous Energy Transfer (TET) systems in artificial hearts and other surgically implanted devices.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nThe charge-coupled device was invented in 1969 in the United States at AT&T Bell Labs by Willard Boyle and George E. Smith.\n\nThe lab was working on semiconductor bubble memory when Boyle and Smith conceived of the design of what they termed, in their notebook, \"Charge 'Bubble' Devices\".\n", "P1901 communication is compatible with other 802.x standards via the IEEE 1905 standard, allowing arbitrary IP-based communications with the vehicle, meter or distributor, and the building where chargers are located. P1905 includes wireless communications. In at least one implementation, communication between the off-board DC EVSE and PEV occurs on the pilot wire of the SAE J1772 connector via HomePlug Green PHY power line communication (PLC).\n\nSection::::Compatible charging stations.\n", "Induction chargers use an induction coil to create an alternating electromagnetic field from within a charging base, and a second induction coil in the portable device takes power from the electromagnetic field and converts it back into electric current to charge the battery. The two induction coils in proximity combine to form an electrical transformer. Greater distances between sender and receiver coils can be achieved when the inductive charging system uses resonant inductive coupling.\n", "Since the Universal Serial Bus specification provides for a five-volt power supply (with limited maximum power), it is possible to use a USB cable to connect a device to a power supply. Products based on this approach include chargers for cellular phones, portable digital audio players, and tablet computers. They may be fully compliant USB peripheral devices adhering to USB power discipline, or uncontrolled in the manner of USB decorations.\n\nSection::::Type.:USB-based charger.:Power bank.\n", "Conductive charging requires a physical connection between the electronic device's battery and the power supply. The need for a metal-to-metal connection between the charger and the device requiring charging is one of the main drawbacks of this method. To accomplish this without the use of physical cords connected to wall outlets, special attachments are made from electronic devices which are fitted with technology that can detect when the device makes connection with the power source, often a charging base. Conduction based wireless accessories may include changeable backs for cellular phones, special sleeves and attachable clips.\n", "For example the company Energysquare has developed its own technology based on a conduction process named Powerbycontact®. It provides an alternative way for consumers and professionals to refill their everyday's use devices, such as Laptops and smartphones, with the advantage of a safe recharge without any power loss.\n\nSection::::Conductive charging system.:Electric vehicles.\n\nHonda studies charge-on-the-move for conduction between vehicle rollers and road power, with 100 kW of power (DC 375 V, 300 A) at a vehicle speed of 70 km/h, and possibly higher.\n", "The company's technology is based upon \"Inductively Coupled Power Transfer\". As the block diagram shows, within a Transmitter (Tx) - by varying the current in the primary induction coil - an alternating magnetic field is generated from within a charging spot. The receiver (Rx) is a second induction coil in the handheld device that takes power from the magnetic field and converts it back into electric current to charge the device battery. \n\nAn additional part of the technology is the \"System Control Communication\":\n", "Section::::Carrier Power.\n", "In simple terms, inductive charging works by separating the two halves of an electric transformer with an air gap – one half, the Plugless Power Vehicle Adapter, is installed on the vehicle and the other half, the Plugless Power Parking Pad, is installed on the floor of a garage or in a parking lot. When a car with an Adapter drives over a Pad, the two pieces are brought into close proximity, , then current from the electrical grid flows through the coils in the Power Pad to create magnetic fields and these fields induce current flow in the Vehicle Adapter's coils to charge the battery.\n", "Wireless power techniques mainly fall into two categories, near field and far-field. In \"near field\" or \"non-radiative\" techniques, power is transferred over short distances by magnetic fields using inductive coupling between coils of wire, or by electric fields using capacitive coupling between metal electrodes. Inductive coupling is the most widely used wireless technology; its applications include charging handheld devices like phones and electric toothbrushes, RFID tags, induction cooking, and wirelessly charging or continuous wireless power transfer in implantable medical devices like artificial cardiac pacemakers, or electric vehicles.\n", "In inductive coupling (\"electromagnetic induction\" or \"inductive power transfer\", IPT), power is transferred between coils of wire by a magnetic field. The transmitter and receiver coils together form a \"transformer\" \"(see diagram)\". An alternating current (AC) through the transmitter coil \"(L1)\" creates an oscillating magnetic field \"(B)\" by Ampere's law. The magnetic field passes through the receiving coil \"(L2)\", where it induces an alternating EMF (voltage) by Faraday's law of induction, which creates an alternating current in the receiver. The induced alternating current may either drive the load directly, or be rectified to direct current (DC) by a rectifier in the receiver, which drives the load. A few systems, such as electric toothbrush charging stands, work at 50/60 Hz so AC mains current is applied directly to the transmitter coil, but in most systems an electronic oscillator generates a higher frequency AC current which drives the coil, because transmission efficiency improves with frequency.\n", "To recognize Battery Charging, a dedicated charging port places a resistance not exceeding 200 Ω across the D+ and D− terminals.\n\nIn addition to standard USB, there is a proprietary high-powered system known as PoweredUSB, developed in the 1990s, and mainly used in point-of-sale terminals such as cash registers.\n\nSection::::Signaling.\n\nSection::::Signaling.:Electrical specification.\n\nUSB signals are transmitted using differential signaling on a twisted-pair data cable with characteristic impedance.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04330	If the Earths atmosphere is 78% Nitrogen, why dont we have Nitrogen based life?	Life isn't nitrogen based, but life does make use of lots of nitrogen atoms. Life is carbon based because the structure of carbon enables lots of different variations of organic molecules. Nitrogen doesn't form the types of bonds to enable the same amount of variation.	[ "The family is allied with an alien, an octopus-like being, who can survive in the new atmosphere. Humans must live in shelters with oxygen-generating plants, or use suitable breathing equipment. Some of Earth's original life forms have mutated to survive in the changed atmosphere. Since almost no metals can exist in the corrosive atmosphere, any technology is based on ceramics or glass.\n", "Other microbes are decomposers, with the ability to recycle nutrients from other organisms' waste products. These microbes play a vital role in biogeochemical cycles. The nitrogen cycle, the phosphorus cycle, the sulphur cycle and the carbon cycle all depend on microorganisms in one way or another. For example, the nitrogen gas which makes up 78% of the earth's atmosphere is unavailable to most organisms, until it is converted to a biologically available form by the microbial process of nitrogen fixation.\n", "The loss of the oceans could be delayed until 2 billion years in the future if the atmospheric pressure were to decline. A lower atmospheric pressure would reduce the greenhouse effect, thereby lowering the surface temperature. This could occur if natural processes were to remove the nitrogen from the atmosphere. Studies of organic sediments has shown that at least of nitrogen has been removed from the atmosphere over the past four billion years; enough to effectively double the current atmospheric pressure if it were to be released. This rate of removal would be sufficient to counter the effects of increasing solar luminosity for the next two billion years.\n", "be present in sufficient quantities in both soils probably with the\n\nexception of reactive nitrogen. Nitrogen in reactive form (NO3,\n\nNH4) is one of the essential minerals necessary for almost all plant\n\ngrowth. The major source of reactive nitrogen on Earth is the\n\nmineralization of organic matter. Nitrogen in reactive form (NO3, NH4) is one of the essential\n\nminerals necessary for almost all plant growth. Reactive\n\nnitrogen is part of the material in our solar system and is part of\n", "Approximately 78% of earth's atmosphere is N gas (N), which is an inert compound and biologically unavailable to most organisms. In order to be utilized in most biological processes, N must be converted to reactive N (Nr), which includes inorganic reduced forms (NH and NH), inorganic oxidized forms (NO, NO, HNO, NO, and NO), and organic compounds (urea, amines, and proteins). N has a strong triple bond, and so a significant amount of energy (226 kcal mol) is required to convert N to Nr. Prior to industrial processes, the only sources of such energy were solar radiation and electrical discharges. Utilizing a large amount of metabolic energy and the enzyme nitrogenase, some bacteria and cyanobacteria convert atmospheric N to NH, a process known as biological nitrogen fixation (BNF). The anthropogenic analogue to BNF is the Haber-Bosch process, in which H is reacted with atmospheric N at high temperatures and pressures to produce NH. Lastly, N is converted to NO by energy from lightning, which is negligible in current temperate ecosystems, or by fossil fuel combustion.\n", "Nitrogen is an element required for growth by all biological systems. While extremely common (80% by volume) in the atmosphere, dinitrogen gas () is generally biologically inaccessible due to its high activation energy. Throughout all of nature, only specialized bacteria and Archaea are capable of nitrogen fixation, converting dinitrogen gas into ammonia (), which is easily assimilated by all organisms. These prokaryotes, therefore, are very important ecologically and are often essential for the survival of entire ecosystems. This is especially true in the ocean, where nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria are often the only sources of fixed nitrogen, and in soils, where specialized symbioses exist between legumes and their nitrogen-fixing partners to provide the nitrogen needed by these plants for growth.\n", "BULLET::::- Nitrogen fixation\n\nAfter carbon, nitrogen is arguably the most important element needed for life. Thus, measurements of nitrate over the range of 0.1% to 5% are required to address the question of its occurrence and distribution. There is nitrogen (as N) in the atmosphere at low levels, but this is not adequate to support nitrogen fixation for biological incorporation. Nitrogen in the form of nitrate, if present, could be a resource for human exploration both as a nutrient for plant growth and for use in chemical processes. \n", "Atmospheric N inputs mainly include oxides of N (NO), ammonia (NH), and nitrous oxide (NO) from aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, and NO from fossil fuel and biomass combustion.\n", "Section::::Occurrence.\n\nNitrogen is the most common pure element in the earth, making up 78.1% of the entire volume of the atmosphere. Despite this, it is not very abundant in Earth's crust, making up only 19 parts per million of this, on par with niobium, gallium, and lithium. The only important nitrogen minerals are nitre (potassium nitrate, saltpetre) and sodanitre (sodium nitrate, Chilean saltpetre). However, these have not been an important source of nitrates since the 1920s, when the industrial synthesis of ammonia and nitric acid became common.\n", "The above system responses to reactive nitrogen (Nr) inputs are almost all exclusively studied separately; however, research increasingly indicates that nitrogen loading problems are linked by multiple pathways transporting nutrients across system boundaries. This sequential transfer between ecosystems is termed the nitrogen cascade. (see illustration from United Nations Environment Programme). During the cascade, some systems accumulate Nr, which results in a time lag in the cascade and enhanced effects of Nr on the environment in which it accumulates. Ultimately, anthropogenic inputs of Nr are either accumulated or denitrified; however, little progress has been made in determining the relative importance of Nr accumulation and denitrification, which has been mainly due to a lack of integration among scientific disciplines.\n", "At the end the aliens reveal that they are basically tourists or scientists, and they travel from one system to another over thousands of years. Atmospheres \"mature\" when the nitrogen absorbs all the oxygen, the cause being the inevitable evolution of bacteria that use gold to catalyze the reaction. It is hinted, but not stated outright, that human mining of gold triggered this reaction.\n", "There is an abundant supply of nitrogen in the earth's atmosphere — N gas comprises nearly 79% of air. However, N is unavailable for use by most organisms because there is a triple bond between the two nitrogen atoms in the molecule, making it almost inert. In order for nitrogen to be used for growth it must be “fixed” (combined) in the form of ammonium (NH) or nitrate (NO) ions. The weathering of rocks releases these ions so slowly that it has a negligible effect on the availability of fixed nitrogen. Therefore, nitrogen is often the limiting factor for growth and biomass production in all environments where there is a suitable climate and availability of water to support life.\n", "The nitrogen cycle describes the flow of active nitrogen. As atmospheric nitrogen is inert, micro-organisms first have to convert this to an active nitrogen compound in a process called \"fixing nitrogen\", before it can be used as a building block in the biosphere. Human activities play an important role in both carbon and nitrogen cycles: the burning of fossil fuels has displaced carbon from the lithosphere to the atmosphere, and the use of fertilizers has vastly increased the amount of available fixed nitrogen.\n\nSection::::Internal variability.\n", "Since the industrial revolution, an additional source of anthropogenic N input has been fossil fuel combustion, which is used to release energy (e.g., to power automobiles). As fossil fuels are burned, high temperatures and pressures provide energy to produce NO from N oxidation. Additionally, when fossil fuel is extracted and burned, fossil N may become reactive (i.e., NO emissions). During the 1970s scientists began to recognize that N inputs were accumulating in the environment and affecting ecosystems.\n\nSection::::Impacts of anthropogenic inputs on the nitrogen cycle.\n", "Diazotrophs are widespread within domain Bacteria including cyanobacteria (e.g. the highly significant \"Trichodesmium\" and \"Cyanothece\"), as well as green sulfur bacteria, Azotobacteraceae, rhizobia and \"Frankia\". Several obligately anaerobic bacteria fix nitrogen including many (but not all) Clostridium spp. Some Archaea also fix nitrogen, including several methanogenic taxa, which are significant contributors to nitrogen fixation in oxygen-deficient soils.\n", "One of the major cycles that humans can contribute to that cause a major impact on climate change is the nitrogen cycle. This comes from nitrogen fertilizers that us humans are using. Gruber and Galloway have researched, \"The massive acceleration of the nitrogen cycle caused by the production and industrial use of artificial nitrogen fertilizers worldwide has led to a range of environmental problems. Most important is how the availability of nitrogen will affect the capacity of Earth's biosphere to continue absorbing carbon from the atmosphere and to thereby continue helping to mitigate climate change.\"\n", "Nitrogen fixation is essential to life because fixed inorganic nitrogen compounds are required for the biosynthesis of all nitrogen-containing organic compounds, such as amino acids and proteins, nucleoside triphosphates and nucleic acids. As part of the nitrogen cycle, it is essential for agriculture and the manufacture of fertilizer. It is also, indirectly, relevant to the manufacture of all chemical compounds that contain nitrogen, which includes explosives, most pharmaceuticals, and dyes.\n", "Although nitrogen is plentiful in the Earth's atmosphere, very few plants can use this directly. Most plants, therefore, require nitrogen compounds to be present in the soil in which they grow. This is made possible by the fact that largely inert atmospheric nitrogen is changed in a nitrogen fixation process to biologically usable forms in the soil by bacteria.\n", "Globally, this process may be responsible for 30-50% of the N gas produced in the oceans. It is thus a major sink for fixed nitrogen and so limits oceanic primary productivity.\n", "Nitrogen fixation has been recorded at rates of 0.7–100 kg/ha*year, from hot deserts in Australia to cold deserts. Estimates of total biological nitrogen fixation are ~ 49 Tg/year (27-99 Tg/year).\n\nSection::::Ecology.:Ecosystem function and services.:Geophysical and geomorphological properties.\n\nSoil stability\n", "Since the industrial revolution, the Earth's nitrogen cycle has been disturbed even more than the carbon cycle. \"Human activities now convert more nitrogen from the atmosphere into reactive forms than all of the Earth´s terrestrial processes combined. Much of this new reactive nitrogen pollutes waterways and coastal zones, is emitted back to the atmosphere in changed forms, or accumulates in the terrestrial biosphere.\" Only a small part of the fertilizers applied in agriculture is used by plants. Most of the nitrogen and phosphorus ends up in rivers, lakes and the sea, where excess amounts stress aquatic ecosystems. For example, fertilizer which discharges from rivers into the Gulf of Mexico has damaged shrimp fisheries because of hypoxia.\n", "Ecosystems continually exchange energy and carbon with the wider environment. Mineral nutrients, on the other hand, are mostly cycled back and forth between plants, animals, microbes and the soil. Most nitrogen enters ecosystems through biological nitrogen fixation, is deposited through precipitation, dust, gases or is applied as fertilizer.\n\nSince most terrestrial ecosystems are nitrogen-limited, nitrogen cycling is an important control on ecosystem production.\n", "Human activities dominate the global and most regional N cycles. N inputs have shown negative consequences for both nutrient cycling and native species diversity in terrestrial and aquatic systems. In fact, due to long-term impacts on food webs, Nr inputs are widely considered the most critical pollution problem in marine systems. In both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, responses to N enrichment vary; however, a general re-occurring theme is the importance of thresholds (e.g., nitrogen saturation) in system nutrient retention capacity. In order to control the N cascade, there must be integration of scientific disciplines and further work on Nr storage and denitrification rates.\n", "Section::::Nitrogen Fixing.\n", "N is the most abundant chemical in the atmosphere. However, diatomic nitrogen is not usable for most biological processes. Nitrogen fixation is the process of converting atmospheric diatomic nitrogen into biologically usable forms of nitrogen such as ammonium and nitrogen oxides. This process requires a substantial amount of energy (in the form of ATP) in order to break the triple bond between the nitrogen atoms.\n" ]	[ "If Earth's atmosphere is 78% nitrogen, nitrogen based life should exist." ]	[ "Life isn't nitrogen based, it is carbon based." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "If Earth's atmosphere is 78% nitrogen, nitrogen based life should exist.", "If Earth's atmosphere is 78% nitrogen, nitrogen based life should exist." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Life isn't nitrogen based, it is carbon based.", "Life isn't nitrogen based, it is carbon based." ]
2018-01521	How does a Javelin Rocket launcher track moving targets.	> How does a Javelin Rocket launcher track moving targets. It has an automatic infrared guidance system which locks on to a heat signature and will adjust the two rear fins in order to steer it toward the target.	[ "Section::::Components.:Missile.:Tracker.\n", "As of January 2019, over 5,000 Javelin missiles have been fired in combat.\n\nSection::::Overview.\n", "Range of up to 4,750 m (15,600 ft) is another advantage of this missile. In UK Vehicle Tests in June 2016, Javelin missile scored 100% in five test firings from a UK-owned ground vehicle. Each Javelin flew distances between 1.2 and 4.3 kilometers (0.75 and 2.65 miles) and hit the ground target each time. The UK's live-fire tests \"confirm Javelin’s greater than 94 percent reliability rate and demonstrate Javelin’s capability to engage targets from increased standoff distances on various platforms\".\n", "Section::::Types.:Radar-guided weapons.\n\nThe Lockheed-Martin Hellfire II light-weight anti-tank weapon in one mark uses the radar on the Boeing AH-64D Apache Longbow to provide fire-and-forget guidance for that weapon.\n\nSection::::Types.:Satellite-guided weapons.\n", "Section::::Components.:Missile.:Propulsion.\n", "During the tracking and missile-firing tests, target profiles were provided by Greek-built EADS/3Sigma Iris PVK medium-range subsonic target drones. [...] According to the RNLN, ... \"APAR immediately acquired the missile and maintained track until destruction\". [...] These ground-breaking tests represented the world's first live verification of the ICWI technique.\n", "Similar in overall appearance to the Manual Command Line of Sight (MCLOS), radio frequency guided Blowpipe, Javelin is slightly more compact, uses Semiautomatic Command Line of Sight (SACLOS) radio frequency guidance and is fitted with an improved warhead. The operator is equipped with a 6× magnification sight and a long range T.V. camera to locate targets. Although the Javelin's accuracy is somewhat susceptible to smoke, fog, or clouds, it is claimed to be virtually impossible to decoy it away from a target with flares.\n\nSection::::Operators.\n\nSection::::Operators.:Current operators.\n", "Pansarsprängvinggranat m/94 \"STRIX\" is a Swedish endphase-guided projectile fired from a 120 mm mortar currently manufactured by Saab Bofors Dynamics.\n\nSTRIX is fired like a conventional mortar round. The round contains an infrared imaging sensor that it uses to guide itself onto any tank or armoured fighting vehicle in the vicinity where it lands. The seeker is designed to ignore targets that are already burning.\n", "The seeker is calibrated using a chopper wheel. This device is a fan of six blades: five black blades with low IR emissivity and one semi-reflective blade. These blades spin in front of the seeker optics in a synchronized fashion such that the FPA is continually provided with points of reference in addition to viewing the scene. These reference points allow the FPA to reduce noise introduced by response variations in the detector elements.\n\nSection::::Components.:Missile.:Seeker.:Stabilization.\n", "The 9K33M3 is also able to use the 9A33BM3 missiles which are wire-guided, presumably for use in an ECM-heavy environment where the radio command guidance may not operate properly.\n\nSection::::Missiles.\n", "BULLET::::- 9S15M - 10 m - 330 km and 3 m - 240 km.\n\nBULLET::::- 9S19M2 - 175 km (? m2) and two passive electronically scanned array, very high resistance to interference.\n", "Some changes to the signal processing allow the radar to determine the targets' range and speed in a single scan. A digital DSP system is added which allows a lot of the processing work to be done on the radar directly and forwarded directly via a serial digital link to the PCP/BCP.\n\nBULLET::::- HPIR High Power Illuminating Radar:\n", "On the 25th of September 2017, as part of the exercise Formidable Shield 2017 the SMART-L MM radar system mounted on the test tower at the Thales premises in Hengelo, detected and tracked a ballistic missile launched from the Hebrides in Scotland at an average range of more than 1500 km without difficulties. The Thales SMART-L Multi Mission radar in Hengelo detected the target as soon as it appeared over the horizon and maintained a stable track for more than 300 seconds. The track quality was sufficient to enable Launch On Remote by BMD-capable naval ships. \n\nSection::::Variants.\n\nBULLET::::- SMART-L\n", "BULLET::::- The missile integrates an Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU), which is new in this class of light missiles, developed in MEMS (Micro Electro Mechanical Systems) Technology. Together with the fiber optics data link, this IMU allows in flight targeting and re-targeting for lock on after launch (LOAL) operations and also authorizes two selectable trajectory options: low altitude with direct attack or top attack for targeting main battle tanks (MBT) through their turret, which is their weakest point.\n", "BULLET::::- C-802 or YJ-82 NATO reporting name CSS-N-8 Saccade (China) – it is unclear if this missile employs TERCOM navigation\n\nBULLET::::- Hyunmoo III (South Korea)\n\nBULLET::::- DH-10 (China)\n\nBULLET::::- Babur (Pakistan) Land Attack Cruise Missile\n\nBULLET::::- Ra'ad (Pakistan) Air Launched Cruise Missile\n\nBULLET::::- Naval Strike Missile (Anti ship and land attack missile, Norway)\n\nBULLET::::- SOM (missile) (air launched cruise missile, Turkey)\n\nBULLET::::- HongNiao 1/2/3 cruise missiles\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Missile guidance\n\nBULLET::::- Cruise missile\n\nBULLET::::- TERPROM\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Terrestrial Guidance Methods\", Section 16.5.3 of Fundamentals of Naval Weapons Systems\n\nBULLET::::- More info at fas.org\n\nBULLET::::- Info at aeronautics.ru\n", "Section::::Components.:Command Launch Unit.:Lightweight CLU.\n\nThe US Army is developing a new CLU as an improvement over the Block I version. The new CLU is 70 percent smaller, 40 percent lighter, and has a 50 percent battery life increase. Features of the lightweight CLU are: a long-wave IR sensor; a high-definition display with improved resolution; integrated handgrips; a five megapixel color camera; a laser point that can be seen visibly or through IR; a far target locator using GPS, a laser rangefinder, and a heading sensor; and modernized electronics.\n\nSection::::Components.:Launch Tube Assembly.\n", "As well as engaging and destroying targets within the line-of-sight of the launcher (\"fire-and-forget\"), some variants of the missile are capable of making a top attack profile through a \"fire, observe and update\" guidance method (essentially lock-on after launch (LOAL)); the operator tracking the target, or switching to another target, optically through the trailing fiber-optic wire (or RF link in the case of the vehicle-mounted, long-range NLOS variant) while the missile is climbing to altitude after launch. This is similar to the lofted trajectory flight profile of the US FGM-148 Javelin.\n\nSection::::Design.\n", "The seeker stays focused on the target's image continuing to track it as the target moves or the missile's flight path alters or as attack angles change. The seeker has three main components: focal plane array (FPA), cooling and calibration and stabilization.\n\nSection::::Components.:Missile.:Seeker.:Focal plane array (FPA).\n", "The M200 Intervention comes with a portable advanced ballistic computer, laser rangefinder binoculars and meteorological and environmental sensor package. All these components, together with the sniper rifle, are part of the CheyTac Long Range Sniper System (LRRS) and are linked to the ballistic computer. It provides all necessary data and calculations for accurate long range firing.\n", "Section::::Components.:Command Launch Unit.:Day Field of View.\n\nThe first view is a 4× magnification day view. It is mainly used to scan areas for light during daylight operation, because light is not visible in the thermal views. It is also used to scan following sunrise and sunset, when the thermal image is hard to focus due to the natural rapid heating and/or cooling of the Earth.\n\nSection::::Components.:Command Launch Unit.:WFOV (Wide Field of View).\n", "The Javelin Environmental Test System (JETS) is a mobile test set for Javelin All-Up-Round (AUR) and the Command Launch Unit (CLU). It can be configured to functionally test the AUR or the CLU individually or both units in a mated tactical mode. This mobile unit may be repositioned at the various environmental testing facilities. The mobile system is used for all phases of Javelin qualification testing. There is also a non-mobile JETS used for stand-alone CLU testing. This system is equipped with an environmental chamber and is primarily used for Product Verification Testing (PRVT). Capabilities include: Javelin CLU testing; Javelin AUR testing; Javelin Mated Mode testing; Javelin testing in various environmental conditions; and CLU PRVT.\n", "Section::::Detection, jamming and counter-jamming.:Anti-jamming technologies.\n", "Section::::Design and development.:Radar and Intelligence packages.\n\nThere are three different intelligence packages used by the DHIII:\n\nBULLET::::- Synthetic aperture radar (SAR): Creates images by using radio waves that bounce off surfaces, then measuring the echos. The SAR can be used in all weather conditions, while still providing an accurate image.\n\nBULLET::::- Signals intelligence (SIGINT): Intercepts electronic signals, and either records them as new information or matches them to known data.\n", "BULLET::::- Developed from 1978 and fielded between 1983 and 1986. upgraded the AN/MPQ-46 HPI to AN/MPQ-57 standard by replacing some of the vacuum tube based electronics with modern solid-state circuits, and added an optical TAS (Tracking Adjunct System). The TAS, designated OD-179/TVY, is an electro-optical (TV) tracking system that increases Hawk operability and survivability in a high-ECM environment.\n\nBULLET::::- Phase III\n", "Section::::Description.:Experimental-PM C-RAM's Iron Dome.\n\nPM C-RAM developed and successfully tested (Summer 2013) a system similar to Iron Dome. It was the Accelerated Improved Intercept Initiative program - known as AI3.\n\nThe AI3 Battle system includes the Raytheon Ku Radio Frequency System Fire Control Radar, an Avenger-based AI3 launcher, a C-RAM command and control, Technical Fire Control, and the Raytheon AI3 interceptor missile.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-13380	Why is it when it rains, peoples old injurys or places they had surgery on tend to hurt them?	Some say it is primarily psychological; conformation bias mostly. Your knee hurts a lot, and it rains sometimes, so eventually your knee will hurt right before it rains, and you will remember those times and forget the others. But my favorite theory is air pressure. Before it rains, the air pressure drops. Your body already has an internal pressure, and in places where it is not properly put to gether, (i.e. the places where it had been previously injured,) the internal pressure staying the same and the external pressure droping could cause it to move in uncomfortable ways.	[ "Section::::Reliability.:Sayings which may be locally accurate.:Aches and pains.\n\nThere have been medical studies done which indicate some people experience this effect. The most likely reason is that with a fall in atmospheric pressure, blood vessels dilate slightly in reaction. This has the effect of aggravating already-irritated nerves near corns, cavities, or arthritic joints. Studies are inconclusive, however, with some researchers attributing this effect to selective memory.\n\nSection::::Reliability.:Fallibility of lore.\n", "A study published in the \"British Medical Journal\" in 2017 examined reports of joint or back pain from millions of doctor visits between 2008 and 2012 as recorded by Medicare, the U.S. health system for the elderly. It compared these to rain data as recorded by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, but found no correlation.\n\nSection::::Non-English languages.\n", "Countering the 1929 barometric pressure claim, in a 2016 article entitled \"Do Your Aches, Pains Predict Rain?\" professor of atmospheric sciences Dennis Driscoll is reported as stating: \"People need to realize that the pressure changes associated with storms are rather small.\" In fact, Driscoll observes that the changes associated with a storm are about equivalent to what a person experiences in going up an elevator in a tall building. So far, there have not been many reports of people with arthritis hobbled by elevator rides in the medical literature.\n", "The first publication of documented changes in pain perception associated with the weather was in the \"American Journal of the Medical Sciences\" in 1887. This case report described a person with phantom limb pain who concluded that \"approaching storms, dropping barometric pressure and rain were associated with increased pain complaint.\" Most investigations examining the relationship between weather and pain have studied people diagnosed with arthritis. After reviewing many case reports, Rentshler reported in the \"Journal of the American Medical Association\" in 1929 that there was strong evidence that \"warm weather is beneficial and barometric pressure changes are detrimental to patients with arthritis.\"\n", "During attacks in infants, the child often looks startled or terrified and can scream inconsolably. These attacks can be precipitated by injections, defecation, wiping of the perineum, eating, or the consumption of oral medication. When attacks occur due to such precipitation, pain and flushing are often present in the area of attack precipitation, though symptoms may also be diffuse in nature.\n", "The perceived relationship between changes in weather and pain has been recorded since the classical Roman age. Hippocrates was the first to note, in about 400 B.C., that many illnesses were related to changes in season. The large body of folklore about how weather affects pain is reflected by traditional sayings and expressions, such as \"aches and pain, coming rains,\" \"feeling under the weather,\" and \"ill health due to evil winds.\"\n", "Flood water consumes land that previously did not contain water. This makes it hard for residents and rescuers to see clearly where they are going, which can hide potential risks for traumatic injuries. This includes the covering of sharp objects (metals, glass, sticks), rocks and ditches, electrical hazards (down power lines) and animals that can be displaced from the flood waters. \n\nSection::::Dermatological manifestations.:Other manifestations.\n\nAdditionally, psychological stress associated with a flooding event can lead to psycho-emotional aggravated primary skin disease, which exacerbates pre existing skin diseases such as: atopic dermatitis, alopecia areata, and psoriasis.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "Section::::Brain aneurysm and stroke.\n", "Weather pains\n\nWeather pains, weather-related pain, or meteoropathy is a phenomenon that occurs when people with conditions such as arthritis or limb injuries claim to feel pain, particularly with changes in barometric pressure, humidity or other weather phenomena. Scientific evidence, however, does not support a connection between weather and arthritic pain and concludes that it is largely or entirely due to perceptual errors such as confirmation bias. The term is from Greek \"meteora\", celestial phenomena, and \"pathos\", feeling, pain, suffering.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Treatment.\n\nRainscald normally heals on its own, however as the condition can spread to involve large areas, prompt treatment is recommended. Although some cases can be severe, most rain scald is minor and can be easily and cheaply treated at home naturally.\n", "Section::::Symptoms.\n\nSplints usually cause mild lameness (a grade of 1–2 out of 5). The injured area is hot, painful, and inflamed with a small bony swelling. However, splints do not always cause lameness, especially once \"cold\". More severe lameness is sometimes associated with a fractured splint bone, or soft tissue injury adjacent to the splints.\n", "Altogether it is of note that, especially in many Western countries, after a motor vehicle collision those involved seek health care for the assessment of injuries and for insurance documentation purposes. In contrast, in many less wealthy countries, there may be limited access to care and insurance may only be available to the wealthy. Against this background, the “(late) whiplash syndrome” (ICD-10: S13.4) has been one special focus of continuous and controversial scientific research since the 1950s as the worldwide incidence of such injuries varies enormously, from 16-2000 per 100,000 population, and the late whiplash syndrome in these cases varies between 18% to 40%. Thus, important work by Schrader et al. in \"The Lancet\" showed that late whiplash syndrome after a motor vehicle collision is rare or uncommon in Lithuania, and Cassidy et al.’s conclusion in the \"New England Journal of Medicine\" is that “the elimination of compensation for pain and suffering is associated with a decreased incidence and improved prognosis of whiplash injury”.\n", "In other regions of the world (e.g. western Europe), runoff and erosion result from relatively low intensities of stratiform rainfall falling onto the previously saturated soil. In such situations, rainfall amount rather than intensity is the main factor determining the severity of soil erosion by water.\n\nIn Taiwan, where typhoon frequency increased significantly in the 21st century, a strong link has been drawn between the increase in storm frequency with an increase in sediment load in rivers and reservoirs, highlighting the impacts climate change can have on erosion.\n\nSection::::Factors affecting erosion rates.:Vegetative cover.\n", "In March and April 2012, the Lower Rio Grande Valley in Texas was hit with two severe hailstorms. \"Texas Monthly\" wrote, “Windows were shattered. Hail knocked holes in rooftops. Unfortunate animals were beaten to death.” Insurers paid out $556 million in claims to homeowners and $47 million to car owners. After the storms, thousands of lawsuits were filed against insurers and adjusters. The lawsuits were based on allegations of “low-ball payments on claims.” As a reaction, a state senator introduced legislation (Senate Bill 1628) to reform hailstorm litigation.\n", "Government organizations help their residents deal with wet-season floods though floodplain mapping and information on erosion control. Mapping is conducted to help determine areas that may be more prone to flooding. Erosion control instructions are provided through outreach over the telephone or the internet.\n", "An increase in muddy flood frequency has been observed during the last twenty years (e.g. in central Belgium,). This increase in their frequency may be due to a number of factors including:\n\nBULLET::::- Change in agricultural practices that leave field bare of crops in the autumn and winter\n\nBULLET::::- A shift to crops that are more sensitive to soil erosion;\n\nBULLET::::- land consolidation (enlargement of fields, removal of landscape buffer elements such as hedges.\n\nBULLET::::- construction of new houses, upstream of cropland increasing run-off volumes and intensity\n\nBULLET::::- increased frequency of heavy rainfall.\n\nSection::::Control measures.\n", "Back in 1899 Thomas Barlow had already summarized with great detail the contrast between erythromelalgia and Raynaud's disease as following: \"Dependence produces considerable increase of the dusky red or violaceous tint of the extremity affected; the arteries in this position of the limb may pulsate forcibly; pain is common, sometimes constant, and more especially when the limb is dependent or parts pressed upon; in wintry weather, or on the application of cold, the conditions are relieved; on the other hand, warmth and summer weather increases pain; there is no loss of sensation, but there may be increased sensitiveness; the local temperature of the affected parts may be raised or lowered; gangrene does not occur; the affection is asymmetrical; there is a certain amount of swelling, sometimes allowing pitting on pressure, sometimes not; incisions over such swelling, even down to the bone, have proved useless; excessive pain on pressure upon the nerves supplying the parts affected is not found; muscular wasting is found, but explainable by the disuse of the limb, and is not at all as severe as in cases of disease of the peripheral nerves; a reaction of degeneration in the nerves of the affected parts has not been found; the deep reflexes, with few exceptions, are not reduced.\"\n", "Section::::Epidemiology.\n\nThe prevalence of POTS is unknown. One study estimated a minimal rate of 170 POTS cases per 100,000 individuals, but the true prevalence is likely higher due to underdiagnosis. Another study estimated that there at least 500,000 cases in the United States. POTS is more common in women, with a female-to-male ratio of 5:1. Most people with POTS are aged between 20 and 40, with an average onset of 30. Diagnoses of POTS beyond age 40 are rare, perhaps because symptoms improve with age.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The natural vegetation of Vertisols is grassland, savanna, or grassy woodland. The heavy texture and unstable behaviour of the soil makes it difficult for many tree species to grow, and forest is uncommon.\n\nThe shrinking and swelling of Vertisols can damage buildings and roads, leading to extensive subsidence. Vertisols are generally used for grazing of cattle or sheep. It is not unknown for livestock to be injured through falling into cracks in dry periods. Conversely, many wild and domestic ungulates do not like to move on this soil when inundated. However, the shrink-swell activity allows rapid recovery from compaction.\n", "Risk factors for developing shin splints include:\n\nBULLET::::- Flat feet or rigid arches\n\nBULLET::::- Being overweight\n\nBULLET::::- Excessively tight calf muscles (which can cause excessive pronation)\n\nBULLET::::- Engaging the medial shin muscle in excessive amounts of eccentric muscle activity\n\nBULLET::::- Undertaking high-impact exercises on hard, noncompliant surfaces (ex: running on asphalt or concrete)\n\nPeople who have previously had shin splints are more likely to have it again.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "“I wasn’t limited in the car at all,” Denny Hamlin said after finishing sixth with a torn right ACL. “You really don’t notice anything until you stop, and that’s the thing, feeling the throbbing, feeling my heart beat in my knee. I thought it (his knee) was good at first. I had it drained right before the race started, which helped a lot, getting a bunch of that blood out of there. After that, I felt pretty good. Obviously, any kind of heat brings swelling back. I’m sure it swelled again at the end of the race, and that’s why I’m as stiff as I am.”\n", "About 15 million km2 of the land surface is covered by crop-land, and about 16% of this area is equipped for irrigation (Siebert \"et al.\" 2005). Thus, in many parts of the world, including the United States, plants may frequently encounter dehydration stress. Rainfall is very seasonal and periodic drought occurs regularly. The effect of drought is more prominent in sandy soils with low water holding capacity. On such soils some plants may experience dehydration stress after only a few days without water.\n", "Effects of flooding on skin\n\nThere are several different types of skin conditions that may result from flooding.\n", "Drought is very detrimental to all types of plant growth. When there is no water in the soil there are not very many nutrients to support plant growth. Drought also enhances the effects of wind. When drought occurs the soil becomes very dry and light. The wind picks up this dry dirt and carries it away. This action severely degrades the soil and creates a poor condition for growing plants.\n\nSection::::Adaptation of plants.\n", "Other potential causes include stress fractures, compartment syndrome, nerve entrapment, and popliteal artery entrapment syndrome. If the cause is unclear medical imaging such as a bone scan or MRI may be performed. Bone scans and MRI can differentiate between stress fractures and shin splints.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01896	why do things that are hot (like lava or fire, or... lights) generate light?	When a thing is at a temperature over absolute zero, the atoms composing it are moving. When those atoms collide with each other, they lose a little bit of energy. That energy loss become electromagnetic radiation, in other words, light. The energy of light is related to its wavelength, so matter with different temperature will emit light with different wavelength. In the end, everything emit light, but things that are hot emit visible light. (While colder thing emit light that the human eyes can't see. For example, you're emitting infrared light) Of course, this come from an idealized physics object called black body, and not all light is made this way.	[ "There are many sources of light. A body at a given temperature emits a characteristic spectrum of black-body radiation. A simple thermal source is sunlight, the radiation emitted by the chromosphere of the Sun at around peaks in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum when plotted in wavelength units and roughly 44% of sunlight energy that reaches the ground is visible. Another example is incandescent light bulbs, which emit only around 10% of their energy as visible light and the remainder as infrared. A common thermal light source in history is the glowing solid particles in flames, but these also emit most of their radiation in the infrared, and only a fraction in the visible spectrum.\n", "On the surface of Earth, at far lower temperatures than the surface of the Sun, some thermal radiation consists of infrared in the mid-infrared region, much longer than in sunlight. However, black body or thermal radiation is continuous: it gives off radiation at all wavelengths. Of these natural thermal radiation processes, only lightning and natural fires are hot enough to produce much visible energy, and fires produce far more infrared than visible-light energy.\n\nSection::::Regions within the infrared.\n", "Photonic curing\n\nPhotonic curing is the high-temperature thermal processing of a thin film using pulsed light from a flashlamp. When this transient processing is done on a low-temperature substrate such as plastic or paper, it is possible to attain a significantly higher temperature than the substrate can ordinarily withstand under an equilibrium heating source such as an oven. Since the rate of most thermal curing processes (drying, sintering, reacting, annealing, etc.) generally increase exponentially with temperature (i.e. they obey the Arrhenius equation), this process allows materials to be cured much more rapidly than with an oven.\n", "Although much of the literature on the subject is concerned with just one mechanism, there are actually several different mechanisms that produce the photoacoustic effect. The primary universal mechanism is \"photothermal\", based on the heating effect of the light and the consequent expansion of the light-absorbing material. In detail, the photothermal mechanism consists of the following stages: \n\nBULLET::::1. conversion of the absorbed pulsed or modulated radiation into heat energy.\n\nBULLET::::2. temporal changes of the temperatures at the loci where radiation is absorbed – rising as radiation is absorbed and falling when radiation stops and the system cools.\n", "List of light sources\n\nThis is a list of sources of light, including both natural and artificial processes that emit light. This article focuses on sources that produce wavelengths from about 390 to 700 nanometers, called visible light.\n\nSection::::Incandescence.\n\nIncandescence is the emission of light from a hot body as a result of its temperature.\n\nBULLET::::- Black-body radiation\n\nBULLET::::- Carbon button lamp (Defunct)\n\nBULLET::::- Earthquake light\n\nBULLET::::- Halogen lamp\n\nBULLET::::- Incandescent light bulb\n\nBULLET::::- Lava\n\nBULLET::::- Nernst lamp (Defunct)\n\nBULLET::::- Volcanic eruption\n\nSection::::Incandescence.:Combustion.\n\nSection::::Incandescence.:Combustion.:Lamps.\n\nBULLET::::- Argand lamp (Defunct)\n\nBULLET::::- Argon flash\n\nBULLET::::- Carbide lamp\n\nBULLET::::- Betty lamp (Defunct)\n", "BULLET::::- Objects may emit light that they generate from having excited electrons, rather than merely reflecting or transmitting light. The electrons may be excited due to elevated temperature (\"[[incandescence]]\"), as a result of chemical reactions (\"[[chemoluminescence]]\"), after absorbing light of other frequencies (\"[[fluorescence]]\" or \"[[phosphorescence]]\") or from electrical contacts as in [[light emitting diodes]], or other [[list of light sources\|light sources]].\n", "Black-body radiation has a characteristic, continuous frequency spectrum that depends only on the body's temperature, called the Planck spectrum or Planck's law. The spectrum is peaked at a characteristic frequency that shifts to higher frequencies with increasing temperature, and at room temperature most of the emission is in the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum. As the temperature increases past about 500 degrees Celsius, black bodies start to emit significant amounts of visible light. Viewed in the dark by the human eye, the first faint glow appears as a \"ghostly\" grey (the visible light is actually red, but low intensity light activates only the eye's grey-level sensors). With rising temperature, the glow becomes visible even when there is some background surrounding light: first as a dull red, then yellow, and eventually a \"dazzling bluish-white\" as the temperature rises. When the body appears white, it is emitting a substantial fraction of its energy as ultraviolet radiation. The Sun, with an effective temperature of approximately 5800 K, is an approximate black body with an emission spectrum peaked in the central, yellow-green part of the visible spectrum, but with significant power in the ultraviolet as well.\n", "Sunlight also drives many weather phenomena on Earth. One example is a hurricane, which occurs when large unstable areas of warm ocean, heated over months, give up some of their thermal energy suddenly to power a few days of violent air movement. Sunlight is also captured by plants as chemical potential energy via photosynthesis, when carbon dioxide and water are converted into a combustible combination of carbohydrates, lipids, and oxygen. The release of this energy as heat and light may be triggered suddenly by a spark, in a forest fire; or it may be available more slowly for animal or human metabolism when these molecules are ingested, and catabolism is triggered by enzyme action.\n", "Section::::Other applications.\n\nSection::::Other applications.:Voting.\n", "The peak of the blackbody spectrum is in the deep infrared, at about 10 micrometre wavelength, for relatively cool objects like human beings. As the temperature increases, the peak shifts to shorter wavelengths, producing first a red glow, then a white one, and finally a blue-white colour as the peak moves out of the visible part of the spectrum and into the ultraviolet. These colours can be seen when metal is heated to \"red hot\" or \"white hot\". Blue-white thermal emission is not often seen, except in stars (the commonly seen pure-blue colour in a gas flame or a welder's torch is in fact due to molecular emission, notably by CH radicals (emitting a wavelength band around 425 nm, and is not seen in stars or pure thermal radiation).\n", "The photothermal mechanism manifests itself, besides the photoacoustic effect, also by other physical changes, notably emission of infra-red radiation and changes in the refraction index. Correspondingly, it may be detected by various other means, described by terms such as \"photothermal radiometry\", \"thermal lens\" and \"thermal beam deflection\" (popularly also known as \"mirage\" effect) (see Photothermal spectroscopy. These methods parallel the photoacoustic detection. However, each method has its special range of application.\n\nSection::::Physical mechanisms.:Other.\n", "Incandescence\n\nIncandescence is the emission of electromagnetic radiation (including visible light) from a hot body as a result of its temperature. The term derives from the Latin verb \"incandescere,\" to glow white. \n\nIncandescence is a special case of thermal radiation. Incandescence usually refers specifically to visible light, while thermal radiation refers also to infrared or any other electromagnetic radiation.\n\nFor information on the intensity and spectrum (color) of incandescence, see thermal radiation.\n\nSection::::Observation and use.\n", "The ultra-violet light to produce these effects may be obtained from an arc lamp, or by burning magnesium, or by sparking with an induction coil between zinc or cadmium terminals, the light from which is very rich in ultra-violet rays. Sunlight is not rich in ultra-violet rays, as these have been absorbed by the atmosphere, and it does not produce nearly so large an effect as the arc-light. Many substances besides metals discharge negative electricity under the action of ultraviolet light: lists of these substances will be found in papers by G. C. Schmidt and O. Knoblauch.\n\nSection::::History.:19th century.\n", "Color and temperature of a flame are dependent on the type of fuel involved in the combustion, as, for example, when a lighter is held to a candle. The applied heat causes the fuel molecules in the candle wax to vaporize. In this state they can then readily react with oxygen in the air, which gives off enough heat in the subsequent exothermic reaction to vaporize yet more fuel, thus sustaining a consistent flame. The high temperature of the flame causes the vaporized fuel molecules to decompose, forming various incomplete combustion products and free radicals, and these products then react with each other and with the oxidizer involved in the reaction. Sufficient energy in the flame will excite the electrons in some of the transient reaction intermediates such as the methylidyne radical (CH) and diatomic carbon (C), which results in the emission of visible light as these substances release their excess energy (see spectrum below for an explanation of which specific radical species produce which specific colors). As the combustion temperature of a flame increases (if the flame contains small particles of unburnt carbon or other material), so does the average energy of the electromagnetic radiation given off by the flame (see Black body).\n", "Section::::Organic materials.:Leuco dyes.:Inks.\n", "In Christianity, from the very first, fire and light are conceived as symbols, if not as visible manifestations, of the divine nature and the divine presence. Christ is the true Light, \"and at his transfiguration the fashion Christian of his countenance was altered, and his raiment was white and glistering\"; \"when the Holy Ghost descended upon the apostles, there appeared unto them cloven tongues of fire, and it sat upon each of them\"; \"at the conversion of St Paul there shined round him a great light from heaven\"; \"while the glorified Christ is represented as standing in the midst of seven candlesticks ... his head and hairs white like wool, as white as snow; and his eyes as a flame of fire\". Christians are children of Light at perpetual war with the powers of darkness.\n", "Light and heat detected from planets must be distinguished from natural sources to conclusively prove the existence of intelligent life on a planet. For example, NASA's 2012 \"Black Marble\" experiment showed that significant stable light and heat sources on Earth, such as chronic wildfires in arid Western Australia, originate from uninhabited areas and are naturally occurring.\n\nSection::::Planetary analysis.:Atmospheric analysis.\n", "Section::::Photoluminescent material for temperature detection.\n\nIn phosphor thermometry, the temperature dependence of the photoluminescence process is exploited to measure temperature.\n\nSection::::Experimental Methods.\n", "Section::::Hypotheses.:Piezoelectricity.\n", "Emitted colors depend on the electronic configuration of the elements involved. Heat energy from the flame excites electrons to a higher quantum level, and the atoms emit characteristic colors (photons with energies corresponding to the visible spectrum) as they return to lower energy levels.\n\nSection::::Campfire colorants.\n", "The emission spectrum characteristics of some elements are plainly visible to the naked eye when these elements are heated. For example, when platinum wire is dipped into a strontium nitrate solution and then inserted into a flame, the strontium atoms emit a red color. Similarly, when copper is inserted into a flame, the flame becomes green. These definite characteristics allow elements to be identified by their atomic emission spectrum. Not all emitted lights are perceptible to the naked eye, as the spectrum also includes ultraviolet rays and infrared lighting.\n", "While the photothermal mechanism is universal, there could exist additional other mechanisms, superimposed on the photothermal mechanism, which may contribute significantly to the photoacoustic signal. These mechanisms are generally related to photophysical processes and photochemical reactions following light absorption: (1) change in the material balance of the sample and/or the gaseous phase around the sample; (2) change in the molecular organization, which results in molecular volume changes. Most prominent examples for these two kinds of mechanisms are in photosynthesis \n", "BULLET::::- \"In 1672, in the first paper that he submitted to the Royal Society, Isaac Newton described an experiment in which he permitted sunlight to pass through a small hole and then through a prism. Newton found that sunlight, which looks white to us, is actually made up of a mixture of all the colors of the rainbow.\"\n", "Lamps for illumination rather than heat may use a deliberately luminous flame. A more efficient method overall uses a mantle instead. Like the incandescent soot in a luminous flame, the mantle is heated and then glows. The flame does not provide much light itself, and so a more heat-efficient non-luminous flame is preferred. Unlike simple soot, a mantle uses rare-earth elements to provide a bright white glow; the colour of the glow comes from the spectral lines of these elements, not from simple black-body radiation.\n\nSection::::Flame testing.\n", "A related hypothesis involves the natural chemiluminescence of phosphine. In 2008, the Italian chemists Luigi Garlaschelli and Paolo Boschetti attempted to recreate Mills' experiments. They successfully created a faint cool light by mixing phosphine with air and nitrogen. Though the glow was still greenish in color, Garlaschelli and Boschetti noted that under low-light conditions, the human eye cannot easily distinguish between colors. Furthermore, by adjusting the concentrations of the gases and the environmental conditions (temperature, humidity, etc.), it was possible to eliminate the smoke and smell, or at least render it to undetectable levels. Garlaschelli and Boschetti also agreed with Mills that cold flames may also be a plausible explanation for other instances of ignis fatuus.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-19771	Why is suspension from school a punishment? Isn't that just giving them what they want?	It is intended that they are punished by the parents, at home. Schools have very limited ability to discipline children, so leaving it up to the parents should be beneficial to everyone.	[ "Schools are usually required to notify the student's parents/guardians of the reason for and duration of a suspension (whether ISS or OSS). Students are often required to continue to learn and complete assignments during their suspension. Studies suggest that exclusion can be associated with psychological distress, and to have a bi-directional link with mental illness. In the United Kingdom, excluded children have been targeted by \"county lines\" drug traffickers.\n\nSection::::Non-corporal forms of disciplinary action.:Expulsion.\n", "Lincoln High School in Walla Walla, Washington, adapted a trauma-informed approached to discipline and reduced its suspensions by 85%. Rather than standard punishment, students are taught to recognize their reaction to stress and learn to control it. Spokane, Washington, schools conducted a research study that demonstrated that academic risk was correlated with students’ experiences of traumatic events known to their teachers. The same school district has begun a study to test the impact of trauma-informed intervention programs, in an attempt to reduce the impact of toxic stress.\n", "Out of school suspension\n\nThe student's parents or guardians are usually notified as to the reason for and the duration of the suspension,such as the student being involved in a physical altercation.\n", "In New York City, Carmen Fariña, head of the New York City Department of Education, restricted school suspension by principals in 2015. The Los Angeles Unified school board, responsible for educating 700,000 students, voted in 2013 to ban suspensions for \"willful defiance\", which had mostly been used against students from racial minorities. A year later, the same school district decided to decriminalize school discipline so that minor offenses would be referred to school staff rather than prosecuted -- the previous approach had resulted in black students being six times more likely to be arrested or given a ticket than white students. The district saw suspensions drop by 53%, and graduation rates rise by 12%.\n", "Disciplinary programs for student misconduct at Drew Central are Detention Hall, in-school suspension, and out-of-school suspension, depending on the seriousness of the infraction. In extreme cases a student may be recommended for expulsion from the school.\n\nDetention Hall takes place each day at 7:00 am.\n", "School discipline\n\nSchool discipline relates to the actions taken by a teacher or the school organization towards a student (or group of students) when the student's behavior disrupts the ongoing educational activity or breaks a rule created by the teacher or the school system. Discipline can guide the children's behaviour or set limits to help them learn to take care of themselves, other people and the world around them.\n", "Namond attends his separate class, part of a University of Maryland-funded investigation targeting prevention of repeat violent offender behavior at the school level. Howard \"Bunny\" Colvin oversees the class with Dr. David Parenti. Two specialist teachers try to control the children. One girl, Chandra, will not stop brushing her hair, so she is removed from the class. When she returns, Namond repeatedly acts out and tries to get himself suspended. The class has a no-suspension policy and he is simply removed from the class temporarily instead.\n", "BULLET::::- A second grader in Baltimore, Maryland, was suspended in March 2013 for biting a Pop-Tart into the shape of a mountain, which school officials mistook for a gun.\n\nBULLET::::- 6-year-old Hunter Yelton in Colorado was suspended in 2013 for alleged repeated sexual harassment of a 6-year-old schoolmate, a charge the boy's family disputed. Following widespread negative media coverage and public disapproval, the school agreed to downgrade the suspension cause to \"misconduct\".\n", "Section::::Behavior Management.\n\nMany school behavior management efforts criminalize small infractions, and maintain a focus on retribution rather than restoration. This, combined with institutional and individual bias, results in a significant overrepresentation of students of color in suspension and expulsion rates. Advocates of social justice in schools purport that exclusionary discipline practices such as suspension and expulsion actively remove students from their school communities and exacerbate feelings of isolation and resentment.\n", "Southpointe Academy went through a rough patch when their band teacher was suspended after telling a student \"go kill yourself it wont matter anyway.\" The band teachers suspension starts once the school year ends and it is merely for about 3 days. The student whom was told to kill himself was a Grade 9 student who brought weed to the school camp. \n", "Studies have shown that \"kids who are at high risk of dropping out of school and abusing drugs are more isolated and depressed and have more problems with anger\", says Dr. Leona Eggert of the University of Washington in Seattle. \"They are disconnected from school and family and are loosely connected with negative peers\" (Eggert, 1995; Nicholas, 1995; Owen, 1995).\n\nOverall implementing positive programs to deal with Positive Discipline will better the decision making process of teens and parents, according to some researchers.\n\nSection::::Benefits.\n\nBULLET::::- Better student-teacher relations.\n\nBULLET::::- Less teacher wasted energy/frustration.\n", "At CMS, 27.9% of all students currently attending have received at least one In-School Suspension, a chronic amount compared to the Illinois Middle School average of 3.8%. Also, 26.2% of students have had at least on Out-of-School Suspension, compared to the Illinois Middle School average of 3.6%.\n\nSection::::6th Grade.\n", "In Australia, the policy for school detention: the principal must consider circumstances when determining what a reasonable time and place for detention entails and make sure that any special conditions relating to the imposition of detention are specified in the school's 'Student Engagement Policy'. The conditions that schools must ensure are that: no more than half the time for recess is used for detention, when students are kept after school, parents should be informed at least the day before detention, and detention should not exceed 45 minutes.\n\nSection::::Non-corporal forms of disciplinary action.:Counseling.\n", "The loss of instruction time in the classroom can hugely impact student performance. They academically suffer and gain an increased chance in grade retention after one is suspended once they are more likely to be again. The increasingly severe consequences of their actions have students become prey to the push-out mechanism and drop out of school altogether.\n", "In 2009, the United States Government Accountability Office (GAO) undertook a nationwide study of the use of restraint and seclusion in schools and its effects. The GAO found \"hundreds of cases of alleged abuse and death related to the use of these methods on schoolchildren during the past two decades.\" Most of the incidents involved children with disabilities who are enrolled in special education, the GAO reported.\n", "In academia, suspension (also known as temporary exclusion) is a mandatory leave assigned to a student as a form of punishment that can last anywhere from one day to several weeks, during which time the student is not allowed to attend regular school lessons\"===ISS/In-School Suspension===\n", "In-School Suspension (ISS) or On-Campus suspension (OCS), sometimes known as \"internal exclusion/isolation\", and by some Florida schools as \"School Center for Special Instruction\", is an alternative setting that removes students from the classroom for a period of time, while requiring students to attend school and complete their work. This form of punishment is often chosen because it provides supervision and structure to the students' days, whereas a student who is given an off-campus suspension receives essentially an unscheduled holiday, as off-campus suspension is widely considered to be nothing more than a pleasant reward to most students, instead of the punishment that it is intended to be, and also gives students more of a reason to misbehave on purpose, to those who would prefer to be suspended out of school, rather than being kept in school. Generally, a student assigned to on-campus suspension spends the entire school day in the designated OCS location, completes work submitted in advance by the student's teachers, and is monitored by school staff. One variation of in-school suspension requires the student to arrive at school at a designated time on a Saturday to serve out their punishment, rather than miss class time during the week. This type of punishment is commonly referred to as \"Saturday School\" or more commonly, \"Saturday Detention\", but it may go under other names as well. The name \"Saturday School\" is also used to indicate detention, a less serious punishment. If a student fails to show up at Saturday School, it might result in a more serious punishment being given to the student.\n", "Section::::History.:Media attention.\n\nMedia attention has proven embarrassing to school officials, resulting in changes to state laws as well as to local school policies. One school board member gave this reason for changes his district made to their rigid policy: \"We are doing this because we got egg on our face.\"\n\nBULLET::::- A student at Sandusky High School in Sandusky, Ohio, was suspended for 90 days and failed, after school authorities searched him for drugs in September 1999, and found a broken pocketknife. He had used the knife to clean his golfing cleats.\n", "According to kidsdata.org for the year 2012, 21,638 students were suspended and 592 students were expelled from San Diego County schools. A total of 10.1% of students did not complete their high school diploma.\n\nDespite a decrease in juvenile arrest, suspensions, expulsions, and drop out rates, many still argue that these disciplinary policies have helped contribute to students not completing their high school curriculum. Schools are struggling to keep students within the walls of the educational system rather than the walls of a juvenile detention center.\n\nSection::::Escondido school knives case.\n", "Suspension or temporary exclusion is mandatory leave assigned to a student as a form of punishment that can last anywhere from one day to a few weeks, during which the student is not allowed to attend regular lessons. In some US, UK, Australian and Canadian schools, there are two types of suspension: In-School (ISS, Internal Exclusion or Isolation) and Out-of-School (OSS, Off-Campus Suspension, External Exclusion). In-school suspension means that the student comes to school as usual, but must report to a designated room for the entire school day. Out-of-school suspension means that the student is barred from entering the school grounds. Students who breach an out-of-school suspension may be arrested for and charged with trespassing. This could result in an extension of suspension, community service, and sometimes jail time. Students who continually breach a suspension could be sentenced to expulsion and longer, more severe punishments. Students are also not allowed to attend after-school activities (such as proms, sporting events, etc.) while suspended from school.\n", "One witness testified that her 14-year-old son was killed when restrained by his 230-pound teacher, who smothered him by lying on top of him in a restraint during a disagreement about lunch. Another witness testified that her 7-year-old daughter was bruised when she was restrained face down for playing with her tooth, but the parent was never informed by the school. She also testified that her child was later restrained again, and received a severe abrasion, but she was not informed of the restraint. She testified that other children were denied access to food, water, and the bathroom while isolated in seclusion confinement rooms.\n", "Wilson submitted ten recommendations to Liz Sandals, the Minister of Education. Sandals commented about the report: \"The culture of fear, which may have started at the upper levels of the board, is getting dangerously close to the classroom...we have to stop that.\"\n", "Part of this approach is developing a clear classroom discipline plan that consists of rules which students must follow at all times, positive recognition that students will receive for following the rules, and consequences that result when students choose not to follow the rules. These consequences should escalate when a student breaks the rules more than once in the same lesson. But (except in unusual circumstances) the slate starts anew the next day.\n\nAssumptions of this approach include:\n\nBULLET::::- Students will misbehave.\n\nBULLET::::- Students must be forced to comply with rules.\n", "The Safe Schools Suspension Lab is a program that provides a safe, supervised alternative to at-home suspension for students whose behavior requires them to be removed from the traditional classroom.\n\nIn 2009, the school district made national news when it approved an anti-bullying policy that specifically prohibits cyberbullying and sexting.\n\nSection::::Schools of choice.\n", "Halfway through the school summer holiday, all 117 excluded students were sent a letter stating that expelled students had had the punishment erased from their records, as discussed between the head master and the school governors.\n" ]	[ "School suspension is not punishment for students. " ]	[ "Parents are to punish student when suspension is received. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "School suspension is not punishment for students. ", "School suspension is not punishment for students. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Parents are to punish student when suspension is received. ", "Parents are to punish student when suspension is received. " ]
2018-10904	When I soak a plaster container that has been stained with red sauce in hydrogen peroxide, the stain disappears. But the peroxide stays clear. Where does the color go?	Hydrogen peroxide is an oxidizer that reacts with the compounds that give the color, producing colorless byproducts and likely some gases.	[ "Acid digestion is the most common dissolution method used for many types of samples. Unfortunately, acid digestion involves numerous manipulations of concentrated acids. Some types of samples even require the use of perchloric acid (HClO) that is explosive when it comes into contact with any organic materials. It can be readily combined with hydrofluoric acid (HF) and brought to a fumic state to drive off this volatile acid that is extremely dangerous to human health, not to mention it will dissolve the walls of any glass container it is being processed within. Moreover, it is often difficult to get full dissolution of the sample, even when using these hazardous chemicals.\n", "The indicator used in this reaction is a starch solution where amylose forms a blue to black solution with iodine and is colourless where iodine is titrated.\n\nA precaution that should be observed is to add the starch indicator solution only near the end point (the end point is near when fading of the yellowish iodine colour occurs) because at high iodine concentration starch is decomposed to products whose indicator properties are not entirely reversible.\n\nSection::::Taste.\n", "The decomposition of NI proceeds as follows to give nitrogen gas and iodine:\n\nHowever, the dry material is a contact explosive, decomposing approximately as follows:\n\nConsistent with this equation, these explosions leave orange-to-purple stains of iodine, which can be removed with sodium thiosulfate solution. An alternate method of stain removal is to simply allow the iodine time to sublime.\n", "Barium sulfate produced in this way is often called \"blanc fixe\", which is French for \"permanent white.\" Blanc fixe is the form of barium encountered in consumer products, such as paints.\n", "There is still some debate over the long-term effectiveness of this technique. Some have discovered the yellowing reappears, and there is discussion of factors that may result in this happening. There are also some concerns that the process weakens the plastic.\n\nSection::::Composition.\n\nRetr0bright consists of hydrogen peroxide, a small amount of the \"active oxygen\" laundry booster TAED as a catalyst, and a UV lamp.\n\nThe optimum mixture and conditions for reversing yellowing of plastics:\n\nBULLET::::- Hydrogen peroxide solution. 12% or 6% work the same, and even 3% has been used with success.\n", "The primary redox reactions for permanganate are given by the equations:\n\nBULLET::::1. + 8 + 5e → + 4 — (for pH 3.5)\n\nBULLET::::2. + 2 + 3e → (S) + 4 — (for pH 3.5 to 12)\n\nBULLET::::3. + e → — (for pH 12)\n\nThe typical reaction that occurs under common environmental conditions is equation 2. This reaction forms a solid product, .\n", "at 75 or 80 °C typically for 10 minutes. This base-peroxide mixture removes organic residues. Particles are also very effectively removed, even insoluble particles, since SC-1 modifies the surface and particle zeta potentials and causes them to repel. This treatment results in the formation of a thin silicon dioxide layer (about 10 Angstrom) on the silicon surface, along with a certain degree of metallic contamination (notably iron) that will be removed in subsequent steps.\n\nSection::::Standard recipe.:Second step (optional): oxide strip.\n", "Lipids and fatty acids in the bone and in the fat tissues tend to stain the bone brown. Oxidising bleaches may be used to whiten the bone, but if too much is used the perchlorate or hypochlorite damages the bone tissue, leaving it chalky and brittle. Hydrogen peroxide at quite low concentrations, say 1% to 3% replenished every few days, is less inclined to damage the tissue, though it may take a week or two to achieve complete whiteness.\n\nSection::::Completion.\n", " The Fenton process utilizes iron catalysts with HO to create powerful, oxidizing hydroxides for the degradation of organic pollutants such as sewage and sludge as well as dyes. To enhance the catalytic abilities, a combination of Fe cations, ultraviolet light, and hydrogen peroxide can be used and has shown greater removals of dye solutions.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Biomass.\n", "Caustic paint removers, typically sodium hydroxide (also known as lye or caustic soda), work by breaking down the chemical bonds of the paint, usually by hydrolysis of the chain bonds of the polymers forming the paint. Caustic removers must be neutralized or the new finish will fail prematurely. In addition, several side effects and health risks must be taken into account in using caustic paint removers. Such caustic aqueous solutions are typically used by antique dealers who aim to restore old furniture by stripping off worn varnishes, for example.\n\nSection::::Types of chemical paint remover.:Solvents.\n", "Section::::Uses.:Education.\n\nIn a highly basic solution, phenolphthalein's slow change from pink to colorless as it is converted to its In(OH) form is used in chemistry classes for the study of reaction kinetics.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Entertainment.\n\nPhenolphthalein is used in toys, for example as a component of disappearing inks, or disappearing dye on the Hollywood Hair Barbie hair. In the ink, it is mixed with sodium hydroxide, which reacts with carbon dioxide in the air. This reaction leads to the pH falling below the color change threshold as hydrogen ions are released by the reaction:\n", "Lemon juice, containing citric acid which is the active bleaching agent, can effectively remove stains. Its action can be accelerated by exposing the stain to sunlight, or some other UV source, while soaking.\n\nVarious acids were used in the past such as Phosphoric acid as used in Calcium Lime Rust Remover (CLR) and Hydrofluoric acid as used in the Australian product made in Queensland called \"Rustiban\". Both of these Acids have been removed from sale to the general public due to toxicity concerns. Both of these acids were used primarily to remove rust.\n\nOther rust removal acids are oxalic acid.\n", "Color-changing paints can also be made by adding halochrome compounds or other organic pigments. One patent cites use of these indicators for wall coating applications for light colored paints. When the paint is wet it is pink in color but upon drying it regains its original white color. As cited in patent, this property of the paint enabled two or more coats to be applied on a wall properly and evenly. The previous coats having dried would be white whereas the new wet coat would be distinctly pink. Ashland Inc. introduced foundry refractory coatings with similar principle in 2005 for use in foundries.\n", "OsO may be replaced with a number of other Osmium compounds. Periodate may also be replaced with other oxidising agents, such as oxone.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Many methods of performing Perls Prussian blue stain for iron have been published, Drury and Wallington (1980) give a protocol that uses a mixture of 1 part 2% hydrochloric acid and 1 part 2% potassium ferrocyanide that is applied to the section for 20-30 minutes followed by a rinse in distilled water and application of a counterstain such as eosin, safranin or neutral red.\n\nSection::::Mode of action.\n", "Osmium tetraoxide is used in optical microscopy to stain lipids. It dissolves in fats, and is reduced by organic materials to elemental osmium, an easily visible black substance.\n\nSection::::Common biological stains.:Propidium Iodide.\n", "See also Borax or Boric Acid, Vinegar ( or acetic acid ) which can also help bring out stains.\n\nSection::::Stain removal.:Solvents.:Alkalis.\n", "The opacity and the film thickness of paint may be measured using a drawdown card.\n\nWater-based paints tend to be the easiest to clean up after use; the brushes and rollers can be cleaned with soap and water.\n\nProper disposal of left over paint is a challenge. Sometimes it can be recycled: Old paint may be usable for a primer coat or an intermediate coat, and paints of similar chemistry can be mixed to make a larger amount of a uniform color.\n", "Section::::Agents of Oxidization.:Persulfate.\n", "The color-changing indicator of tape is usually lead carbonate based, which decomposes to lead(II) oxide. To protect users from lead -- and because this decomposition can occur at many moderate temperatures -- manufactures may protect the lead carbonate layer with a resin or polymer that is degraded under steam at high temperature.\n", "BULLET::::- In some cases, pink or blue colors appear in some sheet films. This is caused by antihalation dyes, which are normally colorless and incorporated into the gelatin layer. When acetic acid is formed during deterioration, the acidic environment causes the dyes to return to their original pink or blue color.\n\nSection::::Decay and the \"vinegar syndrome\".:Testing for degradation.\n", "Surfactant leaching of acrylic (latex) paints, also known as streak staining, streaking, weeping, exudation, etc., occurs when the freshly painted surface becomes wet and water-soluble components of the paint (dispersants, surfactants, thickeners, glycols, etc.) leach out of the paint in sticky brown streaks. This may happen, e.g., due to rain or dew for exterior surfaces, or water vapor condensation on interior ones. On the external surfaces the streaks will normally weather off in several weeks, and removal of them before that time is impractical, especially because it may damage the paint before it is completely cured. The streaking phenomenon may also be observed for some silicone sealants.\n", "Peroxides may be removed by washing with acidic iron(II) sulfate, filtering through alumina, or distilling from sodium/benzophenone. Alumina does not destroy the peroxides but merely traps them, and must be disposed of properly. The advantage of using sodium/benzophenone is that moisture and oxygen are removed as well.\n\nSection::::Health effects.\n\nGeneral health hazards associated with solvent exposure include toxicity to the nervous system, reproductive damage, liver and kidney damage, respiratory impairment, cancer, and dermatitis.\n\nSection::::Health effects.:Acute exposure.\n", "BULLET::::- On 15 August 2010, a spill of about of cleaning fluid occurred on the 54th floor of 1515 Broadway, in Times Square, New York City. The spill, which a spokesperson for the New York City fire department said was of hydrogen peroxide, shut down Broadway between West 42nd and West 48th streets as fire engines responded to the hazmat situation. There were no reported injuries.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- FOX reagent, used to measure levels of hydrogen peroxide in biological systems.\n\nBULLET::::- Hydrogen chalcogenide\n\nSection::::References.\n\nNotes\n\nBibliography\n\nBULLET::::- A great description of properties & chemistry of .\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Hydrogen peroxide should be stored in a cool, dry, well-ventilated area and away from any flammable or combustible substances. It should be stored in a container composed of non-reactive materials such as stainless steel or glass (other materials including some plastics and aluminium alloys may also be suitable). Because it breaks down quickly when exposed to light, it should be stored in an opaque container, and pharmaceutical formulations typically come in brown bottles that block light.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-10097	Why does Christianity have so many denominations compared to Islam/Judaism/Hinduism?	I'm not sure that it does. I don't know much about Hinduism, but both [Islam]( URL_0 ) and [Judaism]( URL_1 ) have many different branches and schools.	[ "Roman Rite Catholicism was introduced to India by the Portuguese, Italian and Irish Jesuits in the 16th century under the influence of its allied empires. Most Christian schools, hospitals, primary care centres originated through the Roman Catholic missions brought by the trade of these countries. Traditional Anglicanism was introduced by the British missions under British Empire which shares a common ecclesial traditions with Catholicism. Evangelical and reformed Protestantism was later spread to India by the efforts of America, German and independent missionaries to preach the gospel of Jesus Christ among Indians, majority of whom suffered militant persecution and were martyred as they did not had background support from mainstream powerful churches. The Protestant missions introduced formal English education in India and produced early translations of the Holy Bible in Indian languages (including Tamil, Malayalam, Telugu, Hindi, Urdu and others).\n", "List of Christian denominations in India\n\nThe earliest form of Christianity in India was that adopted by the Saint Thomas Christians in Kerala in the 1st century. This diversified into different churches as time went by. Later, Roman Catholic and Protestant denominations were introduced by European missionaries and colonisers.\n\nSection::::A.\n\nBULLET::::- Aaradhanalaya Church of India\n\nBULLET::::- Advent Christian Conference\n\nBULLET::::- Amazing Grace Ministries\n\nBULLET::::- Anglican Church of India (Continuing Anglican)\n\nBULLET::::- Apatani Christian Fellowship\n\nBULLET::::- Apostolic Christian Assembly\n\nBULLET::::- Apostolic Church of Pentecost\n\nBULLET::::- Apostolic Evangelical Church of India\n\nBULLET::::- Apostolic Fellowship Tabernacle\n\nBULLET::::- Apostolic Pentecostal Church\n", "In 2015, Statistics Netherlands found that 50.1% of the adult population declared themselves non-religious. Christians comprised 43.8% of the total population, of whom 23.7% were Catholics; 15.5% Protestants; and 4.6% members of other Christian denominations. Followers of Islam comprised 4.9% of the total population, Hinduism 0.6%, Buddhism 0.4% and Judaism 0.1%.\n", "Section::::Modern period.:Arrival of Protestant missions.\n\nBeginning about 1700 Protestant missionaries began working throughout India, leading to the establishment of different Christian communities across the Indian Subcontinent.\n\nSection::::Modern period.:Lutherans.\n", "BULLET::::- Metropolitan Church Association\n\nBULLET::::- Mission Society of Mar Gregorios of India\n\nBULLET::::- Mission India\n\nBULLET::::- Moravian Church\n\nSection::::N.\n\nBULLET::::- Nagaland Baptist Church Council\n\nBULLET::::- National Missionary Society of India\n\nBULLET::::- Native Missionary Movement\n\nBULLET::::- Navajeeva Ashram\n\nBULLET::::- National Church of India\n\nBULLET::::- New India Church Of God\n\nBULLET::::- New Life Churches\n\nBULLET::::- New Life Fellowship Association\n\nBULLET::::- New Life Outreach\n\nBULLET::::- New Testament Church of India\n\nBULLET::::- North Bank Baptist Christian Association\n\nBULLET::::- North India Tribal Mission\n\nSection::::O.\n\nBULLET::::- Open Bible Church of God\n\nBULLET::::- Orissa Missionary Movement\n\nBULLET::::- Orthodox Church (Oriental Orthodoxy)\n\nBULLET::::- Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church\n", "BULLET::::- Bible Pattern Church\n\nBULLET::::- Bible Presbyterian Church\n\nBULLET::::- Biblical Church Indian Synod of Dioceses\n\nBULLET::::- Bihar Mennonite Mandli\n\nBULLET::::- Blessing Youth Mission\n\nBULLET::::- Brethren in Christ Church in India\n\nSection::::C.\n\nBULLET::::- Cachar Hill Tribes Synod\n\nBULLET::::- Carmel Gospel Missions\n\nBULLET::::- Catholic Church\n\nBULLET::::- Roman Catholic Church (Latin rite)\n\nBULLET::::- Syro-Malabar Catholic Church\n\nBULLET::::- Syro-Malankara Catholic Church\n\nBULLET::::- Chaldean Syrian Church\n\nBULLET::::- Christ Groups\n\nBULLET::::- Christadelphians\n\nBULLET::::- Christian Fellowship Centre\n\nBULLET::::- Christian Revival Church\n\nBULLET::::- Church Of Episcopal Fellowship International Diocese (CEFI Diocese)\n\nBULLET::::- Church of God (Anderson)\n\nBULLET::::- Church of God (Full Gospel) in India\n", "The Church is mentioned by Cosmas Indicopleustes (about 535). He notes that, \"There are Christians and believers in Taprobane (Sri Lanka) , in Malabar where pepper grows there is a Christian church. At a place known as Kalyan, there is a bishop sent from Persia.”.\n", "Christianity is the predominant religion in Europe, the Americas, and Southern Africa. In Asia, it is the dominant religion in Georgia, Armenia, East Timor, and the Philippines. However, it is declining in many areas including the Northern and Western United States, Oceania (Australia and New Zealand), northern Europe (including Great Britain, Scandinavia and other places), France, Germany, and the Canadian provinces of Ontario, British Columbia, and Quebec, and parts of Asia (especially the Middle East, due to the Christian emigration, South Korea, Taiwan, and Macau).\n", "The Saint Thomas Christian community was further strengthened by various Persian immigrant settlers, the Knanaya colonies of the 4th century, Manichaeanism followers, Babylonian Christians settlers of the 4th century AD, the Syrian settlements of Mar Sabor Easo and Proth in the 9th century AD and the immigrant Persian Christians from successive centuries.\n", "Section::::Modern period.:William Carey and the Baptists.\n", "The world's largest religious denomination is Sunni Islam or Roman Catholicism.\n\nSection::::Christianity.\n", "St. Gregory of Tours, before 590, reports that Theodore, a pilgrim who had gone to Gaul, told him that in that part of India where the corpus (bones) of St. Thomas had first rested, there stood a monastery and a church of striking dimensions and elaborately adorned, adding: \"After a long interval of time these remains had been removed thence to the city of Edessa.\"\n\nSection::::Early rituals and culture.\n\nThe life-style of the Saint Thomas Christians might be stated as \"Indian in culture, Christian in faith and Oriental in worship\".\n\nSection::::Early rituals and culture.:Social and culture.\n", "BULLET::::- 1596 Ukrainian Catholic Church forms when Ukrainian subjects of the king of Poland are reunited with Rome, largest Byzantine Catholic Church\n\nBULLET::::- 1598 Edict of Nantes grants toleration to French Protestants (Huguenots)\n\nBULLET::::- 1600 Giordano Bruno, Dominican priest, burned at the stake\n\nSection::::17th century.\n\nBULLET::::- 1604 Fausto Paolo Sozzini Socinianism\n\nBULLET::::- 1606 Carlo Maderno redesigns St Peter's Basilica into a Latin cross\n\nBULLET::::- 1607 Jamestown, Virginia founded\n\nBULLET::::- 1608 Quebec City founded by Samuel de Champlain\n\nBULLET::::- 1609 Baptist Church founded by John Smyth, due to objections to infant baptism and demands for church-state separation\n", "Church life bore characteristics of a church which had its origin and growth outside the Graeco-Roman world. There was no centralized administrative structure on a monarchical pattern. The territorial administrative system which developed after the diocesan pattern within the eastern and western Roman empires did not exist in the Indian Church. \"They have the uncorrupted Testament Which they believe was translated for them by St. Thomas the apostle himself.\"\n", "Section::::Culture.\n", "BULLET::::- The World Christian Database as of 2007 estimated the growth rate of Christianity at 1.32%. High birth rates and conversions were cited as the main reasons.\n\nBULLET::::- Using data from the period 2000–2005 the 2006 Christian World Database estimated that by number of new adherents, Christianity was the fastest growing religion in the world with 30,360,000 new adherents in 2006. This was followed by Islam with 23,920,000 and Hinduism with 13,224,000 estimated new adherents in the same period.\n", "The term \"Agama Hindu Dharma\", the endonymous Indonesian name for \"Indonesian Hinduism\" can also refer to the traditional practices in Kalimantan, Sumatra, Sulawesi and other places in Indonesia, where people have started to identify and accept their agamas as Hinduism or Hindu worship has been revived. The revival of Hinduism in Indonesia has given rise to a national organisation, the Parisada Hindu Dharma.\n\nSection::::Other denominations.:Newer movements.\n\nThe new movements that arose in the 19th to 20th century include:\n\nBULLET::::- Adi Dharm / Brahmoism\n\nBULLET::::- Brahmo Samaj\n\nBULLET::::- Sadharan Brahmo Samaj\n\nBULLET::::- Ananda Marga\n\nBULLET::::- Arya Samaj\n\nBULLET::::- Ayyavazhi\n", "BULLET::::- Apostolic Trinity Ministries\n\nBULLET::::- Asia Evangelistic Fellowship\n\nBULLET::::- Assam Baptist Convention\n\nBULLET::::- Assemblies Jehovah Shammah\n\nBULLET::::- Assemblies of Christ Church\n\nBULLET::::- Assemblies of God\n\nBULLET::::- Assemblies of Jesus Christ\n\nBULLET::::- Assembly Hall Churches\n\nBULLET::::- Assembly of Believers Church\n\nBULLET::::- Association of Vineyard Churches\n\nBULLET::::- Assyrian Church of the East\n\nSection::::B.\n\nBULLET::::- Baptist Christian Association\n\nBULLET::::- Baptist Church of Mizoram\n\nBULLET::::- Baptist Union of North India\n\nBULLET::::- Believer's Church\n\nBULLET::::- Bengal Baptist Fellowship\n\nBULLET::::- Bengal-Orissa-Bihar Baptist Convention\n\nBULLET::::- Bethel Pentecostal Church\n\nBULLET::::- Bharatiya Jukta Christa Prachar Mandali\n\nBULLET::::- Bible Brethren Fellowship\n\nBULLET::::- Bible Christian Mission\n\nBULLET::::- Bible Mission\n", "BULLET::::- South India Reformed Churches\n\nBULLET::::- Sharon fellowship church\n\nBULLET::::- Suvarha full gospel church\n\nSection::::T.\n\nBULLET::::- Tamil Baptist Churches\n\nBULLET::::- Tamil Christian Fellowship\n\nBULLET::::- Telugu Baptist Church\n\nBULLET::::- The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints\n\nBULLET::::- The Salvation Army\n\nBULLET::::- St. Mari Church Of India\n\nBULLET::::- The Pentecostal Mission\n\nBULLET::::- Tribal Gospel Mission\n\nBULLET::::- Tripura Baptist Christian Union\n\nBULLET::::- Tamil Evangelical Lutheran Church\n\nSection::::U.\n\nBULLET::::- Undenominational Church of the Lord in India\n\nBULLET::::- Union of Evangelical Students of India\n\nBULLET::::- United Basel Mission Church\n\nBULLET::::- United Evangelical Lutheran Church in India\n\nBULLET::::- United Missionary Church of India\n", "St Thomas Christians had a unique identity till the arrival of Portuguese in India, who converted St. Thomas Christians in their area of control to the Catholic Church. As a result of this foreign intervention into their culture there are several present day St. Thomas churches, primarily in the Catholic and Oriental Orthodox traditions.\n\nAmong the St. Thomas Christians, now the largest church in terms of membership is the Syro-Malabar Catholic Church, a major archepiscopal church in communion with the Bishop of Rome with a membership approaching four million adherents.\n\nSection::::Byzantine Rite Lutheranism.\n", "In Hinduism, the major deity or philosophical belief identifies a denomination, which also typically has distinct cultural and religious practices. The major denominations include Shaivism, Shaktism, Vaishnavism and Smartism.\n\nSection::::Islam.\n", "Christianity is a monotheistic religion centred on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in the New Testament. It is the third largest religion of India, making up 2.3% of the population. St. Thomas is credited with introduction of Christianity in India. He arrived on the Malabar Coast in 52 AD. Christians comprise a majority in Nagaland, Mizoram, and Meghalaya and have significant populations in Kerala and Goa.\n", "With the decline of the Portuguese power, other colonial powers – namely the Dutch and British and Christian organisations gained influence.\n\nSection::::Modern period.:Syrian Christians in India.\n\nThomas the Apostle is credited by tradition for founding the Indian Church in 52 AD. This \"Nasrani\" faith had many similarities to ancient Judaism, (see also Jewish Christianity) and owing to the heritage of the Nasrani people, developed contacts with the Nestorian religious authorities at that point based in Edessa, Mesopotamia.\n", "Out of the three major Abrahamic faiths, Christianity and Judaism are the two religions that diverge the most in theology and practice.\n", "BULLET::::- Church of God of Prophecy\n\nBULLET::::- Church of God (Seventh Day)\n\nBULLET::::- Church of North India\n\nBULLET::::- Church of South India\n\nBULLET::::- Church of the Apostolic Faith\n\nBULLET::::- Church of the Nazarene\n\nBULLET::::- Churches of Christ\n\nBULLET::::- Churches of Christ in Western India\n\nBULLET::::- Churches of Christ (Instrumental)\n\nBULLET::::- Churches of Christ (Non-Instrumental)\n\nBULLET::::- Council of Baptist Churches in Northern India\n\nBULLET::::- Council of Reformed Churches in India\n\nSection::::D.\n\nBULLET::::- Deliverance City Church\n\nBULLET::::- Diocese of Cosmopolis\n\nBULLET::::- Disciples of Christ\n\nBULLET::::- Dohnavur Fellowship\n\nSection::::E.\n\nBULLET::::- Elim Church\n\nBULLET::::- El Shaddai\n\nBULLET::::- Eternal Light Ministries\n" ]	[ "Religions like Judaism lack different denominations." ]	[ "Religions like Judaism have many different branches." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Religions like Judaism lack different denominations.", "Religions like Judaism lack different denominations." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Religions like Judaism have many different branches.", "Religions like Judaism have many different branches." ]
2018-02050	Why do you gain weight when you quit smoking?	Nicotine is an [appetite suppressant ]( URL_0 ) , so it follows that people will want to eat more when they stop nicotine. Another side effect of nicotine withdrawal is anxiety, which causes some people to turn to food for comfort. Some people turn to snacking to stave off nicotine cravings as well, because it's a distraction and because it is something to do with your mouth that isn't smoking cigarettes.	[ "Weight gain as a side effect of smoking cessation remains a major aspect of smoking and weight control. People can be discouraged by weight gain experienced while quitting smoking. Weight gain is a common experience during smoking cessation, with roughly 75% of smokers gaining weight after quitting. As nicotine is an appetite suppressant and smokers expend more energy, weight gain due to smoking cessation is generally attributed to increased caloric intake and a slowed metabolic rate.\n", "BULLET::::- Heavy smokers are reported to burn 200 calories per day more than non-smokers eating the same diet. Possible reasons for this phenomenon include nicotine's ability to increase energy metabolism or nicotine's effect on peripheral neurons.\n\nThe 2008 Guideline suggests that sustained-release bupropion, nicotine gum, and nicotine lozenge be used \"to delay weight gain after quitting.\" A 2012 Cochrane review concluded that there is not sufficient evidence to recommend a particular program for preventing weight gain.\n\nSection::::Side effects.:Depression.\n", "Giving up smoking is associated with an average weight gain of after 12 months, most of which occurs within the first three months of quitting.\n\nThe possible causes of the weight gain include:\n\nBULLET::::- Smoking over-expresses the gene AZGP1 which stimulates lipolysis, so smoking cessation may decrease lipolysis.\n\nBULLET::::- Smoking suppresses appetite, which may be caused by nicotine's effect on central autonomic neurons (e.g., via regulation of melanin concentrating hormone neurons in the hypothalamus).\n", "Weight gain can be a deterrent in the smoking cessation process, even if many smokers did not smoke for weight control purposes. Those in the process of quitting smoking are recommended to follow a healthy diet and to exercise regularly. Most quitting advice encourages people to not be discouraged should they experience weight gain while quitting smoking, as the health benefits of quitting almost always exceed the costs of weight gain. Studies have shown that weight gain during the smoking cessation process can often be lost eventually through diet and exercise.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Nicotine marketing\n\nBULLET::::- Nicotine withdrawal\n", "There is much controversy concerning whether smokers are actually thinner than nonsmokers. Some studies have shown that smokers—including long term and current smokers—weigh less than nonsmokers, and gain less weight over time. Conversely, certain longitudinal studies have not shown correlation between weight loss and smoking at least among young persons. Accordingly, while the connection between nicotine and appetite suppression, as well as other physiological responses to nicotine consumption, has been established, whether these chemical and biological reactions translate to smokers being thinner than nonsmokers (at least concerning certain age groups), is still debated. Age may act as a compounding factor in some of these studies. Essentially, a causal relationship has not been explicitly established between physiological effects of nicotine and epidemiological findings about weight among smokers and nonsmokers.\n", "Although knowledge of nicotine's effects upon the appetite can contribute to people smoking for weight control purposes, studies have not shown that people smoke exclusively to maintain or lose weight.\n\nSection::::Appetite suppression.\n", "Nicotine can also lower insulin levels in a person's bloodstream, which can reduce cravings for sugary foods. Furthermore, “nicotine-triggered effects of adrenaline on the stomach’s musculature” lead to temporary feelings of subsided hunger. Other studies have shown that smokers expend more calories while engaged in activity, which echo conclusions that smokers experience heightened metabolic rates. Also worth noting are the diuretic properties of nicotine, which causes lower calcium levels in the blood.\n", "Nicotine gum has similar effects to cigarettes in terms of appetite suppression, and there are some people who do not smoke, but use nicotine gum for the purpose of weight control or weight loss.\n", "Cigarette smoking for weight loss\n\nCigarette smoking for weight loss is a weight control method whereby one consumes tobacco, often in the form of cigarettes, to decrease one's appetite. The practice dates to early knowledge of nicotine as an appetite suppressant.\n", "Tobacco smoking was associated with appetite suppression among Pre-Columbian indigenous Americans and Old World Europeans. For decades, tobacco companies have employed these connections between slimness and smoking in their advertisements, mainly in brands and advertisements targeting women. Culturally, the links between smoking cigarettes and controlling weight run deep. While it is unclear how many people begin or continue smoking because of weight concerns, research reveals that white female adolescents with established weight-related anxieties are particularly prone to initiate smoking.\n", "The number of nicotinic receptors in the brain returns to the level of a nonsmoker between 6 and 12 weeks after quitting.\n\nSection::::Replacement.\n", "Studies suggest that smoking decreases appetite, but did not conclude that overweight people should smoke or that their health would improve by smoking. This is also a cause of heart diseases. Smoking also decreases weight by overexpressing the gene AZGP1 which stimulates lipolysis.\n\nSmoking causes about 10% of the global burden of fire deaths, and smokers are placed at an increased risk of injury-related deaths in general, partly due to also experiencing an increased risk of dying in a motor vehicle crash.\n", "Further research needs to examine trends in ethnicity concerning women and smoking for weight control. So far, studies have shown that young white women may be more prone to use cigarettes to manage their weight. Advertisements for particular brands and types of cigarettes seem to target this demographic accordingly.\n", "Though smoking is widely discouraged by public health professionals for its countless negative health consequences, nicotine may be an appetite suppressant. Nicotine could reduce appetite and influence an individual's eating habits. A study on nicotine's effects on appetite demonstrated that “net effects of nicotine include elevated blood pressure, heart rate, and gastric motility while eliciting a sustained decrease in food intake. Autonomic, sensory, and enteric neurons each constitute potentially important loci for nicotine-mediated changes in feeding behavior.” Thus the cultural associations between smoking and weight control in part reflect the body's physiological reactions to nicotine.\n", "Smokers often report that cigarettes help relieve feelings of stress. However, the stress levels of adult smokers are slightly higher than those of nonsmokers. Adolescent smokers report increasing levels of stress as they develop regular patterns of smoking, and smoking cessation leads to reduced stress. Far from acting as an aid for mood control, nicotine dependency seems to exacerbate stress. This is confirmed in the daily mood patterns described by smokers, with normal moods during smoking and worsening moods between cigarettes. Thus, the apparent relaxant effect of smoking only reflects the reversal of the tension and irritability that develop during nicotine depletion. Dependent smokers need nicotine to remain feeling normal.\n", "Although being underweight has been reported to increase mortality at rates comparable to that seen in morbidly obese people, the effect is much less drastic when restricted to non-smokers with no history of disease, suggesting that smoking and disease-related weight loss are the leading causes of the observed effect.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Diet.\n", "A recent study has proposed that maternal smoking during pregnancy can lead to future teenage obesity. While no significant differences could be found between young teenagers with smoking mothers as compared to young teenagers with nonsmoking mothers, older teenagers with smoking mothers were found to have on average 26% more body fat and 33% more abdominal fat than similar aged teenagers with non-smoking mothers. This increase in body fat may result from the effects of smoking during pregnancy, which is thought to impact fetal genetic programming in relation to obesity. While the exact mechanism for this difference is currently unknown, studies conducted on animals have indicated that nicotine may affect brain functions that deal with eating impulses and energy metabolism. These differences appear to have a significant effect on the maintenance of a healthy, normal weight. As a result of this alteration to brain function, teenage obesity can in turn lead to a variety of health problems including diabetes (a condition in which the affected individual's blood glucose level is too high and the body is unable to regulate it), hypertension (high blood pressure), and cardiovascular disease (any affliction related to the heart but most commonly the thickening of arteries due to excess fat build-up).\n", "Several studies have been conducted over the past decade examining this issue in depth. While it has generally been found that white females are more apt to smoke to lose weight, one study found that smoking to lose or control weight is not limited to white females, but is prevalent across racial and gender boundaries. Within all racial groups, it was found that weight concerns and negative body perceptions were a significant factor in an adolescent's decision to smoke. The relationship between weight and smoking amongst young men was only statistically significant in white or mixed race groups.\n", "When tobacco is smoked, most of the nicotine is pyrolyzed. However, a dose sufficient to cause mild somatic dependency and mild to strong psychological dependency remains. There is also a formation of harmane (a MAO inhibitor) from the acetaldehyde in tobacco smoke. This may play a role in nicotine addiction, by facilitating a dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens as a response to nicotine stimuli. Using rat studies, withdrawal after repeated exposure to nicotine results in less responsive nucleus accumbens cells, which produce dopamine responsible for reinforcement.\n\nSection::::Consumption.:Demographics.\n", "Nicotine is the chemical found in tobacco products and certain insecticides. As an obesogen, nicotine mostly acts on prenatal development after maternal smoking occurs. A strong association has been made between maternal smoking and childhood overweight/obesity, with nicotine as the single causal agent.\n", "In dependent smokers, withdrawal causes impairments in memory and attention, and smoking during withdrawal returns these cognitive abilities to pre-withdrawal levels. The temporarily increased cognitive levels of smokers after inhaling smoke are offset by periods of cognitive decline during nicotine withdrawal. Therefore, the overall daily cognitive levels of smokers and non-smokers are roughly similar.\n", "The process of regaining weight and especially body fat is further promoted by the high metabolic plasticity of skeletal muscle. The \"Summermatter Cycle\" explains how skeletal muscle persistently reduces energy expenditure during dieting. In addition, food restriction increases physical activity which further supports body weight loss initially. Such weight regain in the form of preferential catch-up-fat is well documented after weight loss due to malnutrition, cancer, septic shock or AIDS and thus constitutes a general phenomenon related to weight loss.\n\nSection::::Effects on health.\n", "Section::::History in advertising.:1968–present.\n\nIn 1964, the Surgeon General of the United States released the Surgeon General's Advisory Committee Report on Smoking and Health. This report lead to the Federal Cigarette Labeling and Advertising Act in 1965, which would mandate that all cigarette packs display warning labels and would change the ways that the tobacco industry would reach consumers via advertising. In April 1964, with Federal Trade Commission statutes pending, the tobacco industry would take on a program of self-regulation in its advertising. This program would become known as the Cigarette Advertising Code, and as Allen Brandt explains, the program:\n", "While there is evidence that women who smoke tend to breast feed for shorter periods, there is a wide variation of breast-feeding rates in women who do smoke. This suggest that psychosocial factors rather than physiological mechanisms (e.g., nicotine suppressing prolactin levels) are responsible for the lower rates of breast feeding in women who do smoke.\n\nSection::::In medicine.\n", "Smoking has a significant effect on an individual's weight. Those who quit smoking gain an average of 4.4 kilograms (9.7 lb) for men and 5.0 kilograms (11.0 lb) for women over ten years. However, changing rates of smoking have had little effect on the overall rates of obesity.\n\nIn the United States the number of children a person has is related to their risk of obesity. A woman's risk increases by 7% per child, while a man's risk increases by 4% per child. This could be partly explained by the fact that having dependent children decreases physical activity in Western parents.\n" ]	[ "People gain weight because they quit smoking." ]	[ "People choose to eat more because of lack of nicotine, an appetite suppresant, or because of anxiety. This causes them to gain weight." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "People gain weight because they quit smoking." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "People choose to eat more because of lack of nicotine, an appetite suppresant, or because of anxiety. This causes them to gain weight." ]
2018-00795	If a ballistic missile were to hit the island of Oahu in Hawaii, how much damage would be done? Would it wipe out the whole island?	depends on what kind of warhead is on it. if it was a low yield nuke, you'd be looking at dying either quick or slow. if it was a conventional warhead, you'd be looking at damage to a quite a few city blocks.	[ "On April 28, 2017, North Korea launched an unidentified ballistic missile over Pukchang airfield, in North Korean territory. It blew up shortly after take-off at an altitude of approximately 70 km (44 mi).\n\nOn July 4, 2017, North Korea launched Hwasong-14 from Banghyon airfield, near Kusong, in a lofted trajectory it claims lasted 39 minutes for 930 km (578 mi), landing in the waters of the Japanese exclusive economic zone. US Pacific Command said the missile was aloft for 37 minutes, meaning that in a standard trajectory it could have reached all of Alaska, a distance of 6,690 km (4,160 mi).\n", "On 23 November 2012, India again successfully testfired its home-made supersonic Advanced Air Defence (AAD) interceptor missile from a defence base off the coast of the eastern state of Odisha. \"The test-firing was part of India's efforts to create a missile defence shield against incoming enemy missiles. The AAD interceptor missile, which was fired from the Wheeler Island off the Odishan coast, successfully destroyed mid-air an incoming ballistic missile launched from the Integrated Test Range in Chandipur, about 70 km from the Wheeler Island.\"\n", "During the test, the USS John Paul Jones (DDG-53)... fired a salvo of two Raytheon [RTN] Standard Misisle-6 (SM-6) interceptors in immediate succession against a medium-range ballistic missile target launched from the Pacific Missile Range Facility on Kauai, Hawaii. The first interceptor was not armed and was designed to collect test data, MDA said. The second interceptor, which carried an explosive warhead, intercepted the Lockheed Martin-built target...\n", "USA-193 weighed about , with a body thought to be long and wide, estimates based on the maximal Delta II payload. With the radar antenna extended, USA-193 was about the size of a basketball court (~30 × 15 m).\n\nSection::::Launch data.\n\nBULLET::::- Launched: 14 December 2006 at 21:00:00 UTC\n\nBULLET::::- Launch vehicle: United Launch Alliance Delta II-7920 rocket\n\nBULLET::::- Launch site: Vandenberg Air Force Base, California, United States\n\nBULLET::::- Launch facility: Space Launch Complex 2W\n", "BULLET::::- 19 September 2012: The missile was successfully test-fired again for its full range of 4,000 km from the Wheeler Island, off the Orissa coast. The missile lifted off from a road mobile launcher at 11.48 a.m. and after zooming to an altitude of over 800 km, it re-entered the atmosphere and impacted near the pre-designated target in the Indian Ocean with remarkable degree of accuracy following a 20-minute flight. Carrying a payload of explosives weighing a tonne, the missile re-entered the atmosphere and withstood searing temperatures of more than .\n", "In several tests, the U.S. military have demonstrated the feasibility of destroying long and short range ballistic missiles. Combat effectiveness of newer systems against 1950s tactical ballistic missiles seems very high, as the MIM-104 Patriot (PAC-1 and PAC-2) had a 100% success rate in Operation Iraqi Freedom.\n\nThe U.S. Navy Aegis combat system uses RIM-161 Standard Missile 3, which hit a target going faster than ICBM warheads.\n\nThese systems, as opposed to U.S. GMD system, are not capable of a mid-course intercept of an ICBM.\n", "On 27 April 2007, the U.S. military's sea-based missile defense system, the Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense System, showed it could intercept two targets simultaneously when it destroyed a cruise missile and a short-range ballistic missile during a test off the Hawaiian island of Kauai. The test marked eight out of ten times the Missile Defense Agency and U.S. Navy's Aegis missile defense system successfully intercepted its target, but was the first time the system knocked out two targets at the same time.\n\nSection::::PMRF Agriculture Preservation Initiative.\n", "On 31 January 2018, an SM-3 Block IIA missile interceptor launched from a test site in Hawaii missed its target.\n\nOn 26 October 2018, USS John Paul Jones detected and tracked a medium-range ballistic missile target with its Aegis Missile Defense System, launched an SM-3 Block IIA interceptor, and destroyed its target, which was launched from the Pacific Missile Range Facility at Kauai, Hawaii.\n\nSection::::Variants.\n\nThe SM-3 block IA version provides an incremental upgrade to improve reliability and maintainability at a reduced cost.\n", "Section::::History.:Risk reduction.\n", "On 21 May 2014, U.S. DOD headlined, \"Standard Missile Completes First Test Launch from Aegis Ashore Test Site,\" and reported that: \"The Missile Defense Agency, the U.S. Navy, and sailors at the Aegis Ashore Missile Defense Test Complex and Pacific Missile Range Facility (PMRF), successfully conducted the first flight test involving components of the Aegis Ashore system. During the test, a simulated ballistic missile target was acquired, tracked, and engaged by the Aegis Weapon System. At approximately 7:35 p.m. Hawaii Standard Time, May 20 (1:35 a.m. EDT, May 21), the Aegis Weapon System fired a Standard Missile (SM)-3 Block IB guided missile from the Vertical Launch System. Several fire control and engagement functions were exercised during the test. A live target missile launch was not planned for this flight test.\"\n", "The People's Republic of China successfully tested (see 2007 Chinese anti-satellite missile test) a ballistic missile-launched anti-satellite weapon on January 11, 2007. This resulted in harsh criticism from the United States of America, Britain, and Japan.\n\nThe U.S. developed an interceptor missile, the SM-3, testing it by hitting ballistic test targets while they were in space. On February 21, 2008, the U.S. used a SM-3 missile to destroy a spy satellite, USA-193, while it was 247 kilometers (133 nautical miles) above the Pacific Ocean.\n", "On 4 October 2013, an SM-3 Block IB eliminated the medium-range ballistic missile target at the highest altitude of any test to date. The test was the 26th successful intercept for the SM-3 program and the fifth back-to-back successful test of the SM-3 Block IB missile. Post-mission data showed that the intercept was slightly lower than anticipated, but the systems adjusted to ensure the missile intercepted the target. The SM-3 Block IB is expected to be delivered for service in 2015.\n", "The PADE (Prithvi Air Defence Exercise) was conducted on November 2006 in which a PAD missile successfully intercepted a modified Prithvi-II Missile at an altitude of . The Prithvi-II ballistic missile was modified successfully to mimic the trajectory of M-11 missiles.\n\nDRDO plans to test the anti-ballistic shield against missiles with a range of . The test will be conducted with a modified Prithvi missile launched from a naval ship and the anti-ballistic missile launched from Wheeler Island. The interception of the target missile will take place at approximately altitude.\n", "BULLET::::- reentry/terminal phase (starting at an altitude of ): 2 minutes – impact is at a speed of up to (for early ICBMs less than ); see also maneuverable reentry vehicle.\n\nICBMs usually use the trajectory which optimizes range for a given amount of payload (the \"minimum-energy trajectory\"); an alternative is a depressed trajectory, which allows less payload, shorter flight time, and has a much lower apogee.\n\nSection::::Modern ICBMs.\n", "BULLET::::- On June 14, 2006, the US Air Force conducts a successful unarmed test launch of its Minuteman III intercontinental ballistic missile from Vandenberg Air Force Base to the Marshall Islands, flying approximately 7,700 kilometers in about 30 minutes.\n\nBULLET::::- June 23, 2006 – the US and Japan signed an agreement to jointly produce anti-ballistic missile (ABM) technology and operate surveillance and tracking operations to gather critical data in the case that the DPRK conducted a ballistic missile test. The US agreed to send several batteries of Patriot PAC-3 missiles to protect Okinawa. \n", "Section::::Deployment.:BMEWS surveillance wing.\n", "The December 2012 report from DOT&E (i.e., DOT&E's annual report for FY2012) did not\n\nfurther discuss this issue; a January 21, 2013, press report stated that this is because the details of\n\nthe issue are classified.\n", "BULLET::::- midcourse phase: approx. 25 minutes—sub-orbital spaceflight with a flightpath being a part of an ellipse with a vertical major axis; the apogee (halfway through the midcourse phase) is at an altitude of approximately ; the semi-major axis is between ; the projection of the flightpath on the Earth's surface is close to a great circle, slightly displaced due to earth rotation during the time of flight; the missile may release several independent warheads and penetration aids, such as metallic-coated balloons, aluminum chaff, and full-scale warhead decoys.\n", "Soon after the Gulf war, the Aegis combat system was expanded to include ABM capabilities. The Standard missile system was also enhanced and tested for ballistic missile interception. During the late 1990s, SM-2 block IVA missiles were tested in a theater ballistic missile defense function. Standard Missile 3 (SM-3) systems have also been tested for an ABM role. In 2008, an SM-3 missile launched from a \"Ticonderoga\"-class cruiser, the USS Lake Erie, successfully intercepted a non-functioning satellite.\n", "The U.S. Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD) system began production in 2008. Its stated range as a short to intermediate ballistic missile interceptor means that it is not designed to hit midcourse ICBMs, which can reach terminal phase speeds of mach 8 or greater. But for terminal phase, a THAAD interceptor's speed can reach mach 8, and THAAD has repeatedly proven it can intercept descending exoatmospheric missiles in a ballistic trajectory. \n", "On September 15 at about 6:30am KST, North Korea fired a Hwasong-12 missile from the Pyongyang International Airport, which, for a second time, overflew Hokkaido, Japan. The missile traveled and reached a maximum height of ; this is the furthest distance any North Korean IRBM missile has ever reached.\n\nSection::::November.\n", "BULLET::::- 10 September\n\nBULLET::::- A live Lockheed Martin Extended Medium-Range Ballistic Missile target is air-dropped for the first time. Dropped over the Pacific Ocean by a United States Air Force C-17 Globemaster III, the target missile ignites and is destroyed by a ground-launched anti-ballistic missile fired by the United States Armys 2nd Air Defense Artillery Regiment on Kwajalein Atoll.\n\nBULLET::::- 12 September\n", "Section::::Program planning, goals and discussions.\n\nOn 14 October 2002, a ground based interceptor launched from the Ronald Reagan Ballistic Missile Defense Test Site destroyed a mock warhead 225 km above the Pacific. The test included three decoy balloons.\n", "On 30 July 2017, a Kodiak-sited THAAD interceptor shot down an MRBM which launched over the Pacific Ocean, the 15th successful test; the Missile Defense Agency (MDA) director emphasized the data collection from the intercept, which enhances the modelling and scenario simulation capabilities of the MDA. John Schilling estimates the current accuracy of the North's Hwasong-14 as poor at the mooted ranges which threaten US cities (which would require more testing to prove its accuracy).\n", "Cruise missiles, even with their lower payload, have a number of advantages over ballistic missiles for the purposes of delivering nuclear strikes:\n\nBULLET::::- Launch of a cruise missile is difficult to detect early from satellites and other long-range means, contributing to a surprise factor of attack.\n\nBULLET::::- That, coupled with the ability to actively maneuver in flight, allows for penetration of strategic anti-missile systems aimed at intercepting ballistic missiles on calculated trajectory of flight.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Ballistic missile could destroy all of Oahu." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Missile destruction depends on the size of the missile but probably wouldn't wipe out the whole island. " ]
2018-22260	How are firefighters able to identify the cause of a fire after its end?	The fire burns differently as it spreads. There's a specific pattern of the ignition site that varies with materials used.	[ "Meanwhile, Charlie and Dr. Larry Fleinhardt (Peter MacNicol), Charlie's friend and colleague, discuss creating a \"fireprint\", a profile of the fires and the possible motives for them. Using records from the LAFD, Charlie and Larry learn that 17 fires over the past two years match the fireprint for the current fires. They then consult Professor Bill Waldie (Bill Nye) and reconstruct the lethal fire using a scaled model of the car dealership booth and a cigarette. When no reaction occurs, Charlie, Larry, and Bill realize that the fire was intentionally set. Back at Charlie's house, Charlie and Don's father, Alan Eppes (Judd Hirsch), suggests to Charlie and Larry that the fires at the car dealership are two separate fires instead of one fire as Charlie and Larry were considering.\n", "When arsonists attack, there is very rarely much evidence left at the scene. However, arsonists usually use accelerants to speed up a blaze. Forensic scientists use technologies to heat samples taken from the scene causing any residue to separate. This sample is then analyzed to determine the chemical structure. Scientists also use other tests such as using liquid nitrogen gas to trap residue which are then analyzed using gas chromatography.\n\nThe investigator:\n\nBULLET::::- Receives the assignment and responsibilities\n\nBULLET::::- Plans the investigation and assembles tools, equipment, and personnel\n\nBULLET::::- Examines the scene and collects data\n", "In common with many forensic disciplines, one of the early tasks of fire investigation is often to determine whether or not a crime has been committed. The difficulty of determining whether arson has occurred arises because fire often destroys the key evidence of its origin. Many fires are caused by defective equipment, such as shorting of faulty electrical circuits. Car fires can be caused by faulty fuel lines, and spontaneous combustion is possible where organic wastes are stored.\n\nA fire investigator looks at the fire remains, and obtains information to reconstruct the sequence of events leading up to the fire.\n", "Also, \"Kirk's Fire Investigation\" by David J. Icove and Gerald A. Haynes has long been regarded as the primary textbook in the field of fire investigation. It is currently in its 8th edition (published in 2017, ).\n\nSection::::Conducting investigations.\n\nFire investigators conduct their investigations using a systematic approach utilizing the scientific method, including the following:\n", "When arsonists attack, there is very rarely much evidence left at the scene. However, arsonists usually use accelerants to speed up a blaze. Forensic scientists use technologies to heat samples taken from the scene causing any residue to separate. This sample is then analysed to determine the chemical structure. Scientists also use other tests such as using liquid nitrogen gas to trap residue which are then analysed using gas chromatography.\n\nSection::::Recommended practices.\n\nIn the United States, fire investigators often refer to \"\" (National Fire Protection Association).\n", "Recent fire history can be recorded on fire maps and atlases, often using remote sensing. The Canadian National Fire Database is a record of large fire events since 1980, is the first nationwide database of its kind. It includes point locations of all fires larger than 200 ha from 1959–1999. The United States has the Monitoring Trends in Burn Severity (MTBS) Project which uses satellite data to map fires from 1984 onward. MTBS maps fire severity within the areas burned and provides a standard on fire perimeters and severity for all fires within the U.S. Applications for projects such as these are used in modeling interactions between fire climate and vegetation.\n", "The burned area emergency response risk management process begins during or shortly after wildfire containment with risk assessments evaluating the effects of the wildfire against values needing protection. These risk assessments can range from simple to complex. An organized interdisciplinary team of subject matter experts (e.g., hydrologists, soil scientists, botanists, cultural resource specialists, engineers, etc.) used among other assessment tools hydrological modeling and soil burn severity mapping to assess potential flooding and vegetation recovery after the Cerro Grande Fire in 2000.\n", "Indicators of an incendiary fire or arson can lead fire investigators to look for the presence of fuel traces in fire debris. Burning compounds and liquids can leave behind evidence of their presence and use. Fuels present in areas they aren't typically found in can indicate an incendiary fire or arson. Investigators often use special dogs known as \"accelerant detection canines\" trained to smell ignitable liquids. Well-trained dogs can pinpoint areas for the investigator to collect samples. Fire debris submitted to forensic laboratories employ sensitive analytical instruments with GC-MS capabilities for forensic chemical analysis.\n\nSection::::Fire.:Types.\n", "Fire investigation\n\nFire investigation, sometimes referred to as origin and cause investigation, is the analysis of fire-related incidents. After firefighters extinguish a fire, an investigation is launched to determine the origin and cause of the fire or explosion. Investigations of such incidents require a systematic approach and knowledge of basic fire science.\n\nSection::::Investigating fires.\n", "Within the Fire Prevention Division is the department's fire investigation unit. Five fire inspectors, lieutenants, and captains within the division are trained to perform origin & cause fire investigation duties for structure, vehicle, and other fires that occur within the jurisdictional limits of the fire department. The investigators are all Certified Fire and Explosion Investigators (CFEI) by the National Association of Fire Investigators. In addition, many have been certified as expert witnesses in court for their knowledge and expertise. In the case of an incendiary fire determination, the department's investigators work closely with Fort Lauderdale Police Department detectives, the Florida State Fire Marshal's Office Arson Investigators, and/or the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives\n", "BULLET::::- 2018 Southern California mudflows\n\nBULLET::::- Tubbs Fire\n\nBULLET::::- October 2007 California wildfires\n\nBULLET::::- Soberanes Fire\n\nBULLET::::- Carr Fire\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Thomas Fire \| Ventura, CA\n\nBULLET::::- Thomas Fire information - InciWeb Incident Information System\n\nBULLET::::- Thomas Fire maps – InciWeb Incident Information System\n\nBULLET::::- Southern California Geographic Area Coordination Center\n\nBULLET::::- See the destruction and fury of Ventura’s Thomas fire from space – Los Angeles Daily News\n\nBULLET::::- USGS Earth Explorer - Landsat and Sentinel-2 satellite imagery\n\nBULLET::::- NASA Worldview - MODIS and Suomi NPP near real-time, medium resolution satellite imagery\n", "Once the origin is determined the investigators must decide if fire accelerants were used at this scene. Often the first and most common way of determining if accelerants were used is by completing a visual inspection of the scene and specifically the origin. A trained investigator would look for cues like intense localized burning or pour patterns to indicate the use of accelerants.\n", "There is little known about the fire history in some places. Central Europe for instance has a lack of intact forests with old growth trees or an abundance of dead or cut down trees that can be used to reconstruct the past fire regimes. An exception to this lacking history is the Bialowieza Primeval Forest in Poland. A group of researchers were able to use a 350-year tree-ring fire record to reconstruct the fire history in precise detail. This is a shining example of how the method can be used in a place with lost or no written history of a fire regime.\n", "Reconstructing an areas fire history is very helpful in figuring out the climactic conditions of an area along with its ecology. Our knowledge of past fire regimes comes from geochemistry, tree ring analysis, charcoal, written documents and archeology. Each of these has there pros and cons. For the purpose of paleoecology the charcoal data allows us to look very far back in time. Charcoal data from cores (lake or soil) gives us the ability to look back millennia and reconstruct the climate very accurately based on the relationship fire regimes have with the vegetation and climate. The charcoal first has to be extracted or washed from the sediments of the core. Then placed on a plate and counted under a microscope. These counts per sediment layer allows us to graph this out and see when fires occurred and with what intensity. The highest peaks are where the most charcoal was found and therefor had a more intense fire. Different ecosystems are more susceptible to fire due to climactic factors and what kinds of vegetation is present. Using this relationship between fire and vegetation present we can make inferences about the climate at that time. These inferences are based on the amount and kinds of charcoal found. As you can imagine different types of vegetation leave different charcoal. A Paleoecologists job is to count and figure out how much charcoal and what kinds of charcoal are present. These counts are later analyzed and looked at in conjunction to some of the other sources of data mentioned earlier. This allows the for the reconstruction of climates deep in the past using fire as a proxy. The affects of the fire can be seen using processes like Loss on ignition. This allows us to analyze the soil chemistry of area we are studying and to see how mineral and carbon percentages change as a result of the fire. Historical data can reveal the source or how the fire was started. This combined with pollen data (tells us what vegetative species are present) before and after the fire. All of these proxys help construct what the ecosystem of the studied area was like.\n", "The observation of fire occurrence is an important piece of data in pyrogeography. Information on the occurrence of fire can be obtained from a variety of sources: historical and present. Historic fire observation data frequently comes from dendrochronology (tree ring records of fire) or other written historical records. Moden fire observations are often made with satellites: using aerial imagery, scientists can examine fire activity and the size of an area burned. Both forms of fire observation data are important for studying the distribution of fire.\n\nSection::::Methodology.:Spatial distribution models.\n", "During the root cause analysis, human factors should be assessed. James Reason conducted a study into the understanding of adverse effects of human factors. The study found that major incident investigations, such as Piper Alpha and Kings Cross Underground Fire, made it clear that the causes of the accidents were distributed widely within and outside the organization. There are two types of events: active failure—an action that has immediate effects and has the likelihood to cause an accident—and latent or delayed action—events can take years to have an effect and are usually combined with triggering events that then cause the accident.\n", "One of the challenging aspects of fire investigation is the multi-disciplinary basis of the investigator's job. As fires can be caused by or involve many ignition sources and fuels, fire investigators need to know not only the science of fire behavior, but also to have a working understanding of many different areas of study including construction, electricity, human behavior, and mechanical devices. For example, if there is a gas appliance at the origin of the fire, an investigator should know enough about appliances to either include or exclude it as a possible cause of the fire. Fire investigators sometimes work with forensic engineers, such as forensic electrical engineers when examining electrical appliances, household wiring, etc.\n", "In 2004, Gerald Hurst examined the arson evidence compiled by state deputy fire marshal Manuel Vasquez. Hurst individually discredited each piece of arson evidence, using publicly supported experiments backed by his re-creation of the elements in question, the most notable being the Lime Street fire, which created the unique 3-point burn patterns flashover.\n", "Section::::Career and research.:Publications.\n\nBULLET::::- \"SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering,\" Springer, January, 2016\n\nBULLET::::- \"Assessing the Verification and Validation of Building Fire Evacuation Models,\" Fire Technology, January, 2016\n\nBULLET::::- \"Predicting Human Behavior During Fires,\" Fire Technology, November, 2013\n\nBULLET::::- \"Metaphors Matter: Disaster Myths, Media Frames and Their Consequences in Hurricane Katrina,\" SAGE Journals, March, 2006\n\nBULLET::::- \"Occupant Behavior, Egress, and Emergency Communication. Federal Building and Fire Safety Investigation of the World Trade Center Disaster,\" NIST, December, 2005\n\nBULLET::::- \"A Review of Building Evacuation Models,\" NIST Technical Note, July, 2005\n", "Fire investigators, who are experienced firefighters trained in fire cause determinism, are dispatched to fire scenes, in order to investigate and determine whether the fire was a result of an accident or intentional. Some fire investigators have full law enforcement powers to investigate and arrest suspected arsonists.\n\nSection::::Occupational health and safety.\n\nSection::::Occupational health and safety.:Direct risks.\n\nSection::::Occupational health and safety.:Direct risks.:Fires.\n", "Ignitions can be either natural or anthropogenic. Natural ignitions are generally limited to lightning strikes, but volcanism and other sources have been observed. Human-caused fire may be intentional (arson, fuel management methods) or unintentional. Natural factors affecting ignitions include lightning flashes, volcanoes, and seasonality. Human influences include population size, land management, road networks, and arson.\n\nSection::::Methodology.\n", "Conceptual models from experience and intuition from past fires can be used to anticipate the future. Many semi-empirical fire spread equations, as in those published by the USDA Forest Service, Forestry Canada, Nobel, Bary, and Gill, and Cheney, Gould, and Catchpole for Australasian fuel complexes have been developed for quick estimation of fundamental parameters of interest such as fire spread rate, flame length, and fireline intensity of surface fires at a point for specific fuel complexes, assuming a representative point-location wind and terrain slope. Based on the work by Fons's in 1946, and Emmons in 1963, the quasi-steady equilibrium spread rate calculated for a surface fire on flat ground in no-wind conditions was calibrated using data of piles of sticks burned in a flame chamber/wind tunnel to represent other wind and slope conditions for the fuel complexes tested.\n", "An extensive two-year research project, involving thirty historical cases of alleged SHC, was conducted in 1984 by science investigator Joe Nickell and forensic analyst John F. Fischer. Their lengthy, two-part report was published in the journal of the International Association of Arson Investigators, as well as part of a book. Nickell has written frequently on the subject, appeared on television documentaries, conducted additional research, and lectured at the New York State Academy of Fire Science at Montour Falls, New York, as a guest instructor.\n", "In the U.S. Rocky Mountains Veblen has published on the roles of wildfire, bark beetle outbreaks, and wind storms in the dynamics of conifer forests. He published one of the first quantitative studies of interacting disturbance by wildfire, snow avalanches, and bark beetle outbreaks. Using tree ring methods he and his students have reconstructed multi-century records of bark beetle outbreaks and wildfires and related them to interannual climatic variability.\n", "Section::::Laboratory analysis.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03574	Why is it so hard to wake up in the mornings, but then also so hard to go to sleep in the night?	Not sure why you're having trouble falling asleep, but as for waking up, "Sleep inertia is a physiological state of impaired cognitive and sensory-motor performance that is present immediately after awakening. It persists during the transition of sleep to wakefulness, where an individual will experience feelings of drowsiness, disorientation and a decline in motor dexterity. Impairment from sleep inertia may take several hours to dissipate. In the majority of cases, morning sleep inertia is experienced for 15 to 60 minutes after waking". A more ELI5 description: You know how an object in motion tends to stay in motion? Same goes for sleep. If you're asleep, your body wants to stay that way. Source: URL_0	[ "The morning period may be a period of enhanced or reduced energy and productivity. The ability of a person to wake up effectively in the morning may be influenced by a gene called \"Period 3\". This gene comes in two forms, a \"long\" and a \"short\" variant. It seems to affect the person's preference for mornings or evenings. People who carry the long variant were over-represented as morning people, while the ones carrying the short variant were evening preference people.\n", "BULLET::::- People with DSPD have at least a normal—and often much greater than normal—ability to sleep during the morning, and sometimes in the afternoon as well. In contrast, those with chronic insomnia do not find it much easier to sleep during the morning than at night.\n", "The timing of sleep in humans depends upon a balance between homeostatic sleep propensity, the need for sleep as a function of the amount of time elapsed since the last adequate sleep episode, and circadian rhythms which determine the ideal timing of a correctly structured and restorative sleep episode. The homeostatic pressure to sleep starts growing upon awakening. The circadian signal for wakefulness starts building in the (late) afternoon. As Harvard professor of sleep medicine Charles A. Czeisler notes, \"The circadian system is set up in a beautiful way to override the homeostatic drive for sleep.\"\n", "Different characteristic sleep patterns, such as the familiarly so-called \"early bird\" and \"night owl\", are called \"chronotypes\". Genetics and sex have some influence on chronotype, but so do habits. Chronotype is also liable to change over the course of a person's lifetime. Seven-year-olds are better disposed to wake up early in the morning than are fifteen-year-olds. Chronotypes far outside the normal range are called circadian rhythm sleep disorders.\n\nSection::::Timing.:Distribution.:Naps.\n", "The incident that inspired Berlin to write \"Oh! How I Hate to Get Up in the Morning\" was an occasion when a colonel wanted a group of buglers to play George M. Cohan's \"Over There\". The buglers were unable to comply because it exceeded the range of their instruments, so the oblivious officer ordered them to practice Cohan's song. He wrote it as \"a thin little sergeant.\"\n", "It is common for patients who have difficulty falling asleep to also have nocturnal awakenings with difficulty returning to sleep. Two-thirds of these patients wake up in the middle of the night, with more than half having trouble falling back to sleep after a middle-of-the-night awakening.\n", "BULLET::::- 4. Sharie: Sharie has big eyelashes and an oversized coat, and she tends to sleep through class. Mrs. Jewls doesn't care; she thinks students learn best when sleeping. One day in class, while sleeping, she falls out the window. Louis saves her at the last moment.\n", "Modern humans often find themselves desynchronized from their internal circadian clock, due to the requirements of work (especially night shifts), long-distance travel, and the influence of universal indoor lighting. Even if they have sleep debt, or feel sleepy, people can have difficulty staying asleep at the peak of their circadian cycle. Conversely they can have difficulty waking up in the trough of the cycle. A healthy young adult entrained to the sun will (during most of the year) fall asleep a few hours after sunset, experience body temperature minimum at 6 a.m., and wake up a few hours after sunrise.\n", "Because there are different systems in the body that help establish regulation, it's helpful to employ a multi-modal approach. A 2008 review states that \"...each clock is differentially sensitive to zeitgebers. The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is very responsive to light, the clock in the liver is very sensitive to food, and clocks in muscle are sensitive to exercise.\"\n\nThe following approaches are recommended by one source: \n\nBULLET::::1. Spend 7–8 hours in bed.\n\nBULLET::::2. Add environmental cues such as light and social interactions, regular meal times, and regular sleep–wake times.\n", "\"There's a very maternal aspect to Casey's character, a kind of 'beyond her years' thing in terms of responsibility that makes her want to hold this group together and make sure they're safe. At the same time, I think she's like a lot of those kids you see getting straight A's and doing all the right things, in that she may be pushing herself a bit too hard and taking on too much.\"\n\nSection::::Morning Glories.:Zoe.\n", "Sleep is known to be cumulative. This means that the fatigue and sleep one lost as a result, for example, staying awake all night, would be carried over to the following day. Not getting enough sleep a couple days cumulatively builds up a deficiency and that's when all the symptoms of sleep deprivation come in. When one is well rested and healthy, the body naturally spends not as much time in the REM stage of sleep. The more time one's body spends in REM sleep, causes one to be exhausted, less time in that stage will promote more energy when awakened.\n", "Idiopathic hypersomnia profoundly affects work, education, and quality of life. Patients are often too sleepy to work or attend school regularly, and they are predisposed \"to develop serious performance decrements in multiple areas of function as well as to potentially life-threatening domestic, work-related and driving accidents.\" Furthermore, these risks are higher for idiopathic hypersomnia patients than for those with sleep apnea or severe insomnia. In fact, \"the most severe cases of daytime somnolence are found in patients affected by narcolepsy or idiopathic hypersomnia.\" And idiopathic hypersomnia is often as, if not more, disabling than narcolepsy; surprisingly, excessive daytime sleepiness is even more handicapping than the cataplectic attacks of narcolepsy.\n", "Finally, Logue defines the relationship between responses and outcomes as outcome contingencies. Outcome contingencies also impact the degree of self-control that a person exercises. For instance, if a person is able to change his choice after the initial choice is made, the person is far more likely to take the impulsive, rather than self-controlled, choice. Additionally, it is possible for people to make precommitment action. A precommitment action is an action meant to lead to a self-controlled action at a later period in time. When a person sets an alarm clock, they are making a precommitted response to wake up early in the morning. Hence, that person is more likely to exercise the self-controlled decision to wake up, rather than to fall back in bed for a little more sleep.\n", "Berlin's civilian work schedule had been that of a hardworking night owl, generally writing material until two or three in the morning. His efforts to adjust to military life and become a good soldier included springing out of bed obediently each morning, which earned him the resentment of fellow soldiers because he concealed his hatred of reveille too well and appeared eager to wake up in the mornings.\n", "BULLET::::- Sleep disorders and ADHD commonly co-exist. They can also occur as a side effect of medications used to treat ADHD. In children with ADHD, insomnia is the most common sleep disorder with behavioral therapy the preferred treatment. Problems with sleep initiation are common among individuals with ADHD but often they will be deep sleepers and have significant difficulty getting up in the morning. Melatonin is sometimes used in children who have sleep onset insomnia.\n", "Thus, in many people, there is a dip when the drive for sleep has been building for hours and the drive for wakefulness has not yet started. This is, again quoting Czeisler, \"a great time for a nap\". The drive for wakefulness intensifies through the evening, making it difficult to get to sleep 2–3 hours before one's usual bedtime when the \"wake maintenance zone\" ends.\n\nSection::::Sleep cultures.\n", "Because of the changes in sleep/wake time, and because this is a rare disorder, initially it can seem like another circadian rhythm sleep disorder such as non-24-hour sleep–wake disorder or like insomnia.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Initial visit with sleep physician.\n", "The relationship between the two is vital, as the control of sleep and the sleep-wake cycle are regulated by the CNS.\n", "Morning larks tend to thrive in careers that start early in the morning. Industries that tend to be favorable to morning larks include farming, construction, and working for public utilities. Many employees in these industries start working at or before 7:00 a.m. Some professions are well-known for their early morning hours, including bakers, school teachers, dairy farmers, and surgeons.\n", "BULLET::::3. Morning and eve light at 3000 lux for 2 hours have been shown to improve nocturnal sleep in institutionalized patients and reduce agitation in demented patients.\n\nBULLET::::4. Melatonin at desired sleep time.\n\nSection::::Research.\n", "Waking up in the middle of the night, or nocturnal awakening, is the most frequently reported insomnia symptom, with approximately 35% of Americans over 18 reporting waking up three or more times per week. Of those who experience nocturnal awakenings, 43% report difficulty in resuming sleep after waking, while over 90% report the condition persisting for more than six months. Greater than 50% contend with MOTN conditions for more than five years.\n", "Section::::Scope and classification.\n\nCompetence in sleep medicine requires an understanding of a plethora of very diverse disorders, many of which present with similar symptoms such as excessive daytime sleepiness, which, in the absence of volitional sleep deprivation, \"is almost inevitably caused by an identifiable and treatable sleep disorder,\" such as sleep apnea, narcolepsy, idiopathic hypersomnia, Kleine-Levin syndrome, menstrual-related hypersomnia, idiopathic recurrent stupor, or circadian rhythm disturbances. Another common complaint is insomnia, a set of symptoms that can have many causes, physical and mental. Management in the varying situations differs greatly and cannot be undertaken without a correct diagnosis.\n", "Those who suffer from idiopathic hypersomnia have recurring episodes of excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS). These occur in spite of \"adequate, or more typically, extraordinary sleep amounts (e.g., greater than 10 hours per night).\" Sleep is usually deep, with significant difficulty arousing from sleep, even with use of several alarm clocks. In fact, patients with IH often must develop elaborate rituals to wake, as alarm clocks and even physical attempts by friends/family to wake them may fail. Despite getting more hours of sleep than typically required by the human body, patients awake unrefreshed and may also suffer sleep inertia, known more descriptively in its severe form as sleep drunkenness (significant disorientation upon awakening). Daytime naps are generally very long (up to several hours) and are also unrefreshing, as opposed to the short refreshing naps associated with narcolepsy. Sleep paralysis and hypnagogic hallucinations may also occur, as well as motor hyper-reactivity.\n", "Competence in sleep medicine requires an understanding of a myriad of very diverse disorders, many of which present with similar symptoms such as excessive daytime sleepiness, which, in the absence of volitional sleep deprivation, \"is almost inevitably caused by an identifiable and treatable sleep disorder\", such as sleep apnea, narcolepsy, idiopathic hypersomnia, Kleine–Levin syndrome, menstrual-related hypersomnia, idiopathic recurrent stupor, or circadian rhythm disturbances. Another common complaint is insomnia, a set of symptoms which can have a great many different causes, physical and mental. Management in the varying situations differs greatly and cannot be undertaken without a correct diagnosis.\n", "BULLET::::- Genetic predisposition\n\nBULLET::::- Vitamin deficiency, such as Biotin deficiency\n\nBULLET::::- Particular classes of prescription and OTC medication\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n\nAn adult who is compelled to nap repeatedly during the day may have excessive daytime sleepiness; however, it is important to distinguish between occasional daytime sleepiness and excessive daytime sleepiness, which is chronic.\n" ]	[ "It is difficult to fall asleep at night. " ]	[ "Not everybody finds it difficult to fall asleep at night." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "It is difficult to fall asleep at night. ", "It is difficult to fall asleep at night. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Not everybody finds it difficult to fall asleep at night.", "Not everybody finds it difficult to fall asleep at night." ]
2018-03399	How does a company know that a hack had occurred?	Systems that process logins and billing are typically built with logging that tracks logon attempts and IP addresses. Most likely someone phoned in to say that their account got hacked. Sony reviewed the logs, found that an unusual IP address was accessing the account, and they did a look up to find out what other accounts had been accessed by that IP address and took action. (one from a different country than the IP that usually accesses the account) On a proactive rather than reactive approach: Common hacking tools like those that attempt brute force logins (rapidly trying different combinations of passwords against an account) leave tell tale signs in the logs that security people look out for.	[ "The CERT/CC promotes a particular process of coordination known as \"Responsible Coordinated Disclosure\". In this case, the CERT/CC works privately with the vendor to address the vulnerability before a public report is published, usually jointly with the vendor's own security advisory. In extreme cases when the vendor is unwilling to resolve the issue or cannot be contacted, the CERT/CC typically discloses information publicly after 45 days since first contact attempt.\n", "BULLET::::5. False Positive – The incident team determines this issue did not warrant an emergency response. The team provides a written report to senior management and the issue is handled as either a normal incident or it is closed.\n\nBULLET::::6. Monitor and Capture – Perform a thorough investigation with continued monitoring to detect and capture the perpetrator. This process must include notification to the following senior and professional staff:\n\nBULLET::::1. CEO and CFO\n\nBULLET::::2. Corporate Attorney and Public Relations\n", "Today, an important role is played by a Computer Security Incident Response Team (CSIRT), due to the rise of internet crime, and is a common example of incident faced by companies in developed nations all across the world. For example, if an organization discovers that an intruder has gained unauthorized access to a computer system, the CSIRT would analyze the situation, determine the breadth of the compromise, and take corrective action. Computer forensics is one task included in this process. Currently, over half of the world’s hacking attempts on Trans National Corporations (TNCs) take place in North America (57%). 23% of attempts take place in Europe. Having a well-rounded Computer Security Incident Response team is integral to providing a secure environment for any organization, and is becoming a critical part of the overall design of many modern networking teams.\n", "If the business application error occurred due to a work flow issue or human errors during data input, then the business users are notified. Business users then review their work flow and revise it if necessary. They also modify the user guide or user instructions to avoid such an error in the future.\n\nSection::::Application support.:Infrastructure issue correction.\n\nIf the business application error occurred due to infrastructure issues, then the specific infrastructure team is notified. The infrastructure team then implements permanent fixes for the issue and monitors the infrastructure to avoid the re-occurrence of the same error.\n", "A common example might be following unauthorized network intrusion. A specialist forensic examination into the nature and extent of the attack is performed as a damage limitation exercise. Both to establish the extent of any intrusion and in an attempt to identify the attacker. Such attacks were commonly conducted over phone lines during the 1980s, but in the modern era are usually propagated over the Internet.\n", "BULLET::::2. The technician verifies that the problem is real, and not just perceived. The technician will also ensure that enough information about the problem is obtained from the customer. This information generally includes the environment of the customer, when and how the issue occurs, and all other relevant circumstances.\n\nBULLET::::3. The technician creates the issue in the system, entering all relevant data, as provided by the customer.\n", "Another option they have is an intrusion detection system. This system alerts when there are possible intrusions. Some companies set up traps or \"hot spots\" to attract people and are then able to know when someone is trying to hack into that area.\n\nSection::::Concerns.:Security solutions.:Encryption.\n", "\"The Sydney Morning Herald\" published a timeline of the discovery on April 15, 2014, showing that some organizations had been able to patch the bug before its public disclosure. In some cases, it is not clear how they found out.\n\nSection::::History.:Bugfix and deployment.\n", "BULLET::::- Establish a date for the corrective action to be implemented, and enable DISA to confirm whether the correction has been implemented.\n", "On February 15, 1998, the Deputy Secretary of Defense issued a classified memorandum on Information Assurance, that instructed the DISA, with the assistance of the Military Departments, to develop an alert system that ensured positive control of information assurance. According to the memorandum, the alert system should:\n\nBULLET::::- Identify a system administrator to be the point of contact for each relevant network system,\n\nBULLET::::- Send alert notifications to each point of contact,\n\nBULLET::::- Require confirmation by each point of contact acknowledging receipt of each alert notification,\n", "Businesses typically have advanced firewalls, anti-virus software and intrusion detection systems (IDS) to prevent or detect improper network access. They may also have security specialists perform an audit on the company and hire a Certified Ethical Hacker to perform a simulated attack or \"pen test\" in order to find any gaps in security.\n\nAlthough companies may secure its internal networks, vulnerabilities can also occur through home networking. Email may be protected by methods, such as, creating a strong password, encrypting its contents, or using a digital signature. \n", "In November 2004 the (now defunct) HackThisSite-based \"HowDark\" Security Group notified the phpBB Group, makers of the phpBB bulletin software, of a serious vulnerability in the product. The vulnerability was kept under wraps while it was brought to the attention of the phpBB admins, who after reviewing, proceeded to downplay its risks.\n", "This part of the incident response plan identifies if there was a security event. When an end user reports information or an admin notices irregularities, an investigation is launched. An incident log is a crucial part of this step. All of the members of the team should be updating this log to ensure that information flows as fast as possible. If it has been identified that a security breach has occurred the next step should be activated. \n\nSection::::Preparation.:Containment.\n", "Software vulnerabilities coordinated by the CERT/CC may come from internal research or from outside reporting. Vulnerabilities discovered by outside individuals or organizations may be reported to the CERT/CC using the CERT/CC's Vulnerability Reporting Form. Depending on severity of the reported vulnerability, the CERT/CC may take further action to address the vulnerability and coordinate with the software vendor.\n\nSection::::Capabilities.:Knowledge Base and Vulnerability Notes.\n\nThe CERT/CC regularly publishes Vulnerability Notes in the CERT KnowledgeBase. Vulnerability Notes include information about recent vulnerabilities that were researched and coordinated, and how individuals and organizations may mitigate such vulnerabilities.\n", "If any similar business application errors occurred in the past then the issue resolution steps are retrieved from the support knowledge base and the error is resolved using those steps. If it is a new support error, then new issue resolution steps are created and the error is resolved. The new support error resolution steps are recorded in the knowledge base for future use. For major business application errors (critical infrastructure or application failures), a phone conference call is initiated and all required support persons/teams join the call and they all work together to resolve the error.\n\nSection::::Application support.:Code correction.\n", "This part of the incident response plan identifies if there was a security event. When an end user reports information or an admin notices irregularities, an investigation is launched. An incident log is a crucial part of this step. All of the members of the team should be updating this log to ensure that information flows as fast as possible. If it has been identified that a security breach has occurred the next step should be activated.\n\nSection::::Process.:Incident response plans.:Containment.\n", "Section::::Six categories of managed security services.:Penetration testing and vulnerability assessments.\n\nThis includes one-time or periodic software scans or hacking attempts in order to find vulnerabilities in a technical and logical perimeter. It generally does not assess security throughout the network, nor does it accurately reflect personnel-related exposures due to disgruntled employees, social engineering, etc. Regularly, reports are given to the client.\n\nSection::::Six categories of managed security services.:Compliance monitoring.\n", "BULLET::::- In February, Austrian aerospace firm FACC AG was defrauded of 42 million euros ($47 million) through a BEC attack - and subsequently fired both the CFO and CEO.\n", "Many jurisdictions have passed data breach notification laws, requiring a company that has been subject to a data breach to inform customers and takes other steps to remediate possible injuries.\n\nSection::::Definition.\n", "An HMG IS2 Full Accreditation Statement based on an HMG IS1 ITSHC (IT Security Health Check) by Deloitte and subsequent remediation by Recipero of its interface between Recipero's NMPR and the UK government's PNC, which are systems used to track mobile devices for law enforcement purposes was posted publicly. A public HMG IS2 Full Accreditation Statement based on an actual ITSHC (by Deloitte in this case) puts the auditor's reputation on the line, in a way that a confidential statement does not.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Cyber Essentials\n\nBULLET::::- Information assurance\n\nBULLET::::- Joint Services Publication 440\n\nBULLET::::- Infosec Standard 5\n", "A responsible disclosure first alerts the affected vendors confidentially before alerting CERT two weeks later, which grants the vendors another 45-day grace period before publishing a security advisory.\n\nFull disclosure is done when all the details of vulnerability is publicized, perhaps with the intent to put pressure on the software or procedure authors to find a fix urgently.\n\nWell respected authors have published books on vulnerabilities and how to exploit them: is a good example.\n", "A risk assessment is carried out by a team of people who have knowledge of specific areas of the business. Membership of the team may vary over time as different parts of the business are assessed. The assessment may use a subjective qualitative analysis based on informed opinion, or where reliable dollar figures and historical information is available, the analysis may use quantitative analysis.\n", "VTech corporate security was unaware their systems had been compromised and the breach was first brought to their attention after being contacted by Bicchierai prior to publication of the article. Upon notification, the company took a dozen or so websites and services offline.\n", "In the United States the \"Property Claims Services\", a division of the Insurance Services Office (ISO), is generally the source for industry loss estimates for perils. SIGMA, a division of Swiss Re, is often the source for such losses outside the US, with Munich Re's NatCAT Service appearing more and more often on ex-US business.\n\nSection::::Common contracts and market dynamics.\n", "BULLET::::- Vulnerability Scan - Following the discovery stage this looks for known security issues by using automated tools to match conditions with known vulnerabilities. The reported risk level is set automatically by the tool with no manual verification or interpretation by the test vendor. This can be supplemented with credential based scanning that looks to remove some common false positives by using supplied credentials to authenticate with a service (such as local windows accounts).\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01458	How does a camera focus have a set lower limit but an infinite upper limit?	The camera lens has to bend the light to focus it on the sensor. The closer the object is, the more the lens has to bend the light to focus it on the sensor. The farther away, the less it has to bend it. Objects infinitely far away barely need any focusing at all.	[ "This sets a limit close to 1.0 to 1.2 for most SLR mounts, whereas lenses for rangefinder and mirrorless cameras can be faster, as they can be brought closer to the image plane. Reproduction lenses incapable of infinity focus can have nominal f-numbers smaller than this limit, as the limit applies to the \"working\" f-number (the f-number corrected by the bellows factor), not to the nominal f-number. Only the working f-number correctly assesses the light gathering power of the lens.\n", "Hyperfocal distance\n\nIn optics and photography, hyperfocal distance is a distance beyond which all objects can be brought into an \"acceptable\" focus. As the hyperfocal distance is the focus distance giving the maximum depth of field, it is the most desirable distance to set the focus of a fixed-focus camera. The hyperfocal distance is entirely dependent upon what level of sharpness is considered to be acceptable. \n", "Fixed-focus lens\n\nA photographic lens for which the focus is not adjustable is called a fixed-focus lens or sometimes focus-free. The focus is set at the time of lens design, and remains fixed. It is usually set to the hyperfocal distance, so that the depth of field ranges all the way down from half that distance to infinity, which is acceptable for most cameras used for capturing images of humans or objects larger than a meter.\n", "In small-format cameras, the smaller circle of confusion limit yields a proportionately smaller depth of focus. In motion-picture cameras, different lens mount and camera gate combinations have exact flange focal depth measurements to which lenses are calibrated.\n", "More generally, this approach leads to an exact paraxial result for all optical systems if \"A\" is the entrance pupil diameter, the subject distances are measured from the entrance pupil, and the magnification is known:\n\nIf either the focus distance or the out-of-focus subject distance is infinite, the equations can be evaluated in the limit. For infinite focus distance:\n\nAnd for the blur circle of an object at infinity when the focus distance is finite:\n", "The hyperfocal distance is entirely dependent upon what level of sharpness is considered to be acceptable. The criterion for the desired acceptable sharpness is specified through the circle of confusion (CoC) diameter limit. This criterion is the largest acceptable spot size diameter that an infinitesimal point is allowed to spread out to on the imaging medium (film, digital sensor, etc.).\n\nSection::::Formulae.\n\nFor the first definition,\n\nwhere\n\nFor any practical f-number, the added focal length is insignificant in comparison\n\nwith the first term, so that\n", "The hyperfocal distance has a property called \"consecutive depths of field\", where a lens focused at an object whose distance is at the hyperfocal distance \"H\" will hold a depth of field from \"H\"/2 to infinity, if the lens is focused to \"H\"/2, the depth of field will extend from \"H\"/3 to \"H\"; if the lens is then focused to \"H\"/3, the depth of field will extend from \"H\"/4 to \"H\"/2, etc.\n", "In order to reach a minimal focal distance the aperture and the focal length of the lens are reduced (a slow wide-angle lens), to make the hyperfocal distance small. This allows the depth of field to extend from a short distance to infinity.\n", "Rather than having a method of determining the correct focusing distance and setting the lens to that focal point, a fixed-focus lens relies on sufficient depth of field to produce acceptably sharp images. Most cameras with focus-free lenses also have a relatively small aperture, which increases the depth of field. Fixed-focus cameras with extended depth of field (EDOF) sometimes are known as full-focus cameras.\n\nSection::::Concept.\n", "If the lens is focused at a distance of 10.5 m, then everything from half that distance (5.2 m) to infinity will be acceptably sharp in our photograph. With the formula for the \"Definition 2\", the result is 10417 mm, a difference of 0.5%.\n\nSection::::Consecutive depths of field.\n", "On a view camera, the focus and f-number can be obtained by measuring the depth of field and performing simple calculations. Some view cameras include DOF calculators that indicate focus and f-number without the need for any calculations by the photographer.\n\nSection::::Hyperfocal distance.\n\nSome cameras have their hyperfocal distance marked on the focus dial. For example, on the Minox LX focusing dial there is a red dot between 2 m and infinity; when the lens is set at the red dot, that is, focused at the hyperfocal distance, the depth of field stretches from 2 m to infinity.\n\nSection::::Near:far distribution.\n", "If the f-number is decreased by a factor of , the aperture diameter is increased by the same factor, and its area is increased by a factor of 2. The f-stops that might be found on a typical lens include 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22, 32, where going up \"one stop\" (using lower f-stop numbers) doubles the amount of light reaching the film, and stopping down one stop halves the amount of light.\n", "Professional lenses for some movie cameras have f-numbers as small as 0.75. Stanley Kubrick's film \"Barry Lyndon\" has scenes shot by candlelight with a NASA/Zeiss 50mm f/0.7, the fastest lens in film history. Beyond the expense, these lenses have limited application due to the correspondingly shallower depth of field – the scene must either be shallow, shot from a distance, or will be significantly defocused, though this may be the desired effect.\n", "This distance influences whether a lens from one system can be mounted with an adaptor to a camera body of another system. In order to produce an adaptor that permits focus to infinity without corrective optics, the flange-to-film distance the lens is designed for must be greater than that of the camera body it is to be adapted to, giving room for the adaptor. Camera systems with a large flange-to-film distance have lenses that can be widely adapted, while those with a small flange-to-film distance can take adaptors for many types of lenses.\n", "Max FOV is the maximum useful true field of view limited by the optics of the telescope. It is a physical limitation where increases beyond the maximum remain at maximum. Max FOV formula_49 is the barrel size formula_50 over the telescope's focal length formula_24 converted from radian to degrees.\n\nAn example of max FOV using a telescope with a barrel size of 31.75 mm (1.25 inches) and focal length of 1200 mm is given by: formula_52\n\nSection::::Observing through a telescope.\n", "Some cameras (Minolta 7, Canon EOS-1V, 1D, 30D/40D, Sony DSLR-A700, DSLR-A850, DSLR-A900) also have a few \"high-precision\" focus points with an additional set of prisms and sensors; they are only active with \"fast lenses\" with certain geometrical apertures (typically f-number 2.8 and faster). Extended precision comes from the wider effective measurement base of the \"range finder\".\n\nSection::::Passive.:Contrast detection.\n", "The speed of the AF system is highly dependent on the widest aperture offered by the lens. F-stops of around 2 to 2.8 are generally considered optimal in terms of focusing speed and accuracy. Faster lenses than this (e.g.: 1.4 or 1.8) typically have very low depth of field, meaning that it takes longer to achieve correct focus, despite the increased amount of light.\n", "\"Definition 1:\" The hyperfocal distance is the closest distance at which a lens can be focused while keeping objects at infinity acceptably sharp. When the lens is focused at this distance, all objects at distances from half of the hyperfocal distance out to infinity will be acceptably sharp.\n\n\"Definition 2:\" The hyperfocal distance is the distance beyond which all objects are acceptably sharp, for a lens focused at infinity.\n\nSection::::Acceptable sharpness.\n", "In contrast to a telephoto lens, for any given focal length a simple lens of non-telephoto design is constructed from one lens (which can, to minimize aberrations, consist of several elements to form an achromatic lens). To focus on an object at infinity, the distance from this single lens to focal plane of the camera (where the sensor or film is respectively) has to be adjusted to this focal length. For example, given a focal length of 500 mm, the distance between lens and focal plane is 500 mm. The farther the focal length is increased, the more the physical length of such a simple lens makes it unwieldy.\n", "The accuracy goal is then changed: can she get within one vertical meter? Yes. If she is anywhere within seven horizontal meters of \"p\", then her altitude always remains within one meter from the target \"L\". In summary, to say that the traveler's altitude approaches \"L\" as her horizontal position approaches \"p\" means that for every target accuracy goal, however small it may be, there is some neighborhood of \"p\" whose altitude fulfills that accuracy goal.\n\nThe initial informal statement can now be explicated:\n", "Section::::Automatic thresholding.:Note about limits and threshold selection.\n", "What, then, does it mean to say that her altitude approaches \"L?\" It means that her altitude gets nearer and nearer to \"L\" except for a possible small error in accuracy. For example, suppose we set a particular accuracy goal for our traveler: she must get within ten meters of \"L\". She reports back that indeed she can get within ten meters of \"L\", since she notes that when she is within fifty horizontal meters of \"p\", her altitude is \"always\" ten meters or less from \"L\".\n", "As with other types of camera lenses, the focal length is usually expressed in a millimeter value written on the lens, for example: a 500 mm lens. The most common type of long-focus lens is the telephoto lens, which incorporate a special lens group known as a \"telephoto group\" to make the physical length of the lens shorter than the focal length.\n\nSection::::Effects.\n", "Section::::Examples of metering modes.:Average metering.\n\nIn this metering mode, the camera uses light information from the entire scene and creates an average for the final exposure setting, giving no weighting to any particular portion of the metered area. In some situations, such as a snowy landscape, this mode will result in underexposure by 2 f-stops or more, because the metering system attempts to darken an excessively bright scene.\n\nSection::::Examples of metering modes.:Partial (selective) metering.\n", "Some cameras allow the option of locking exposure when autofocus is achieved. In other cameras the AF point is not used for exposure calculation, and in such cases it is common for metering to default to a central point in the viewfinder, using a pattern based on that area. There is considerable variation among different manufacturers how multi-zone metering is implemented–even in the model range of the same brand–and how much priority is given to the AF point itself. Some \"Scene\" modes, such as sunset, sports and night exposures also often affect the calculations of this metering pattern.\n" ]	[ "Camera focus should not have an infinite upper limit but a set lower limit. " ]	[ "Objects infinitely far away don't really need to focus at all. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Camera focus should not have an infinite upper limit but a set lower limit. ", "Camera focus should not have an infinite upper limit but a set lower limit. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Objects infinitely far away don't really need to focus at all. ", "Objects infinitely far away don't really need to focus at all. " ]
2018-00750	How do snails make their shells?	Shells of things like snails and clams have shells made (primarily) of calcium carbonate. There's some protein in there too, but it's just a chemical that their bodies produce in a structured way over time. I guess it's analogous to how you grow hair or fingernails, but instead of growing the protein keratin they're putting down layers of calcium ions in a crystal lattice.	[ "Section::::Formation.:Development.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Cornu aspersum\", better known as the European brown snail, is cooked in many different ways, according to different local traditions (size: 28 to 35 mm for an adult weight of 7 to 15 g; typically found in the Mediterranean countries of Europe and North Africa and the French Atlantic coast; \"Helix aspersa aspersa\" known as \"le Petit-gris\").\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cornu aspersum maxima\" (size 40 to 45 mm for an average weight of 20 to 30 g; typically found in North Africa).\n", "As the snail grows, so does its calcium carbonate shell. The shell grows additively, by the addition of new calcium carbonate, which is secreted by glands located in the snail's mantle. The new material is added to the edge of the shell aperture (the opening of the shell). Therefore, the centre of the shell's spiral was made when the snail was younger, and the outer part when the snail was older. When the snail reaches full adult size, it may build a thickened lip around the shell aperture. At this point the snail stops growing, and begins reproducing.\n", "When the snails have laid their eggs, the pots are put in a nursery where the eggs will hatch. The young snails are kept in the nursery for about 6 weeks, and then moved to a separate pen, as young snails do best if kept with other snails of similar size. Eight hours of daylight is optimal for young snails.\n\nBaby snails are fed on tender lettuce leaves (Boston type, but head type is probably also good.)\n\nSome who raise \"H. aspersa\" separate the five stages: reproduction, hatching, young, fattening, and final fattening.\n", "In life, when the soft parts of these snail are retracted, in some groups the aperture of the shell is closed by using a horny or calcareous operculum, a door-like structure which is secreted by, and attached to, the upper surface of the posterior part of the foot. The operculum is of very variable form in the different groups of snails that possess one.\n\nSection::::Parts of the shell.\n\nThe terminology used to describe the shells of gastropods includes:\n\nBULLET::::- Aperture: the opening of the shell\n\nBULLET::::- Lip = \"peristome\": the margin of the aperture\n", "Section::::Reproduction.\n", "An alternate method is to make a square pen with a -square garden in it. Plant about six crops, e.g., nettles and artichokes, inside the pen. The snails will choose what they want to eat. If it has not rained, turn sprinklers on for about 15 minutes at dusk, unless the snails are dormant. A disadvantage to this method is that, if the snails are not mature at the end of the year, it is difficult to replant fresh plant crops in the pens.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Tylomelania towutica\" (Kruimel, 1913)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tylomelania turriformis\" von Rintelen, Bouchet & Glaubrecht, 2007\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tylomelania wallacei\" (Reeve, 1860)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tylomelania wesseli\" von Rintelen, Bouchet & Glaubrecht, 2007\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tylomelania wolterecki\" von Rintelen, Bouchet & Glaubrecht, 2007\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tylomelania zeamais\" (Sarasin & Sarasin, 1897)\n\nSection::::Description.\n\nIn species within this genus, the albumen gland is very large. Pallial oviduct evolved into an uterine brood (that release shelled juvenile snails).\n\nComparison of apertural views of shells of twenty \"Tylomelania\" species (images are not to scale):\n\nSection::::Ecology.\n", "Several factors can greatly influence the growth of snails including: population density, stress (snails are sensitive to noise, light, vibration, unsanitary conditions, irregular feedings, being touched, etc.), feed, temperature and moisture, and the breeding technology used.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Otala lactea\" is sometimes called the \"vineyard snail,\" \"milk snail,\" or \"Spanish snail.\" The shell is white with reddish brown spiral bands and measures about 26 to 35 mm in diameter.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Iberus alonensis\", the Spanish \"vaqueta\" or \"serrana\", measures about 30 mm across the shell.\n", "The cerebral ganglia of the snail form a primitive brain which is divided into four sections. This structure is very much simpler than the brains of mammals, reptiles and birds, but nonetheless, snails are capable of associative learning.\n\nSection::::Biology.:Growth of the shell.\n", "Section::::Courtship.:Love darts.\n", "Section::::Life history.\n", "BULLET::::- Containing neither a lot of sand nor too much clay, as snails strive to dig into hard clay and sand dries out easily.\n\nBULLET::::- 20–40% organic matter content. Organic matter enhances cation exchange capacity of calcium and magnesium which in turn stimulates growth.\n\nBULLET::::- pH around 7.\n", "Sculpture can be concave or , incised into the surface or raised from it. Sometimes the sculpture has microscopic detailing. The term \"sculpture\" refers only to the calcareous outer layer of shell, and does not include the proteinaceous periostracum, which is in some cases textured even when the underlying shell surface is smooth. \n\nIn many taxa, there is no sculpture on the shell surface at all, apart from the presence of fine growth lines.\n\nSection::::List of terms.\n", "Ventridens\n\nVentridens is a genus of air-breathing land snails, terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusks in the family Zonitidae, the true glass snails.\n\nSection::::Species.\n\nSpecies in the genus \"Ventridens\" include:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ventridens acerra\" – glossy dome\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ventridens arcellus\" – golden dome\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ventridens brittsi\" – western dome\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ventridens cerinoideus\" – wax dome\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ventridens coelaxis\" – bidentate dome\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ventridens collisella\" – sculptured dome\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ventridens decussatus\" – crossed dome\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ventridens demissus\" – perforate dome\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ventridens eutropis\" – carinate dome\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ventridens gularis\" – throaty dome\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ventridens intertextus\" – pyramid dome\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ventridens lasmodon\" – hollow dome\n", "The operculum is large, ear-shaped in outline, and is corneus and somewhat transparent. On beaches where the shell of this species washed up commonly, the operculum will usually also be found washed up in the drift line.\n\nSection::::Moon snail predation.\n\nEmpty shells of clams and snails, including other moon snails, display evidence of predation by a moon snail when they are seen to have a neat \"countersunk\" hole drilled in them.\n", "Section::::Courtship.\n", "Parthenogenesis has been reported only in one species of slug, but many species can self-fertilise.\n\nSection::::Biology.:Lifespan.\n", "In Bulgaria, snails are traditionally cooked in an oven with rice or fried in a pan with vegetable oil and red paprika powder. Before they are used for those dishes, however, they are thoroughly boiled in hot water (for up to 90 minutes) and manually extracted from their shells. The two species most commonly used for food in the country are \"Helix lucorum\" and \"Helix pomatia\".\n\nSection::::Human relevance.:As food.:Famine food.\n", "Section::::Paragonimus.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Philine malaquiasi\" Valdés, Cadien & Gosliner, 2016\n\nBULLET::::- \"Philine mcleani\" Valdés, Cadien & Gosliner, 2016\n\nBULLET::::- \"Philine wareni\" Valdés, Cadien & Gosliner, 2016\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pionoconus quasimagus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pirenella arabica\" Reid \"in\" Reid & Ozawa, 2016\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pirenella arabica\" Reid \"in\" Reid & Ozawa, 2016\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pirenella asiatica\" Ozawa & Reid \"in\" Reid & Ozawa, 2016\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pirenella austrocingulata\" Reid \"in\" Reid & Ozawa, 2016\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pirenella cancellata\" Ozawa & Reid \"in\" Reid & Ozawa, 2016\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pirenella delicatula\" Reid \"in\" Reid & Ozawa, 2016\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pirenella nanhaiensis\" Fu & Reid \"in\" Reid & Ozawa, 2016\n", "Section::::Geographic distribution.\n", "Section::::Reproductive system in freshwater gastropods.:Mating.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Anoptychia? luxemburgensis\" Gründel, 2012\n\nBULLET::::- \"Aphera aphrodite\" Landau, Petit & Da Silva, 2012\n\nBULLET::::- \"Axelella cativa\" Landau, Petit & Da Silva, 2012\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bahiensis priscus\" Cabrera & Martínez, 2012\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bivetiella dilatata\" Landau, Petit & Da Silva, 2012\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bulinus corici\" Harzhauser, Neubauer, Mandic, Zuschin & Ćorić, 2012\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cancellaria harzhauseri\" Landau, Petit & Da Silva, 2012\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cancellaria mixta\" Landau, Petit & Da Silva, 2012\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cidarina lenzaniyeuensis\" del Rio, 2012\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cryptaulax redelii\" Ferrari, 2012\n\nBULLET::::- \"Emmericia roetzeli\" Harzhauser & Neubauer \"in\" Harzhauser \"et al.\", 2012\n\nBULLET::::- \"Euclia alacertata\" Landau, Petit & Da Silva, 2012\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-06446	If dead tissue rots so quickly, how do clothes based on animal matter like leather or wool endure so long?	Wool is not living tissue, it's just hair. Leather requires processing to preserve it. Its dried and cured to prevent decay.	[ "There are many factors when considering the sustainability of a material. The renewability and source of a fiber, the process of how a raw fiber is turned into a textile, the impact of preparation and dyeing of the fibers, energy use in production and preparation, the working conditions of the people producing the materials, and the material's total carbon footprint, transportation between production plants, shipping to retail and consumer, how the material will be cared for and washed, the processes of repairs and updates, and what happens to it at the end of life. The indexing of the textile journeys is thus extremely complex. \n", "Clothing suffers assault both from within and without. The human body sheds skin cells and body oils, and exudes sweat, urine, and feces. From the outside, sun damage, moisture, abrasion, and dirt assault garments. Fleas and lice can hide in seams. Worn clothing, if not cleaned and refurbished, itches, becomes outworn, and loses functionality (as when buttons fall off, seams come undone, fabrics thin or tear, and zippers fail).\n", "Linen is a very durable, strong fabric, and one of the few that are stronger wet than dry. The fibers do not stretch, and are resistant to damage from abrasion. However, because linen fibers have a very low elasticity, the fabric eventually breaks if it is folded and ironed at the same place repeatedly over time.\n", "What are the characteristics of the fibres? For instance, cotton and linen, being plant fibers, are both stronger wet than dry, and so may be able to withstand a more mechanical stress than something like silk. Wool can absorb large amounts of water, but mats if washed in high temperatures. All silks become brittle with age, but weighted silks (see Textile Instability above) decay more quickly, and thus must be handled with extreme care. Additionally, some silks, once wet, can be permanently spotted. Learn the basic characteristics of the type of fibres you have, and how they have been treated before undertaking any kind of cleaning.\n", "Often, people wear an item of clothing until it falls apart. Some materials present problems. Cleaning leather is difficult, and bark cloth (tapa) cannot be washed without dissolving it. Owners may patch tears and rips, and brush off surface dirt, but materials like these inevitably age.\n\nHowever, most clothing consists of cloth, and most cloth can be laundered and mended (patching, darning, but compare felt).\n\nSection::::Life cycle.:Laundry, ironing, storage.\n", "When it comes down to the garments themselves, their durability depends on their use and \"metabolism\" - certain garments are made to withstand long use (ex. outdoor and hiking wear, winter jackets) whereas other garments have a quicker turn-around (ex. a party top). This means some garments have properties and a use-life that could be made more durable, whereas others should be compostable or recyclable for quicker disintegration. Some garments age well and acquire patina and a romantic enchantment not unlike the wonder, fascination and grandeur of historical ruins, whereas the derelict and discarded rags of last season is an eyesore and nuisance; the first connotes a majesty of taste, whereas the second is the underclass of waste.\n", "Mildew, perspiration, and bleach can also damage the fabric, but it is resistant to moths and carpet beetles. Linen is relatively easy to take care of, since it resists dirt and stains, has no lint or pilling tendency, and can be dry-cleaned, machine-washed or steamed. It can withstand high temperatures, and has only moderate initial shrinkage.\n", "In some cases, the textiles are weakened not by outside causes such as light or pests, but by chemical reactions taking place within the fabric itself, such as the oxidation of iron-based mordants over time, which can cause darkening and discolouration in the surrounding fibres.\n", "There are many concerns about the life cycle of synthetics, which come primarily from petrochemicals. Unlike natural fibers, their source is not renewable and they are not biodegradable.\n\nExcess inventory of clothing is sometimes destroyed to preserve brand value.\n\nSection::::Global trade.\n\nEU Member States import, in 2018 €166 billion of clothes; 51% come from outside the EU €84 billion.\n\nEU member states exported €116 billion of clothes in 2018, including 77% to other EU member states.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Children's clothing\n\nBULLET::::- Clothing fetish\n\nBULLET::::- Thermoregulation\n\nBULLET::::- Timeline of requisite dress in Western civilization\n\nBULLET::::- List of iconic dresses\n", "Section::::Antique linens.\n\nThe collecting and restoring of antique linens can be complex, depending upon the condition of the cloth. Many old household linens were stored filled with starch, which damages the cloth over time since it hardens and causes wearing and tears in the fabric where it is folded and creased. The owner of an antique linen must determine if conserving, repairing, or mending are appropriate.\n", "Ideally, temperature should be kept around 70 degrees Fahrenheit, though some slight fluctuation in either direction is permissible, as long as it occurs gradually. For instance, temperature may be slightly lower in winter to save energy costs, but the change should be effected slowly, so as not to place the fibers under undue stress.\n", "To idealize the \"victimless\" of the jacket, immortalized cell lines or cells that divide and multiply forever once they are removed from an animal or human host forming a renewable resource, have been used in the project. The 3T3 mouse cells all come from a mouse who lived in the 1970s.\n\nSection::::Research and development.\n", "Victimless Leather – a prototype of a stitch-less jacket, grown from cell cultures into a layer of tissue supported by a coat shaped polymer layer.This is a sub-project of the Tissue Culture & Art Project where the artists are growing a leather jacket without killing any animals. Growing the victimless leather problematizes the concept of garment by making it semi-living. This artistic grown garment is intended to confront people with the moral implications of wearing parts of dead animals for protective and aesthetic reasons and confronts notions of relationships with manipulated living systems.\n", "In general, natural fibers tend to require more careful handling than synthetics because they can shrink, felt, stain, shed, fade, stretch, wrinkle, or be eaten by moths more readily, unless special treatments such as mercerization or superwashing are performed to strengthen, fix color, or otherwise enhance the fiber's own properties.\n", "BULLET::::- Only sheep's wool is susceptible to a \"negah\" of \"tzaraath\", although an even mixture of sheep's wool and another type of wool (camel's wool, for example) can be afflicted. In a similar vein, a mixture of plant fibers containing linen is insusceptible unless it is at least half linen.\n\nBULLET::::- The leather referred to by the Torah does not include the hides of marine animals.\n", "However, there is a significant difference between making a product last from making a long-lasting product. The quality of the product must reflect the appropriate fit into its lifecycle. Certain garments of quality can be repaired and cultivated with emotional durability. Low-quality products that deteriorate rapidly are not as suitable to be \"enchanted\" with emotional bonds between user and product.\n\nSection::::Ecological concerns related to fashion.\n", "Enhancing the lifespan of products have been yet another approach to sustainability, yet still only in its infancy. Upmarket brands have long supported the lifespan of their products through product-service systems, such as re-waxing of classic outdoor jackets, or repairs of expensive hand-bags, yet more accessible brands do still not offer even spare buttons in their garments. One such approach concerns emotionally durable design, yet with fashion's dependency on continuous updates, and consumer's desire to follow trends, there is a significant challenge to make garments last long through emotional attachment. As with memories, not all are pleasant, and thus a focus on emotional attachment can result in favoring a normative approach to what is considered a good enough memory to manifest emotionally in a garment. Cultural theorist Peter Stallybrass approaches this challenge in his essay on poverty, textile memory, and the coat of Karl Marx.\n", "The fabric is inherent meaning that the protection is not reduced through continuous use or washing and its properties remain unalterable throughout its life. The characteristics of the natural fibers give inherent protection and comfort.\n", "Wool, too, suffers in the sun—the fleece of sheep allowed to spend too much time in the sun before shearing accepts little dye when sheared from their backs, compared to their underbellies, as a result of disulfide bonds broken by UV light. Heat and a wide variety of insects, too, are deleterious to woolen textiles. Wool has a high resistance, however, to fungi and bacteria, provided it is free from sizing and soaps; further, wool can absorb three times its volume in water and requires a bit of humidity to remain viable.\n", "The fibers must then be loosened from the stalk. This is achieved through retting. This is a process which uses bacteria to decompose the pectin that binds the fibers together. Natural retting methods take place in tanks and pools, or directly in the fields. There are also chemical retting methods; these are faster, but are typically more harmful to the environment and to the fibers themselves.\n", "Cellulose fibers, like cotton, linen, and hemp behave differently from protein-based fibers. Linen and cotton, for instance, comprised most papers for many centuries. Clothing and handcrafts were often made with linen or cotton. Needlework was often done with silk, wool, or hair on a linen or cotton ground. Hairwork, silk embroidery, and wool embroidery pose special problems, due to the makeup of their parts. In diffused light, all fibers deteriorate rapidly, compared to those stored in the dark. However, cotton and linen resist temperature well. Cotton can be stored in temperatures well above 100 degrees and still remain chemically and physically stable. With these varying degrees of chemical and physical degradation, textiles woven from a blend of fibers, or art pieces created using a variety of fibers, deteriorate unevenly. Storage of wool and silk, for example in the ideal condition for one, might have a negative effect on the other.\n", "Burnished by a grant from the US. Environmental Protection Agency, associate professor,Young-A Lee and her team are growing vats of gel-like film composed of cellulose fiber, a byproduct of the same symbiotic colonies of bacteria and yeast (abbreviated SCOBY) found in another of the world's popular \"live culture\" foods: kombucha. Once harvested and dried, the resulting material has a look and feel much like leather. The fibres are 100 percent biodegradable, they also foster a cradle-to-cradle cycle of reuse and regeneration that leaves behind virtually zero waste. However, this material takes a long time to grow about three to four weeks under lab-controlled conditions. Hence mass production is an issue. In addition, tests revealed that moisture absorption from the air softens this material makes it less durable. Researchers also discovered that cold conditions make it brittle.\n", "Victimless Leather\n\nVictimless Leather – a prototype of a stitch-less jacket, grown from cell cultures into a layer of tissue supported by a coat shaped polymer layer.\n\nThis is a sub-project of the Tissue Culture & Art Project where the artists are growing a leather jacket without killing any animals. Growing the victimless leather problematizes the concept of garment by making it semi-living. This artistic grown garment is intended to confront people with the moral implications of wearing parts of dead animals for protective and aesthetic reasons and confronts notions of relationships with manipulated living systems.\n", "To avoid snags and pulls, remove any jewelry that may catch in the fabric’s weave, and wear clothing free of large buckles or other objects which may snag the textile. Long hair should also be tied back to allow a clear view of the working area, even when the head is bent over the table.\n", "Finally, antique costumes and clothing should never be worn, as the mere process of putting the clothes on and taking them off will cause damage. Additionally, the model may not fit the costume precisely – clothing was for a long time made to fit a specific person, not mass-produced in approximate sizes – causing strain where there should be none and slack where there likewise should be none.\n\nSection::::Cleaning.\n\nSection::::Cleaning.:Vacuuming.\n" ]	[ "Wool is dead tissue." ]	[ "Wool is hair, which is not living tissue." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Wool is dead tissue.", "Wool is dead tissue." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Wool is hair, which is not living tissue.", "Wool is hair, which is not living tissue." ]
2018-03233	So there are animals, plants and fungi. What's the difference between fungi and the other two?	Fungi and animals are very different from each other and classified as completely separate kingdoms. At the cellular level, both animals and fungi are composed of eukaryotic cells ; Fungal cells differ from plant cells in that they do not have chloroplasts and cannot carry out photosynthesis to make their own food , they are similar to animal cells in that fungal cells have centrioles, the structures that organize the spindle during mitosis. Like plants, fungi have a cell wall but it is composed of chitin, a polymer of n-acetyl glucosamine, rather than cellulose, a polymer of glucose. Fungi, like animals, are heterotrophs. Fungi secret enzymes to externally digest food then these nutrients are absorbed. Animals ingest (eat) food followed by internal digestion and absorption of nutrients. Some fungi have stages in their life cycle that are motile in liquid (water molds) and, in the past, they were considered "animal-like". That classification is many, many years outdated. This is a very simplistic comparison since Kingdom Fungi is extremely diverse and complex.	[ "Animals as a category have several characteristics that generally set them apart from other living things. Animals are eukaryotic and usually multicellular (although see Myxozoa), which separates them from bacteria, archaea, and most protists. They are heterotrophic, generally digesting food in an internal chamber, which separates them from plants and algae. They are also distinguished from plants, algae, and fungi by lacking cell walls.\n", "The \"Coniochaeta\" have been described as typically associated with wood, water, soil. However, there is also growing evidence of specialised associations between each species and specific environments, and a suggestion that 4-spored and 8-spored species interact differently with their environments, some species surviving forest fires, which activate their sexual cycle. Other members of the \"Coniochaeta,\" most commonly \"Coniochaeta polymorpha\", can cause clinical infections in immunocompromised individuals, which has increased recent interest in the genus.\n", "Early phylogenies placed fungi near the plants and other groups that have mitochondria with flat cristae, but this character varies. More recently, it has been said that holozoa (animals) and holomycota (fungi) are much more closely related to each other than either is to plants, because opisthokonts have a triple fusion of carbamoyl phosphate synthetase, dihydroorotase, and aspartate carbamoyltransferase that is not present in plants, and plants have a fusion of thymidylate synthase and dihydrofolate reductase not present in the opisthokonts. Animals and fungi are also more closely related to amoebas than they are to plants, and plants are more closely related to the SAR supergroup of protists than they are to animals or fungi. Animals and fungi are both heterotrophs, unlike plants, and while fungi are sessile like plants, there are also sessile animals.\n", "Section::::Definition.:Fungi.\n", "Section::::Description.:Senses.\n\nSection::::Description.:Senses.:Optical.\n", "Section::::Evolutionary studies based on CSIs.:Fungi.\n\nThe exact phylogenetic relationship between plants, animals and fungi is not well understood. A small CSI-based study was conducted to elucidate this relationship. Four CSIs were used to place animals and fungi together as a monophyletic group, and exclude plants. These CSIs were found in two essential cellular proteins, elongation factor l and enolase. However, traditionally, this specific relationship between fungi and animals has not been supported.\n", "BULLET::::- Phylum Arthropoda\n\nSection::::By taxonomical classification.:Phyla.:Protostomia.:Spiralia.\n\nBULLET::::- Gnathifera\n\nBULLET::::- Phylum Gnathostomulida\n\nBULLET::::- Phylum Rotifera\n\nBULLET::::- Mesozoa\n\nBULLET::::- Phylum Dicyemida\n\nBULLET::::- Phylum Orthonectida\n\nBULLET::::- Rouphozoa\n\nBULLET::::- Phylum Gastrotricha\n\nBULLET::::- Phylum Platyhelminthes\n\nBULLET::::- Lophotrochozoa\n\nBULLET::::- Phylum Hyolitha †\n\nBULLET::::- Phylum Annelida\n\nBULLET::::- Phylum Brachiopoda\n\nBULLET::::- Phylum Bryozoa\n\nBULLET::::- Phylum Cycliophora\n\nBULLET::::- Phylum Entoprocta\n\nBULLET::::- Phylum Mollusca\n\nBULLET::::- Phylum Nemertea\n\nBULLET::::- Phylum Phoronida\n\nSection::::By taxonomical classification.:Chordata.\n\nBULLET::::- List of chordate orders\n\nSection::::By taxonomical classification.:Chordata.:Fish.\n\nBULLET::::- List of fish families\n\nBULLET::::- List of fish common names\n\nSection::::By taxonomical classification.:Chordata.:Amphibians.\n\nBULLET::::- List of amphibians\n\nSection::::By taxonomical classification.:Chordata.:Reptiles.\n\nBULLET::::- List of reptiles\n", "Section::::Algae, Fungi and Plants.\n", "Section::::Types.\n\nLike all ecological interactions, commensalisms vary in strength and duration from intimate, long-lived symbioses to brief, weak interactions through intermediaries.\n\nSection::::Types.:Phoresy.\n\nPhoresy is one animal attached to another exclusively for transport, mainly arthropods, examples of which are mites on insects (such as beetles, flies or bees), pseudoscorpions on mammals or beetles, and millipedes on birds. Phoresy can be either obligate or facultative (induced by environmental conditions).\n\nSection::::Types.:Inquilinism.\n\nInquilinism is the use of a second organism for permanent housing. Examples are epiphytic plants (such as many orchids) that grow on trees, or birds that live in holes in trees.\n\nSection::::Types.:Metabiosis.\n", "Section::::Classification and structure.\n\nMicroorganisms can be found almost anywhere on Earth. Bacteria and archaea are almost always microscopic, while a number of eukaryotes are also microscopic, including most protists, some fungi, as well as some micro-animals and plants. Viruses are generally regarded as not living and therefore not considered as microorganisms, although a subfield of microbiology is virology, the study of viruses.\n\nSection::::Classification and structure.:Evolution.\n", "Section::::Microbial.:Ciliates.\n", "Section::::Collections and research.:Biological systematics.\n\nThe most common science currently conducted in natural history museums is biological systematics. It is also the science with which current natural history collections are most intimately associated. The Academy's collections and systematics research are presented below.\n\nSection::::Collections and research.:Biological systematics.:Botany.\n\nBotany is study of plants. \"Plants,\" to most people, means a wide range of living organisms from the smallest bacteria to the largest living things - the giant sequoia trees. By this definition plants include: algae, fungi, lichens, mosses, ferns, conifers and flowering plants.\n", "Some foods not from animal or plant sources include various edible fungi, especially mushrooms. Fungi and ambient bacteria are used in the preparation of fermented and pickled foods like leavened bread, alcoholic drinks, cheese, pickles, kombucha, and yogurt. Another example is blue-green algae such as Spirulina. Inorganic substances such as salt, baking soda and cream of tartar are used to preserve or chemically alter an ingredient.\n\nSection::::Food sources.:Plants.\n\nMany plants and plant parts are eaten as food and around 2,000 plant species are cultivated for food. Many of these plant species have several distinct cultivars.\n", "Section::::Description.:Excretory system.\n", "BULLET::::- Conifers (Pinophyta) and flowering plants (Angiospermae) lack the flagellae and centrioles that are present in animal cells.\n\nSection::::Differences among eukaryotic cells.:Fungal cell.\n\nThe cells of fungi are most similar to animal cells, with the following exceptions:\n\nBULLET::::- A cell wall that contains chitin\n\nBULLET::::- Less compartmentation between cells; the hyphae of higher fungi have porous partitions called septa, which allow the passage of cytoplasm, organelles, and, sometimes, nuclei. Primitive fungi have few or no septa, so each organism is essentially a giant multinucleate supercell; these fungi are described as coenocytic.\n\nBULLET::::- Only the most primitive fungi, chytrids, have flagella.\n", "A diverse variety of living organisms (life forms) can be found in the biosphere on Earth, and properties common to these organisms—plants, animals, fungi, protists, archaea, and bacteria—are a carbon- and water-based cellular form with complex organization and heritable genetic information. Living organisms undergo metabolism, maintain homeostasis, possess a capacity to grow, respond to stimuli, reproduce and, through natural selection, adapt to their environment in successive generations. More complex living organisms can communicate through various means.\n\nSection::::Ecosystems.\n", "Species of Chytridiomycota have traditionally been delineated and classified based on development, morphology, substrate, and method of zoospore discharge. However, single spore isolates (or isogenic lines) display a great amount of variation in many of these features; thus, these features cannot be used to reliably classify or identify a species. Currently, taxonomy in Chytridiomycota is based on molecular data, zoospore ultrastructure and some aspects of thallus morphology and development.\n", "Section::::Fungal farming.:Insects.:Ants.\n", "Originally Aristotle divided all living things between plants, which generally do not move fast enough for humans to notice, and animals. In Linnaeus' system, these became the kingdoms Vegetabilia (later Plantae) and Animalia. Since then, it has become clear that the Plantae as originally defined included several unrelated groups, and the fungi and several groups of algae were removed to new kingdoms. However, these are still often considered plants in many contexts. Bacterial life is sometimes included in flora, and some classifications use the term \"bacterial flora\" separately from \"plant flora\".\n", "Fungivore\n\nFungivory or mycophagy is the process of organisms consuming fungi. Many different organisms have been recorded to gain their energy from consuming fungi, including birds, mammals, insects, plants, amoebas, gastropods, nematodes, bacteria and other fungi. Some of these, which only eat fungi, are called fungivores whereas others eat fungi as only part of their diet, being omnivores.\n\nSection::::Animals.\n\nSection::::Animals.:Mammals.\n", "Plants are mainly multicellular, predominantly photosynthetic eukaryotes of the kingdom Plantae. Historically, plants were treated as one of two kingdoms including all living things that were not animals, and all algae and fungi were treated as plants. However, all current definitions of Plantae exclude the fungi and some algae, as well as the prokaryotes (the archaea and bacteria). By one definition, plants form the clade Viridiplantae (Latin name for \"green plants\"), a group that includes the flowering plants, conifers and other gymnosperms, ferns and their allies, hornworts, liverworts, mosses and the green algae, but excludes the red and brown algae.\n", "BULLET::::- Venus flytrap sea anemone is an Animalia and Venus flytrap plant. Both look and act the same.\n\nBULLET::::- Digestive enzymes independently came about in carnivorous plants and animals.\n\nSection::::In fungi.\n\nBULLET::::- There are a variety of saprophytic and parasitic organisms that have evolved the habit of growing into their substrates as thin strands for extracellular digestion. This is most typical of the \"true\" fungi, but it has also evolved in Actinobacteria (Bacteria), oomycetes (which are part of the stramenopile grouping, as are kelp), parasitic plants, and rhizocephalans (parasitic barnacles).\n", "The fungi were originally treated as plants. For a short period Linnaeus had classified them in the taxon Vermes in Animalia, but later placed them back in Plantae. Copeland classified the Fungi in his Protoctista, thus partially avoiding the problem but acknowledging their special status. The problem was eventually solved by Whittaker, when he gave them their own kingdom in his five-kingdom system. Evolutionary history shows that the fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants.\n", "Whittaker's original reclassification was based on the fundamental difference in nutrition between the Fungi and the Plantae. Unlike plants, which generally gain carbon through photosynthesis, and so are called autotrophs, fungi do not possess chloroplasts and generally obtain carbon by breaking down and absorbing surrounding materials, and so are called heterotrophic saprotrophs. In addition, the substructure of multicellular fungi is different from that of plants, taking the form of many chitinous microscopic strands called hyphae, which may be further subdivided into cells or may form a syncytium containing many eukaryotic nuclei. Fruiting bodies, of which mushrooms are the most familiar example, are the reproductive structures of fungi, and are unlike any structures produced by plants.\n", "Section::::Diversity.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-19477	if (most of) our cells turn over completely, why do skin imperfections stick around? Why don’t things like enlarged pores and scars reset?	You're talking about structures that have millions of cells in them. Though the individual cells regenerate, the structure as a whole tends to retain its higher level features. It's kinda like Britain. The population, and most of the buildings, have been completely replaced numerous times since the eleventh century. But there is still an unusually high number of them in the London area today.	[ "Skin is a soft tissue and exhibits key mechanical behaviors of these tissues. The most pronounced feature is the J-curve stress strain response, in which a region of large strain and minimal stress exists and corresponds to the microstructural straightening and reorientation of collagen fibrils. In some cases the intact skin is prestreched, like wetsuits around the diver's body, and in other cases the intact skin is under compression. Small circular holes punched on the skin may widen or close into ellipses, or shrink and remain circular, depending on preexisting stresses.\n\nSection::::Functions.:Aging.\n", "Keratinocytes continue migrating across the wound bed until cells from either side meet in the middle, at which point contact inhibition causes them to stop migrating. When they have finished migrating, the keratinocytes secrete the proteins that form the new basement membrane. Cells reverse the morphological changes they underwent in order to begin migrating; they reestablish desmosomes and hemidesmosomes and become anchored once again to the basement membrane. Basal cells begin to divide and differentiate in the same manner as they do in normal skin to reestablish the strata found in reepithelialized skin.\n\nSection::::Proliferative phase.:Contraction.\n", "Section::::Molecular mechanisms in Skin Aging.\n\nThere are many dissimilar models that have been used to give an explanation of skin aging using a molecular base such as the theory of cellular senescence, the reduction in the cell's DNA repair capacity and losing of telomeres, oxidative stress etc. Some scientists also proposed that a large portion of skin aging is caused by external factors while only 3% is caused by internal factors. In this section we will talk about the significant models and advancement in molecular mechanisms studies in relation to aging of the skin.\n\nSection::::Oxidative stress.\n", "The epidermis contains no blood vessels, and cells in the deepest layers are nourished almost exclusively by diffused oxygen from the surrounding air and to a far lesser degree by blood capillaries extending to the outer layers of the dermis. The main type of cells which make up the epidermis are Merkel cells, keratinocytes, with melanocytes and Langerhans cells also present. The epidermis can be further subdivided into the following \"strata\" (beginning with the outermost layer): corneum, lucidum (only in palms of hands and bottoms of feet), granulosum, spinosum, basale. Cells are formed through mitosis at the basale layer. The daughter cells (see cell division) move up the strata changing shape and composition as they die due to isolation from their blood source. The cytoplasm is released and the protein keratin is inserted. They eventually reach the corneum and slough off (desquamation). This process is called \"keratinization\". This keratinized layer of skin is responsible for keeping water in the body and keeping other harmful chemicals and pathogens out, making skin a natural barrier to infection.\n", "In the great majority of cells, smooth ER regions are scarce and are often partly smooth and partly rough. They are sometimes called transitional ER because they contain ER exit sites from which transport vesicles carrying newly synthesized proteins and lipids bud off for transport to the Golgi apparatus. In certain specialized cells, however, the smooth ER is abundant and has additional functions. The smooth ER of these specialized cells functions in diverse metabolic processes, including synthesis of lipids, metabolism of carbohydrates, and detoxification of drugs and poisons.\n", "Section::::Types of aging damage and treatment schemes.:Intracellular junk—LysoSENS.\n\nOur cells are constantly breaking down proteins and other molecules that are no longer useful or which can be harmful. Those molecules which can’t be digested accumulate as junk inside our cells, which is detected in the form of lipofuscin granules. Atherosclerosis, macular degeneration, liver spots on the skin and all kinds of neurodegenerative diseases (such as Alzheimer's disease) are associated with this problem.\n", "Section::::Permeability.:Increasing permeability.\n\nScientists previously believed that the skin was an effective barrier to inorganic particles. Damage from mechanical stressors was believed to be the only way to increase its permeability. \n", "The cells in the stratum granulosum do not divide, but instead form skin cells called keratinocytes from the granules of keratin. These skin cells finally become the cornified layer (\"stratum corneum\"), the outermost epidermal layer, where the cells become flattened sacks with their nuclei located at one end of the cell. After birth these outermost cells are replaced by new cells from the stratum granulosum and throughout life they are shed at a rate of 0.001 - 0.003 ounces of skin flakes every hour, or 0.024-0.072 ounces per day.\n", "Proteins and cell surface receptors found in the ECM differ in fetal and adult wound healing. This is due to the early up regulation of cell adhesion proteins such as fibronectin and tenascin in the fetus. During early gestation in the fetal wounds of rabbits, the production of fibronectin occurs around 4 hours after wounding, much faster than in adult wounds where expression of fibronectin does not occur until 12 hours post wounding. The same pattern can be seen in the deposition of tenascin. It is this ability of the fetal fibroblast to quickly express and deposit fibronectin and tenascin, which ultimately allows cell migration and attachment to occur, resulting in an organised matrix with less scarring.\n", "At least two species of African spiny mice, \"Acomys kempi\" and \"Acomys percivali\", are capable of autotomic release of skin, e.g. upon being captured by a predator. They are the first mammals known to do so. They can completely regenerate the autotomically released or otherwise damaged skin tissue — regrowing hair follicles, skin, sweat glands, fur and cartilage with little or no scarring. It is believed that the corresponding regeneration genes could also function in humans.\n\nSection::::Invertebrates.\n", "Overproduction of collagen is thought to result from an autoimmune dysfunction, in which the immune system starts to attack the kinetochore of the chromosomes. This would lead to genetic malfunction of nearby genes. T cells accumulate in the skin; these are thought to secrete cytokines and other proteins that stimulate collagen deposition. Stimulation of the fibroblast, in particular, seems to be crucial to the disease process, and studies have converged on the potential factors that produce this effect.\n", "With age, tissue homeostasis declines partly because stem/progenitor cells fail to self-renew or differentiate. DNA damage caused by exposure of stem/progenitor cells to reactive oxygen species (ROS) may play a key role in epidermal stem cell aging. Mitochondrial superoxide dismutase (SOD2) ordinarily protects against ROS. Loss of SOD2 in mouse epidermal cells was observed to cause cellular senescence that irreversibly arrested proliferation in a fraction of keratinocytes. In older mice, SOD2 deficiency delayed wound closure and reduced epidermal thickness.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Epidermis\n\nBULLET::::- Skin\n\nBULLET::::- Corneocyte\n\nBULLET::::- Keratin\n\nBULLET::::- HaCaT\n", "Development of facial wrinkles is a kind of fibrosis of the skin. Misrepair-accumulation aging theory suggests that wrinkles develop from incorrect repairs of injured elastic fibers and collagen fibers. Repeated extensions and compressions of the skin cause repeated injuries of extracellular fibers in derma. During the repairing process, some of the broken elastic fibers and collagen fibers are not regenerated and restored but replaced by altered fibers. When an elastic fiber is broken in an extended state, it may be replaced by a “long” collagen fiber. Accumulation of “long” collagen fibers makes part of the skin looser and stiffer, and as a consequence, a big fold of skin appears. When a “long” collagen is broken in a compressed state, it may be replaced by a “short” collagen fiber. The “shorter” collagen fibers will restrict the extension of \"longer\" fibers, and make the “long” fibers in a folding state permanently. A small fold, namely a permanent wrinkle, then appears.\n", "Damage to DNA alters the spatial configuration of the helix, and such alterations can be detected by the cell. Once damage is localized, specific DNA repair molecules bind at or near the site of damage, inducing other molecules to bind and form a complex that enables the actual repair to take place.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms.:Direct reversal.\n", "The basement membrane controls the traffic of the cells and molecules between the dermis and epidermis but also serves, through the binding of a variety of cytokines and growth factors, as a reservoir for their controlled release during physiological remodeling or repair processes.\n\nSection::::Structure in humans and other mammals.:Dermis.\n\nThe dermis is the layer of skin beneath the epidermis that consists of connective tissue and cushions the body from stress and strain.\n", "In pretreatment samples, the zone of collagen shows a dense accumulation of elastin, but in posttreatment samples, this zone contains less dense elastin with significant, interlocking new collagen. Repeated low-energy PSR treatment is an effective modality for improving dyspigmentation, smoothness, and skin laxity associated with photoaging. Histologic analysis of posttreatment samples confirms the production of new collagen and remodeling of dermal architecture. Changes consist of erythema and superficial epidermal peeling without complete removal, generally complete by 4 to 5 days.\n\nSection::::Plasma medicine.\n\nSection::::Plasma medicine.:Dental treatments.\n", "Section::::Functions.:Wound healing.\n\nOne example of behavior that is modulated by Rho GTPase proteins is in the healing of wounds. Wounds heal differently between young chicks and adult chickens. In young chicks, wounds heal by contraction, much like a draw-string being pulled to close a bag. In older chickens, cells crawl across the wound through locomotion. The actin formation required to close the wounds in young chicks is controlled by Rho GTPase proteins, since, after injection of a bacterial exoenzyme used to block rho and rac activity, the actin polymers do not form, and thus the healing completely fails.\n\nSection::::Functions.:Cell polarity.\n", "Skin plaques start to appear as reddened areas of inflammation, thus often leading to the mistaken diagnosis of Atopic Dermatitis. Following inflammation, the red areas start keratinization, eventually forming the definitive plaques that appear brownish, dry and scaled. Following quite a precise temporal pattern of evolution, the keratinized plaques last for weeks or months, eventually leading to periods of desquamation that leads to the uncovering of \"normal\" skin. Then, a new cycle usually begins, leaving a variable number of days of delay between the cycles.\n", "Some believe dedifferentiation is an aberration of the normal development cycle that results in cancer, whereas others believe it to be a natural part of the immune response lost by humans at some point as a result of evolution.\n\nA small molecule dubbed reversine, a purine analog, has been discovered that has proven to induce dedifferentiation in myotubes. These dedifferentiated cells could then redifferentiate into osteoblasts and adipocytes.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms.\n", "Section::::Maintaining Long-Term Changes.:Local Protein Synthesis.\n", "A number of structural proteins (filaggrin, keratin), enzymes (proteases), lipids, and antimicrobial peptides (defensins) contribute to maintain the important barrier function of the skin. Keratinization is part of the physical barrier formation (cornification), in which the keratinocytes produce more and more keratin and undergo terminal differentiation. The fully cornified keratinocytes that form the outermost layer are constantly shed off and replaced by new cells.\n\nSection::::Cell differentiation.\n", "Phagosomes degrade senescent cells and apoptotic cells to maintain tissue homeostasis. Erythrocytes have one of the highest turnover rates in the body, and they are phagocytosed by macrophages in the liver and spleen. In the embryo, the process of removing dead cells is not well-characterised, but it is not performed by macrophages or other cells derived from hematopoietic stem cells. It is only in the adult that apoptotic cells are phagocytosed by professional phagocytes. Inflammation is only triggered by certain pathogen- or damage-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs or DAMPs), the removal of senescent cells is non-inflammatory.\n\nSection::::Function.:Autophagosome.\n", "Senescent cells can undergo conversion to an immunogenic phenotype that enables them to be eliminated by the immune system. This phenotype consists of a pro-inflammatory secretome, the up-regulation of immune ligands, a pro-survival response, promiscuous gene expression (pGE) and stain positive for senescence-associated β-galactosidase activity. The nucleus of senescent cells is characterized by senescence-associated heterochromatin foci (SAHF) and DNA segments with chromatin alterations reinforcing senescence (DNA-SCARS). Senescent cells affect tumour suppression, wound healing and possibly embryonic/placental development and a pathological role in age-related diseases.\n", "Layers of corneocytes produce high mechanical strength which allows epidermis of the skin to perform its function as a physical, chemical and immunological barrier. For example, corneocytes act as UV barrier by reflecting the scattered UV radiation, protecting cells inside the body from apoptosis and DNA damage. As corneocytes are essentially dead cells, they are not prone to viral attacks, though invisible microabrasions may cause permeability. Colonization of pathogens in the skin is prevented via complete turnovers of corneocyte layer every 2–4 weeks. Corneocytes are also capable of absorbing and storing small amounts of water to keep the skin hydrated and maintain its flexibility.\n", "Section::::Inflammaging.\n\nThis is the long-lasting inflammation that occurs as a result of aging. It affects the start and the progression of diseases that occur as a result of aging e.g. type 2 diabetes. It occurs in the skin because when exposed to the UV radiation it leads to the damaging of the epidermal cells which in turn cause inflammation to occur.\n\nSection::::Collagen loss due to increase in age.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00732	How can projector produce a black image.	It can't, black cannot be projected. It's the absence of light, so the black areas in a projected image are the areas not projected on. That's why you have to darken the room when using a projector. Black areas will only ever be as black as the surface you're projecting on under the ambient room brightness - this also means you will never have a perfect black in a projected image, since even in a perfectly dark room the projector produces ambient light.	[ "The most common type of projector used today is called a video projector. Video projectors are digital replacements for earlier types of projectors such as slide projectors and overhead projectors. These earlier types of projectors were mostly replaced with digital video projectors throughout the 1990s and early 2000s, but old analog projectors are still used at some places. The newest types of projectors are handheld projectors that use lasers or LEDs to project images. Their projections are hard to see if there is too much ambient light.\n", "On certain stocks of Super 8 and 16 mm an iron-oxide sound recording strip was added for the direct synchronous recording of sound which could then be played by projectors with a magnetic sound head. It has since been discontinued by Kodak on both gauges.\n\nSection::::Sound.:Digital.\n", "BULLET::::- BenQ developed SPD (Simulated Pulse Drive), also more commonly known as \"black frame insertion\", and claim that their images are as stable and clear as CRTs. This is conceptually similar to a strobing backlight.\n\nBULLET::::- Sharp Corporation use a \"scanning backlight\" which rapidly flashes the backlight in a sequence from the top to the bottom of the screen, during every frame.\n", "A \"shade\" is produced by \"dimming\" a hue. Painters refer to this as \"adding black\". In our illustration, one projector is set to full intensity, a second is set to some intensity between zero and full, and third is set to zero. \"Dimming\" is accomplished by decreasing each projector's intensity setting to the same fraction of its start setting.\n\nIn the shade example, with any fully shaded hue, that all three projectors are set to zero intensity, resulting in black.\n", "However, darkest black in a projected image is dependent on how dark the screen is. Because of this, some presenters and presentation-space planners prefer gray screens, which create higher-perceived contrast. The trade-off is that darker backgrounds can throw off color tones. Color problems can sometimes be adjusted through the projector settings, but may not be as accurate as they would on a white background.\n\nSection::::Throw ratio.\n", "BULLET::::- The way a single-chip DLP projector works sometimes causes viewers to see a \"rainbow\" or \"color breakup\" effect where false colors are briefly perceived when either the image or the observer's eye is in motion. As all three primary colors are displayed all the time by 3LCD projectors, they do not suffer from this effect.\n", "Section::::History.:Shadow masks.\n", "It is possible to view the black space between frames and the passing of the shutter by rapidly blinking ones eyes at a certain rate. If done fast enough, the viewer will be able to randomly \"trap\" the image between frames, or during shutter motion. This will not work with (now obsolete) cathode ray tube displays due to the persistence of the phosphors nor with LCD or DLP light projectors because they refresh the image instantly with no blackout intervals as with film projectors.\n", "BULLET::::- LCD projector: A lamp transmits light through a small LCD chip made up of individual pixels to create an image. The LCD projector uses mirrors to take the light and create three separate red, green, and blue beams, which are then passed through three separate LCD panels. The liquid crystals are manipulated using electric current to control the amount of light passing through. The lens system takes the three color beams and projects the image.\n", "If the energy of the flood gun electrons is properly balanced, each impinging flood gun electron knocks out one secondary electron from the phosphor screen, thus preserving the net positive charge in the illuminated areas of the phosphor screen. In this way, the image originally written by the writing gun can be maintained for a long time — many seconds to a few minutes. Eventually, small imbalances in the secondary emission ratio cause the entire screen to \"fade positive\" (light up) or cause the originally written trace to \"fade negative\" (extinguish). It is these imbalances that limit the ultimate storage time possible. \n", "Examples of this digital version of Pepper's ghost illusion include the Gorillaz performances in the 2005 MTV Europe Music Awards and the 48th Grammy Awards; and Tupac Shakur's virtual performance at Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival in 2012, rapping alongside Snoop Dogg during his set with Dr. Dre.\n\nAn even simpler illusion can be created by rear-projecting realistic images into semi-transparent screens. The rear projection is necessary because otherwise the semi-transparency of the screen would allow the background to be illuminated by the projection, which would break the illusion.\n", "BULLET::::- After some electrons have moved into the dark areas and recombined with holes there, there is a permanent space charge field between the electrons that moved to the dark spots and the holes in the bright spots. This leads to a change in the index of refraction due to the electro-optic effect.\n", "In raster scan equipment, an image is built up by scanning an electron beam from left to right across a screen to produce a visible trace of one scan line, reducing the brightness of the beam to zero (\"horizontal blanking\"), moving it back as fast as possible to the left of the screen at a slightly lower position (the next scan line), restoring the brightness, and continuing until all the lines have been displayed and the beam is at the bottom right of the screen. Its intensity is then reduced to zero again (vertical blanking), and it is rapidly moved to the top left to start again, creating the next Film frame.\n", "The three LCD panels of the projector are the elements that receive the electronic signals to create the image which is to be projected. Each pixel on an LCD is covered by liquid crystals. By changing the electrical charge given to the liquid crystals, each pixel on an LCD can be darkened until it is totally opaque (for full black), lightened until it is totally transparent (allowing all the lamp light to pass through for full white) or shaded in varying degrees of translucence (for different shades of gray). This is similar to how a digital watch’s characters appear bold and black on its LCD when its battery is new, but start to fade gradually as its battery weakens. In this way, the brightness level on every pixel for each primary color can be very precisely controlled to produce the final pixel's specific color and brightness level required on the screen. \n", "Projectors share a common history with cameras in the camera obscura. Camera obscura (Latin for \"dark room\") is the natural optical phenomenon that occurs when an image of a scene at the other side of a screen (or for instance a wall) is projected through a small hole in that screen to form an inverted image (left to right and upside down) on a surface opposite to the opening. The oldest known record of this principle is a description by Han Chinese philosopher Mozi (ca. 470 to ca. 391 BC). Mozi correctly asserted that the camera obscura image is inverted because light travels in straight lines from its source. In the 11th century Arab physicist Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) described experiments with light through a small opening in a darkened room and realized that a smaller hole provided a sharper image.\n", "For multi-projector systems, in particular, display devices must have a low black level (i.e., project little or no light when no signal is sent to them) to allow for reasonable edge-blending between the different projector footprints. Otherwise, overlapping video images will have an additive effect, causing a complex pattern of grey to appear even when no image is being projected. This becomes particularly important for users in the planetarium field, who have a vested interest in projecting a dark night sky. The desire for projectors to “go to black” has resulted in continued use of CRT technology, even as newer and less expensive technologies have emerged.\n", "In contrast to rear projection, in front projection the background image is projected onto both the performer and a highly reflective background screen, with the result that the projected image is bounced off the screen and into the lens of a camera. This is achieved by having a screen made of a retroreflective material such as Scotchlite, a product of the 3M company that is also used to make screens for movie theaters. Such material is made from millions of glass beads affixed to the surface of the cloth. These glass beads reflect light back only in the direction from which it came, far more efficiently than any common surface.\n", "BULLET::::- LCoS projectors (liquid crystal on silicon). Such projectors often process light in the Fourier domain, which enables correction of optical aberrations using Zernike polynomials. Some commercially available technologies include:\n\nBULLET::::- D-ILA JVC’s Direct-drive Image Light Amplifier based on LCoS technology.\n\nBULLET::::- SXRD Sony’s proprietary variant of LCoS technology.\n\nBULLET::::- LED projectors use one of the above-mentioned technologies for image creation, with a difference that they use an array of Light Emitting Diodes as the light source, negating the need for lamp replacement.\n", "BULLET::::- High-end CRT projectors can precisely display images up to 1920 x 1200 with accurate color reproduction. A few projectors can scan at even higher resolutions up to 3200 x 2560, although their ability to resolve fine detail at this resolution is greatly reduced.\n\nBULLET::::- Superior black level compared to LCD and DLP based projectors.\n\nBULLET::::- As with CRT monitors, the image resolution and the refresh rate are not fixed but variable within some limits. Interlaced material can be played directly, without need for imperfect deinterlacing mechanisms.\n", "Digital Micromirror Devices (DMD) were invented by Texas Instruments in 1987 and are the core of the DLP technology used for video projection. The mirrors are arranged in a matrix and have two states, \"on\" or \"off\" (digital). In the on state, light from the projector bulb is reflected into the lens making the pixel appear bright on the screen. In the off state, the light is directed elsewhere (usually onto a heatsink), making the pixel appear dark. Colours could be produced by various technologies like different light sources or gratings.\n\nSection::::Light Deflection and Control.\n", "The projector light engine is based on a Luminus Devices, Inc. PhatLight LED chipset and uses a TI DLP digital micromirror device. The short throw lens rear projects the image onto the removable tile screen.\n\nSection::::Technical details.:Cabinet Design.\n", "Most modern electric versions of this type of lantern use all kinds of colorful transparent cellophane figures which are projected across the walls, especially popular for nurseries.\n\nSection::::History.:1000 to 1500.\n\nSection::::History.:1000 to 1500.:Concave mirrors.\n", "Section::::Color in DLP projection.:Single-chip projectors.:The color wheel \"rainbow effect\".\n", "The black level of a single-chip DLP depends on how unused light is being disposed. If the unused light is scattered to reflect and dissipate on the rough interior walls of the DMD / lens chamber, this scattered light will be visible as a dim gray on the projection screen, when the image is fully dark. Deeper blacks and higher contrast ratios are possible by directing unused HID light away from the DMD / lens chamber into a separate area for dissipation, and shielding the light path from unwanted internal secondary reflections.\n", "Projector\n\nA projector or image projector is an optical device that projects an image (or moving images) onto a surface, commonly a projection screen. Most projectors create an image by shining a light through a small transparent lens, but some newer types of projectors can project the image directly, by using lasers. A virtual retinal display, or retinal projector, is a projector that projects an image directly on the retina instead of using an external projection screen.\n" ]	[ "Projectors produce a black image." ]	[ "They don't they just don't project anything to that area so it looks dark." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Projectors produce a black image." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "They don't they just don't project anything to that area so it looks dark." ]
2018-18239	Why is glass called a liquid?	It's wrong, a common fallacy. People noticed that old windows were thicker at the bottom, and wavy, and assumed they were slowly flowing downward. This is incorrect; builders of old windows just made them this way.	[ "The origin of \"liquor\" and its close relative \"liquid\" was the Latin verb \"liquere\", meaning \"to be fluid\". According to the \"Oxford English Dictionary\", an early use of the word in the English language, meaning simply \"a liquid\", can be dated to 1225. The first use the \"OED\" mentions of its meaning \"a liquid for drinking\" occurred in the 14th century. Its use as a term for \"an intoxicating alcoholic drink\" appeared in the 16th century.\n", "\"The tradition is that a merchant ship laden with nitrum being moored at this place, the merchants were preparing their meal on the beach, and not having stones to prop up their pots, they used lumps of nitrum from the ship, which fused and mixed with the sands of the shore, and there flowed streams of a new translucent liquid, and thus was the origin of glass.\"\n", "First attested in 14th century. From the English word \"bottle\" derives from an Old French word \"boteille\", from vulgar Latin \"butticula\", from late Latin \"buttis\" (\"cask\"), a latinisation of the Greek βοῦττις (\"bouttis\") (\"vessel\").\n\nSection::::Types of bottle.\n\nSection::::Types of bottle.:Glass bottles.\n\nSection::::Types of bottle.:Glass bottles.:Wine bottles.\n", "BULLET::::- Tumblers\n\nThe word \"cup\" comes from Middle English \"cuppe\", from Old English, from Late Latin \"cuppa\", drinking vessel, perhaps variant of Latin \"cupa\", tub, cask. The first known use of the word cup is before the 12th century.\n\nSection::::Tumblers.\n\nTumblers are flat-bottomed drinking glasses.\n\nBULLET::::- Collins glass, for a tall mixed drink\n\nBULLET::::- Dizzy Cocktail glass, a glass with a wide, shallow bowl, comparable to a normal Cocktail glass but without the stem\n\nBULLET::::- Highball glass, for mixed drinks\n\nBULLET::::- Iced tea glass\n\nBULLET::::- Juice glass, for fruit juices and vegetable juices.\n", "In 1437, \"burned water\" (brandy) was mentioned in the records of the County of Katzenelnbogen in Germany. It was served in a tall, narrow glass called a \"Goderulffe\".\n", "Ampulla (disambiguation)\n\nAn ampulla (plural \"ampullae\") was, in Ancient Rome, a \"small nearly globular flask or bottle, with two handles\" (OED). The word is used of these in archaeology, and of later flasks, often handle-less and much flatter, for holy water or holy oil in the Middle Ages.\n\nBULLET::::- Monza ampullae - 6th century, metal souvenirs of pilgrimages to the Holy Land.\n\nBULLET::::- Holy Ampulla - glass, part of the French coronation regalia and believed to have divine origins.\n", "Although the word \"vodka\" could be found in early manuscripts and in \"lubok\" pictograms, it began to appear in Russian dictionaries only in the mid-19th century. It was attested in Sámuel Gyarmathi's Russian-German-Hungarian glossary of 1799, where it is glossed with Latin \"vinum adustum\" (\"burnt [i.e. distilled] wine\").\n", "The word \"alcohol\" is from the Arabic \"kohl\" (), a powder used as an eyeliner. Al- is the Arabic definite article, equivalent to \"the\" in English. \"Alcohol\" was originally used for the very fine powder produced by the sublimation of the natural mineral stibnite to form antimony trisulfide . It was considered to be the essence or \"spirit\" of this mineral. It was used as an antiseptic, eyeliner, and cosmetic. The meaning of alcohol was extended to distilled substances in general, and then narrowed to ethanol, when \"spirits\" was a synonym for hard liquor.\n", "Glass is a non-crystalline, amorphous solid that is often transparent and has widespread practical, technological, and decorative uses in, for example, window panes, tableware, and optoelectronics. The most familiar, and historically the oldest, types of manufactured glass are \"silicate glasses\" based on the chemical compound silica (silicon dioxide, or quartz), the primary constituent of sand. The term \"glass\", in popular usage, is often used to refer only to this type of material, which is familiar from use as window glass and in glass bottles. Of the many silica-based glasses that exist, ordinary glazing and container glass is formed from a specific type called soda-lime glass, composed of approximately 75% silicon dioxide (SiO), sodium oxide (NaO) from sodium carbonate (NaCO), calcium oxide (CaO), also called lime, and several minor additives.\n", "The word \"whisky\" (or \"whiskey\") is an anglicisation of the Classical Gaelic word (or ) meaning \"water\" (now written as in Modern Irish, and in Scottish Gaelic). Distilled alcohol was known in Latin as (\"water of life\"). This was translated into Old Irish as (\"water of life\"), which became in Irish and in Scottish Gaelic. Early forms of the word in English included \"uskebeaghe\" (1581), \"usquebaugh\" (1610), \"usquebath\" (1621), and \"usquebae\" (1715).\n\nSection::::Etymology.:Names and spellings.\n", "The phrase became popularised outside Ireland by Edmund Burke, another liberal Protestant, and his ironic comment in 1792: \"A word has been lately struck in the mint of the castle of Dublin; thence it was conveyed to the Tholsel, or city-hall, where, having passed the touch of the corporation, so respectably stamped and vouched, it soon became current in parliament, and was carried back by the Speaker of the House of Commons in great pomp as an offering of homage from whence it came. The word is Ascendancy.\" This then used by Catholics seeking further political reforms.\n", "Section::::History by culture.\n\nSection::::History by culture.:Iran.\n", "The word \"vodka\" was recorded for the first time in 1405 in \"Akta Grodzkie\", the court documents from the Palatinate of Sandomierz in Poland. At the time, \"wódka\" referred to medicines and cosmetic products, while the beverage was called \"gorzałka\" (from the Old Polish \"gorzeć\" meaning \"to burn\"), which is also the source of Ukrainian \"horilka\" (). The word vodka written in Cyrillic appeared first in 1533, in relation to a medicinal drink brought from Poland to Russia by the merchants of Kievan Rus'.\n", "BULLET::::- mummy : موميا \"mūmiyā\", a bituminous substance used in medicine and in embalming, and secondarily sometimes it meant a corpse embalmed with the substance. The later-medieval Western languages borrowed the Arabic word in those senses. Post-medievally in the West the sense was extended to a corpse preserved by desiccation (drying out).\n", "Glass (disambiguation)\n\nGlass is an amorphous material commonly used in windows, tableware, optoelectronics, and decorative items.\n\nGlass or Glasses may also refer to:\n\nSection::::Common uses.\n\nBULLET::::- Glass (drinkware), a drinking vessel\n\nBULLET::::- Glasses, spectacles or eyeglasses\n\nSection::::Arts, entertainment, and media.\n\nSection::::Arts, entertainment, and media.:Film and television.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Glass\" (1958 film), a short documentary film about the glass industry in the Netherlands\n\nBULLET::::- \"Glass\" (1989 film), an Australian erotic thriller\n\nBULLET::::- \"Glass\" (2019 film), a film directed by M. Night Shyamalan\n\nBULLET::::- \"Glass\", television identifications 1991–1993\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Glasses\", a 1993 episode of the TV series \"Seinfeld\"\n\nSection::::Arts, entertainment, and media.:Music.\n", "In the sixteenth century, a historian from Granada called Luis de Mármol Carvajal claimed that the term \"Comares\" derived from the word \"Comaraxía\", that actually has a meaning related to a craftsmanship labor very appreciated by Muslims: a manufacturing technique of glass for exterior and ceilings.\n\nA third suggested theory is that the name comes from the Arab word \"qumariyya\" or \"qamariyya\". These ones designate the stained glasses that can even be glimpsed from the Hall of the Ambassadors' balcony.\n", "Noggin (cup)\n\nA noggin is a small drinking cup, generally carved from the burr (English) or burl (US) of a tree. The noggin was first mentioned in the mid 17th century, initially as the cup, and later coming to mean a quarter of a pint equal to a gill. Its use later spread to North America.\n\nThe cup's origins are not certain, but are probably from nog (a strong type of ale brewed in Norfolk, England). The noggin then became a noigin (Irish) or noigean (Gaelic).\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Coffee cup\n\nBULLET::::- Fuddling cup\n\nBULLET::::- Guksi\n\nBULLET::::- Plastic cup\n", "Names like \"life water\" have continued to be the inspiration for the names of several types of beverages, like Gaelic whisky, French eaux-de-vie and possibly vodka. Also, the Scandinavian akvavit spirit gets its name from the Latin phrase \"aqua vitae\".\n", "Section::::History by culture.:Medieval Europe.:Murano.\n", "Liquid (disambiguation)\n\nLiquid is a phase of matter.\n\nLiquid may also refer to:\n\nBULLET::::- Liquidamber, a genus of four species of flowering plants in the family Altingiaceae\n\nBULLET::::- Liquid consonant, an approximate consonant (like /l/, /r/) that does not correspond phonetically to a specific vowel\n\nBULLET::::- Liquid crystal, substances that exhibit a phase of matter that has properties between those of a conventional liquid and those of a solid crystal\n\nBULLET::::- Liquid layout, a web design that does not rely upon fixed widths\n\nBULLET::::- Liquid (template engine)\n", "The world's first written mention of the drink and of the word \"vodka\" was in 1405 from \"Akta Grodzkie\" recorder of deeds, in the court documents from the Palatinate of Sandomierz in Poland and it went on to become a popular drink there. At the time, the word \"wódka\" referred to chemical compounds such as medicines and cosmetics' cleansers, while the popular beverage currently known as vodka was called \"gorzałka\" (from the Old Polish verb \"gorzeć\" meaning \"to burn\"), which is also the source of Ukrainian \"horilka\" (горілка). The word written in Cyrillic appeared first in 1533, in relation to a medicinal drink brought from Poland to Russia by the merchants of Kievan Rus'.\n", "BULLET::::- alcohol : الكحل \"al-kohl\", very finely powdered stibnite (SbS) or galena (PbS) or any similar fine powder. The word with that meaning entered Latin in the 13th century spelled \"alcohol\". In Latin in the 14th and 15th centuries the sole meaning was a very fine-grained powder, made of any material. In various cases the powder was obtained by crushing, but in various other cases the powder was obtained by calcination or by sublimation & deposition. In the alchemy and medicine writer Theophrastus Paracelsus (died 1541), the \"alcohol\" powders produced by sublimation & deposition were viewed as kinds of distillates, and with that mindset he extended the word's meaning to distillate of wine. \"Alcohol of wine\" (ethanol) has its first known record in Paracelsus. The biggest-selling English dictionary of the 18th century (Bailey's) defined alcohol as \"a very fine and impalpable powder, or a very pure well rectified spirit.\" \n", "Another possible connection of \"vodka\" with \"water\" is the name of the medieval alcoholic beverage \"aqua vitae\" (Latin, literally, \"water of life\"), which is reflected in Polish \"okowita\", Ukrainian , Belarusian , and Scandinavian \"akvavit\". (Note that whiskey has a similar etymology, from the Irish/Scottish Gaelic \"uisce beatha\"/uisge-beatha.)\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "In English literature, the word vodka appears by the late 18th century. In a book of travels published in English in 1780 (presumably, a translation from German), Johann Gottlieb Georgi correctly explained that \"\"kabak\" in the Russian language signifies a public house for the common people to drink \"vodka\" (a sort of brandy) in.\" William Tooke in 1799 glossed \"vodka\" as \"rectified corn-spirits\". In French, Théophile Gautier in 1800 glossed it as a \"grain liquor\" served with meals in Poland (\" de grain\").\n" ]	[ "glass is called a liquid.", "Glass is a liquid." ]	[ "It's wrong, Builders just made old windows that way.", "Glass is a solid; some people, noticing old windows were thicker at the bottom, believed that they were flowing downward, but this is a fallacy." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "glass is called a liquid.", "Glass is a liquid." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "It's wrong, Builders just made old windows that way.", "Glass is a solid; some people, noticing old windows were thicker at the bottom, believed that they were flowing downward, but this is a fallacy." ]
2018-03037	Why does a long nap lead to grogginess and less energy than that of a shorter nap?	The longer the nap the deeper you're falling into REM sleep. Waking up from a deep REM sleep causes grogginess. The ideal nap is ~20 minutes if your goal is to wake up feeling better. REM sleep - look it up.	[ "For years, scientists have been investigating the benefits of napping, including the 30-minute nap as well as sleep durations of 1–2 hours. Performance across a wide range of cognitive processes has been tested. Studies demonstrate that naps are as good as a night of sleep for some types of memory tasks. A NASA study led by David F. Dinges, professor at the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, found that naps can improve certain memory functions and that long naps are more effective than short ones. In that NASA study, volunteers spent several days living on one of 18 different sleep schedules, all in a laboratory setting. To measure the effectiveness of the naps, tests probing memory, alertness, response time, and other cognitive skills were used.\n", "NASA, in cooperation with the National Space Biomedical Research Institute, has funded research on napping. Despite NASA recommendations that astronauts sleep eight hours a day when in space, they usually have trouble sleeping eight hours at a stretch, so the agency needs to know about the optimal length, timing and effect of naps. Professor David Dinges of the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine led research in a laboratory setting on sleep schedules which combined various amounts of \"anchor sleep\", ranging from about four to eight hours in length, with no nap or daily naps of up to 2.5 hours. Longer naps were found to be better, with some cognitive functions benefiting more from napping than others. Vigilance and basic alertness benefited the least while working memory benefited greatly. Naps in the individual subjects' biological daytime worked well, but naps in their nighttime were followed by much greater sleep inertia lasting up to an hour.\n", "When a person is sleep deprived, re-entering sleep may provide a viable route to reduce mental and physical fatigue but it can also induce sleep inertia. In order to limit sleep inertia, one should avoid waking from the deeper stages of slow-wave sleep. The onset of slow-wave sleep occurs approximately 30 minutes after falling asleep, therefore a nap should be limited to under 30 minutes to prevent waking during slow-wave sleep and enhancing sleep inertia. Furthermore, self-awakening from a short nap was shown to relieve disorientation of sleep inertia as opposed to a forced awakening but these results may warrant more research into the nature of arousal after sleep periods.\n", "According to the book, in a sleep deprived condition, measurements of a polyphasic sleeper's memory retention and analytical ability show increases as compared with monophasic and biphasic sleep (but still a decrease of 12% as compared with free running sleep). According to Stampi, the improvement is due to an extraordinary evolutionary predisposition to adopt such a sleep schedule; he hypothesizes this is possibly because polyphasic sleep was the preferred schedule of ancestors of the human race for thousands of years prior to the adoption of the monophasic schedule.\n", "Experimental confirmation of the benefits of this brief nap comes from a Flinders University study in Australia in which 5, 10, 20, or 30-minute periods of sleep were given. The greatest immediate improvement in measures of alertness and cognitive performance came after the 10 minutes of sleep. The 20 and 30-minute periods of sleep showed evidence of sleep inertia immediately after the naps and improvements in alertness more than 30 minutes later but not to a greater level than after the 10 minutes of sleep.\n", "Sara Mednick conducted a study experimenting on the effects of napping, caffeine, and a placebo. Her results showed that a 60–90-minute nap is more effective than caffeine in memory and cognition.\n\nSection::::Stimulant nap.\n", "A Flinders University study of individuals restricted to only five hours of sleep per night found a 10-minute nap was overall the most recuperative nap duration of various nap lengths they examined (lengths of 0 min, 5 min, 10 min, 20 min, and 30 minutes): the 5-minute nap produced few benefits in comparison with the no-nap control; the 10-minute nap produced immediate improvements in all outcome measures (including sleep latency, subjective sleepiness, fatigue, vigor, and cognitive performance), with some of these benefits maintained for as long as 155 minutes; the 20-minute nap was associated with improvements emerging 35 minutes after napping and lasting up to 125 minutes after napping; and the 30-minute nap produced a period of impaired alertness and performance immediately after napping, indicative of sleep inertia, followed by improvements lasting up to 155 minutes after the nap.\n", "For several years, scientists have been investigating the benefits of napping, both the power nap and much longer sleep durations as long as 1–2 hours. Performance across a wide range of cognitive processes has been tested. Studies demonstrate that naps are as good as a night of sleep for some types of memory tasks.\n", "A NASA study led by David F. Dinges, professor at the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, found that naps can improve certain memory functions. In that NASA study, volunteers spent several days living on one of 18 different sleep schedules, all in a laboratory setting. To measure the effectiveness of the naps, tests probing memory, alertness, response time, and other cognitive skills were used.\n\nPower Napping Enablers and sleep timers allow properly timed power napping.\n", "According to EEG measurements collected by Dr. Stampi during a 50-day trial of polyphasic ultrashort sleep with a test subject and published in his book \"Why We Nap\", the proportion of sleep stages remains roughly the same during both polyphasic and monophasic sleep schedules. The major differences are that the ratio of lighter sleep stages to deeper sleep stages is slightly reduced and that sleep stages are often taken out of order or not at all, that is, some naps may be composed primarily of slow wave sleep while rapid eye movement sleep dominates other naps.\n", "Power naps restore alertness, performance, and learning ability. A nap may also reverse the hormonal impact of a night of poor sleep or reverse the damage of sleep deprivation. A University of Düsseldorf study found superior memory recall once a person had reached 6 minutes of sleep, suggesting that the onset of sleep may initiate active memory processes of consolidation which—once triggered—remains effective even if sleep is terminated.\n", "Section::::Systematic napping as a lifestyle.\n\nA contemporary idea called polyphasic sleeping entails avoiding long periods of sleep, instead taking regularly spaced short naps. Sara Mednick, whose sleep research investigates the effects of napping, included a chapter, \"Extreme Napping\", in her book \"Take a Nap!\". In response to questions from readers about the \"uberman\" schedule of \"polyphasic sleeping\", she commented as follows:\n", "The 20-minute nap increases alertness and motor skills. Various durations may be recommended for power naps, which are very short compared to regular sleep. The short duration prevents nappers from sleeping so long that they enter the slow wave portion of the normal sleep cycle without being able to complete the cycle. Entering deep, slow-wave sleep and failing to complete the normal sleep cycle, can result in a phenomenon known as sleep inertia, where one feels groggy, disoriented, and even sleepier than before beginning the nap. In order to attain optimal post-nap performance, a Stage 2 nap must be limited to the beginning of a sleep cycle, specifically sleep stages N1 and N2, typically 18–25 minutes. \n", "During slow-wave sleep, there is a significant decline in cerebral metabolic rate and cerebral blood flow. The activity falls to about 75 percent of the normal wakefulness level. The regions of the brain that are most active when awake have the highest level of delta waves during slow-wave sleep. This indicates rest is geographical. The “shutting down” of the brain accounts for the grogginess and confusion if someone is awakened during deep sleep since it takes the cerebral cortex time to resume its normal functions.\n", "Various durations are recommended for power naps, which are very short compared to regular sleep. The short duration of a power nap is designed to prevent nappers from entering SWS. Depending on duration and intensity, awakenings out of SWS results in sleep inertia, a phenomenon associated with grogginess, disorientation, and even more fatigue than prior to napping. Since sleep is the most effective and beneficial recovery method from fatigue, experts recommend considering duration vs. risk of entering SWS.\n\nSection::::Benefits.\n", "These findings also show that the greatest decline in blood pressure occurs between lights-off and onset of daytime sleep itself. During this sleep period, which lasted 9.7 minutes on average, blood pressure decreased, while blood vessel dilation increased by more than 9 percent.\n\n\"There is little change in blood pressure once a subject is actually asleep,\" Zaregarizi noted, and he found minor changes in blood vessel dilation during sleep (Zaregarizi, M. 2007 & 2012).\n\nSection::::Negative effects.\n\nFor those suffering from insomnia or depression, naps may aggravate already disrupted sleep-wake patterns.\n\nSection::::Power nap.\n", "The National Institute of Mental Health funded a team of doctors, led by Alan Hobson, Robert Stickgold, and colleagues at Harvard University for a study which showed that a midday nap reverses information overload. Reporting in \"Nature Neuroscience\", Sara Mednick, Stickgold and colleagues also demonstrated that, in some cases, a 1-hour nap could even boost performance to an individual's top levels. The NIMH team wrote: \"The bottom line is: we should stop feeling guilty about taking that 'power nap' at work.\"\n\nSection::::Benefits.:Cardiovascular benefits of napping, siesta or daytime sleep.\n", "According to clinical studies among men and women, power nappers of any frequency or duration had a significantly lower coronary mortality ratio (MR) than those not napping. Specifically, those occasionally napping had a 12% lower coronary mortality, whereas those systematically napping had a 37% lower coronary mortality.\n", "Claudio Stampi, as a result of his interest in long-distance solo boat racing, has studied the systematic timing of short naps as a means of ensuring optimal performance in situations where extreme sleep deprivation is inevitable, but he does not advocate ultrashort napping as a lifestyle. \"Scientific American Frontiers\" (PBS) has reported on Stampi's 49-day experiment where a young man napped for a total of three hours per day. It purportedly shows that all stages of sleep were included. Stampi has written about his research in his book \"\" (1992). In 1989 he published results of a field study in the journal \"Work & Stress\", concluding that \"polyphasic sleep strategies improve prolonged sustained performance\" under continuous work situations. In addition, other long-distance solo sailors have documented their techniques for maximizing wake time on the open seas. One account documents the process by which a solo sailor broke his sleep into between 6 and 7 naps per day. The naps would not be placed equiphasically, instead occurring more densely during night hours.\n", "The National Institute of Mental Health funded a team of doctors, led by Alan Hobson, MD, Robert Stickgold, PhD, and colleagues at Harvard University for a study which showed that a midday snooze reverses information overload. Reporting in \"Nature Neuroscience\", Sara Mednick, PhD, Stickgold and colleagues also demonstrated that \"burnout\" irritation, frustration and poorer performance on a mental task can set in as a day of training wears on. This study also proved that, in some cases, napping could even boost performance to an individual's top levels. The NIMH team wrote: \"The bottom line is: we should stop feeling guilty about taking that 'power nap' at work.\"\n", "NREM sleep has been demonstrated to be intimately correlated with declarative memory consolidation in various studies, where subject slept after a declarative memory-task; these who had a sleep imbued of NREM stages, had a better performance after the nap or the night, compared to subjects who have been awake or had more REM-sleep. \n", "Many night workers take naps during their breaks, and in some industries, planned napping at work (with facilities provided) is beginning to be accepted. A nap before starting a night shift is a logical prophylactic measure. However, naps that are too long (over 30 minutes) may generate sleep inertia, a groggy feeling after awakening that can impair performance. Therefore, brief naps (10 to 30 minutes) are preferred to longer naps (over 30 minutes). Also, long naps may also interfere with the main sleep bout.\n", "Napping is physiologically and psychologically beneficial. Napping for 20 minutes can help refresh the mind, improve overall alertness, boost mood and increase productivity. Napping may benefit the heart. In a six-year study of Greek adults, researchers found that men who took naps at least three times a week had a 37 percent lower risk of heart-related death. \n", "Nap\n\nA nap is a short period of sleep, typically taken during daytime hours as an adjunct to the usual nocturnal sleep period. Naps are most often taken as a response to drowsiness during waking hours. A nap is a form of biphasic or polyphasic sleep, where the latter terms also include longer periods of sleep in addition to one single period.\n", "People who regularly take these short naps, or catnaps, may develop a good idea of the duration which works best for them, as well as which tools, environment, position, and associated factors help produce the best results. Power naps are effective even when schedules allow a full night's sleep. Mitsuo Hayashi and Tadao Hori have demonstrated that a nap improves mental performance, even after a full night's sleep.\n\nSection::::Stimulant or caffeine nap.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-18086	Why do conditioners make little to no foam unlike shampoos?	It is about their purpose. The foam in soaps and shampoos is part of what makes it able to clean the dirt and oils from the hair and scalp. Conditioner is there to add back in some of what is lost since not all those oils are required to be stripped away as part of that cleaning, so they are made differently, conditioner is not a soap.	[ "In additional to the liquid shampoos, there are dry shampoos available for pets with fur. The waterless-foaming shampoo is applied directly into the fur of the pet without the need to pre-wet or rinse the pet after application. These shampoos often contain a combination of detergents, antimicrobial agents, and surfactants. Certain conditioners may also contain additional agents such as Melaleuca oil for the treatment of fleas. The foaming component of the shampoo comes from a pressurized gas such as carbon dioxide mixing with a foaming liquid. Once the foam is applied to the fur, the foam needs to be worked in vigorously before being wiped off.\n", "The considerations in 3 and 4 frequently result in a much greater multiplicity of surfactants being used in individual baby shampoos than in other shampoos, and the detergency or foaming of such products may be compromised thereby. The monoanionic sulfonated surfactants and viscosity-increasing or foam stabilizing alkanolamides seen so frequently in other shampoos are much less common in the better baby shampoos.\n\nSection::::Specialized shampoos.:Animal.\n", "Conditioners are available in a wide range of forms including viscous liquids, gels and creams as well as thinner lotions and sprays. Hair conditioner is usually used after the hair has been washed with shampoo. It is applied and worked into the hair and may either be washed out a short time later or left in. For short hair, 2-3 tablespoons is the recommended amount. For long hair, up to 8 tablespoons may be used.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- Ordinary conditioners combine some aspects of \"pack\" and \"leave-in\" conditioners. Ordinary conditioners are generally applied directly after using shampoo, and manufacturers usually produce a conditioner counterpart for different types of shampoo for this purpose.\n\nBULLET::::- Hold conditioners, based on cationic polyelectrolyte polymers, hold the hair in a desired shape. These have a function and composition similar to diluted hair gels.\n\nSection::::Ingredients.\n\nThere are several types of hair conditioner ingredients, differing in composition and functionality:\n", "Styling products aside from shampoo and conditioner are many and varied. Leave-in conditioner, conditioning treatments, mousse, gels, lotions, waxes, creams, clays, serums, oils, and sprays are used to change the texture or shape of the hair, or to hold it in place in a certain style. Applied properly, most styling products will not damage the hair apart from drying it out; most styling products contain alcohols, which can dissolve oils. Many hair products contain chemicals which can cause build-up, resulting in dull hair or a change in perceived texture.\n\nSection::::Industry.:Wigs.\n", "For the Marangoni effect to occur, the foam must be indented as shown in the first picture. This indentation increases local surface area. Surfactants have a larger diffusion time than the bulk of the solution—so the surfactants are less concentrated in the indentation.\n", "Section::::Applications.:Building applications.:Application methods.:North America.\n\nThe Canadian National Building Code references the CAN/ULC S705.2 National Application Standard which must be followed during all installations of 2lb medium density closed cell polyurethane foam. Every installer of CAN/ULC-S705.1 compliant medium density, spray applied foam must be licensed in order to spray foam and hold valid photo ID issued by their Quality Assurance Program (QAP) provider showing their license is in good standing. \n", "Section::::Production.\n", "BULLET::::- Pack conditioners are heavy and thick, with a high content of surfactants that are able to bind to the hair structure and \"glue\" the hair surface scales together. These are usually applied to the hair for a longer time. The surfactants are based on long, straight aliphatic fatty acid chains similar to saturated fatty acids. Their molecules have a tendency to crystallize easily, giving the conditioner higher viscosity, and they tend to form thicker layers on the hair surface.\n", "Pet shampoos which include fragrances, deodorants or colors may harm the skin of the pet by causing inflammations or irritation. Shampoos that do not contain any unnatural additives are known as hypoallergenic shampoos and are increasing in popularity.\n\nSection::::Specialized shampoos.:Solid.\n\nSolid shampoos or shampoo bars use as their surfactants soaps or other surfactants formulated as solids. They have the advantage of being spill-proof. They are easy to apply; one may simply rub the bar over wet hair, and work the soaped hair into a low lather.\n\nSection::::Specialized shampoos.:Jelly and gel.\n", "All polyolefin elastomers are also resistant to most chemicals, which allow the products to not only be used in a chemical environment, but also very cleanable with most household cleaners.\n", "There are various types of rigid polyurethane foam panels available, including a water formulated panel for which the foaming process is obtained through the use of water and CO instead of CFC, HCFC, HFC and HC gasses. Most manufacturers of rigid polyurethane or phenolic foam panels use pentane as foaming agent instead of the aforementioned gasses.\n\nA rigid phenolic insulation ductwork system is listed as a class 1 air duct to UL 181 Standard for Safety.\n\nSection::::Materials.:Fiberglass duct board (preinsulated non-metallic ductwork).\n", "Section::::Manufacturing.\n\nFoamed concrete typically consists of a slurry of cement or fly ash and sand and water, although some suppliers recommend pure cement and water with the foaming agent for very lightweight mixes. This slurry is further mixed with a synthetic aerated foam in a concrete mixing plant. The foam is created using a foaming agent, mixed with water and air from a generator. The foaming agent used must be able to produce air bubbles with a high level of stability, resistant to the physical and chemical processes of mixing, placing and hardening.\n", "Surface tension is visible in other common phenomena, especially when surfactants are used to decrease it:\n\nBULLET::::- Soap bubbles have very large surface areas with very little mass. Bubbles in pure water are unstable. The addition of surfactants, however, can have a stabilizing effect on the bubbles (see Marangoni effect). Note that surfactants actually reduce the surface tension of water by a factor of three or more.\n", "Cationic resin is often blended with another film former to give a firmer hold on the hair. In order for this to be successful, the polymer chosen must be nonionic in nature and should be compatible with the cationic resin.\n\nEmulsifiers are used to help blend the product creating foam. Mousses do not require long-lasting foam stability. Ideally, the foam will break down immediately once worked into the hair.\n", "Shampoo and conditioner forms of the volumizers are used just like ordinary shampoo or conditioners. The spray and lotion form of volumizers are used on damp hair near the roots of the hair. In order to use a hair volumizer, the person using the product must flip their head downward and gradually blow dry the hair, with the air being blown along the shaft of the hair until the hair is dry. Drying the hair in this position will increase volume and achieve the desired effect.\n", "The basic requirements for formation of foam are an abundance of gas, water, a surfactant, and energy. The steam wand of an espresso machine supplies energy, in the form of heat, and gas, in the form of steam. The other two components, water and surfactants, are naturally occurring ingredients of milk. Varying the balance of these factors affects the size of bubbles, the foam dissipation rate, and the volume of foam.\n", "Section::::History.:Compositions.\n\nPreparations to produce a foam bath must be able at high dilution in water of common \"hardness\" to produce a foam and hold it for a useful duration. This is practically always done primarily by the action of an anionic, nonionic, or zwitterionic surfactant. \n", "Direct injection expanded foam molding\n\nDirect injection expanded foam molding (also known as \"injection molded foam\") is a foam manufacturing process that creates soft foam products direct from compound into a final product. This process eliminates the steps required for die-cutting and compression molding, as it manufactures the foam and the product simultaneously.\n", "\"Integral skin foam\", also known as \"self-skin foam\", is a type of foam with a high-density skin and a low-density core. It can be formed in an \"open-mold process\" or a \"closed-mold process\". In the open-mold process, two reactive components are mixed and poured into an open mold. The mold is then closed and the mixture is allowed to expand and cure. Examples of items produced using this process include arm rests, baby seats, shoe soles, and mattresses. The closed-mold process, more commonly known as \"reaction injection molding\" (RIM), injects the mixed components into a closed mold under high pressures.\n", "Unlike many foam-in-place polyurethane foams, it is nonflammable and non-toxic. As it is water-based, it offgasses water vapour while curing, requiring ventilation and in some cases a dehumidifier. It cures more slowly than organic foams. However, it does not offgas volatile organic compounds as many organic foams do. Like cement, it is water-soluble until cured, but after curing it is water-resistant, but water-permeable.\n", "Shaving cream is an example of a complex fluid. Without stress, the foam appears to be a solid: it does not flow and can support (very) light loads. However, when adequate stress is applied, shaving cream flows easily like a fluid. On the level of individual bubbles, the flow is due to rearrangements of small collections of bubbles. On this scale, the flow is not smooth, but instead consists of fluctuations due to rearrangements of the bubbles and releases of stress. These fluctuations are similar to the fluctuations that are studied in earthquakes.\n\nSection::::Dynamics.\n", "More recently, foams have become a part of molecular gastronomy technique. In these cases, natural flavors (such as fruit juices, infusions of aromatic herbs, etc.) are mixed with a neutrally-flavored gelling or stabilizing agent such as agar or lecithin, and either whipped with a hand-held immersion blender or extruded through a whipped cream canister equipped with nitrous oxide cartridges. Some famous food-foams are foamed espresso, foamed mushroom, foamed beet and foamed coconut. An espuma or thermo whip is commonly used to make these foams through the making of a stock, creating a gel and extruding through the nitrous oxide canister.\n", "The base resin used in a complex formula, is an ethylene based polyolefin elastomer (like polyethylene and EVA). Foam manufactured with these resins has many physical benefits. Unlike a sponge, foams from this process are closed-cell, meaning it's waterproof and resists mold, mildew and bacteria from entering the material.\n\nIt is also cross-linked, which means that the cells are connected in a way that makes the foam strong and durable with high tear and tensile strength.\n", "Section::::Defoaming.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03615	Why do some lamps require two turns of the knob to turn on whereas a typical wall switch is just one flick	Because these lamps are set for a 3 way bulb but only have a standard bulb in them. A 3 way bulb has a low medium and high setting vs a normal bulb just being on or off.	[ "Most multi-function sets feature eight to sixteen moving light functions. Some very common functions are fading and chasing. More extravagant and less common functions are stepping on and two-channel flashing. These lights usually come in sets of 140 or 150. This is because to give the chasing effect, bulbs must be arranged in four circuits of 35 (sets of 140) or three circuits of 50 (sets of 150). These light sets use even less power than a regular set of 150, because the lights are not always on, and therefore the bulbs also do not get as hot.\n", "The switches may be single or multiple, designed for indoor or outdoor use. Optional extras may include dimmer-controls, environmental protection, weather and security protection. In residential and light commercial lighting systems, the light switch directly controls the circuit feeding the lamps. In larger lighting systems, for example warehouses or outdoor lighting systems, the required current may be too high for a manual switch. In these systems light switches control lighting contactors, a relay that allows the manual light switch to operate on a lower voltage or with smaller wiring than would be required in the main lighting circuit.\n", "There are usually two three-way switches near the top of the floor lamp to operate the bulbs. One controls the three-way center bulb, and the other turns on one, two, or all three (or four) of the peripheral bulbs. The center bulb may be very high power (often a three-way, 100-200-300 watt bulb), where the others are usually 60 watts or less. Some models have a night light in the base operated by a foot switch. \n", "The center contact of the bulb typically connects to the medium-power filament, and the ring connects to the low-power filament. Thus, if a 3-way bulb is screwed into a standard light socket that has only a center contact, only the medium-power filament operates. In the case of the 50 W / 100 W / 150 W bulb, putting this bulb in a regular lamp socket will result in it behaving like a normal 100W bulb.\n", "The switch used to control a 3-way lamp is usually a rotary switch or a pull-chain switch. Although it is referred to as a 3-way switch, it has four positions, off, lamp one (low), lamp two (medium), and lamps one and two (high). When properly connected to a 3-way socket containing a 3-way bulb, this switch will first power one filament, then the other filament, then both, then return to the off position. To do this, the switch must be capable of operating two different circuits. Internal to the switch there are two sets of switch contacts that are not connected electrically, but which are connected mechanically in such a way that they operate together as shown in this table.\n", "The two filaments can be activated separately or together, giving three different amounts of light. A typical 3-way incandescent bulb is a 50 W / 100 W / 150 W bulb. It has a low-power 50 W filament and a medium-power 100 W filament. When they are both energized at the same time, 150 W of power is delivered, and a high level of light is produced. Usually screw-base 3-way bulbs fit into regular Type A sockets. Larger 3-way bulbs (up to 300 W) have a larger \"mogul\" base. These 3 way bulbs can also come in spiral designs. \n", "Section::::Wiring a 3-way lamp.\n\nWiring a 3-way lamp is a simple matter of connecting the 3-way switch's two switched live wires (frequently red for the low-wattage circuit and blue for the medium-wattage circuit) from the switch to the two live terminals on the 3-way socket. The lamp's power cord must be connected so that the wire from the wide blade on the power cord plug (neutral) connects to the neutral terminal on the socket, and the wire from the narrow blade on the plug (hot) connects to the black wire on the switch.\n\nSection::::Lamps with night lights.\n", "A 3-way lamp, also known as a tri-light, is a lamp that uses a 3-way light bulb to produce three levels of light in a \"low-medium-high\" configuration. A 3-way lamp requires a 3-way bulb and socket, and a 3-way switch. Unlike an incandescent lamp controlled by a dimmer, each of the filaments operates at full voltage, so the color of the light does not change between the three steps of light available. Certain compact fluorescent lamp bulbs are designed to replace 3-way incandescent bulbs, and have an extra contact and circuitry to bring about similar light level. In recent years, LED three way bulbs have become available as well. \n", "A lamp with night light is often configured so that one of the two sockets is a medium-base socket, considered to be the Main Lamp (under the lamp shade), and the other socket is a candelabra-base socket that is the night light or decorative accent light. The night light is usually placed somewhere on or inside the body of the lamp. In a typical set-up, the main lamp would have a 150 W medium-base bulb, and the night light would have 7 W candelabra bulb. The operation of the switch is still the same, such that the night light comes on, then the main lamp, then both together, then it goes back to off.\n", "Single-pole illuminated switches derive the power to energize their in-built illuminating source (usually, a \"neon\" lamp) from the current passing through the lamp(s) which they control. Such switches work satisfactorily with incandescent lamps, halogen lighting, and non-electronic fluorescent fixtures, because the small current required for the switch's illuminating source is too small to produce any visible light from such devices controlled by the illuminated switch. However, if they control only compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) and/or LED lamps, the small amount of current required to energize the lighting source within switch also slowly charges the internal input capacitor in the electronic ballast of the CFL or LED until the voltage across it rises to the point where it produces a brief discharge through the CFL. This cycle may repeat indefinitely, resulting in repetitive brief flashing of the lamp(s) (and the light inside the switch) while the illuminated switch is in the \"off\" position.\n", "Some wall switch modules offer a feature called \"local dimming\". Ordinarily, the local push button of a wall switch module simply offers on/off control with no possibility of locally dimming the controlled lamp. If local dimming is offered, holding down the push button will cause the lamp to cycle through its brightness range.\n\nHigher end modules have more advanced features such as programmable on levels, customizable fade rates, the ability to transmit commands when used (referred to as 2-way devices), and \"scene\" support.\n", "A 3-way socket has three electrical contacts. In addition to the two contacts of the standard socket, a third contact is added. This contact is positioned off-center in the bottom of the socket (contact two in photo). This extra contact matches a ring-shaped contact on the bottom of a 3-way bulb, which creates the connection for the second filament inside the bulb. A problem of these devices is that the ring contact of the socket (contact two in photo) digs into the lead seal on the lamp bulb's contact ring and this connection tends to fail early (sometimes in months), leading to intermittent flashes, popping noises, and loss of power to the low wattage filament as the lead seal on the bulb's ring alternately melts and solidifies.\n", "Another type of 2-circuit lamp is also fairly common. This is the lamp with night light. While related to a 3-way lamp, this lamp is different from a 3-way lamp in both its intention and the parts it uses. The main intent of a lamp with night light is not to offer three levels of light, but rather to offer only two levels: a bright working light, and a very dim night light or decorative accent. Typically it does still use the 3-way 2-circuit switch. However, instead of having one 3-way socket, it uses two regular sockets.\n", "A standard screw lamp socket has only two electrical contacts. In the center of the bottom of a standard socket is the hot contact (contact one in photo), which typically looks like a small metal tongue bent over. The threaded metal shell is itself the neutral contact (contact three in photo). When a standard bulb is screwed into a standard socket, a matching contact on the bottom of the bulb presses against the metal tongue in the center of the socket, creating the live connection. The metal threads of the bulb base touch the socket shell, which creates the neutral connection, and this is how the electrical circuit is completed.\n", "Most switches have a bank of stationary contacts extending over half a cylinder, while some have only a third of a cylinder. The typical \"half-cylinder\" switch has two sets of wiper contacts opposite each other, while the \"third of a cylinder\" type has three sets, equally spaced. For any given level, both or all three wipers are connected, so it makes no difference which of the two (or three) is connecting. When access to more outlets was required, the rotor had two sets of wipers opposite each other but offset vertically: on the first half rotation one set of outlets was accessed; the second set of outlets was accessed on the second half rotation.\n", "The number of light fitting does depend on the type of light fitting and the lighting requirements in each room. The incandescent bulb made household lighting practical, but modern homes use a wide variety of light sources to provide desired light levels with higher energy efficiency than incandescent lamps. A lighting designer can provide specific recommendations for lighting in a home. Layout of lighting in the home must consider control of lighting since this affects the wiring. For example, multiway switching is useful for corridors and stairwells so that a light can be turned on and off from two locations. Outdoor yard lighting, and lighting for outbuildings such as garages may use switches inside the home.\n", "In addition to the light plot there are a number of other important pieces of paperwork (i.e. Dimmer hookup, Instrument Schedule, and Magic Sheet) in a complete lighting design. As each part of the lighting design is relevant only to a specific group of technicians, the entire design is generally provided only to the director and master electrician.\n", "Two or more light switches can be interconnected to allow control of lighting from, for example, two ends of a long hallway or landings at the upper and lower landings of a flight of stairs. Multiway switching is done using special switches that have additional contacts.\n\nSection::::Materials.\n", "LED bulbs are also made that will retrofit incandescents with the same base, but may affect the electrical relay that controls the blinking of turn signals, or cause others sensors to assume that a light bulb is out (see idiot light). In this type of \"bulb\", all of the LEDs may light regardless of which of the contacts are activated on the base, but like a dimmer or a three-way screw-in fluorescent, the brightness is changed instead by the bulb's internal electronic wiring.\n", "Lamp bulbs with dual (carbon) filaments were built as early as 1902 to allow adjustable lighting levels. Large lamps of 500-watt rating were used for street lighting in France, which had a second filament at 200 watts to reduce lighting costs. In 1933 in the United States, Westinghouse announced a dual-filament lamp for commercial lighting and a smaller lamp for residential use. \n\nSection::::Three-way bulbs.\n\nA 3-way incandescent bulb has two filaments designed to produce different amounts of light.\n", "Non-Dims are often used to allow switched equipment such as motors, hazers or other similar electrical equipment to be triggered as part of a lighting cue. Sometimes house work lights or stage work lights can be controlled using a non-dimmed circuit. It is also sometimes used to provide power to intelligent lights, however this may not be considered desirable as any mistakes made at the Lighting control console could interrupt the power supply to the fixture which often are not capable of hot restrike (turning on the lamp again while power is still connected) due to their use of a Metal halide lamp or similar lamp.\n", "Some compact fluorescent lamps have similar circuitry to produce the different amounts of light. \n\nSection::::Three-way sockets.\n", "If one machine is slightly out of phase it will pull into step with the others but, if the phase difference is large, there will be heavy cross-currents which can cause voltage fluctuations and, in extreme cases, damage to the machines.\n\nSection::::Process.:Synchronizing lamps.\n", "The controlled load is often a lamp, but multiway switching is used to control other electrical loads, such as an electrical outlet, fans, pumps, heaters or other appliances. The electrical load may be permanently hard-wired, or plugged into a switched receptacle.\n", "Light can be measured in footcandles. A key light of 100 footcandles and a fill light of 100 footcandles have a 1:1 ratio (a ratio of one to one). A keylight of 800 footcandles and a fill light of 200 footcandles has a ratio of 4:1.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01997	Why is flu type A divided into subtypes but not type B?	Flu type B is a virus that infects only humans, and doesn't have subtypes. All the viruses are basically the same. Flu type A has "H" and "N" proteins on its surface. They infect humans and birds, and in the case of some subtypes pigs as well (swine flu). The subtypes are determined based on which "H" and "N" proteins are on the surface.	[ "Genetic diversity among unencapsulated strains is greater than within the encapsulated group. Unencapsulated strains are termed nontypable (NTHi) because they lack capsular serotypes; however, they can be classified by multilocus sequence typing. The pathogenesis of \"H. influenzae\" infections is not completely understood, although the presence of the capsule in encapsulated type b (Hib), a serotype causing conditions such as epiglottitis, is known to be a major factor in virulence. Their capsule allows them to resist phagocytosis and complement-mediated lysis in the nonimmune host. The unencapsulated strains are almost always less invasive; they can, however, produce an inflammatory response in humans, which can lead to many symptoms. Vaccination with Hib conjugate vaccine is effective in preventing Hib infection, but does not prevent infection with NTHi strains.\n", "In 1930, two major categories of \"H. influenzae\" were defined: the unencapsulated strains and the encapsulated strains. Encapsulated strains were classified on the basis of their distinct capsular antigens. The six generally recognized types of encapsulated \"H. influenzae\" are: a, b, c, d, e, and f.\n", "Influenza virus C is different from Types A and B in its growth requirements. Because of this, it is not isolated and identified as frequently. Diagnosis is by virus isolation, serology, and other tests. Hemagglutination inhibition (HI) is one method of serology that detects antibodies for diagnostic purposes. Western blot (immunoblot assay) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) are two other methods used to detect proteins (or antigens) in serum. In each of these techniques, the antibodies for the protein of interest are added and the presence of the specific protein is indicated by a color change. ELISA was shown to have higher sensitivity to the HEF than the HI test. Because only Influenza viruses C and D produce esterase, In Situ Esterase Assays provide a quick and inexpensive method of detecting just Types C and D. If more individuals were tested for Influenza virus C as well as the other three types, infections not previously associated with Type C may be recognized.\n", "\"Influenza B virus\" is only known to infect humans and seals with influenza.. This limited host range is apparently responsible for the lack of associated influenza pandemics in contrast with those caused by the morphologically similar influenza A virus as both mutate by both antigenic drift and reassortment. There are two known circulating lineages of \"Influenza B virus\" based on the antigenic properties of the surface glycoprotein hemagglutinin. The lineages are termed B/Yamagata/16/88-like and B/Victoria/2/87-like viruses. The quadrivalent influenza vaccine licensed by the CDC is currently designed to protect against both co-circulating lineages and has been shown to have greater effectiveness in prevention of influenza caused by \"Influenza B virus\" than the previous trivalent vaccine.\n", "This genus has one species, influenza B virus. Influenza B almost exclusively infects humans and is less common than influenza A. The only other animals known to be susceptible to influenza B infection are the seal and the ferret. This type of influenza mutates at a rate 2–3 times slower than type A and consequently is less genetically diverse, with only one influenza B serotype. As a result of this lack of antigenic diversity, a degree of immunity to influenza B is usually acquired at an early age. However, influenza B mutates enough that lasting immunity is not possible. This reduced rate of antigenic change, combined with its limited host range (inhibiting cross species antigenic shift), ensures that pandemics of influenza B do not occur.\n", "Influenza A viruses are found in many different animals, including ducks, chickens, pigs, humans, whales, horses, and seals. Influenza B viruses circulate widely principally among humans, though it has recently been found in seals. Flu strains are named after their types of hemagglutinin and neuraminidase surface proteins (of which there are 18 and 9 respectively), so they will be called, for example, H3N2 for type-3 hemagglutinin and type-2 neuraminidase. Some strains of avian influenza (from which all other strains of influenza A are believed to stem) can infect pigs or other mammalian hosts. When two different strains of influenza infect the same cell simultaneously, their protein capsids and lipid envelopes are removed, exposing their RNA, which is then transcribed to mRNA. The host cell then forms new viruses that combine their antigens; for example, H3N2 and H5N1 can form H5N2 this way. Because the human immune system has difficulty recognizing the new influenza strain, it may be highly dangerous, and result in a new pandemic.\n", "On 18 August 2006, the World Health Organization (WHO) changed the H5N1 avian influenza strains recommended for candidate vaccines for the first time since 2004. \"Many experts who follow the ongoing analysis of the H5N1 virus sequences are alarmed at how fast the virus is evolving into an increasingly more complex network of clades and subclades, Osterholm said. The evolving nature of the virus complicates vaccine planning. He said if an avian influenza pandemic emerges, a strain-specific vaccine will need to be developed to treat the disease. Recognition of the three new subclades means researchers face increasingly complex options about which path to take to stay ahead of the virus.\"\n", "When it was discovered that the M gene segment alone contained enough genetic diversity between subtypes to provide subtype information, subsequent work focused on exploring this as a subtyping assay for influenza A (‘MChip’). MChip was utilized to examine hundreds of specimens, focusing on the ability to discriminate human H1N1, human H3N2, and avian influenza (H5N1) subtypes, and resulted in high clinical sensitivity and specificity as detailed in several published studies.\n\nOther influenza A viruses of interest that have been recently examined with MChip are the 1918 ‘Spanish flu’ strain,\n\nand a variety of pandemic H1N1/09 virus specimens.\n", "The WHO currently recognises 8 clades of measles (A–H). Subtypes are designed with numerals—A1, D2 etc. Currently 23 subtypes are recognised. The 450 nucleotides that code for the C‐terminal 150 amino acids of N are the minimum amount of sequence data required for genotyping a measles virus isolate. The genotyping scheme was introduced in 1998 and extended in 2002 and 2003.\n\nDespite the variety of measles genotypes, there is only one measles serotype. Antibodies to measles bind to the haemagluttinin protein. Thus antibodies against one genotype (such as the vaccine strain) protect against all other genotypes.\n", "WHO recommended that trivalent vaccines use as their influenza B virus a B/Colorado/06/2017-like virus of the B/Victoria/2/87-lineage.\n\nSection::::Manufacturing.:Annual reformulation.:2019–2020 Northern Hemisphere influenza season.\n\nThe composition of virus vaccines for use in the 2019–2020 Northern Hemisphere influenza season recommended by the World Health Organisation on March 21, 2019 was:\n\nBULLET::::- an A/Brisbane/02/2018 (H1N1)pdm09-like virus\n\nBULLET::::- an A/Kansas/14/2017 (H3N2)-like virus\n\nBULLET::::- a B/Colorado/06/2017-like virus (B/Victoria/2/87 lineage)\n\nBULLET::::- a B/Phuket/3073/2013-like virus (B/Yamagata/16/88 lineage)\n\nWHO recommended that trivalent vaccines use as their influenza B virus a B/Colorado/06/2017-like virus of the B/Victoria/2/87-lineage.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Asian flu was of the H2N2 subtype (a notation that refers to the configuration of the hemagglutinin and neuraminidase proteins in the virus) of type A influenza, and an influenza vaccine was developed in 1957 to contain its outbreak.\n\nThe Asian flu strain later evolved via antigenic shift into H3N2, which caused a milder pandemic from 1968 to 1969.\n", "Influenza B virus is almost exclusively a human pathogen, and is less common than influenza A. The only other animal known to be susceptible to influenza B infection is the seal. This type of influenza mutates at a rate 2–3 times lower than type A and consequently is less genetically diverse, with only one influenza B serotype. As a result of this lack of antigenic diversity, a degree of immunity to influenza B is usually acquired at an early age. However, influenza B mutates enough that lasting immunity is not possible. This reduced rate of antigenic change, combined with its limited host range (inhibiting cross species antigenic shift), ensures that pandemics of influenza B do not occur.\n", "The most recent common ancestor of the extant strains has been dated to about 12,600 years ago. Three genotypes -- 1, 2 and 3 -- are recognised. A recombination between types 1 and 3 gave rise to genotype 2 between 5,000 and 6,800 years ago.\n\nSection::::Transmission.\n\nThe virus is primarily spread by infected respiratory droplets; blood-borne transmission, however, has been reported. The secondary attack risk for exposed household persons is about 50%, and about half of that for classroom contacts.\n\nSection::::Infectivity.\n", "Further variation exists; thus, specific influenza strain isolates are identified by a standard nomenclature specifying virus type, geographical location where first isolated, sequential number of isolation, year of isolation, and HA and NA subtype.\n\nExamples of the nomenclature are:\n\nBULLET::::1. A/Brisbane/59/2007 (H1N1)\n\nBULLET::::2. A/Moscow/10/99 (H3N2).\n\nThe type A viruses are the most virulent human pathogens among the three influenza types and cause the most severe disease. The serotypes that have been confirmed in humans, ordered by the number of known human pandemic deaths, are:\n\nBULLET::::- H1N1 caused \"Spanish flu\" in 1918, \"Swine flu\" in 2009.\n\nBULLET::::- H2N2 caused \"Asian Flu\".\n", "Cases of infections from the Type D virus are rare compared to Types A, B, and C. Similar to Type C, Type D has 7 RNA segments and encodes 9 proteins, while Types A and B have 8 RNA segments and encode at least 10 proteins.\n\nSection::::Influenza D virus.\n", "The Influenza A virus subtypes are labeled according to an H number (for hemagglutinin) and an N number (for neuraminidase). Each subtype virus has mutated into a variety of strains with differing pathogenic profiles; some pathogenic to one species but not others, some pathogenic to multiple species. Most known strains are extinct strains. For example, the annual flu subtype H3N2 no longer contains the strain that caused the Hong Kong Flu.\n", "The Hong Kong flu strain shared internal genes and the neuraminidase with the 1957 Asian flu (H2N2). Accumulated antibodies to the neuraminidase or internal proteins may have resulted in much fewer casualties than most pandemics. However, cross-immunity within and between subtypes of influenza is poorly understood.\n", "A/Fujian (H3N2) human flu (from A/Fujian/411/2002(H3N2)-like flu virus strains) caused an unusually severe 2003–2004 flu season. This was due to a reassortment event that caused a minor clade to provide a haemagglutinin gene that later became part of the dominant strain in the 2002–2003 flu season. A/Fujian (H3N2) was made part of the trivalent influenza vaccine for the 2004–2005 flu season.\n\nSection::::Flu spread, by season.:2004–2005 flu season.\n\nThe 2004–05 trivalent influenza vaccine for the United States contained:\n\nBULLET::::- an A/New Caledonia/20/99 (H1N1)-like virus\n\nBULLET::::- an A/Fujian/411/2002 (H3N2)-like virus\n\nBULLET::::- a B/Shanghai/361/2002-like virus.\n\nSection::::Flu spread, by season.:2005–2006 flu season.\n", "Influenza viruses C and D are different from Types A and B in their growth requirements. Because of this, Influenzavirus D is not isolated and identified as frequently. Diagnosis is by virus isolation, serology, and other tests. Hemagglutination inhibition (HI) is one method of serology that detects antibodies for diagnostic purposes. Western blot (immunoblot assay) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) are two other methods used to detect proteins (or antigens) in serum. In each of these techniques, the antibodies for the protein of interest are added and the presence of the specific protein is indicated by a color change. ELISA was shown to have higher sensitivity to the HEF than the HI test. Because only Influenza viruses C and D produce esterase, In Situ Esterase Assays provide a quick and inexpensive method of detecting just Types C and D.\n", "Variants of Influenzavirus A are identified and named according to the isolate that they are like and thus are presumed to share lineage (example Fujian flu virus like); according to their typical host (example Human flu virus); according to their subtype (example H3N2); and according to their deadliness (example LP). So a flu from a virus similar to the isolate A/Fujian/411/2002(H3N2) is called Fujian flu, human flu, and H3N2 flu.\n\nVariants are sometimes named according to the species (host) the strain is endemic in or adapted to. Some variants named using this convention are:\n\nBULLET::::- Bird Flu\n\nBULLET::::- Human Flu\n", "was designed to detect both influenza A and B viruses utilizing three gene targets: the HA (Hemagglutinin), NA (Neuraminidase), and M (matrix) gene segments. Numerous short DNA capture sequences were designed\n\n, and used to both type and subtype influenza A viruses by taking advantage of genetic similarities and differences. The overall assay consisted of RT-PCR amplification of influenza RNA, subsequent runoff transcription using the PCR product as template, and hybridization of fluorescently-labeled fragmented RNA to the microarray surface. The overall pattern of fluorescence intensities were utilized to type and subtype the influenza virus(es) present.\n\nSection::::MChip.\n\nvarious influenza A subtypes.\n", "Two forms of feline coronavirus are found in nature: enteric (FECV) and FIP (FIPV). There are also two different serotypes found with different antigens that produce unique antibodies. FCoV serotype I (also called type I) is the most frequent. Type I, that can be defined as 'FECV that could mutate to FIPV type I', is responsible for 80% of the infections. Typically, serotype I FCoV cultures are difficult to perform, with few resulting studies. FCoV serotype II (also called type II) is less frequent and is described as 'FECV type II that can mutate to FIPV type II.' FCoV type II is a recombinant virus type I with spike genes (S protein) replacement from FCoV by the canine enteric coronavirus (CCOV) spikes. The type II cultures are generally easier to perform, which has resulted in an imbalance of experiments performed with many studies about type II (even though it is a far less common form).\n", "BULLET::::- an A/Singapore/INFIMH-16-0019/2016 (H3N2)-like virus\n\nBULLET::::- a B/Phuket/3073/2013-like virus\n\nWHO recommended that quadrivalent vaccines containing two influenza B viruses should contain the above three viruses and a B/Brisbane/60/2008-like virus.\n\nSection::::Manufacturing.:Annual reformulation.:2018–2019 Northern Hemisphere influenza season.\n\nThe composition of virus vaccines for use in the 2018–2019 Northern Hemisphere influenza season recommended by the World Health Organisation on February 22, 2018 was:\n\nBULLET::::- an A/Michigan/45/2015 (H1N1)pdm09-like virus\n\nBULLET::::- an A/Singapore/INFIMH-16-0019/2016 (H3N2)-like virus\n\nBULLET::::- a B/Colorado/06/2017-like virus (B/Victoria/2/87 lineage)\n\nBULLET::::- a B/Phuket/3073/2013-like virus (B/Yamagata/16/88 lineage)\n", "Influenza viruses are members of the family \"Orthomyxoviridae\". Influenza viruses A, B, C, and D represent the four antigenic types of influenza viruses. Of the four antigenic types, influenza A virus is the most severe, influenza B virus is less severe but can still cause outbreaks, and influenza C virus is usually only associated with minor symptoms.\n", "Infection with one genotype does not confer immunity against others, and concurrent infection with two strains is possible. In most of these cases, one of the strains removes the other from the host in a short time. This finding opens the door to replacing strains non-responsive to medication with others easier to treat.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01423	In what way is antimatter atom different than normal matter atom?	An anti-matter atom is one made up of the anti-matter equivilent of normal subatomic particles. That is, instead of being made up of electrons, protons, and neutrons, it will be made up of positrons, anti-protons, and anti-neutrons. At the most fundamental level, particles and their anti-particle counterparts have the same mass, but opposite electrical charges.	[ "BULLET::::- They can emit two photons and return directly to the ground state as they were\n\nBULLET::::- They can absorb another photon, which ionizes the atom\n\nBULLET::::- They can emit a single photon and return to the ground state via the 2P state—in this case the positron spin can flip or remain the same.\n", "Theories of the beginning of the Universe are based on the currently-known laws of particle physics, where matter is created from energy in such a way that equal amounts of particles and antiparticles are produced. If this is so, then an amount of antimatter equal to the amount of currently visible matter must exist—though there is an equal possibility the bulk of the antimatter may have been annihilated due to the mechanism of CP violation. The aim of BESS therefore is to quantify the amount of antiparticles in the local cosmos and so help to decide between these alternatives.\n", "Antiprotons were routinely produced at Fermilab for collider physics operations in the Tevatron, where they were collided with protons. The use of antiprotons allows for a higher average energy of collisions between quarks and antiquarks than would be possible in proton-proton collisions. This is because the valence quarks in the proton, and the valence antiquarks in the antiproton, tend to carry the largest fraction of the proton or antiproton's momentum.\n", "BULLET::::- LEAR collaboration at CERN:\n\nBULLET::::- Antihydrogen Penning trap of Gabrielse et al.:\n\nBULLET::::- BASE experiment at CERN:\n\nBULLET::::- APEX collaboration at Fermilab: for → + anything\n\nBULLET::::- APEX collaboration at Fermilab: for → +\n", "On 26 April 2011, ALPHA announced that they had trapped 309 antihydrogen atoms, some for as long as 1,000 seconds (about 17 minutes). This was longer than neutral antimatter had ever been trapped before. ALPHA has used these trapped atoms to initiate research into the spectral properties of the antihydrogen.\n", "Although particles and their antiparticles have opposite charges, electrically neutral particles need not be identical to their antiparticles. The neutron, for example, is made out of quarks, the antineutron from antiquarks, and they are distinguishable from one another because neutrons and antineutrons annihilate each other upon contact. However, other neutral particles are their own antiparticles, such as photons, Z bosons, mesons, and hypothetical gravitons and some hypothetical WIMPs.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Experiment.\n", "Most methods for the creation of antimatter (specifically antihydrogen) result in high-energy particles and atoms of high kinetic energy, which are unsuitable for gravity-related study. In recent years, first ALPHA and then ATRAP have trapped antihydrogen atoms at CERN; in 2012 ALPHA used such atoms to set the first free-fall loose bounds on the gravitational interaction of antimatter with matter, measured to within ±7500% of ordinary gravity, not enough for a clear scientific statement about the sign of gravity acting on antimatter. Future experiments need to be performed with higher precision, either with beams of antihydrogen (AEGIS) or with trapped antihydrogen (ALPHA or GBAR).\n", "In November 2010, the ALPHA collaboration announced that they had trapped 38 antihydrogen atoms for a sixth of a second, the first confinement of neutral antimatter. In June 2011, they trapped 309 antihydrogen atoms, up to 3 simultaneously, for up to 1,000 seconds. They then studied its hyperfine structure, gravity effects, and charge. ALPHA will continue measurements along with experiments ATRAP, AEGIS and GBAR.\n\nSection::::Production.:Larger antimatter atoms.\n", "Section::::Origin and asymmetry.\n\nAlmost all matter observable from the Earth seems to be made of matter rather than antimatter. If antimatter-dominated regions of space existed, the gamma rays produced in annihilation reactions along the boundary between matter and antimatter regions would be detectable.\n", "There is no evidence of complex antimatter atomic nuclei, such as antihelium nuclei (that is, anti-alpha particles), in cosmic rays. These are actively being searched for, because the detection of natural antihelium implies the existence of large antimatter structures such as an antistar. A prototype of the \"AMS-02\" designated \"AMS-01\", was flown into space aboard the on STS-91 in June 1998. By not detecting any antihelium at all, the \"AMS-01\" established an upper limit of 1.1×10 for the antihelium to helium flux ratio.\n\nSection::::Artificial production.\n\nSection::::Artificial production.:Positrons.\n", " The masses of the proton and neutron are known with far greater precision in atomic mass units (u) than in MeV/c, due to the relatively poorly known value of the elementary charge. The conversion factor used is 1 u = MeV/c.\n\nThe masses of their antiparticles are assumed to be identical, and no experiments have refuted this to date. Current experiments show any percent difference between the masses of the proton and antiproton must be less than and the difference between the neutron and antineutron masses is on the order of MeV/c.\n", "The CPT theorem implies that the difference between the properties of a matter particle and those of its antimatter counterpart is \"completely\" described by C-inversion. Since this C-inversion does not affect gravitational mass, the CPT theorem predicts that the gravitational mass of antimatter is the same as that of ordinary matter. A repulsive gravity is then excluded, since that would imply a difference in sign between the observable gravitational mass of matter and antimatter.\n\nSection::::Theories of gravitational attraction.:Morrison's argument.\n", "There is strong evidence that the observable universe is composed almost entirely of ordinary matter, as opposed to an equal mixture of matter and antimatter.\n\nThis asymmetry of matter and antimatter in the visible universe is one of the great unsolved problems in physics. The process by which this inequality between matter and antimatter particles developed is called baryogenesis.\n\nSection::::Formal definition.\n\nAntimatter particles can be defined by their negative baryon number or lepton number, while \"normal\" (non-antimatter) matter particles have a positive baryon or lepton number. These two classes of particles are the antiparticle partners of one another.\n", "Section::::Powers and abilities.\n", "where n denotes the charge conjugate state, that is, the antiparticle. This behaviour under CPT symmetry is the same as the statement that the particle and its antiparticle lie in the same irreducible representation of the Poincaré group. Properties of antiparticles can be related to those of particles through this. If T is a good symmetry of the dynamics, then\n\nwhere the proportionality sign indicates that there might be a phase on the right hand side. In other words, particle and antiparticle must have\n\nBULLET::::- the same mass m\n\nBULLET::::- the same spin state J\n", "Section::::Research.\n\nThe concept was invented at Pennsylvania State University before 1992. Since then, several groups have studied antimatter-catalyzed micro fission/fusion engines in the lab (sometimes \"antiproton\" as opposed to \"antimatter\" or \"antihydrogen\").\n", "While there are different views on what should be considered matter, the mass of a substance has exact scientific definitions. Another difference is that matter has an \"opposite\" called antimatter, but mass has no opposite—there is no such thing as \"anti-mass\" or negative mass, so far as is known, although scientists do discuss the concept. Antimatter has the same (i.e. positive) mass property as its normal matter counterpart.\n", "BULLET::::- opposite electric charges q and -q.\n\nSection::::Quantum field theory.\n\nOne may try to quantize an electron field without mixing the annihilation and creation operators by writing\n\nwhere we use the symbol \"k\" to denote the quantum numbers \"p\" and σ of the previous section and the sign of the energy, \"E(k)\", and \"a\" denotes the corresponding annihilation operators. Of course, since we are dealing with fermions, we have to have the operators satisfy canonical anti-commutation relations. However, if one now writes down the Hamiltonian\n", "Antimatter is not found naturally on Earth, except very briefly and in vanishingly small quantities (as the result of radioactive decay, lightning or cosmic rays). This is because antimatter that came to exist on Earth outside the confines of a suitable physics laboratory would almost instantly meet the ordinary matter that Earth is made of, and be annihilated. Antiparticles and some stable antimatter (such as antihydrogen) can be made in tiny amounts, but not in enough quantity to do more than test a few of its theoretical properties.\n", "Section::::1998–99: Formation.\n", "Several studies funded by the NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts are exploring whether it might be possible to use magnetic scoops to collect the antimatter that occurs naturally in the Van Allen belt of the Earth, and ultimately, the belts of gas giants, like Jupiter, hopefully at a lower cost per gram.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Medical.\n", "In July 2011, the ASACUSA experiment at CERN determined the mass of the antiproton to be times more massive than an electron. This is the same as the mass of a proton, within the level of certainty of the experiment.\n\nAntiprotons have been shown within laboratory experiments to have the potential to treat certain cancers, in a similar method currently used for ion (proton) therapy. The primary difference between antiproton therapy and proton therapy is that following ion energy deposition the antiproton annihilates depositing additional energy in the cancerous region.\n", "There is no evidence of complex antimatter atomic nuclei, such as antihelium nuclei (i.e., anti-alpha particles), in cosmic rays. These are actively being searched for. A prototype of the \"AMS-02\" designated \"AMS-01\", was flown into space aboard the on STS-91 in June 1998. By not detecting any antihelium at all, the \"AMS-01\" established an upper limit of for the antihelium to helium flux ratio.\n\nSection::::Types.:Secondary cosmic rays.\n", "The Universe appears to have much more matter than antimatter, an asymmetry possibly related to the CP violation. This imbalance between matter and antimatter is partially responsible for the existence of all matter existing today, since matter and antimatter, if equally produced at the Big Bang, would have completely annihilated each other and left only photons as a result of their interaction. The Universe also appears to have neither net momentum nor angular momentum, which follows accepted physical laws if the Universe is finite. These laws are the Gauss's law and the non-divergence of the stress-energy-momentum pseudotensor.\n", "ALPHA is presently studying the gravitational properties of antimatter. A preliminary experiment in 2013 found that the gravitational mass of antihydrogen atoms was between -65 and 110 times their inertial mass, leaving considerable room for refinement using larger numbers of colder antihydrogen atoms.\n\nSection::::ALPHA.:ALPHA collaboration.\n\nThe ALPHA collaboration comprises the following institutions:\n\nSection::::AEgIS.\n\nAEgIS (Antimatter Experiment: gravity, Interferometry, Spectroscopy), is an experiment currently being set up at the Antiproton Decelerator.\n\nSection::::AEgIS.:AEgIS physics.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-12556	Why is there seemingly no research being done on purely recreational drugs?	The cost of creating an FDA approved drug is in the 100 million dollar range and those doing the initial research are typically PHDs. So drafting a proposal for funding on a drug that's only purpose is fun would be unlikely and not even cross the minds of everyone involved. imagine inventing a drug like ecstasy and then asking the government for money to make it, the government would deny you and take any licenses you have for even asking.	[ "Some reasons for the lack of clinical research have been the introduction of new synthetic and more stable pharmaceutical anticonvulsants, the recognition of important adverse side effects, and legal restrictions to the use of cannabis-derived medicines – although in December 2015, the DEA (United States Drug Enforcement Administration) has eased some of the regulatory requirements for conducting FDA-approved clinical trials on cannabidiol (CBD).\n\nEpidiolex, a cannabis-based product developed by GW Pharmaceuticals for experimental treatment of epilepsy, underwent stage-two trials in the US in 2014.\n", "Section::::Drugs Live.\n\nDrugs Live: the ecstasy trial is a two-part TV documentary aired on Channel 4 on the 26th and 27 September 2012. The program showed an fMRI study on the effects of MDMA (ecstasy) on the brain, which was funded by Channel 4. The main researchers on the study were DrugScience's Val Curran and David Nutt who also appeared as guests on the show. Curran and Nutt oversaw research at Imperial College London, in which volunteers took part in a double blind study, taking either 83 mg of MDMA or a placebo before going into the fMRI scanner.\n", "BULLET::::5. Other Commitments are commitments to obtain informed consent from the research subjects, to obtain review of the study by an institutional review board (IRB), and to adhere to the investigational new drug regulations.\n\nAn IND must also include an \"Investigator's Brochure\" intended to educate the trial investigators of the significant facts about the trial drug they need to know to conduct their clinical trial with the least hazard to the subjects or patients.\n", "One of the early effects of the DESI study was the development of the Abbreviated New Drug Application (ANDA).\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Estes Kefauver\n\nBULLET::::- Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act\n\nBULLET::::- Inverse benefit law\n\nBULLET::::- Regulation of therapeutic goods\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- National Academies of Sciences archives. The Drug Efficacy Study of the National Research Council’s Division of Medical Sciences, 1966-1969\n\nBULLET::::- Chhabra R, Kremzner ME, Kiliany BJ. FDA policy on unapproved drug products: past, present, and future. Ann Pharmacother. 2005 Jul-Aug;39(7-8):1260-4.\n", "New endogenous chemicals are continually identified. Specific receptors have been found for the drugs THC (cannabis) and GHB, with endogenous transmitters anandamide and GHB. Another recent major discovery occurred in 1999 when orexin, or hypocretin, was found to have a role in arousal, since the lack of orexin receptors mirrors the condition of narcolepsy. Orexin agonism may explain the antinarcoleptic action of the drug modafinil which was already being used only a year prior.\n", "BULLET::::- Sponsored analytical research into the effects of the marijuana vaporizer, leading to the first human study of marijuana vaporizers conducted by Dr. Donald Abrams of the University of California, San Francisco.\n\nBULLET::::- Funded the successful efforts of Dr. Donald Abrams to obtain approval for the first human study in 15 years into the therapeutic use of marijuana, along with a $1 million grant from the National Institute on Drug Abuse.\n\nBULLET::::- Obtained Orphan Drug designation from the FDA for smoked marijuana in the treatment of AIDS Wasting Syndrome.\n", "There is currently considerable interest in the use of very high sensitivity mass spectrometry for microdosing studies, which are seen as a promising alternative to animal experimentation.\n\nSection::::Population pharmacokinetics.\n", "BULLET::::- Designed a study to examine vaporized or smoked marijuana in the treatment of war related PTSD in veterans, which will evaluate efficacy and safety of multiple strains of herbal marijuana. The study has received FDA approval. MAPS is pursuing the purchase of appropriate strains from the US federal government.\n\nBULLET::::- Sponsored efforts by Prof. Lyle Craker, Medicinal Plant Program, UMass Amherst Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, to obtain a license from the Drug Enforcement Administration for a marijuana production facility.\n", "Research in the field of neuropsychopharmacology encompasses a wide range of objectives. These might include the study of a new chemical compound for potentially beneficial cognitive or behavioral effects, or the study of an old chemical compound in order to better understand its mechanism of action at the cell and neural circuit levels. For example, the addictive stimulant drug cocaine has long been known to act upon the reward system in the brain, increasing dopamine and norepinephrine levels and inducing euphoria for a short time. More recently published studies however have gone deeper than the circuit level and found that a particular G-protein coupled receptor complex called A2AR-D2R-Sigma1R is formed in the NAc following cocaine usage; this complex reduces D2R signaling in the mesolimbic pathway and may be a contributing factor to cocaine addiction. Other cutting-edge studies have focused on genetics to identify specific biomarkers that may predict an individual's specific reactions or degree of response to a drug or their tendency to develop addictions in the future. These findings are important because they provide detailed insight into the neural circuitry involved in drug use and help refine old as well as develop new treatment methods for disorders or addictions. Different treatment-related studies are investigating the potential role of peptide nucleic acids in treating Parkinson's disease and schizophrenia while still others are attempting to establish previously unknown neural correlates underlying certain phenomena.\n", "BULLET::::- A Beckley Foundation/University College London collaboration with Professor Valerie Curran is investigating medicinal uses of cannabis (in tandem with Harborside Health Centre in Oakland), as well as various research projects looking at the effects of cannabis on various cognitive or neural measures.\n\nBULLET::::- A Beckley/Imperial Psychedelic Research Programme collaborative study on psychedelic microdosing.\n\nRecent Scientific Journal Publications:\n\nSection::::Beckley Foundation Press Publications.\n\nThe Beckley Foundation Press was created to allow the publication of Drug Policy and Scientific material that was not being picked up by mainstream publishing houses due to the controversial nature of the material.\n", "As a result of these requirements that have been imposed in the US, studies involving cannabis have been delayed for years in some cases, and a number of medical organizations have called for federal policy to be reformed.\n\nA 2016 review assess the current status and prospects for development of CBD and CBD-dominant preparations for medical use in the United States, examining its neuroprotective, antiepileptic, anxiolytic, antipsychotic, and antiinflammatory properties.\n", "In an interview in The Scientist British scientists Colin Blakemore and Leslie Iversen described how they expressed concerns about the article with editors at Science. \"It's an outrageous scandal,\" Iversen told The Scientist. \"It's another example of a certain breed of scientist who appear to do research on illegal drugs mainly to show what the governments want them to show. They extract large amounts of grant money from the government to do this sort of biased work.\"\n", "Section::::Research.:\"Developing Pharmacotherapies for Cannabis and Cocaine Use Disorders\".\n", "MAPS has released a request for proposals (RFP) to find a research team interested in conducting clinical trials on ibogaine; a $25,000 grant has been made available to help fund such a study.\n\nSection::::Research.:Medical marijuana.\n\nThe National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) holds a monopoly on the supply of marijuana grown for research in the United States, as they fund the only laboratory licensed to grow it. Since NIDA is solely interested in researching the negative aspects of marijuana use and abuse, studies to explore its potential medical benefit are impossible within the US.\n", "Research on the medical benefits of cannabis has been hindered by various federal regulations, including its Schedule I classification. To conduct research on cannabis, approval must be obtained from the Food and Drug Administration, and a license must be obtained from the Drug Enforcement Administration specific to Schedule I drugs. The FDA has 30 days to respond to proposals, while the DEA licensing can take over a year to complete. Prior to June 2015, cannabis research also required approval from the US Public Health Service. The PHS review was not performed for any other Schedule I drugs, and had no deadline imposed.\n", "Stagnant rates of investment from the US government over the past decade, may be in part attributable to challenges that plague the field. To date only two-thirds of published drug trial findings have results that can be re-produced, which raises concerns from a US regulatory standpoint where great investment has been made in research ethics and standards, yet trial results remain inconsistent. Federal agencies have called upon greater regulation to address these problems; a spokesman from the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, an agency of the NIH, stated that there is \"widespread poor reporting of experimental design in articles and grant applications, that animal research should follow a core set of research parameters, and that a concerted effort by all stakeholders is needed to disseminate best reporting practices and put them into practice\".\n", "If a compound emerges from these tests with an acceptable toxicity and safety profile, and the company can further show it has the desired effect in clinical trials, then the NCE portfolio of evidence can be submitted for marketing approval in the various countries where the manufacturer plans to sell it. In the United States, this process is called a \"new drug application\" or NDA.\n\nMost NCEs fail during drug development, either because they have unacceptable toxicity or because they simply do not have the intended effect on the targeted disease as shown in clinical trials.\n", "Outside of the US, MAPS is pursuing the implementation of MDMA/PTSD studies in Canada, Israel, Jordan, and Switzerland. The Canadian study has full approval from an Institutional Review Board (IRB) and from Health Canada, and is waiting to obtain an import permit to import MDMA into Canada. The Israel Study is awaiting approval from the Israeli Institutional Review Board as well as the Ministry of Health before it can proceed with enrollment.. An Israeli Defense Force official has indicated a willingness to refer war affected soldiers suffering from PTSD, thus greatly enabling recruitment for the study. The Jordan Study is in development with limited approval from the IRB. A protocol amendment is to be submitted in the near future. MAPS is seeking to enroll both Jordanian nationals as well as Iraqi refugees living in Jordan who are suffering from PTSD. The Switzerland study has received full approval from SwissMedic and has been submitted and accepted by the FDA in the form of an Investigational New Drug application. The study is in progress and nearing completion as MAPS is collecting long-term follow-up data following the experimental treatment of all 12 subjects. The study represents in part MAPS' clinical plan to develop MDMA as a prescription medication with both FDA and European Medicines Agency (EMEA) approval.\n", "BULLET::::- A Beckley Foundation/Johns Hopkins University collaboration investigating the potential use of psychedelic drugs to treat addiction. A pilot study is underway using psilocybin to treat nicotine addiction.\n\nBULLET::::- A Beckley Foundation/King's College London collaboration with Dr Paul Morrison at the Institute of Psychiatry is investigating the differing effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD), two of the main cannabinoids found in cannabis that determine its subjective and cognitive effects. Cannabidiol is showing promise in inhibiting the psychosis-like effects of THC, and indicating great therapeutic potential.\n", "Cannabis research is challenging since the plant is illegal in most countries. Research-grade samples of the drug are difficult to obtain for research purposes, unless granted under authority of national governments.\n", "BULLET::::9. Depoortère, R., \"et al.\", \"Neurochemical, Electrophysiological and Pharmacological Profiles of the Selective Inhibitor of the Glycine Transporter-1 SSR504734, a Potential New Type of Antipsychotic\", \"Neuropsychopharmacology\" 30, pp1963–1985, (2005)\n\nBULLET::::10. Abraham, H. D., Mccann, U. D., Ricaurte, G. A., \"Psychedelic Drugs\", (5th Gen. Prog.)\n\nBULLET::::11. Colwell, C. S., \"Circadian Rhythms\", (4th Gen. Prog.)\n\nBULLET::::12. Lewy, A. J., \"Circadian Phase Sleep And Mood Disorders\", (5th Gen. Prog.)\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- ACNP resources\n\nBULLET::::- American College of Neuropsychopharmacology\n\nBULLET::::- Neuropsychopharmacology:The Fifth Generation of Progress\n\nBULLET::::- Psychopharmacology:The Fourth Generation of Progress\n\nBULLET::::- Organisations\n\nBULLET::::- Collegium Internationale Neuro-psychopharmacologicum A global organisation dedicated to neuropsychopharmacology\n", "EMDL organized supporters to petition the DEA for a scheduling hearing regarding MDMA. Dr. George Greer, Dr. Lester Grinspoon, Professor James Bakalar, and Professor Thomas Roberts contributed to the argument that MDMA belonged in Schedule III, a category that would more readily enable future research and permit the continuation of its use in psychotherapy. Despite such efforts, the DEA pursued emergency scheduling in 1985, citing an imminent risk to public health.\n", "Approximately two thirds of both investigational new drugs (INDs) and new drug applications (NDAs) are small-molecule drugs, the rest are biopharmaceuticals. About half of the investigational new drugs (INDs) fail in preclinical and clinical phases of drug development.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n", "Regulation on industry funded biomedical research has seen great changes since Samuel Hopkins Adams declaration. In 1906 congress passed the Pure Food and Drugs Act of 1906. In 1912 Congress passed the Shirley Amendment to prohibit the wide dissemination of false information on pharmaceuticals. The Food and Drug Administration was formally created in 1930 under the McNarey Mapes Amendment to oversee the regulation of Food and Drugs in the United States. In 1962 the Kefauver-Harris Amendments to the Food, Drug and Cosmetics Act made it so that before a drug was marketed in the United States the FDA must first approve that the drug was safe. The Kefauver-Harris amendments also mandated that more stringent clinical trials must be performed before a drug is brought to the market. The Kefauver-Harris amendments were met with opposition from industry due to the requirement of lengthier clinical trial periods that would lessen the period of time in which the investor is able to see return on their money. In the pharmaceutical industry patents are typically granted for a 20-year period of time, and most patent applications are submitted during the early stages of the product development. According to Ariel Katz on average after a patent application is submitted it takes an additional 8 years before the FDA approves a drug for marketing. As such this would leave a company with only 12 years to market the drug to see a return on their investments. After a sharp decline of new drugs entering the US market following the 1962 Kefauver-Harris amendments economist Sam Petlzman concluded that cost of loss of innovation was greater than the savings recognized by consumers no longer purchasing ineffective drugs. In 1984 the Hatch-Waxman Act or the Drug Price Competition and Patent Term Restoration Act of 1984 was passed by congress. The Hatch-Waxman Act was passed with the idea that giving brand manufacturers the ability to extend their patent by an additional 5 years would create greater incentives for innovation and private sector funding for investment.\n", "Witt's research was discontinued, but it became reinvigorated in 1984 after a paper by J.A. Nathanson in the journal \"Science\", which is discussed below. In 1995, a NASA research group repeated Witt's experiments on the effect of caffeine, benzedrine, marijuana and chloral hydrate on European garden spiders. NASA's results were qualitatively similar to those of Witt, but the novelty was that the pattern of the spider web was quantitatively analyzed with modern statistical tools, and proposed as a sensitive method of drug detection.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-16117	Why do some brands of vodka result in horrible hangovers, while others result in no hangover?	Congeners are small amounts of chemicals in alcohol produced during fermentation. These chemicals are said to be partly responsible for a hangover. Congeners can be filtered out through distilling, but cheaper alcohol is usually only distilled a couple of times. For example, Tito’s is distilled 6 times.	[ "A study conducted on NPR's \"Planet Money\" podcast revealed negligible differences in taste between various brands of vodka, leading to speculation as to how much branding contributes to the concept of \"super premium vodkas\".\n\nSection::::Production.:Distilling and filtering.\n", "Vodka perfect is produced according to an old family recipe originating in Russia. Each of the three plants, produces the company's main products (classic, premium and flavored vodkas) as well as custom products for the local markets in which they operate.\n\nThe Israeli product line is marketed as being fully Kosher, being produced by an all Jewish personnel.\n", "Several studies have examined whether certain types of alcohol cause worse hangovers. All four studies concluded that darker liquors, which have higher congeners, produced worse hangovers. One even showed that hangovers were worse \"and\" more frequent with darker liquors. In a 2006 study, an average of 14 standard drinks (330 ml each) of beer was needed to produce a hangover, but only 7 to 8 drinks was required for wine or liquor (note that one standard drink has the same amount of alcohol regardless of type). Another study ranked several drinks by their ability to cause a hangover as follows (from low to high): distilled ethanol diluted with fruit juice, beer, vodka, gin, white wine, whisky, rum, red wine and brandy.\n", "BULLET::::- Sacred Old Tom Gin, 48%. Made with extra Juniper, Liquorice Root & vacuum distilled sweet Spanish Orange peels.\n\nBULLET::::- Sacred Christmas Pudding Gin, 40%. Made with juniper and real Christmas puddings, cooked to Ian's Great Aunt Nellie's recipe.\n\nBULLET::::- Sacred Organic Sloe Gin, 28.8%. Sloe Berries rested in Sacred Gin for two and a half years, with extra distilled Juniper added before bottling.\n\nSection::::Products.:Whisky.\n\nBULLET::::- Sacred Peated English Whisky, 48%. Peated single malt spirit distilled in Norfolk, aged in ex-bourbon casks for 3 years, followed by a two year finish in Pedro Ximenez casks in London.\n", "This tradition of flavoring is also prevalent in the Nordic countries, where vodka seasoned with herbs, fruits and spices is the appropriate strong drink for several seasonal festivities. Sweden has forty-odd common varieties of herb-flavored vodka (\"kryddat brännvin\"). In Poland and Ukraine, a separate category (\"nalyvka\" in Ukraine and \"nalewka\" in Poland) is used for vodka-based spirits with fruit, root, flower, or herb extracts, which are often home-made or produced by small commercial distilleries. Their alcohol contents vary between 15 and 75%. In Estonia, vodkas are available with barberry, blackcurrant, cherry, green apple, lemon, vanilla and watermelon flavors.\n", "BULLET::::- Aguadito – a Peruvian soup known for having a potential for easing or alleviating symptoms associated with the hangover.\n\nBULLET::::- Aguadito de pollo – a soup in Peruvian cuisine consisting of chicken, cilantro, vegetables and spices\n\nBULLET::::- Ajiaco\n\nBULLET::::- Asparagus\n\nBULLET::::- Bacon sandwich\n\nBULLET::::- Banana\n\nBULLET::::- Bloody mary\n\nBULLET::::- Cassoulet\n\nBULLET::::- Ceviche\n\nBULLET::::- Chicken noodle soup\n\nBULLET::::- Churros\n\nBULLET::::- Coconut water\n\nBULLET::::- Coffee\n\nBULLET::::- Congee\n\nBULLET::::- Corpse Reviver – a hair of the dog remedy\n\nBULLET::::- Crackers and honey\n\nBULLET::::- Cesnecka – A soup in Czech cuisine that is prepared using a significant amount of garlic\n\nBULLET::::- Dal bhat\n", "In addition to ethanol and water, most alcoholic drinks also contain congeners, either as flavoring or as a by-product of fermentation and the wine aging process. While ethanol is by itself sufficient to produce most hangover effects, congeners may potentially aggravate hangover and other residual effects to some extent. Congeners include substances such as amines, amides, acetones, acetaldehydes, polyphenols, methanol, histamines, fusel oil, esters, furfural, and tannins, many but not all of which are toxic. One study in mice indicates that fusel oil may have a mitigating effect on hangover symptoms, while some whiskey congeners such as butanol protect the stomach against gastric mucosal damage in the rat. Different types of alcoholic beverages contain different amounts of congeners. In general, dark liquors have a higher concentration while clear liquors have a lower concentration. Whereas vodka has virtually no more congeners than pure ethanol, bourbon has a total congener content 37 times higher than that found in vodka.\n", "BULLET::::- Get more drinkers of imported vodka to try Finlandia\n\nBULLET::::- Develop positive attitudes toward the product\n", "In the United States, many vodkas are made from 95% pure grain alcohol produced in large quantities by agricultural-industrial giants Archer Daniels Midland, Grain Processing Corporation, and Midwest Grain Products (MGP). Bottlers purchase the base spirits in bulk, then filter, dilute, distribute and market the end product under a variety of vodka brand names. Similar methods are used in other regions such as Europe.\n", "According to \"The Penguin Book of Spirits and Liqueurs\", \"Its low level of fusel oils and congeners—impurities that flavour spirits but that can contribute to the after-effects of heavy consumption—led to its being considered among the 'safer' spirits, though not in terms of its powers of intoxication, which, depending on strength, may be considerable.\"\n\nSince the year 2000, due to evolving consumer tastes and regulatory changes, a number of 'artisanal vodka' or even 'ultra premium vodka' brands have appeared.\n\nSection::::Today.:European Union regulation.\n", "BULLET::::- 2015 Restaurant & Bar Design Awards - Best Asia Pacific Bar\n\nBULLET::::- 2015 A’Design Award & Competition - Silver A' Packaging Design Award\n\nBULLET::::- 2016 The International Wine & Spirit Competition\n\nBULLET::::- Archie Rose White Rye, Signature Dry Gin, Original Vodka - Best Packaging Design Range of the Year\n\nBULLET::::- Archie Rose White Rye - Silver 2016\n\nBULLET::::- Archie Rose Original Vodka - Silver Outstanding 2016\n\nBULLET::::- Archie Rose White Rye and Original Vodka - Packaging Gold\n\nBULLET::::- Archie Rose Signature Dry Gin - Packaging Gold Outstanding 2016\n", "BULLET::::- Sacred English Whisky Liqueur, 40%. 3 year old English Whisky, blended with macerated Spanish Orange, distilled star anise and cubeb, and a little sugar.\n\nSection::::Products.:Vodka.\n\nBULLET::::- Sacred London Dry Vodka, 40%. A wheat vodka redistilled with 7 botanicals, similar in character to a gin, but with no juniper, coriander or citrus botanicals. The firm holds the trademark for London Dry Vodka.\n\nBULLET::::- Sacred Organic Vodka, 40%. A blend of English Organic Wheat Spirit and English Organic Rye Spirit.\n\nSection::::Products.:Vermouth.\n", "Additionally, an event has been created to institute an Annual Toast for National Vodka Day in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania at 6 pm EST. This has been announced on their website for Clique Vodka.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of food days\n\nSection::::References.\n\nSection::::References.:Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Bottoms up: National Vodka Day is here - The Globe and Mail\n\nBULLET::::- Weirdest vodka flavors for National Vodka Day. Fox News. October 4, 2013.\n\nBULLET::::- Cold, Clear, Strong: National Vodka Day \| NBC Southern California\n\nBULLET::::- National Vodka Day?! Let’s Raise a Glass! - Twin Cities Taste - October 2013 - Minnesota\n", "Unmixed liquors may be served either neat, up, or on the rocks, with differing conventions. High-quality whisky and other aged liquor are most often served neat, while lower-quality whisky is usually served with a mixer or on the rocks. Vodka can be stored as a liquid well below the freezing point of water because of its high proof and low particulate content, and cocktails made with sub-freezing vodka are sometimes requested to minimize the amount of added water from melted ice during shaking.\n\nSection::::Definitions and usage.:Chaser.\n", "BULLET::::- J.W. Dant Bourbon\n\nBULLET::::- Kentucky Straight Bourbon\n\nBULLET::::- Kentucky Supreme Bourbon\n\nBULLET::::- Larceny Bourbon\n\nBULLET::::- Old Fitzgerald Bourbon\n\nBULLET::::- Private Cellar\n\nBULLET::::- Parkers Heritage Collection\n\nBULLET::::- T.W. Samuels Bourbon\n\nBULLET::::- Virgin Bourbon\n\nSection::::Brands.:Other brands.\n\nBULLET::::- Admiral Nelson's Spiced Rum\n\nBULLET::::- Ansac Cognac\n\nBULLET::::- Arandas Tequila\n\nBULLET::::- Aristocrat Vodka/Whiskey/Gin/Tequila (first marketed in 1991)\n\nBULLET::::- Bernheim Original straight wheat whiskey\n\nBULLET::::- Blackheart Premium Spiced Rum\n\nBULLET::::- Burnett's Gin\n\nBULLET::::- Burnett's Vodka\n\nBULLET::::- Christian Brothers Brandy/Holiday Nog/Ports & Sherries\n\nBULLET::::- Copa De Oro Coffee Liqueur\n\nBULLET::::- Coronet VSQ\n\nBULLET::::- Deep Eddy Vodka\n\nBULLET::::- Du Bouchett\n\nBULLET::::- Dubonnet\n", "BULLET::::- Magic moments verve Flavored Vodka\n\nBULLET::::- Brandy\n\nBULLET::::- 8 PM Excellency Brandy\n\nBULLET::::- Morpheus\n\nBULLET::::- Morpheus Blue\n\nBULLET::::- Old Admiral\n\nBULLET::::- Florence\n\nBULLET::::- Gin\n\nBULLET::::- Magic Moments Gin\n\nSection::::Distilleries and units.\n\nSection::::Distilleries and units.:Rampur Distillery.\n", "BULLET::::- 2008: Bronze Medal at the Los Angeles International Wine and Spirits Competition, Gold Medal at the Beverage Tasting Institute's International Review of Spirits, Silver Medal at the Agave Spirits Challenge in Cancun, Mexico\n\nBULLET::::- 2009: Silver Medal at the Los Angeles International Wine and Spirits Competition, Gold Medal at Beverage Tasting Institute's International Review of Spirits\n\nBULLET::::- 2010: Double Gold Award at the San Francisco World Spirits Competition\n\nBULLET::::- 2011: Silver Medal at the Hong Kong International Wine & Spirits Competition\n\nBULLET::::- 2012: Gold Medal at the Beverly Hills International Spirits Award\n", "BULLET::::- Amrut Kadambham\n\nBULLET::::- Amrut Single Cask\n\nBULLET::::- Amrut 100\n\nBULLET::::- Whisky\n\nBULLET::::- MaQ Scotch\n\nBULLET::::- MaQintosh\n\nBULLET::::- Prestige Fine Whisky\n\nBULLET::::- Prestige Blended Malt Whisky\n\nBULLET::::- Prestige Rare Whisky\n\nBULLET::::- Brandy\n\nBULLET::::- Bejois Blended Grape Brandy\n\nBULLET::::- Bejois Premium Brandy\n\nBULLET::::- Bejois VSOP Brandy\n\nBULLET::::- Bejois Napoleon Brandy\n\nBULLET::::- Silver Cup\n\nBULLET::::- Rum\n\nBULLET::::- Old Port Deluxe Rum\n\nBULLET::::- Old Port Deluxe Matured Rum\n\nBULLET::::- Amrut XXX Classic Rum\n\nBULLET::::- Amrut XXX Rum\n\nBULLET::::- Vodka\n\nBULLET::::- Muscovy Vodka\n\nBULLET::::- Gin\n\nBULLET::::- Blue Star Dry Gin\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Indian whisky\n\nBULLET::::- Indian Made Foreign Liquor (IMFL)\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- American Craft Spirits Association: Silver: Single Malt Less Than 1 Year – Whiskey Del Bac Dorado, 2015\n\nBULLET::::- Great American Distillers Festival: Bronze: American Single Malt – Whiskey Del Bac Dorado, 2014\n\nBULLET::::- Washington Cup Spirits Competition: Bronze: Single Malt Whiskey – Whiskey Del Bac Dorado, 2014\n\nBULLET::::- American Craft Spirits Association: Gold: Unaged – Whiskey Del Bac Clear, 2015\n\nBULLET::::- Great American Distillers Festival: Silver: Unaged – Whiskey Del Bac Clear, 2014\n\nBULLET::::- American Craft Spirits Association: Gold: Malt Whiskey Less Than 1 Year – Whiskey Del Bac Classic, 2015\n", "BULLET::::- Moosehead Breweries Anniversary Ale\n\nBULLET::::- Moosehead Pale Ale\n\nBULLET::::- Cracked Canoe\n\nBULLET::::- Moose Light Lager\n\nBULLET::::- Moose Light Radler\n\nBULLET::::- Moose Light Radler Raspberry\n\nBULLET::::- Moose Light Radler Watermelon\n\nBULLET::::- Moosehead Premium Dry\n\nBULLET::::- Moosehead Dry Ice\n\nBULLET::::- Moosehead Dry Light\n\nBULLET::::- Moosehead Dry Lager\n\nBULLET::::- Alpine Lager\n\nBULLET::::- Sam Adams' Boston Lager\n\nBULLET::::- Sam Adams' Octoberfest\n\nBULLET::::- Sam Adams' Summer Ale\n\nBULLET::::- Sam Adams' Winter Lager\n\nBULLET::::- Sam Adams' Rebel IPA\n\nBULLET::::- Sam Adams' Fresh as Helles\n\nBULLET::::- Twisted Tea Original, Half & Half and Raspberry\n\nBULLET::::- Coney Island Root Beer\n\nBULLET::::- Coney Island Orange Cream\n", "BULLET::::- Kinsey Rye Whiskey – Philadelphia, Pennsylvania\n\nBULLET::::- Old Potrero (Anchor Distillery)\n\nBULLET::::- OYO Rye Whiskey, Middle West Spirits, Columbus, Ohio\n\nBULLET::::- Town Branch Rye – Lexington Brewing and Distilling Company, Lexington, Kentucky\n\nBULLET::::- RoughStock 100% Rye (RoughStock Distillery), Bozeman, Montana\n\nBULLET::::- Roundstone Rye – Catoctin Creek\n\nBULLET::::- Sagamore Spirit Rye American Whiskey – Baltimore, Maryland\n\nBULLET::::- Whistlepig Straight 100% Rye, Vermont\n\nBULLET::::- James Oliver Straight 100% Rye – Indio Spirits Distillery – Portland, Oregon\n\nBULLET::::- Ghost Owl Rye – Pacific Northwest Whiskey, Indio Spirits Distillery – Portland, Oregon\n", "BULLET::::- Jose Cuervo (all varieties, 35-40% abv)\n\nBULLET::::- 1800 Tequila (all varieties, 35-50% abv)\n\nBULLET::::- Gran Centenario (premium small batch 100% blue agave tequila, 38% abv)\n\nBULLET::::- Maestro Dobel Tequila (a clear 100% blue agave blend of extra añejo, añejo and reposado tequilas, 40% abv)\n\nBULLET::::- Zarco (in silver and gold varieties, 40% abv)\n\nSection::::Brands.:Vodka.\n\nBULLET::::- Three Olives Vodka (available unflavored and in a wide range of flavors, 35-40% abv)\n\nBULLET::::- Hangar 1 Vodka (grape-based, fruit-infused vodka from California, 40% abv)\n\nSection::::Brands.:Rum.\n\nBULLET::::- Kraken Black Spiced Rum (Caribbean rum, 47% abv)\n", "BULLET::::- 2007: Silver Medal at the San Francisco World Spirits Competition\n\nBULLET::::- 2008: Bronze Medal at the San Francisco World Spirits Competition, Bronze Medal at the Agave Spirits Challenge in Cancun, Mexico\n\nBULLET::::- 2009: Silver Medal at the San Francisco World Spirits Competition, Gold Medal at the Beverage Tasting Institute’s International Review of Spirits\n\nBULLET::::- 2010: Gold Medal at the San Francisco World Spirits Competition\n\nBULLET::::- 2011: Silver Medal at the Hong Kong International Wine & Spirits Competition\n\nBULLET::::- 2012: Gold Medal at the Beverly Hills International Spirits Award\n", "BULLET::::- 2013: Silver Medal at the San Francisco World Spirits Competition, Silver Medal at the International Spirits Challenge, Platinum Medal at the World Spirits Competition\n\nTotal:\n\nBULLET::::- 11 Awards\n\nBULLET::::- 3 Gold\n\nBULLET::::- 5 Silver\n\nBULLET::::- 2 Bronze\n\nBULLET::::- 1 Platinum\n\nSection::::Awards.:Reposado.\n\nBULLET::::- Ranked #1 in the world by both the beverage Testing Institute (BTI) and the San Francisco world Spirits Competition two years in a row (2009, 2010)\n\nBULLET::::- 2006: Gold Medal at the Beverage Tasting Institute's International Review of Spirits\n\nBULLET::::- 2007: Silver Medal at the San Francisco World Spirits Competition\n", "While most vodkas are unflavored, many flavored vodkas have been produced in traditional vodka-drinking areas, often as home-made recipes to improve vodka's taste or for medicinal purposes. Flavorings include red pepper, ginger, fruit flavors, vanilla, chocolate (without sweetener), and cinnamon. In Russia, vodka flavored with honey and pepper, \"pertsovka\" in Russian, is also very popular. In Poland and Belarus, the leaves of the local bison grass are added to produce \"żubrówka\" (Polish) and \"zubrovka\" (Belarusian) vodka, with slightly sweet flavors and light amber colors. In Lithuania and Poland, a famous vodka containing honey is called \"krupnik\".\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02882	The advantages and disadvantages of a quad/multi-copter over a helicopter	Quadcopters are a very inefficient design from both a power use and a lift capacity standpoint. Compared to traditional single or tandem rotor helicopters though they are much easier to fly with simple controls.	[ "In the last few decades, small-scale unmanned aerial vehicles have been used for many applications. The need for aircraft with greater maneuverability and hovering ability has led to a rise in quadcopter research. The four-rotor design allows quadcopters to be relatively simple in design yet highly reliable and maneuverable. Research is continuing to increase the abilities of quadcopters by making advances in multi-craft communication, environment exploration, and maneuverability. If these developing qualities can be combined, quadcopters would be capable of advanced autonomous missions that are currently not possible with other vehicles.\n\nSome current programs include:\n", "BULLET::::- The Bell Boeing Quad TiltRotor concept takes the fixed quadcopter concept further by combining it with the tilt rotor concept for a proposed C-130 sized military transport.\n\nBULLET::::- AeroQuad and ArduCopter are open-source hardware and software projects based on Arduino for the DIY construction of quadcopters.\n\nBULLET::::- Parrot AR.Drone is a small radio controlled quadcopter with cameras attached to it built by Parrot SA, designed to be controllable by smartphones or tablet devices.\n\nBULLET::::- Nixie is a small camera-equipped drone that can be worn as a wrist band.\n", "BULLET::::- Ceiling (m): 550\n\nBULLET::::- Weight (kg): 3\n\nBULLET::::- Length (m): 1.2\n\nBULLET::::- Max wind scale allowed for operation: 5\n\nBULLET::::- Temperature range for operation (°C): -10 to 50\n\nBULLET::::- Unit price (¥): 100,000\n\nSection::::Quadcopter.\n", "Section::::Applications.:Humanitarian operations.\n\nQuadcopters are being used for a wide variety of humanitarian applications from disaster relief to animal conservation. During Hurricane Harvey, many drone pilots with quadcopters at their disposal descended on the city of Houston, Texas to provide support to first responders.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Art.\n", "In addition to providing propulsion, distributed propulsion arrangements may provide the following functions:\n\nBULLET::::- Direct reenergizing of the boundary layer\n\nBULLET::::- Flow separation control\n\nBULLET::::- Powered lift/circulation control\n\nBULLET::::- Viscous drag reduction\n\nBULLET::::- Noise reduction/noise spectrum alteration\n\nBULLET::::- Vortex/vorticity control\n\nBULLET::::- Vehicle control/vectored thrust\n\nBULLET::::- Reduced signatures\n\nBULLET::::- Redundancy\n\nBULLET::::- Lower costs\n\nSection::::Aircraft designs.\n\nThese implementations are often proposed in conjunction with blended wing body (BWB) or hybrid wing body (HWB) aircraft.\n", "BULLET::::- Max speed (km/h): 170\n\nBULLET::::- Cruise speed (km/h): 70\n\nBULLET::::- Endurance (min): 1–1.5 for electrically powered, 2–4 for gasoline-powered\n\nBULLET::::- Range (km): 50–100\n\nBULLET::::- Remote control radius (km): 15–50\n\nBULLET::::- Power plant: batteries or four stroke gasoline engine\n\nBULLET::::- Launch: catapult\n\nBULLET::::- Recovery: parachute\n\nSection::::T21.\n\nT21 UAV is a quadcopter developed by Creaton, and it is an electrically powered MAV. Specification:\n\nBULLET::::- Length (m): 0.7\n\nBULLET::::- Width (m): 0.7\n\nBULLET::::- Height (m): 0.25\n\nBULLET::::- Max take-off weight (kg): 1.6\n\nBULLET::::- Empty weight: 1.3\n\nBULLET::::- Payload (kg): 0.3\n\nBULLET::::- Speed (m/s): 12\n\nBULLET::::- Endurance (min): 23\n", "There are numerous advantages to using quadcopters as versatile test platforms. They are relatively cheap, available in a variety of sizes and their simple mechanical design means that they can be built and maintained by amateurs. Due to the multi-disciplinary nature of operating a quadcopter, academics from a number of fields need to work together in order to make significant improvements to the way quadcopters perform. Quadcopter projects are typically collaborations between computer science, electrical engineering and mechanical engineering specialists.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Military and law enforcement.\n", "Most vehicles in the above category do not meet all the requirements set by NASA. However, some vehicles come close. Ultrallight aircraft are of special interest since their energy usage is low. Hybrid forms of the vehicle types above can also be useful. Some hybrid forms that exist are:\n\nBULLET::::- the Opener Aerospace Blackfly, an automated, electrically-powered personal VTOL with good energy efficiency.\n\nBULLET::::- the AeroVironment SkyTote, a combination of airplane and a helicopter. It is also fully automated, similar to driverless cars.\n\nBULLET::::- The Ornithopter, a similar helicopter/ornithopter hybrid.\n", "During the 1970s and 1980s, there was a resurgence of interest in quadracycles as personal transportation, driven by the 1973 oil crisis, environmental concerns about air pollution from automobiles and the search for emission-free alternatives.\n\nModern quadracycles can be generally placed in six categories:\n\nSection::::Modern quadracycles.:Tourist destination rental.\n", "While some of these concepts were tested on full scale aircraft in the 1960 - 1970s, such as the Hunting H.126, they were not fielded in production aircraft. More recently, several full-size and smaller unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) projects have proposed DP approaches to meet noise abatement, fuel efficiency and landing field length goals. Advancements in materials engineering, cryogenic cooling systems, novel fuels and high fidelity computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling and analysis have been credited for the renewed interest.\n\nSection::::Benefits.\n", "Quadcopters are a useful tool for university researchers to test and evaluate new ideas in a number of different fields, including flight control theory, navigation, real time systems, and robotics. In recent years many universities have shown quadcopters performing increasingly complex aerial manoeuvres. Swarms of quadcopters can hover in mid-air, fly in formations, and autonomously perform complex flying routines such as flips, darting through hula hoops and organising themselves to fly through windows as a group.\n", "BULLET::::- Payload (kg): 1.3 (12” rotor version) or 1.7 (15” rotor version)\n\nBULLET::::- Endurance (h): 0.25 – 0.5\n\nBULLET::::- Range (km): 10\n\nBULLET::::- Control radius (km): 3 – 10\n\nBULLET::::- Speed (m/s): 10\n\nBULLET::::- Altitude (m): 400\n\nSection::::Magic Talon ZC001.\n\nMagic Talon ZC001 is another member of multirotors developed by FYAT. The most obvious external difference between Magic Talon ZC001 and the other two member of Magic Talon multirotors is that Magic Talon ZC001 lacks the pair of skid as its landing gear.\n\nSection::::Micro Quadcopter.\n", "Micro Quadcopter is a quadrotor developed by FYAT, and the landing gear consists of a pair of skids. Micro Quadcopter is designed to have a relatively longer endurance in comparison to other multirotors of the same class, up to half an hour. The electrically powered quadcopter has some unusual design features in that instead of the usual two-blade rotors adopted by most quadcopters in the world, Micro Quadcopter incorporates four three-blade rotors instead. Another unique feature of Micro Quadcopter is that each rotor is also attached to each other in addition to being attached to the center: each rotor is attached to the rotor next to it by an arm, forming a shape of square enclosing an X, instead of the usual X-shape of most quadcopter. This design was first tested on the FYAT Experimental Quadcopter mentioned above, which proved to be successful and subsequently adopted by Micro Quadcopter.\n", "Weight (kg): 0.7\n\nSection::::Laborer 2.\n\nLaborer 2 is a development of Laborer 1 and it is also a quadcopter in the same layout of Laborer 1. Like its predecessor Laborer 1, Laborer 2 is also controlled by a smartphone or a laptop computer. Specification:\n\nBULLET::::- Weight (kg): 5\n\nBULLET::::- Remote control radius (km): 1\n\nBULLET::::- Max wind scale allowed for operation: 5\n\nSection::::SDEP Fixed-wing UAV.\n", "BULLET::::- Max wind scale allowed for take-off and landing: 4\n\nBULLET::::- Max wind scale allowed for aerial operation: 5\n\nBULLET::::- Operating temperature (°C): - 20 to 50\n\nBULLET::::- Deployment time (min): 5 – 10\n\nBULLET::::- Operators: 3 – 4\n\nSection::::Coaxial unmanned helicopter.\n", "Section::::Applications.:Sport.\n\nQuadcopters are used all over the world for racing (also known as \"drone racing\") and freestyle events. Racing and freestyle quadcopters are built for speed and agility. Racing and freestyle drones tend to be relatively small in size, with 250 mm between the propeller shafts and/or 5-6 inch props being the usually upper end of the size scale.\n\nThere are at least two international drone racing organisations/promotions including the Drone Racing League and Multi GP.\n\nSection::::Law.\n\nSection::::Law.:In the United States.\n", "Bell Boeing Quad TiltRotor\n\nThe Bell Boeing Quad TiltRotor (QTR) is a proposed four-rotor derivative of the Bell Boeing V-22 Osprey developed jointly by Bell Helicopter and Boeing. The concept is a contender in the U.S. Army's Joint Heavy Lift program. It would have a cargo capacity roughly equivalent to the C-130 Hercules, cruise at 250 knots, and land at unimproved sites vertically like a helicopter.\n\nSection::::Development.\n\nSection::::Development.:Background.\n", "BULLET::::- Remote control range (km): 60\n\nBULLET::::- Date transmission (km): 10\n\nBULLET::::- Wind allowed for operation (m/s): 18.5\n\nBULLET::::- Temperature allowed for operation (⁰C): - 20 to 50\n\nBULLET::::- Relative humidity allowed for operation: 95%\n\nBULLET::::- Engine MTBF (h): 1000\n\nSection::::Multirotors.\n\nAs of 2015, two multicopters are fielded by PowerVision, the quadcopter PowerQuad, and the octocopter PowerOcta. These multicopters are mainly intended for aerial photography, cinematography and surveying applications.\n\nSection::::PowerSeeker.\n", "BULLET::::- Empty weight: 18 kg\n\nBULLET::::- Speed: 150 km/hr\n\nBULLET::::- Endurance: 3 – 6 hr\n\nBULLET::::- Ceiling: 5 km\n\nBULLET::::- Remote control radius: 90 km\n\nBULLET::::- Power plant: 80 – 150 cc selectable\n\nSection::::Type II.\n", "BULLET::::- Rotor diameter (m): 2\n\nBULLET::::- Length (m): 1.7\n\nBULLET::::- Max take-off weight (kg): 12\n\nBULLET::::- Max speed (m/s): 35\n\nBULLET::::- Ceiling (m): 800\n\nBULLET::::- Endurance (h): 1\n\nBULLET::::- Launch: catapult\n\nBULLET::::- Recovery: taxiing\n\nBULLET::::- Max wind scale allowed for operation: 4\n\nBULLET::::- Temperature range (°C): -40 to +50\n\nBULLET::::- Propulsion: CYS-40F\n\nSection::::I-50.\n", "M4 quadcopter is a multirotor developed by TTA, and the landing gear of this MAV is a pair of skids. Specification:\n\nBULLET::::- Ceiling: 4 km\n\nBULLET::::- Rate of climb: 8 m/s\n\nBULLET::::- Cruise speed: 36 km/h\n\nBULLET::::- Max speed: 50 km/h\n\nBULLET::::- Endurance: 40 min\n\nBULLET::::- Range: 12 km\n\nBULLET::::- Control radius: 6 km\n\nBULLET::::- Payload: 2 kg\n\nBULLET::::- Max take-off weight: 6.5 kg\n\nBULLET::::- Max wind scale (speed) allowed for operation: 6 (13.8 m/s)\n\nBULLET::::- Operating temperature: -10 to 50 °C\n\nSection::::M6.\n\nM6 hexacopter is a multirotor developed by TTA, and the landing gear of this MAV is a pair of skids. M6 hexacopter is constructed of carbon fiber. Specification:\n", "BULLET::::- Northrop Grumman Switchblade, proposed\n\nBULLET::::- NSRDC BQM-108\n\nBULLET::::- Octatron SkySeer\n\nBULLET::::- Oregon Iron Works Sea Scout\n\nBULLET::::- Pegasus Aerospace PQO-3 Odyssey\n\nBULLET::::- Pegasus Aerospace PQV-3 Vulcan\n\nBULLET::::- Pegasus Aerospace PQP-25 Perseus 25\n\nBULLET::::- Piccolissimo\n\nBULLET::::- Piper LBP\n\nBULLET::::- Pratt-Read LBE\n\nBULLET::::- Prioria Robotics Maveric\n\nBULLET::::- Propulsive Wing, high lift, large cargo-carrying, cross-flow fan propulsion (2008)\n\nBULLET::::- Radioplane TDD-1, target (1939)\n\nBULLET::::- Radioplane OQ-1\n\nBULLET::::- Radioplane OQ-2\n\nBULLET::::- Radioplane OQ-3\n\nBULLET::::- Radioplane OQ-6\n\nBULLET::::- Radioplane OQ-7\n\nBULLET::::- Radioplane OQ-13\n\nBULLET::::- Radioplane OQ-14\n\nBULLET::::- Radioplane OQ-17\n\nBULLET::::- Radioplane OQ-19\n\nBULLET::::- Radioplane Q-1\n\nBULLET::::- Radioplane Q-3\n\nBULLET::::- Radioplane RP-1\n\nBULLET::::- Radioplane RP-2\n", "BULLET::::- de Bothezat helicopter - an American four-rotor helicopter that first flew on December 18, 1922.\n\nBULLET::::- Cierva Air Horse - a British three-rotor \"heavy lift\" helicopter first flying in 1948. Three rotors were used to give a large lift without compromising rotor strength.\n\nBULLET::::- Volocopter designs - a series of German prototype electric multicopters with 16 rotors, the first electric multicopter in the world to achieve manned flight. The large number of low-cost motors make it economical, quiet and provide redundancy with ability to maintain control with up to four failed motors.\n", "BULLET::::- Lagoon 42\n\nBULLET::::- Lagoon 47\n\nBULLET::::- Lagoon 470\n\nBULLET::::- Marquises 53\n\nBULLET::::- Marquises 56\n\nBULLET::::- MDV1200\n\nBULLET::::- Mystère 4.3\n\nBULLET::::- Open 60\n\nBULLET::::- RC-30\n\nBULLET::::- \"RV Triton\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sealion 2000\"\n\nBULLET::::- RiverCat class\n\nBULLET::::- Scarab 670\n\nBULLET::::- \"Seacat Scotland\"\n\nBULLET::::- Seaclipper 16\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sea Runner\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Stena Lynx III\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Stena Voyager\"\n\nBULLET::::- Taipan 5.7\n\nBULLET::::- Tobago 35\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tarifa Jet\"\n\nBULLET::::- Topcat K1\n\nBULLET::::- Topcat K2\n\nBULLET::::- Topcat K3\n\nBULLET::::- TriFoiler\n\nBULLET::::- Venezia 42\n\nBULLET::::- WindRider 16\n\nBULLET::::- WindRider Rave\n\nSection::::2000s.\n\nBULLET::::- ARC 21\n\nBULLET::::- Astus 14.1\n\nBULLET::::- Astus 16.1\n\nBULLET::::- Astus 20.1\n\nBULLET::::- Astus 22\n", "BULLET::::- Cruise speed: 70 km/h\n\nBULLET::::- Max speed: 120 km/h\n\nBULLET::::- Endurance: 45–60 min\n\nBULLET::::- Remote control radius: 10 km\n\nBULLET::::- Max take-off weight: 3 kg\n\nBULLET::::- Normal operating altitude: 50–500 m\n\nBULLET::::- Ceiling: 1 km\n\nBULLET::::- Launch: hand, catapult, taxiing\n\nBULLET::::- Recovery: taxiing, parachute\n\nBULLET::::- Relative humidity: 92–98 %\n\nBULLET::::- Max wind scale allowed for operation: 3\n\nBULLET::::- Operating temperature: -20 to 55 °C\n\nBULLET::::- Storage temperature: -45 to 65 °C\n\nBULLET::::- Shock limit: 6 g\n\nBULLET::::- Vibration limit: 2 g\n\nSection::::Swan 05.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-19918	How come school busses don’t have seatbelts?	There have been various studies regarding this. It seems counter intuitive but School buses don't have seatbelts because the drawbacks to having them outweigh the benefits. Kids are actually safer in a school bus during an accident than in a car wearing a selt belt. School buses are heavy and built very sturdy compared to cars. Also the kids are sitting high up compared to a car which is an advantage for safety in the majority of accidents. The seats are also quite tall and heavily padded to absorb energy. They are also close together to prevent much movement during a crash. One of the big arguments is that not having seat belts speeds up evacuation as it's a lot faster for the kids to get off the bus after an accident. Kids also tend to move around a lot and don't like using seatbelts so it's hard to make them sit down and use them so it's better to design the vehicle to be safer then concentrate on specific safety devices.	[ "A key priority for a bus driver when driving, as well as when loading and unloading students, is proper sightlines around their vehicle; the blind spots formed by the school bus can be a significant risk to bus drivers and traffic as well as pedestrians. In the United States, approximately ⅔ of students killed outside of the school bus are not struck by other vehicles, but by their own bus.\n", "In contrast to cars and other light-duty passenger vehicles, school buses are not typically equipped with active restraint systems, such as seat belts; whether seat belts should be a requirement has been a topic of controversy. Since the 1970s, school buses have adopted the concept of compartmentalization as a passive restraint system.\n", "Officials of the National Transportation Safety Board (in the USA) say school buses are safer than cars, even if they are not fitted with seat belts.\n\nSection::::Student transport by country.\n\nSection::::Student transport by country.:Argentina.\n", "During the 2000s, school bus safety adopted a number of evolutionary advances. To further improve visibility for other drivers, manufacturers began to replace incandescent lights with LEDs for running lights, turn signals, brake lights, and warning lamps. School bus crossing arms, first introduced in the late 1990s, came into wider use. Electronics took on a new role in school bus operation. To increase child safety and security, alarm systems have been developed to prevent children from being left on unattended school buses overnight. To track drivers who illegally pass school buses loading and unloading students, in the 2010s, some school buses began to adopt exterior cameras synchronized with the deployment of the exterior stop arms. Onboard GPS tracking devices have taken on a dual role of fleet management and location tracking, allowing for internal management of costs and also to alert waiting parents and students of the real-time location of their bus. Seatbelts in school buses underwent a redesign, with lap-type seatbelts phased out in favor of 3-point seatbelts. \n", "School buses which are much bigger in size than the average vehicle allow for the mass transportation of students from place to place. The American School Bus Council states in a brief article saying that, “The children are protected like eggs in an egg carton – compartmentalized, and surrounded with padding and structural integrity to secure the entire container.” (ASBC). Although school buses are considered safe for mass transit of students this will not guarantee that the students will be injury free if an impact were to occur. Seatbelts in buses are sometimes believed to make recovering from a roll or tip harder for students and staff as they could be easily trapped in their own safety belt.\n", "BULLET::::- Twelve school children and a teacher died when their minibus crashed into a parked motorway maintenance vehicle just after midnight on 18 November 1993. The inquest recorded a verdict of accidental death for all of the victims but noted that none of the children were wearing seatbelts and that the side-facing bench seating was dangerous. Seatbelts were subsequently made compulsory equipment on all coaches and minibuses, more than 20 years after they had been compulsory on cars. It has been compulsory for passengers to wear seatbelts on coaches and minibuses since 2006.\n", "To combat this problem, school buses are specified with sophisticated and comprehensive mirror systems. In redesigns of school bus bodies, driver visibility and overall sightlines have become important considerations. In comparison to school buses from the 1980s, school buses from the 2000s have much larger windscreens and fewer blind spots.\n\nSection::::Features.:Safety devices.:Emergency exits.\n", "Section::::Design history.:1950s–1960s.:Structural integrity.\n\nDuring the 1960s, as with standard passenger cars, concerns began to arise for passenger protection in catastrophic traffic collisions. At the time, the weak point of the body structure was the body joints; where panels and pieces were riveted together, joints could break apart in major accidents, with the bus body causing harm to passengers. \n", "According to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) and the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB), school buses are the safest type of road vehicle. On average, five fatalities involve school-age children on a school bus each year; statistically, a school bus is over 70 times safer than riding to school by car. Many fatalities related to school buses are passengers of other vehicles and pedestrians (only 5% are bus occupants). Since the initial development of consistent school bus standards in 1939, many of the ensuing changes to school buses over the past eight decades have been safety related, particularly in response to more stringent regulations adopted by state and federal governments.\n", "BULLET::::- Children (especially younger ones) have normally not yet developed the mental capacity to fully comprehend the hazards and consequences of street-crossing, and under U.S. tort laws, a child cannot legally be held accountable for negligence. For the same reason, adult crossing guards often are deployed in walking zones between homes and schools.\n\nBULLET::::- It is impractical in many cases to avoid children crossing the traveled portions of roadways after leaving a school bus or to have an adult accompany them.\n", "In 2015, for the first time, NHTSA endorsed seat belts on school buses.\n\nSection::::Mass transit considerations.:Buses.:Motor coaches.\n\nIn the European Union, all new long distance buses and coaches must be fitted with seat belts.\n\nAustralia has required lap/sash seat belts in new coaches since 1994. These must comply with Australian Design Rule 68, which requires the seat belt, seat and seat anchorage to withstand 20g deceleration and an impact by an unrestrained occupant to the rear.\n\nIn the United States, NHTSA has now required lap-shoulder seat belts in new \"over-the-road\" buses (includes most coaches) starting in 2016.\n\nSection::::Mass transit considerations.:Trains.\n", "In the 1970s, school busing expanded further, under controversial reasons; a number of larger cities began to bus students in an effort to racially integrate schools. Out of necessity, the additional usage created further demand for bus production.\n\nSection::::Design history.:1970s.:Industry safety regulations.\n", "BULLET::::- The size of a school bus generally limits visibility for both the children and motorists during loading and unloading.\n", "In July 2004, California became the first state to require three-point lap/shoulder seat belts on all new Type A small school buses. A year later, this requirement was extended to large Type C and Type D school buses. Texas had planned a voluntary adoption of seat belts in newly purchased large school buses by 2010, with the state reimbursing school districts for the additional costs. However, due to budget cuts, only 36% of the planned funding was allocated for the extra costs As of 2015, they are a requirement in at least five states: California, Florida, New Jersey, New York, and Texas. Of the states that equip buses with two-point lap seat belts (Florida, Louisiana, New Jersey and New York), only New Jersey requires seat belt usage by riders. In other states, it is up to the district or operator whether to require riders to use them or not.\n", "On a national basis, school bus drivers in the United States have reported a decrease in passing violators in recent years with improved warning devices. Despite an increase in traffic and school bus ridership, annual fatalities and injuries to children struck by other vehicles has decreased as well. However, it is unclear whether having reported a decrease in passing violators is due to difficulty to report or better compliance by motorists.\n", "Section::::Design history.:1970s.\n", "Walkability has been shown to be closely tied to childhood obesity. One study found that “the chances of a child being obese or overweight were 20-60 percent higher among children in neighborhoods where it was not safe to walk around or where there were no sidewalks.” In addition, children in neighborhoods with sidewalks and safe places to cross the street are more likely to be physically active than children living in neighborhoods without those safe infrastructure elements.\n", "In theory, school buses affect pollution in the same manner as carpooling; on average, each school bus transports the same number of students as 36 vehicles separately. While busing transports students on a much larger scale than by car, the use of internal-combustion engines is not completely pollution-free (in comparison to biking or walking). \n", "Prisoner transport vehicles are high-security vehicles used to transport prisoners; a school bus bodyshell is fitted with a specially designed interior and exterior with secure windows and doors.\n\nSection::::Other uses.:Uses of retired school buses.\n", "In 1967 and 1972, as part of an effort to improve crash protection in school buses, UCLA researchers played a role in the future of school bus interior design. Using the metal-backed seats then in use as a means of comparison, several new seat designs were researched in crash testing. In its conclusion, the UCLA researchers found that the safest design was a 28-inch high padded seatback spaced a maximum of 24 inches apart, using the concept of compartmentalization as a passive restraint. While the UCLA researchers found the compartmentalized seats to be the safest design, they found active restraints (such as seatbelts) to be next in terms of importance of passenger safety. In 1977, FMVSS 222 mandated a change to compartmentalized seats, though the height requirement was lowered to 24 inches. According to the NTSB, the main disadvantage of passive-restraint seats is its lack of protection in side-impact collisions (with larger vehicles) and rollover situations. Though by design, students are protected front to back by compartmentalization, it allows the potential for ejection in other crash situations (however rare).\n", "While many changes related to the 1977 safety standards were made under the body structure (to improve crashworthiness), the most visible change was to passenger seating. In place of the metal-back passenger seats seen since the 1930s, the regulations introduced taller seats with thick padding on both the front and back, acting as a protective barrier. Further improvement has resulted from continuing efforts by the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) and Transport Canada, as well as by the bus industry and various safety advocates. As of 2020 production, all of these standards remain in effect.\n", "Section::::Asia.:China.:The 12th five-year plan for road traffic safety.\n\nIn the 12th five-year plan of road traffic safety, the office of the work safety commission of the state council stressed that it was necessary to establish and improve the legal system and safety management system of school bus safety management, clarify the right of way for school buses, strengthen the supervision of school buses, and ensure the safety of school buses. Each school bus must have a satellite positioning and speed limit device installed.\n\nSection::::Asia.:China.:The 12th five-year plan for road traffic safety.:The development of China's school bus industry.\n", "\"Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard (FMVSS) 222\" was introduced in 1977, requiring passive restraints and more stringent structural integrity standards; this exempted the requirement of seatbelts in school buses with a gross vehicle weight (GVWR) of over 10,000 pounds. In 2011, FMVSS 222 was revised; to improve occupant protection in small (Type A) school buses, three-point seatbelts were required in new Type A school buses; the revision introduced testing standards for bus seats with 3-point seatbelts and anchor points for the optional installation of these seat-belt systems in large school buses. While previously reducing capacity by up to one-third, NHTSA recognized new technology that allows using seatbelts for either three small (elementary-age) children or two larger children (high-school age) per seat. In October 2013, the National Association of State Directors of Pupil Transportation Services (NASDPTS) most recently stated at their annual transportation conference (NAPT) that they now fully support three-point lap-shoulder seat belts on school buses.\n", "The 1990 death of 6 year old Elizabeth \"Betsy\" Kyung Lee Anderson, in Washington state, led to the installation of school bus crossing arms, also referred to as \"Betsy Bars\" or \"Betsy Gates\" on all Washington state school busses by 1992. The crossing arms, when extended, require students to cross at least 5 feet in front of the bus.\n\nIn Manitoba, Canada, provincial school buses have been required to have an extendable safety arm mounted on the bus since a seven-year-old boy died in 1996 in St. Norbert, after getting off his school bus.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Section::::Legislation.:Increased traffic.\n\nOther statistical analyses have included adjustments for factors such as increased traffic and age, and based on these adjustments, which results in a reduction of morbidity and mortality due to seat belt use. However, Smeed's law predicts a fall in accident rate with increasing car ownership and has been demonstrated independently of seat belt legislation.\n\nSection::::Mass transit considerations.\n\nSection::::Mass transit considerations.:Buses.\n\nSection::::Mass transit considerations.:Buses.:School buses.\n\nIn the US, six states—California, Florida, Louisiana, New Jersey, New York, and Texas—require seat belts on school buses.\n\nPros and cons had been alleged about the use of seatbelts in school buses.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-23867	Why do bald people seem to have shiny heads	Your head produces oil that's good for your hair. If you have no hair, the oil just sits on your scalp and makes it really shiny. Source: I have a bald, shiny head.	[ "The genus \"Neopalpa\", including the species \"Neopalpa neonata\", was first described in 1998 by Dalibor Povolný. Almost two decades later, Nazari reviewed the material, including specimens that had been collected since the first description of the genus, from the Bohart Entomology Museum. He considered that some of the specimens formed a new species. In January 2017 he published an article naming it \"Neopalpa donaldtrumpi\" for the yellowish-white color of the scales on the head, which reminded him of then President-elect Donald Trump's hairstyle.\n\nSection::::Description.\n", "Section::::Conservation.:Conservation organisations.\n", "On a moving head the glass gobos could have some fault caused by back-reflections of the light on the lens, to solve this defect can be used antireflections gobo. \n\nSection::::Usage.\n", "Section::::The Taney County chapter.\n", "Section::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Mannura Umar as Hauwa\n\nBULLET::::- Lucy Ameh as Samira\n\nBULLET::::- Johnson Yakubu Sani as Musa\n\nBULLET::::- Tina David as Mama Nkechi\n\nBULLET::::- Jennifer Igbinovia as Helen\n\nBULLET::::- Mopelola Akanbi as Jumoke\n\nSection::::Plot.\n", "In the 1930s work by A. H. Pfund, suggested that although specular shininess is the basic (objective) evidence of gloss, actual surface glossy appearance (subjective) relates to the contrast between specular shininess and the diffuse light of the surrounding surface area (now called “contrast gloss” or “luster”).\n", "Section::::Other patterns in Russian rulers' successions.:Killed–died.\n", "Baldanders\n\nBaldanders or The Soon-Another is a creature of Germanic literary myth that features protean properties.\n\nSection::::Origin.\n\nBaldanders was first conceived by shoemaker and writer Hans Sachs after reading the description of Proteus in \"The Odyssey\". According to Sachs’ and collected descriptions, the Baldanders is a creature that is symbolic for the continual change in nature and society as well as the importance of familiarizing oneself with the common from another perspective. Its name is derived from the combination of German words for Soon (Bald) and Another (Anders).\n", "Baldanders was later featured in a novel by Grimmelshausen, Simplicius Simplicissimus to which the creature was further elaborated on by the alternate author and even illustrated on the cover page. In it, the hero of the story stumbles upon a stone statue of an ancient Germanic god. Once touched by the protagonist, the statue explains that it is the Soon-Another or Baldanders to which the statue demonstrates its powers and transforms into a variety of objects.\n", "The name for the genus \"Senecio\" is probably derived from \"senex\" (an old man), in reference to its downy head of seeds; \"the flower of this herb hath white hair and when the wind bloweth it away, then it appeareth like a bald-headed man\" and like its family, flowers of \"Senecio vulgaris\" are succeeded by downy globed heads of seed. The seeds are achene, include a pappus\n\nand become sticky when wet.\n", "Baldscape\n\nA baldscape is a form of selfie in which a portion of a bald head is seen in the picture.\n\nThe practice of \"baldscaping\" evolved from bad selfies, and has spread on the internet, becoming a new trend on social media.\n\nSection::::History and usage.\n", "Section::::History.:The Bald Knobbers.\n", "Section::::Behavior.:Grooming.\n", "The spheres range in size from a few centimetres to over in diameter, and weigh up to 15 tons. Most are sculpted from gabbro, the coarse-grained equivalent of basalt. There are a dozen or so made from shell-rich limestone, and another dozen made from a sandstone. They appear to have been made by hammering natural boulders with other rocks, then polishing with sand. The degree of finishing and precision of working varies considerably. The gabbro came from sites in the hills, several kilometres away from where the finished spheres are found, though some unfinished spheres remain in the hills. They are used for decoration.\n", "Most standard beadlocks clamp only the outside bead because this is the side that comes unseated most often while off-roading.\n\nSection::::Internal beadlocks.\n", "Section::::Position.\n", "Section::::Release.:PCs.\n", "Section::::Myths.\n\nNumerous myths surround the stones, such as they came from Atlantis, or that they were made as such by nature. Some local legends state that the native inhabitants had access to a potion able to soften the rock. Limestone, for example, can be dissolved by acidic solutions obtained from plants. Research led by Joseph Davidovits of the Geopolymer Institute in France has been offered in support of this hypothesis. However, most of the spheres were created from gabbro, an acid-resistant igneous rock.\n", "Section::::Public behaviour.:James Ibori.\n", "The characterization of these behaviors might suggest that crown shyness is simply the result of mutual shading based on well-understood shade avoidance responses. Malaysian scholar Francis S.P. Ng, who studied \"Dryobalanops aromatica\" in 1977 suggested that the growing tips were sensitive to light levels and stopped growing when nearing the adjacent foliage due to the induced shade.\n", "BULLET::::- Balding: AKs are commonly found on the scalps of balding men. Degree of baldness seems to be a risk factor for lesion development, as men with severe baldness were found to be seven times more likely to have 10 or more AKs when compared to men with minimal or no baldness. This observation can be explained by an absence of hair causing a larger proportion of scalp to be exposed to UV radiation if other sun protection measures are not taken.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "In a cross-cultural study, more neotenized female faces were the most attractive to men while less neotenized female faces were the least attractive to men, regardless of the females' actual age. Using a panel of Asian, Hispanic and White judges, Michael R. Cunningham found that the Asian, Hispanic and white female faces found most attractive were those that had \"neonate large eyes, greater distance between eyes, and small noses\" and his study led him to conclude that \"large eyes\" were the most \"effective\" of the \"neonate cues\". Cunningham also said that \"shiny\" hair may be indicative of \"neonate vitality\".\n", "Section::::Lifestyle.:Reproduction.\n", "What Tineo sees is a dense, obscuring fog in the center of his vision which, if the light is good, allows objects to appear as a blur, though with black turned white and white turned black, as in a photographic negative. If the light indoors or out is too bright, the fog turns into an intense and painful glare.\n", "A crossed pair of baldrics is often worn as part of uniform of Morris dance sides; different colours of baldric help to distinguish different sides.\n\nSection::::In literature and culture.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-08379	Why are there no underwater cities?	Because it would be ridiculously expensive to build a city underwater... also it would be just nonsense. Why build a city where you need tunnels to get from A to B, it would be a nightmare on the topic of air circulation, some parts would need to be ankered to the ground to not float off Tides and algae would become an issue... its simply 10000x easier to build a city on land and until now we didnt need the extra room that would verify an underwater city	[ "BULLET::::- The \"War of Powers\" series by Robert E. Vardeman and Victor Milan features a Sky City ruled by a race of human overlords called the Sky born who conquered the city from its original reptilian inhabitants. The city is powered by dark magic and floats in a set pattern over 5 surface cities.\n\nBULLET::::- The mobile floating pirate city-state of Armada in China Miéville's novel \"The Scar\" (2002) has accreted in the seas of Bas-Lag from multiple ships and boats over centuries of development.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Clouds of Venus. Free Space Trilogy. Book 1\" by Jeff Tanyard\n", "BULLET::::- \"Saga of Seven Suns\" by Kevin J. Anderson has giant, manned, gas-mining platforms that mine the hydrogen necessary to, among other things, distill into ekti, a vital stardrive fuel.\n\nBULLET::::- Charles Stross's novel \"Saturn's Children\" begins in a floating city on Venus.\n\nBULLET::::- Geoffrey A. Landis's novel \"The Sultan of the Clouds\" features floating cities in the Venus atmosphere and orbital airships.\n", "For reasons such as lack of mobility, lack of self-sufficiency, shifting focus to space travel and transition to surface-based saturation systems, the interest in underwater habitats decreased, resulting in a noticeable decrease in major projects after 1970. In the mid eighties, the Aquarius habitat was built in the style of Sealab and Helgoland and is still in operation today.\n\nSection::::History.:Historical underwater habitats.\n\nSection::::History.:Historical underwater habitats.:Man-in-the-Sea I and II.\n", "Section::::Fictional examples.\n\nSection::::Fictional examples.:Literature.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sky Island\" is a 1912 book by L. Frank Baum with the titular area split between the Kingdom of the Blues and the Pinks.\n\nBULLET::::- The novel \"Orion Shall Rise\" by Poul Anderson features an aerostat city called Skyholm, located above present-day France.\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Tangled Lands\", a collection of short stories by Paolo Bacigalupi and Tobias S. Buckell, references a lost city called Jhandpara that was once powered by magical means but became consumed by magic-seeking brambles.\n", "BULLET::::- In \"Firefly\" episode \"Trash\", the planet Bellerophon is the site of dozens of floating estates with \"gracious living, ocean views and state-of-the-art security.\"\n\nBULLET::::- Atlantis from the \"Stargate\" universe is a probable example of a floating city. Although the city ship weighs several million tons, it is buoyant enough to float on water and, given that its energy shield can hold the atmosphere inside nearly indefinitely, it should be able to float in a particularly dense atmosphere.\n\nBULLET::::- The Nox of \"Stargate SG-1\" have floating cities.\n", "In addition to Venus, floating cities have been proposed in science fiction on several other planets. For example, floating cities might also permit settlement of the outer three gas giants, as the gas giants lack solid surfaces. Jupiter is not promising for habitation due to its high gravity, escape velocity and radiation, but the solar system's other gas giants (Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) may be more practical. In 1978, the British Interplanetary Society's Project Daedalus envisioned floating factories in the atmospheres of Jupiter refining helium-3 to produce fuel for an interstellar probe. Michael McCollum notes that the \"surface\" gravity of Saturn (that is, at the visible cloud layer, where the atmospheric pressure is about the same as Earth's) is very close to that of Earth, and in his novel \"The Clouds of Saturn\", he envisioned cities floating in the Saturnian atmosphere, where the buoyancy is provided by envelopes of hydrogen heated by fusion reactors. Uranus and Neptune also have upper atmosphere gravities comparable to Earth's, and even lower escape velocities than Saturn. Cecelia Holland populated Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus with mutant humans, the Styth, in floating cities in her only SF novel, \"Floating Worlds\" (1975).\n", "The \"Triton City\" was the work of the Triton Foundation whose principal members were Buckminster Fuller and Shoji Sadao, was commissioned by HUD, a federal agency, by its director, Charles Haar, a Harvard professor, to design a floating city to provide housing in urban areas located near the ocean. A tetrahedron shaped module holding 5,000 inhabitants was designed and a comprehensive engineering report was submitted together with a large model which is on display in the lobby of the Lyndon B. Johnson Center in Austin, Texas.\n\nSection::::Airborne cities and islands.:Venus.\n", "Likely applications include fjords, deep, narrow sea channels, and deep lakes.\n\nSection::::Proposals.\n\nA submerged floating tunnel has never been built (as of 2016), but several proposals have been floated by different entities.\n\nSection::::Proposals.:Europe.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Maiden Flight\" is a post apocalyptic novel by Eric Vinicoff, with civilization maintained between Windriders, massive airships fitted up as colonies in the clouds, and underground enclaves.\n\nSection::::Fictional examples.:Film and television.\n\nBULLET::::- In the 1936 film serial \"Flash Gordon\", Prince Vultan and his winged Hawkmen dwell in Sky City, a metropolis that floats in the sky.\n\nBULLET::::- Cloud City on the planet Bespin, in the \"Star Wars\" film \"\".\n\nBULLET::::- Stratos, on the planet Ardana, in \"\" episode \"The Cloud Minders\".\n", "BULLET::::- In Hannu Rajaniemi's novel \"The Quantum Thief\", the Mars colony began as a slave-labor latifundia. After war developed, all entities began taking turns being the beings who kept the city rolling (and deflecting the permanent attack vectors that had been created during the war). The city kept rolling, with everyone's help.\n\nBULLET::::- The \"Cities in Flight\" series by James Blish propose a universe in which cities cast adrift from the Earth, powered by a fictional spindizzy drive.\n", "However, maintaining an underwater habitat is much more expensive and logistically difficult than diving from the surface. It also restricts the diving to a much more limited area.\n\nSection::::Technical classification and description.\n\nSection::::Technical classification and description.:Pressure modes.\n\nUnderwater habitats are designed to operate in two fundamental modes.\n", "BULLET::::- In the anime and manga \"One Piece\" there are Sky Islands, cities built on a specific type of cloud that has hard, land-like properties, allowing civilizations to have ground to traverse and build on using the same cloud material, along with an ocean-like cloud throughout, making it a close parallel to a normal earthbound island. The unique environment of the Grand Line, an equatorial ocean that circles the globe and possesses all matter of mythical weather patterns, islands and equally mythical sea-behemoths, allows for these Sky Islands to occur regularly - yet are so rarely witnessed even the denizens of the legendary Grand-Line perceive them as a myth.\n", "Floating cities and islands in fiction\n\nIn speculative fiction, floating cities and islands are a common trope, which range from cities and islands that float on water to ones that float in the atmosphere of a planet by scientific or magical means. While very large floating structures have been constructed or proposed in real life, aerial cities and islands remain in the realm of fiction.\n\nSection::::Seaborne cities and islands.\n", "BULLET::::- In the novel \"The Ringworld Engineers\", Louis Wu seeks a way to save the Ringworld by bartering for information in the library of a floating city.\n\nBULLET::::- Airhaven is a floating city in the \"Mortal Engines Quartet\", that, through attaching gas bags, lifted itself into the air to avoid cities trying to eat it according to Municipal Darwinism.\n\nBULLET::::- There are numerous floating habitats on the Venus-like planet Chilo in Tobias S. Buckell's novel \"Sly Mongoose\". Buckell credits Geoffrey A. Landis with providing the background information on the floating cities.\n", "BULLET::::- In \"Avatar\", the Hallelujah Mountains are large floating islands that feature as a battlefield in the climax of the film.\n\nBULLET::::- Metro City in the film \"Astro Boy\" is floating above the surface.\n\nBULLET::::- In the film \"Steamboy\", a \"Steam Castle\" was shown, which was essentially a floating city, kept in the air by means of steam that was directed towards the soil.\n\nBULLET::::- Hayao Miyazaki's film \"Laputa: Castle in the Sky\" involves a floating city hidden in the clouds called \"Laputa\", a name borrowed from Swift's \"Gulliver's Travels\".\n", "Venice has a similar arrangement, although it is already unable to cope with very high tides. The defenses of both London and Venice will be rendered inadequate if sea levels continue to rise.\n", "Underwater habitats are underwater structures in which people can live for extended periods and carry out most of the basic human functions of a 24-hour day, such as working, resting, eating, attending to personal hygiene, and sleeping. In this context 'habitat' is generally used in a narrow sense to mean the interior and immediate exterior of the structure and its fixtures, but not its surrounding marine environment. Most early underwater habitats lacked regenerative systems for air, water, food, electricity, and other resources. However, recently some new underwater habitats allow for these resources to be delivered using pipes, or generated within the habitat, rather than manually delivered.\n", "\"Records of Searching for Spirits\" () is a collection of stories from the 4th century CE which was compiled by Gan Bao from East Jin Dynasty. This literature contains two versions of the legend of the sunken city, each in Chapter 13 and 20. The story from Chapter 20 tells of a benevolent old woman who is told that her city would be sunk after the eyes of the tortoise statue in her city turned red. Every day she checked its eyes, until one day a naughty child colored the eyes red. The old woman, with the help of a dragon, escaped the city just before the city sank beneath the water and become a lake.\n", "Section::::History.:\"Ocean Eyes\" (2009–10).\n", "BULLET::::- \"Cave Story\" is set entirely on a floating island.\n\nBULLET::::- In \"LittleBigPlanet 3\", Bunkum Lagoon is a floating city in the sky that is located on Planet Bunkum (however, the name suggests that it is located on water and sea creatures feature heavily in this stage of the game).\n\nSection::::Fictional examples.:Other.\n", "Section::::Eight Immortals.\n", "Critics believe that creating governance structures from scratch is a lot harder than it seems. Also, seasteads would still be at risk of political interference from nation states.\n\nOn a logistical level, seasteads could be too remote and uncomfortable (without access to culture, restaurants, shopping) to be attractive to potential residents. Building seasteads to withstand the rigors of the open ocean may prove uneconomical.\n", "Section::::Land station.:Underwater hotel.\n", "At an altitude of 50 km above the Venerean surface, the environment is the \"most Earthlike in the solar system\", with a pressure of approximately 1 bar and temperatures in the 0°C-50°C range. Because there is not a significant pressure difference between the inside and the outside of the breathable-air balloon, any rips or tears would cause gases to diffuse at normal atmospheric mixing rates, giving time to repair any such damage. In addition, humans would not require pressurized suits when outside, merely air to breathe and a protection from the acidic rain.\n", "The Venetian Islands in Miami Beach, Florida, in Biscayne Bay added valuable new real estate during the Florida land boom of the 1920s. When the bubble that the developers were riding burst, the bay was left scarred with the remnants of their failed project. A boom town development company was building a sea wall for an island that was to be called Isola di Lolando but could not stay in business after the 1926 Miami Hurricane and the Great Depression, dooming the island-building project. The concrete pilings from the project still stand as another development boom roared around them, 80 years later.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-12308	Why Does America Have So many varieties of snack products?	Well first off America's cosmopolitan so we get a bit from everywhere, and due to sheer size and diversity of the nation we get more brands than say - a relatively homogeneous nation.	[ "Snack cakes can be found in many American supermarkets and convenience stores, sold either individually or by the box. Examples include Drake's Devil Dogs, Twinkies and zebra cakes. Well-known American manufacturers of snack cakes include Hostess, Little Debbie, Dolly Madison, and Drake's. In 2004, the snack-cake industry in the US experienced major consolidation, which resulted in fewer products being offered to consumers. For example, Dolly Madison zingers, Hostess brand Twinkies, and Drake's coffee cakes were all solely produced by the now-defunct Interstate Bakeries Corporation.\n\nSection::::Markets.:United Kingdom.\n", "In France, about eight varieties of potato chips are marketed in a number of flavors for a total of approximately thirty products. Lay’s flavors available in France include Barbecue, Cheeseburger, Bolognaise, Roasted Chicken, Cheese, Salt & Vinegar, Spicy, and Nature.\n\nIn Greece and Cyprus, Lay's are made and packed by Tasty Foods and Corina Snacks LTD, with Mediterranean flavors which include Feta cheese flavor, Tzatziki, Olive and Tomato, Oregano, Sea Salt & Black Pepper and various more. There are hundreds of sub-variations in the Mediterranean line adjusted to each country's liking.\n", "Pretzels were introduced to North America by the Dutch, via New Amsterdam in the 17th century. In the 1860s, the snack was still associated with immigrants, unhygienic street vendors, and saloons. Due to loss of business during the Prohibition era (1920-1933), pretzels underwent rebranding to make them more appealing to the public. As packaging revolutionized snack foods, allowing sellers to reduce contamination risk, while making it easy to advertise brands with a logo, pretzels boomed in popularity, bringing many other types of snack foods with it. By the 1950s, snacking had become an all-American pastime, becoming an internationally recognized emblem of middle American life.\n", "BULLET::::- May West\n\nBULLET::::- McCoy's\n\nBULLET::::- McVitie's\n\nBULLET::::- Meanie\n\nBULLET::::- Mighty Munch\n\nBULLET::::- Mike-sell's\n\nBULLET::::- Miss Vickie's\n\nBULLET::::- Mister Bee Potato Chips\n\nBULLET::::- Monster Munch\n\nBULLET::::- Mrs. Freshley's\n\nBULLET::::- Munchies\n\nBULLET::::- Munchos\n\nSection::::Brand name snack foods.:N.\n\nBULLET::::- Nagaraya\n\nBULLET::::- Nik Naks (British snack)\n\nBULLET::::- NikNaks (South African snack)\n\nBULLET::::- Nobby's\n\nSection::::Brand name snack foods.:O.\n\nBULLET::::- O Hawaii\n\nBULLET::::- Old Dutch Foods\n\nBULLET::::- Oreos\n\nBULLET::::- Otter Pops\n\nBULLET::::- Ouma Rusks\n\nSection::::Brand name snack foods.:P.\n\nBULLET::::- Parker's\n\nBULLET::::- Pantera Rosa\n\nBULLET::::- Peperami\n\nBULLET::::- Pirate's Booty\n\nBULLET::::- Polly\n\nBULLET::::- Pom-Bear\n\nBULLET::::- Pop-Tarts\n\nBULLET::::- Popchips\n\nBULLET::::- Praeventia\n\nBULLET::::- Pringles\n\nBULLET::::- Proper Snack Foods\n", "Section::::History.:2000-present day.\n", "Some American foods that have been featured are:\n\nBULLET::::- Hamburgers\n\nBULLET::::- Fried chicken\n\nBULLET::::- Hot fudge sundae\n\nBULLET::::- Hot dogs\n\nBULLET::::- Pizza\n\nBULLET::::- Hoagie (also grinder, hero)\n\nBULLET::::- Reuben\n\nBULLET::::- Ice cream, ice cream cone\n\nBULLET::::- Chocolate chip cookie\n\nBULLET::::- Big Mac\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chinese\" food\n\nBULLET::::- Candy\n\nBULLET::::- Chocolate\n\nBULLET::::- Beer\n\nBULLET::::- Soft Drinks\n\nBULLET::::- Cereal\n\nBULLET::::- Bread stuffing\n\nBULLET::::- Candied yams\n\nBULLET::::- Cranberry sauce\n\nBULLET::::- Fruitcake\n\nBULLET::::- Gingerbread\n\nBULLET::::- Candy canes\n\nBULLET::::- Turducken\n\nBULLET::::- Snack foods: pretzels, peanuts, popcorn, corn chips, potato chips\n\nBULLET::::- Soy sauce\n\nBULLET::::- Maple syrup\n\nBULLET::::- Canned foods\n\nBULLET::::- Barbecue\n\nBULLET::::- Jell-O\n\nBULLET::::- Spam\n\nSection::::Episodes.\n", "BULLET::::- Dried apple Czech snack \"křížaly\"\n\nBULLET::::- Dried fruit dehydrated\n\nBULLET::::- Fruit roll\n\nBULLET::::- Grapes\n\nBULLET::::- Honeydew\n\nBULLET::::- Kiwi\n\nBULLET::::- Orange\n\nBULLET::::- Peach\n\nBULLET::::- Plums\n\nBULLET::::- Raisins\n\nBULLET::::- Salsa\n\nBULLET::::- Strawberries\n\nBULLET::::- Tostones also known as \"tostón\", they are made from sliced green (unripe) plantains cut either length-wise or width-wise and are twice fried\n\nBULLET::::- Watermelon\n\nSection::::Natural snacks.:Seeds, nuts, grains and legumes.\n\nBULLET::::- Almonds\n\nBULLET::::- Cashews\n\nBULLET::::- Cereal bar\n\nBULLET::::- Coconut\n\nBULLET::::- Granola\n\nBULLET::::- Leblebi\n\nBULLET::::- Macadamia nuts\n\nBULLET::::- Mixed nuts\n\nBULLET::::- Nuts\n\nBULLET::::- Party mix\n\nBULLET::::- Peanuts\n\nBULLET::::- Pine nuts\n\nBULLET::::- Pistachio\n\nBULLET::::- Popcorn\n\nBULLET::::- Pumpkin seeds\n", "BULLET::::- Finn Creeggan, crackers\n\nBULLET::::- Lyle Lovett, watermelon\n\nBULLET::::- Hazel Stewart, nori\n\nBULLET::::- Sarah McLachlan, chocolate\n\nBULLET::::- Ben Page, 3 lb lobster\n\nBULLET::::- Martin Tielli, olives\n\nBULLET::::- Hannah Robertson, salt & vinegar chips\n\nBULLET::::- David Suzuki, sembei\n\nBULLET::::- Jason Priestley, macaroni & cheese\n\nBULLET::::- Arden Robertson, popcorn\n\nBULLET::::- Gord Downie, peanut butter & crackers\n\nBULLET::::- Isaac Page, ice cream\n\nBULLET::::- Mike Smith (as Bubbles), pickled eggs\n\nBULLET::::- Mili Stewart (Tyler's daughter), Cheezies\n\nBULLET::::- \"Weird Al\" Yankovic, honey roasted peanuts\n\nBULLET::::- Lyle Robertson, jellybeans\n\nBULLET::::- Janeane Garofalo, microwaved chocolate doughnuts\n\nBULLET::::- Kevin Hearn (as Zignon Five), microchips\n\nBULLET::::- Gordon Lightfoot, pasta\n", "BULLET::::- Tato Skins\n\nBULLET::::- Tayto (Northern Ireland)\n\nBULLET::::- Tayto (Republic of Ireland)\n\nBULLET::::- Tiger's Milk\n\nBULLET::::- Tigretón\n\nBULLET::::- Tim's Cascade Snacks\n\nBULLET::::- Toaster Strudel\n\nBULLET::::- Tokyo Banana\n\nBULLET::::- Torengos\n\nBULLET::::- Tostitos\n\nBULLET::::- Tracker\n\nBULLET::::- Tunnock's\n\nBULLET::::- Twiglets\n\nBULLET::::- Twinkie\n\nBULLET::::- Twistees\n\nBULLET::::- Twisties\n\nBULLET::::- Twizzlers\n\nSection::::Brand name snack foods.:U.\n\nBULLET::::- Uncle Ray's\n\nBULLET::::- Utz Quality Foods\n\nSection::::Brand name snack foods.:W.\n\nBULLET::::- Walkers\n\nBULLET::::- Wazoo\n\nBULLET::::- Wheat Crunchies\n\nBULLET::::- Wheatables\n\nBULLET::::- Wotsits\n\nBULLET::::- Wow! Momo\n\nSection::::Brand name snack foods.:Y.\n\nBULLET::::- Yodels\n\nSection::::Brand name snack foods.:Z.\n\nBULLET::::- Zapp's\n\nBULLET::::- Zebra cakes\n\nBULLET::::- Zingers\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Convenience food\n", "BULLET::::- Drake's\n\nBULLET::::- Duyvis\n\nSection::::Brand name snack foods.:E.\n\nBULLET::::- E.L. Fudge Cookies\n\nBULLET::::- Eagle Snacks\n\nSection::::Brand name snack foods.:F.\n\nBULLET::::- Famous Foods of Virginia\n\nBULLET::::- Fiddle Faddle\n\nBULLET::::- Filipinos\n\nBULLET::::- Frazzles\n\nBULLET::::- Fritos\n\nBULLET::::- Fruit by the Foot\n\nBULLET::::- Fruit Gushers\n\nBULLET::::- Fruit Roll-Ups\n\nBULLET::::- Fudge Rounds\n\nBULLET::::- Funyuns\n\nSection::::Brand name snack foods.:H.\n\nBULLET::::- Hadji Bey\n\nBULLET::::- Handi-Snacks\n\nBULLET::::- Haribo Gummy Bears\n\nBULLET::::- Herr's Snacks\n\nBULLET::::- Ho Hos\n\nBULLET::::- Hostess\n\nBULLET::::- Hostess CupCake\n\nBULLET::::- Hostess Potato Chips\n\nBULLET::::- Humpty Dumpty Snack Foods\n\nBULLET::::- Hunt's Snack Pack\n\nSection::::Brand name snack foods.:I.\n\nBULLET::::- Intersnack\n\nBULLET::::- Island Lava\n\nBULLET::::- Indie Bay Snacks\n", "BULLET::::- Garden salad\n\nBULLET::::- German chocolate cake\n\nBULLET::::- Goulash\n\nBULLET::::- Greek-American cuisine\n\nBULLET::::- Green bean casserole\n\nBULLET::::- Grilled cheese\n\nBULLET::::- Grits\n\nBULLET::::- Hamburger\n\nBULLET::::- Hangtown fry\n\nBULLET::::- Haystack\n\nBULLET::::- Hog fry\n\nBULLET::::- Home fries\n\nBULLET::::- Hot chicken\n\nBULLET::::- Hot chicken sandwich\n\nBULLET::::- Hot Pockets\n\nBULLET::::- Ice cream cake\n\nBULLET::::- Italian-American cuisine\n\nBULLET::::- Italian beef\n\nBULLET::::- Italian dressing\n\nBULLET::::- Jell-O\n\nBULLET::::- Jerky\n\nBULLET::::- Juba\n\nBULLET::::- Key lime pie\n\nBULLET::::- Liver and onions\n\nBULLET::::- Lobster Newberg\n\nBULLET::::- Lobster roll\n\nBULLET::::- London broil\n\nBULLET::::- Lorna Doone\n\nBULLET::::- Macaroni and cheese\n\nBULLET::::- Mac n' Cheetos\n\nBULLET::::- Macaroni salad\n\nBULLET::::- Maple bacon donut\n", "Section::::History.:1980's.\n", "Section::::History.:1990’s.\n", "Section::::United States.:Snack foods.\n\nBULLET::::- Axium Foods\n\nBULLET::::- Beer Nuts\n\nBULLET::::- Blair's Sauces and Snacks\n\nBULLET::::- Casa Sanchez Foods\n\nBULLET::::- Charles Chips\n\nBULLET::::- Dakota Style\n\nBULLET::::- Elmer's Fine Foods\n\nBULLET::::- Golden Flake\n\nBULLET::::- Mrs. Fisher's\n\nBULLET::::- J & J Snack Foods\n\nBULLET::::- Jel Sert\n\nBULLET::::- Kar's Nuts\n\nBULLET::::- Martin's Potato Chips\n\nBULLET::::- McKee Foods\n\nBULLET::::- Mike-sell's\n\nBULLET::::- Oberto Sausage Company\n\nBULLET::::- Old Dutch Foods\n\nBULLET::::- Robert's American Gourmet Food\n\nBULLET::::- Rudolph Foods\n\nBULLET::::- Shearer's Foods\n\nBULLET::::- Snak King\n\nBULLET::::- Snyder's-Lance\n\nBULLET::::- Thanasi Foods\n\nBULLET::::- Utz Quality Foods\n\nBULLET::::- Wise Foods\n\nBULLET::::- Wyandot Snacks\n\nSection::::United States.:Spices & condiments.\n\nBULLET::::- Badia Spices\n", "Section::::Brand name snack foods.:R.\n\nBULLET::::- Red Hot Riplets\n\nBULLET::::- Red Mill\n\nBULLET::::- Red Sky snacks\n\nBULLET::::- Reese's\n\nBULLET::::- Riceworks\n\nBULLET::::- Ritz\n\nBULLET::::- Rold Gold\n\nBULLET::::- Ruffles\n\nSection::::Brand name snack foods.:S.\n\nBULLET::::- Sabritas\n\nBULLET::::- Salted Nut Roll\n\nBULLET::::- San Carlo\n\nBULLET::::- Screaming Yellow Zonkers\n\nBULLET::::- Sesame Street snacks\n\nBULLET::::- Sipahh\n\nBULLET::::- Skips\n\nBULLET::::- Skittles\n\nBULLET::::- Slim Jim\n\nBULLET::::- Smartfood\n\nBULLET::::- Smoki\n\nBULLET::::- Snyder's of Berlin\n\nBULLET::::- Snyder's of Hanover\n\nBULLET::::- Snalthy\n\nBULLET::::- Space Raiders\n\nBULLET::::- Starburst\n\nBULLET::::- Sterzing's potato chips\n\nBULLET::::- Sun Chips\n\nBULLET::::- Sunbelt Snacks\n\nBULLET::::- Sunkist Fun Fruits\n\nSection::::Brand name snack foods.:T.\n\nBULLET::::- Takis\n\nBULLET::::- Tasty Bite\n\nBULLET::::- Tastykake\n", "Cheetos first entered Brazil in 1976, followed by other countries such as Australia during the 1980s. In 1994, Cheetos became the first American brand of snack food to be made and distributed in China. As the distribution of Cheetos expanded outside the U.S. to include more than 36 different countries, localized versions were produced to conform to regional tastes and cultural preferences.\n", "BULLET::::- Maraca pie\n\nBULLET::::- Mashed potato\n\nBULLET::::- Mashed pumpkin\n\nBULLET::::- Meatcake\n\nBULLET::::- Meatloaf\n\nBULLET::::- Milk toast\n\nBULLET::::- Milkshake\n\nBULLET::::- Mission burrito\n\nBULLET::::- Mozzarella sticks\n\nBULLET::::- Muffuletta\n\nBULLET::::- Mulligan stew\n\nBULLET::::- Onion ring\n\nBULLET::::- Oreo\n\nBULLET::::- Oysters Rockefeller\n\nBULLET::::- Pancakes\n\nBULLET::::- Pasta salad\n\nBULLET::::- Pastrami\n\nBULLET::::- Patty\n\nBULLET::::- Peanut butter\n\nBULLET::::- Peanut butter and jelly sandwich\n\nBULLET::::- Pemmican\n\nBULLET::::- Pepperoni\n\nBULLET::::- Pepperoni Rolls\n\nBULLET::::- Pickled cucumber\n\nBULLET::::- Pigs in blankets\n\nBULLET::::- Pizza strips\n\nBULLET::::- Ploye\n\nBULLET::::- Pop-Tarts\n\nBULLET::::- Popcorn\n\nBULLET::::- Popover\n\nBULLET::::- Poppyseed muffin\n\nBULLET::::- Pork and beans\n\nBULLET::::- Potato salad\n\nBULLET::::- Potato skins\n\nBULLET::::- Potato wedges\n\nBULLET::::- Potatoes O'Brien\n", "BULLET::::- City chicken\n\nBULLET::::- Clam cake\n\nBULLET::::- Clam chowder\n\nBULLET::::- Club sandwich\n\nBULLET::::- Coleslaw\n\nBULLET::::- Cordon bleu\n\nBULLET::::- Corn chowder\n\nBULLET::::- Corn dog\n\nBULLET::::- Corn flakes\n\nBULLET::::- Corn relish\n\nBULLET::::- Corned beef\n\nBULLET::::- Cornish game hen\n\nBULLET::::- Cowboy beans\n\nBULLET::::- Crab cake\n\nBULLET::::- Creamed corn\n\nBULLET::::- Creamed eggs on toast\n\nBULLET::::- Deviled crab\n\nBULLET::::- Deviled egg\n\nBULLET::::- Domesticated turkey\n\nBULLET::::- Doughnut\n\nBULLET::::- Drunken chicken\n\nBULLET::::- Eggo\n\nBULLET::::- Eggs Benedict\n\nBULLET::::- Eggs Neptune\n\nBULLET::::- Energy bar\n\nBULLET::::- Engastration (e.g., Turducken)\n\nBULLET::::- Fajita\n\nBULLET::::- Fortune cookie\n\nBULLET::::- French dip\n\nBULLET::::- Fried chicken\n\nBULLET::::- Fried fish\n\nBULLET::::- Fry sauce\n\nBULLET::::- Frybread\n", "BULLET::::- Better Made Potato Chips\n\nBULLET::::- BiFi\n\nBULLET::::- Big D\n\nBULLET::::- Bissli\n\nBULLET::::- Blue Ox Jerky\n\nBULLET::::- BN Biscuit\n\nBULLET::::- Brownie Brittle\n\nBULLET::::- Bugles\n\nBULLET::::- Burry's\n\nSection::::Brand name snack foods.:C.\n\nBULLET::::- Casa Sanchez Foods\n\nBULLET::::- CC's\n\nBULLET::::- Charles Chips\n\nBULLET::::- Chee.Toz\n\nBULLET::::- Cheetos\n\nBULLET::::- Cheez Doodles\n\nBULLET::::- Cheez-It\n\nBULLET::::- Cheezies\n\nBULLET::::- Chex Mix\n\nBULLET::::- Chocodile Twinkie\n\nBULLET::::- Clif Bar\n\nBULLET::::- Combos\n\nBULLET::::- Corn Quistos\n\nBULLET::::- CornNuts\n\nBULLET::::- Cosmic Brownies\n\nBULLET::::- Cottage Double\n\nBULLET::::- Cracker Jack\n\nBULLET::::- Crimpy\n\nBULLET::::- Crispers\n\nSection::::Brand name snack foods.:D.\n\nBULLET::::- Devil Dogs\n\nBULLET::::- Digestives (chocolate)\n\nBULLET::::- Dinamita\n\nBULLET::::- Ding Dong\n\nBULLET::::- Dolly Madison\n\nBULLET::::- Doritos\n", "Section::::Regional varieties.:United States.\n\nIn the United States, potato chips are made by national chains like Frito-Lay's, Pringles and Kettle Brand; major regional brands like Jay's of Chicago, Better Made of Detroit and Old Dutch of Minneapolis; and specialty brands with local or uneven distribution. \n", "In Canada, seasonings include the unique all dressed, as well as dill pickle, jalapeño, ketchup, barbecue, sour cream and onion, and salt and vinegar. In 2006, Lay's introduced wasabi chips in Toronto and Vancouver, but no longer offers them. Loblaw, Canada's largest food retailer, offers several unusual flavors under its President's Choice brand, including poutine, maple bacon, Jamaican jerk chicken, Greek feta and olive, ballpark hot dog, and barbecue baby back ribs.\n\nSection::::Regional varieties.:Hong Kong.\n", "Section::::Brand name snack foods.:J.\n\nBULLET::::- Jack Link's Beef Jerky\n\nBULLET::::- Jaffa Cakes\n\nBULLET::::- Jays Foods\n\nBULLET::::- Joray Fruit Rolls\n\nBULLET::::- Jos Louis\n\nBULLET::::- Jumbo King\n\nSection::::Brand name snack foods.:K.\n\nBULLET::::- Keebler Company\n\nBULLET::::- Kettle Foods\n\nBULLET::::- KiMs\n\nBULLET::::- KIND Healthy Snacks\n\nBULLET::::- Kit Kat\n\nBULLET::::- Koh-Kae\n\nBULLET::::- KP Snacks\n\nBULLET::::- Kryzpo\n\nBULLET::::- Kudos\n\nSection::::Brand name snack foods.:L.\n\nBULLET::::- Lay's\n\nBULLET::::- Lay's Stax\n\nBULLET::::- Lay's WOW chips\n\nBULLET::::- Lenties Crunchy Lentil Snacks\n\nBULLET::::- LesserEvil\n\nBULLET::::- Little Debbie\n\nBULLET::::- Lockets\n\nBULLET::::- Lolly Gobble Bliss Bombs\n\nBULLET::::- Lunchables\n\nBULLET::::- Little bites\n\nSection::::Brand name snack foods.:M.\n\nBULLET::::- M&M's\n\nBULLET::::- M-Azing\n\nBULLET::::- Maarud\n", "BULLET::::- Hairy Crab Pretz (sold in Shanghai)\n\nBULLET::::- Peking Duck Pretz (sold in Shanghai)\n\nBULLET::::- Sichuan Mala Pretz (sold in Shanghai)\n\nBULLET::::- Green Tea Pretz (sold in Japan)\n\nBULLET::::- Green Pea Pretz (sold in Japan)\n\nBULLET::::- Ume Pretz (sold in Japan)\n\nBULLET::::- Giant Salmon Pretz (sold in Japan)\n\nBULLET::::- Giant Apple Pretz (sold in Japan)\n\nBULLET::::- Giant Okonomiyaki Pretz (sold in Japan)\n\nSection::::Similar products.\n\nSimilar snacks have been around in Germany, Austria and the US since at least the 1950s.\n", "This list is not exhaustive, nor does it cover every item consumed in the U.S., but it does include foods and dishes that are common in the U.S., or which originated there.\n\nSection::::American foods.\n\nBULLET::::- American Chinese cuisine\n\nBULLET::::- Apple Pie \n\nBULLET::::- Biscuit (and Biscuits and gravy)\n\nBULLET::::- Bread\n\nBULLET::::- Ammonia cookie\n\nBULLET::::- Cuisine of Antebellum America\n\nBULLET::::- Apple butter\n\nBULLET::::- Apple sauce\n\nBULLET::::- Baked potato\n\nBULLET::::- Barbecue (see below for specific types)\n\nBULLET::::- Bear claw\n\nBULLET::::- Beef Manhattan\n\nBULLET::::- BK Chicken Fries\n\nBULLET::::- Blue cheese dressing\n\nBULLET::::- Blue-plate special\n\nBULLET::::- Bookbinder soup\n\nBULLET::::- Breakfast burrito\n", "There is a tendency among snack-culture consumers to search for simplified content which is easier to consume. Snack culture is mainly focused on simple interest-oriented content. The short and simple content means that users do not have to invest a great deal of time or attention. They can enjoy it for a brief time or abandon it midway through.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00044	why aren’t planes designed to have enough overhead space to accommodate all passengers?	They would, except everyone insists on carrying bags on the plane instead of checking them, because checking them now costs money. Years ago, checking bags was usually free, and there was a lot more room in the overheads. Have you ever flown Southwest? Checked bags are free, and there's plenty of overhead bin room.	[ "Section::::Cabin configurations and features.:Overhead bins.\n", "First- and business-class are refurbished every 5–7 years compared to 6–10 years for economy.\n\nA 337 seats cabin (36 business, 301 economy) in a 787-10 for Singapore Airlines costs $17.5 million each.\n\nEmirates invested over $15 million each to refurbish its 777-200LR in a new two-class configuration in 55 days initially then 35 days.\n\nSection::::Evolution.:Mezzanine seating.\n\nIn the mid 2000s, Formation Design Group proposed using the taller wide-body cabins to layer the bed and seat arrangements for higher density.\n", "The largest Boeing planes, i.e. the current \"Project Ozark\" versions of the Boeing 747-8, are approaching MTOW of greater than . Aircraft bridges must be designed for the substantial forces exerted by aircraft braking, affecting the lateral load in substructure design. Braking force of 70 percent of the live load is assumed in two recent taxiway bridge designs. And \"deck design is more apt to be controlled by punching shear than flexure due to the heavy wheel loads.\"\n", "Main deck ULDs and pallets are not only taller than lower deck ULDs, they are frequently two or four times longer. They are usually organized like an LD6, using the width of the plane and missing two profile corners, or two very long LD3s, stored in parallel to use the plane's width and each missing one profile corner, but often twice or four times as long from plane's nose to tail.\n", "In the course of undercrossings the pylon picture is frequently changed, and because of its small height it is preferable to create an arrangement with conductors in one level. Sometimes at such crossings there can be problems because of the maximum pylon height allowed for flight safety reasons. If it is not possible at a given location for the pylons of the upper line to be built at a necessary height, the line running below it will be rebuilt on smaller pylons or replaced with an underground cable.\n", "The 787, intended to replace the 767, was designed to use the LD3/6/11 family of ULDs to solve the wasted volume issue.\n\nSection::::Aircraft compatibility.:ULD capacity.\n\nAircraft loads can consist of containers, pallets, or a mix of ULD types, depending on requirements. In some aircraft the two types must be mixed as some compartments take only specific ULDs.\n", "Late in the program a number of safety studies were carried out. Fire was a major concern of safety officials, but due to the simplicity of the vehicles, and a fire safety risk-reduction program it was demonstrated the possibility of fire was reduced to a non-issue. Other problems, like broken motors or a widespread power failure that demanded evacuation, were the primary areas of concern, but the solutions were found to lay in ground-based equipment and in specially equipped rescue cars that could operate on the guideway and access both levels. The final system plans required no external walkways.\n\nSection::::History.:Cabinlift.\n", "Full-flat seats in business-class rose from 65% of 777 deliveries in 2008 to nearly 100% of the 777s and 787s delivered in 2017, excepted for low-cost carriers having 10% premium cabin on their widebodies.\n\nFirst-class seats were halved over the past 5–10 years, typically from eight to four.\n\nTo differentiate from business class, high-end first class move to full-height enclosures like Singapore Airlines, Emirates, and Etihad.\n\nBusiness class became the equivalent of what first class was a few years ago.\n", "In 2013, Airbus said, for long haul flights, there should be an industry standard for a minimum seat width of 18 inches in economy cabins, but its rival Boeing argued it was up for airlines to decide. People get bigger as a result of change in diets, the weight of the average American male in his 40s has increased by 10 percent between the early 1970s, when the Boeing 747 defined modern long-haul travel, and the turn of the century. The narrower 17 inches wide seat favoured by Boeing is a legacy from the 1950s when passenger jets were first introduced. In the 1970s and 1980s with the introduction of the Boeing 747 and the first Airbus jets, 18-inches become standard for long-haul flights. Seats were widened to 18.5 inches with the Boeing 777 in the 1990s and A380 superjumbo in the 2000s. Many airlines are adopting lighter 17-inch-wide seats on their Boeing 777 and 787 and 18-inch seats for A350s. Although for almost 20 years, the standard setup in the back of a Boeing 777 was nine seats per row, in 2012 nearly 70% of the biggest version of that plane were delivered with 10-abreast seating. When Airbus introduced its A380, it offered 10-abreast seating, giving each passenger up to 19 inches of hip space. In 2013, ten airlines fly Airbus A330 with nine 16.7-inch seats in each row, rather than the eight it was designed for. A research report commissioned by Airbus concluded that an extra inch in seat width improves sleep quality by 53 percent.\n", "Aircraft cabin\n\nAn aircraft cabin is the section of an aircraft in which passengers travel. At cruising altitudes of modern commercial aircraft, the surrounding atmosphere is too thin for passengers and crew to breathe without an oxygen mask, so cabins are pressurized at a higher pressure than ambient pressure at altitude.\n", "Bar and lounge areas which were once installed on wide-body aircraft have mostly disappeared, but a few have returned in first class or business class on the Airbus A340-600, Boeing 777-300ER, and on the Airbus A380. Emirates has installed showers for first-class passengers on the A380; twenty-five minutes are allotted for use of the room, and the shower operates for a maximum of five minutes.\n", "Section::::History.:Spectrum of designs.\n\nOther companies and government organizations soon joined these efforts, as it appeared PRT systems would soon be being deployed around the world. By the early 1970s there were at least a dozen development efforts in the U.S., a similar number in Europe and Japan, and two in Canada. The systems differed considerably in operating concept.\n", "Roofs were not added to all autoracks until the mid-1980s, as it took time for railroads with low overhead clearance routes to modify their bridge and tunnel clearances to accept them. Consequently, some roofless and even open tri-levels and bi-levels remained in service into the mid-late 1980s.\n", "Additionally, during aircraft evacuations, it has been found that the majority of overwing window exit designs of Boeing 737 (NG) Next Generation Line along with the Airbus A320, hamper evacuation in comparison with traditional floor level exits due to the inherent \"step up and through motion\" required of passengers as they exit the aircraft, unlike the designs of older generation wide body aircraft such as the McDonnell Douglas DC-10 and Lockheed L1011 which are all floor level.\n\nSection::::Operation.\n", "Most \"narrow-body\" airliners with more than 100 seats have space below the cabin floor, while smaller aircraft often have a special compartment separate from the passenger area but on the same level.\n", "Aircraft bridge\n\nAircraft bridges, including taxiway bridges and runway bridges, bring aircraft traffic over motorways, railways, and waterways, and must be designed to support the heaviest aircraft that may cross them. \n\nIn 1963, a taxiway bridge at Chicago O'Hare Airport, one of the busiest airports in the world, was planned to handle future aircraft weighing , but aircraft weights doubled within two years of its construction. Currently, the largest passenger aircraft in the world, the Airbus A380, has a maximum take-off weight (MTOW) of . \n", "Section::::Baggage holds.\n\nAirliners must have space on board to store \"checked\" baggage – that which will not safely fit in the passenger cabin.\n\nDesigned to hold baggage as well as freight, these compartments are called \"cargo bins\", \"holds\", or occasionally \"pits\". Occasionally baggage holds may be referred to as cargo decks on the largest of aircraft. These compartments can be accessed through doors on the outside of the aircraft.\n", "One problem with all elevated transportation system structures in general, is that the guideways (highways or transit) are widely considered to be an eyesore. In order to reduce the size of the guideways, Cabinentaxi took the uncommon approach of optionally allowing its cars to run on the top or bottom of a single track. The cars could not be switched from top to bottom, however. If this option was used, the guideways were supported on pillars that attached to the track from the side, rather than directly below. Cabinentaxi's guideway is noticeably smaller and thinner than conventional elevated systems, like the Vancouver SkyTrain. The track is approximately six feet wide, slightly smaller than a row of parking spots on the side of a city street.\n", "Some airports with international gates have two or three bridges for larger aircraft with multiple entrances. In theory, this allows for faster disembarking of larger aircraft, though it is quite common, especially on aircraft such as Boeing 747s and Boeing 777s, to use one bridge for only passengers in first class and/or business class, while the other bridge is for the use of passengers in economy class. The Airbus A380 is unique in that both of its double decks have outside doors; so that two or more loading bridges are possible, a jetbridge for each deck having the advantage being faster aircraft loading (in parallel). Such connectors are being constructed at Boston's Logan Airport, Kuala Lumpur International Airport, Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport, Johannesburg International Airport and in the new international terminal at Calgary International Airport. Faster loading can lead to lower airport charges, less delays and more passenger throughput for the airport, all factors which impact an airline's bottom line.\n", "Crush loads are most common on city buses and rail metro systems, where passenger loading is high, and most passengers stand. Airlines almost never have crush loads, nor do high speed and/or long-distance rail or long-distance bus routes, where all passengers are generally seated.\n\nCrush loads are normally measured using number of standing passengers per . Six passengers per square metre is often considered the practical limit on what can be accepted without serious discomfort to passengers. However, severe crush loads can be much in excess of this.\n", "The first full double-deck aircraft was the French Breguet Deux-Ponts, in service from 1953. The first partial double-deck jet airliner was the widebody Boeing 747, in service from 1970, with the top deck smaller than the main deck. Boeing originally designed the distinctive 747 bubble top with air cargo usage in mind. The small top deck permitted the cockpit and a few passengers and nose doors with unobstructed access to the full length of the hold. Most 747s are passenger jets, and a small percentage are cargo jets with nose doors.\n", "The transporter bridge is more common in Europe. In the United States, only two transporter bridges were ever built: the Aerial Lift Bridge in Duluth, Minnesota in 1905, and the Sky Ride. Due to capacity constraints, the Duluth bridge was converted from a transporter bridge to a more conventional vertical lift bridge with a raisable through truss span in 1930. Thus, the count of transporter bridges existing at a given time in the US never exceeded 1, and after November 1934, stands at zero again.\n\nSection::::Brochure.\n\nThe following brochure text gives a feel for the dramatic prose of the day.\n", "BULLET::::- In situations of bad weather such as snow, rain, or hail, it is impossible to enter or exit the vehicle without getting the interior wet, unless under cover (you would also have to clear any significant snow accumulation off of the roof or it would be too heavy to lift).\n\nSection::::Cars that use canopies.\n\nThis is not a full list of cars that use canopies, but just a few examples.\n\nSection::::Cars that use canopies.:Messerschmitts.\n", "In Europe (and early in Southwest's history) luggage is not transferred from one flight to another, even if both flights are with the same airline. This saves costs and is thought to encourage passengers to take direct flights. Tickets are not sold with transfers, so the airline can avoid responsibility for passengers' connections in the event of a delay. Low-cost carriers often have a sparse schedule with one flight per day and route, so it would be hard to find an alternative for a missed connection. Modern US-based low-cost carriers generally transfer baggage for continuing flights, as well as transferring baggage to other airlines. Many airlines opt to have passengers board via stairs, since jetways generally cost more to lease.\n", "Aircraft may arrive at the landing site from any direction, so a safe means of integrating into existing traffic and aligning with the runway is required. The overhead join is the standard method used in the UK, South Africa and other Commonwealth countries at smaller airports by general aviation aircraft flying under the visual flight rules (VFR), and especially at airfields with no regular radio service.\n" ]	[ "There isn't enough overhead space on planes to accommodate all passengers." ]	[ "Passengers choose to carry bags on and use the overhead space rather than check the bags." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "There isn't enough overhead space on planes to accommodate all passengers." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Passengers choose to carry bags on and use the overhead space rather than check the bags." ]
2018-01527	Why whenever I wash bedding do the pillow cases always end up inside the duvet?	Indeed there is. Things move around randomly a lot in the machine, so they end up in random locations unless one of those locations is a very effective trap. A duvet is just that. Pillowcases check in, but they don't check out.	[ "Duvets can reduce the complexity of making a bed, as they can be used without a top sheet, blankets or quilts or other bed covers. Duvets can be made warmer than blankets without becoming heavy. The duvet itself fits into a specially made cover, usually of cotton or a cotton-polyester blend. The duvet cover can be removed and laundered as often as the bottom sheet and pillow cases. The duvet itself may be cleaned much more rarely, and depending on its contents, may require specialist dry cleaning.\n", "A modern duvet, like a sleeping bag, may be filled with down or feathers of various quality and cost, or silk, wool, cotton, or artificial fibers such as polyester batting.\n", "Duvet cover\n\nA duvet cover is a cover for duvet. The duvet cover protects duvet during use.\n\nDuvet covers frequently have a decorative function on the bed, allowing for change of pattern or design for different occasions, or to serve different functions; for example, a heavier duvet cover may be used during colder seasons.\n", "While a comforter is fundamentally the same as a duvet in terms of construction, it is used somewhat differently. In the United States, comforters are used on top of the flat sheet, often without a cover.\n\nSection::::Regional variations.\n\nDuvets are the most common form of bed covering, especially in northern Europe. They became popular throughout the world in the late 20th century.\n\nA British traveller in Germany in the 1930s encountered them: \"She even learned to like feather quilts ('they don't seem to know about blankets -- perhaps they didn't have them in the middle ages')\"\n", "In colloquial Australian English, a duvet is also called a doona (plural doonas). In American English, it may be called a comforter; however, a comforter is usually a slightly different type of bedding that is not as thick, does not have a cover, and is often used over a top sheet. In the United Kingdom a duvet is also known as a continental quilt (often just shortened to quilt).\n\nSection::::History.\n", "A duvet (, ; ) is a type of bedding consisting of a soft flat bag filled with down, feathers, wool, silk or a synthetic alternative, and typically protected with a removable cover, analogous to a pillow and pillow case. Sleepers often use a duvet without a top bed sheet, as the duvet cover can readily be removed and laundered as often as the bottom sheet. Duvets originated in rural Europe and were filled with the down feathers of ducks or geese. The best quality is taken from the eider duck, as its down is known for its effectiveness as a thermal insulator.\n", "BULLET::::- The brass double bed is now in the northwest bedroom and also belonged to the Warkentins. Much of the furniture in the bedrooms is not original to the house. The trunk at the foot of the bed was used by the Warkentins in their travels.\n", "Internally and externally locked structural blind rivets can be used in aircraft applications because, unlike other types of blind rivets, the locked mandrels cannot fall out and are watertight. Since the mandrel is locked into place, they have the same or greater load-carrying capacity as solid rivets and may be used to replace solid rivets on all but the most critical stressed aircraft structures.\n", "From Viking times, duvets of eider down were used by people on the northern coast of Norway. From the 16th century, wealthy people all over Europe began buying and using such duvets. In the story \"The Princess and the Pea\" from 1835, H.C. Andersen tells about a princess lying on 10 eider-down duvets.\n\nIn the mid-18th century, Thomas Nugent, an Englishman on a grand tour then passing through Westphalia, observed with surprise:\n\nSection::::Description.\n", "BULLET::::- Plate-and-hook fastener. Instead of pins inserted horizontally into the bedpost, an eye plate (post plate) is installed on the bedpost. The hooks are installed on the rail, either as surface mount or recessed. Depending on the hardware, the bedpost may require a mortise in order to allow the hooks to fasten to the plate. This is also referred to as a keyhole fastener, especially if the connector is more of a \"plug\" than a \"hook\".\n", "Originally called a \"continental quilt\" across Australia, a duvet is now often called a \"doona\", which is the brand name created by Kimptons (Northern Feather). The Tontine Group acquired the trademark in 1991 when its owner, Pacific Dunlop, took over Northern Feather. \"Doona\" is derived from the equivalent Danish and Norwegian term \"dyne\" ('down') and was popularized by the retailer IKEA in the 1970s.\n\nIn Asian countries like India and Pakistan, duvets are known as \"ralli quilts\" or razai.\n\nSection::::Thermal performance (tog rating).\n", "Some devices contain non-standard screws or bolts in an attempt to deter access. Examples are telephone switching cabinets (which have triangular bolt heads that a hex socket fits) and computer hard drives, which usually have a star-shaped head for the screws, known as Torx heads. Drivers for these heads are commonly available from electronics retailers.\n\nSection::::Electrical.\n", "BULLET::::- The next advancement in fludizied bed was the Circulating fluidised bed produced in 1942 for catalytic cracking of organic oils.\n\nBULLET::::- Finally in the early 1990s annular fluidised beds was conceptualised and its current uses are:\n\nSection::::Process characteristics.\n", "An ordinary Pillow Pet is made with chenille fabric. Underneath it is a velcro strap. Given that it starts in pillow position, its strap fastens to the other side in order to transform it into a stuffed toy. If the strap is unfastened again, the Pillow Pet can again be used as a pillow.\n", "Rivets may also be upset by hand, using a ball-peen hammer. The head is placed in a special hole made to accommodate it, known as a rivet-set. The hammer is applied to the buck-tail of the rivet, rolling an edge so that it is flush against the material.\n\nSection::::Testing.\n\nSection::::Testing.:Solid rivets for construction.\n", "Four-poster bed\n\nA four-poster bed is a bed with four vertical columns, one in each corner, that support a tester, or upper (usually rectangular) panel. This tester or panel will often have rails to allow curtains to be pulled around the bed. There are a number of antique four-poster beds extant dating to the 16th century and earlier; many of these early beds are highly ornate and are made from oak. An example of such an early 16th-century four-poster resides in Crathes Castle, which was made for the original castle owners in the Burnett of Leys family.\n", "Rivet nut\n\nA rivet nut, also known as a blind rivet nut, or rivnut, is a one-piece internally threaded and counterbored tubular rivet that can be anchored entirely from one side. It is a kind of threaded insert. There are two types: one is designed to form a bulge on the back side of the panel as a screw is tightened in its threads. The other is similarly drawn in using a screw, but is drawn into the sleeve instead of creating a bulge.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- A set of tines either 8 or 16 per sleeper divided evenly between front and rear of sleeper\n\nBULLET::::- Mounting or \"guide\" rods that allow the unit as a whole to move up and down in a linear motion\n\nBULLET::::- Support frame\n\nBULLET::::- Squeezing arms\n\nBULLET::::- Tine mounts, can be either part of the squeezing arm or attached to it via a pin to allow swiveling depending on type of tamping machine\n\nTo generate the vibration needed for penetration and consolidation there are two leading methods commonly used:\n", "Rivet diameters are commonly measured in -inch increments and their lengths in -inch increments, expressed as \"dash numbers\" at the end of the rivet identification number. A \"dash 3 dash 4\" (XXXXXX-3-4) designation indicates a -inch diameter and -inch (or -inch) length. Some rivets lengths are also available in \"half sizes\", and have a dash number such as –3.5 ( inch) to indicate they are half-size. The letters and digits in a rivet's identification number that precede its dash numbers indicate the specification under which the rivet was manufactured and the head style. On many rivets, a size in 32nds may be stamped on the rivet head. Other makings on the rivet head, such as small raised or depressed dimples or small raised bars indicate the rivet's alloy.\n", "BULLET::::- Safer Work Environment: removable insulation blankets reduce the touch temperature of pipes and components. The ambient air room temperature is also significantly reduced. This prevents unwanted worker injuries.\n\nBULLET::::- Better Asset Management: a large facility can have over 500 components requiring insulation. Tags with QR codes attached to the removable insulation blankets allow facility managers to track their maintenance more easily.\n\nBULLET::::- Better Regular Maintenance: removable insulation blankets can be temporarily removed to allow the component or pipe underneath to be serviced. Traditional stay-in-place insulation is often damaged or removed during maintenance and not replaced.\n", "BULLET::::- The Dana 50 TTB spindles will accept the Dana 60 hubs however the knuckles \"are not\" interchangeable.\n\nBULLET::::- All Dana 50 TTB axles were leaf sprung axles.\n\nSection::::Solid Axle.\n\nThe solid axle Dana 50 was used in the Ford F-250 and the F-350 from 1999 to 2003. This axle was also the only OEM axle used in Four-wheel drive Ford Excursions. The GAWR of a solid axle Dana 50 is 5000 lbs.\n", "Hospital beds can make a patient's spine more rounded because a patient who sits up a lot, such as when watching television, tends to slip down.\n\nSome of the category A bed manufacturers are providing their beds with a built-in function which act as an anti-slip. LINET is providing Ergoframe while others have different names.\n\nSection::::Disadvantages.:Safety.\n\nDuring the 1980s, patient safety had been a concern with hospital beds.\n\nIn 1982, a 3-year-old Milwaukee girl hospitalized for pneumonia was killed when crushed by a mechanical hospital bed.\n\nIn 1983, an 11-year-old Illinois boy was strangled to death by a hospital bed.\n", "Section::::Brass beds.\n\nBrass beds are beds in which the headboard and footboard are made of brass; the frame rails are usually made of steel. Brass beds can be made of 100 per cent brass or of metals that have been brass-plated. The brass used in making brass beds is usually 70 per cent copper and 30 per cent zinc. The ratio of metals may vary between manufacturers. \n", "These resemble an expanding bolt except the shaft snaps below the surface when the tension is sufficient. The blind end may be either countersunk ('flush') or dome shaped.\n\nOne early form of blind rivet that was the first to be widely used for aircraft construction and repair was the Cherry friction-lock rivet. Originally, Cherry friction-locks were available in two styles, hollow shank pull-through and self-plugging types. The pull-through type is no longer common; however, the self-plugging Cherry friction-lock rivet is still used for repairing light aircraft.\n", "The first rivet nut was created by BF Goodrich in the 1930s, and sold under the trademark RIVNUT®. It was first used to mount rubber de-icing boots to aircraft wings.\n\nSection::::Usage.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00412	Why do colors disappear when you zoom in with a microscope?	In order to see something with a light microscope, you need to have a very, very thin cross-section. It has to be thin enough for light to be able to pass through it (for the most part). Otherwise, the image under the microscope would appear opaque or black. But a small cross section means that there's not really that much material and/or pigment to add color to the light. Look at a drop of water or a very shallow puddle of water on a white background. Not very much color is there? But look at the ocean from space. All that water is a rich, deep blue. It's the same with a microscope. A carrot may look deep orange with the naked eye, but when you slice a thin enough piece off to see it under a microscope, it's a very pale orange if any color can be [seen at all]( URL_0 ). If you're talking about images from an electron microscope, then an EM doesn't really see color. An EM uses electron beams and their reflection off of things for a computer to render a 3D image of what something looks like. It's like a blind person examining an object with his hands. Sure he can tell you precisely what shape and texture the object is, but he has no clue what color it is. An EM is the same way.	[ "When using a light microscope, unlike the case of fluorescent imaging, images are typically acquired using standard color camera-systems. This reflects partially the history of the field, where humans were often interpreting the images, but also the fact that the sample can be illuminated with white light and all light collected rather than having to excite fluorophores. When more than one dye is used, a necessary preprocessing step is to unmix the channels and recover an estimate of the pure dye-specific intensities.\n\nIt has been shown that the subcellular location of stained proteins can be identified from histology images.\n", "Modern biological microscopy depends heavily on the development of fluorescent probes for specific structures within a cell. In contrast to normal transilluminated light microscopy, in fluorescence microscopy the sample is illuminated through the objective lens with a narrow set of wavelengths of light. This light interacts with fluorophores in the sample which then emit light of a longer wavelength. It is this emitted light which makes up the image.\n", "Section::::Types.:Color.\n\nIn their most common configurations, electron microscopes produce images with a single brightness value per pixel, with the results usually rendered in grayscale. However, often these images are then colorized through the use of feature-detection software, or simply by hand-editing using a graphics editor. This may be done to clarify structure or for aesthetic effect and generally does not add new information about the specimen.\n", "Additionally, methods such as electron or X-ray microscopy use a vacuum or partial vacuum, which limits their use for live and biological samples (with the exception of an environmental scanning electron microscope). The specimen chambers needed for all such instruments also limits sample size, and sample manipulation is more difficult. Color cannot be seen in images made by these methods, so some information is lost. They are however, essential when investigating molecular or atomic effects, such as age hardening in aluminium alloys, or the microstructure of polymers.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Digital microscope\n\nBULLET::::- Köhler illumination\n\nBULLET::::- Microscope slide\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "Artwork consists of many pigments with a wide range of spectral absorption properties, which determine their color. Due to the broad spectral features of these pigments, the identification of a specific pigment in a mixture is difficult. Pump-probe imaging can provide accurate, high resolution, molecular information and distinguish between pigments that may even have the same visual color.\n", "In microscopy, an artifact is an apparent structural detail that is caused by the processing of the specimen and is thus not a legitimate feature of the specimen. In light microscopy, arteficts may be produced by air bubbles trapped under the slide's cover slip.\n\nIn electron microscopy, distortions may be produced in the drying out of the specimen. Staining can cause the appearance of solid chemical deposits that may be seen as structures inside the cell. Different techniques including freeze-fracturing and cell fractionation may be used to overcome the problems of artifacts.\n", "Many techniques are available which modify the light path to generate an improved contrast image from a sample. Major techniques for generating increased contrast from the sample include cross-polarized light, dark field, phase contrast and differential interference contrast illumination. A recent technique (Sarfus) combines cross-polarized light and specific contrast-enhanced slides for the visualization of nanometric samples. \n\nSection::::Operation.:Other techniques.\n\nModern microscopes allow more than just observation of transmitted light image of a sample; there are many techniques which can be used to extract other kinds of data. Most of these require additional equipment in addition to a basic compound microscope.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Dehydration\" – or replacement of water with organic solvents such as ethanol or acetone, followed by critical point drying or infiltration with embedding resins. Also freeze drying.\n", "Section::::Analysis.\n\nAnalysis of images will vary considerably according to application. Typical analysis includes determining where the edges of an object are, counting similar objects, calculating the area, perimeter length and other useful measurements of each object. A common approach is to create an image mask which only includes pixels that match certain criteria, then perform simpler scanning operations on the resulting mask. It is also possible to label objects and track their motion over a series of frames in a video sequence.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Image processing\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Jan-Mark Geusebroek, Color and Geometrical Structure in Images, Applications in Microscopy,\n", "Section::::Optical microscopy.:Techniques.:Deconvolution.\n\nFluorescence microscopy is a powerful technique to show specifically labeled structures within a complex environment and to provide three-dimensional information of biological structures. However, this information is blurred by the fact that, upon illumination, all fluorescently labeled structures emit light, irrespective of whether they are in focus or not. So an image of a certain structure is always blurred by the contribution of light from structures that are out of focus. This phenomenon results in a loss of contrast especially when using objectives with a high resolving power, typically oil immersion objectives with a high numerical aperture.\n", "Image processing for microscopy application begins with fundamental techniques intended to most accurately reproduce the information contained in the microscopic sample. This might include adjusting the brightness and contrast of the image, averaging images to reduce image noise and correcting for illumination non-uniformities. Such processing involves only basic arithmetic operations between images (i.e. addition, subtraction, multiplication and division). The vast majority of processing done on microscope image is of this nature.\n", "In fluorescence microscopy many wavelengths of light ranging from the ultraviolet to the visible can be used to cause samples to fluoresce which allows viewing by eye or with specifically sensitive cameras. Phase contrast microscopy is an optical microscopy illumination technique in which small phase shifts in the light passing through a transparent specimen are converted into amplitude or contrast changes in the image. The use of phase contrast does not require staining to view the slide. This microscope technique made it possible to study the cell cycle in live cells.\n", "Since the mid 20th century chemical fluorescent stains, such as DAPI which binds to DNA, have been used to label specific structures within the cell. More recent developments include immunofluorescence, which uses fluorescently labelled antibodies to recognise specific proteins within a sample, and fluorescent proteins like GFP which a live cell can express making it fluorescent.\n\nSection::::Components.\n\nAll modern optical microscopes designed for viewing samples by transmitted light share the same basic components of the light path. In addition, the vast majority of microscopes have the same 'structural' components (numbered below according to the image on the right):\n", "A common problem in fluorescence microscopy is photobleaching, where the fluorophore loses its activity as a result of exposure to light. This can lead to the inaccurate measurement of fluorescence intensity. Photobleaching, light source stability, and system variability are all sources of error but can be minimized if the user is able to reduce the acquisition time between samples and include the proper controls.\n\nSection::::Classical technique.\n", "In this case, CL is capable of measuring the local density of states (LDOS) of a nanostructured photonic medium, where the intensity of the emitted CL reflects directly the number of available photonic states. This is very relevant for materials like photonic crystals or complex topologies for which large LDOS variations are achieved on nanometer scales.\n\nOn the other hand, LDOS variations should be taken into account when analyzing standard CL maps.\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Scientists shed light on glowing materials CL probes the photonic LDOS\n", "Digital microscopy with very low light levels to avoid damage to vulnerable biological samples is available using sensitive photon-counting digital cameras. It has been demonstrated that a light source providing pairs of entangled photons may minimize the risk of damage to the most light-sensitive samples. In this application of ghost imaging to photon-sparse microscopy, the sample is illuminated with infrared photons, each of which is spatially correlated with an entangled partner in the visible band for efficient imaging by a photon-counting camera.\n\nSection::::Types.:Electron.\n", "BULLET::::- The best microscopes are only of little aid if the cells or processes to be investigated are hardly discernible from their background. Dr. Oliver Griesbeck and his Research Group Cellular Dynamics develop biosensors, which stain specific cells or change their fluorescent hue when something goes on in the investigated nerve cell.\n", "Section::::History.:Lighting techniques.\n\nWhile basic microscope technology and optics have been available for over 400 years it is much more recently that techniques in sample illumination were developed to generate the high quality images seen today.\n\nIn August 1893 August Köhler developed Köhler illumination. This method of sample illumination gives rise to extremely even lighting and overcomes many limitations of older techniques of sample illumination. Before development of Köhler illumination the image of the light source, for example a lightbulb filament, was always visible in the image of the sample.\n", "Section::::Sample preparation.:Biological fluorescent stains.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- Fixed (and potentially also cleared) samples can be glued to a simple support or holder and can stay in their fixing solution during imaging.\n\nBULLET::::- Larger living organisms are usually sedated and mounted in a soft gel cylinder that is extruded from a (glass or plastic) capillary hanging from above into the sample chamber.\n\nBULLET::::- Adherent cells can be grown on small glass plates that are hanging in the sample chamber.\n", "While most techniques focus on increases in lateral resolution there are also some techniques which aim to allow analysis of extremely thin samples. For example, sarfus methods place the thin sample on a contrast-enhancing surface and thereby allows to directly visualize films as thin as 0.3 nanometers.\n\nSection::::Limitations.:Surpassing the resolution limit.:Structured illumination SMI.\n", "Interference reflection microscopy can be obtained by using the same elements used by DIC, but without the prisms. Also, the light that is being detected is reflected and not transmitted as it is when DIC is employed.\n\nSection::::Optical microscopy.:Techniques.:Fluorescence.\n\nWhen certain compounds are illuminated with high energy light, they emit light of a lower frequency. This effect is known as fluorescence. Often specimens show their characteristic autofluorescence image, based on their chemical makeup.\n", "Section::::Optical microscopy.:Techniques.:Oblique illumination.\n\nThe use of oblique (from the side) illumination gives the image a three-dimensional (3D) appearance and can highlight otherwise invisible features. A more recent technique based on this method is \"Hoffmann's modulation contrast\", a system found on inverted microscopes for use in cell culture. Oblique illumination suffers from the same limitations as bright field microscopy (low contrast of many biological samples; low apparent resolution due to out of focus objects).\n\nSection::::Optical microscopy.:Techniques.:Dark field.\n", "Live biological cells in particular generally lack sufficient contrast to be studied successfully, because the internal structures of the cell are mostly colorless and transparent. The most common way to increase contrast is to stain the different structures with selective dyes, but often this involves killing and fixing the sample. Staining may also introduce artifacts, apparent structural details that are caused by the processing of the specimen and are thus not a legitimate feature of the specimen.\n\nSection::::Theory.:Conventional lens.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03993	When censoring people’s identity, why are only the eyes covered?	There already a lot of identifying features in the eyes. Eye position, eye color, length of lashes, etc that could make it easier for a stranger to find them. But, people who already know the person could identify them based on other parts. TL:DR: enough censorship against strangers, just enough for family & friends to recognize	[ "With high importance is given to closing eyelids and covering the eyes as temporary and permanent flash blindness is a risk potential without this covering, especially at night.\n", "EYES ONLY may be used as part of the national caveats in English speaking countries performing as an addition to the security classification. The caveat designates assets of particular sensitivity to, say, the UK, or where dissemination is restricted to individuals from specific foreign nations. Unless explicitly named, information bearing a national caveat will not be sent to foreign governments, overseas contractors, international organisations or released to any foreign nationals.\n\nBritish regulations require notices on the document to specify a level of classification (\"TOP SECRET\", e.g.) and a \"caveat\", separated by a hyphen, e.g.,\n\nand centered horizontally on the page.\n", "A black rectangular or square box (known as censor bars) may be simply be used to occlude parts of images completely (for example, a black bar covering the eyes instead of the entire face being pixelized). Censor bars were extensively used as a graphic device in the January 2012 Protests against SOPA and PIPA.\n", "In North Korea even prominent people are \"airbrushed from history\", because the government has complete control over the internal media. For example Jang Song-thaek, the uncle of Leader Kim Jong-Un, has been removed from pictures and videos since his execution. KCNA and \"Rodong Sinmun\" began erasing references to Jang \"as completely as possible\", deleting some 100,000 and 20,000 news items from their websites, respectively.\n", "\"On the one hand, the Internet might represent a very powerful tool for free expression even – or perhaps especially – under authoritarian regimes. On the other hand, to the extent that expression becomes increasingly reliant upon private corporations more committed to the realities of the bottom line than to abstract principles of civil liberties, the technology that facilitates the ability to challenge entrenched power could evolve into a breathtakingly efficient tool for monitoring, tracking, and filtering dissident expression.\" \n", "An example of \"sanitization\" policies comes from the USSR under Joseph Stalin, where publicly used photographs were often altered to remove people whom Stalin had condemned to execution. Though past photographs may have been remembered or kept, this deliberate and systematic alteration to all of history in the public mind is seen as one of the central themes of Stalinism and totalitarianism.\n\nCensorship is occasionally carried out to aid authorities or to protect an individual, as with some kidnappings when attention and media coverage of the victim can sometimes be seen as unhelpful.\n\nSection::::Types.:Religion.\n", "A study of the site Sina Weibo, a microblogging site, was conducted by BBC to see how quickly censors removed material and gain insight about big mamas. The study concluded many things including that those who are censored often are censored at a faster rate. Around 90% of politically risky content is removed in the first 24 hours, 5% within 8 minutes and 30% in the first half and hour. It also concluded just for the site Sina Weibo, a social media platform, there would have to be at least 4,000 monitors if none of the process was automated. The job of big mamas is becoming more automated as technology becomes more advanced.\n", "Critics agree that commonly one covers her face to avoid photographs being uploaded to the Internet and causing personal or professional problems. Others have pointed out that faces are often covered with kerchiefs in response to police use of chemical-based weapons such as pepper spray and tear gas.\n", "He also explores techniques that have been used to limit the depiction of the human body on the one hand (such as the depiction of naked men hidden behind objects such as large taps) or, alternatively, to delight in it (such as the tradition of using classical mythology as a mechanism to create representations of naked femininity).\n", "Section::::Related laws.\n\nPII gathering is often associated with violation of privacy and is often opposed by privacy advocates. Democratic countries, such as the United States and those in the European Union have more developed privacy laws against PII gathering. Laws in the European Union offer more comprehensive and uniform protection of personal data. In the United States, federal data protection laws are approached by sectors. Authoritarian countries often lack PII gathering protection for citizens. For example, Chinese citizens enjoy legislative protection against private companies, but have no protection from government violation.\n\nSection::::Related laws.:European Union.\n", "To be secure, members who are just being added to the group must be restricted from viewing past data. Also, members removed from a group may not access future data.\n\nSection::::Theories.\n", "Unless the censor has total control over all Internet-connected computers, such as in North Korea (who employ an intranet that only privileged citizens can access), or Cuba, total censorship of information is very difficult or impossible to achieve due to the underlying distributed technology of the Internet. Pseudonymity and data havens (such as Freenet) protect free speech using technologies that guarantee material cannot be removed and prevents the identification of authors. Technologically savvy users can often find ways to access blocked content. Nevertheless, blocking remains an effective means of limiting access to sensitive information for most users when censors, such as those in China, are able to devote significant resources to building and maintaining a comprehensive censorship system.\n", "Multiple studies have found support for the behavioral component of the third-person effect hypothesis. Possibly because Davison noted that censors seldom admit to have been adversely affected by the information they proscribe, scholars who have found support for the behavioral component have generally operationalized behavior as a willingness to censor content to stop the content from having the perceived negative persuasive impact on others.\n", "The present regulation was proposed by the European Commission implementing machine-readable laissez-passer according to ICAO 9303 standard including a digitized photo of the bearer's face and fingerprints. The fields are reduced and no longer contain information on address and physical appearance.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "David Brin's 1989 novel \"Earth\" portrays citizens equipped with both augmented reality gear (\"Tru-Vu Goggles\") and cameras exercising reciprocal accountability, with each other and with authority figures, discussing effects on crime and presaging today's \"cop cam\" developments. Elites are allowed only temporary, cached secrecy. In Robert Sawyer's Neanderthal Parallax trilogy, the Homo neanderthalensis occupying a parallel universe have what are called companion implants. These are comprehensive recording and transmission devices, mounted in the forearm of each person. Their entire life is constantly monitored and sent to their alibi archive, a repository of recordings that are only accessible by their owner, or by the proper authorities when investigating an infraction, and in the latter case only in circumstances relevant to the investigation. Recordings are maintained after death; it is not made clear what the reasoning is for this and under what circumstances and or by whom a deceased person's archive can be accessed.\n", "Protection of sources is no longer just a matter of journalistic ethics; it increasingly also depends on the journalist's computer skills and all journalists should equip themselves with a \"digital survival kit\" if they are exchanging sensitive information online or storing it on a computer or mobile phone. And individuals associated with high-profile rights organizations, dissident, protest, or reform groups are urged to take extra precautions to protect their online identities.\n\nSection::::Implementation.\n", "Unless the censor has total control over all Internet-connected computers, such as in North Korea or Cuba, total censorship of information is very difficult or impossible to achieve due to the underlying distributed technology of the Internet. Pseudonymity and data havens (such as Freenet) protect free speech using technologies that guarantee material cannot be removed and prevents the identification of authors. Technologically savvy users can often find ways to access blocked content. Nevertheless, blocking remains an effective means of limiting access to sensitive information for most users when censors, such as those in China, are able to devote significant resources to building and maintaining a comprehensive censorship system.\n", "When governments of countries such as Syria began to examine user-generated YouTube videos to identify and arrest dissidents, in 2012 YouTube provided a tool by which uploaders may blur subjects' faces to protect their identities.\n", "BULLET::::- Ibn Abbas has said: “Allah commanded the believing women, when going out of their homes for some need, to cover their faces from above their heads with their Jilbābs, leaving one eye to see the path.”\n", "Some other Saudi scholars have argued that the reason women permitted to show one of their eyes was that, if they did not, they could not see the way- and that there is no need to expose the eyes in the modern world as women can cover their eyes with nets or sheer layers so as not to be a cause of attraction without having their vision restricted.\n", "Eyes only is jargon used with regard to classified information. Whereas a classified document is normally intended to be available to anyone with the appropriate security clearance, an \"eyes only\" designation, whether official or informal, indicates that the document is intended only for a specific set of readers. As such the document should not be read by other individuals even if they otherwise possess the appropriate clearance. Another meaning is that the document is under no circumstances to be copied or photographed, \"eyes only\" meaning that it is to be physically read by cleared personnel and nothing more, to ensure that no unauthorized copies of the text are made which might be unaccounted for.\n", "Cover goggles are designed to be worn over eye wear. Like eyecup goggles, they have adjustable or elasticized headbands and are equipped with direct or indirect ventilation ports to allow air in and prevent fogging. \n\nWhile both models keep out large particles, indirect-vented goggles are better at keeping out liquids and dusts. \n\nSection::::Styles.:Welding helmets & Shields.\n", "A familiar example of pixelization can be found in television news and documentary productions, in which vehicle license plates and faces of suspects at crime scenes are routinely obscured to maintain the presumption of innocence, as in the television series \"COPS\". Bystanders and others who do not sign release forms are also customarily pixelized. Footage of nudity (including male and female genitals, buttocks, nipples, pubic hair, or areolae) is likewise obscured in some media: before the watershed in many countries, in newspapers or general magazines, or in places in which the public cannot avoid seeing the image (such as on billboards). Drug references, as well as gestures considered obscene (such as the finger) may also be censored in this manner. Pixelization is not usually used for this purpose in films, DVDs, subscription television services, or pornography (except for countries in which the law requires it). When obscene language is censored by an audible bleep, the mouth of the speaker may be pixelized to prevent lip reading, such as in \"COPS\". Graphic injuries and excess blood may also be pixelized.\n", "Surveillance is not only done from the patrol car, but also from a motorbike or a horse. Especially in crowded malls surveillance is often done on foot or (motor)bike. The men and women on the street have to permanently \"keep their eyes open\" to spot suspicious behaviour, such as someone walking around looking inside parked cars, cars without working lights or drunken cyclists.\n", "your image may be captured by cameras and you may be automatically detected by security.\" A 2019 UK investigation showed the limits of self-exclusion schemes, when it was reported that players could circumvent exclusion by simply changing their email address, or by changing a letter in their names. The UKGC suggest a multi-layered solution to the problem.\n\nSection::::Liquor self-exclusion.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03749	Why don’t tattoo shops ever get sued for copyright infringement, and could they?	Do you remember how difficult it was for music companies to sue individual people for downloading music illegally on Napster and Limewire? Same concept. The amount of money Disney, Marvel or someone else would make from pursuing damages simply isn't going to be worth going to court for and the bad press they'd get for taking some of their most hardcore fans to court for getting inked up in the first place wouldn't be worth it. That's why you won't see an individual artist or person getting a tattoo sued. Now, if you had an individual tattoo artist who was making and selling their own designs with these characters as art pieces and that person hit it massively big to the point where they were making large-scale money (Picture Banksy or someone similar deciding to sell original drawings of Mickey and Minnie) then you might see it being worth it financially and see this person being sued because the original company wants to protect their copyright on the work. But a tattoo artist making $300 or something on drawing a Thor tattoo? Who the hell wants to bother with that?	[ "American Electric was the competitor tattoo shop to High Voltage during Season 3 and the first half of Season 4.\n\nSection::::Background.:Ratings.\n", "In all jurisdictions, individual tattooists may also choose to place additional restrictions based on their own moral feelings, such as refusing \"any\" clients under a specific age even with parental consent despite it being legal, or limiting the type and/or location of where they are willing to tattoo (such as refusing any work around intimate parts of the body). They may additionally refuse to perform specific artwork, including if they merely find it inappropriate or offensive, or refuse to work on a client that they suspect may be intoxicated. Artists sometimes claim their personal business restrictions are a matter of law even when it is not true, so as to avoid arguments with clients.\n", "Noonan also indicates that while the process of tattooing may qualify as protected speech, tattooing still requires regulation because the creation of a tattoo can involve dangerous risks to a client's health and safety.\n\nSection::::Subsequent Developments.\n", "Mike Dowis contacted us to detail the struggle he and some of his colleagues have undertaken to decriminalize their line of work in their home state. You see, the state of South Carolina made tattooing illegal in the 1960s as a result of a hepatitis epidemic, and that law still remains on the books even though modern sterilization methods make the tattoo application process at least as safe as piercing. He and the other members of South Carolina Advocates for Safe Tattooing took this opportunity to make the rest of the country aware of their legislative plight.\n\nSingle Teen Mom\n", "BULLET::::- Flash Challenge: Create a custom mouth grill with a dremel for Brandon Rios. Winner: Scott\n\nBULLET::::- Elimination Tattoo: Design and apply a warrior tattoo; era and type of warrior not restricted. Winner: Matti - Eliminated: None of the artists were eliminated.\n", "The local health department can/will do a hands on inspection of tattoo studios every 4 months in the state of Tennessee. The venue will be graded based on the areas being inspected. If the studio passes an inspection, the health department will sign off on a passing scorecard and the studio will be required to show their score publicly. If the studio fails an inspection, they will be given the opportunity to correct the mistakes (if minor) or be fined (major health risks) and can also be placed out of business on the spot.\n", "Membership in professional organizations, or certificates of appreciation/achievement, generally helps artists to be aware of the latest trends. However, many of the most notable tattooists do not belong to any association. While specific requirements to become a tattooist vary between jurisdictions, many mandate only formal training in blood-borne pathogens, and cross contamination. The local department of health regulates tattoo studios in many jurisdictions. For example, according to the health departments in Oregon and Hawaii, tattoo artists in these states are required to take and pass a test ascertaining their knowledge of health and safety precautions, as well as the current state regulations. Performing a tattoo in Oregon state without a proper and current license or in an unlicensed facility is considered a felony offense.\n", "The court claimed in \"Anderson v. City of Hermosa Beach\" that tattoos, tattooing, and the business of tattooing are considered pure speech. In creating a tattoo, the court held that both the tattoo artist and client are participating in expressive activity. Both parties collaborate and contribute to the artistic vision of the final product.\n", "In \"Real v. City of Long Beach\", 852 F.3d 929 (9th Cir. 2017), Smith concluded that a tattoo artist had standing to bring a facial and an as-applied First Amendment challenge to a city zoning ordinance that restricted the artist's ability to open and operate a tattoo shop.\n", "The Court also held that the business of tattooing does not affect whether or not the process of tattooing is free expression. The sale of artwork does not remove the expressive content from being protected by the First Amendment. This protection does not become diminished as the artwork is sold. The Court noted that the sale of the tattoo is intertwined with the process of tattooing and the tattoo itself. The business of tattooing is therefore pure expressive activity that is entitled to full protection under the First Amendment.\n", "BULLET::::1. Is tattooing purely expressive activity more akin to the writing process or merely conduct that is being used to express an idea such as the burning of a draft card?\n\nBULLET::::2. . If tattooing is considered to be pure expression protected by the First Amendment, is the Hermosa Beach Municipal ban on tattoo parlors a reasonable time, place, and manner restriction?\n\nSection::::U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit Majority Opinion.\n\nSection::::U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit Majority Opinion.:Tattooing as Purely Expressive Activity.\n", "The legal status of tattoos is still developing. In recent years, various lawsuits have arisen in the United States regarding the status of tattoos as a copyrightable art form. However, these cases have either been settled out of court or are currently being disputed, and therefore no legal precedent exists directly on point. The process of tattooing was held to be a purely expressive activity protected by the First Amendment by the Ninth Circuit in 2010.\n\nSection::::Militaries from around the world.\n", "The County of Los Angeles generally permits tattooing within its jurisdiction. However, the city of Hermosa Beach, located within Los Angeles County, banned tattoo parlors within its city limits. The Hermosa Beach Municipal Code § 17.06.070 stated: \"Except as provided in this title, no building shall be erected, re-constructed or structurally altered, nor shall any building or land be used for any purpose except as hereinafter specifically provided…” The Code accepted permit requests from several types of businesses including bars, restaurants, movie theaters, youth hostels, and shops. However, tattoo shops were not listed in the provision of the zoning code. As a result, tattoo shops were banned in Hermosa Beach.\n", "Past court cases within the United States have addressed the issue of whether or not the process of tattooing is protected by the First Amendment. In 1980, in \"Yurkew v. Sinclair\" the court indicated that the process of tattooing was not sufficiently imbued with elements of communication. Therefore, the process of tattooing was not protected by the First Amendment. v Similarly, in the 2008 case of \"Hold Fast Tattoo, LLC v. City of North Chicago\", the court found that the process of tattooing was not protected under the First Amendment. v While the court held that the tattoo itself may be considered as protected speech, the physical process of tattooing was distinct and one step removed from the finished product. Past tattoo cases show that courts within the United States have traditionally found the process of tattooing to fall outside the protection of the First Amendment.\n", "BULLET::::- Flash Challenge: All artists, except for Kyle, must tattoo hundreds of canvases in a convention style. The winners will not only receive their own shop but will also not participate in the elimination tattoo. Winners: Matti, Scott, Ashley, Jim and Sausage\n\nBULLET::::- Elimination Tattoo: The remaining artists who did not win the flash challenge have been given one last chance to convince the judges that they deserve to be in the competition by tattooing in their own style. Winner: None - Eliminated: Damon\n", "The organization's tattoo removal service is a restricted eligibility service offered at an off-site location at 1719 W Burnside St. Access is restricted to applicants with an income not exceeding 200% federal poverty guideline.\n\nSection::::Services.:Community Objection.\n", "In October 2013, the company hired celebrity tattoo artist and Anytime Fitness member, Jimmy Hayden, to tattoo its purple running man logo on nearly 200 franchisees, corporate employees, club managers, and personal trainers at an annual conference. Members and employees have a history of getting the logo tattoo, with an estimated 4,000 individuals inking their bodies, including CEO Chuck Runyon. Anytime Fitness provides a tattoo artist at its monthly training events and covers all expenses. The company will also reimburse anyone who submits a photo of their tattoo of the logo and describe why they wanted the tattoo.\n", "One of Homeboy's most successful programs is free tattoo removal. Young people who find that tattoos inhibit their ability to secure employment can receive treatments on site at Homeboy's center in Downtown Los Angeles, California, USA. Though tattoo removal by laser is known to be painful and takes an average of eight to ten treatments per tattoo, and in some cases up to 1 year to complete, patient retention is virtually 100%. The clinic completes about 560 treatments per month.\n", "Other territories produce standards for tattooing inks but do not keep publicly available lists of products which pass certifications. This makes it very difficult for tattooists and their clients to judge the safety of any particular ink, a problem that extends to all inks.\n", "Ink Master (season 9)\n\nInk Master: Shop Wars is the ninth season of the tattoo reality competition \"Ink Master\" that premiered on June 6, 2017 on Spike at 10/9c. Host Dave Navarro returned alongside co-judges Oliver Peck and Chris Nunez. Season 9 features teams of two sorted by their tattoo shops going head-to-head in a tag team elimination-style competition. The winning shop will receive $200,000, a feature in \"Inked\" magazine and the title of \"Ink Master\". In addition, the winning shop will also receive the title of \"Master Shop\".\n", "Each customer coming into the shop usually has a story or reason behind their tattoo. On occasion, even known celebrities make an appearance to get tattooed by Kat or one of the other artists.\n", "BULLET::::- Elimination Tattoo: The masters and their apprentices have another head to head competition where they have to tattoo American traditional with the same subject. In addition, the human canvases are paired based on what tattoo they want and as a pair they will pick a skull with the master and apprentice's name on the bottom. The winners of last week's head to head also have an advantage in choosing which canvas they want to tattoo out of the pair. MV was assigned an open canvas despite his apprentice's elimination and decided to face Matt and Katie.\n", "BULLET::::- Elimination Tattoo: Winner: Matti - Eliminated: Melissa\n", "BULLET::::- Flash Challenge: Tattoo a 'super power' Winner: Matti\n\nBULLET::::- Elimination Tattoo: Apply a tattoo of a X-Men character from the \"\" movie as chosen by the canvas. Winner: Scott Eliminated: Roland\n", "Similar to Season 7, This season features nine rookie shops battling nine veteran shops each week while tackling a skill that exposes each veterans' shortcoming from the last time they competed. Old Town Ink, consisting of Season 4 veteran Aaron \"Bubba\" Irwin and \"Best Ink\" Season 2 runner-up DJ Tambe won the competition, each earning the title of \"Ink Master\" and the first ever title of \"Master Shop\" as well as the first veteran shop winner. In addition, Irwin became the second veteran winner in \"Ink Master\" history.\n\nSection::::Judging and ranking.\n\n\"The judge listing types are:\"\n\nBULLET::::- Judging Panel\n" ]	[ "Tattoo shops never get sued for copyright infringement.", "Tattoo shops should have been sued for copyright infringement. " ]	[ "Companies could sue a tattoo shop for copyright infringement, but usually it isn't going to be worth going to court.", "While tattoo shops might be susceptible to copyright infringement, the money that large scale companies would make from pursuing tattoo shops would be minimal and not worth the time and effort. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Tattoo shops never get sued for copyright infringement.", "Tattoo shops should have been sued for copyright infringement. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Companies could sue a tattoo shop for copyright infringement, but usually it isn't going to be worth going to court.", "While tattoo shops might be susceptible to copyright infringement, the money that large scale companies would make from pursuing tattoo shops would be minimal and not worth the time and effort. " ]
2018-09883	Did the Greeks look at the gods as actual beings or more like representations of different elements of the world?	Herodotus recounted actions of deities as if they were real entities and not fictional personifications of natural forces. For instance: > The Scythians who plundered the temple were punished by the goddess with the female sickness, which still attaches to their posterity. I seem to recall some more direct intervention accounts, but I'm not finding them quickly.	[ "Herodotus was one of the earliest authors to engage in this form of interpretation. In his observations regarding the Egyptians, he establishes Greco-Egyptian equivalents that endured into the Hellenistic era, including Amon/Zeus, Osiris/Dionysus, and Ptah/Hephaestus. In his observations regarding the Scythians, he equates their queen of the gods, Tabiti, to Hestia, Papaios and Api to Zeus and Gaia respectively, and Argimpasa to Aphrodite Urania, whilst also claiming that the Scythians worshipped equivalents to Herakles and Ares, but which he doesn't name.\n", "Religious practice would also involve the worship of heroes, people who were regarded as semi-divine. Such heroes ranged from the mythical figures in the epics of Homer to historical people such as the founder of a city. At the local level, the landscape was filled with sacred spots and monuments; for example, many statues of Nymphs were found near and around springs, and the stylized figures of Hermes could often be found on street corners.\n", "According to Herodotus (484–425 BCE), Homer and Hesiod (between 750 and 650 BC) taught the Greek the knowledge of the Divine bodies of the Gods. The ancient Greek poet Hesiod (between 750 and 650 BC) describes in his \"Theogony\" the birth of the gods and creation of the world, which became an \"ur-text for programmatic, first-person epiphanic narratives in Greek literature,\" but also \"explores the necessary limitations placed on human access to the divine.\" According to Platt, the statement of the Muses who grant Hesiod knowledge of the Gods \"actually accords better with the logic of apophatic religious thought.\"\n", "Other passages quoted by Clement of Alexandria that argue against the traditional Greek conception of gods include:\n\nBULLET::::1. \"One god, greatest among gods and humans,brlike mortals neither in form nor in thought.\"\n\nBULLET::::2. \"But mortals think that the gods are bornbrand have the mortals' own clothes and voice and form\".\n", "An inheritance has been handed down from the most ancient to later times in the form of a myth, that there are gods and that the divine surrounds all of nature. The rest [of the ancient stories] were expressed mythically, which is appropriate for convincing uneducated people ... They even said the gods had human shapes and were similar to the other animals ... If the first [claim], that they believed the gods are fundamental realities, is taken separately [from the mythic stories], then they surely spoke an inspired truth ... (\"Met.\" 1074a38 – b13). \n", "The Greek deities, like those in many other Indo-European traditions, were anthropomorphic. Walter Burkert describes them as \"persons, not abstractions, ideas or concepts\". They had fantastic abilities and powers; each had some unique expertise and, in some aspects, a specific and flawed personality. They were not omnipotent and could be injured in some circumstances. Greek deities led to cults, were used politically and inspired votive offerings for favors such as bountiful crops, healthy family, victory in war, or peace for a loved one recently deceased.\n\nSection::::Regional cultures.:Indo-European.:Germanic.\n", "Some theories propose that myths began as allegories for natural phenomena: Apollo represents the sun, Poseidon represents water, and so on. According to another theory, myths began as allegories for philosophical or spiritual concepts: Athena represents wise judgment, Aphrodite desire, and so on. Müller supported an allegorical theory of myth. He believed myths began as allegorical descriptions of nature and gradually came to be interpreted literally. For example, a poetic description of the sea as \"raging\" was eventually taken literally and the sea was then thought of as a raging god.\n\nSection::::Interpreting myths.:Personification.\n", "Contrary to Herodotus' accounting of Scythian religion being mostly aniconic aside from the worship of \"Ares\", various goddess illustrations are present in Scythian kurgans. However, it is difficult to associate these with any specific of the three known goddesses in the absence of any writing. Classical consensus is that they're all depictions of Argimpasa, rendering Api's and Tabiti's worship truly devoid of any iconography, but this isn't universally agreed upon as some depictions might be associated with the latter.\n", "But if cattle and horses and lions had handsor could paint with their hands and create works such as men do,horses like horses and cattle like cattlealso would depict the gods' shapes and make their bodiesof such a sort as the form they themselves have....Ethiopians say that their gods are snub–nosed [σιμούς] and blackThracians that they are pale and red-haired.\n\nAn additional criticism of the gods is found in the quote\n\nThe gods have not, of course, revealed all things to mortals\n\nbut rather, seeking in the course of time, they discover\n", "Section::::Beliefs.:Sacred texts.\n\nThe Greeks had no religious texts they regarded as \"revealed\" scriptures of sacred origin, but very old texts including Homer's \"Iliad\" and \"Odyssey\", and the Homeric hymns (regarded as later productions today), Hesiod's \"Theogony\" and \"Works and Days\", and Pindar's Odes were regarded as having authority and perhaps being inspired; they usually begin with an invocation to the Muses for inspiration. Plato even wanted to exclude the myths from his ideal state described in the \"Republic\" because of their low moral tone.\n", "Most ancient belief systems held that gods influenced human lives. However, the Greek philosopher Epicurus held that the gods were living, incorruptible, blissful beings who did not trouble themselves with the affairs of mortals, but who could be perceived by the mind, especially during sleep. Epicurus believed that these gods were material, human-like, and that they inhabited the empty spaces between worlds.\n\nHellenistic religion may still be regarded as polytheistic, but with strong monistic components, and monotheism finally emerges from Hellenistic traditions in Late Antiquity in the form of Neoplatonism and Christian theology.\n\nBULLET::::- Neolithic Era\n\nBULLET::::- Serer religion\n", "Myths may be regarded physically when they express the activities of gods in the world.\n\nThe psychological way is to regard (myths as allegories of) the activities of the soul itself and or the soul's acts of thought.\n\nThe material is to regard material objects to actually be gods, for example: to call the earth Gaia, ocean Okeanos, or heat Typhon.\n\nSection::::Historical polytheism.\n", "The gods of Greek mythology are described as having essentially corporeal but ideal bodies. According to Walter Burkert, the defining characteristic of Greek anthropomorphism is that \"the Greek gods are persons, not abstractions, ideas or concepts\". Regardless of their underlying forms, the Ancient Greek gods have many fantastic abilities; most significantly, the gods are not affected by disease, and can be wounded only under highly unusual circumstances. The Greeks considered immortality as the distinctive characteristic of their gods; this immortality, as well as unfading youth, was insured by the constant use of nectar and ambrosia, by which the divine blood was renewed in their veins.\n", "At Titane in Sicyonia, Pausanias saw an altar, in front of it a tumulus raised to the hero Epopeus, and, near to the barrow-tomb, the \"Gods of Aversion\"—the \"apotropai\"—\"before whom are performed the ceremonies which the Hellenes observe for the averting of evils\".\n", "Ancient Greek theology was polytheistic, based on the assumption that there were many gods and goddesses, as well as a range of lesser supernatural beings of various types. There was a hierarchy of deities, with Zeus, the king of the gods, having a level of control over all the others, although he was not almighty. Some deities had dominion over certain aspects of nature. For instance, Zeus was the sky-god, sending thunder and lightning, Poseidon ruled over the sea and earthquakes, Hades projected his remarkable power throughout the realms of death and the Underworld, and Helios controlled the sun. Other deities ruled over abstract concepts; for instance Aphrodite controlled love. All significant deities were visualized as \"human\" in form, although often able to transform themselves into animals or natural phenomena.\n", "In many polytheistic early religions, deities had a strong element of personification, suggested by descriptions such as \"god of\". In ancient Greek religion, and the related Ancient Roman religion, this was perhaps especially strong, in particular among the minor deities. Many such deities, such as the tyches or tutelary deities for major cities, survived the arrival of Christianity, now as symbolic personifications stripped of religious significance. An exception was the winged goddess of Victory, Victoria/Nike, who developed into the visualization of the Christian angel. \n", "For the ancient Greeks, knowledge of the gods was essential for proper worship. Poets had an important responsibility in this regard, and a central question was how knowledge of the Divine forms can be attained. Epiphany played an essential role in attaining this knowledge. Xenophanes (c. 570 – c. 475 BC) noted that the knowledge of the Divine forms is restrained by the human imagination, and Greek philosophers realized that this knowledge can only be mediated through myth and visual representations, which are culture-dependent.\n", "Besides the Olympians, the Greeks also worshipped various local deities. Among these were the goat-legged god Pan (the guardian of shepherds and their flocks), Nymphs (nature spirits associated with particular landforms), Naiads (who dwelled in springs), Dryads (who were spirits of the trees), Nereids (who inhabited the sea), river gods, satyrs (a class of lustful male nature spirits), and others. The dark powers of the underworld were represented by the Erinyes (or Furies), said to pursue those guilty of crimes against blood-relatives.\n", "\"*Péhusōn\", a pastoral deity, is reconstructed based on the Greek god Pan and the Vedic god Pūshān. Both deities are closely affiliated with goats and were worshipped as pastoral deities. The minor discrepancies between the two deities can be easily explained by the possibility that many attributes originally associated with Pan may have been transferred over to his father Hermes. The association between Pan and Pūshān was first identified in 1924 by the German scholar Hermann Collitz.\n", "The mythology of ancient Greece knew gods, daemons, and heroes. Θεοὶ ἄρχοντες (ruling gods) appear in the subsequent philosophy of Plato (\"Phaedr\". 247 A). However Philo never alludes to archons: in a single passage (\"De Mon\". i. 1) ἄρχοντες is merely correlative to ὑπήκοοι.\n", "Although Tabiti was apparently the most important deity in the Scythian pantheon, the worship accorded to the deity Herodotus refers to as \"Ares\" was unique. He notes that \"it is not their custom [...] to make images, altars or temples to any except Ares, but to him it is their custom to make them\". He describes the construction of the altar and the subsequent sacrifice as follows:\n", "The sciences of archaeology and linguistics have been applied to the origins of Greek mythology with some interesting results. Historical linguistics indicates that particular aspects of the Greek pantheon were inherited from Indo-European society (or perhaps both cultures borrowed from another earlier source), as were the roots of the Greek language. Prominent Sanskritist Max Müller attempted to understand an Indo-European religious form by tracing it back to its Aryan, Vedic, \"original\" manifestation. In 1891, he claimed that \"the most important discovery which has been made during the nineteenth century with respect to the ancient history of mankind [...] was this sample equation: Sanskrit Dyaus-pitar = Greek Zeus = Latin Jupiter = Old Norse Tyr\". Philologist Georges Dumezil draws a comparison between the Greek Uranus and the Sanskrit Varuna, although there is no hint that he believes them to be originally connected. In other cases, close parallels in character and function suggest a common heritage, yet lack of linguistic evidence makes it difficult to prove, as in the case of the Greek Moirai and the Norns of Norse mythology.\n", "Walter Burkert points out, \"When in the \"Iliad\" [xx.4–9] Zeus calls the gods into assembly on Mount Olympus, it is not only the well-known Olympians who come along, but also all the nymphs and all the rivers; Okeanos alone remains at his station\", Greek hearers recognized this impossibility as the poet's hyperbole, which proclaimed the universal power of Zeus over the ancient natural world: \"the worship of these deities,\" Burkert confirms, \"is limited only by the fact that they are inseparably identified with a specific locality.\"\n\nSection::::Interpretation.\n", "Physical objects are conceptually imported into the situation as convenient intermediaries not by definition in terms of experience, but simply as irreducible posits comparable, epistemologically, to the gods of Homer ... For my part I do, qua lay physicist, believe in physical objects and not in Homer's gods; and I consider it a scientific error to believe otherwise. But in point of epistemological footing, the physical objects and the gods differ only in degree and not in kind. Both sorts of entities enter our conceptions only as \"cultural posits\".\n", "Certain sea divinities are thus intimately bound up with the practice of human skill. The Telchines, for example, were a class of half-human, half-fish or dolphin aquatic daemons said to have been the first inhabitants of Rhodes. These beings were at once revered for their metalwork and reviled for their death-dealing power of the evil eye. In Aeschylus's \"Prometheus Bound\", the imprisoned craftsman is aided by the daughters of Ocean; and Hephaestus had his forge on \"sea-girt Lemnos\".\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-21682	Germany currently contribute the most in European Union budget, giving directly more money than they receive. How is it profitable for them?	It doesn't need to be profitable to be beneficial Germany benefits from a stable European Union and they're willing to dedicate resources to ensure that. A stable EU will see better growth and avoid war which is good for everyone in the long run, they've already seen enough	[ "DBH Deutsche Buch Handels GmbH & Co. KG\n", "Investment partnerships are in place with Hochtief AirPort Capital GmbH & Co. KGaA and Hochtief PPP Schools Capital Ltd. as well as with subsidiary Hochtief AirPort Retail SH.P.K. Via Hochtief AirPort, the company also has a 100 percent interest in Transport and Logistics Consultancy Ltd. from the UK.\n", ", the UK has the fifth highest [absolute] GDP in the world and the second largest in the EU.\n\nSection::::Size and wealth.:Budget.\n\nThe UK's contribution to the EU budget in 2016, after accounting for its rebate, was €19.4 billion. After removing about €7 billion that the UK receives in EU subsidies, the loss to the EU budget comes to about 5% of the total. Unless the budget is reduced, Germany [already the largest net contributor] seems likely to be asked to provide the largest share of the cash, its share estimated at about €2.5 billion.\n", "Investment partnerships are in place with Hochtief AirPort Capital GmbH & Co. KGaA and Hochtief PPP Schools Capital Ltd. as well as with subsidiary Hochtief AirPort Retail SH.P.K. Via Hochtief AirPort, the company also has a 100 percent interest in Transport and Logistics Consultancy Ltd. from the UK.\n\nSection::::Facts and figures.\n", "The outsourcing of the KfW's international project and export financing goes back to an agreement between Germany and the European Commission on the orientation of legally independent development institutions in Germany.\n", "Since 2017, DEG offers financial support and solutions via German Desks together with local partner banks and local German Chambers of Commerce Abroad. A local bank employee who operates in both languages and cultures, handles particular needs of German firms or supports investment financing for local companies wishing to acquire German equipment, for example.\n", "Despite a rapid increase in the amount of private donations from the general public (2016: 44.7 million euros), Welthungerhilfe continues to finance the majority of its work from institutional grants (2016: 213.4 million euros). The largest institutional donor organisations are the United Nations' World Food Programme (WFP), the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ), the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), the EU Commission and the German Federal Foreign Office (AA). In addition to those principal sources, income is received through ‘Foundation Welthungerhilfe’ (2016: 0.8 million euros) and \"Interest and other income\" (2016: 2.2 million euros). In 2016, Welthungerhilfe spent 4.9% of its income on administration, a further 9.7% was spent on advertising and public relations.\n", "KfW obtains its funding on the capital markets, where it benefits from an AAA credit rating and a 100% guarantee from the German government. It obtains around €80 billion annually on the international capital markets. KfW thus provides refinancing loans to commercial banks at advantageous rates. KfW does not lend directly to individuals; loans have to go through commercial banks. The interest rate for the promotional loans distributed by the commercial banks is further subsidized by funds provided by the . KfW also receives additional funding from the “Energy and Climate fund”, used to finance the preferential loans and the grants. Grants are distributed directly by KfW to individuals.\n", "In 2005, the German state made guarantees for orders totaling EUR 19.77 billion (USD 25 billion), which is about 2.5 percent of total German exports. About 90% of the cover was accounted for by exports to developing countries and states in central and eastern Europe, including CIS countries. These guarantees only result in expenditure by the state if the customer does not pay.\n\nThe purpose of Hermes cover, from the point of view of the German state, is the promotion of exports and helping to provide German jobs.\n", "BULLET::::- Roller derby in Germany\n\nBULLET::::- Rugby in Germany\n\nBULLET::::- Rugby league in Germany\n\nBULLET::::- Rugby union in Germany\n\nBULLET::::- List of Germany national rugby union players\n\nBULLET::::- List of Germany national rugby union team results\n\nBULLET::::- List of rugby union clubs in Germany\n\nBULLET::::- Sports broadcasting contracts in Germany\n\nSection::::Economy and infrastructure of Germany.\n\nEconomy of Germany\n\nGermany was the third largest exporter of goods in 2017. In absolute terms, Germany allocates the second biggest annual budget of development aid in the world,\n", "Being part of the German development cooperation, DEG promotes and contributes to the 2030 Agenda including the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) adopted by the UN. Among these goals is the reduction of poverty by promoting job creation and income generation in less developed and rural regions. Moreover, DEG's customers employed more than 1.5 million people, produced green energy for around 26 million people and generated local income of EUR 67 million.\n", "60% of the company's revenues come from the United Kingdom. In 2007, however, the company began the process of opening new offices in Russia, Latvia, Croatia, Romania, and Turkey, expanding on a presence in eastern Europe they established in the middle of the 1990s. In the United Kingdom, EC Harris issues reports on the efficiency of space development for both private and public industries. \n", "This method of funding new and small companies has been commonly used in Europe since the late 1990s. Some examples are the Stroeer company, which specializes in billboards and street furniture, the German television group ProSiebenSat.1 (which follows the unsold inventory strategy) and the Italian one of Mediaset through the appointed vehicle Ad4Ventures (which on the contrary follows the real advertising campaign methodology). Tens of millions of Euros of media have been provided to startups in Germany using this investment model, for example to Zalando, an online shoe retailer.\n", "In the 2018 financial year, Opel achieved an operating income of 859 € million. It is the first positive income since 1999.\n\nSection::::Company.\n", "In convergence regions, ESF co-financing of projects can reach 85% of total costs. In regional competitiveness and employment regions, 50% co-financing is more common. For the richer Member States and regions, ESF funding complements existing national employment initiatives; for less-wealthy Member States, ESF funding can be the main source of funds for employment-related initiatives. The eligible regions for the current ESF programming round (2007–2013) are shown on the map.\n", "Section::::Finances.:Grants and subsidies.\n\nAs well as this, it receives subsidies from the German Federal Ministry for Economic Co-operation and Development (BMZ) and from the European Union as well as church grants: It also benefits from the payment of fines.\n\nSection::::Finances.:Seal of approval.\n\nEvery year since 1992 Kindernothilfe has received the DZI seal of approval. This is awarded by the German Central Institute for Social Affairs (DZI) to charity organisations that uses the money received in a reliable, transparent and responsible manner.\n\nSection::::Foundation.\n", "Eurosender has been consistently building upon their vision of empowering businesses to handle their logistics more efficiently and gain access to a wider array of transportation services, going granular and collaborating with micro and medium scale logistics companies. In 2017, Eurosender received a €2 million investment from Post Luxembourg in order to help them further expand their services and grow on a bigger scale.\n\nSection::::Present.\n", "With regard to migration, it finances actions to provide emergency assistance to the frontline Member States, protect the external borders and contributes to reducing migratory pressures by directly assisting the countries and communities hosting refugees, as well as by addressing the root causes of migration in the wider regions of origin.\n", "Thyssenkrupp generates 33% of its consolidated sales in its home market. The rest of the EU (European Union) (28%) and the NAFTA region (21%) are the key trading partners for business and exports outside Germany. Thyssenkrupp companies hold leading positions with their products in numerous international markets.\n\nSection::::Business areas.\n\nThe operations are organized in five business areas:\n\nBULLET::::- Components Technology\n\nBULLET::::- Elevator Technology\n\nBULLET::::- Industrial Solutions\n\nBULLET::::- Materials Services\n\nBULLET::::- Steel Europe\n", "The first item of party spending that comes to mind is election campaigns; a European may also recall that parties employ staff and run permanent offices \"on the ground\". Someone with an inside view of party activity may also think of conventions, meetings, mailings and other communication. In Germany, campaigns at all levels of the federal system (national, state and municipal) are run by parties rather than candidates. Nonetheless, over the whole election cycle campaign spending adds up to less than spending on staff, offices and internal communication. An important impact on this distribution among spending items is certainly caused by the fact that during a campaign for all states, the federal and the European parliaments public networks provide free airtime on radio and TV to all competing parties.\n", "Most of the social issues facing European countries in general: immigration, aging populations, straining social-welfare and pension systems – are all important in Germany.\n\nGermany seeks to maintain peace through the \"deepening\" of integration among current members of the European Union member states\n\nBULLET::::- European Defence Force\n\nBULLET::::- Introduction of the single currency € Euro\n\nGermany has been the largest net contributor to EU budgets for decades (in absolute terms – given Germany's comparatively large population – not per capita) and seeks to limit the growth of these net payments in the enlarged union.\n\nBULLET::::- European Constitution\n\nSection::::International organizations.:NATO.\n", "Section::::Germany - KfW Bankengruppe.:Business plan and results.\n\nIn 2012, KfW Group had dedicated €29.2 billion to its “Climate change and environment” department, making it its largest activity and its core priority. The latest data on the KfW programs’ achievements shows positive results: between 2006 and 2012, the programs led to an average reduction of 5.9 Mt CO equivalents per year.\n", "The conclusion from this study is three-fold: first, KfW promotional programs result in important energy use and emissions reduction. Not only is this environmentally valuable, it also helps to reduce Germany's import dependence on manufacturing and energy sources. Second, the programs strengthen the demand for labour-intensive activities such as construction services, thereby reducing unemployment. Finally, the net effect of the programs on the public budget is undeniably positive, as a weighing of program costs against induced revenues shows.\n\nSection::::Estonia: KredEx.\n", "Ever since its launch in 2014, Eurosender quickly negotiated partnerships with all major European couriers, being able to negotiate lower prices with the logistics service providers for their customers. However, to meet all the specific needs of its customers, Eurosender started working with smaller businesses operating in the logistics field. Through this, less accessible routes become available via Eurosender and at the same time, smaller businesses are helped by complementing the already existing volume they have.\n", "Kindernothilfe started the Kindernothilfe Foundation in 1999. The chairman of the foundation committee is Dr. Norbert Blüm, a former cabinet minister. The yields from the foundation capital of approx. 6.3 million Euro flow directly into Kindernothilfe projects.\n\nKindernothilfe works on national and international levels by joining alliances, co-operating with networks and other organisations to achieve a global improvement of economic, social and political structural conditions. It participates in campaigns or initiates its own campaigns.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Germany is profiting from contrbuting the most in the European Union budget." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "It doesn't need to be profitable." ]
2018-00327	When light is reflected onto something, why does the reflection always have the same brightness on shadows and on other lights? Why do shadows "add up", but lights and reflections don't?	They don't. thats how concave mirrors work, they focus light into a single spot, you can use it to burn things. light is waves and both the light and the shadows add up equally.	[ "When the angle of reflection is close to the angle at which the light's rays hit the surface (that is, when the sun and the object are close to opposition from the viewpoint of the observer), this intrinsic brightness is usually close to its maximum. At a phase angle of zero degrees, all shadows disappear and the object is fully illuminated. When phase angles approach zero, there is a sudden increase in apparent brightness, and this sudden increase is referred to as the opposition surge.\n", "The luminance of a perfect Lambertian diffuse reflecting surface in foot-lamberts is equal to the incident illuminance in foot-candles. For real diffuse reflectors, the ratio of luminance to illuminance in these units is roughly equal to the reflectance of the surface. Mathematically,\n\nwhere\n", "In some instances, the materials used on walls and furniture play a key role in the lighting effect. For example, dark paint tends to absorb light, making the room appear smaller and more dim than it is, whereas light paint does the opposite. Other reflective surfaces also have an effect on lighting design.\n\nSection::::Design and architecture.:Photometric studies.\n", "The light sent to our eyes by most of the objects we see is due to diffuse reflection from their surface, so that this is our primary mechanism of physical observation.\n\nSection::::Reflection of light.:Retroreflection.\n\nSome surfaces exhibit \"retroreflection\". The structure of these surfaces is such that light is returned in the direction from which it came.\n", "By contrast, the penumbra is illuminated by some parts of the light source, giving it an intermediate level of light intensity. A viewer located in the penumbra region will see the light source, but it is partially blocked by the object casting the shadow.\n\nIf there is more than one light source, there will be several shadows, with the overlapping parts darker, and various combinations of brightnesses or even colors. The more diffuse the lighting is, the softer and more indistinct the shadow outlines become, until they disappear. The lighting of an overcast sky produces few visible shadows.\n", "The illuminance on a surface depends on how the surface is tilted with respect to the source. For example, a pocket flashlight aimed at a wall will produce a given level of illumination if aimed perpendicular to the wall, but if the flashlight is aimed at increasing angles to the perpendicular (maintaining the same distance), the illuminated spot becomes larger and so is less highly illuminated. When a surface is tilted at an angle to a source, the illumination provided on the surface is reduced because the tilted surface subtends a smaller solid angle from the source, and therefore it receives less light. For a point source, the illumination on the tilted surface is reduced by a factor equal to the cosine of the angle between a ray coming from the source and the normal to the surface. In practical lighting problems, given information on the way light is emitted from each source and the distance and geometry of the lighted area, a numerical calculation can be made of the illumination on a surface by adding the contributions of every point on every light source.\n", "Hard light sources cast shadows whose appearance of the shadow depends on the lighting instrument. For example, fresnel lights can be focused such that their shadows can be \"cut\" with crisp shadows. That is, the shadows produced will have 'harder' edges with less transition between illumination and shadow. The focused light will produce harder-edged shadows. Focusing a fresnel makes the rays of emitted light more parallel. The parallelism of these rays determines the quality of the shadows. For shadows with no transitional edge/gradient, a point light source is required. Hard light casts strong, well defined shadows.\n", "Surfaces that we usually consider rough will, if that roughness consists of relief less than the radar wavelength, behave as smooth mirrors, showing, beyond such a surface, additional images of items in front of it. Those mirror images will appear within the shadow of the mirroring surface, sometimes filling the entire shadow, thus preventing recognition of the shadow.\n", "Section::::Physical mechanisms.:Coherent backscatter.\n\nA theory for an additional effect that increases brightness during opposition is that of coherent backscatter. In the case of coherent backscatter, the reflected light is enhanced at narrow angles if the size of the scatterers in the surface of the body is comparable to the wavelength of light and the distance between scattering particles is greater than a wavelength. The increase in brightness is due to the reflected light combining coherently with the emitted light.\n", "In sunny backlight the problem is more contrast than the camera can handle. But on an overcast day the problem is a lack of contrast. In overcast conditions adding flash will have the net effect of making the shadows darker. Even if the flash is near-axis fill flash it will fall off front-to-back more rapidly than the natural lighting and increase contrast. If moved off axis the flash becomes a \"key\" light and can be used to create a higher contrast directional lighting pattern on the face. The greater the amount of off-axis flash added, the darker the shadows will become after exposure is adjusted for normal looking highlights.\n", "Fill light\n\nIn television, film, stage, or photographic lighting, a fill light (often simply fill) may be used to reduce the contrast of a scene to match the dynamic range of the recording media and record the same amount of detail typically seen by eye in average lighting and considered normal. From that baseline of normality using more or less fill will make shadows seem lighter or darker than normal which will cause the viewer to react differently, by inferring both environmental and mood clues from the tone of the shadows.\n", "Some animals' retinas act as retroreflectors (see \"tapetum lucidum\" for more detail), as this effectively improves the animals' night vision. Since the lenses of their eyes modify reciprocally the paths of the incoming and outgoing light the effect is that the eyes act as a strong retroreflector, sometimes seen at night when walking in wildlands with a flashlight.\n\nA simple retroreflector can be made by placing three ordinary mirrors mutually perpendicular to one another (a corner reflector). The image produced is the inverse of one produced by a single mirror. \n", "Light scattered from the surfaces of objects is by far the primary light which humans visually observe.\n\nSection::::Interreflection.\n", "Section::::In marine animals.:Mechanism.:Matching light intensity and wavelength.\n\nAt night, nocturnal organisms match both the wavelength and the light intensity of their bioluminescence to that of the down-welling moonlight and direct it downward as they swim, to help them remain unnoticed by any observers below.\n", "Plato here is using the familiar relationship between ordinary objects and their shadows or reflections in order to illustrate the relationship between the physical world as a whole and the world of Ideas (Forms) as a whole. The former is made up of a series of passing reflections of the latter, which is eternal, more real and \"true.\" Moreover, the knowledge that we have of the Ideas – when indeed we do have it – is of a higher order than knowledge of the mere physical world. In particular, knowledge of the forms leads to a knowledge of the Idea (Form) of the Good.\n", "A 3D graphic rendering software is typically used to compute the deformation caused by the non perpendicular, non-planar or even complex projection surface.\n\nComplex objects (or aggregation of multiple simple objects) create self shadows that must be compensated by using several projectors.\n\nThe objects are typically replaced by neutral color ones, the projection giving all its visual properties, thus the name shader lamps.\n", "A mirror does not just produce an image of what would be there without it; it also changes the light distribution in the halfspace in front of and behind the mirror. A mirror hanging on the wall makes the room brighter because additional light sources appear in the mirror image. However, the appearance of additional light does not violate the conservation of energy principle, because some light no longer reaches behind the mirror, as the mirror simply re-directs the light energy. In terms of the light distribution, the virtual mirror image has the same appearance and the same effect as a real, symmetrically arranged half-space behind a window (instead of the mirror). Shadows may extend from the mirror into the halfspace before it, and vice versa.\n", "For an accurate estimate of direct illumination, a ray is traced from the point of intersection to each light source. As long as a ray does not intersect another object, the light source is used to calculate the direct illumination. For an approximate estimate of indirect illumination, the photon map is used to calculate the radiance contribution.\n\nSpecular reflection can be, in most cases, calculated using ray tracing procedures (as it handles reflections well).\n", "A shadow occupies a three-dimensional volume of space, but this is usually not visible until it projects onto a reflective surface. A light fog, mist, or dust cloud can reveal the 3D presence of volumetric patterns in light and shadow.\n", "Theoretically, reflections, refractions, and shadows are all examples of global illumination, because when simulating them, one object affects the rendering of another (as opposed to an object being affected only by a direct light). In practice, however, only the simulation of diffuse inter-reflection or caustics is called global illumination.\n\nSection::::Algorithms.\n", "If we assume that the wavelet is minimum phase, we can recover it by calculating the minimum phase equivalent of the power spectrum we just found. The reflectivity may be recovered by designing and applying a Wiener filter that shapes the estimated wavelet to a Dirac delta function (i.e., a spike). The result may be seen as a series of scaled, shifted delta functions (although this is not mathematically rigorous):\n\nwhere \"N\" is the number of reflection events, \"τ\" \"τ\" are the reflection times of each event, and \"r\" are the reflection coefficients.\n", "Shadows are cast through fog in three dimensions. The fog is dense enough to be illuminated by light that passes through gaps in a structure or tree, but thin enough to let a large quantity of that light pass through to illuminate points further on. As a result, object shadows appear as \"beams\" oriented in a direction parallel to the light source. These voluminous shadows are created the same way as crepuscular rays, which are the shadows of clouds. In fog, it is solid objects that cast shadows.\n\nSection::::Sound propagation and acoustic effects.\n", "The image on the right (Fig. 2.) strongly supports this view of how brightness perception works. Although other frameworks have either no explanation for this effect or explanations that are highly inconsistent with their explanations for similar effects, the empirical framework makes the case that the perceived brightness differences are due to empirical associations between the targets and their respective contexts. In this case, because the “lighter” targets would typically have been shadowed, humans perceive them in a way that is consistent with their having a higher reflectance despite their presumably low levels of illuminance. Note that this approach is considerably different from computational “context”-driven approaches, since in this case the target/context relationships are contingent and world-based, and therefore cannot be generalized to other cases in any meaningful way.\n", "BULLET::::- Front lighting is also quite common, but tends to make the subject look flat as its casts almost no visible shadows. Lighting from the side is the less common, as it tends to produce glare near eye level. Backlighting either around or through an object is mainly for accent.\n\nBULLET::::- Backlighting either around or through an object is mainly for accent. Backlighting is used to illuminate a background or backdrop. This adds depth to an image or scene. Others use it to achieve a more dramatic effect.\n\nSection::::Fixtures.:Forms of lighting.\n\nSection::::Fixtures.:Forms of lighting.:Indoor lighting.\n", "An unilluminated LCD must be lit from the front. To use ambient light, the liquid crystal itself is sandwiched between a polarization filter and a reflective surface. The mirror makes the display opaque so it cannot be illuminated from the back. Most often a light source is placed around the perimeter of the LCD.\n" ]	[ "Shadows add up.", "When light is reflected on something, the reflection always shares the same brightness on shadows and on other lights, the shadows add up but the lights and reflections don't." ]	[ "Light adds together to make things brighter so a reflection will have the brightness that is already there plus more from the reflection. ", "They actually don't, light is waves and everything adds up equally. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Shadows add up.", "When light is reflected on something, the reflection always shares the same brightness on shadows and on other lights, the shadows add up but the lights and reflections don't." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Light adds together to make things brighter so a reflection will have the brightness that is already there plus more from the reflection. ", "They actually don't, light is waves and everything adds up equally. " ]
2018-17602	How does conversion of food into energy in our bodies work? How can ~500 grams of food sustain an ~80 kg human for approximately 6-8 hours?	* It's like how a gallon of gas can move a 2000 pound car for 30 miles. Or it's like how a full glass of water just needs enough extra water added to account for evaporation. You aren't growing a whole human with the extra energy. All you're doing is accounting for the energy that was burned off. As for 500 grams of food, if it was all simple carbohydrates, that's 2000 calories. That's plenty of calories, even for a 175 pound person. Human metabolism is slightly more energy efficient than a car engine. If you're talking about 500 grams including fiber and water weight, it would be less. As for your main question of how does the conversion of food into energy work, [it works like this.]( URL_0 ) The short version is you take food, break it down into smaller and smaller molecules so that the various parts of your cells can use them.	[ "Food energy\n\nFood energy is chemical energy that animals (including humans) derive from food through the process of cellular respiration. Cellular respiration may either involve the chemical reaction of food molecules with molecular oxygen (aerobic respiration) or the process of reorganizing the food molecules without additional oxygen (anaerobic respiration).\n\nSection::::Overview.\n", "Section::::Energy usage in the human body.\n\nThe human body uses the energy released by respiration for a wide range of purposes: about 20% of the energy is used for brain metabolism, and much of the rest is used for the basal metabolic requirements of other organs and tissues. In cold environments, metabolism may increase simply to produce heat to maintain body temperature. Among the diverse uses for energy, one is the production of mechanical energy by skeletal muscle to maintain posture and produce motion.\n", "Microbes simply secrete digestive enzymes into their surroundings, while animals only secrete these enzymes from specialized cells in their guts, including the stomach and pancreas, and salivary glands. The amino acids or sugars released by these extracellular enzymes are then pumped into cells by active transport proteins.\n\nSection::::Catabolism.:Energy from organic compounds.\n", "Some of the energy thus captured produces biomass and energy that is available for growth and development of other life forms. The majority of the rest of this biomass and energy are lost as waste molecules and heat. The most important processes for converting the energy trapped in chemical substances into energy useful to sustain life are metabolism and cellular respiration.\n\nSection::::Study and research.\n\nSection::::Study and research.:Structural.\n", "Efficiency of food conversion\n\nThe efficiency of conversion of ingested food to unit of body substance (ECI, also termed \"growth efficiency\") is an index measure of food fuel efficiency in animals. The ECI is a rough scale of how much of the food ingested is converted into growth in the animal's mass. It can be used to compare the growth efficiency as measured by the weight gain of different animals from consuming a given quantity of food relative to its size.\n", "The thermic effect of food is the energy required for digestion, absorption, and disposal of ingested nutrients. Its magnitude depends on the composition of the food consumed:\n\nBULLET::::- Carbohydrates: 5 to 15% of the energy consumed\n\nBULLET::::- Protein: 20 to 35%\n\nBULLET::::- Fats: at most 5 to 15%\n", "Humans and other animals need a minimum intake of food energy to sustain their metabolism and to drive their muscles. Foods are composed chiefly of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, water, vitamins, and minerals. Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and water represent virtually all the weight of food, with vitamins and minerals making up only a small percentage of the weight. (Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins comprise ninety percent of the dry weight of foods.) Organisms derive food energy from carbohydrates, fats and proteins as well as from organic acids, polyols, and ethanol present in the diet. Some diet components that provide little or no food energy, such as water, minerals, vitamins, cholesterol and insoluble fiber, may still be necessary to health and survival for other reasons. Water, minerals, vitamins, and cholesterol are not broken down (they are used by the body in the form in which they are absorbed) and so cannot be used for energy. Fiber cannot be completely digested by most animals, including humans, who can only extract 2 kcal/g of food energy. Ruminants can extract nearly 4 kcal/g from fiber because of the bacteria in their rumens.\n", "Any living organism relies on an external source of energy – radiant energy from the Sun in the case of green plants, chemical energy in some form in the case of animals – to be able to grow and reproduce. The daily 1500–2000 Calories (6–8 MJ) recommended for a human adult are taken as a combination of oxygen and food molecules, the latter mostly carbohydrates and fats, of which glucose (CHO) and stearin (CHO) are convenient examples. The food molecules are oxidised to carbon dioxide and water in the mitochondria\n\nand some of the energy is used to convert ADP into ATP.\n", "The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can be neither created nor destroyed. But energy can be converted from one form of energy to another. So, when a calorie of food energy is consumed, one of three particular effects occur within the body: a portion of that calorie may be stored as body fat, triglycerides, or glycogen, transferred to cells and converted to chemical energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP – a coenzyme) or related compounds, or dissipated as heat.\n\nSection::::Energy.\n\nSection::::Energy.:Intake.\n", "The survival of a living organism depends on the continuous input of energy. Chemical reactions that are responsible for its structure and function are tuned to extract energy from substances that act as its food and transform them to help form new cells and sustain them. In this process, molecules of chemical substances that constitute food play two roles; first, they contain energy that can be transformed and reused in that organism's biological, chemical reactions; second, food can be transformed into new molecular structures (biomolecules) that are of use to that organism.\n", "The conversion efficiency of energy from respiration into mechanical (physical) power depends on the type of food and on the type of physical energy usage (e.g., which muscles are used, whether the muscle is used aerobically or anaerobically). In general, the efficiency of muscles is rather low: only 18 to 26% of the energy available from respiration is converted into mechanical energy. This low efficiency is the result of about 40% efficiency of generating ATP from the respiration of food, losses in converting energy from ATP into mechanical work inside the muscle, and mechanical losses inside the body. The latter two losses are dependent on the type of exercise and the type of muscle fibers being used (fast-twitch or slow-twitch). For an overall efficiency of 20%, one watt of mechanical power is equivalent to per hour. For example, a manufacturer of rowing equipment shows calories released from 'burning' food as four times the actual mechanical work, plus per hour, which amounts to about 20% efficiency at 250 watts of mechanical output. It can take up to 20 hours of little physical output (e.g., walking) to \"burn off\" more than a body would otherwise consume. For reference, each kilogram of body fat is roughly equivalent to of food energy (i.e., 3,500 kilocalories per pound).\n", "Section::::Energy density of food.\n", "The main fuel used by the body during exercise is carbohydrates, which is stored in muscle as glycogen – a form of sugar. During exercise, muscle glycogen reserves can be used up, especially when activities last longer than 90 min. Because the amount of glycogen stored in the body is limited, it is important for athletes participating in endurance sports such as marathons to consume carbohydrates during their events.\n\nSection::::Nutrition for special populations.:Paediatric nutrition.\n", "The macronutrients (excluding fiber and water) provide structural material (amino acids from which proteins are built, and lipids from which cell membranes and some signaling molecules are built), and energy. Some of the structural material can also be used to generate energy internally, and in either case it is measured in Joules or kilocalories (often called \"Calories\" and written with a capital 'C' to distinguish them from little 'c' calories). Carbohydrates and proteins provide 17 kJ approximately (4 kcal) of energy per gram, while fats provide 37 kJ (9 kcal) per gram, though the net energy from either depends on such factors as absorption and digestive effort, which vary substantially from instance to instance.\n", "The prefix \"extra\" means \"outside the thing \", and indicates that extracellular digestion must occur outside the cell. During extracellular digestion, food is broken down outside the cell either mechanically or with acid by special molecules called enzymes. Then the newly broken down nutrients can be absorbed by the cells nearby. Humans use extracellular digestion when they eat. Their teeth grind the food up, enzymes and acid in the stomach liquefy it, and additional enzymes in the small intestine break the food down into parts their cells can use.\n", "BULLET::::- Food is transformed into reserve, which fuels all other metabolic processes. The feeding rate is proportional to the surface area; food handling time and the transformation efficiency from food to reserve are independent of food density.\n", "Anaerobic Digestion is a conversion process that converts food waste into renewable energy. Food is separated from any packaging and broken down into a more digestible state and then it is mixed with bacteria in special oxygen free holding tanks. The bacteria work to break down the food waste converting it into methane biogas which can be used to generate electricity.\n", "Therefore, these cofactors are continuously recycled as part of metabolism. As an example, the total quantity of ATP in the human body is about 0.1 mole. This ATP is constantly being broken down into ADP, and then converted back into ATP. Thus, at any given time, the total amount of ATP + ADP remains fairly constant. The energy used by human cells requires the hydrolysis of 100 to 150 moles of ATP daily, which is around 50 to 75 kg. In typical situations, humans use up their body weight of ATP over the course of the day. This means that each ATP molecule is recycled 1000 to 1500 times daily.\n", "The macronutrients (excluding fiber and water) provide structural material (amino acids from which proteins are built, and lipids from which cell membranes and some signaling molecules are built) and energy. Some of the structural material can be used to generate energy internally, and in either case it is measured in Joules or kilocalories (often called \"Calories\" and written with a capital \"C\" to distinguish them from little 'c' calories). Carbohydrates and proteins provide 17 kJ approximately (4 kcal) of energy per gram, while fats provide 37 kJ (9 kcal) per gram, though the net energy from either depends on such factors as absorption and digestive effort, which vary substantially from instance to instance. Vitamins, minerals, fiber, and water do not provide energy, but are required for other reasons.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nDr. Robert K. Crane, a Harvard graduate, had been working in the field of carbohydrate biochemistry for quite some time. His experience in the areas of glucose-6-phosphate biochemistry, carbon dioxide fixation, hexokinase and phosphate studies led him to hypothesize cotransport of glucose along with sodium through the intestine. Pictured right is of Dr. Crane and his drawing of the cotransporter system he proposed in 1960, at the international meet on membrane transport and metabolism. His studies were confirmed by other groups and are now used as the classical model to understand cotransporters.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.\n", "The rest of the chemical energy in O and the carbohydrate or fat is converted into heat: the ATP is used as a sort of \"energy currency\", and some of the chemical energy it contains is used for other metabolism when ATP reacts with OH groups and eventually splits into ADP and phosphate (at each stage of a metabolic pathway, some chemical energy is converted into heat). Only a tiny fraction of the original chemical energy is used for work:\n", "Food\n\nFood is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for an organism. It is usually of plant or animal origin, and contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, or minerals. The substance is ingested by an organism and assimilated by the organism's cells to provide energy, maintain life, or stimulate growth.\n\nHistorically, humans secured food through two methods: hunting and gathering and agriculture. Today, the majority of the food energy required by the ever increasing population of the world is supplied by the food industry.\n", "The basic mechanism for fermentation remains present in all cells of higher organisms. Mammalian muscle carries out the fermentation that occurs during periods of intense exercise where oxygen supply becomes limited, resulting in the creation of lactic acid. In invertebrates, fermentation also produces succinate and alanine.\n", "Simple carbohydrates are absorbed quickly, and therefore raise blood-sugar levels more rapidly than other nutrients. However, the most important plant carbohydrate nutrient, starch, varies in its absorption. Gelatinized starch (starch heated for a few minutes in the presence of water) is far more digestible than plain starch, and starch which has been divided into fine particles is also more absorbable during digestion. The increased effort and decreased availability reduces the available energy from starchy foods substantially and can be seen experimentally in rats and anecdotally in humans. Additionally, up to a third of dietary starch may be unavailable due to mechanical or chemical difficulty.\n", "Section::::Nutritional science: reliable and universal bioavailability.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-07798	In hotels, the bathroom light switch is often on the outside of the bathroom wall. Why not just put the switch on the other side of the wall in the same spot?	Its an electrical code / safety thing. In your home the light switch is waay the other side of the bathroom so you couldn't - easily - stand in the bathtub and flick it, thereby possibly electrocuting yourself. You could still do it, but you'd have to be pretty determined, and its in your own home. Have at it. Hotels are rather risk averse (insurance things), so by putting the switch outside there's almost NO way you could do something stupid and electrocute yourself in THEIR bathtub.	[ "A switch of basically the same design is also used on Australian power outlet wall-plates. It is now extremely rare to find any other type of switch in Australian homes, although the Australian Wiring Standard AS 3112 does not forbid other types.\n\nWhile many variations of Australian designs and cover plates are available, some designers and renovators may import UK- and European-designed switches when they desire a particular finish. However, while standard Australian wall \"mounting\" plates have the same dimensions as those used in North America, they have different dimensions from those used in the UK or Europe.\n", "Section::::Common uses for wireless switches.:Brick, concrete, tile and plaster walls.\n\nInstalling a wired switch in a solid brick or concrete wall or installing on a plaster or tiled wall requires delicate routing and drilling to create a channel in the wall for the wire and space for the switch and switch box inside the wall. This routing and drilling work could damage the surface, causing expensive repair work. Wireless switches do not need any channels, holes, boxes or wire in the wall. This reduces the amount of electrical work required when installing a switch.\n\nSection::::Battery-free switches.\n", "In some cases, the switches are placed behind a door that is secured with a screw but not locked with a key; they are out of sight and thus less likely to be interfered with. Screw-on door-covered switches are used on public address equipment that is intended to be rented out to non-professional users. The switches for some settings, such as the on-off switch for the speaker-protection limiter or a low-pitch \"rumble filter\" (designed to protect speakers from very low sounds), may be hidden behind a screwed-on door or metal plate. \n", "In Australia and New Zealand, a small rocker switch is almost universally used, in the form of a switch mechanism, which is mounted from behind into a wall-plate—attaching via mounting lugs, as shown in the photo on the left. A slightly larger \"cover plate\", supplied with the wall-plate, or additional to it, then clips over the assembly, as an additional insulating barrier covering the deep set wall-plate mounting screws - which are \"deep set\" to prevent inadvertent human contact. The \"cover plate\" can be removed without the use of tools, such as when wall painting is required.\n", "Another use for wireless switches is in log homes, where electrical installations can be difficult because of the amount of routing and drilling that would otherwise be needed. When running a regular (non-wireless) circuit, the electrician must drill a hole through all of the logs to get each wire to the switch location. The electrician also must cut a large hole in the log to install a switch box. Wireless switches do not need switch boxes because there are no wires and no routing is needed. This decreases the electrical work required.\n", "While larger \"decorator\" style switches are readily available in Australia, the advantage of the smaller mechanisms is that wall-plates are available to mount from one to six individual switch mechanisms, or other correspondingly sized \"mechanisms\" - such as dimmers and indicator lights - in the same space as one (or two) switches of larger design could be mounted. Since the mechanisms are small, they can also be mounted into \"architrave\" plates, for mounting in positions where it is not possible to mount a \"standard\" sized wall-plate. An example is shown in the picture below on the right. All of the switch mechanisms have no exposed metal parts requiring grounding (earthing). While switches, wall-plates, and cover plates from different manufacturers tend not to be interchangeable, switch mechanisms of this type have been available in Australia since 1951.\n", "Section::::Design considerations.:Electricity.\n\nElectrical appliances, such as lights, heaters, and heated towel rails, generally need to be installed as fixtures, with permanent connections rather than plugs and sockets. This minimizes the risk of electric shock. Ground-fault circuit interrupter electrical sockets can reduce the risk of electric shock, and are required for bathroom socket installation by electrical and building codes in the United States and Canada. In some countries, such as the United Kingdom, only special sockets suitable for electric shavers and electric toothbrushes are permitted in bathrooms, and are labelled as such. \n", "In the UK, putting 13 amp BS 1363 sockets on a lighting circuit is discouraged (although not outright prohibited), but 2 amp or 5 amp BS 546 outlets are often put on lighting circuits to allow control of free-standing lamps from the room's light switches. In North American site-built and mobile homes, often living rooms and bedrooms have a switched receptacle for a floor or table lamp.\n\nSection::::Design.:Internal operation.\n", "Where lighting circuits must not be accidentally switched off, for example, corridor and restroom lighting controls in public buildings such as schools, a tamper-resistant switch may be installed. These require a key to operate and so discourage casual or accidental operation of the switch.\n\nSection::::Variations on design.:Voltage class.\n\nIn North American commercial and industrial lighting installations, lighting installed on 480Y/277 V 3-phase circuits uses voltages higher than the rating of common 120 V switches.\n\nSection::::Variations on design.:Mercury switch.\n", "The switches may be single or multiple, designed for indoor or outdoor use. Optional extras may include dimmer-controls, environmental protection, weather and security protection. In residential and light commercial lighting systems, the light switch directly controls the circuit feeding the lamps. In larger lighting systems, for example warehouses or outdoor lighting systems, the required current may be too high for a manual switch. In these systems light switches control lighting contactors, a relay that allows the manual light switch to operate on a lower voltage or with smaller wiring than would be required in the main lighting circuit.\n", "Screwed-on covers are also widely used on children's electric and electronic toys, so that a parent can control certain settings such as the maximum speed of a toy electric ride-on car or the maximum volume of a video game.\n\nSection::::Locked switches.\n\nWhere lighting circuits must not be accidentally switched off (for example, school corridors), a vandal-resistant switch may be installed. These require a simple key or tool to operate, and thus discourage casual or accidental operation of the switch.\n", "If in that room you also have a free standing lamp plugged into a power point and you also want to control this from your automation system, you will need to have that power point individually wired back to the electrical switchboard.\n\nSo if you want to individually control every light fitting and every power point or power outlets then each one of these devices must be individually wired back to the electrical switchboard. As you can see this start to become quite a lot of electrical cabling so planning is essential.\n", "Sometimes a 3-way 2-circuit switch is incorporated together with a regular socket, to be used as the main lamp socket in a lamp with a night light. In this configuration, the switched lamp one live terminal for the night light socket is exposed externally on the base of the socket, to be wired to the remote candelabra socket. Hence, this type of socket has a Hot terminal, a Neutral terminal, and a switched Hot terminal. This creates a confusing situation in which a keyed 3-way socket (which has a 3-contact socket at the top of it) has only two terminal screws, while a night-light socket (which does not have a 3-contact socket at the top) has three terminal screws on the base.\n", "BULLET::::1. \"Shower Stalled\" - What should have been a basic bathroom enlargement snowballs into disaster for a young couple seeking to spruce up their mid-century home. Mike explains the importance of obtaining permits before any home renovation projects (they protect the home owner, not the contractor) and why no one should just build over top of old fixtures.\n", "Single-pole illuminated switches derive the power to energize their in-built illuminating source (usually, a \"neon\" lamp) from the current passing through the lamp(s) which they control. Such switches work satisfactorily with incandescent lamps, halogen lighting, and non-electronic fluorescent fixtures, because the small current required for the switch's illuminating source is too small to produce any visible light from such devices controlled by the illuminated switch. However, if they control only compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) and/or LED lamps, the small amount of current required to energize the lighting source within switch also slowly charges the internal input capacitor in the electronic ballast of the CFL or LED until the voltage across it rises to the point where it produces a brief discharge through the CFL. This cycle may repeat indefinitely, resulting in repetitive brief flashing of the lamp(s) (and the light inside the switch) while the illuminated switch is in the \"off\" position.\n", "Wireless light switches eliminate the wire from the light to the switch location. This is useful in remodeling situations where new wiring can be a hassle. Rather than tearing down a wall to gain access to the wires, a wireless switch can be used. This avoids any need to access wires and makes remodeling fast and simple.\n\nSection::::Common uses for wireless switches.:Log homes.\n", "To combat contact corrosion, a switch is usually designed to have a \"wipe\" action so that the contacts are cleaned. Large switches may be designed with a supplemental replaceable contact that closes and opens before the main contact, protecting the main current-carrying contacts from wear due to arcing. The contact area of the switch is constructed of materials that resist corrosion and arcing.\n", "The screw terminals are hollow and allow up to at least three 1 mm (CSA) wires, twisted together, to be inserted to a depth of up to and secured with a set screw. The contact terminal set screws are installed at a slight angle to allow easier screwdriver access after the switch mechanism has been installed into a wall-plate - before fixing the wall-plate to the wall. Also shown is a \"loop\" connection terminal. This terminal plays no part in the action of the switch but, because there is available space, it is provided as an insulated terminal for joining other wires, if required (such as the neutral wires). Each Australian rocker switch mechanism is actually a single-pole, double-throw (SPDT) Switch, also known as a \"two-way switch\", and has three terminals.\n", "UK building regulations also define what type of electrical fixtures, such as light fittings (i.e. how water-/splash-proof) may be installed in the areas (zones) around and above baths, and showers. \n\nSection::::Design considerations.:Lighting.\n", "The company went through a great deal of research and engineering to develop the remote. They were frustrated in some of their early efforts by interference from Apple co-founder, Jobs: the enclosure was originally by FROG Design, but they also worked for Apple and Jobs would not allow them to do work for CL 9. They overcame these setbacks and came up with a successful design for the innovative device. When it was near completion, with just the programming by Wozniak left to do, he pulled back. He decided to hire another programmer to do the work so he could spend more time with his children.\n", "BULLET::::1. IC or “insulation contact” rated new construction housings are attached to the ceiling supports before the ceiling surface is installed. If the area above the ceiling is accessible these fixtures may also be installed from within the attic space. IC housings must be installed wherever insulation will be in direct contact with the housing.\n\nBULLET::::2. Non-IC rated new construction housings are used in the same situations as the IC rated new construction housings, only they require that there be no contact with insulation and at least spacing from insulation. These housings are typically rated up to 150 watts.\n", "Section::::Variations on design.:Illuminated switch.\n\nIlluminated switches incorporate a small neon lamp or LED, allowing the user easily to locate the switch in the dark. Household illuminated switches were introduced in the mid-1950s.\n", "The major problem with this method is that in one of the four switch combinations the socket around the bulb is electrified at both of its terminals even though the bulb is not lit. As the shell may be energized, even with the light switched off, this poses a risk of electrical shock when changing the bulb. This method is therefore prohibited in modern building wiring.\n\nSection::::More than two locations.\n", "This is an older method of water-saving automatic flushing, which only operates when the public toilet has been used. A push-button switch is mounted in the door frame, and triggers the flush valve for all urinals every time the door is opened. While it cannot detect the use of individual urinals, it provides reasonable flushing action without wasting excessive amounts of water when the urinals are not being used. This method requires a spring-operated automatic door closer, since the flush mechanism only operates when the door opens.\n", "But with old K&T, a past electrician might have reasoned as follows: \"I have a 20 amp circuit on one phase over here, and another 20 amp circuit on an opposite phase over there. Rather than run an entirely new set of wires for this one device, I will just tap off the supply wires of those two circuits and bring them together for this one device.\" This method of wiring does work and it reduces the amount of wire used, but it makes electrical problems very hard to find and fix, with (possibly undocumented) wires going all over the place within the walls and ceilings, to whatever was the most expedient supply or return wire at the time of installation.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-15406	How is genetic memory different from instinct?	instinct is coded into DNA itself and is unchangeable except by mutation. if it's a good adaptation it gets passed to the next generation, if it isnt it goes extinct genetic memory, assuming you're referring to stuff like rats being exposed to a smell + pain and having their kids be afraid of that smell, works via proteins attaching themselves to the rat's DNA. it can change as a result of life experience, and can fade if the kids dont experience the same thing	[ "BULLET::::- In CW's \"Supergirl\", Braniac 5 warns interrogators that his species possesses \"ancestral\" memory, and that his ancestors were \"collectors, conquerors\". After repeatedly being struck in the head, his programming defaults to that of ancestors, sealing off his emotional awareness, causing him to behave much in the way of ancestor and Superman for \"Braniac\".\n\nBULLET::::- Frank Herbert's Dune 1965 series of novels is replete with the notion of genetic memory.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Adaptive memory\n\nBULLET::::- Instinct\n\nBULLET::::- Psychological nativism\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "Section::::Somatic memory.:In animals.\n", "In population genetics and evolution, genetic memory represents the recorded history of adaptive changes in a species. Selection of organisms carrying genes coding for the best adapted proteins results in the evolution of species. An example for such a genetic memory is the innate immune response that represents a recording of the history of common microbial and viral pathogens encountered throughout the evolutionary history of the species. In contrast to the somatic memory of the adaptive immune response, the innate immune response is present at birth and does not require the immune system to learn to recognize antigens.\n", "In contrast to the modern view, in the 19th century, biologists considered genetic memory to be a fusion of memory and heredity, and held it to be a Lamarckian mechanism. Ribot in 1881, for example, held that psychological and genetic memory were based upon a common mechanism, and that the former only differed from the latter in that it interacted with consciousness. Hering and Semon developed general theories of memory, the latter inventing the idea of the engram and concomitant processes of \"engraphy\" and \"ecphory\". Semon divided memory into genetic memory and central nervous memory.\n", "BULLET::::- In George Orwell's novel \"Nineteen Eighty-Four\" Winston thinks that \"one had some kind of ancestral memory that things had once been different\".\n\nBULLET::::- In the \"Assassin's Creed\" universe, genetic memory is decoded by a virtual machine called the Animus. The Animus decodes and renders memories in a three-dimensional field, allowing the reliving of previous events and the discovery of hidden information.\n", "Section::::Somatic memory.:In plants.\n", "Section::::Somatic memory.:Inherited epigenetic memory.\n\nIn genetics, genomic imprinting or other patterns of inheritance that are not determined by DNA sequence alone can form an epigenetic memory that is passed on to subsequent generations through meiosis. In contrast, somatic genetic memories are passed on by mitosis and limited to the individual, but are not passed on to the offspring. Both processes include similar epigenetic mechanisms, e.g. involving histones and methylation patterns.\n\nSection::::Somatic memory.:Microbial memory.\n\nIn microbes, genetic memory is present in the form of inversion of specific DNA sequences serving as a switch between alternative patterns of gene expression.\n\nSection::::Somatic memory.:Evolution.\n", "Evidence from a twin study indicates a genetic contribution to cognitive functions. Heritability estimates have been found to be high for general cognitive functions but low for memory itself. Adjusting for the effects of education 79% of executive function can be explained by genetic contribution. A study combining twin and adoption studies found all cognitive functions to be heritable. Speed of processing had the highest heritability in this particular study.\n\nSection::::Cognitive reserve.\n", "An article in \"Newsweek\" mentions research that shows that \"Some water fleas sport a spiny helmet that deters predators; others, with identical DNA sequences, have bare heads. What differs between the two is not their genes but their mothers' experiences. If mom had a run-in with predators, her offspring have helmets, an effect one wag called \"bite the mother, fight the daughter.\" If mom lived her life unthreatened, her offspring have no helmets. Same DNA, different traits. Somehow, the experience of the mother, not only her DNA sequences, has been transmitted to her offspring.\"\n", "Human memory, including the process of encoding, is known to be a heritable trait that is controlled by more than one gene. In fact, twin studies suggest that genetic differences are responsible for as much as 50% of the variance seen in memory tasks.\n", "Genetic memory (psychology)\n\nIn psychology, genetic memory is a memory present at birth that exists in the absence of sensory experience, and is incorporated into the genome over long spans of time. It is based on the idea that common experiences of a species become incorporated into its genetic code, not by a Lamarckian process that encodes specific memories but by a much vaguer tendency to encode a readiness to respond in certain ways to certain stimuli.\n\nSection::::Language.\n", "Scientists speculate that similar genetic mechanisms could be linked with phobias, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorders, as well as other neuropsychiatric disorders, in humans.\n\nSection::::Historical views.\n", "In a classic paper published in 1972, the psychologist Richard Herrnstein wrote: \"A comparison of McDougall's theory of instinct and Skinner's reinforcement theory — representing nature and nurture — shows remarkable, and largely unrecognized, similarities between the contending sides in the nature-nurture dispute as applied to the analysis of behavior.\"\n", "Scientists ran tests on the neuronal circuits of several rats and ascertained that if the neuronal circuits had only been formed based on an individual's experience, the tests would bring about very different characteristics for each rat. However, the rats all displayed similar characteristics which suggests that their neuronal circuits must have been established previously to their experiences – it must be inborn and created prior to their experiences. The research done in the Blue Brain project expresses that some the building blocks of all our knowledge, is genetic and we're born with it.\n\nSection::::Learning vs. innate knowledge.\n", "In the research field of evolutionary psychology it is believed that some cognitive modules are inherited and some are created by learning, but the creation of new modules by learning is often guided by inherited modules.\n\nFor example, the ability to drive a car or throw a basketball are certainly learned and not inherited modules, but they may make use of inherited modules to rapidly compute trajectories.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Instinct\" (\"Orphan Black\"), an episode of \"Orphan Black\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Instinct\" (Hong Kong TV series), a 1994 Hong Kong television series\n\nBULLET::::- \"Instinct\" (TV serial), a 2007 crime drama starring Anthony Flanagan\n\nBULLET::::- \"Instinct\" (American TV series), a 2018 American television series\n\nBULLET::::- Team Instinct, a team on \"Pokémon Go\"\n\nSection::::Music.\n\nBULLET::::- Instinct Records, a record label\n\nBULLET::::- \"Instinct\" (Iggy Pop album), 1998\n\nBULLET::::- \"Instinct\" (Ektomorf album), 2005\n\nBULLET::::- \"Instinct\" (Kavana album), 1998\n\nBULLET::::- \"Instinct\" (Mandalay album), 2000\n\nBULLET::::- \"Instinct\" (Granrodeo album), 2008\n\nBULLET::::- \"Instinct\" (As Blood Runs Black album), 2011\n\nBULLET::::- \"Instinct\" (Niki and the Dove album), 2012\n", "BULLET::::2. Learning from experience. This is obviously a very important feature of humans, but there is considerable evidence of learned behaviour in other animal species (vertebrates and invertebrates). There are even reports of learned behaviour in \"Drosophila\" larvae.\n\nSection::::A gene for X.\n", "Section::::Trauma, phobias, and neuropsychiatric disorders.\n\nNeuroscientific research on mice suggests that some experiences can influence subsequent generations. In a study, mice trained to fear a specific smell passed on their trained aversion to their descendants, which were then extremely sensitive and fearful of the same smell, even though they had never encountered it, nor been trained to fear it.\n\nChanges in brain structure were also found. The researchers concluded that \"[t]he experiences of a parent, even before conceiving, markedly influence both structure and function in the nervous system of subsequent generations\".\n", "This 19th-century view is not wholly dead, albeit that it stands in stark contrast to the ideas of neo-Darwinism. In modern psychology, genetic memory is generally considered a false idea. However, biologists such as Stuart A. Newman and Gerd B. Müller have contributed to the idea in the 21st century.\n\nSection::::In fiction.\n\nBULLET::::- In the 1975 \"Doctor Who\" episode \"The Ark in Space\", an insectoid species known as the Wirrn possess a form race memory as part of a hive mind. Also in the 1984 episode \"Frontios\", Turlough demonstrates the race memory after a nervous breakdown.\n", "The social pre-wiring hypothesis was proved correct, \"The central advance of this study is the demonstration that 'social actions' are already performed in the second trimester of gestation. Starting from the 14th week of gestation twin foetuses plan and execute movements specifically aimed at the co-twin. These findings force us to predate the emergence of social behavior: when the context enables it, as in the case of twin foetuses, other-directed actions are not only possible but predominant over self-directed actions.\".\n\nSection::::Interaction of genes and environment.:Obligate vs. facultative adaptations.\n", "BULLET::::- In \"7aum Arivu\" movie, Bodhidharma (of the 5th or 6th century, who knows hypnotism, martial arts, and cures to a plethora of diseases) is brought back to life in the modern day through a descendant of his by a genetic researcher by genetic memory concept to save his country.\n\nBULLET::::- In the 2001 Gene Roddenberry’s Andromeda (TV show) episode The Devil Take the Hindmost, there are colonists called the Hajira who genetically possess all their parents' memories up to the time they are born.\n", "The nature vs. nurture controversy is a major topic discussed in psychology and pertains to animal training as well. Both sides of the nature vs. nurture debate have valid points and this controversy is one of the most debated in psychology. A common question asked today by many experts in various fields is if behaviour is due to life experiences or if it is predisposed in DNA. Today, partial credit is given to both sides and in many cases nature and nurture are given equal weight. With animal training it is often questioned if the training and shaping is the cause of a behaviour exhibited by an animal (nurture), or if the behaviour is actually innate to the species (nature). Instinctive drift centers around the nature of behaviour more so than learning being the sole cause of a behaviour. Species are obviously capable of learning behaviours, this is not denied in instinctive drift. Instinctive drift says that animals often revert to innate (nature) behaviours that can interfere with conditioned responses (nurture).\n", "Section::::Nature vs. nurture.\n", "Franz Boas's \"The Mind of Primitive Man\" (1911) established a program that would dominate American anthropology for the next fifteen years. In this study he established that in any given population, biology, language, material and symbolic culture, are autonomous; that each is an equally important dimension of human nature, but that no one of these dimensions is reducible to another.\n", "Section::::History.:In psychology.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00222	Why after hundred years of flying airplanes, when communicating with towers the level of audio distortion and compressing still sucks to this day?	It's not as bad as ye think; at times 'tis just a bad recordin'. But the system is slow ta improve because o' compatibility -- they want ta use a system present in every airplane. Yer not alone in askin', and kind strangers have explained: 1. [ELI5: Why is it so difficult to understand radio comms between aircraft and ATCs when it'd be much more beneficial for it to be crystal clear. ]( URL_1 ) ^(_7 comments_) 1. [ELI5: how do pilots and Air Traffic Control understand each other when the audio quality over their radios is so bad? ]( URL_0 ) ^(_3 comments_) There ye have it!	[ "However, the finally released High Com system, which was marketed by Telefunken since 1978, worked as a broadband 2:1:2 compander, achieving almost 15 dB of noise reduction for low and up to 20 dB RMS A-weighted for higher frequencies, while avoiding most of the acoustic problems observed with other high compression broadband companders such as EMT/NoiseBX, or dbx.\n\nIn order to facilitate cost-effective mass-production in consumer devices such as cassette decks, the compander system was integrated into an analogue IC, TFK U401B / U401BG / U401BR, developed by Dietrich Höppner and Kurt Hintzmann of AEG-Telefunken Halbleiterwerk, Heilbronn.\n", "High Com\n\nThe High Com (also as HIGH COM, both written with a thin space) noise reduction system was developed by Telefunken, Germany, in the 1970s as a high quality high compression analogue compander for audio recordings.\n\nSection::::High Com.\n\nThe idea of a compander for consumer devices was based on studies of a fixed two-band compander by Jürgen Wermuth of AEG-Telefunken ELA, Wolfenbüttel, developer of the Telefunken four-band audio compander for professional use. In April 1974, the resulting \"RUSW-200\" prototype first led to the development of a sliding two-band compander by Ernst F. Schröder of Telefunken Grundlagenlaboratorium, Hannover since July 1974.\n", "Section::::Transmission of commands.:Ultrasonic.\n\nUltrasonic is a technology used more frequently in the past for telecommand. Inventor Robert Adler is known for inventing the remote control which did not require batteries and used ultrasonic technology. There are four aluminum rods inside the transmitter that produce high frequency sounds when they are hit at one end. Each rod is a different length, which enables them to produce varying sound pitches, which control the receiving unit. This technology was widely used but had certain issues such as dogs being bothered by the high frequency sounds.\n\nSection::::New applications.\n", "In aviation audio systems the loudness of the sidetone heard in a helmet or headset may be adjusted to suit personal comfort, although this may lead to communication problems since the person speaking will be largely unaware of how his transmission sounds to the recipient. The ideal level for the right psychoacoustic behavior is reported to be about 7dB below the received audio, according to RTCA specification DO-214. If the headset signal level is set too high, the pilot will inevitably speak more softly, resulting in too low a level of modulation to the radio transmitter.\n\nSection::::Public address systems.\n", "The Telefunken High Com integrated circuit \"U401BR\" could be utilized to work as a mostly Dolby B–compatible compander as well. In various late-generation High Com tape decks the Dolby-B emulating \"D NR Expander\" functionality worked not only for playback, but undocumentedly also during recording.\n", "Compromises in audio quality are inherent in the use of any codebook-based speech coder, particularly when used in conditions of high background noise. Incremental improvements are being made in the algorithms, which may lead to differences in performance even while the basic method remains unchanged. In the US, the Department of Commerce Public Safety Communications Research laboratory regularly reports on progress in this field. While their work specifically pertains to Project 25 radios, it is directly applicable to any system using similar multi-band excitation coders.\n\nSection::::NXDN Forum.\n", "With minimal changes in the external circuitry the IC could also be used to emulate a mostly Dolby B-compatible compander as in the DNR (Dynamic Noise Reduction) system for backward compatibility. Consequently, second-generation tape decks with High Com incorporated a DNR expander as well, whereas in some late-generation Telefunken, ASC and Universum tape decks this even worked during recording, but was left undocumented.\n\nSection::::High-Com II and III.\n", "Telephone speech signals are usually very degraded in quality. Part of this degradation is due to the limited bandwidth used in the telephone systems. In most systems frequencies lower than 250 Hz are cut and bandwidth only extends to frequencies of 4 or 8 kHz. Using filtering and waveshaping low and high frequency response can be extended.\n", "Far more spectrum is available for long distance communication in the shortwave bands than in the long wave bands; and shortwave transmitters, receivers and antennas were orders of magnitude less expensive than the multi-hundred kilowatt transmitters and monstrous antennas needed for long wave.\n", "The first generation Public Radio Satellite System (PRSS), introduced in 1979 and used by the American National Public Radio for delivery of network programming to their member stations via satellite, was a single channel per carrier (SCPC) system that had about 40 dB of analog (recovered) signal to noise. dbx modules that were set for 3:1 were used to increase the dynamic range of the system. Typically this worked well but for some low frequencies the distortion exceeded 10 percent THD. Also the dbx modules varied in how they tracked the compressed audio so the expanded audio was not an exact representation of what was compressed at the uplink. Still, the use of dbx allowed NPR to be known for its high fidelity standards on its satellite system as commercial broadcasters chose NPR to up-link a number of commercial radio music programs and concerts by commercial radio networks who demanded high fidelity in the analog era. Many of these problems were resolved when the PRSS moved to their second-generation system in 1994, the SOSS (Satellite Operations Support System), in which the feeds were sent digitally.\n", "Many older LEDE (\"live end, dead end\") control room designs featured so-called \"Haas kickers\" – reflective panels placed at the rear to create specular reflections which were thought to provide a wider stereo listening area or raise intelligibility. However, what is beneficial for one type of sound is detrimental to others, so Haas kickers, like compression ceilings, are no longer commonly found in control rooms.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Binaural fusion\n\nBULLET::::- Franssen effect\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Floyd Toole \"Sound Reproduction\", Focal Press (July 25, 2008), Chapter 6\n", "Some of the oldest methods of telecommunications implicitly use many of the ideas that would later be quantified in information theory. Modern telegraphy, starting in the 1830s, used Morse code, in which more common letters (like \"E\", which is expressed as one \"dot\") are transmitted more quickly than less common letters (like \"J\", which is expressed by one \"dot\" followed by three \"dashes\"). The idea of encoding information in this manner is the cornerstone of lossless data compression. A hundred years later, frequency modulation illustrated that bandwidth can be considered merely another degree of freedom. The vocoder, now largely looked at as an audio engineering curiosity, was originally designed in 1939 to use less bandwidth than that of an original message, in much the same way that mobile phones now trade off voice quality with bandwidth.\n", "During the Berlin Blockade of 1948–1949, planes headed for Tempelhof in West Berlin tuned their radios to AFN-Berlin because the station's transmission tower was in the glidepath to the airfield and was not jammed by the Soviets.\n", "Nakamichi, one of the more than 25 licensees of the High Com system, supported the development of a noise reduction system that could exceed the capabilities of the then-prevalent Dolby B-type system. However, it became apparent that a single-band compander without sliding-band technology, which was protected by Dolby patents, suffered too many audible artifacts. So High Com was further developed into the two-band High Com II and three-band High Com III 2:1:2 systems by Werner Scholz and Ernst F. Schröder of Telefunken assisted by Harron K. Appleman of Nakamichi in 1978/1979. The two-band variant was eventually released exclusively as \"Nakamichi High-Com II Noise Reduction System\" later in 1979, increasing the amount of noise reduction on analogue recordings and transmissions by as much as 25 dB A-weighted.\n", "Sound damping tapes and caulking have been used to improve sound isolation since the early 1930s. Although the applications of sound damping tapes was largely limited to defense and industrial applications such as naval vessels and aircraft in the past, recent research has proven the effectiveness of damping in interior sound isolation in buildings. \n\nSection::::Factors affecting sound transmission class.:Sound isolation.:Sound leakage.\n", "The team faced two related problems: the density of data of a high-resolution photograph, and the low-power, low-capacity transmitters on board satellites. To address these problems, Hochman brought in Donald Weber to work on the problem of data compression - to achieve a higher rate of data transmitted with the same low-power equipment.\n", "A similar system named High Com FM was tested in Germany between July 1979 and December 1981 by IRT. It was based on the Telefunken High Com broadband compander system, but never introduced commercially in FM broadcasting.\n\nSection::::Dolby C.\n", "The master recording process, using current 24-bit techniques, offers around 99 dB of \"true\" dynamic range (based on the \"ITU-R 468 noise weighting\" standard); identical to the dynamic range of a good studio microphone, though very few recordings will use just one microphone, and so the noise on most recordings is likely to be the sum of several microphones after mixing, and probably at least 6 dB worse than shown.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Audio system measurements\n\nBULLET::::- Noise measurement\n\nBULLET::::- Weighting filter\n\nBULLET::::- Equal-loudness contour\n\nBULLET::::- Fletcher-Munson curves\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- EBU Recommendation R68-2000\n", "BULLET::::- sound pressure level and\n\nBULLET::::- distortion of the sound reinforcement system\n\nSection::::Noise levels and reverberation.\n", "In communications, sources of interference are usually present, and noise is frequently a significant problem. The effects of interference are typically minimized by filtering off interfering signals as much as possible and by using data redundancy. The main advantages of digital signals for communications are often considered to be the noise immunity to noise capability, and the ability, in many cases such as with audio and video data, to use data compression to greatly decrease the bandwidth that is required on the communication media.\n\nSection::::Logic voltage levels.\n", "Project Mogul was conceived by Maurice Ewing who had earlier researched the deep sound channel in the oceans and theorized that a similar sound channel existed in the upper atmosphere: a certain height where the air pressure and temperature result in minimal speed of sound, so that sound waves would propagate and stay in that channel due to refraction. The project involved arrays of balloons carrying disc microphones and radio transmitters to relay the signals to the ground. It was supervised by James Peoples, who was assisted by Albert P. Crary.\n", "Diffraction phenomena by small obstacles are also important at high frequencies. Signals for urban cellular telephony tend to be dominated by ground-plane effects as they travel over the rooftops of the urban environment. They then diffract over roof edges into the street, where multipath propagation, absorption and diffraction phenomena dominate.\n\nSection::::Modes.:Other effects.:Absorption.\n", "In the latter half of the twentieth century, alternative means of communicating over large NLOS distances were developed such as satellite communications and submarine optical fiber, both of which potentially carry much larger bandwidths than HF and are much more reliable. Despite their limitations, HF communications only need relatively cheap, crude equipment and antennas so they are mostly used as backups to main communications systems and in sparsely populated remote areas where other methods of communication are not cost effective.\n\nSection::::Means of achieving non-line-of-sight transmission.:Finite absorption.\n", "Good crosstalk performance for a stereo system is not difficult to achieve in today's digital audio systems, though it was hard to keep below the desired figure of -30 dB or so on vinyl recordings and FM radio.\n\nSection::::Other examples.\n\nIn telecommunication or telephony, crosstalk is often distinguishable as pieces of speech or in-band signaling tones leaking from other people's connections. If the connection is analog, twisted pair cabling can often be used to reduce crosstalk. Alternatively, the signals can be converted to digital form, which is typically less susceptible to crosstalk.\n", "BULLET::::- Usable range compared to FM\n\nD-STAR, like any digital voice mode has comparable usable range to FM, but it degrades differently. While the quality of FM progressively degrades the further a user moves away from the source, digital voice maintains a constant voice quality up to a point, then essentially \"falls off a cliff\". This behavior is inherent in any digital data system, and it demonstrates the threshold at which the signal is no longer correctable, and when data loss is too great, audio artifacts can appear in the recovered audio.\n\nBULLET::::- Emergency Communications Concerns\n" ]	[ "Audio distortion is still very bad." ]	[ "It was likely just a bad recording, the system is improving slowly." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Audio distortion is still very bad." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "It was likely just a bad recording, the system is improving slowly." ]
2018-20769	As of 2018, exactly how far have we come in terms of finding a cure for cancer?	Cancer is like saying "plant". There are thousands of varieties with their own characteristics. The type and location as well as whether it spread, how invasive it is, and other comorbidities of the patient all effect not only the treatment options but also the outcome and survival rates.	[ "Treatment of cancer\n\nCancer can be treated by surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, hormonal therapy, targeted therapy (including immunotherapy such as monoclonal antibody therapy) and synthetic lethality. The choice of therapy depends upon the location and grade of the tumor and the stage of the disease, as well as the general state of the patient (performance status). Cancer_genome_sequencing helps in determining which cancer the patient exactly has for determining the best therapy for the cancer. A number of experimental cancer treatments are also under development. Under current estimates, two in five people will have cancer at some point in their lifetime.\n", "The treatment of cancer has undergone evolutionary changes as understanding of the underlying biological processes has increased. Tumor removal surgeries have been documented in ancient Egypt, hormone therapy and radiation therapy were developed in the late 19th Century. Chemotherapy, immunotherapy and newer targeted therapies are products of the 20th century. As new information about the biology of cancer emerges, treatments will be developed and modified to increase effectiveness, precision, survivability, and quality of life.\n\nSection::::Types of treatments.:Surgery.\n", "BULLET::::- Newer forms of chemotherapy\n\nBULLET::::- Gene therapy\n\nBULLET::::- Photodynamic therapy\n\nBULLET::::- Radiation therapy\n\nBULLET::::- Reoviridae (Reolysin drug therapy)\n\nBULLET::::- Targeted therapy\n\nBULLET::::- Natural killer cells can induce immunological memory. Research is being developed to modify their action against cancer.\n\nSection::::Research funding.\n\nCancer research is funded by government grants, charitable foundations, and pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies.\n", "Because \"cancer\" refers to a class of diseases,\n\nit is unlikely that there will ever be a single \"cure for cancer\" any more than there will be a single treatment for all infectious diseases. Angiogenesis inhibitors were once thought to have potential as a \"silver bullet\" treatment applicable to many types of cancer, but this has not been the case in practice.\n\nSection::::Types of treatments.\n", "BULLET::::- Brown Cancer researchers, led by Dr. Gordon Ross, discovered that beta-glucan can markedly enhance the immune response of mice to injected tumors. This treatment is now being tested for the first time in humans at the University of Louisville and Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center in New York.\n\nBULLET::::- First use of colored berries to prevent cancer in high risk individuals\n\nBULLET::::- Dr. Ramesh Gupta is the first to show that colored berries can prevent the development of cancer in animals and is preparing the first human clinical trial using this approach.\n", "Section::::Research.\n\nBecause cancer is a class of diseases, it is unlikely that there will ever be a single \"cure for cancer\" any more than there will be a single treatment for all infectious diseases. Angiogenesis inhibitors were once incorrectly thought to have potential as a \"silver bullet\" treatment applicable to many types of cancer. Angiogenesis inhibitors and other cancer therapeutics are used in combination to reduce cancer morbidity and mortality.\n", "BULLET::::- Large multi-centric Phase III randomised controlled clinical trials by the National Surgical Adjuvant Breast & Bowel Project (NSABP) Medical Research Council (MRC), the European Organisation for Research and Treatment of Cancer (EORTC), and National Cancer Institute (NCI) have contributed significantly to the improvement in survival.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- American Cancer Society\n\nBULLET::::- American Cancer Society Cancer Action Network\n\nBULLET::::- American Cancer Society Center\n\nBULLET::::- American Society of Clinical Oncology\n\nBULLET::::- Canadian Cancer Society\n\nBULLET::::- Cancer Research UK\n\nBULLET::::- Comparative oncology\n\nBULLET::::- National Cancer Institute\n\nBULLET::::- National Comprehensive Cancer Network\n\nBULLET::::- Programme of Action for Cancer Therapy\n\nBULLET::::- Tumour heterogeneity\n", "BULLET::::- 2007 US FDA approves camptothecin-analogue topotecan for chemotherapy of cancer\n\nBULLET::::- 2010 US FDA approves immunotherapy, sipuleucel-T dendritic cell vaccine for advanced prostate cancer\n\nBULLET::::- 2010 China advances cryoimmunotherapy to treat breast, kidney, lung, liver, prostate and bone cancer\n\nBULLET::::- 2011 US FDA approves monoclonal antibody, Ipilimumab for advanced melanoma\n\nBULLET::::- 2011 Cuba develops and releases CimaVax-EGF, the first therapeutic cancer vaccine for lung cancer\n\nBULLET::::- 2012 Cuba develops and releases monoclonal antibody, Racotumomab, the therapeutic cancer vaccine for lung cancer\n\nBULLET::::- 2015 US FDA approves anti-CDK4/6, Palbociclib for advanced breast cancer\n", "Section::::Research.\n\nClinical trials, also called research studies, test new treatments in people with cancer. The goal of this research is to find better ways to treat cancer and help cancer patients. Clinical trials test many types of treatment such as new drugs, new approaches to surgery or radiation therapy, new combinations of treatments, or new methods such as gene therapy.\n", "Section::::Progress.:Challenges.\n\nA multitude of factors have been cited as impeding progress in finding a cure for cancer and key areas have been identified and suggested as important to accelerate progress in cancer research.\n\nSince there are many different forms of cancer with distinct causes, each form requires different treatment approaches. However, this research could still lead to therapies and cures for many forms of cancer. Some of the factors that have posed challenges for the development of preventive measures and anti-cancer drugs and therapies include the following:\n\nBULLET::::- Inherent biological complexity of the disease:\n", "In 2018 some genetic indications such as Tumor Mutational Burden (TMB, the number of mutations within a targeted genetic region in the cancerous cell's DNA), and Microsatellite instability (MSI, the quantity of impaired DNA mismatch leading to probable mutations), have been approved by the FDA as good indicators for the probability of effective treatment of immunotherapy medication for certain cancers, but research is still in progress.\n", "In a cancer research funding announcement made by president Obama in September 2009, TCGA project is slated to receive $175 million in funding to collect comprehensive gene sequence data on 20,000 tissue samples from people with more than 20 different types of cancer, in order to help researchers understand the genetic changes underlying cancer. New, targeted therapeutic approaches are expected to arise from the insights resulting from such studies.\n\nSection::::Modern cancer research.:Genome-based cancer research projects.:Cancer Genome Project.\n", "BULLET::::- Harvard University medical experts report that a carefully targeted two-drug treatment could be tailored to successfully treat almost any form of cancer.\n\nBULLET::::- For the third time in history, Earth is photographed from the outer solar system. NASA's Cassini spacecraft releases images of the Earth and Moon taken from the orbit of Saturn.\n\nBULLET::::- 21 July\n\nBULLET::::- British scientists successfully cure blindness in mice with infusions of stem cells that repaired damaged retinas. It is hoped that a similar treatment can be developed for humans.\n", "A \"cancer vaccine\" is a vaccine that treats existing cancer or prevents the development of cancer in certain high-risk individuals. Vaccines that treat existing cancer are known as \"therapeutic\" cancer vaccines. There are currently no vaccines able to prevent cancer in general.\n", "Medical research for cancer begins much like research for any disease. In organized studies of new treatments for cancer, the pre-clinical development of drugs, devices, and techniques begins in laboratories, either with isolated cells or in small animals, most commonly rats or mice. In other cases, the proposed treatment for cancer is already in use for some other medical condition, in which case more is known about its safety and potential efficacy.\n", "One approach to cancer vaccination is to separate proteins from cancer cells and immunize patients against those proteins as antigens, in the hope of stimulating the immune system to kill the cancer cells. Research on cancer vaccines is underway for treatment of breast, lung, colon, skin, kidney, prostate and other cancers.\n", "BULLET::::- Access to novel agents and approved drugs: One of the major challenges facing rapid progress in this field is that numerous pharmaceutical and biotech companies each have their own immunotherapeutic agents in the form of antibodies, immune cells, and vaccines in preclinical and clinical studies.\n\nBULLET::::- FDA Regulation: Novel approaches for the adaptive combination of novel agents in this new paradigm where the combined multi-agents serve as a systems biological approach to the treatment of cancer.\n\nBULLET::::- Care coordination and real-time monitoring of safety and outcomes with integration of complex molecular data, phenotypic data obtained from disparate electronic records.\n", "Experimental cancer treatments are studied in clinical trials to compare the proposed treatment to the best existing treatment. Treatments that succeeded in one cancer type can be tested against other types. Diagnostic tests are under development to better target the right therapies to the right patients, based on their individual biology.\n\nCancer research focuses on the following issues:\n\nBULLET::::- Agents (e.g. viruses) and events (e.g. mutations) that cause or facilitate genetic changes in cells destined to become cancer.\n\nBULLET::::- The precise nature of the genetic damage and the genes that are affected by it.\n", "BULLET::::- Leukemia, Lymphoma, Germ cell tumors and early stage solid tumors which were once incurable have become curable malignancies now. Immunotherapies have already proven efficient in leukemia, bladder cancer and various skin cancer. For the future, research is promising in the field of physical oncology.\n\nBULLET::::- Survival of cancer has significantly improved over the past years due to improved screening, diagnostic methods and treatment options with targeted therapy.\n", "BULLET::::- Researchers in France confirm that atypical activation of different genes distinct to other tissues occur in all kinds of cancer. Tumor cells in lung cancer, for example, express genes, which should be silent, particular to male sperm production. According to the researchers, \"The methodical recognition of ectopic gene activations in cancer cells could serve as a basis for gene signature–guided tumor stratification\".\n\nBULLET::::- 23 May – Very early symptoms of Huntington's disease, such as depression and anxiety, can be prevented in mice by switching off a protein, according to a new study.\n", "A clinical trial is one of the final stages of a long and careful cancer research process. The search for new treatments begins in the laboratory, where scientists first develop and test new ideas. If an approach seems promising, the next step may be testing a treatment in animals to see how it affects cancer in a living being and whether it has harmful effects. Of course, treatments that work well in the lab or in animals do not always work well in people. Studies are done with cancer patients to find out whether promising treatments are safe and effective.\n", "BULLET::::- 2002 US FDA approves imatinib\n\nBULLET::::- 2002 Chinese FDA approves Gendicine, gene therapy for cancer\n\nBULLET::::- 2002 Corporate takeover of Dupont by BMS resulted in abandoning Etacstil breast cancer anti-estrogen (SERM/SERD) hormonal therapy drug that overcomes hormone-therapy resistance\n\nBULLET::::- 2003 American Dr. Peter Littrup starts to treat early and metastatic breast cancer with cryoablation\n\nBULLET::::- 2004 bevacizumab, the first approved drug to inhibit blood vessel formation by tumours, is licensed\n\nBULLET::::- 2005 US FDA approves taxol for chemotherapy of breast, pancreatic, and non-small cell lung cancers\n\nBULLET::::- 2006 US FDA approves herceptin\n\nBULLET::::- 2007 US FDA approves sorafenib\n", "Despite these advances, many unresolved challenges remain, including the dearth of new treatment avenues for many cancer types, or the unexplained treatment failures and inevitable relapse in cancer types where targeted treatment exists. Such mismatch between clinical results and the massive amounts of data acquired by omics technology highlights the existence of basic gaps in our knowledge of cancer fundamentals. Cancer Systems Biology is steadily improving our ability to organize information on cancer, in order to fill these gaps. Key developments include:\n\nBULLET::::- The generation of comprehensive molecular datasets (genome, transcriptome, epigenomics, proteome, metabolome, etc.)\n", "BULLET::::- A \"Trojan horse\" therapy which uses viruses concealed within white blood cells to attack tumours is successfully used to eliminate prostate cancer in mice. However, human trials have yet to be conducted. (BBC)\n\nBULLET::::- As predicted by scientists, 21 December 2012 passes without any form of apocalyptic event, despite years of global anticipation. (NASA) (DNA India)\n\nBULLET::::- 24 December\n\nBULLET::::- Scientists analyse the genomes of individuals with a high familial risk of bowel cancer, and discover two flawed genes that may contribute to the disease. (University of Oxford) (BBC)\n", "The difficulty of treating cancer has led researchers to develop more and more targeted drugs and immune therapies, with the future goal of hitting \"cancers with several such treatments at once, much the way AIDS was tamed when researchers developed drugs to strike the virus at its vulnerable points.\" This new form of combination therapy is needed as cancer is heterogeneous and multiple methods are needed to target multiple types of cancer.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00442	Why has it become virtually impossible for politicians on either side to work across party lines? Why has "bipartisan" become such a dirty word?	It gives their voters the illusion that they’re fighting for what they want, but the rival party won’t let them get any new laws passed. In reality, they all work together and pass whatever the lawmakers want.	[ "In the United States in 2010, however, there was wide disagreement between the Republicans and Democrats because the minority party has been voting as a bloc against major legislation, according to James Fallows in \"The Atlantic\". In 2010, the minority party has the ability to \"discipline its ranks\" so that none join the majority, and this situation in the Congress is unprecedented, according to Fallows. He sees this inability to have bipartisanship as evidence of a \"structural failure of American government.\" Adviser to President Obama, Rahm Emanuel, said the period from 2008–2010 was marked by extreme partisanship. After the U.S. elections of 2010, with sizeable gains by Republicans in the House and Senate, analyst Charles Babington of the Associated Press suggested that both parties remained far apart on major issues such as immigration and Medicare while there may be chances for agreement about lesser issues such as electric cars, nuclear power, and tax breaks for businesses; Babington was not optimistic about chances for bipartisanship on major issues in the next few years. While analyst Benedict Carey writing in \"The New York Times\" agrees political analysts tend to agree that government will continue to be divided and marked by paralysis and feuding, there was research suggesting that humans have a \"profound capacity through which vicious adversaries can form alliances,\" according to Berkeley professor Dacher Keltner.\n", "In an October 2008 \"open letter\" to Canada's conservative Prime Minister Stephen Harper, Seeman advises Harper to \"try a post-partisan approach to public health policy.\" Seeman distinguishes between bipartisanship and postpartisanship. He writes: \"Bipartisanship is horse-trading – in its best incarnation, this means crafting patchwork legislation that allows all sides to feel satisfied that some thread of their vision or ideological essence found its way into law. The process plays to ego, not good policy.\"\n\nSection::::Postpartisan decision making.\n", "Despite this journalistic heritage, it was at the Annenberg Conference in Los Angeles - titled Ceasefire! Bridging the Political Divide - that the concept of post-partisanship was studied, explained and celebrated by two modern politicians: Republican Governor of California Arnold Schwarzenegger and New York Mayor Michael Bloomberg (a former Democrat, later re-elected as a Republican in 2005).\n", "Bipartisanship can also be between two or more opposite groups (e.g. liberal and conservative) to agree and determine a plan of action on an urgent matter that is of great importance to voters. This interpretation brings bipartisanship closer to the more applied notion of postpartisan decision-making; a solution-focused approach that creates a governance model with third-party arbiters used to detect bias.\n", "A call for bipartisanship is often made by presidents who \"can't get their way in Congress,\" according to one view. Military policies of the Cold War and actions like the Iraq War were promoted and supported, through the mass media, as bipartisan acts.\n\nSection::::Criticisms.\n", "Bipartisanship\n\nBipartisanship, sometimes referred to as nonpartisanship, is a political situation, usually in the context of a two-party system (especially those of the United States and some other western countries), in which opposing political parties find common ground through compromise. This is in contrast to partisanship, where an individual or political party only adheres to their interests without compromise. It has been debated among political theorists however that in practice, each party advances their own political agenda at the expense of the other party because of the conflicting ideologies.\n\nSection::::Usage.\n", "There have been periods of bipartisanship in American politics, such as when the Republicans supported legislation by Democratic President Johnson in the early 1960s, and when Democrats worked with Republican President Reagan in the 1980s. It is claimed that the non-partisanship in foreign policy was a precursor to the concept of modern bipartisanship in the U.S. politics. This was articulated in 1912 by President William Howard Taft, who stated that the fundamental foreign policies of the United States should be raised above party differences. In recent years, this was also shown in the case of George H.W. Bush's administration, which began with an atmosphere of bipartisanship on foreign policy in Washington. During this period, the concept of bipartisanship implied a consensus not only between the two parties but also the executive and legislative branches of the government to implement foreign policy. This was seen in the article \"Bipartisan Objectives for American Foreign Policy\", authored by Henry Kissinger, Richard Nixon's Secretary of State, and Cyrus Vance, who was Secretary during Jimmy Carter's administration. \n", "Bipartisanship (in the context of a two-party system) is the opposite of partisanship which is characterized by a lack of cooperation between rival political parties. Framer James Madison argued in \"The Federalist Papers\" that a danger to democracies were factions, which he defined as a group that pushed its interests to the detriment of the national interest. While the framers of the Constitution did not think that political parties would play a role in American politics, political parties have long been a major force in American politics, and the nation has alternated between periods of intense party rivalry and partisanship, as well as periods of bipartisanship. According to Robert Siegel of \"National Public Radio\", there has been virtually no cooperation between Democrats and Republicans in the U.S. during the few years before 2010.\n", "Section::::Feature of two-party systems.\n", "The adjective \"bipartisan\" can refer to any bill, act, resolution, or other political act in which both of the two major political parties agree about all or many parts of a political choice. Bipartisanship involves trying to find common ground, but there is debate whether the issues needing common ground are peripheral or central ones. Often, compromises are called bipartisan if they reconcile the desires of both parties from an original version of legislation or other proposal. Failure to attain bipartisan support in such a system can easily lead to gridlock, often angering each other and their constituencies. An analysis in \"The New York Times\" in March 2010 suggested that the present state of American politics is marked by \"oppositional politics\" which has left the voters cynical about the process. Bipartisanship requires \"hard work\", is \"sometimes dull\", and entails trying to find \"common ground\" but enables \"serious problem solving\", according to editorial writers at the \"Christian Science Monitor\" in 2010.\n", "It is also argued that bipartisanship exists in policy-making that does not have bipartisan support. This is the case if it involves bipartisan exchanges. This element is a central feature in the legislative process and is a bipartisan concept in the sense that it serves as a mechanism for achieving consensus and cooperation.\n\nSection::::In U.S. politics.\n", "William Safire, the late \"New York Times\" language maven, finds the first media reference to post-partisanship in a February 1976 article in the Times about a \"disenchanted electorate\" that preceded the Ford-Carter campaign: \"It is within the fluid and independent middle,\" he quotes Christopher Lydon as saying, \"that could shape new parties, realign the old ones or extend the history of erosion into a new 'post-partisan' era\" (Safire 2008: 22).\n", "BULLET::::- The term “Transpartisanship” has emerged to provide a meaningful alternative to “Bipartisanship,” and “Nonpartisanship.” Bipartisanship limits the dialogue process to two political viewpoints or entities, striving for compromise solutions. Nonpartisanship, on the other hand, tends to deny the existence of differing viewpoints in exchange for cooperation. Both the bipartisan and nonpartisan approaches can discount the multiplicity of viewpoints that exist, which often results in incomplete and therefore unsuccessful outcomes. In contrast to these, transpartisanship recognizes the existence and validity of many points of view, and advocates a constructive dialogue aimed at arriving at creative, integrated, and therefore, breakthrough solutions that meet the needs of all present.\n", "In a subsequent statement about \"Break the Gridlock,\" House Minority Whip Steny Hoyer said, “The Rules changes unveiled today by the bipartisan Problem Solvers Caucus represent an important effort to ensure that the House can work its will and serve the American people effectively…It is critical that Members are empowered to bring legislation forward and have their bills considered under regular order, and we ought to return to a process where major legislation is shaped by Members in committee and not behind closed doors by a select few.” \n\nSection::::Media coverage.\n", "Congress has alternated between periods of constructive cooperation and compromise between parties, known as bipartisanship, and periods of deep political polarization and fierce infighting, known as partisanship. The period after the Civil War was marked by partisanship, as is the case today. It is generally easier for committees to reach accord on issues when compromise is possible. Some political scientists speculate that a prolonged period marked by narrow majorities in both chambers of Congress has intensified partisanship in the last few decades, but that an alternation of control of Congress between Democrats and Republicans may lead to greater flexibility in policies, as well as pragmatism and civility within the institution.\n", "In 2017, Cas Mudde and Cristóbal Rovire Kaltwasser wrote that:\n", "The Congress in the first decade of the 21st century has been characterized by sometimes rather extreme partisanship, with many votes split precisely on party lines. Some analysts wonder whether fierce political infighting between Democrats and Republicans has prevented lawmakers from tackling tough issues such as global warming and deficit spending and prevented them from finding acceptable bipartisan compromises on issues. In 2009, two former secretaries of State, one Republican, one Democrat, described America in 2009 as \"riven with partisan bickering as we confront a range of serious threats – economic, political and military.\" Congress, itself, has tried to make rulings to reduce partisanship; for example, H.Res.153.LTH discussed how personal choices about ethics were made on a partisan basis. Intense partisanship combined with ethics probes can be a potent concoction; for example, representative Tom DeLay was kicked out of the House based in part on his dealings with lobbyist Jack Abramoff. DeLay complained afterwards in the \"Washington Post\" about what he called the \"criminalization of politics\": \"it's not bad enough now to just beat 'em in policy or let them ruin your reputation ... they've got to bankrupt you, ruin your family, put you in jail, put you in the grave and then dance on your grave,\" said DeLay. \n", "Bipartisanship has been criticized because it can obscure the differences between parties, making voting for candidates based on policies difficult in a democracy. Additionally, the concept of bipartisanship has been criticized as discouraging agreements between more than two parties, thus exercising a tyranny of the majority by forcing voters to side with one of the two largest parties.\n", "Often invoked by supporters of both 2008 US presidential candidates Barack Obama and John McCain, its modern renaissance dates back to a Los Angeles conference hosted June 18–19, 2007, by the USC Annenberg School for Communication, to \"explore ways to improve political dialogue and decision making.\" \n", "Transpartisan gatherings have resulted not only in surprisingly civil conversations noted by mainstream media but also in shifts from traditional ideological stances by some participants.\n\nA close relative of transpartisanship is Integral politics. A transpartisan approach to policy would necessarily include individual and collective, as well as subjective and objective, perspective. Furthermore, similar to Integral theory, transpartisanship places politics in a developmental context, viewing democracy and prosperity not as static attainments, but rather emergent properties along a continuum of developmental stages.\n\nSection::::Tranpsrtisan Political Parties.\n\nSection::::Tranpsrtisan Political Parties.:En Marche!\n", "Postpartisan decision-making, in advance of landing on any final policy proposal, allows multi-sector partners to select weighted solution criteria (a process formally referred to as multi-criteria decision analysis). The process enables a neutral, independent commission with assigned legislative power (comprising members nominated by all parties) to identify the cognitive and partisan biases that may have inadvertently crept into any final, recommended policy solutions. Pointing by way of example to California's success in constraining teenage pregnancy, Seeman writes:\n", "Section::::Manifestations.\n\nDemocratic backsliding occur when essential components of democracy are threatened; for example, when: \n\nBULLET::::- Free and fair elections are degraded;\n\nBULLET::::- Liberal rights of freedom of speech and association decline, impairing the ability of the political opposition to challenge the government, hold it to account, and propose alternatives to the current regime;\n\nBULLET::::- The policy making process is increasingly in service to privileged groups and counter to the needs and views of the majority of citizens, and legislation is used to antidemocratic ends.\n", "In the November 2014 midterm elections, the Republican Party took control of the Senate and expanded its majority in the House of Representatives, an event that portended an ill omen for the Democrats.\n", "According to political analyst James Fallows in \"The Atlantic\" (based on a \"note from someone with many decades' experience in national politics\"), bipartisanship is a phenomenon belonging to a two-party system such as the political system of the United States and does not apply to a parliamentary system (such as Great Britain) since the minority party is not involved in helping write legislation or voting for it. Fallows argues that in a two-party system, the minority party can be obstructionist and thwart the actions of the majority party. However, analyst Anne Applebaum in \"The Washington Post\" suggested that partisanship had been rampant in the United Kingdom and described it as \"a country in which the government and the opposition glower at each other from opposite sides of the House of Commons, in which backbenchers jeer when their opponents speak.\" Applebaum suggested there was \"bipartisanship\" in Britain, meaning a coalition in 2010 between the opposing major parties but that it remained to be seen whether the coalition could stay together to solve serious problems such as tackling Britain's financial crisis.\n", "Political scientists have noted how a prolonged period marked by narrow majorities in both chambers of Congress has affected partisanship. There is speculation that the alternating control of Congress between Democrats and Republicans will lead to greater flexibility in policies, more pragmatic choices, and greater civility within the institution, and possibly greater public support. There is hope that this will be an improvement from the partisanship of the past few decades.\n\nSection::::Smaller states and bigger states.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-17584	Why does 24fps look appropriate for film but is too slow/choppy for any other form of media?	When a real camera capture a frame, it capture 1/48th of a second worth of information. Moving objects will appear blurry, so a single frame will still give some sense of movement. Video games (for examples) don't do that. They simulate the world frame per frame. The world doesn't exists in between frames, there is no real movement: objects are basically teleported during the simulation. This means that when the game renders a frame it can only display the world as it is at this exact point in time, all information about movement is lost, it thus need to display at a higher framerate to appear as smooth as a real camera. Motion blur tries to circumvent this (by computing the difference between the current and last state). While it helps a bit, it is an approximation (like anything else in real-time CG) and isn't as good as true, physically correct, motion blur.	[ "Section::::Disadvantages of 24p.\n\nIn general, 24 frames-per-second video has more trouble with fast camera motion than other, higher frame rates, sometimes showing a \"strobe\" or \"choppy\" motion, just like 24 frame/s film will if shot as if it is video, without slower camera panning & zooming motion. It is therefore not well-suited for programming requiring spontaneous camera action or \"reality\" camerawork.\n\nSection::::Future.\n", "Other filmmakers who intend to use the high frame rate format include James Cameron in his \"Avatar\" sequels and Andy Serkis in his adaptation of George Orwell's \"Animal Farm\".\n\nSection::::Out of the cinema.\n\nFrame rates higher than 24 FPS are quite common in TV drama and in-game cinematics.\n", "The optical flow method also works with 30p footage and is currently the best option for 30p to 24p conversion.\n\nSection::::24p vs. NTSC video.:60i to 24p slow-motion conversions.\n\nSection::::24p vs. NTSC video.:60i to 24p slow-motion conversions.:Using Adobe After Effects.\n", "Digital cinema equipment is now capable of handling much higher frame rates, such as the 48p frame rate , along with the traditional 24p. 48p has twice the motion resolution of 24p, but also requires more bandwidth, data storage, and potentially illumination level. Peter Jackson's three part film \"The Hobbit\" is a production that makes use of the 48p frame rate.\n\nSome current, best-of-breed professional video cameras provide 120 frame/s progressive capture, which is 5 times 24p and can be converted to 24p, 30p, 50i, and 60i/p with editing options and precision in motion shots.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Frame rate\n", "Nevertheless, even in NTSC regions, film productions are often shot at exactly 24 frame/s. This can be a source of confusion and technical difficulties.\n\nMaterial is treated as normal video, since the slightly differing frame rates can be problematic for video and audio sync. However, this is not a problem if the video material is merely treated as a carrier for material which is known by the editing system to be \"true\" 24 frame/s, and audio is recorded separately from moving images, as is normal film practice.\n", "The roughly 50 and 60 Hz material captures motion very well, and it looks very fluid on the screen. In principle, the 24 Hz material conveys motion satisfactorily; but, because it is usually displayed at least twice the capture rate in cinema and on CRT TV (to avoid flicker), it is not considered capable of transmitting \"fluid\" motion. Nevertheless, it still is used to film movies, because of the unique artistic impression arising exactly from the slow image-change rate.\n", "Section::::24p vs. NTSC video.:24p compared to 30p.\n\nAs Charles Poynton explains, the 24 frame/s rate is not just a cinema standard, it is also \"uniquely suited to conversion to both 50 Hz systems (through 2:2 pulldown, 4% fast) and 59.94 Hz systems (through 2:3 pulldown, 0.1% slow). Choosing a rate other than 24 frame/s would compromise this widely accepted method of conversion, and make it difficult for film producers to access international markets\".\n\nSection::::Native 24p.\n\nSection::::Native 24p.:24p video production.\n", "25 Hz material, for all practical purposes, looks and feels the same as 24 Hz material. 30 Hz material is in the middle, between 24 and 50 Hz material, in terms of \"fluidity\" of the motion it captures; but, in TV systems, it is handled similarly to 24 Hz material (i.e. displayed at least twice the capture rate).\n\nSection::::Capture.\n", "BULLET::::- 48p is a progressive format and that is being trialled in the film industry. At twice the traditional rate of 24p, this frame rate attempts to reduce motion blur and flicker found in films. Director James Cameron stated his intention to film the two sequels to his film \"Avatar\" higher than 24 frames per second to add a heightened sense of reality. The first film to be filmed at 48 FPS was \"\", a decision made by its director Peter Jackson. At a preview screening at CinemaCon, the audience's reaction was mixed after being shown some of the film's footage at 48p, with some arguing that the feel of the footage was too lifelike (thus breaking the suspension of disbelief).\n", "This method requires the use of Adobe After Effects and applies to any interlaced material. It uses all of the temporal information in 50i or 60i footage to create the equivalent of a slow motion sequence shot at 50 or 60 frames per second, respectively. It also does not require multiple render passes to achieve the effect, avoiding generation loss from multiple compression cycles.\n\nSection::::24p vs. NTSC video.:60i to 24p slow-motion conversions.:Using VirtualDub + AviSynth.\n", "Because sound is recorded separately from moving pictures in 24p projects, there are no problems regarding synchronization or audio pitch: the audio material is simply ingested separately from the moving picture material at its natural rate, and synchronized within the non-linear editor.\n\nSection::::24p vs. NTSC video.\n\nSection::::24p vs. NTSC video.:Conversion of 24p to NTSC-based frame/field rates.\n", "Because of higher television production budgets in the US, and a preference for the look of film, many prerecorded TV shows were, in fact, captured onto film at 24 Hz.\n\nSource material filmed at 24 Hz is converted to roughly 60 Hz using the technique called , which includes inserting variable number of duplicate frames, with additional slowdown by the factor of 1.001, if needed. Occasionally, inter-frame mixing is used to smooth the judder.\n", "For best results, footage should be deinterlaced and frame-doubled to 60p. This preserves all of the footage's temporal information, which is key in determining what the \"missing\" points in time should look like when converting to 24 frame/s.\n", "24p cameras do not, as NTSC video cameras do, shoot 30 interlaced frames per second (60 fields); they shoot 24 full progressive frames per second.\n\n24p material can be recorded directly into formats that support the framerate. Some of the emerging HD formats support the 24p framerate in addition to 60i and 50i (PAL). Previously, few formats supported 24p and the industry used workarounds to work with 24p footage with 60i equipment.\n", "\"Frame rate\", the number of still pictures per unit of time of video, ranges from six or eight frames per second (\"frame/s\") for old mechanical cameras to 120 or more frames per second for new professional cameras. PAL standards (Europe, Asia, Australia, etc.) and SECAM (France, Russia, parts of Africa etc.) specify 25 frame/s, while NTSC standards (USA, Canada, Japan, etc.) specify 29.97 frame/s. Film is shot at the slower frame rate of 24 frames per second, which slightly complicates the process of transferring a cinematic motion picture to video. The minimum frame rate to achieve a comfortable illusion of a moving image is about sixteen frames per second.\n", "Working with 24p material via video equipment working at NTSC frame rates has many of the same attributes as the 24frame/s workflow, but is more complicated by the NTSC-rate practice of using telecine pull-down rather than the PAL practice of transferring 24frame/s material at 25frame/s.\n", "When working entirely within the digital non-linear domain, 24p material is more easily handled than material of higher frame rates. 24p material requires care when it is processed using equipment designed for standard video frame rates.\n\nThere are two common workflows for processing 24p material using video equipment, one using PAL frame rates, and the other using NTSC frame rates. Of these two, the PAL route is the simpler, but each has its own complications.\n\nSection::::24p vs. PAL video.\n\nSection::::24p vs. PAL video.:Converting 24p to PAL.\n", "The last step is to compensate for the lack of motion blur in the 60i footage. Since the images were captured at 1/60 second, there is less motion blur between images than there would have been if shot at 24 frame/s with a 180° shutter (i.e. 1/48 second exposure time). Optical flow is used to introduce motion blur between frames, mimicking the motion blur present when shooting the standard 180° shutter angle. This method of creating motion blur is far more realistic than simple frame blending, which is simple to implement and usually a standard feature in most non-linear editing programs.\n", "BULLET::::- Each of these film oriented content transmission techniques has its own drawbacks. However modern motion compensation processors are considered to produce the least objectionable output.\n\nWith roughly 30 or 60 Hz material, imported from 60 Hz systems, is usually adapted for presentation at 50 Hz by adding duplicate frames or dropping excessive frames, sometimes also involving intermixing consecutive frames. Nowadays, digital motion analysis, although complex and expensive, can produce a superior-looking conversion (though not absolutely perfect).\n\nSection::::Transmission.:60 Hz television systems.\n", "The image change rate fundamentally affects how \"fluid\" the motion it captures will look on the screen. Moving image material, based on this, is sometimes divided into two groups: \"film-based\" material, where the image of the scene is captured by camera 24 times a second (24 Hz), and \"video-based\" material, where the image is captured roughly 50 or 60 times a second.\n", "BULLET::::- Shutter angle: Shorter (90° - 210°) for film, often ~350° for old video. Modern video cameras have adjustable electronic, or – in \"Arri's\" video cameras – mechanical shutters.\n\nBULLET::::- Dynamic range: film and video systems have widely varying limits to the luminance dynamic ranges that they can capture. Modern video cameras are much closer to the dynamic range of film, and their use is better understood by directors.\n", "All formats designed for digital cinematography are progressive scan, and capture usually occurs at the same 24 frame per second rate established as the standard for 35mm film. Some films such as \"\" have a High Frame Rate of 48 fps, although in some theatres it was also released in a 24 fps version which many fans of traditional film prefer.\n", "BULLET::::- 30p is a progressive format and produces video at 30 frames per second. Progressive (noninterlaced) scanning mimics a film camera's frame-by-frame image capture. The effects of inter-frame judder are less noticeable than 24p yet retains a cinematic-like appearance. Shooting video in 30p mode gives no interlace artifacts but can introduce judder on image movement and on some camera pans. The widescreen film process Todd-AO used this frame rate in 1954–1956.\n", "In 2016, Ang Lee released \"Billy Lynn's Long Halftime Walk\". Unlike \"The Hobbit\" trilogy, which used 48 frames per second, the picture shot and projected selected scenes in 120 frames per second, which is five times faster than the 24 frames per second standard used in Hollywood. \n", "BULLET::::- Carl Zeiss AG + ARRI: Master Anamorphics\n\nBULLET::::- Cooke Optics:\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Frame rate works the same for different types of medias." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Video games need to simulate worlds frame by frame, while cameras capture the real world frame by frame." ]
2018-01700	How Did Newton Discover His Law of Cooling?	You need to remember that Newton was one of the creators of calculus & differential equations. Without going into too much detail, these are the branches of math dealing with things that continuously change & finding nice formulas for working with them. Newton's law of cooling, as stated, doesn't actually involve e - it says that the rate of change of temperature in a substance a any point in time is proportional to the difference between it and the environment. When you do the math to convert rates of change to simple formulas, you often end up with an e involved. So, it's not a matter of saying "this looks like something that needs e", he set up a complex math problem that, once you solved it, had e in the result.	[ "Sir Isaac Newton did not originally state his law in the above form in 1701, when it was originally formulated. Rather, using today's terms, Newton noted after some mathematical manipulation that \"the rate of temperature change\" of a body is proportional to the difference in temperatures between the body and its surroundings. This final simplest version of the law given by Newton himself, was partly due to confusion in Newton's time between the concepts of heat and temperature, which would not be fully disentangled until much later.\n", "Convection-cooling is sometimes called \"Newton's law of cooling.\" This use is based on a work by Isaac Newton published anonymously as \"Scala graduum Caloris. Calorum Descriptiones & signa.\" in \"Philosophical Transactions\", 1701.\n", "Section::::Career.\n", "BULLET::::- 1804 – Sir John Leslie observes that a matte black surface radiates heat more effectively than a polished surface, suggesting the importance of black-body radiation.\n\nBULLET::::- 1806 – Francis Beaufort introduces his system for classifying wind speeds.\n\nBULLET::::- 1808 – John Dalton defends caloric theory in \"A New System of Chemistry\" and describes how it combines with matter, especially gases; he proposes that the heat capacity of gases varies inversely with atomic weight.\n\nBULLET::::- 1810 – Sir John Leslie freezes water to ice artificially.\n", "BULLET::::- 1761 – Joseph Black discovers that ice absorbs heat without changing its temperature when melting\n\nBULLET::::- 1772 – Black's student Daniel Rutherford discovers nitrogen, which he calls \"phlogisticated air\", and together they explain the results in terms of the phlogiston theory\n\nBULLET::::- 1776 – John Smeaton publishes a paper on experiments related to power, work, momentum, and kinetic energy, supporting the conservation of energy\n\nBULLET::::- 1777 – Carl Wilhelm Scheele distinguishes heat transfer by thermal radiation from that by convection and conduction\n", "BULLET::::- 1650 – Otto von Guericke designed and built the world's first vacuum pump and created the world's first ever vacuum known as the Magdeburg hemispheres to disprove Aristotle's long-held supposition that 'Nature abhors a vacuum'.\n\nBULLET::::- 1656 – Robert Boyle and Robert Hooke built an air pump on this design.\n\nBULLET::::- 1662 – Boyle's law (gas law relating pressure and volume) is demonstrated using a vacuum pump\n\nBULLET::::- 1665 – Boyle theorizes a minimum temperature in \"New Experiments and Observations touching Cold\".\n\nBULLET::::- 1679 – Denis Papin – safety valve\n", "In 1648, Blaise Pascal rediscovered that atmospheric pressure decreases with height, and deduced that there is a vacuum above the atmosphere. In 1738, Daniel Bernoulli published \"Hydrodynamics\", initiating the Kinetic theory of gases and established the basic laws for the theory of gases. In 1761, Joseph Black discovered that ice absorbs heat without changing its temperature when melting. In 1772, Black's student Daniel Rutherford discovered nitrogen, which he called \"phlogisticated air\", and together they developed the phlogiston theory. In 1777, Antoine Lavoisier discovered oxygen and developed an explanation for combustion. In 1783, in Lavoisier's essay \"Reflexions sur le phlogistique\", he deprecates the phlogiston theory and proposes a caloric theory. In 1804, Sir John Leslie observed that a matte black surface radiates heat more effectively than a polished surface, suggesting the importance of black-body radiation. In 1808, John Dalton defended caloric theory in \"A New System of Chemistry\" and described how it combines with matter, especially gases; he proposed that the heat capacity of gases varies inversely with atomic weight. In 1824, Sadi Carnot analyzed the efficiency of steam engines using caloric theory; he developed the notion of a reversible process and, in postulating that no such thing exists in nature, laid the foundation for the second law of thermodynamics.\n", "BULLET::::- 1798 – Count Rumford (Benjamin Thompson) performs measurements of the frictional heat generated in boring cannons and develops the idea that heat is a form of kinetic energy; his measurements are inconsistent with caloric theory, but are also sufficiently imprecise as to leave room for doubt.\n\nSection::::1800–1847.\n\nBULLET::::- 1802 – Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac publishes Charles's law, discovered (but unpublished) by Jacques Charles around 1787; this shows the dependency between temperature and volume. Gay-Lussac also formulates the law relating temperature with pressure (the pressure law, or Gay-Lussac's law)\n", "BULLET::::- 1823 – Michael Faraday liquified ammonia to cause cooling\n\nBULLET::::- 1824 – Sadi Carnot – the Carnot Cycle\n\nBULLET::::- 1834 – Ideal gas law by Émile Clapeyron\n\nBULLET::::- 1834 – Émile Clapeyron characterizes phase transitions between two phases in form of Clausius–Clapeyron relation.\n\nBULLET::::- 1834 – Jacob Perkins obtained the first patent for a vapor-compression refrigeration system.\n\nBULLET::::- 1834 – Jean-Charles Peltier discovers the Peltier effect\n\nBULLET::::- 1844 – Charles Piazzi Smyth proposes comfort cooling\n\nBULLET::::- c.1850 – Michael Faraday makes a hypothesis that freezing substances increases their dielectric constant.\n", "BULLET::::- 1742 – Anders Celsius, a Swedish astronomer, proposed the Celsius temperature scale which led to the current Celsius scale.\n\nBULLET::::- 1743 – Benjamin Franklin is prevented from seeing a lunar eclipse by a hurricane, he decides that cyclones move in a contrary manner to the winds at their periphery.\n\nBULLET::::- 1761 – Joseph Black discovers that ice absorbs heat without changing its temperature when melting.\n\nBULLET::::- 1772 – Black's student Daniel Rutherford discovers nitrogen, which he calls \"phlogisticated air\", and together they explain the results in terms of the phlogiston theory.\n", "Newton scale\n\nThe Newton scale is a temperature scale devised by Isaac Newton in 1701.\n\nHe called his device a \"thermometer\", but he did not use the term \"temperature\", speaking of \"degrees of heat\" (\"gradus caloris\") instead.\n\nNewton's publication represents the first attempt to introduce an objective way of measuring (what would come to be called) temperature (alongside the Rømer scale published at nearly the same time).\n", "BULLET::::- 1857 – Rudolf Clausius creates a sophisticated theory of gases based including all degrees of freedom, as well derives Clausius–Clapeyron relation from basic principles.\n\nBULLET::::- 1857 – Carl Wilhelm Siemens, the Siemens cycle\n\nBULLET::::- 1858 – Julius Plücker observed for the first time some pumping effect due to electrical discharge.\n\nBULLET::::- 1859 – James Clerk Maxwell determines distribution of velocities and kinetic energies in a gas, and explains emergent property of temperature and heat, and creates a first law of statistical mechanics.\n", "With Ørsted's support, a further series of quantitative experiments was sponsored by the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters, culminating in a report in 1847. By 1850, Colding had obtained a value for the mechanical equivalent of heat, some 14% lower than the modern value (4.1860 J·cal) at a time when Joule had measured 4.159 J·cal. A subsequent calculation by Colding in 1852 yielded a value only 3% below modern values.\n\nSection::::Works.\n\nBULLET::::- 1856: \"Scientific reflections on the relationship between intellectual life’s activity and the general forces of nature\"\n", "BULLET::::- 1679 – Denis Papin designed a steam digester which inspired the development of the piston-and-cylinder steam engine.\n\nBULLET::::- 1694–1734 – Georg Ernst Stahl names Becher's combustible earth as phlogiston and develops the theory\n\nBULLET::::- 1698 – Thomas Savery patents an early steam engine\n\nBULLET::::- 1702 – Guillaume Amontons introduces the concept of absolute zero, based on observations of gases\n\nBULLET::::- 1738 – Daniel Bernoulli publishes \"Hydrodynamica\", initiating the kinetic theory\n\nBULLET::::- 1749 – Émilie du Châtelet, in her French translation and commentary on Newton's \"Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica\", derives the conservation of energy from the first principles of Newtonian mechanics.\n", "The accepted theory of heat in the 18th century viewed it as a kind of fluid, called caloric; although this theory was later shown to be erroneous, a number of scientists adhering to it nevertheless made important discoveries useful in developing the modern theory, including Joseph Black (1728–99) and Henry Cavendish (1731–1810). Opposed to this caloric theory, which had been developed mainly by the chemists, was the less accepted theory dating from Newton's time that heat is due to the motions of the particles of a substance. This mechanical theory gained support in 1798 from the cannon-boring experiments of Count Rumford (Benjamin Thompson), who found a direct relationship between heat and mechanical energy.\n", "When stated in terms of temperature differences, Newton's law (with several further simplifying assumptions, such as a low Biot number and temperature-independent heat capacity) results in a simple differential equation for temperature-difference as a function of time. This equation has a solution that specifies a simple negative exponential rate of temperature-difference decrease, over time. This characteristic time function for temperature-difference behavior, is also associated with Newton's law of cooling.\n\nSection::::Relationship to mechanism of cooling.\n", "BULLET::::- 1804 – Sir John Leslie observes that a matte black surface radiates heat more effectively than a polished surface, suggesting the importance of black-body radiation\n\nBULLET::::- 1805 – William Hyde Wollaston defends the conservation of energy in \"On the Force of Percussion\"\n\nBULLET::::- 1808 – John Dalton defends caloric theory in \"A New System of Chemistry\" and describes how it combines with matter, especially gases; he proposes that the heat capacity of gases varies inversely with atomic weight\n\nBULLET::::- 1810 – Sir John Leslie freezes water to ice artificially\n", "Section::::Rate-of-change of temperature-difference version of the law.\n\nAs noted in the section above, accurate formulation for temperatures may require analysis based on changing heat transfer coefficients at different temperatures, a situation frequently found in free-convection situations, and which precludes accurate use of Newton's law.\n", "BULLET::::- 1742 – Anders Celsius proposed a scale with zero at the boiling point and 100 degrees at the freezing point of water. It was later changed to be the other way around, on the input from Swedish academy of science.\n\nBULLET::::- 1756 – The first documented public demonstration of artificial refrigeration by William Cullen\n\nBULLET::::- 1782 – Antoine Lavoisier and Pierre-Simon Laplace invent the ice-calorimeter\n\nBULLET::::- 1784 – Gaspard Monge liquefied the first gas producing liquid sulfur dioxide.\n\nBULLET::::- 1787 – Charles's law (Gas law, relating volume and temperature)\n\nSection::::19th century.\n", "The fact that warm air rises and the importance of the phenomenon to meteorology was first realised by Edmund Halley in 1686. Sir John Leslie observed that the cooling effect of a stream of air increased with its speed, in 1804.\n", "Disguised as a habitué of bars and taverns, he gathered much of that evidence himself. For all the barriers placed to prosecution, and separating the branches of government, English law still had ancient and formidable customs of authority. Newton had himself made a justice of the peace in all the home counties. A draft letter regarding the matter is included in Newton's personal first edition of \"Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica\", which he must have been amending at the time. Then he conducted more than 100 cross-examinations of witnesses, informers, and suspects between June 1698 and Christmas 1699. Newton successfully prosecuted 28 coiners.\n", "Keill studied at Edinburgh University under David Gregory. In 1692, he obtained his bachelor's degree with a distinction in physics and mathematics. Keill then attended Balliol College, Oxford, obtaining an MA on 2 February 1694. After being appointed a lecturer in experimental philosophy at Hart Hall, Keill started giving lectures and performing experiments based on Newton's findings. He instructed his students on the laws of motion, the principles of hydrostatics and optics, and Newtonian propositions on light and colours.\n", "Section::::History.:Middle Ages.\n", "The first substantial experimental challenges to caloric theory arose in Rumford's 1798 work, when he showed that boring cast iron cannons produced great amounts of heat which he ascribed to friction, and his work was among the first to undermine the caloric theory. The development of the steam engine also focused attention on calorimetry and the amount of heat produced from different types of coal. The first quantitative research on the heat changes during chemical reactions was initiated by Lavoisier using an ice calorimeter following research by Joseph Black on the latent heat of water.\n", "Hans Christian Ørsted was an old family friend and arranged for Colding to serve an apprenticeship under a craftsman in Copenhagen, Colding achieving the status of journeyman in 1836. Ørsted had, by this stage, become something of a mentor to the young Colding and encouraged him to enroll at the Copenhagen Polytechnic Institute. The Institute had been founded at Ørsted's initiative and he offered continual advice and support to the young Colding. At the polytechnic Colding showed \"the most undaunted diligence and the most conscientious precision\" and in 1839 Ørsted engaged Colding to assist on some exacting measurements of the release of heat by compressed water.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-02209	Why when making a new product (food most of the times) advertised as limited edition companies sell it for very, very long time and it becomes available permanently?	They are implying scarcity, which makes people want to buy more of it or not put off purchasing it. It's USUALLY but not always a marketing tactic, and a highly effective one. Simply by implying something will only be available in limited quantities and/or for a limited time. That being said, there are also cases where products are intended to be produced in a limited run, get much better than anticipated sales, and so the company decides to make it permanent. Eventually the "Limited edition" label usually gets dropped though.	[ "\"Special editions\", \"limited editions\" and variants on these terms fall under the category of manufactured collectables and are used as a marketing incentive for various types of product. They were originally applied to products related to the arts—such as books, prints or recorded music and films—but are now used for cars, fine wine and many other collectables. A special edition typically includes extra material of some kind. A limited edition is restricted in the number of copies produced, although the number may be arbitrarily high.\n\nSection::::The business of collectables.:Collectables in commerce.\n", "The terms special edition, limited edition, and variants such as deluxe edition, or collector's edition, are used as a marketing incentive for various kinds of products, originally published products related to the arts, such as books, prints, video games or recorded music and films, but now including clothing, cars, fine wine, and whisky, among other products. A limited edition is restricted in the number of copies produced, although in fact the number may be very low or very high. Suzuki (2008) defines limited edition products as those “sold in a state that makes them difficult to obtain because of companies limiting their availability to a certain period, quantity, region, or channel\". A special edition implies there is extra material of some kind included. The term is frequently used on DVD film releases, often when the so-called \"special\" edition is actually the only version released.\n", "This technique is commonly known in the marketing industry by the acronym BOGOF.\n\nSection::::Criticism and negative publicity in the UK.\n\nTwo-for-one promotions were criticised in the United Kingdom in 2014, at a time of concern over food waste. Because many foods under such offers have short shelf lives, customers are more likely to pass the products' use by date.\n", "In many cases, successful film releases have had items made in limited numbers. These \"limited editions\" usually contain the best DVD edition possible of a film with special items in a box set, sometimes containing items available only in the limited edition. Items marked thus are often (but not always) released for a shorter time and in lower quantity than common editions, often with a running number (e.g. \"13055 of 20000\") printed on the products to boost the rarity feel, as the company implies not to manufacture more. It is also common to have such items packaged with unique designs.\n", "Limited edition candy\n\nLimited Edition (LE) candy is specialized candy manufactured for a limited time period, typically eight to twelve weeks. Limited-edition as a candy marketing strategy was first used in 2003; by August 2005, more than 60 limited-edition candy varieties had been marketed.\n\nHershey's Dark Kisses (released as limited-edition in July 2003), Kit Kat White Chocolate, and Reese's White Chocolate were eventually made permanent due to customer demand.\n\nLE candy are often used for cross-promotion with films.\n\nSome believe that LE candy merely builds upon base brand sales; others believe in the long-run that they \"cannibalize base brand sales.\"\n", "Approved Food\n\nApproved Food is an online discount food retailer based in Sheffield, South Yorkshire, in the United Kingdom. The company retails products that are near or past their best before date, as well as some fresh produce, including vegetables. It is the UK's largest online retailer for short dated and residual stock.\n\nApproved Food takes an active role in educating people about the difference between sell-by-dates, display until dates, use-by dates and best-before-dates.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Milking, or \"double-dipping\", refers to the practice of releasing multiple editions of the same product (usually a CD, DVD, Blu-ray Disc), simultaneously or at different times, with the purpose of enticing consumers to buy more than one edition. This can be done with, for example, a special edition, a director's cut, an ultimate edition, and a collector's edition, sometimes with different features or supplementary material.\n\nThe consumer may be persuaded to purchase multiple editions, with the belief that the additional features or content will be worth paying for a product that is largely equivalent to one already owned.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Section::::Limited edition prints.:Consumer protection.\n\nIn UK and New Zealand the Fine Art Trade Guild ensures the quality and verification of limited edition prints by employing a number of strictly administered regulations for all processes and aspects related to them. \n", "Occasionally, a limited-edition, exclusive Pullip will be made in a quantity between 300 and 2000 and will be sold in addition to the regular monthly release. In early 2006, with the release of limited-edition Fall Purezza, Jun Planning announced that it would no longer produce exclusive Pullips because their sales cannibalized the demand for the regular monthly releases. However, the company apparently changed their mind in early 2007 with the release of the first US store exclusive, Haute LA, by HauteDoll, which was later followed by multiple Japan exclusives. Some stores that have had these exclusive Pullips are Toys-R-Us Japan, who sold Vivien in November 2004; Magma Heritage, in Singapore, who sold Bianca, Oren, and Mitzi in 2004; HauteDoll, in Los Angeles and New York, who sold Haute LA and Haute NY in 2007; TBS shop, in Japan, who sold Kirakishou in September 2007 as well as a limited version of Sparrow and (new) Shinku in March 2014; and pullip.net, in South Korea. Until September 2007, the limited-release exclusive dolls came with a certificate showing their production number; however, as of 2014, certificates are included only sporadically with the exclusives/limited-edition dolls.\n", "The term also implies that no further additional printings of the book with the same design treatment will take place, unlike open-ended trade editions wherein further copies may be released in more print runs as the first and subsequent printings sell out.\n", "Examples include a tie-in with \"Space 1999\" with free cards of episodes inside the wrapper, \"Star Wars\" with free masks of major characters and film facts on the wrappers, \"The Bionic Man\" TV series, \"Superman\" and even a Goal lolly with lolly sticks containing famous footballers of the day.\n", "New products such as frozen food items were unsought till they are advertised using media vehicles or by word of mouth marketing. Once the consumer is well educated about the product, the good goes on to become a sought good. For example: A new smartphone with exclusive features is an unsought good until the consumer hears about it. Once the smartphone is widely known among customers, it becomes a sought good. A classic example here is the Apple iPhone. Consumers are unaware that they want it unless told about it.\n", "Studio Limited Editions\n\nStudio Limited Editions was a brand name or artist label that was attached to a range of various media products that were sold through UK and overseas high street retail stores from 2005 to 2008. These stores were establishments such as Art galleries (such as Castle Galleries), Print retailers (such as Athena), Garden centres (such as Dobbies) and Gift shops (such as Menkind).'The brand was also available through major mail order companies such as The Park Group, Express Gifts and the Ideal World TV Shopping Channel.\n", "Some products are simply not available, but are desperately needed nonetheless. An example is anti-malarial drugs. These drugs are unavailable in many areas of the world where they are most needed, and if they are available, the people who need them are not in a position to purchase them. They are not manufactured locally and the costs of setting up local manufacturing facilities would be prohibitive, given the regulations surrounding pharmaceuticals. There is a high likelihood of locally available drugs being counterfeit, with often fatal consequences.\n\nSection::::Arguments in favor of gifts in kind.:Corporate social responsibility.\n", "BULLET::::- Instant gravy – Bisto is a brand of powdered instant gravy that has been produced and consumed in Great Britain since 1908.\n\nBULLET::::- Instant mashed potatoes\n\nBULLET::::- Smash – a brand of Instant mashed potatoes in the United Kingdom\n\nBULLET::::- Instant noodle\n\nBULLET::::- Cup noodle\n\nBULLET::::- List of instant noodle brands\n\nBULLET::::- Instant oatmeal – Quaker Instant Oatmeal is an example\n\nBULLET::::- Instant pudding\n\nBULLET::::- Instant porridge – an example is Cream of Wheat brand, which includes an instant variety in its product line\n\nBULLET::::- Instant rice\n\nBULLET::::- Minute Rice – an instant rice brand\n\nBULLET::::- Instant curry\n", "Section::::Collector's edition.\n\nCollector's edition may just be another term for special edition and limited edition products that include additional features or items that regular versions do not have. Speaking about books, collector's edition products may refer to books in special limited and numbered editions, sometimes hand-bound, and signed by the artist and containing one or more original works or prints produced directly from their work and printed under their supervision. Whatever these extra features or items are, they must represent additional value to collectors of these products.\n\nSection::::Disc products.\n", "BULLET::::- \"A moist and delicious meal in every can.\" (1982–1984)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Good taste is easy to recognize.\" (1982–2005)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Is it love, or is it Fancy Feast?\" (2005–2008)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The best ingredient is love.\" (2010–present)\n\nSection::::Products.\n\nSection::::Products.:Collectible holiday ornaments.\n\nFancy Feast annually releases a limited edition ornament during the Christmas holiday. The first series ornament was released in 1984.\n\nSection::::Products.:Current Products.\n\nSection::::Products.:Current Products.:Wet Food.\n\nClassic Type\n\nBULLET::::- Chicken Feast\n\nBULLET::::- Cod, Sole and Shrimp Feast\n\nBULLET::::- Salmon and Shrimp Feast\n\nBULLET::::- Seafood Feast\n\nBULLET::::- Tender Beef and Liver Feast (Formerly known as Beef and Liver Feast)\n", "Companies such as C.A. Courtesy, Costco, Sam's Club, Food Courts and Grocery Stores give out free samples to customers to persuade a customer to buy the product.\n", "BULLET::::- 1989: Besana UK. Limited opens - to introduce processed products to UK (multiples) and Northern Europe (multiples and processing sector)\n\nBULLET::::- 1988: partnership with Uno Moc, an organisation for both fresh and processed products\n\nBULLET::::- 2000: partnership with \"Almaverde Bio\", a consortium for the promotion, production and sale of organic produce.\n\nBULLET::::- 2002: partnership with Mediterranean Fruit Company (M.F.C), a consortium promoting the Italian fruit and vegetable sector outside the Italian market.\n\nBULLET::::- 2003: partnership with \"Made in Blu Trading\", a consortium promoting Italian high quality produce outside the Italian market.\n", "Section::::Limited edition prints.\n\nLimited edition prints, also known as LEs, have been standard in printmaking from the nineteenth century onwards. A limit to the print run is crucial, as many traditional printmaking techniques can only produce a limited number of best quality impressions. This can be as few as ten or twenty for a technique like drypoint, but more commonly would be in the low hundreds - print runs of over a thousand are regarded as dubious by the serious art market for original prints, even though with many techniques there is no loss of quality.\n", "Also, some albums are initially released in two editions, a regular retail version and a \"special\" or \"limited\" version in distinctive packaging and often including extras such as a second disc, a video DVD, or liner notes expanded into a hardback book. Generally, the special package is only produced for the first pressing or a set number of copies - some are limited to only being sold at one chain of retailers. It is important to distinguish this from an expanded re-release, since those are generally available widely and for a long period of time.\n\nSection::::Milking.\n", "Limited-edition book\n\nA limited-edition book is a book released in a limited-quantity print run, usually fewer than 1000 copies (much smaller than publishing-industry standards). The term connotes scarcity or exclusivity. The higher the quantity printed the less likely the book will become scarce and thus increase in value. Limited editions were introduced by publishers in the late 19th century. \n", "Many offers, advertised in large print, only apply when certain conditions are met. In many cases, these conditions are difficult or nearly impossible to meet.\n", "The use of disposable foodservice packaging is a step toward preventing foodborne disease. By being used only once, these products significantly reduce food contamination and the spread of diseases.\n", "Popular culture widely employs \"Special, Deluxe, Expanded and Limited Edition\" in marketing, releasing subsequent, improved versions of film DVDs, music, and video games. Companies widely use special editions and incremental improvements to sell the same products to consumers multiple times. This has been seen in the \"10th Anniversary edition\" of \"Titanic\", which simply consists of the first two discs of the previous \"Special Collector's edition\", only with new packaging, and on CD with the \"30 Year Anniversary Edition\" of Bob Marley's \"Exodus\", which has exactly the same content as the original album, but in new packaging.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-12796	How is our brain able to work on "autopilot" when having a conversation, where we will not actually be paying attention at all?	For simple conversations or “small talk” we have become so used to the kinds of answers we are likely to give and receive that we can do it with very little effort. My best hypothesis would be that the neural connections are heavily myelinated (reinforced) so it seems like an easy task and requires very little brain power. Keep in mind that you aren’t actually paying no attention at all; if that were the case you wouldn’t be able to respond to their questions. You probably just didn’t perceive the conversation as particularly useful so you forgot most of it as it happened.	[ "Section::::Research on supervisory attentional system.:Parkinson's disease (PD).\n\nPatients with Parkinson's disease had trouble inhibiting habitual tendencies, constructing new responses, and produced more errors. They showed similar performance to controls on allocating attention and resources of working memory. PD patients also showed impairments in verbal fluency and took longer to respond on tasks. Early, untreated PD patients had the most severe impairment to the SAS, however only certain processes are affected. Treatment substantially improved PD patients' cognitive control.\n\nThe influence of Parkinson's disease on the SAS are consistent with those found for carbon monoxide poisoning, and both confirm frontal lobe dysfunctions.\n", "The model also leaves puzzles to be solved, for example concerning how TCU boundaries are identified and projected, and the role played by gaze and body orientation in the management of turn-taking. It also establishes the relevance of problems for other disciplines: for example, the split second timing of turn-transition sets up a cognitive 'bottle neck' problem in which potential speakers must attend to incoming speech while also preparing their own contribution - something which imposes a heavy load of human processing capacity, and which may impact the structure of languages [Refs].\n", "The vast majority of current research on human multitasking is based on performance of doing two tasks simultaneously, usually that involves driving while performing another task, such as texting, eating, or even speaking to passengers in the vehicle, or with a friend over a cellphone. This research reveals that the human attentional system has limits for what it can process: driving performance is worse while engaged in other tasks; drivers make more mistakes, brake harder and later, get into more accidents, veer into other lanes, and/or are less aware of their surroundings when engaged in the previously discussed tasks.\n", "Furthermore, we see that activity in the superior temporal gyrus (STG) toward the target stream is decreased/interfered with when competing stimuli streams (that typically hold significant value) arise. The \"cocktail party effect\" - the ability to detect significant stimuli in multitalker situations - has also been labeled the \"cocktail party problem\" because our ability to selectively attend simultaneously interferes with the effectiveness of attention at a neurological level.\n", "A prevalent example of this inattention to detail due to multitasking is apparent when people talk on cell phones while driving. One study found that having an accident is four times more likely when using a cell phone while driving. Another study compared reaction times for experienced drivers during a number of tasks, and found that the subjects reacted more slowly to brake lights and stop signs during phone conversations than during other simultaneous tasks. A 2006 study showed that drivers talking on cell phones were more involved in rear-end collisions and sped up slower than intoxicated drivers. When talking, people must withdraw their attention from the road in order to formulate responses. Because the brain cannot focus on two sources of input at one time, driving and listening or talking, constantly changing input provided by cell phones distracts the brain and increases the likelihood of accidents.\n", "Section::::Overview.:Role of the executive control system in preventing cross talk.\n", "When a message processor decides to pay attention to a message because it appeals to their interests, and they allocate resources to information processing, the controlled message engagement subprocess begins; conversely, when a message processor is cued automatically, and they are paying attention, the same process of allocating cognitive resources begins to elicit message processing. First, message engagement, which is a stimulus approach/avoidance interaction engages the appetitive and aversive cognitive subprocesses. In the most lay terms, these are basic fight or flight responses that happen in mere nanoseconds. This information then can report to sensor stores in the brain; and if it is useful, it will move to short term memory and long term memory.\n", "Section::::Research on supervisory attentional system.:Carbon monoxide poisoning.\n\nSurvivors of carbon monoxide poisoning had relatively normal abilities on routine, attentional tasks, but were impaired on high-level functions like attentional switching and control. These lower- and higher-level tasks mirror contention scheduling and the Supervisory Attentional System, respectively. Survivors were significantly slower in performance, and impairments were present for over a 1-month period.\n", "Dialogue is really aimed at going into the whole thought process and changing the way the thought process occurs collectively. We haven't really paid much attention to thought as a process. We have ENGAGED in thoughts, but we have only paid attention to the content, not to the process. Why does thought require attention? Everything requires attention, really. If we ran machines without paying attention to them, they would break down. Our thought, too, is a process, and it requires attention, otherwise it's going to go wrong.\n", "Human multitasking\n\nHuman multitasking is an apparent human ability to perform more than one task, or activity, at the same time. An example of multitasking is taking a phone call while driving a car. Multitasking can result in time wasted due to human context switching and apparently causing more errors due to insufficient attention. If one becomes proficient at two tasks it is possible to rapidly shift attention between the tasks and perform the tasks well/proficiently.\n\nSection::::Etymology.\n", "Section::::Neurological basis (and binaural processing).\n\nAuditory attention in regards to the cocktail party effect primarily occurs in the left hemisphere of the superior temporal gyrus (where the primary auditory cortex is); a fronto-parietal network involving the inferior frontal gyrus, superior parietal sulcus, and intraparietal sulcus also accounts for the acts of attention-shifting, speech processing, and attention control. Both the target stream (the more important information being attended to) and competing/interfering streams are processed in the same pathway within the left hemisphere, but fMRI scans shows that target streams are treated with more attention than competing streams. \n", "Much of this multitasking is not inherently coupled or coordinated, except by the user. For example, a user may be browsing the Web, listening to music playing video games, using e-mail, or talking on the phone while watching TV. More directly coordinated forms of media multitasking are emerging in the form of \"coactive media\" and particularly \"coactive TV\".\n\nSection::::Cognitive distraction.\n", "Section::::Mechanism.\n\nIn any given moment, there is a great deal of information made available to each individual. Psychologists have found that one's mind can attend to only a certain amount of information at a time. According to Csikszentmihályi's 2004 TED talk, that number is about \"110 bits of information per second\". That may seem like a lot of information, but simple daily tasks take quite a lot of information. Just decoding speech takes about 60 bits of information per second. That is why when having a conversation one cannot focus as much attention on other things.\n", "In our every day-to-day life, articulatory suppression can affect our ability to switch between tasks. A study by Liefooghe, Vandierendonck, Muyllaert, Verbruggen and Vanneste looked at the role of articulatory suppression can have on task switching. During their study, they conducted three experiments. In the first experiment, participants were asked to sort cards and were instructed either to perform the task silently or to repeat the word \"de\". The results indicated that articulatory suppression affected how quick participants were to switching between the sorting tasks. The reaction time increased for participants who were under articulatory suppression compared to those who were not. The remaining two experiments also received results indicating articulatory suppression had an effect on task switching.\n", "One major focal point relating to attention within the field of cognitive psychology is the concept of divided attention. A number of early studies dealt with the ability of a person wearing headphones to discern meaningful conversation when presented with different messages into each ear; this is known as the dichotic listening task. Key findings involved an increased understanding of the mind's ability to both focus on one message, while still being somewhat aware of information being taken in from the ear not being consciously attended to. E.g., participants (wearing earphones) may be told that they will be hearing separate messages in each ear and that they are expected to attend only to information related to basketball. When the experiment starts, the message about basketball will be presented to the left ear and non-relevant information will be presented to the right ear. At some point the message related to basketball will switch to the right ear and the non-relevant information to the left ear. When this happens, the listener is usually able to repeat the entire message at the end, having attended to the left or right ear only when it was appropriate. The ability to attend to one conversation in the face of many is known as the cocktail party effect.\n", "Some people can process multiple stimuli, e.g. trained morse code operators have been able to copy 100% of a message while carrying on a meaningful conversation. This relies on the reflexive response due to \"overlearning\" the skill of morse code reception/detection/transcription so that it is an autonomous function requiring no specific attention to perform.\n\nSection::::Alternative topics and discussions.:Clinical model.\n", "Attention can be divided into two major attentional systems: exogenous control and endogenous control. Exogenous control works in a bottom-up manner and is responsible for orienting reflex, and pop-out effects. Endogenous control works top-down and is the more deliberate attentional system, responsible for divided attention and conscious processing.\n", "The cocktail party effect is the phenomenon that a person hears his or her name even when not attending to the conversation. To study this, a screening measure for attentional control was given that tested a person’s ability to keep track of words while also doing math problems. Participants were separated into two groups---low and high span attentional control ability groups. They listened to two word lists read simultaneously by a male and a female voice and were told to ignore the male voice. Their name was read by the “ignored” male voice. Low span people were more likely to hear their name compared to high span people. This result suggests that people with lower attentional control ability have more trouble inhibiting information from the surrounding environment.\n", "Section::::Proactive interference.:Brain structures.\n\nThe leading experimental technique for studying proactive interference in the brain is the \"recent-probes\" task, in which participants must commit a given set of items to memory and they are asked to recall a specific item indicated by a probe. Using the recent-probes task and fMRIs, the brain mechanisms involved in the resolution of proactive interference have been identified as the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex and the left anterior prefrontal cortex.\n\nSection::::Proactive interference.:Research.\n\nSection::::Proactive interference.:Research.:With lists.\n", "There are two main processing distinctions in attention. Automatic attentional processes do not require conscious control and are triggered in response to familiar, environmental stimuli. This contrasts to controlled attentional processes that require conscious control in order to respond to unique situations.\n", "Little is known about the unconscious mind or about how decisions are made based on unconscious communications except that they are always unintentional. There are two types of unconscious communications: intrapersonal and interpersonal.\n\nResearch has shown that our conscious attention can attend to 5–9 items simultaneously. All other information is processed by the unconscious mind. For example, the unconscious mind sometimes picks up on and relates nonverbal cues about an individual based on how they have arranged their settings such as their home or place of work.\n\nSection::::Unconscious mind.\n", "Section::::Research.:Continuous partial attention.\n\nAuthor Steven Berlin Johnson describes one kind of multitasking: “It usually involves skimming the surface of the incoming data, picking out the relevant details, and moving on to the next stream. You’re paying attention, but only partially. That lets you cast a wider net, but it also runs the risk of keeping you from really studying the fish.\" Multimedia pioneer Linda Stone coined the phrase \"continuous partial attention\" for this kind of processing. Continuous partial attention is multitasking where things do not get studied in depth.\n", "There has been little difference found between speaking on a hands-free cell phone or a hand-held cell phone, which suggests that it is the strain of attentional system that causes problems, rather than what the driver is doing with his or her hands. While speaking with a passenger is as cognitively demanding as speaking with a friend over the phone, passengers are able to change the conversation based upon the needs of the driver. For example, if traffic intensifies, a passenger may stop talking to allow the driver to navigate the increasingly difficult roadway; a conversation partner over a phone would not be aware of the change in environment.\n", "Several recent studies of explicit attention capture have found that when observers are focused on some other object or event, they often experience inattentional blindness. This finding has potentially tragic implications for distracted driving. If a person's attention is focused elsewhere while driving, carrying on a conversation or text messaging, for example, they could fail to notice salient and distinctive objects, such as a stop sign, which could lead to serious injury and possibly even death. There have also been heinous incidents attributed to inattentional blindness behind the wheel. For example, a Pennsylvania highway crew accidentally paved over a dead deer that was lying on the road. When questioned regarding their actions, the workers claimed to have never seen it.\n", "Studies have shown that steering cognition is distinct from the mind's engine or 'algorithmic processing' which is responsible for how we process complex calculations.\n\nThe state of steering cognition at any time is influenced by 'priming' effects - cues in the surrounding environment such as sights, sounds and messages of which we may not be conscious. Studies have shown that environmental biasing of our steering cognition can contribute to non-conscious in-group behaviours, e.g. an increased likelihood of groupthink or emotional contagion.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-15064	Why can't we directly mix engine oil into gas, but have to add it separately?	The kind of engines we use for most things has separate places for gasoline and for oil because gasoline and oil serve different functions.	[ "In addition to a suitable quantity of feedstock, the price spread between the value of alkylate product and alternate feedstock disposition value must be large enough to justify the installation. Alternative outlets for refinery alklylation feedstocks include sales as LPG, blending of C streams directly into gasoline and feedstocks for chemical plants. Local market conditions vary widely between plants. Variation in the RVP specification for gasoline between countries and between seasons dramatically impacts the amount of butane streams that can be blended directly into gasoline. The transportation of specific types of LPG streams can be expensive so local disparities in economic conditions are often not fully mitigated by cross market movements of alkylation feedstocks.\n", "Heavy fuel oils continue to be used in the boiler \"lighting up\" facility in many coal-fired power plants. This use is approximately analogous to using kindling to start a fire. Without performing this act it is difficult to begin the large-scale combustion process.\n", "In small two-stroke engines, the oil may be pre-mixed with the gasoline or fuel, often in a rich gasoline:oil ratio of 25:1, 40:1 or 50:1, and burned in use along with the gasoline. Larger two-stroke engines used in boats and motorcycles may have a more economical oil injection system rather than oil pre-mixed into the gasoline. The oil injection system is not used on small engines used in applications like snowblowers and trolling motors as the oil injection system is too expensive for small engines and would take up too much room on the equipment. The oil properties will vary according to the individual needs of these devices. Non-smoking two-stroke oils are composed of esters or polyglycols. Environmental legislation for leisure marine applications, especially in Europe, encouraged the use of ester-based two cycle oil.\n", "Section::::Economics.:Market specifications of the alkylate.\n\nAlkylate is a blending component so opposed to a finished gasoline ready for consumption it has no specifications to be marketable. Nevertheless, independent provider of energy and petrochemicals information like Platts reports trades for alkylate ready for blending in the gasoline pool, with RVP 5.5 psi, (RON + MON)/2 92 and of course free of aromatics, olefins and sulphur.\n\nSection::::Maintenance.\n\nMaintenance costs and data are difficult to obtain on a comparable basis. HFAU have much more peripheral equipment (feed driers, product treaters,\n", "Fuels burn faster and more efficiently when they present a large surface area to the oxygen in air. Liquid fuels must be atomized to create a fuel-air mixture, traditionally this was done with a carburetor in petrol engines and with fuel injection in diesel engines. Most modern petrol engines now use fuel injection too — though the technology is quite different. While diesel must be injected at an exact point in that engine cycle, no such precision is needed in a petrol engine. However, the lack of lubricity in petrol means that the injectors themselves must be more sophisticated.\n", "The addition of certain materials such as lead and thallium will suppress detonation extremely well when certain fuels are used. The addition of tetraethyl lead (TEL), a soluble organo lead compound added to gasoline was common until it was discontinued for reasons of toxic pollution. Lead dust added to the intake charge will also reduce knock with various hydrocarbon fuels. Manganese compounds are also used to reduce knock with petrol fuel.\n", "BULLET::::- Dimerization unit converts olefins into higher-octane gasoline blending components. For example, butenes can be dimerized into isooctene which may subsequently be hydrogenated to form isooctane. There are also other uses for dimerization. Gasoline produced through dimerization is highly unsaturated and very reactive. It tends spontaneously to form gums. For this reason the effluent from the dimerization need to be blended into the finished gasoline pool immediately or hydrogenated.\n", "With traditional gasoline and diesel engines the energy density of the air-fuel mixture is limited because the liquid fuels do not mix well in the cylinder. Further, gasoline and diesel fuel have autoignition temperatures and pressures relevant to engine design. An important part of traditional engine design is designing the cylinders, compression ratios, and fuel injectors such that pre-ignition but at the same time as much fuel as possible can be injected, become well mixed, and still have time to complete the combustion process during the power stroke.\n", "Oil continuous (water-in-oil) emulsified fuels are exemplified by diesel (or biodiesel blended fuels) and water emulsions,see: futrolaquapower.com (inactive website) These emulsified fuels were recognized in Europe (France and Italy) and CEN workshop standard was established (CWA 15145:2004). Other types of fuels have been emulsified contain between 5 and 30% water (by mass) in the overall fuel emulsion.\n", "Most refineries, therefore, add vacuum distillation and catalytic cracking, which adds one more level of complexity by reducing fuel oil by conversion to light distillates and middle distillates. A \"coking refinery\" adds further complexity to the cracking refinery by high conversion of fuel oil into distillates and petroleum coke.\n", "Section::::Distillation.:Examples of zeotropic mixtures.\n\nExamples of distillation for zeotropic mixtures can be found in industry. Refining crude oil is an example of multi-component distillation in industry that has been used for more than 75 years. Crude oil is separated into five components with main and side columns in a sharp split configuration. In addition, ethylene is separated from methane and ethane for industrial purposes using multi-component distillation.\n\nSeparating aromatic substances requires extractive distillation, for example, distilling a zeotropic mixture of benzene, toluene, and p-xylene.\n\nSection::::Refrigeration.\n", "Generally, the Fischer-Tropsch process favors unselective cobalt and iron catalysts, while methanol to gasoline technologies favor molecular size- and shape-selective zeolites. In terms of product types, Fischer-Tropsch production has been limited to linear paraffins, such as synthetic crude oil, whereas methanol to gasoline processes can produce aromatics, such as xylene and toluene, and naphthenes and iso-paraffins, such as drop-in gasoline and jet fuel.\n", "Another means to extend the operating range is to control the onset of ignition and the heat release rate by manipulating the fuel itself. This is usually carried out by blending multiple fuels \"on the fly\" for the same engine. Examples include blending of commercial gasoline and diesel fuels, adopting natural gas or ethanol \". This can be achieved in a number of ways:\n\nBULLET::::- Upstream blending: Fuels are mixed in the liquid phase, one with low ignition resistance (such as diesel) and a second with greater resistance (gasoline). Ignition timing varies with the ratio of these fuels.\n", "A gasoline pill is chemically impossible. Gasoline is a hydrocarbon fuel; this means it consists of a mixture of molecules made up of carbon and hydrogen (e.g. Octane CH). Water on the other hand consists of hydrogen and oxygen (HO). It would be necessary to introduce 8 parts carbon for every 9 parts of water to make any conversion of the form \n", "In some cases, separations require total purification, as in the electrolysis refining of bauxite ore for aluminum metal, but a good example of an incomplete separation technique is oil refining. Crude oil occurs naturally as a mixture of various hydrocarbons and impurities. The refining process splits this mixture into other, more valuable mixtures such as natural gas, gasoline and chemical feedstocks, none of which are pure substances, but each of which must be separated from the raw crude. In both of these cases, a series of separations is necessary to obtain the desired end products. In the case of oil refining, crude is subjected to a long series of individual distillation steps, each of which produces a different product or intermediate.\n", "Substituting one fuel for another in a given engine may start and may do useful work. However getting optimum efficiency from each fuel–engine combination requires adjusting the mix of air and fuel. This can be a manual adjustment using tools and test instruments or done automatically in computer-controlled fuel injected and multi-fuel vehicles. Fine tuning of the optimum fuel–air mix may be facilitated by using a supercharger or turbocharger.\n", "Petroleum is used mostly, by volume, for refining into fuel oil and gasoline, both important \"\"primary energy\"\" sources. 84 percent by volume of the hydrocarbons present in petroleum is converted into energy-rich fuels (petroleum-based fuels), including gasoline, diesel, jet, heating, and other fuel oils, and liquefied petroleum gas. The lighter grades of crude oil produce the best yields of these products, but as the world's reserves of light and medium oil are depleted, oil refineries are increasingly having to process heavy oil and bitumen, and use more complex and expensive methods to produce the products required. Because heavier crude oils have too much carbon and not enough hydrogen, these processes generally involve removing carbon from or adding hydrogen to the molecules, and using fluid catalytic cracking to convert the longer, more complex molecules in the oil to the shorter, simpler ones in the fuels.\n", "Since crude oil generally contains only 10 to 40 percent of hydrocarbon constituents in the gasoline range, refineries typically use a fluid catalytic cracking unit (FCCU) process to convert high molecular weight hydrocarbons into smaller and more volatile compounds, which are then converted into liquid gasoline-size hydrocarbons. Alkylation processes transform low molecular-weight alkenes and iso-paraffin molecules into larger iso-paraffins with a high octane number. While FCCUs are a very common unit in modern oil refineries, it is not common for a refinery have an alkylation unit. Indeed, as of 2010 there are some countries in the world without any installed alkylation units.\n", "BULLET::::- In some cases hydrocarbon lubricating oil may be drawn into the compressor's cylinder directly through damaged or worn seals, and the oil may (and usually will) then undergo combustion, being ignited by the immense compression ratio and subsequent temperature rise. Since heavy oils don't burn well – especially when not atomized properly – incomplete combustion will result in carbon monoxide production.\n", "With traditional gasoline and diesel engines the energy density of the air-fuel mixture is limited because the liquid fuels do not mix well in the cylinder. Further, gasoline and diesel auto-ignite at temperatures and pressures relevant to engine design. An important part of traditional engine design is designing the cylinders, compression ratios, and fuel injectors such that pre-ignition is avoided, but at the same time as much fuel as possible can be injected, become well mixed, and still have time to complete the combustion process during the power stroke.\n", "Examples of test setups include \"Ball-on-cylinder\" and \"Ball-on-three-discs\" tests.\n\nSection::::Lubricity in diesel engines.\n", "Base oil is produced by means of refining crude oil. This means that crude oil is heated in order that various distillates can be separated from one another. During the heating process, light and heavy hydrocarbons are separated – the light ones can be refined to make petrol and other fuels, while the heavier ones are suitable for bitumen and base oils.\n", "Section::::Fuel polishing process.\n\nIn essence \"polishing\" is an advanced level filtration of the fuel, monitored and controlled via a central processing unit. Its application ensures the need for fuel additives is either massively reduced or totally removed. A typical process involves a single pass of the fuel through different apparatus, removing increasingly finer contaminant in each stage. The application of different filter technologies is vital; a single process is not sufficient to extract the different forms of water and matter found in fuel.\n", "BULLET::::1. High dilution is typically necessary to prevent unwanted dimerization and oligomerization of the diene starting material. In a pilot plant setting, however, a high dilution factor translates into lower throughput, higher solvent costs and higher waste costs.\n\nBULLET::::2. High catalyst loading was found to be necessary to drive the RCM reaction to completion. Because of high licensing costs of the ruthenium catalyst that was used (1st generation Hoveyda catalyst), a high catalyst loading was financially prohibitive. Recycling of the catalyst was explored, but proved impractical.\n", "BULLET::::3. Gasoline synthesis: The Reactor 2 product gas is next fed to Reactor 3, the third reactor containing the catalyst for conversion of DME to hydrocarbons including paraffins (alkanes), aromatics, naphthenes (cycloalkanes) and small amounts of olefins (alkenes), mostly from (number of carbon atoms in the hydrocarbon molecule) to .\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]

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