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Split (3)

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2018-04606	Why is the brain divided in two parts?	This is due to something called "bilateral symmetry", a basic body plan that developed extremely early in our evolutionary history. It probably comes down to the benefits of having a spare organ in case of injury, such as a extra arm to feed oneself or an extra eye. Greater levels of symmetry have developed as well but having two seems to avoid an injury being invariably fatal while not spending too many resources on redundant features.	[ "Section::::Hemispheric specialization.:Role of the corpus callosum.\n", "Section::::Hemispheric specialization.\n", "Section::::Hemispheric specialization.:Functional plasticity.\n", "Section::::History.:Visual test.\n", "Section::::Case studies of split-brain patients.\n\nSection::::Case studies of split-brain patients.:Patient W.J..\n", "Section::::History.:Tactile test.\n", "Section::::History.:Combination of both tests.\n", "Section::::Hemispheric specialization.:Corpus callosotomy.\n\nCorpus callosotomy is a surgical procedure that sections the corpus callosum, resulting in either the partial or complete disconnection between the two hemispheres. It is typically used as a last resort measure in treatment of intractable epilepsy. The modern procedure typically involves only the anterior third of the corpus callosum; however, if the epileptic seizures continue, the following third is lesioned prior to the remaining third if the seizures persist. This results in a complete callosotomy in which most of the information transfer between hemispheres is lost.\n", "Due to the functional mapping of the corpus callosum, a partial callosotomy has less detrimental effects because it leaves parts of the corpus callosum intact. There is little functional plasticity observed in partial and complete callosotomies on adults, the most neuroplasticity is seen in young children but not in infants.\n", "Around the same time that Broca and Wernicke made their discoveries, neurologist Hughlings Jackson suggested the idea of a “leading hemisphere”—or, one side of the brain that played a more significant role in overall function—which would eventually pave the way for understanding hemispheric “dominance” for various processes. Several years later, in the mid-20th century, critical understanding of hemispheric lateralization for visuospatial, attention and perception, auditory, linguistic and emotional processing came from patients who underwent split-brain procedures to treat disorders such as epilepsy. In split-brain patients, the corpus callosum is cut, severing the main structure for communication between the two hemispheres. The first modern split-brain patient was a war veteran known as Patient W.J., whose case contributed to further understanding of asymmetry.\n", "After the right and left brain are separated, each hemisphere will have its own separate perception, concepts, and impulses to act. Having two \"brains\" in one body can create some interesting dilemmas. When one split-brain patient dressed himself, he sometimes pulled his pants up with one hand (that side of his brain wanted to get dressed) and down with the other (this side did not). He also reported to have grabbed his wife with his left hand and shaken her violently, at which point his right hand came to her aid and grabbed the aggressive left hand. However, such conflicts are very rare. If a conflict arises, one hemisphere usually overrides the other.\n", "In neurosurgery, as a treatment for severe epilepsy, the corpus callosum, or the area of the brain that connects the two hemispheres, would be completely bisected. By eliminating the connection between the two hemispheres of a patient's brain, electrical communication would be cut off greatly diminishing the amount and severity of the epileptic seizures. For some, seizures would be completely eliminated.\n", "Section::::In fiction.\n\nThe concept of a brain in a jar (or brain in a vat) is a common theme in science fiction:\n\nSection::::In fiction.:Literature.\n\nBULLET::::- In Alexander Beliaev's novel \"Head of Prof. Dowell\" (1925), Professor Dowell discovers a way of keeping heads of dead people alive and even to give them new bodies. After his death Dowell himself becomes a subject of such an experiment.\n", "The first examples of corpus callosotomy were performed in the 1940s by Dr. William P. van Wagenen, who co-founded and served as president of the American Association of Neurological Surgeons. Attempting to treat epilepsy, van Wagenen studied and published the results of his surgeries, including the split-brain outcomes for patients. Wagenen’s work preceded the 1981 Nobel Prize-winning research of Roger W. Sperry by two decades. Sperry studied patients who had undergone corpus callosotomy and detailed their resulting split-brain characteristics.\n", "In the 19th century and to a lesser extent the 20th, it was thought that each side of the brain was associated with a specific gender: the left corresponding with masculinity and the right with femininity and each half could function independently. The right side of the brain was seen as the inferior and thought to be prominent in women, savages, children, criminals, and the insane. A prime example of this in fictional literature can be seen in Robert Louis Stevenson's \"Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde\".\n\nSection::::Evolutionary advantage.\n", "In adult humans, the tectum only consists of the inferior and the superior colliculi.\n\nBULLET::::- The superior colliculus is involved in preliminary visual processing and control of eye movements. In non-mammalian vertebrates it serves as the main visual area of the brain, functionally analogous to the visual areas of the cerebral cortex in mammals.\n\nBULLET::::- The inferior colliculus is involved in auditory processing. It receives input from various brain stem nuclei and projects to the medial geniculate nucleus of the thalamus, which relays auditory information to the primary auditory cortex.\n", "Often, split-brained patients are indistinguishable from normal adults. This is due to the compensatory phenomena; split-brained patients progressively acquire a variety of strategies to get around their interhemispheric transfer deficits. One issue that can happen with their body control is that one side of the body is doing the opposite of the other side called the intermanual effect.\n\nSection::::Hemispheric specialization.:Attention.\n", "Following a stroke or other injury to the brain, functional deficiencies are common. The deficits are expected to be in areas related to the part of the brain that has been damaged; if a stroke has occurred in the motor cortex, deficits may include paralysis, abnormal posture, or abnormal movement synergies. Significant recovery occurs during the first several weeks after the injury. However, recovery is generally thought not to continue past 6 months. If a specific region of the brain is injured or destroyed, its functions can sometimes be transferred and taken over by a neighbouring region. There is little functional plasticity observed in partial and complete callosotomies; however, much more plasticity can be seen in infant patients receiving a hemispherectomy, which suggests that the opposite hemisphere can adapt some functions typically performed by its opposite pair. In a study done by Anderson, it proved a correlation between the severity of the injury, the age of the individual and their cognitive performance. It was evident that there was more neuroplasticity in older children, even if their injury was extremely severe, than infants who suffered moderate brain injury. In some incidents of any moderate to severe brain injury, it mostly causes developmental impairments and in some of the most severe injuries it can cause a profound impact on their development that can lead to long-term cognitive effects. In the aging brain, it is extremely uncommon for neuroplasticity to occur; \"olfactory bulb and hippocampus are two regions of the mammalian brain in which mutations preventing adult neurogenesis were never beneficial, or simply never occurred\" (Anderson, 2005).\n", "Split-brain or callosal syndrome is a type of disconnection syndrome when the corpus callosum connecting the two hemispheres of the brain is severed to some degree. It is an association of symptoms produced by disruption of or interference with the connection between the hemispheres of the brain. The surgical operation to produce this condition (corpus callosotomy) involves transection of the corpus callosum, and is usually a last resort to treat refractory epilepsy. Initially, partial callosotomies are performed; if this operation does not succeed, a complete callosotomy is performed to mitigate the risk of accidental physical injury by reducing the severity and violence of epileptic seizures. Before using callosotomies, epilepsy is instead treated through pharmaceutical means. After surgery, neuropsychological assessments are often performed.\n", "In the cave cricket \"Troglophilus neglectus\" the subgenual organ is fairly simple and is associated with an \"intermediary organ\". Both are innervated either by one or two nerves, depending on the individual animal.\n", "In general, split-brained patients behave in a coordinated, purposeful and consistent manner, despite the independent, parallel, usually different and occasionally conflicting processing of the same information from the environment by the two disconnected hemispheres. When two hemispheres receive competing stimuli at the same time, the response mode tends to determine which hemisphere controls behaviour.\n", "Patient W.J. was the first patient to undergo a full corpus callosotomy in 1962, after experiencing fifteen years of convulsions resulting from grand mal seizures. He was a World War II paratrooper who was injured at 30 years old during a bombing raid jump over the Netherlands, and again in a prison camp following his first injury. After returning home, he began to suffer from blackouts in which he would not remember what he was doing or where, and how or when he got there. At age 37, he suffered his first generalised convulsion. One of his worst episodes occurred in 1953, when he suffered a series of convulsions lasting for many days. During these convulsions, his left side would go numb and he would recover quickly, but after the series of convulsions, he never regained complete feeling on his left side.\n", "The two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex are linked by the corpus callosum, through which they communicate and coordinate actions and decisions. Communication and coordination between the two hemispheres is essential because each hemisphere has some separate functions. The right hemisphere of the cortex excels at nonverbal and spatial tasks, whereas the left hemisphere is more dominant in verbal tasks, such as speaking and writing. The right hemisphere controls the primary sensory functions of the left side of the body. In a cognitive sense the right hemisphere is responsible for recognition of objects and timing, and in an emotional sense it is responsible for empathy, humour and depression. On the other hand, the left hemisphere controls the primary sensory functions of the right side of the body and is responsible for scientific and maths skills, and logic. The extent of specialised brain function by an area remains under investigation. It is claimed that the difference between the two hemispheres is that the left hemisphere is \"analytic\" or \"logical\" while the right hemisphere is \"holistic\" or \"intuitive\". Many simple tasks, especially comprehension of inputs, require functions that are specific to both the right and left hemispheres and together form a one direction systematised way of creating an output through the communication and coordination that occurs between hemispheres.\n", "BULLET::::- In chondrichthyans (sharks and skates) the thalamus does not retrieve a branch from the optic tract but only from the contralateral optic tectum, so that the optic path decussates twice and the forebrain represents the ipsilateral eye.\n\nBULLET::::- In large brains, some functions tend to be strongly lateralized. E.g., the language regions (Broca's and Wernicke's area) are in the left side in most humans.\n", "Sperry and Gazzaniga went on to conduct other tests to shed light on the language processing abilities of the right hemisphere as well as auditory and emotional reactions as well. The significance of the findings of these tests by Sperry and Gazzaniga were extremely telling and important to the psychology world. Their findings showed that the two halves of the brain have numerous functions and specialized skills. They concluded that each hemisphere really has its own functions. One's left hemisphere of the brain is thought to be better at writing, speaking, mathematical calculation, reading, and is the primary area for language. The right hemisphere is seen to possess capabilities for problem solving, recognizing faces, symbolic reasoning, art, and spatial relationships.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01100	why are aerobic instead of anaerobic respiration?	During cellular respiration, an aerobic process, around 30-40 ATP are produced in human cells per glucose molecule. (ATP is basically an energy currency inside the cell.) Simply put, anaerobic respiration isn't as effective, as it produces around 2 molecules per glucose in humans. Plus, it produces acidic byproducts, which are responsible for muscle soreness after exercise.	[ "Section::::Anaerobic respiration.\n\nWhile aerobic organisms during respiration use oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor, anaerobic organisms use other electron acceptors. These inorganic compounds have a lower reduction potential than oxygen, meaning that respiration is less efficient in these organisms and leads to slower growth rates than aerobes. Many facultative anaerobes can use either oxygen or alternative terminal electron acceptors for respiration depending on the environmental conditions.\n", "Most respiring anaerobes are heterotrophs, although some do live autotrophically. All of the processes described below are dissimilative, meaning that they are used during energy production and not to provide nutrients for the cell (assimilative). Assimilative pathways for many forms of anaerobic respiration are also known.\n\nSection::::Anaerobic respiration.:Denitrification – nitrate as electron acceptor.\n", "In an aerobic system, such as composting, the microorganisms access free, gaseous oxygen directly from the surrounding atmosphere. The end products of an aerobic process are primarily carbon dioxide and water which are the stable, oxidised forms of carbon and hydrogen. If the biodegradable starting material contains nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur, then the end products may also include their oxidised forms- nitrate, phosphate and sulfate. In an aerobic system the majority of the energy in the starting material is released as heat by their oxidisation into carbon dioxide and water.\n", "Anaerobic respiration is correspondingly less efficient than aerobic respiration. In the absence of oxygen, not all of the carbon-carbon bonds in glucose can be broken to release energy. A great deal of extractable energy is left in the waste products. \n\nAnaerobic respiration generally occurs in prokaryotes in environments that do not contain oxygen.\n\nSection::::Fermentation.\n\nFermentation is another process by which cells can extract energy from glucose. It is not a form of cellular respiration, but it does generate ATP, break down glucose, and produce waste products. \n", "Obligate anaerobes metabolise energy by anaerobic respiration or fermentation. In aerobic respiration, the pyruvate generated from glycolysis is converted to acetyl-CoA. This is then broken down via the TCA cycle and electron transport chain. Anaerobic respiration differs from aerobic respiration in that it uses an electron acceptor other than oxygen in the electron transport chain. Examples of alternative electron acceptors include sulfate, nitrate, iron, manganese, mercury, and carbon monoxide.\n", "Anaerobic respiration\n\nAnaerobic respiration is respiration using electron acceptors other than molecular oxygen (O). Although oxygen is not the final electron acceptor, the process still uses a respiratory electron transport chain.\n", "Obligate aerobe\n\nAn obligate aerobe is an organism that requires oxygen to grow. Through cellular respiration, these organisms use oxygen to metabolise substances, like sugars or fats, to obtain energy. In this type of respiration, oxygen serves as the terminal electron acceptor for the electron transport chain. Aerobic respiration has the advantage of yielding more energy (adenosine triphosphate or ATP) than fermentation or anaerobic respiration, but obligate aerobes are subject to high levels of oxidative stress.\n", "In almost all conditions, anaerobic exercise is accompanied by aerobic exercises because the less efficient anaerobic metabolism must supplement the aerobic system due to energy demands that exceed the aerobic system's capacity. Common kettlebell exercises combine aerobic and anaerobic aspects. \n\nSection::::Benefits.\n", "Due to the diversity of mesophiles, oxygen requirements greatly vary. Aerobic respiration requires the use of oxygen and anaerobic does not. There are three types of anaerobes. Facultative anaerobes grow in the absence of oxygen, using fermentation instead. During fermentation, sugars are converted to acids, alcohol, or gasses. If there is oxygen present, it will use aerobic respiration instead. Obligate anaerobes cannot grow in the presence of oxygen. Aerotolerant anaerobes can withstand oxygen.\n\nSection::::Roles.\n", "BULLET::::2. Anaerobic glycolysis – called \"lactic anaerobic\".\n", "Some obligate anaerobes use fermentation, while others use anaerobic respiration. Aerotolerant organisms are strictly fermentative. In the presence of oxygen, facultative anaerobes use aerobic respiration; without oxygen, some of them ferment; some use anaerobic respiration.\n\nSection::::Energy metabolism.:Fermentation.\n\nThere are many anaerobic fermentative reactions.\n\nFermentative anaerobic organisms mostly use the lactic acid fermentation pathway:\n\nThe energy released in this equation is approximately 150 kJ per mol, which is conserved in regenerating two ATP from ADP per glucose. This is only 5% of the energy per sugar molecule that the typical aerobic reaction generates.\n", "Fermentation differs from anaerobic respiration in that the pyruvate generated from glycolysis is broken down without the involvement of an electron transport chain (i.e. there is no oxidative phosphorylation). Numerous fermentation pathways exist e.g. lactic acid fermentation, mixed acid fermentation, 2-3 butanediol fermentation.\n\nThe energy yield of anaerobic respiration and fermentation (i.e. the number of ATP molecules generated) is less than in aerobic respiration. This is why facultative anaerobes, which can metabolise energy both aerobically and anaerobically, preferentially metabolise energy aerobically. This is observable when facultative anaerobes are cultured in thioglycollate broth.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n", "Section::::Ecological importance.\n\nAnaerobic respiration is a critical component of the global nitrogen, iron, sulfur, and carbon cycles through the reduction of the oxyanions of nitrogen, sulfur, and carbon to more-reduced compounds. The biogeochemical cycling of these compounds, which depends upon anaerobic respiration, significantly impacts the carbon cycle and global warming. Anaerobic respiration occurs in many environments, including freshwater and marine sediments, soil, subsurface aquifers, deep subsurface environments, and biofilms. Even environments, such as soil, that contain oxygen also have micro-environments that lack oxygen due to the slow diffusion characteristics of oxygen gas.\n", "Facultative anaerobic organism\n\nA facultative anaerobe is an organism that makes ATP by aerobic respiration if oxygen is present, but is capable of switching to fermentation if oxygen is absent.\n\nSome examples of facultatively anaerobic bacteria are \"Staphylococcus\" spp., \"Streptococcus\" spp., \"Escherichia coli\", \"Salmonella\", \"Listeria\" spp., \"Shewanella oneidensis\" and \"Yersinia pestis\". Certain eukaryotes are also facultative anaerobes, including fungi such as \"Saccharomyces cerevisiae\" and many aquatic invertebrates such as Nereid (worm) polychaetes.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Aerobic respiration\n\nBULLET::::- Anaerobic respiration\n\nBULLET::::- Fermentation\n\nBULLET::::- Obligate aerobe\n\nBULLET::::- Obligate anaerobe\n\nBULLET::::- Microaerophile\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Facultative Anaerobic Bacteria\n\nBULLET::::- Obligate Anaerobic Bacteria\n", "BULLET::::- Microaerophiles require oxygen for energy production, but are harmed by atmospheric concentrations of oxygen (21% O).\n\nBULLET::::- Aerotolerant anaerobes do not use oxygen but are not harmed by it.\n\nWhen an organism is able to survive in both oxygen and anaerobic environments, the use of the Pasteur effect can distinguish between facultative anaerobes and aerotolerant organisms. If the organism is using fermentation in an anaerobic environment, the addition of oxygen will cause facultative anaerobes to suspend fermentation and begin using oxygen for respiration. Aerotolerant organisms must continue fermentation in the presence of oxygen.\n\nSection::::Glucose.\n", "Anaerobic glycolysis is thought to have been the primary means of energy production in earlier organisms before oxygen was at high concentration in the atmosphere and thus would represent a more ancient form of energy production in cells.\n\nIn mammals, lactate can be transformed by the liver back into glucose; see Cori cycle.\n\nFates of pyruvate under anaerobic conditions:\n", "In aerobic organisms undergoing respiration, electrons are shuttled to an electron transport chain, and the final electron acceptor is oxygen. Molecular oxygen is a highly oxidizing agent and, therefore, is an excellent electron acceptor. In anaerobes, other less-oxidizing substances such as sulphate (SO), nitrate (NO), sulphur (S), or fumarate are used. These terminal electron acceptors have smaller reduction potentials than O, meaning that less energy is released per oxidized molecule. Therefore, generally speaking, anaerobic respiration is less efficient than aerobic.\n\nSection::::As compared with fermentation.\n\nThere are two important microbial methane formation pathways, through carbonate reduction (respiration), and acetate fermentation.\n", "Section::::Anaerobic respiration.\n\nCellular respiration is the process by which biological fuels are oxidised in the presence of an inorganic electron acceptor (such as oxygen) to produce large amounts of energy, to drive the bulk production of ATP.\n\nAnaerobic respiration is used by some microorganisms in which neither oxygen (aerobic respiration) nor pyruvate derivatives (fermentation) is the final electron acceptor. Rather, an inorganic acceptor such as sulfate or nitrate is used.\n\nSuch organisms are typically found in unusual places such as underwater caves or near hydrothermal vents at the bottom of the ocean.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "There are organisms that can adjust their metabolism to their environment, such as facultative anaerobes. Facultative anaerobes can be active at positive Eh values, and at negative Eh values in the presence of oxygen bearing inorganic compounds, such as nitrates and sulfates.\n\nSection::::Environmental chemistry.\n", "conclusion could be drawn.' \n\nSection::::Classification.\n\nFor practical purposes, there are three categories of anaerobe: \n\nBULLET::::- Obligate anaerobes, which are harmed by the presence of oxygen. Two examples of obligate anaerobes are \"Clostridium botulinum\" and the bacteria which live near hydrothermal vents on the deep-sea ocean floor.\n\nBULLET::::- Aerotolerant organisms, which cannot use oxygen for growth, but tolerate its presence.\n\nBULLET::::- Facultative anaerobes, which can grow without oxygen but use oxygen if it is present.\n\nSection::::Energy metabolism.\n", "Gaseous oxygen is excluded from the reactions by physical containment. Anaerobes utilize electron acceptors from sources other than oxygen gas. These acceptors can be the organic material itself or may be supplied by inorganic oxides from within the input material. When the oxygen source in an anaerobic system is derived from the organic material itself, the 'intermediate' end products are primarily alcohols, aldehydes, and organic acids, plus carbon dioxide. In the presence of specialised methanogens, the intermediates are converted to the 'final' end products of methane, carbon dioxide, and trace levels of hydrogen sulfide. In an anaerobic system, the majority of the chemical energy contained within the starting material is released by methanogenic bacteria as methane.\n", "Fermentation is less efficient at using the energy from glucose: only 2 ATP are produced per glucose, compared to the 38 ATP per glucose nominally produced by aerobic respiration. This is because the waste products of fermentation still contain chemical potential energy that can be released by oxidation. Ethanol, for example, can be burned in an internal combustion engine like gasoline. Glycolytic ATP, however, is created more quickly. For prokaryotes to continue a rapid growth rate when they are shifted from an aerobic environment to an anaerobic environment, they must increase the rate of the glycolytic reactions. For multicellular organisms, during short bursts of strenuous activity, muscle cells use fermentation to supplement the ATP production from the slower aerobic respiration, so fermentation may be used by a cell even before the oxygen levels are depleted, as is the case in sports that do not require athletes to pace themselves, such as sprinting.\n", "The cellular respiration process that converts food energy into ATP (a form of energy) is largely dependent on oxygen availability. During exercise, the supply and demand of oxygen available to muscle cells is affected by duration and intensity and by the individual's cardiorespiratory fitness level. Three exercise energy systems can be selectively recruited, depending on the amount of oxygen available, as part of the cellular respiration process to generate the ATP for the muscles. They are ATP, the anaerobic system and the aerobic system.\n\nSection::::Adenosine triphosphate.\n", "Aerobic organism\n\nAn aerobic organism or aerobe is an organism that can survive and grow in an oxygenated environment. In contrast, an anaerobic organism (anaerobe) is any organism that does not require oxygen for growth. Some anaerobes react negatively or even die if oxygen is present.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nBULLET::::- Obligate aerobes need oxygen to grow. In a process known as cellular respiration, these organisms use oxygen to oxidize substrates (for example sugars and fats) and generate energy.\n\nBULLET::::- Facultative anaerobes use oxygen if it is available, but also have anaerobic methods of energy production.\n", "Aerobic and anaerobic systems usually work concurrently. When describing activity, it is not a question of which energy system is working, but which predominates.\n\nSection::::Aerobic and anaerobic metabolism.\n\nThe term metabolism refers to the various series of chemical reactions that take place within the body. Aerobic refers to the presence of oxygen, whereas anaerobic means with series of chemical reactions that does not require the presence of oxygen. The ATP-CP series and the lactic acid series are anaerobic, whereas the oxygen series is aerobic.\n\nSection::::ATP–CP: the phosphagen system.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02647	In the deepest parts of the ocean what would happen to the ecosystem if we introduced permanent light sources.	Well, are we talking about lighting up 100% of the sea floor? If so than the critters relying on light would probably die off eventually, and I'm sure a smarter redditor can tell you about the future results of this on the whole food chain. My guess is the outcome wouldn't be great for those on top of the chain, like us. If you only want to light a part up than I'd think the light sensitive critters would avoid it, and otherwise it would probably be just a lit up part of the ocean floor.	[ "In the coastal areas of south-eastern Australia, large brown kelp, another kind of canopy, formed by \"Ecklonia radiata\", dominates the existing temperate reefs. Climate change in the area poses a direct effect on the underwater canopy cover, reducing its overall quality. Climate change is causing patches in the canopy layer and because of this loss of coverage, the understory becomes a prime place for benthic algae to grow. This affects other organisms, such a sponges and encrusting algae that are trying to grow on the reefs. This discovery has shown that although light gaps oftentimes produce positive outcomes, they can also negatively effect some members of the biotic community. \n", "In water bodies such as lakes, rivers and reservoirs, high turbidity levels can reduce the amount of light reaching lower depths, which can inhibit growth of submerged aquatic plants and consequently affect species which are dependent on them, such as fish and shellfish. High turbidity levels can also affect the ability of fish gills to absorb dissolved oxygen. This phenomenon has been regularly observed throughout the Chesapeake Bay in the eastern United States.\n", "There is a dearth of knowledge about the mesopelagic zone so researchers have begun to develop new technology to explore and sample this area. The Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI), NASA, and the Norwegian Institute of Marine Research are all working on projects to gain a better understanding of this zone in the ocean and its influence on the global carbon cycle. Traditional sampling methods like nets have proved to be inadequate because they scare off creatures due to the pressure wave formed by the towed net and the light produced by the bioluminescent species caught in the net. \n", "BULLET::::- Phytoplankton loss rate is independent of depth and of growth rate.\n\nBULLET::::- Nutrients in the mixed layer are high enough that production is not nutrient limited\n\nBULLET::::- Daily photosynthetic production of the phytoplankton community at any depth is proportional to the mean daily light energy at that depth.\n\nIn other words, light is assumed to be the only factor that limits the growth of phytoplankton during pre-bloom months and the light a phytoplankton community is subject to is determined by the incident irradiance and the coefficient of light extinction.\n\nSection::::Critical Depth Hypothesis.:Mechanism.\n", "Little is known about their ability to use and let alone sense light at such depths. Due to them lurking at a depth well below 500m, they can only be observed in their natural habitat, and bringing one up to the surface alive is infeasible. The change in pressure the fish would experience would be to great and most certainly be fatal.\n", "Natural light does not penetrate the deep ocean, with the exception of the upper parts of the mesopelagic. Since photosynthesis is not possible, plants and phytoplankton cannot live in this zone. Since these are the primary producers of almost all of earth's ecosystems, life in this area of the ocean must depend on energy sources from elsewhere. Except for the areas close to the hydrothermal vents, this energy comes from organic material drifting down from the photic zone. The sinking organic material is composed of algal particulates, detritus, and other forms of biological waste, which is collectively referred to as marine snow.\n", "Section::::Scientific rationale.\n\nLight pollution, the introduction of artificial light into formerly dark ecosystems, has numerous adverse ecological effects. Exposure to artificial light can prove fatal for some organisms (e.g. moths that fly into a burning flame), can interrupt a life cycle phase for others (e.g. glowworms are unable to attract mates), and can reduce the possibilities for finding food (because of increased risk of predation). Light at night can also interfere with the chronobiology of many animals, including humans, through suppression of melatonin secretion.\n", "WHOI is currently working on a project to characterize and document the mesopelagic ecosystem. They have developed a device named Deep-See weighing approximately 700 kg, which is designed to be towed behind a research vessel. The Deep-See is capable of reaching depths up to 2000 m and can estimate the amount of biomass and biodiversity in this mesopelagic ecosystem. Deep-See is equipped with cameras, sonars, sensors, water sample collection devices, and a real-time data transmission system.\n\nSection::::Research and Exploration.:Mesobot.\n", "Regions below the epipelagic are divided into further zones, beginning with the \"mesopelagic\" which spans from 200 to 1000 meters below sea level, where so little light penetrates that primary production becomes impossible. Below this zone the deep sea begins, consisting of the aphotic \"bathypelagic\", \"abyssopelagic\" and \"hadopelagic\". Food consists of falling organic matter known as 'marine snow' and carcasses derived from the productive zone above, and is scarce both in terms of spatial and temporal distribution.\n", "Section::::Modern fishkeeping.:Lighting.:Natural sunlight.\n\nThe most primitive lighting source is natural sunlight. This is only effective in areas near the equator because the intensity of sunlight is greatest there. Efficiently utilizing natural sunlight requires complex planning and, as such, this method is applied on only the largest reef systems. Many times in the hobby natural sunlight is actually avoided due to the low spectrum of lighting it has. The yellow tint is often undesirable and is believed to encourage problem algae, though studies show it does not.\n\nSection::::Modern fishkeeping.:Lighting.:Incandescent.\n", "The lack of light requires creatures to have special adaptations to find food, avoid predators, and find mates. Most animals have very large eyes with retinas constructed mainly of rods, which increases sensitivity. Many animals have also developed large feelers to replace peripheral vision. To be able to reproduce, many of these fish have evolved to be hermaphroditic, eliminating the need to find a mate. Many creatures have also developed a very strong sense of smell to detect the chemicals released by mates.\n\nSection::::Lack of resources.\n", "Natural illumination at night is still provided by a combination of moonlight, planetary light, starlight, zodiacal light, gegenschein, and airglow. In some circumstances, aurorae, lightning, and bioluminescence can provide some illumination. The glow provided by artificial lighting is sometimes referred to as light pollution because it can interfere with observational astronomy and ecosystems.\n\nSection::::Duration and geography.\n", "Historically, there have been few examples of efforts to commercialize the mesopelagic zone due to low economic value, technical feasibility and environmental impacts. While the biomass may be abundant, fish species at depth are generally smaller in size and slower to reproduce. Fishing with large trawl nets poses threats to a high percentage of bycatch as well as potential impacts to the carbon cycling processes. Additionally, ships trying to reach productive mesopelagic regions requires fairly long journeys offshore. In 1977, a Soviet fishery opened but closed less than 20 years later due to low commercial profits, while a South African purse seine fishery closed in the mid-1980s due to processing difficulties from the high oil content of fish.\n", "Counterillumination camouflage halved predation among individuals employing it compared to those not employing it in the midshipman fish \"Porichthys notatus\".\n\nSection::::In marine animals.:Mechanism.:Autogenic or bacteriogenic bioluminescence.\n\nThe bioluminescence used for counter-illumination can be either autogenic (produced by the animal itself, as in pelagic cephalopods such as \"Vampyroteuthis\", \"Stauroteuthis\", and pelagic octopuses in the Bolitaenidae) or bacteriogenic (produced by bacterial symbionts). The luminescent bacterium is often \"Aliivibrio fischeri\", as for example in the Hawaiian bobtail squid.\n\nSection::::In marine animals.:Purpose.\n\nSection::::In marine animals.:Purpose.:Hiding from predators.\n", "Many locations, such as the Tubbataha Reef in the Sulu Sea, support high marine biodiversity. Nitrogen or other nutrient loading in coral reef areas can lead to community shifts towards algal overgrowth of corals and ecosystem disruption, implying that fertilization must be restricted to areas in which vulnerable populations are not put at risk.\n\nAs the phytoplankton descend the water column, they decay, consuming oxygen and producing greenhouse gases methane and nitrous oxide. Plankton-rich surface waters could warm the surface layer, affecting circulation patterns.\n\nSection::::Complications.:Side effects.:Cloud formation.\n", "Section::::Zones.\n\nSection::::Zones.:Mesopelagic.\n\nThe mesopelagic zone is the upper section of the midwater zone, and extends from below sea level. This is colloquially known as the \"twilight zone\" as light can still penetrate this layer, but it is too low to support photosynthesis. The limited amount of light, however, can still allow organisms to see, and creatures with a sensitive vision can detect prey, communicate, and orientate themselves using their sight. Organisms in this layer have large eyes to maximize the amount of light in the environment.\n", "Other living organisms, such as cyanobacteria, purple bacteria, and heliobacteria, can exploit solar light in slightly extended spectral regions, such as the near-infrared. These bacteria live in environments such as the bottom of stagnant ponds, sediment and ocean depths. Because of their pigments, they form colorful mats of green, red and purple.\n", "It has also been found the fluctuating light levels due to the inclusion of lighting systems in caves to aid in visibility for human access can have detrimental effects on the organisms within a cave. It has been found that the exposure to light can cause glow worms to dim their display, which holds potential detrimental effects to tourism built on glow worm show caves. Another detrimental effect of artificial lights is that they have been seen to cause algae and cyanobacteria to grow in places that they wouldn’t usually grow, and the organic acid produced when they grow can potentially damage speleothems and cave paintings.\n", "In a sea cave in Italy it was noticed that the colonial coral \"Astroides calycularis\" was plentiful in well-lit locations but became less numerous in the darker parts of the cave while \"L. pruvoti\" became more abundant in dark positions. However, in locations where sulphur-laden spring water mixed with the sea water, this situation was reversed and \"Astroides calycularis\" was more common. The relative proportions of the two species may have been affected by the existence of mats of sulphur-digesting bacteria around the spring.\n\nSection::::Ecology.\n\nA barnacle, \"Megatrema anglicum\", is often found living parasitically inside \"Leptopsammia pruvoti\".\n", "Although some light penetrates the mesopelagic zone, it is insufficient for photosynthesis. The biological community of the mesopelagic zone has adapted to a low-light, low-food. This is a very efficient ecosystem with many organisms recycling the organic matter sinking from the epipelagic zone resulting in very little organic carbon making it to deeper ocean waters The general types of life forms found are daytime-visiting herbivores, detritivores feeding on dead organisms and fecal pellets, and carnivores feeding on those detritivores. Many organisms in the mesopelagic zone move up into the epipelagic zone at night, and retreat to the mesopelagic zone during the day, which is known as diel vertical migration. These migrators can therefore avoid visual predators during the day and feed at night, while some of their predators also migrate up at night to follow the prey. There is so much biomass in this migration that sonar operators in World War II would regularly misinterpret the signal returned by this thick layer of plankton as a false sea floor.\n", "As fish stocks dwindle in the upper ocean, deep-sea fisheries are increasingly being targeted for exploitation. Because deep sea fish are long-lived and slow growing, these deep-sea fisheries are not thought to be sustainable in the long term given current management practices. Changes in primary production in the photic zone are expected to alter the standing stocks in the food-limited aphotic zone.\n", "LED lighting can be considered one of the most energy efficient and low impact options to lighting a reef tank as well, with a projected life expectancy of seven years. LED lighting also helps replicate the natural look of sunlight because most LED lights produce shimmer lines like the ones found on natural reefs.\n\nThe amount of emitters or LED fixtures can vary greatly based on these and other factors; photosynthetic specimens being kept, the input energy lost to heat, the PAR of light at a certain depth of aquarium water, and the light spectrum (PUR) used.\n", "Other challenges faced by life in the abyssal zone are the pressure and darkness caused by the zone’s depth. Many organisms living in this zone have evolved to minimize internal air spaces, such as swim bladders. This adaptation helps to protect them from the extreme pressure, which can reach around 11,000 psi. The absence of light also spawned many different adaptations, such as having large eyes or the ability to produce their own light. Large eyes would allow the detection and use of any light available, no matter how small. Another eye adaptation is that many deep-sea organisms have evolved eyes that are extremely sensitive to blue light. This is because as sunlight shines into the ocean, the water absorbs red light, while blue light, with its short wavelength continues moving down to the waters depths. This means that in the deep ocean, if any light remains then it is most likely blue light so animals wanting to capitalize on that light would need specialized eyes tuned to use it. Many organisms use other specialized organs or methods for sensing their surroundings, some in conjunction with specialized eyes. The ability to make their own light is called bioluminescence. Fishes and organisms living in the abyssal zone have developed this ability in order to not only produce light for vision, but also to lure in prey or a mate and conceal their silhouette. Scientists believe that over 90% of life in the abyssal zone use some form of bioluminescence. Many animals that are bioluminescent will produce blue light since it moves farther underwater than other colored lights, as explained earlier. Due to this lack of light, complex designs and bright colors are not needed. Most fish species have evolved to be transparent, red, or black in order to better blend in with the darkness and not waste energy on developing and maintaining bright or complex designs.\n", "Water column stratification will also likely increase with ocean warming and climate change. Increased ocean stratification reduces the introduction of nutrients from the deep ocean into the euphotic zone resulting in decreases in both net primary production and sinking particulate matter. Additional research suggests shifts in the geographical range of many species could also occur with warming, with many of them shifting poleward. The combination of these factors could potentially mean that as global ocean basins continue to warm, there could be areas in the mesopelagic that increase in biodiversity and species richness, while declines in other areas, especially moving farther from the equator.\n", "Other human health effects may include increased headache incidence, worker fatigue, medically defined stress, decrease in sexual function and increase in anxiety. Likewise, animal models have been studied demonstrating unavoidable light to produce adverse effect on mood and anxiety.\n\nSection::::Effects of light pollution on individual organisms.:Turtles.\n\nLights from seashore developments repel nesting Sea turtle mothers, and their hatchlings are fatally attracted to street and hotel lights rather than to the ocean.\n\nSection::::Effects of light pollution on individual organisms.:Zooplankton.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03680	What does "living closer" to a game's server actually mean? E.g. USE, USW, EU, OCE	Your "ping" that is sometimes reported is the total milliseconds it takes for your network traffic to go round trip to and from the server. Essentially, if your ping is 60 milliseconds, that's how long it takes for your computer to tell the server "Hey I'm shooting at that guy!" and for the server to respond "Yes! You shot that guy and now I'm telling everyone else on the server you shot that guy!" Its a little more complex in reality (there's some prediction and other "lag" reduction strategies in play) but that's the gist. Every action you perform needs to be propagated to the server... the server adjudicates whether your actions impacted anyone else, the scenery, that horse you're trying to get on, then sends the results to everyone connected. The lower that round trip, the more responsive, crisp and jerkiness free your game experience will be. If you're gaming late at night in your time zone, and you can't find a populated server to play on, decide to try a server on the other side of the earth, you may find that while playable, there's jerks, skips, lags in the action etc. Thats because your data has to go all the way to japan or wherever and back. Some of that traffice just plain gets lost and all of a sudden you glitch a few feet in game.	[ "Section::::Solutions and lag compensation.:Server-side.\n\nUnlike clients, the server knows the exact current game state, and as such prediction is unnecessary. The main purpose of server-side lag compensation is instead to provide accurate effects of client actions. This is important because by the time a player's command has arrived time will have moved on, and the world will no longer be in the state that the player saw when issuing their command. A very explicit example of this is hit detection for weapons fired in first-person shooters, where margins are small and can potentially cause significant problems if not properly handled.\n", "Section::::Solutions and lag compensation.:Client-side.\n\nAs clients are normally not allowed to define the main game state, but rather receive it from the server, the main task of the client-side compensation is to render the virtual world as accurately as possible. As updates come with a delay and may even be dropped, it is sometimes necessary for the client to predict the flow of the game. Since the state is updated in discrete steps, the client must be able to estimate a movement based on available samples. Two basic methods can be used to accomplish this; extrapolation and interpolation.\n", "There are three reasons to limit the frequency of server simulation steps to a predefined tickrate: to conserve server and client bandwidth, to conserve server CPU time, and to allow clients to be certain of how much time has elapsed between each tick. The last point is important for internet games, as network updates from the server can arrive at different intervals or even an incorrect order.\n\nSection::::Customization.\n", "The rate at which a game server runs simulation steps is commonly referred to as its \"tickrate\". A \"tick\" is a number associated with each simulation step which is broadcast to clients to help them synchronise with the server.\n", "Conserver is generally used in computer cluster setups too, logging messages either via a terminal server or with an instance running on every node monitoring the console of the next machine, known as daisy-chaining.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Console server\n\nBULLET::::- Out-of-band management\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nSection::::External links.:Console Server and Adapter References.\n\nBULLET::::- Zonker's Greater Scroll of Console Knowledge\n\nSection::::External links.:Other.\n\nBULLET::::- Improving server management with Minicom and conserver by Paul Virijevich September 6, 2006\n\nBULLET::::- Tip of the Trade: Conserver by Carla Schroder May 8, 2007\n\nBULLET::::- Lights Out Management by hcoyote on Thu, 2006-11-09\n", "Often, in order to allow smooth gameplay, the client is allowed to do soft changes to the game state. While the server may ultimately keep track of ammunition, health, position, etc., the client may be allowed to predict the new server-side game state based on the player's actions, such as allowing a player to start moving before the server has responded to the command. These changes will generally be accepted under normal conditions and make delay mostly transparent. Problems will arise only in the case of high delays or losses, when the client's predictions are very noticeably undone by the server. Sometimes, in the case of minor differences, the server may even allow \"incorrect\" changes to the state based on updates from the client.\n", "Section::::Engagement strategies.\n\nSince social network games are often less challenging than console games and they have relatively shorter game play, they use different techniques to stretch game play and tools to retain users.\n\nContinuous goals: The games assign specific goals for users to achieve. As they advance in the game, the goals become more challenging and time-consuming. They also provide frequent feedback with their performance. Every action will translate towards a certain goal that will be used to attain higher gaming capitals.\n", "High latency can cause lag. Game servers may disconnect a client if the latency is too high and may pose a detriment to other players' gameplay. Similarly, client software will often mandate disconnection if the latency is too high. High ping may also cause servers to crash due to instability.\n", "Extrapolation is an attempt to estimate a future game state. As soon as a packet from the server is received, the position of an object is updated to the new position. Awaiting the next update, the next position is extrapolated based on the current position and the movement at the time of the update. Essentially, the client will assume that a moving object will continue in the same direction. When a new packet is received, the position may be corrected slightly.\n", "Conversely, the same holds true for the server. The frame rate (or tick rate) of the server determines how often it can process data from clients and send updates.\n\nThis type of problem is difficult to predict and compensate for. Apart from enforcing minimum hardware requirements and attempting to optimize the game for better performance, there are no feasible ways to deal with it.\n", "Client-side prediction\n\nClient-side prediction is a network programming technique used in video games intended to conceal negative effects of high latency connections. The technique attempts to make the player's input feel more instantaneous while governing the player's actions on a remote server.\n", "Section::::Servers.:Express Server.\n\nExpress server was introduced to TEQ in 2010 as the \"Quickstart server.\" It was designed as a starting point for newer players, and as a server for veteran players to practice different strategies. The server allows the player to choose a strategy, and have their country set up accordingly as if they had played 100 in game turns towards building that type of country. Global points are not awarded for this server, however, so competition and aggressive play are generally lower. This functions to keep newer players safe while they learn the basics of the game.\n\nSection::::Global Rankings.\n", "BULLET::::- End-user metrics are collected through web logs, synthetic monitoring, or real user monitoring. An example is ART (application response time) which provides end to end statistics that measure Quality of Experience.\n\nBULLET::::- For \"forensic analysis\", operators often rely on sniffers that break down the transactions by their protocols and can locate problems such as retransmissions or protocol negotiations.\n", "\"Ping\" refers to the network latency between a player's client and the game server as measured with the ping utility or equivalent. Ping is reported quantitatively as an average time in milliseconds (ms). The lower one's ping is, the lower the latency is and the less lag the player will experience. \"High ping\" and \"low ping\" are commonly used terms in online gaming, where \"high ping\" refers to a ping that causes a severe amount of lag; while any level of ping may cause lag, severe lag is usually caused by a ping of over 100 ms. This usage is a gaming cultural colloquialism and is not commonly found or used in professional computer networking circles. In games where timing is key, such as first-person shooter and real-time strategy games, a low ping is always desirable, as a low ping means smoother gameplay by allowing faster updates of game data between the players' clients and game server.\n", "There are various methods for reducing or disguising delays, though many of these have their drawbacks and may not be applicable in all cases. If synchronization is not possible by the game itself, the clients may be able to choose to play on servers in geographical proximity to themselves in order to reduce latencies, or the servers may simply opt to drop clients with high latencies in order to avoid having to deal with the resulting problems. However, these are hardly optimal solutions. Instead, games will often be designed with lag compensation in mind.\n", "Many problems can be solved simply by allowing the clients to keep track of their own state and send absolute states to the server or directly to other clients. For example, the client can state exactly at what position a player's character is or who the character shot. This solution works and will all but eliminate most problems related to lag. Unfortunately, it also relies on the assumption that the client is honest. There is nothing that prevents a player from modifying the data they send, directly at the client or indirectly via a proxy, in order to ensure they will always hit their targets. In online games, the risk of cheating may make this solution unfeasible, and clients will be limited to sending relative states (i.e. which vector it moved on or shot in).\n", "The development & use costs associated with LVC can be summarized as follows:\n\nBULLET::::- Live - Relatively high cost since it is very human resource/materiel intensive and not particularly repeatable.\n\nBULLET::::- Virtual - Relatively medium cost since it is less human resource/materiel intensive, some reuse can occur, and repeatability is moderate.\n\nBULLET::::- Constructive - Relatively low cost since it is the least human resource/materiel intensive, reuse is high, and repeatability is high.\n", "A less common lag solution is to do nothing on the server and to have each client extrapolate (see above) to cover its latency. This produces incorrect results unless remote players maintain a constant velocity, granting an advantage to those who dodge back and forth or simply start/stop moving.\n", "BULLET::::- The system ceiling, at any instant in time, is the maximum active priority of all the tasks that are currently executing within the system.\n\nBULLET::::- A task is only allowed to preempt the system when its absolute deadline is less than the currently executing task and its preemption level is higher than the current system ceiling.\n\nSection::::Relevancy.\n\nThe 2011 book \"Hard Real-Time Computing Systems: Predictable Scheduling Algorithms and Applications\" by Giorgio C. Buttazzo featured a dedicated section to reviewing SRP from Baker 1991 work.\n", "These presence levels are controlled manually and automatically. Automatic presence changes can be triggered by the following events:\n\nBULLET::::- Locking the workstation - Away\n\nBULLET::::- Screen save launches - Away\n\nBULLET::::- User does not touch keyboard or mouse for a configured time - Away\n\nBULLET::::- User is in full screen mode - Do not disturb\n\nBULLET::::- A user is busy, according to the user's calendar on the Microsoft Exchange Server - In a meeting\n\nSection::::Dependencies.\n\nBULLET::::- Microsoft Active Directory\n\nBULLET::::- Storage of server configuration data\n\nBULLET::::- Authentication\n\nBULLET::::- Kerberos\n\nBULLET::::- NTLM\n\nBULLET::::- PKI\n", "Server-side game code makes a trade-off between calculating and sending results for display on a just-in-time basis or trusting the client to calculate and display the results in appropriate sequence as a player progresses. It can do this by sending the parts of the world state needed for immediate display, which can result in client \"lag\" under bandwidth constraints, or sending the player the entire world state, which results in faster display for the player under the same bandwidth constraints, but exposes that data to interception or manipulation—a trade-off between security and efficiency.\n", "BULLET::::- Microsoft Windows SharePoint Services 3.0 and Microsoft Office SharePoint Server 2007/2010 support a QUIESCE or QUIESCE FROM TEMPLATE (2010) option within the Central Administration operations window. This allows an administrator to stop the server farm from accepting new user connections and gradually brings any long-running applications offline without causing data loss.\n", "BULLET::::- \"broadcastTime\" is the average time it takes a server to send request to every server in the cluster and receive responses. It is relative to the infrastructure you are using.\n\nBULLET::::- \"MTBF\" is the average time between failures for a server. It is also relative to your infrastructure.\n\nBULLET::::- \"electionTimeout\" is the same as described in the Leader Election section. It is something you must choose.\n", "The process of client-side prediction refers to having the client locally react to user input before the server has acknowledged the input and updated the game state. So, instead of the client only sending control input to the server and waiting for an updated game state in return, the client also, in parallel with this, predicts the game state locally, and gives the user feedback without awaiting an updated game state from the server.\n", "BULLET::::- dynamic fault tolerance against software failures (through rapid bootstrapping or rebooting)\n\nBULLET::::- hardware fault tolerance (through migration of a virtual machine to different hardware)\n\nBULLET::::- the ability to securely separate virtual operating systems\n\nBULLET::::- the ability to support legacy software as well as new OS instances on the same computer\n\nXen's support for virtual machine live migration from one host to another allows workload balancing and the avoidance of downtime.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-09681	Why does your back get sunburned faster than your stomach? While reguraly being on sun	If you're talking about while laying out, I would attribute it to two factors. Your stomach has more hair on it than your back. Even very short hard to see blonde hairs serve as a barrier to limit the amount of light that directly hits your skin. I would also say that the sun almost never shines directly on you. It will always be at an angle. Due to the "geography" of your front side. There are more hills and valleys that serve to limit the amount direct exposure on the skin. I would say if your back is 100% exposed (which it isn't due to hair, angles, etc.) then your stomach is probably 85% exposed.	[ "A third form of testing is the photoprovocation test which is used to identify disorders instigated by sun burns. The process of this test involves exposing one area of a patient's arm to certain dosage of UVB radiation and one area on the other arm to a certain dosage of UVA radiation. The amount of radiation that the patient is exposed to is equal to that \"received in an hour of midday summer sun.\" If the procedure produces a rash, then the patient will undergo a biopsy. Finally, there are laboratory tests which generally involve procedures such as blood, urine, and fecal biochemical tests. In some situations, a skin biopsy may be performed.\n", "Other symptoms can include blistering, swelling (edema), pruritus (itching), peeling skin, rash, nausea, fever, chills, and fainting (syncope). Also, a small amount of heat is given off from the burn, caused by the concentration of blood in the healing process, giving a warm feeling to the affected area. Sunburns may be classified as superficial, or partial thickness burns. Blistering is a sign of second degree sunburn.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Variations.\n", "A number of cutaneous conditions are associated with gastric cancer. A condition of darkened hyperplasia of the skin, frequently of the axilla and groin, known as acanthosis nigricans, is associated with intra-abdominal cancers such as gastric cancer. Other cutaneous manifestations of gastric cancer include \"tripe palms\" (a similar darkening hyperplasia of the skin of the palms) and the Leser-Trelat sign, which is the rapid development of skin lesions known as seborrheic keratoses.\n", "BULLET::::- History of sunburn: Studies show that even a single episode of painful sunburn as a child can increase an individual's risk of developing AK as an adult. Six or more painful sunburns over the course of a lifetime was found to be significantly associated with the likelihood of developing AK.\n\nSection::::Risk factors.\n\nSection::::Risk factors.:Skin pigmentation.\n", "Although pseudoporphyria has no predilection toward any one race, it has been shown that fair-skinned children who are highly prone to sunburn are more likely to develop naproxen-induced pseudoporphyria than those children with skin types III or higher. Wallace et al. demonstrated that even in the absence of a history of blistering, children with light skin and blue or green eyes are at an increased risk of developing shallow scars on the face while taking naproxen.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Colorectal polyps are not usually associated with symptoms. When they occur, symptoms include rectal bleeding, bloody stools, abdominal pain and fatigue. Due to chronic blood loss from rectal bleeding and bloody stools, they sometimes present with iron deficiency anemia. Another symptom might be increased mucous production especially those involving villous adenomas. Copious production of mucous causes loss of potassium that can occasionally result in symptomatic hypokalemia. A change in bowel habits may occur including constipation and diarrhoea. Occasionally, if a polyp is big enough to cause a bowel obstruction, there may be nausea, vomiting and severe constipation.\n\nSection::::Structure.\n", "Additionally, since sunburn is a type of radiation burn, it can initially hide a severe exposure to radioactivity resulting in acute radiation syndrome or other radiation-induced illnesses, especially if the exposure occurred under sunny conditions. For instance, the difference between the erythema caused by sunburn and other radiation burns is not immediately obvious. Symptoms common to heat illness and the prodromic stage of acute radiation syndrome like nausea, vomiting, fever, weakness/fatigue, dizziness or seizure can add to further diagnostic confusion.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "The cause for actinic prurigo is unknown, however researchers believe that protein in our bodies may be a cause to the condition also:\n\n•UV-A and UV-B light seem to be the main provoking agents. This observation is supported by the fact that most patients live at high altitudes (1000 m above sea level), and the condition improves in many patients when they move to lower altitudes. However, some patients who are affected already live at sea level.18,19,27 •Some authors are considering a food photosensitizer or a nutritional selective deficiency as a cause; however, no evidence proves this theory.27\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "Garland recalled, \"When my brother, Cedric, and I looked at one of the first maps produced by the National Cancer Institute of colon cancer incidence rates in the United States, we both immediately noticed a pattern, a distinct North-South gradient in incidence. This pattern changed our professional research careers. Our entire academic lives are based on that single moment.\" While recognizing the risk of melanoma and other forms of skin cancer from excessive exposure to the Sun, the Garlands proposed that limited sun exposure would provide enough Vitamin D to help prevent colon cancer, which could also be achieved by taking nutritional supplements.\n", "Normally an adenoma which is greater than 0.5 cm is treated\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n\nDiet and lifestyle are believed to play a large role in whether colorectal polyps form. Studies show there to be a protective link between consumption of cooked green vegetables, brown rice, legumes, and dried fruit and decreased incidence of colorectal polyps.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "Generally, the areas affected are exposed skin not usually protected by clothing; however it can also occur in areas covered by clothing. Areas constantly subjected to the sun's rays may only be slightly affected if at all. People with extreme cases will also have reactions to artificial light sources that emit a UV wavelength. Parts of the body only thinly covered can also potentially be subjected to an outbreak.\n", "There are certain genetic conditions, for example xeroderma pigmentosum, that increase a person's susceptibility to sunburn and subsequent skin cancers. These conditions involve defects in DNA repair mechanisms which in turn decreases the ability to repair DNA that has been damaged by UV radiation.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Medications.\n\nThe risk of a sunburn can be increased by pharmaceutical products that sensitize users to UV radiation. Certain antibiotics, oral contraceptives, and tranquillizers have this effect.\n\nSection::::Causes.:UV intensity.\n\nThe UV Index indicates the risk of getting a sunburn at a given time and location. Contributing factors include:\n", "Spread of cancer to the bone or spinal cord can lead to back pain. Bone is one of the most common sites of metastatic lesions. Patients typically have a history of malignancy. Common types of cancer that present with back pain include multiple myeloma, lymphoma, leukemia, spinal cord tumors, primary vertebral tumors, and prostate cancer. Back pain is present in 29% of patients with systemic cancer. Unlike other causes of back pain which common affect the lumbar spine, the thoracic spine is most commonly affected. The pain can be associated with systemic symptoms such as weight loss, chills, fever, nausea and vomiting. Unlike other causes of back pain, neoplasm-associated back pain is constant, dull, poorly localized, and worst with rest. Metastasis to the bone also increases the risk of spinal cord compression or vertebral fractures which requires emergent surgical treatment.\n", "Laboratory studies are used to if there are suspicions for autoimmune causes, infection, or malignancy. Laboratory testing may include white blood cell (WBC) count, erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), and C-reactive protein (CRP).\n\nBULLET::::- Elevated ESR could indicate infection, malignancy, chronic disease, inflammation, trauma, or tissue ischemia.\n\nBULLET::::- Elevated CRP levels are associated with infection.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Red flags.\n\nImaging is not typically needed in the initial diagnosis or treatment of back pain. However, if there are certain \"red flag\" symptoms present plain radiographs (x-ray), CT scan, or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) may be recommended. These red flags include:\n\nBULLET::::- History of cancer\n", "Dietary factors influence susceptibility to sunburn, recovery from sunburn, and risk of secondary complications from sunburn. Several dietary antioxidants, including essential vitamins, have been shown to have some effectiveness for protecting against sunburn and skin damage associated with ultraviolet radiation, in both human and animal studies. Supplementation with Vitamin C and Vitamin E was shown in one study to reduce the amount of sunburn after a controlled amount of UV exposure.\n", "Skin type determines the ease of sunburn. In general, people with lighter skin tone and limited capacity to develop a tan after UV radiation exposure have a greater risk of sunburn. The Fitzpatrick's Skin phototypes classification describes the normal variations of skin responses to UV radiation. Persons with type I skin have the greatest capacity to sunburn and type VI have the least capacity to burn. However, all skin types can develop sunburn.\n\nFitzpatrick's skin phototypes:\n\nBULLET::::- Type I: Pale white skin, burns easily, does not tan\n\nBULLET::::- Type II: White skin, burns easily, tans with difficulty\n", "A review of scientific literature through 2007 found that beta carotene (Vitamin A) supplementation had a protective effect against sunburn, but that the effects were only evident in the long-term, with studies of supplementation for periods less than 10 weeks in duration failing to show any effects. There is also evidence that common foods may have some protective ability against sunburn if taken for a period before the exposure.\n\nSection::::Prevention.:Protecting children.\n", "Various blood tests may be done including a complete blood count (CBC) to check for anaemia, and a fecal occult blood test to check for blood in the stool.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Histopathology.\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.:Classification.\n\nMultiple standards exist for defining Henoch–Schönlein purpura, including the 1990 American College of Rheumatology (ACR) classification and the 1994 Chapel Hill Consensus Conference (CHCC). Some have reported the ACR criteria to be more sensitive than those of the CHCC.\n", "Knowing the approximate area covered by starspots from the size of the variations, and the field strength estimated from the chromospheric activity, allows an estimate of the total energy stored in the magnetic field; in all cases there was enough energy stored in the field to account for even the largest superflares. Both the photometric and the spectroscopic observations are consistent with the theory that superflares are different only in scale from solar flares, and can be accounted for by the release of magnetic energy in active regions very much larger than those on the Sun. Nevertheless, these regions can appear on stars with masses, temperatures, compositions, rotation speeds and ages similar to the Sun.\n", "Imaging of the spine and laboratory tests is not recommended during the acute phase. This assumes that there is no reason to expect that the person has an underlying problem. In most cases, the pain goes away naturally after a few weeks. Typically, people who do seek diagnosis through imaging are not likely to have a better outcome than those who wait for the condition to resolve.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Imaging.\n", "Exposure to the intense radiation of direct, unfiltered sunlight would lead to local heating, though that would likely be well distributed by the body's conductivity and blood circulation. Other solar radiation, particularly ultraviolet rays, however, may cause severe sunburn.\n\nSection::::Physiological effects.:Space environments.:Radiation.\n", "Imaging is not needed in the majority of individuals with back pain. In cases of acute back pain, MRI is recommended for individuals with major risk factors/clinical suspicion for cancer, spinal infection, or severe progressive neurological deficits. For patients with subacute to chronic back pain, MRI is recommended if there are minor risk factors for cancer, risk factors for ankylosing spondylitis, risk factors for vertebral compression fracture, significant trauma, or symptomatic spinal stenosis.\n\nEarly imaging studies during the acute phase do not improve care or prognosis in patients. Imaging findings are not correlated with severity or outcome.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Laboratory studies.\n", "Exact diagnosis remains widely built on precise history taking, with the characteristic clinical and radiographic skeletal features. Genetic diagnosis is based on DNA sequencing. Because plasma COMP levels are significantly reduced in patients with COMP mutations, such as pseudoachondroplasia, measuring plasma COMP levels has become a reliable means of diagnosing this and pathopysiologically similar disorders.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Skeletal radiography.\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.\n\nSolar urticaria can be difficult to diagnose, but its presence can be confirmed by the process of phototesting. There are several forms of these tests including photopatch tests, phototests, photoprovocation tests, and laboratory tests. All of these are necessary to determine the exact infliction that the patient is suffering from. Photopatch tests are patch tests conducted when it is believed that a patient is experiencing certain symptoms due to an allergy that will only occur when in contact with sunlight. After the procedure, the patient is given a low dosage of UVA radiation.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02637	Why do objects leaving the atmosphere not burn like they do when entering the atmosphere?	Orbiting is all about going fast, less about going high. When going into orbit you usually start by climbing mostly straight to get out of the thick atmosphere--that just slows you down with drag. Once you're mostly to orbital altitudes there's essentially no friction so it's possible to accelerate horizontally for a few minutes to achieve orbital velocities. You never wind up traveling at orbital velocity while in the atmosphere. When coming back from orbit you could, in theory, do the same thing in reverse. You could fire a rocket for a few minutes to slow down, then come through the atmosphere at only a couple times the speed of sound. The problem with that approach is that it takes an enormous amount of fuel. What's far, far more efficient is to alter your orbit just a little so that you go through the atmosphere which will slow you down for free. That means you hit the atmosphere at essentially orbital velocity which causes a huge amount of heat due to the air in front of you being compressed (not primarily due to friction as is often assumed; friction is a significant factor, but compression is the main component).	[ "Ballistic warheads and expendable vehicles do not require slowing at reentry, and in fact, are made streamlined so as to maintain their speed. Furthermore, slow-speed returns to Earth from near-space such as parachute jumps from balloons do not require heat shielding because the gravitational acceleration of an object starting at relative rest from within the atmosphere itself (or not far above it) cannot create enough velocity to cause significant atmospheric heating.\n", "Eleven essentially similar empty S-IVB stages from Apollo, Skylab and Apollo-Soyuz Test Project missions have re-entered the atmosphere from 1966–1975. In all cases (including the Skylab station), the objects burned in the atmosphere and broke into relatively small pieces, rather than striking the Earth as a single mass. On the other hand, these objects entered from low Earth orbit or ballistic trajectory, with less energy than J002E3 might possibly have if it were to enter from Solar orbit.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- 6Q0B44E, space debris originally thought to be a meteoroid\n", "\"Emission\" is the opposite of absorption, it is when an object emits radiation. Objects tend to emit amounts and wavelengths of radiation depending on their \"black body\" emission curves, therefore hotter objects tend to emit more radiation, with shorter wavelengths. Colder objects emit less radiation, with longer wavelengths. For example, the Sun is approximately , its radiation peaks near 500 nm, and is visible to the human eye. Earth is approximately , so its radiation peaks near 10,000 nm, and is much too long to be visible to humans.\n", "Most meteoroids burn up as meteors before hitting a planet's surface. When meteoroids do impact, the effects are often erased by the action of wind. As a result, craters are rare on objects with atmospheres.\n", "The most commonly used orbits for both manned and unmanned space vehicles are low earth orbits, which cover an altitude range low enough for residual atmospheric drag to be sufficient to help keep the zone clear. Collisions that occur in this altitude range are also less of an issue because the directions into which the fragments fly and/or their lower specific energy often result in orbits intersecting with Earth or having perigee below this altitude.\n", "At higher altitudes, where air drag is less significant, orbital decay takes longer. Slight atmospheric drag, lunar perturbations, Earth's gravity perturbations, solar wind and solar radiation pressure can gradually bring debris down to lower altitudes (where it decays), but at very high altitudes this may take millennia. Although high-altitude orbits are less commonly used than LEO and the onset of the problem is slower, the numbers progress toward the critical threshold more quickly.\n", "Orbital decay is much slower at altitudes where atmospheric drag is insignificant. Slight atmospheric drag, lunar perturbation, and solar wind drag can gradually bring debris down to lower altitudes where fragments finally re-enter, but this process can take millennia at very high altitudes.\n\nSection::::Implications.\n", "Even above the Kármán line, significant atmospheric effects such as auroras still occur. Meteors begin to glow in this region, though the larger ones may not burn up until they penetrate more deeply. The various layers of Earth's ionosphere, important to HF radio propagation, begin below 100 km and extend beyond 500 km. By comparison, the International Space Station and Space Shuttle typically orbit at 350–400 km, within the F-layer of the ionosphere where they encounter enough atmospheric drag to require reboosts every few months. Depending on solar activity, satellites can experience noticeable atmospheric drag at altitudes as high as 700–800 km.\n", "Once in orbit, their speed keeps them in orbit above the atmosphere. If e.g., an elliptical orbit dips into dense air, the object will lose speed and re-enter (i.e. fall). Occasionally a space craft will intentionally intercept the atmosphere, in an act commonly referred to as an aerobraking maneuver\n\nSection::::Newton's laws of motion.\n\nSection::::Newton's laws of motion.:Newton's law of gravitation and laws of motion for two-body problems.\n", "Objects in LEO encounter atmospheric drag from gases in the thermosphere (approximately 80–500 km above the surface) or exosphere (approximately 500 km and up), depending on orbit height. Due to atmospheric drag, satellites do not usually orbit below 300 km. Objects in LEO orbit Earth between the denser part of the atmosphere and below the inner Van Allen radiation belt.\n", "Vehicles in orbit have large amounts of kinetic energy. This energy must be discarded if the vehicle is to land safely without vaporizing in the atmosphere. Typically this process requires special methods to protect against aerodynamic heating. The theory behind reentry was developed by Harry Julian Allen. Based on this theory, reentry vehicles present blunt shapes to the atmosphere for reentry. Blunt shapes mean that less than 1% of the kinetic energy ends up as heat that reaches the vehicle, and the remainder heats up the atmosphere.\n\nSection::::Phases.:Landing.\n", "BULLET::::- Over the course of the Solar System's existence the orbits of comets are unstable, and eventually dynamics dictate that a comet must either collide with the Sun or a planet or else be ejected from the Solar System by planetary perturbations.\n\nBULLET::::- Moreover, their volatile composition means that as they repeatedly approach the Sun, radiation gradually boils the volatiles off until the comet splits or develops an insulating crust that prevents further outgassing.\n", "Section::::Non-thermal (suprathermal) escape.:Sputtering escape.\n\nExcess kinetic energy from the solar wind can impart sufficient energy to eject atmospheric particles, similar to sputtering from a solid surface. This type of interaction is more pronounced in the absence of a planetary magnetosphere, as the electrically charged solar wind is deflected by magnetic fields, which mitigates the loss of atmosphere.\n\nSection::::Non-thermal (suprathermal) escape.:Charge exchange escape.\n", "If the oxidizer is oxygen from the surrounding air, the presence of a force of gravity, or of some similar force caused by acceleration, is necessary to produce convection, which removes combustion products and brings a supply of oxygen to the fire. Without gravity, a fire rapidly surrounds itself with its own combustion products and non-oxidizing gases from the air, which exclude oxygen and extinguish the fire. Because of this, the risk of fire in a spacecraft is small when it is coasting in inertial flight. This does not apply if oxygen is supplied to the fire by some process other than thermal convection.\n", "Atmospheric molecules can also escape from the polar regions on a planet with a magnetosphere, due to the polar wind. Near the poles of a magnetosphere, the magnetic field lines are open, allowing a pathway for ions in the atmosphere to exhaust into space.\n\nSection::::Impact erosion.\n\nThe impact of a large meteoroid can lead to the loss of atmosphere. If a collision is sufficiently energetic, it is possible for ejecta, including atmospheric molecules, to reach escape velocity. \n", "There is no agreed-upon end to the upper atmosphere, but rather incrementally thinner air from the stratosphere (~50 km), mesosphere (~85 km), and thermosphere (~690 km) up to the exosphere (~10,000) (see also thermopause). For example, a meteoroid can become a meteor at an altitude of 85–120 km above the Earth.\n\nSection::::Known Earth-grazing fireballs.\n\nAn Earth-grazing fireball is a rarely measured kind of fireball caused by a meteoroid that collides with the Earth but survives the collision by passing through, and exiting, the atmosphere. four grazers have been scientifically observed.\n\nBULLET::::- Meteor procession of July 20, 1860\n", "Section::::Reentry heating.:Shock layer gas physics.\n\nAt typical reentry temperatures, the air in the shock layer is both ionized and dissociated. This chemical dissociation necessitates various physical models to describe the shock layer's thermal and chemical properties. There are four basic physical models of a gas that are important to aeronautical engineers who design heat shields:\n\nSection::::Reentry heating.:Shock layer gas physics.:Perfect gas model.\n", "Section::::Reentry heating.:Shock layer gas physics.:Frozen gas model.\n", "In a classified letter to the Air Force on December 20, LaPaz wrote that the object moved far too slowly to have been a meteor and left no \"trail of sparks or dust cloud\" as would be typical of meteors flying at low altitudes.\n", "For Earth, atmospheric entry occurs at the Kármán line at an altitude of 100 km (62.14 mi / ~ 54 nautical mi) above the surface, while at Venus atmospheric entry occurs at 250 km (155.3 mi / ~135 nautical mi) and at Mars atmospheric entry at about 80 km (50 mi / ~ 43.2 nautical mi). Uncontrolled, objects reach high velocities while accelerating through space toward the Earth under the influence of Earth's gravity, and are slowed by friction upon encountering Earth's atmosphere. Meteors are also often travelling quite fast relative to the Earth simply because their own orbital path is different from that of the Earth before they encounter Earth's gravity well. Most controlled objects enter at hypersonic speeds due to their suborbital (e.g., intercontinental ballistic missile reentry vehicles), orbital (e.g., the Soyuz), or unbounded (e.g., meteors) trajectories. Various advanced technologies have been developed to enable atmospheric reentry and flight at extreme velocities. An alternative low-velocity method of controlled atmospheric entry is buoyancy which is suitable for planetary entry where thick atmospheres, strong gravity, or both factors complicate high-velocity hyperbolic entry, such as the atmospheres of Venus, Titan and the gas giants.\n", "If an orbit is about a planetary body with significant atmosphere, its orbit can decay because of drag. Particularly at each periapsis, the object experiences atmospheric drag, losing energy. Each time, the orbit grows less eccentric (more circular) because the object loses kinetic energy precisely when that energy is at its maximum. This is similar to the effect of slowing a pendulum at its lowest point; the highest point of the pendulum's swing becomes lower. With each successive slowing more of the orbit's path is affected by the atmosphere and the effect becomes more pronounced. Eventually, the effect becomes so great that the maximum kinetic energy is not enough to return the orbit above the limits of the atmospheric drag effect. When this happens the body will rapidly spiral down and intersect the central body.\n", "BULLET::::- catalytic chemical recombination reactions between the object surface and the atmospheric gases\n\nBULLET::::- radiative heating, from the energetic shock layer that forms in front and to the sides of the object\n\nAs velocity increases, both convective and radiative heating increase. At very high speeds, radiative heating will come to quickly dominate the convective heat fluxes, as convective heating is proportional to the velocity cubed, while radiative heating is proportional to the velocity exponentiated to the eighth power. Radiative heating—which is highly wavelength dependent—thus predominates very early in atmospheric entry while convection predominates in the later phases.\n", "Section::::Reentry heating.:Shock layer gas physics.:Real (non-equilibrium) gas model.\n", "During re-entry of spacecraft into the earth's atmosphere, the high velocity of the spacecraft together with friction and displacement of air molecules leads to temperatures of over 2000 °C. In order to not burn up, spaceships need very expensive and sometimes failing heat shields.\n\nSection::::First spacecraft with sharp corners and edges.\n", "Spacecraft that land on a planet with an atmosphere, such as Earth, Mars, and Venus, currently do so by entering the atmosphere at high speeds, depending on air resistance rather than rocket power to slow them down. A side effect of this method of atmospheric re-entry is aerodynamic heating, which can be highly destructive to the structure of an unprotected or faulty spacecraft. An aerodynamic heat shield consists of a protective layer of special materials to dissipate the heat. Two basic types of aerodynamic heat shield have been used:\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-02425	How does valproic acid stabilize mood?	The neurons in our brains communicate via neurotransmitters, and there are two kinds which is: excitatory and inhibitory. From the names, you could tell that excitatory ones (eg. glutamate) tells the neuron to WORK! and the inhibitory one (eg. GABA) tells the neurons to STOP! Now, valproic acid stops this inhibitory neurotransmitters from being metabolised (aka removed), so there’s more inhibitory neurotransmitters - > more STOP! signals - > your neurons work lesser - > mood becomes more stable And the connections between these neurotransmitters are also how most of neurological/psychiatric drugs work. Hope that answers your question!	[ "There is evidence that valproic acid may cause premature growth plate ossification in children and adolescents, resulting in decreased height. Valproic acid can also cause mydriasis, a dilation of the pupils. There is evidence that shows valproic acid may increase the chance of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) in women with epilepsy or bipolar disorder. Studies have shown this risk of PCOS is higher in women with epilepsy compared to those with bipolar disorder. Weight gain is also possible.\n\nSection::::Adverse effects.:Pregnancy.\n", "Valproic acid has been found to directly stimulate androgen biosynthesis in the gonads via inhibition of histone deacetylases and has been associated with hyperandrogenism in women and increased 4-androstenedione levels in men. High rates of polycystic ovary syndrome and menstrual disorders have also been observed in women treated with valproic acid.\n\nSection::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacokinetics.\n\nSection::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacokinetics.:Metabolism.\n", "It is unclear exactly how valproate works. Proposed mechanisms include affecting GABA levels, blocking voltage-gated sodium channels, and inhibiting histone deacetylases. Valproic acid is a branched short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) made from valeric acid.\n", "Others are rs737865 and rs165599 that have been studied, e.g., for association with personality traits, response to antidepressant medications, and psychosis risk associated with Alzheimer's disease. COMT has been studied as a potential gene in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia; however meta-analyses find no association between the risk of schizophrenia and a number of polymorphisms, including ValMet.\n\nSection::::Genetics in humans.:ValMet polymorphism.\n", "A number of anti-convulsant drugs are used as mood stabilizers, and the suspected mechanism is related to the theory that mania can \"kindle\" further mania, similar to the kindling model of seizures. Valproic acid, or valproate, was one of the first anti-convulsants tested for use in bipolar disorder. It has proven to be effective for treating acute mania. The mania prevention and antidepressant effects of valproic acid have not been well demonstrated. Valproic acid is less effective than lithium at preventing and treating depressive episodes.\n", "Valproic acid (VPA) is a treatment for epilepsy, migraines, and bipolar disorder that has been linked to many conditions including autism. An animal model of autism exists in which pregnant rats are given VPA. The offspring have traits similar to those of humans with autism. Shortly after birth, these animals exhibit decreased excitability and increased NMDA currents. These effects are corrected at later stages in life. The changes in intrinsic excitability in these animals helped to offset the effects of increased NMDA currents on network activity, a form of homeostatic plasticity. It is believed that this helps mediate the detrimental effects that the increased NMDA currents would have.\n", "Valproic acid has been found to be an antagonist of the androgen and progesterone receptors, and hence as a nonsteroidal antiandrogen and antiprogestogen, at concentrations much lower than therapeutic serum levels. In addition, the drug has been identified as a potent aromatase inhibitor, and suppresses estrogen concentrations. These actions are likely to be involved in the reproductive endocrine disturbances seen with valproic acid treatment.\n", "The plot was written by Frank Tashlin and Mac Benoff, based on a story by Harpo.\n\nSection::::Plot.\n\nPrivate detective Sam Grunion (Groucho Marx) has been searching for the extremely valuable Royal Romanoff diamonds for eleven years, and his investigation leads him to a troupe of struggling performers, led by Mike Johnson (Paul Valentine), who are trying to put on a musical revue called \"Love Happy\". \n", "The vast majority of valproate metabolism occurs in the liver. In adult patients taking valproate alone, 30–50% of an administered dose is excreted in urine as a glucuronide conjugate. The other major pathway in the metabolism of valproate is mitochondrial beta-oxidation, which typically accounts for over 40% of an administered dose. Typically, less than 20% of an administered dose is eliminated by other oxidative mechanisms. Less than 3% of an administered dose of valproate is excreted unchanged (i.e., as valproate) in urine.\n", "Section::::Clinical significance.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Alcoholism.\n\nThe role of Neuropeptide Y has gained substantial attention for its involvement with alcoholism due to its diverse range of physiological effects. NPY neurons have been shown to interact with dopaminergic reward and emotion pathways in the nucleus accumbens and amygdala, respectively. NPY expression levels and alcohol preference have been shown exhibit an inverse relationship. Expression levels are dependent on the brain area of interest. This indicates that baseline NPY levels could possibly influence innate alcohol preferences.\n", "The mitochondrial unfolded protein response (UPR) is turned on in response to mitochondrial stress. Mitochondrial stress occurs when the proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane is dissipated, mtDNA is mutated, and/or ROS accumulates, which can lead to misfolding and reduced function of mitochondrial proteins. Stress is sensed by the nucleus, where chaperones and proteases are upregulated, which can correct folding or remove damaged proteins, respectively. Decrease in protease levels are associated with ageing, as mitochondrial stress will remain, maintaining high ROS levels. Such mitochondrial stress and dysfunction has been linked to various age-associated diseases, including cardiovascular diseases, and type-2 diabetes.\n", "Section::::Mechanism.\n", "Section::::Examples.:Anticonvulsants.\n\nMany agents described as \"mood stabilizers\" are also categorized as anticonvulsants. The term \"anticonvulsant mood stabilizers\" is sometimes used to describe these as a class. Although this group is also defined by effect rather than mechanism, there is at least a preliminary understanding of the mechanism of most of the anticonvulsants used in the treatment of mood disorders.\n\nBULLET::::- Valproate – Available in extended release form. This drug can be very irritating to the stomach, especially when taken as a free acid. Liver function and CBC should be monitored.\n", "Section::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacokinetics.\n", "Section::::Synthesis.:Biosynthesis.:Core.\n\nThere is some dispute about the origin of the fluorescent chromophore core. Originally, it was widely thought to be synthesized by the \"pvcABCD\" operon, as deletion of portions of the \"pvcC\" and \"pvcD\" genes disrupts pyoverdine production. Like other aspects of pyoverdine biosynthesis, the regulation of the \"pvcABCD\" is iron-dependent, and the loss of these genes' activity resulted in pyoverdine disruption.\n", "By forming complex ion of bromopyrogallol red and iron(II) compounds, the efficiency of cell can be increased. The lowest transition in the bromopyrogallol have a MLCT character, which greatly increase the electron sensitivity in Iron (II) and thus the complexation of bromopyrogallol ligand with iron(II) bisoxalato moiety was determined to increase the cell efficiency to a higher level.\n\nSection::::Applications and research.:Hydrogen donor substrate for peroxidase.\n", "Butyric acid is an inhibitor that is selective for class I HDACs in humans. HDACs are histone-modifying enzymes that can cause histone deacetylation and repression of gene expression. HDACs are important regulators of synaptic formation, synaptic plasticity, and long-term memory formation. Several HDACs (specifically, class I HDACs) are known to be involved in mediating the development of an addiction. Butyric acid and other HDAC inhibitors have been used in preclinical research to assess the transcriptional, neural, and behavioral effects of HDAC inhibition in animals addicted to drugs.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of saturated fatty acids\n\nBULLET::::- Butyrates\n\nBULLET::::- Histone\n", "Agostic interactions have also been shown to stabilize plumbylenes. DFT computations on the compounds [(R(CH)Si){(CH)P(BH)}CH]Pb (R = Me or Ph) found that agostic interactions between bonding B–H orbitals and the vacant 6p orbital lowered the energy of the molecule by \"ca.\" 38 kcal mol; this was supported by X-ray crystal structures showing the favourable positioning of said B–H bonds in proximity of Pb.\n\nSection::::Reactivity.\n", "T stimulates the production of RNA Polymerase I and II and, therefore, increases the rate of protein synthesis. It also increases the rate of protein degradation, and, in excess, the rate of protein degradation exceeds the rate of protein synthesis. In such situations, the body may go into negative ion balance.\n\nSection::::Effects.:Glucose.\n\nT potentiates the effects of the β-adrenergic receptors on the metabolism of glucose. Therefore, it increases the rate of glycogen breakdown and glucose synthesis in gluconeogenesis.\n\nSection::::Effects.:Lipids.\n\nT stimulates the breakdown of cholesterol and increases the number of LDL receptors, thereby increasing the rate of lipolysis.\n\nSection::::Effects.:Heart.\n", "Studies in recent years are continually showing ocular protective effects via TUDCA.\n\nSection::::Current research.:Photoreceptor cells.\n", "Section::::Current research.:Synaptic connectivity.\n", "UGT2B7 is also known to be involved in the metabolism of opioids via glucuronidation, and a study investigating the effect of polymorphisms on the analgesic efficacy of buprenorphine found that the mutation C802T significantly worsened the analgesic response to buprenorphine after thoracic surgery, particularly at longer time-points (48 hours) where this long-lasting opioid is meant to remain effective. This same variant was found separately to have significant effects on the blood plasma concentration of valproic acid administered to epilepsy patients, which may account for some of the individual variability seen with this narrow-therapeutic window treatment. Both of these cases indicate decreased concentrations of drug compound probably due to increased glucuronidation activity of UGT2B7 with the C802T polymorphism.\n", "In contrast to other antiepileptic drugs, at present there is little favorable evidence for salivary therapeutic drug monitoring. Salivary levels of valproic acid correlate poorly with serum levels, partly due to valproate's weak acid property (p\"K\"a of 4.9).\n\nIn severe intoxication, hemoperfusion or hemofiltration can be an effective means of hastening elimination of the drug from the body. Supportive therapy should be given to all patients experiencing an overdose and urine output should be monitored. Supplemental -carnitine is indicated in patients having an acute overdose and also prophylactically in high risk patients. Acetyl--carnitine lowers hyperammonemia less markedly than -carnitine. \n", "Lovastatin and other prescription statin drugs inhibit cholesterol synthesis by blocking action of the enzyme HMG-CoA reductase. As a consequence, circulating total cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol are lowered by 24-49% depending on the statin and dose. Different strains of \"Monascus\" fungus will produce different amounts of monacolins. The 'Went' strain of \"Monascus purpureus\" (purpureus = dark red in Latin), when properly fermented and processed, will yield a dried red yeast rice powder that is approximately 0.4% monacolins, of which roughly half will be monacolin K (chemically identical to lovastatin). Monacolin content of a red yeast rice product is described in a 2008 clinical trial report.\n", "BULLET::::- Rifampin: increases the clearance of valproate, leading to decreased valproate concentrations\n\nBULLET::::- Warfarin: may increase warfarin concentration and prolong bleeding time.\n\nBULLET::::- Zidovudine: may increase zidovudine serum concentration and lead to toxicity.\n\nSection::::Adverse effects.:Overdose and toxicity.\n\nExcessive amounts of valproic acid can result in sleepiness, tremor, stupor, respiratory depression, coma, metabolic acidosis, and death. In general, serum or plasma valproic acid concentrations are in a range of 20–100 mg/l during controlled therapy, but may reach 150–1500 mg/l following acute poisoning. Monitoring of the serum level is often accomplished using commercial immunoassay techniques, although some laboratories employ gas or liquid chromatography.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00914	why aren't gasses of the atmosphere dispersing into the vacuum of space?	Just borin' ol' gravity. Without it our atmosphere would drift away in hours. But even air has some weight, enough fer our planet's substantial gravity ta hang on ta it. (And our magnetic field protects it from bein' blasted away by particles zoomin' out from the Sun. Arrr!)	[ "After relaxation, the speed of some low mass members can be greater than the escape velocity of the cluster, which results in these members being lost to the cluster. This process is called evaporation. (A similar phenomenon explains the loss of lighter gases from a planet, such as hydrogen and helium from the Earth—after equipartition, some molecules of sufficiently light gases at the top of the atmosphere will exceed the escape velocity of the planet and be lost.)\n", "Diffusion-limited escape\n\nDiffusion-limited escape occurs when the rate of atmospheric escape to space is limited by the upward diffusion of escaping gases through the upper atmosphere, and not by escape mechanisms at the top of the atmosphere (the exobase). The escape of any atmospheric gas can be diffusion-limited, but only diffusion-limited escape of hydrogen has been observed in our solar system on Earth, Mars, Venus and Titan. Diffusion-limited hydrogen escape was likely important for the rise of oxygen in Earth's atmosphere (the Great Oxidation Event) and can be used to estimate the oxygen and hydrogen content of Earth's prebiotic atmosphere.\n", "Transport of gas molecules in the atmosphere occurs by two mechanisms: molecular and eddy diffusion. Molecular diffusion is the transport of molecules from an area of higher concentration to lower concentration due to thermal motion. Eddy diffusion is the transport of molecules by the turbulent mixing of a gas. The sum of molecular and eddy diffusion fluxes give the total flux of a gas formula_9 through the atmosphere:\n\nformula_10\n\nThe vertical eddy diffusion flux is given by\n\nformula_11\n", "Since a collection of gas molecules may be moving at a wide range of velocities, there will always be some fast enough to produce a slow leakage of gas into space. Lighter molecules move faster than heavier ones with the same thermal kinetic energy, and so gases of low molecular weight are lost more rapidly than those of high molecular weight. It is thought that Venus and Mars may have lost much of their water when, after being photo dissociated into hydrogen and oxygen by solar ultraviolet, the hydrogen escaped. Earth's magnetic field helps to prevent this, as, normally, the solar wind would greatly enhance the escape of hydrogen. However, over the past 3 billion years Earth may have lost gases through the magnetic polar regions due to auroral activity, including a net 2% of its atmospheric oxygen. The net effect, taking the most important escape processes into account, is that an intrinsic magnetic field does not protect a planet from atmospheric escape and that for some magnetizations the presence of a magnetic field works to increase the escape rate.\n", "BULLET::::- Deep space is generally much more empty than any artificial vacuum. It may or may not meet the definition of high vacuum above, depending on what region of space and astronomical bodies are being considered. For example, the MFP of interplanetary space is smaller than the size of the Solar System, but larger than small planets and moons. As a result, solar winds exhibit continuum flow on the scale of the Solar System, but must be considered a bombardment of particles with respect to the Earth and Moon.\n", "The relative concentration of gases remains constant until about .\n\nSection::::Stratification.\n", "Section::::Regions.\n\nSpace is a partial vacuum: its different regions are defined by the various atmospheres and \"winds\" that dominate within them, and extend to the point at which those winds give way to those beyond. Geospace extends from Earth's atmosphere to the outer reaches of Earth's magnetic field, whereupon it gives way to the solar wind of interplanetary space. Interplanetary space extends to the heliopause, whereupon the solar wind gives way to the winds of the interstellar medium. Interstellar space then continues to the edges of the galaxy, where it fades into the intergalactic void.\n\nSection::::Regions.:Geospace.\n", "Outgassing is a possible source of many tenuous atmospheres of terrestrial planets or moons. Many materials are volatile relative to the extreme vacuum of outer space, and may evaporate or even boil at ambient temperature. Materials on the lunar surface have completely outgassed and been blown away by solar winds long ago, but volatile materials may remain at depth. The lunar atmosphere probably originates from outgassing of warm material below the surface.\n", "But although it meets the definition of outer space, the atmospheric density within the first few hundred kilometers above the Kármán line is still sufficient to produce significant drag on satellites. Most artificial satellites operate in this region called low Earth orbit and must fire their engines every couple of weeks or a few times a year (depending on solar activity). The drag here is low enough that it could theoretically be overcome by radiation pressure on solar sails, a proposed propulsion system for interplanetary travel. Planets are too massive for their trajectories to be significantly affected by these forces, although their atmospheres are eroded by the solar winds.\n", "Interplanetary space contains the magnetic field generated by the Sun. There are also magnetospheres generated by planets such as Jupiter, Saturn, Mercury and the Earth that have their own magnetic fields. These are shaped by the influence of the solar wind into the approximation of a teardrop shape, with the long tail extending outward behind the planet. These magnetic fields can trap particles from the solar wind and other sources, creating belts of charged particles such as the Van Allen radiation belts. Planets without magnetic fields, such as Mars, have their atmospheres gradually eroded by the solar wind.\n\nSection::::Regions.:Interstellar space.\n", "For Earth's atmosphere, formula_7cm s, and, the concentration of hydrogen bearing gases above the tropopause is 1.8 ppmv (parts per million by volume) CH, 3 ppmv HO, and 0.55 ppmv H. Plugging these numbers into the formulas above gives a predicted diffusion-limited hydrogen escape rate of formula_8H atoms cm s. This calculated hydrogen flux agrees with measurements of hydrogen escape.\n\nNote that hydrogen is the only gas in Earth's atmosphere that escapes at the diffusion-limit. Helium escape is not diffusion-limited and instead escapes by a suprathermal process known as the polar wind.\n\nSection::::Derivation.\n", "Atmospheric molecules can also escape from the polar regions on a planet with a magnetosphere, due to the polar wind. Near the poles of a magnetosphere, the magnetic field lines are open, allowing a pathway for ions in the atmosphere to exhaust into space.\n\nSection::::Impact erosion.\n\nThe impact of a large meteoroid can lead to the loss of atmosphere. If a collision is sufficiently energetic, it is possible for ejecta, including atmospheric molecules, to reach escape velocity. \n", "While outer space provides the most rarefied example of a naturally occurring partial vacuum, the heavens were originally thought to be seamlessly filled by a rigid indestructible material called aether. Borrowing somewhat from the pneuma of Stoic physics, aether came to be regarded as the rarefied air from which it took its name, (see Aether (mythology)). Early theories of light posited a ubiquitous terrestrial and celestial medium through which light propagated. Additionally, the concept informed Isaac Newton's explanations of both refraction and of radiant heat. 19th century experiments into this luminiferous aether attempted to detect a minute drag on the Earth's orbit. While the Earth does, in fact, move through a relatively dense medium in comparison to that of interstellar space, the drag is so minuscule that it could not be detected. In 1912, astronomer Henry Pickering commented: \"While the interstellar absorbing medium may be simply the ether, [it] is characteristic of a gas, and free gaseous molecules are certainly there\".\n", "And Akasofu recounted that: \"The view that interplanetary space is a vacuum into which the Sun intermittently emitted corpuscular streams was changed radically by Ludwig Biermann (1951, 1953) who proposed on the basis of comet tails, that the Sun continuously blows its atmosphere out in all directions at supersonic speed\" (Syun-Ichi Akasofu, \"Exploring the Secrets of the Aurora\", 2002)\n\nTufts University Professor of astronomy, Kenneth R. Lang, writing in 2000 noted, \"Half a century ago, most people visualized our planet as a solitary sphere traveling in a cold, dark vacuum of space around the Sun\".\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Interplanetary space\n", "The density of the atmosphere varies greatly due to space weather and other unknown processes. The International Space Station once dropped in height by tens of kilometers in a span of a few days and by understanding drag forces and composition of the atmosphere we can provide better data about this phenomenon.\n\nSection::::Science.\n", "Atmosphere\n\nAn atmosphere (from Ancient Greek ἀτμός \"(atmos)\", meaning 'vapour', and σφαῖρα \"(sphaira)\", meaning 'ball' or 'sphere') is a layer or a set of layers of gases surrounding a planet or other material body, that is held in place by the gravity of that body. An atmosphere is more likely to be retained if the gravity it is subject to is high and the temperature of the atmosphere is low.\n", "The runaway greenhouse effect is often formulated in terms of how the surface temperature of a planet changes with differing amounts of received starlight. If the planet is assumed to be in radiative equilibrium, then the runaway greenhouse state is calculated as the equilibrium state at which water cannot exist in liquid form. The water vapor is then lost to space through hydrodynamic escape. In radiative equilbrium, a planet's outgoing longwave radiation (OLR) must balance the incoming stellar flux. Typically a planet's outgoing longwave radiation is equal to the planet's surface temperature to the fourth power due to the Stefan–Boltzmann law, though in a runaway greenhouse state this balance is broken.\n", "Interplanetary space is defined by the solar wind, a continuous stream of charged particles emanating from the Sun that creates a very tenuous atmosphere (the heliosphere) for billions of kilometers into space. This wind has a particle density of 5–10 protons/cm and is moving at a velocity of . Interplanetary space extends out to the heliopause where the influence of the galactic environment starts to dominate over the magnetic field and particle flux from the Sun. The distance and strength of the heliopause varies depending on the activity level of the solar wind. The heliopause in turn deflects away low-energy galactic cosmic rays, with this modulation effect peaking during solar maximum.\n", "This layer is mainly composed of extremely low densities of hydrogen, helium and several heavier molecules including nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide closer to the exobase. The atoms and molecules are so far apart that they can travel hundreds of kilometers without colliding with one another. Thus, the exosphere no longer behaves like a gas, and the particles constantly escape into space. These free-moving particles follow ballistic trajectories and may migrate in and out of the magnetosphere or the solar wind.\n", "Stars, planets, and moons retain their atmospheres by gravitational attraction. Atmospheres have no clearly delineated upper boundary: the density of atmospheric gas gradually decreases with distance from the object until it becomes indistinguishable from outer space. The Earth's atmospheric pressure drops to about Pa at of altitude, compared to 100,000 Pa for the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) definition of standard pressure. Above this altitude, isotropic gas pressure rapidly becomes insignificant when compared to radiation pressure from the Sun and the dynamic pressure of the solar wind. The thermosphere in this range has large gradients of pressure, temperature and composition, and varies greatly due to space weather.\n", "In astrophysics, \"ambipolar diffusion\" refers specifically to the decoupling of neutral particles from plasma, for example in the initial stage of star formation. The neutral particles in this case are mostly hydrogen molecules in a cloud that would undergo gravitational collapse if they were not collisionally coupled to the plasma. The plasma is composed of ions (mostly protons) and electrons, which are tied to the interstellar magnetic field and therefore resist collapse. In a molecular cloud where the fractional ionization is very low (one part per million or less), neutral particles only rarely encounter charged particles, and so are not entirely hindered in their collapse (note that now is dynamical collapse, not free fall) into a star.\n", "Section::::Thermal escape mechanisms.:Hydrodynamic escape.\n\nAn atmosphere with high pressure and temperature can also undergo hydrodynamic escape. In this case, a large amount of thermal energy, usually through extreme ultraviolet radiation, is absorbed by the atmosphere. As molecules are heated, they expand upwards and are further accelerated until they reach escape velocity. In this process, lighter molecules can drag heavier molecules with them through collisions as a larger quantity of gas escapes. Hydrodynamic escape has been observed for exoplanets close to their host star, including the hot Jupiter HD 209458b.\n\nSection::::Non-thermal (suprathermal) escape.\n", "For a hydrogen atom to escape from the exobase, it must first travel upward through the atmosphere from the troposphere. Near ground level, hydrogen in the form of HO, H, and CH travels upward in the homosphere through turbulent mixing, which dominates up to the homopause. At about 17 km altitude, the cold tropopause (known as the \"cold trap\") freezes out most of the HO vapor that travels through it, preventing the upward mixing of some hydrogen. In the upper homosphere, hydrogen bearing molecules are split by ultraviolet photons leaving only H and H behind. The H and H diffuse upward through the heterosphere to the exobase where they escape the atmosphere by Jeans thermal escape and/or a number of suprathermal mechanisms. On Earth, the rate-limiting step or \"bottleneck\" for hydrogen escape is diffusion through the heterosphere. Therefore, hydrogen escape on Earth is diffusion-limited.\n", "Section::::Non-thermal (suprathermal) escape.:Sputtering escape.\n\nExcess kinetic energy from the solar wind can impart sufficient energy to eject atmospheric particles, similar to sputtering from a solid surface. This type of interaction is more pronounced in the absence of a planetary magnetosphere, as the electrically charged solar wind is deflected by magnetic fields, which mitigates the loss of atmosphere.\n\nSection::::Non-thermal (suprathermal) escape.:Charge exchange escape.\n", "Section::::Dominant atmospheric escape and loss processes in the Solar System.:Titan and Io.\n" ]	[ "The gas of the atmosphere should disperse into space. " ]	[ "Gravity prevents the air within the atmosphere from dispersing into space." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The gas of the atmosphere should disperse into space. ", "The gas of the atmosphere should disperse into space. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Gravity prevents the air within the atmosphere from dispersing into space.", "Gravity prevents the air within the atmosphere from dispersing into space." ]
2018-00934	How come every time you save an image the quality becomes worse and worse. Would this still happen if you screenshot it?	Often when you save an image (either saving it or screenshotting it) it gets stored as a compressed image file. Compression reduces the file size by averaging pixels or simply by skipping over unimportant pixels. Depending on the compression format, a lot of the image quality can be lost. Opening an already compressed file, adding text or a watermark, then compressing it again will reduce the quality further because it has to guess what the pixels used to be before.	[ "One way these images can be captured is to turn off the hardware overlay. Because many computers have no hardware overlay, most programs are built to work without it, just a little slower. In Windows XP, this is disabled by opening the Display Properties menu, clicking on the \"Settings\" tab, clicking, \"Advanced\", \"Troubleshoot\", and moving the Hardware Acceleration Slider to \"None.\"\n\nFree software media players may also use the overlay but often have a setting to avoid it or have dedicated screenshot functions.\n\nSection::::Common technical issues.:Screen recording.\n", "Although users can create secure web albums, Google refuses to fix an error that started with their 'upgrade' to Google+: an Unlisted Gallery link does not display correctly unless the viewer is logged into a google account. Previously, users could share their Unlisted Gallery link with anyone, Google user or not.\n", "A common problem with video recordings is the action jumps, instead of flowing smoothly, due to low frame rate. Though getting faster all the time, ordinary PCs are not yet fast enough to play videos and simultaneously capture them at professional frame rates, \"i.e.\" 30 frame/s. For many cases, high frame rates are not required. This is not generally an issue if simply capturing desktop video, which requires far less processing power than video playback, and it is very possible to capture at 30 frame/s. This varies depending on desktop resolution, processing requirements needed for the application that is being captured, and many other factors.\n", "BULLET::::- Some devices have problems with autofocus. It is believed that the problem was introduced in the March security update.\n\nSection::::Issues.:Fixed issues.\n\nBULLET::::- Some users are reporting that some camera photos are failing to save. The issue may be related to Google Camera. Google has released a fix for this in the December 2018 update.\n", "Section::::Loss due to format change.\n\nLike any resampling operation, changing image size and bit depth are lossy in all cases of downsampling, such as 30-bit to 24-bit or 24-bit to 8-bit palette-based images. While increasing bit depth is usually lossless, increasing image size can introduce aliasing or other undesired artifacts.\n\nSection::::RAW images.\n", "In Picasa 2 and earlier versions, changes to pictures made in Picasa overwrite the original file, but a backup version of the original is saved in a hidden folder named \"Originals\" in the same folder as the original picture (.picasaoriginals on Mac OS X).\n", "BULLET::::- On newer firmware version of the 6230i, the camera is unable to process images that are bigger than 786 KB. This can be experienced when taking pictures at top quality setting in 1280x1024 mode of scenes with lots of fine details, like the leaves on a tree. You will sometimes get a message like \"Unable to save\" because the image processor in the camera module does not have enough memory to create the compressed JPEG file from the image sensor data.\n", "BULLET::::- Sub-resolution 7: 80 x 60 pixels in 2 x 1 tiles (~ 37.5 KB)\n\nBULLET::::- Sub-resolution 8: 40 x 30 pixels in a single tile (~ 9 KB)\n\nTotal size: ~ 793 MB\n\nA viewer (such as photo editing software) will access only the needed part. In the worst case, for a 1680 x 1050 display, 53 x 33 tiles (56 MB) are needed in memory, whatever portion of the image is being used.\n", "BULLET::::- The screensaver may be changed to the Blue Screen of Death.\n\nBULLET::::- In the Display Properties Control Panel, the background and screensaver tabs are missing because their \"Hide\" values in the Registry were changed to 1.\n\nBULLET::::- Both the background and screensaver are in the System32 folder, however the screensaver cannot be deleted.\n\nBULLET::::- Windows Automatic Updates (and other web-based services) may also be disabled and it is not possible to turn them back on.\n", "Like VP8 on which it is based, former lossy WebP only supports 8-bit YUV format, which may cause color loss on images with thin contrast elements (such as in pixel art and computer graphics) and ghosting in anaglyph. To overcome this restriction, new lossless WebP supports VP8L encoding that works exclusively with 8-bit ARGB color space.\n\nSection::::Propagation.\n\nGoogle actively propagates usage of WebP. The proprietary PageSpeed Insights tool recommends webmasters switching from JPEG and PNG to WebP in order to improve the website speed score.\n\nSection::::Criticism.\n", "Section::::Variations.:Tape automated bonding (TAB) faults.:Cold start.\n", "BULLET::::1. Open a photo in a photo-editing application (by sending that application an \"Open File\" Apple event).\n\nBULLET::::2. Tell the photo-editing application to manipulate the image (e.g. reduce its resolution, add a border, add a photo credit)\n\nBULLET::::3. Tell the photo-editing application to save the changed image in a file in some different folder (by sending that application a \"Save\" and/or \"Close\" Apple event).\n\nBULLET::::4. Send the new file path (via another Apple event) to a text editor or web editor application\n\nBULLET::::5. Tell that editor application to write a link for the photo into an HTML file.\n", "Users should avoid any 'crop' or 'zoom' size below their intended output resolution - ideally, stop at twice the output size. If a smaller crop or zoom is required, significantly better results will be achieved by resizing the original in some third-party application (e.g. PaintShop Pro, PhotoShop) first.\n\nPhoto Story is not officially supported on the Vista or Windows 7 platform, although it downloads and installs fine on both Vista and Windows 7 32-bit and 64-bit.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Photo Story 3 on Microsoft Download Center\n\nBULLET::::- Photo Story 2 LE on Microsoft Download Center\n", "Image conversion\n\nA large number of image file formats are available for storing graphical data, and, consequently, there are a number of issues associated with converting from one image format to another, most notably loss of image detail.\n\nSection::::Software compatibility.\n\nMany image formats are native to one specific graphics application and are not offered as an export option in other software, due to proprietary considerations. An example of this is Adobe Photoshop's native PSD-format(Prevention of Significant Deterioration), which cannot be opened in less sophisticated programs for image viewing or editing, such as Microsoft Paint.\n", "These artifacts can be reduced by choosing a lower level of compression; they may be completely avoided by saving an image using a lossless file format, though this will result in a larger file size. The images created with ray-tracing programs have noticeable blocky shapes on the terrain. Certain low-intensity compression artifacts might be acceptable when simply viewing the images, but can be emphasized if the image is subsequently processed, usually resulting in unacceptable quality. Consider the example below, demonstrating the effect of lossy compression on an edge detection processing step.\n", "A shell utility called \"screencapture\" (located in codice_1) can be used from the Terminal application or in shell scripts to capture screenshots and save them to files. Various options are available to choose the file format of the screenshot, how the screenshot is captured, if sounds are played, etc. This utility might only be available when the Mac OS X developer tools are installed. A user cannot capture the screen while DVD Player is running.\n\nSection::::Built-in screenshot functionality.:Maemo 5.\n", "BULLET::::- Correct highlight handling. Blown or clipped highlights are a common problem with many Photo CD conversion packages. Once a highlight is clipped by a conversion program, the information cannot be recovered by later manipulation. Many Windows based software packages partially correct for the highlight problem by using a “hacked” DLL created by Ted Felix.\n\nBULLET::::- The use of scanner and film type specific color profiles. Unless such profiles are used, the color reproduction of the image will be incorrect, often, especially for reversal (slide) films, very noticeably so.\n", "Various approaches have been proposed to reduce image compression effects, but to use standardized compression/decompression techniques and retain the benefits of compression (for instance, lower transmission and storage costs), many of these methods focus on \"post-processing\"—that is, processing images when received or viewed. No post-processing technique has been shown to improve image quality in all cases; consequently, none has garnered widespread acceptance, though some have been implemented and are in use in proprietary systems. Many photo editing programs, for instance, have proprietary JPEG artefact reduction algorithms built-in. Consumer equipment often calls this post-processing \"MPEG Noise Reduction\".\n\nSection::::Video.\n", "Section::::Methods.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Graphics.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Graphics.:Image.\n\nBULLET::::- Better Portable Graphics, also known as BPG (lossless or lossy compression)\n\nBULLET::::- Cartesian Perceptual Compression, also known as CPC\n\nBULLET::::- DjVu\n\nBULLET::::- Fractal compression\n\nBULLET::::- ICER, used by the Mars Rovers, related to JPEG 2000 in its use of wavelets\n\nBULLET::::- JBIG2 (lossless or lossy compression)\n\nBULLET::::- JPEG\n\nBULLET::::- JPEG 2000, JPEG's successor format that uses wavelets (lossless or lossy compression)\n\nBULLET::::- JPEG XR, another successor of JPEG with support for high dynamic range, wide gamut pixel formats (lossless or lossy compression)\n\nBULLET::::- PGF, Progressive Graphics File (lossless or lossy compression)\n", "The current release is Double Image 7.0.61, released August 26, 2018. All features and systems supported remain from previous versions. This release has several bug fixes, including dealing with Windows 10 registry restore.\n\nSection::::Features.\n\nBULLET::::- Files are copied natively and remain non-proprietary on the target.\n\nBULLET::::- Designed to run allowing for simultaneous copy sessions.\n\nBULLET::::- Graphical user interface or commands: can run from a user interface or from another initiating program or script using commands and command variables.\n", "In Picasa 3 versions of the software, using the 'original size' upload option, pixel size remains the same, but JPEG compression is increased significantly during upload to PWA. As JPEG is a \"lossy\" format, some picture information (and quality) is lost. Picasa 3.6 added an option to preserve original JPEG quality.\n", "BULLET::::- When installing applications whose size is 130-150kb using the Nokia PC suite, an error message appears saying that the file is too large to be installed on the phone although the maximum size that can be installed on the Nokia 6070 is 150kb. Applications which have a size of 130-150kb can be installed via OTA (over-the-air) download using GPRS.\n\nBULLET::::- Sometimes, when the phone is using GPRS and the memory is about to become full (due to the internet cache being enabled), the phone crashes and White Screen of Death appears.\n", "On Maemo 5 a screenshot can be taken by pressing simultaneously. Screenshots will be saved as \"Screenshot-YYYYMMDD-HHMMSS.png\" in \"Images/Screenshots\" on the internal storage.\n\nSection::::Built-in screenshot functionality.:Windows.\n", "Luc Vincent, director of engineering at Google and head of the team responsible for Street View for the platform, stated concern over the quality of panorama cameras his team used to capture gallery and artwork images. In particular, he believes that improved aperture control would enable more consistent quality of gallery images.\n", "The algorithm used by Project Naptha for photos is the Stroke Width Transform, which was specially designed for detecting text in natural scenes and photographs. This is because photographs are generally tougher and more technically challenging to copy texts from as compared to most regular images.\n\nSection::::Application.:Screenshots.\n\nFor Screenshots, Project Naptha transforms static screenshots into something more similar to an interactive snapshot of the computer as it was when the screen was captured. The cursor changes when hovering over different parts, and blocks of text become selectable.\n\nSection::::Application.:Editing Text on Images.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-20861	Why do some words start to look weird if you look at them long enough?	Because we tend to take in the word as a whole rather than letter by letter. That's why you can mingle the spoiling qwite markredly wile stall redmayning udderstandable as long as you keep the start and end of the words correct. Once you start to deconstruct them you loose the pattern recognition.	[ "The task of defining what constitutes a \"word\" involves determining where one word ends and another word begins—in other words, identifying word boundaries. There are several ways to determine where the word boundaries of spoken language should be placed:\n\nBULLET::::- Potential pause: A speaker is told to repeat a given sentence slowly, allowing for pauses. The speaker will tend to insert pauses at the word boundaries. However, this method is not foolproof: the speaker could easily break up polysyllabic words, or fail to separate two or more closely linked words (e.g. \"to a\" in \"He went to a house\").\n", "The effect was first described by Cattell (1886), and important contributions came from Reicher (1969) and Wheeler (1970). Cattell first wrote, \"I find it takes about twice as long to read...words which have no connexion as words which make sentences, and letters which have no connexions as letters which make words. When the words make sentences and the letters words, not only do the processes of seeing and naming overlap, but by one mental effort the subject can recognize a whole group of words or letters\".\n", "BULLET::::3. Morphologically complex words are assembled. Words that we produce that contain morphemes are put together during the speech production process. Morphemes are the smallest units of language that contain meaning. For example, \"ed\" on a past tense word.\n\nBULLET::::4. Affixes and functors behave differently from context words in slips of the tongue. This means the rules about the ways in which a word can be used are likely stored with them, which means generally when speech errors are made, the mistake words maintain their functions and make grammatical sense.\n", "A number of solutions exist to solve this problem, one of them is to divide the feature space into ranges, each one having common characteristics (which can be considered as a same word), nonetheless this solution carries many issues, like the division strategy, the size of range in the feature space, etc. Another solution proposed by researchers is using a clustering mechanism to classify and merge words carrying common information in a finite number of terms.\n", "Another example involves the vowel differences (with accompanying stress pattern changes) in several related words. For instance, the word \"photographer\" is derived from the word \"photograph\" by adding the derivational suffix -. When this suffix is added, the vowel pronunciations change largely owing to the moveable stress:\n\nOther examples of this type are the - suffix (as in \"agile\" vs \"agility\", \"acid\" vs \"acidity\", \"divine\" vs \"divinity\", \"sane\" vs \"sanity\"). See also: Trisyllabic laxing.\n", "Section::::Morphological operations.:Impoverishment.\n\nImpoverishment (a term introduced into the theory in Bonet 1991) refers to a change in the feature content on a terminal node prior to Vocabulary Insertion, resulting in a less marked feature content. This can be accomplished by deleting a feature or by changing it from a marked to an unmarked value (e.g. [+plural] to [-plural]). Impoverishment accounts for cases in which spell-out of a terminal node by a featurally specific Vocabulary Item is blocked by a less specific Vocabulary Item.\n", "BULLET::::2. As the second part of compound words, the stress pattern of the simplex is used to determine the form of the compound, leading to irregular output.\n\nBULLET::::3. Some paradigms display the effect of analogy, or levelling, by which the original alternation of some words has been removed and replaced to better fit a more common pattern.\n\nBULLET::::4. Thurneysen also noted seven individual words in need of special treatment - arbaid-, bairizeins, filigri, frumadei, ubizwa, haubid- and þiwadw. He provides explanations for the first five, but the latter two he leaves unexplained.\n\nSection::::Reception and criticism.\n", "Sliding window based part-of-speech tagging\n\nSliding window based part-of-speech tagging is used to part-of-speech tag a text. \n\nA high percentage of words in a natural language are words which out of context can be assigned more than one part of speech. The percentage of these ambiguous words is typically around 30%, although it depends greatly on the language. Solving this problem is very important in many areas of natural language processing. For example in machine translation changing the part-of-speech of a word can dramatically change its translation.\n", "Section::::Visual stimuli.:Word and non-word stimuli.\n", "Section::::Visual word form hypotheses.:Lexical visual word form hypothesis.\n", "One key characteristic of these features is that they reflect variation across languages in their overtness, which became particularly important to GenSLA research. A feature of a word or phrase is said to be overt if there is surface evidence of its existence within that word or phrase. By contrast, a feature of a word or phrase is said to be covert if there is no surface evidence of its existence within that word or phrase. This made interesting predictions about adult L2 learning behaviour, for example, that L2 overt morphology should be easier to acquire if the learner has similar overt features in their L1. In one relevant study it was shown that Russian but not Japanese L2 learners of English were, in line with these predictions, reliably sensitive to English plural errors, (Russian has overt plural morphology while Japanese does not). \n", "Idiomatically, some words such as 溝 ( 'communication') have evolved to the sound to avoid embarrassment, because 㞗 is a vulgar word in Cantonese, but some speakers insist on pronouncing and it may cause ridicule.\n\nSpeakers of some Mandarin dialects, particularly in the south of China and in Taiwan, pronounce the retroflex initials , and as the alveolar initials , , and . Such speakers may hypercorrect by pronouncing words that should start with , and as if they started with their retroflex counterparts.\n", "A common example of semantic shift is in the reappropriation of the meaning of English words for Nigerian purposes and uses. This can cause the original English meanings to be \"shifted, restricted, or extended.\"\n\nFor example, in some areas, though the international meaning of trek has a connotation of long distance or difficult journey, the Nigerian use is to \"walk a short distance.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Frequency effects suggest that words that are frequent in an individual's language are recognized faster than words that are infrequent. Forster and Chambers, 1973, found that high frequency words were named faster than low frequency ones, and Whaley, 1978 found that high frequency words were responded to faster than low frequency ones in a lexical decision task.\n\nIn the spectrum theory, at one end \"each phonological form is connected to one complex semantic representation\", at the opposite end, homonyms and polysemes have their \"own semantic representation[s]\". \n", "Often the senses of a word are related to each other within a semantic field. A common pattern is that one sense is broader and another narrower. This is often the case in technical jargon, where the target audience uses a narrower sense of a word that a general audience would tend to take in its broader sense. For example, in casual use \"orthography\" will often be glossed for a lay audience as \"spelling\", but in linguistic usage \"orthography\" (comprising spelling, casing, spacing, hyphenation, and other punctuation) is a hypernym of \"spelling\". Besides jargon, however, the pattern is common even in general vocabulary. Examples are the variation in senses of the term \"wood wool\" and in those of the word \"bean\". This pattern entails that natural language can often lack explicitness about hyponymy and hypernymy. Much more than programming languages do, it relies on context instead of explicitness; meaning is implicit within a context. Common examples are as follows: \n", "It is difficult to capture the term \"grammaticalization\" in one clear definition (see the 'various views on grammaticalization' section below). However, there are some processes that are often linked to grammaticalization. These are semantic bleaching, phonetic erosion, morphological reduction and obligatorification.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms.:Semantic bleaching.\n", "Section::::Effects.\n\nSpeakers experiencing linguistic insecurity exhibit alterations of their normal speech which are reflective of their insecurity, and often are a result of the speaker attempting to compensate for the perceived deficiencies in their own speech variety. These effects of linguistic insecurity can come in the form of changes in pronunciation, as in the case of the retail store employees in William Labov's example, or even syntactic deviations from the speaker's normal speech variant.\n\nSection::::Effects.:Hypercorrection.\n", "Inattentional blindness as also been looked at as a variation of the rapid serial visual presentation. Rees, Russell, Frith, and Driver (1999) investigated participants’ brain activity as they looked at rapid displays of a letter string or of a word above a picture. Participants were asked to watch out for repeats in the letter string or in the pictures that were displayed. They found that the attended words in the task were related to semantic processing.\n\nSection::::Modes.\n", "It may be present as:\n\nBULLET::::- Clanging, a speech pattern that follows rhyming and other sound associations rather than meaning\n\nBULLET::::- Graphorrhea, a written version of word salad that is more rarely seen than logorrhea in people with schizophrenia.\n\nBULLET::::- Logorrhea, a mental condition characterized by excessive talking (incoherent and compulsive)\n\nBULLET::::- Receptive aphasia\n\nBULLET::::- Schizophasia, a mental condition characterized by incoherent babbling (compulsive or intentional, but nonsensical)\n\nSection::::In computing.\n", "People and computers, as they read words, must use a process called word-sense disambiguation to find the correct meaning of a word. This process uses context to narrow the possible senses down to the probable ones. The context includes such things as the ideas conveyed by adjacent words and nearby phrases, the known or probable purpose and register of the conversation or document, and the orientation (time and place) implied or expressed. The disambiguation is thus context-sensitive.\n", "An example of this lexical phenomenon in Spanglish is the emergence of new verbs when the productive Spanish verb-making suffix \"-ear\" is attached to an English verb. For example, the Spanish verb for \"to eat lunch\" (\"almorzar\" in standard Spanish) becomes \"lonchear\" (occasionally \"lunchear\"). The same process produces \"watchear\", \"parquear\", \"emailear\", \"twittear\", etc.\n\nSection::::Usage.:Loan words.\n", "Section::::Examples.:Image analysis.\n", "There are studies that also linked semantic satiation in education. For instance, the work of Tian and Huber (2010) explored the impact of this phenomenon on word learning and effective reading. The authors claimed that this process can serve as a unique approach to test for discounting through loss of association since it allows the separation of the \"lexical level from semantic level effects in a meaning-based task that involves repetitions of words.\" Semantic satiation has also been used as a tool to gain more understanding on language acquisition such as those studies that investigated the nature of multilingualism.\n", "BULLET::::- Post-alveolar affricates are easily confused with their fricative counterparts , often merging \"chip\" and \"ship\", \"cheap\" and \"sheep\", and \"pledger\" and \"pleasure\".\n\nBULLET::::- Absence of contrast of voice for coda fricatives. \"He's\", \"hiss\" and \"his\" are easily homophonous. Spelling pronunciations, with all words with historical schwas left in the orthography being pronounced even when the usual would be , are also possible.\n", "BULLET::::- (\"owl\", \"scowl\", etc.) and (\"bowel\", \"dowel\", \"Powell\", \"towel\", \"trowel\", \"vowel\"), inconsistently skewing towards either one or two syllables. Some words may wander across this boundary even in some non-merging accents, such as \"owl\" with , and \"bowel\" with .\n\nBULLET::::- In some rhotic accents, (\"girl\", \"hurl\", \"pearl\", etc.) and (\"referral\"), usually skewing towards two syllables. This historically happened to the word \"squirrel\", which was previously (and still is in certain accents), but it actually became one syllable in General American today. But some accents with one-syllable \"squirrel\" later broke it again into two syllables, but as .\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04291	When staining wood, why can the rags you use spontaneously combust?	You need three things for a fire. Flammable material, Oxygen, heat Wood stain is very flammable. Particularly NC (nitrocellulose). Adding cloth to it thins out the flammable material which means more oxygen molecules come into contact with the flammable molecules. It's like having a brick of wax which would never really catch fire and then adding a wick which makes it a candle. But the third ingredient, heat, is kind of interesting. An object's temperature is just an average of its molecular energy. At a molecular level, and one given group of molecules can randomly get more excited and chemically react. Once that happens it produces heat which gets its neighbors going. Spontaneous combustion isn't common, but add the possibility of sparks from static charges building up and varnished rags are dangerous.	[ "In many cases, stains are affected by heat and may become reactive enough to bond with the underlying material. Extreme heat, such as from ironing or dry cleaning, can cause a chemical reaction on an otherwise removable stain, turning it into a chemical compound that is impossible to remove.\n\nSection::::Removal.\n", "Fire-retardant fabric\n\nFire-retardant fabrics are textiles that are naturally more resistant to fire than others through chemical treatment or manufactured fireproof fibers.\n\nSection::::Terminology and test limitations.\n", "When a fabric is designated as \"inherently fire-retardant\", \"permanently fire-retardant\", or \"durably fire-retardant\", the flame retardancy will last for the life of the fabric as it has been woven into the fabric fiber itself. The drapery can be laundered or dry-cleaned as recommended by the drapery manufacturer. In the case of fabrics that are designated as \"fire-retardant\", that have been topically treated with chemicals, the flame retardancy of the fabric will dissipate over time, particularly with repeated cleaning. As these chemicals are soluble in liquids-either water or dry cleaning fluid, these fabrics must be dry-cleaned with a non-liquid cleaning agent. The flame retardants work by coating the flammable fabrics with a mineral based barrier, preventing fire from reaching the fibres. \n", "When cleaning equipment it is near impossible to remove all the loose molecules. It is almost certain that traces of the chemical used to clean the equipment will remain on its surfaces, forming a microscopically thin layer.\n", "BULLET::::- Source 5 (Crib 5) is related to upholstery and furniture coverings, and is related to BS 5852. The crib test uses a plank made from wood that is glued together. The fabrics is attached over the lint, then at bottom and a propane-diol is added. The testing unit is then ignited with a match. To decide whether the test has been passed the fabric and the crib are assessed to see whether there is flaming or smoldering on both the outer cover and the interior material. Assuming it does not ignite or smolder, the material will pass the test as no ignition. Similar tests include Source 0 (smouldering cigarette) and Source 1 (simulated match).\n", "BULLET::::- BS 5867 is for flame retardant fabrics. It relates to curtains, blinds and drapes for windows when tested by the methods specified in BS 5438:1976. Where appropriate, a cleansing or wetting procedure specified in BS 5651 may also be required.\n", "In some cases, the textiles are weakened not by outside causes such as light or pests, but by chemical reactions taking place within the fabric itself, such as the oxidation of iron-based mordants over time, which can cause darkening and discolouration in the surrounding fibres.\n", "BULLET::::- Linseed oil and Danish oil in a confined space (such as a pile of oil-soaked rags left out in an uncovered container, especially if rags afterward used with anti-moisture solvent to clean up the oil) can oxidize leading to a buildup of heat and thus ignition.\n\nBULLET::::- Coal can ignite spontaneously when exposed to oxygen, which causes it to react and heat up when there is insufficient ventilation for cooling.\n\nBULLET::::- Pyrite oxidation is often the cause of coal spontaneous ignition in old mine tailings.\n", "Delignification of chemical pulps is frequently composed of four or more discrete steps, with each step designated by a letter in the Table:\n", "Smouldering is the slow, low-temperature, flameless form of combustion, sustained by the heat evolved when oxygen directly attacks the surface of a condensed-phase fuel. It is a typically incomplete combustion reaction. Solid materials that can sustain a smouldering reaction include coal, cellulose, wood, cotton, tobacco, peat, duff, humus, synthetic foams, charring polymers (including polyurethane foam) and dust. Common examples of smoldering phenomena are the initiation of residential fires on upholstered furniture by weak heat sources (e.g., a cigarette, a short-circuited wire) and the persistent combustion of biomass behind the flaming fronts of wildfires.\n\nSection::::Types.:Rapid.\n", "One example which is cited frequently throughout the literature is the case of “shattered silk.” During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, many silk manufacturers treated their fabrics with metallic salts (usually containing tin and iron) to give them a heavier, more luxurious feel. However, as these fabrics have aged, the metals in the fibres have accelerated their decay and caused them to become extremely brittle. The shredded or “shattered” effect this causes is the reason for the name. In this case, the environment of the textile contributes very little to the deterioration from the metallic salts, though exposure to light may accelerate it even further.\n", "Stains that are fast drying will be difficult to apply in hot weather or in direct sunlight. Stains that are slow-drying will be difficult to work with in damp and cold conditions due to a greatly lengthened evaporation and curing period. New lumber, such as pine, can have waxlike sealants put on at the mill that will prevent proper staining; stripping or sanding the surface may be required. White stains composed of metal oxides, namely titanium dioxide and zinc oxide do not penetrate well and remain on the surface. In such cases, wear easily reveals unstained wood. They are also fairly opaque.\n", "Craquelure is frequently induced by using zinc white paints as the underlayer in pentimento techniques. Zinc whites with small zinc oxide particles (~250 nm) are more successful at inducing craquelure than larger particles because it does not adhere to the sublayer. Additionally, zinc white paints using linoleic acid-based binders are more successful at producing craquelure than paints with other binders.\n\nSection::::Craquelure in ceramics.\n", "When unburned fuel is emitted from a combustor, the emission is caused by fuel \"avoiding\" the flame zones. For example, in piston engines, some of the fuel-air mixture \"hides\" from the flame in the crevices provided by the piston ring grooves. Further, some regions of the combustion chamber may have a very weak flame, that is, they have either very fuel-lean or very fuel-rich conditions and consequently they have a low combustion temperature. These regions will cause intermediate species such as formaldehyde and alkenes to be emitted. Sometimes the term \"products of incomplete combustion,\" or PICs, is used to describe such species.\n", "In certain cases you need to clean the wood or remove existing stains prior to staining the wood with a commercial stain in order to avoid damaging the wood. This can be the case for both unfinished and finished wood.\n\nSection::::Cleaning stained wood.\n\nThere are special consideration when cleaning stained wood. One of the most common stains is water stains on stained wood. Techniques to remove the water stains have been documented that use a hot iron to remove the water stain.\n", "Wood’s moisture content affects the staining of wood. Changes in wood moisture content can result in swelling and shrinkage of wood which can stress and crack coatings. Both problems can be avoided by storing wood indoors in an environment where it can equilibriate to a recommended moisture content (6 to 8%) that is similar to that of the intended end use of the furniture.\n", "The wash durability of a calendared finish on thermoplastic fibers like polyester is higher than on cellulose fibers such as cotton. On blended fabrics such as Polyester/Cotton the durability depends largely on the proportion of synthetic fiber component present as well as the amount and type of finishing additives used and the machinery and process conditions employed.\n\nSection::::Variations.\n\nSeveral different finishes can be achieved through the calendering process by varying different parts. The main different types of finishes are \"beetling\", \"watered\", \"embossing\" and \"Schreiner\".\n\nSection::::Variations.:Beetled.\n", "Burnishing may also affect the \"performance of a machine\". The plastic deformation associated with burnishing creates greater heat and friction than from rubbing alone. This reduces the efficiency of the machine and limits its speed. Furthermore, plastic deformation alters the form and geometry of the part. This reduces the precision and accuracy of the machine. The combination of higher friction and degraded form often leads to a runaway situation that continually worsens until the component fails.\n", "Smouldering (British English) or smoldering (American English; see spelling differences) is the slow, low-temperature, flameless form of combustion, sustained by the heat evolved when oxygen directly attacks the surface of a condensed-phase fuel. Many solid materials can sustain a smouldering reaction, including coal, cellulose, wood, cotton, tobacco, cannabis, peat, plant litter, humus, synthetic foams, charring polymers including polyurethane foam and some types of dust. Common examples of smouldering phenomena are the initiation of residential fires on upholstered furniture by weak heat sources (e.g., a cigarette, a short-circuited wire), and the persistent combustion of biomass behind the flaming front of wildfires.\n", "Section::::Bleaching chemical pulps.:Chelant wash.\n", "The most commonly suggested candidate for authorship is John Massey of Cotton, Cheshire. He is known to have lived in the dialect region of the Pearl Poet and is thought to have written the poem, \"St. Erkenwald\", which some scholars argue bears stylistic similarities to \"Gawain\". \"St. Erkenwald\", however, has been dated by some scholars to a time outside the Gawain poet's era. Thus, ascribing authorship to John Massey is still controversial and most critics consider the Gawain poet an unknown.\n\nSection::::Technique.\n", "His printing plant was blown up twice and his house once, in 1965, which is when he closed his paper, as described in the Tropic, \"The fires came and they avenged, wrathful fires that cleansed and purged and howled like angels. Ruebin Clein, beaten, kicked dolefully through the smoking crucible of what had been his home as the investigators did their work. Torched the investigators agreed. Who, they wondered, could have done this thing?\n", "The core of the cellulose insulating material plant is a Whirlwind Mill. This mill is able to fray out the material, what leads to fluffy, optimally defibrated flocks that contain only very small amounts of dust. Furthermore the flame retardant is stuck to the flocks during the defibration process. \n\nAfter the mill the material is conveyed pneumatically to the dedusting unit, where the dusty air and the cellulose fibers get separated. The finished fibers come to the packaging station, where they will be weight and packaged.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n", "The process is usually to pass one or both sides of a fabric over a gas flame to burn off the protruding fibres. Other methods include infra-red or heat for thermoplastic fibers. Singeing of yarns is called \"\"gassing\"\". It is usually the first step after weaving or knitting, though the fabric may be brushed first to raise the surface fibres.\n\nCellulose fibres such as cotton are easily singed because the protruding fibers burn to a light ash which is easily removed. Thermoplastic fibres are harder to singe because they melt and form hard residues on the fabric surface.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Exfoliation is achieved either by mechanical or by chemical means.\n\nSection::::Types.:Mechanical.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02198	I have been under the impression when you are paralyzed you can't feel anything, so why do doctors prescribe pain meds?	Ghost pain. My Aunt had both legs amputated one below the knee and the other above the knee. And she would complain all the time about how it felt like her foot was hurting. Plus you know having a part of you cut off is a little painful.	[ "Patients may need pain relievers to control pain. Other medications that are used to reduce pain include gabapentin, carbamazepine, or tricyclic antidepressants such as amitriptyline. Whenever if possible, patients need to avoid or limit the use of medication to reduce the risk of side effects. If the pain is severe, a pain specialist can help patients to explore all options to relieve the pain. Physical therapy exercises may help patients to maintain muscle strength. Also, orthopedic devices may improve patient's ability to walk and prevent contractures. Orthopedic devices may include braces, splints, orthopedic shoes, or other equipment.\n", "Physicians play an important role in determining the potential abuse of neuroenhancing drugs. While some neuroenhancing drugs do not require a prescription and are easily available, others that require prescription are up to the discretion of the physician. In a survey conducted among Swiss psychiatrists and general practitioners, the majority of surveyed physicians agreed that their criteria to determine whether or not a dysfunction should be considered a disease is if the patient indicates subjective suffering and/or negative consequences for everyday ability to work. The surveyed physicians, however, were in majority agreement that they do not prescribe medication without a clear indication of such a dysfunction.\n", "The ability to experience pain is essential for protection from injury, and recognition of the presence of injury. Episodic analgesia may occur under special circumstances, such as in the excitement of sport or war: a soldier on the battlefield may feel no pain for many hours from a traumatic amputation or other severe injury.\n", "A fully paralyzed patient is unable to move, speak, blink the eyes, or otherwise respond to the pain. If neuromuscular blocking drugs are used this causes skeletal muscle paralysis and interferes with the functioning of the autonomic nervous system. The patient cannot signal their distress and they may not exhibit the signs of awareness that would be expected to be detectable by clinical vigilance.\n", "Damaged nerve fibers continuously excite electric pulses, inducing pain or abnormal sensation dysesthesia. It has been shown that in allograft surgeries, post-operative neuropathic pain was present in some patients, but only if they suffered from this condition pre-operatively. Patients without neuropathic pain before their surgery did not complain about neuropathic pain afterwards. Hence, allograft treatment does not seem to be a risk factor for this specific problem.\n", "The biggest risk factor is anesthesia performed by unsupervised trainees and the use of a medication that induces muscle paralysis, such as suxamethonium (succinylcholine). Under general anesthesia, the patient's muscles may be paralyzed in order to facilitate tracheal intubation, surgical exposure, and because the patient cannot breathe for him or herself mechanical ventilation must be used. The paralytic agent does not cause unconsciousness or take away the patient's ability to feel pain, but it does prevent the patient from breathing so they must be ventilated correctly.\n", "BULLET::::- Quoted in USA Today article when actor Jason Priestley received injuries in a race-car accident\n\nBULLET::::- Quoted in Cnn.com article on actor Christopher Reeve's spinal cord injury\n\nBULLET::::- Quoted in Orthopedic Tech Review's Industry News section about Christopher Reeve's condition\n\nBULLET::::- Recognized in the Miami Project to Cure Paralysis' newsletter, delivering an honor as ASIA President to a fellow scientist, Damien Pearse, PhD\n\nBULLET::::- Quoted on Raleigh-Durham ABC affiliate's website discussing nonfusion surgical devices\n\nSection::::Publications.\n", "In order to assist and improve in sensory nerve damage, which can be difficult to maintain without medication, some patients adopt behavioural strategies in order to manage chronic pain, along with emotional discrepancies that may follow the nerve injury (national institute of neurological disorders).\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Autonomic nerve damage.\n", "It is helpful to the administration of anti-inflammatory drugs. In the acute setting, the main goal is to restore proper mobility by not producing pain, individually selected physiotherapy. Surgery is used when other methods do not produce results.\n\nThe exception is when paralysis is observed; in those cases, surgery should be performed as soon as possible to avoid irreversible paralysis of muscles.\n", "In May 2011 the Ohio Senate and House unanimously passed a bill, authored by Portsmouth's representative in the Ohio House, Dr. Terry Johnson, and signed into law by Governor Kasich, addressing the regulation of pain clinics and the ability of prescribers to personally furnish controlled substances.\n", "Assistive devices such as wheelchairs have a substantial effect on the quality of life of the patient, and careful selection is important. Teaching the patient how to transfer from different positions, such as from a wheelchair into bed, is an important part of therapy, and devices such as sliding transfer boards and grab bars can assist in these tasks. Individuals who are able to transfer independently from their wheelchair to the driver's seat using a sliding transfer board may be able to return to driving in an adapted vehicle. Complete independence with driving also requires the ability to load and unload one's wheelchair from the vehicle. In addition to acquiring skills such as wheelchair transfers, individuals with a spinal cord injury can greatly benefit from exercise reconditioning. In the majority of cases, spinal cord injury leaves the lower limbs either entirely paralyzed, or with insufficient strength, endurance, or motor control to support safe and effective physical training. Therefore, most exercise training employs the use of arm crank ergometry, wheelchair ergometry, and swimming. In one study, subjects with traumatic spinal cord injury participated in a progressive exercise training program, which involved arm ergometry and resistance training. Subjects in the exercise group experienced significant increases in strength for almost all muscle groups when compared to the control group. Exercisers also reported less stress, fewer depressive symptoms, greater satisfaction with physical functioning, less pain, and better quality of life. Physical therapists are able to provide a variety of exercise interventions, including, passive range of motion exercises, upper body wheeling (arm crank ergometry), functional electrical stimulation, and electrically stimulated resistance exercises all of which can improve arterial function in those living with SCI. Physical therapists can improve the quality of life of individuals with spinal cord injury by developing exercise programs that are tailored to meet individual patient needs. Adapted physical activity equipment can also be used to allow for sport participation: for example, sit-skiis can be used by individuals with a spinal cord injury for cross-country or downhill skiing.\n", "Medications applied to the skin can be used alone if the pain from PHN is mild or in combination with oral medications if the pain is moderate to severe. Topical medications for PHN include low-dose (0.075%) and high-dose (8%) capsaicin and anesthetics such as lidocaine patches. Lidocaine patches (5% concentration) are approved in the United States and Europe to treat PHN though evidence supporting their use is limited. A meta-analysis of multiple small placebo-controlled randomized controlled trials found that for every two people treated with topical lidocaine, one person experienced at least a 50% reduction in their PHN-associated pain (number needed to treat (NNT)=2).\n", "Section::::Computer accessibility.\n\nOne of the largest problems that affect people with disabilities is discomfort with prostheses. An experiment performed in Massachusetts utilized 20 people with various sensors attached to their arms. The subjects tried different arm exercises, and the sensors recorded their movements. All of the data helped engineers develop new engineering concepts for prosthetics.\n\nAssistive technology may attempt to improve the ergonomics of the devices themselves such as Dvorak and other alternative keyboard layouts, which offer more ergonomic layouts of the keys.\n", "The rehabilitation process for people with disabilities often entails the design of assistive devices such as Walking aids intended to promote inclusion of their users into the mainstream of society, commerce, and recreation.\n\nSection::::Regulatory issues.\n", "Many types of surgery do not require the patient to be paralyzed. A patient who is anesthetized but not paralyzed can move in response to a painful stimulus if the analgesia is inadequate. This may serve as a warning sign that the anesthetic depth is inadequate. Movement under general anesthesia does not imply full awareness but is a sign that the anesthesia is light. Even without the use of paralytics the absence of movement does not necessarily imply amnesia.\n\nSection::::Causes and Risk Factors.:Light anesthesia.\n", "Neurectomy involves cutting a nerve, and is (rarely) used in patients with short life expectancy who are unsuitable for drug therapy due to ineffectiveness or intolerance. The dorsal root or dorsal root ganglion (that carry mostly sensory signals) may be usefully targeted (called rhizotomy); with the dorsal root ganglion possibly the more effective target because some sensory fibers enter the spinal cord from the dorsal root ganglion via the \"ventral\" (motor) root, and these would not be interrupted by dorsal root neurectomy. Because nerves often carry both sensory and motor fibers, motor impairment is a possible side effect of neurectomy. A common result of this procedure is \"deafferentation pain\" where, 6–9 months after surgery, pain returns at greater intensity.\n", "In the late 1970s, some Disabled In Action members formed a musical group called The DIA Singers and have recorded two albums, \"In Motion\" and \"...and the Parking Spots Are Nothing But The Best\".\n\nOn April 19, 2006, it was announced that after nearly 5 years, Duane Reade, a chain of drugstores primarily located in New York City, finally agreed to settle with Disabled In Action to make all of its stores ADA-compliant. According to the \"New York Daily News\", Duane Reade estimates it will take two years to inspect and revamp its stores for wheelchair access.\n", "Currently, the availability of drugs proven to treat neuropathic pain is limited and varies widely from patient to patient. Many developed drugs have either been discovered by accident or by observation. Some past treatments include opiates like poppy extract, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs like salicylic acid, and local anesthetics like cocaine. Other recent treatments consist of antidepressants and anticonvulsants, although no substantial research on the actual mechanism of these treatments has been performed. However, patients respond to these treatments differently, possibly because of gender differences or genetic backgrounds. Therefore, researchers have come to realize that no one drug or one class of drugs will reduce all pain. Research is now focusing on the underlying mechanisms involved in pain perception and how it can go wrong in order to develop an appropriate drug for patients afflicted with neuropathic pain.\n", "Not only must a physiatrist know medical knowledge regarding a patient's condition, but they also need to know relevant/practical knowledge regarding it as well. This involves issues such as: what type of wheelchair best suits the patient, what type of prosthetic would fit best, does their current house layout accommodate their handicap well, and other every day complications that their patients might have.\n\nSection::::Training.\n", "Knowledge of preferential motor reinnervation is necessary because of how it affects the regeneration of nerves. When a patient loses nerve function, PMR can interfere with (or help) the different methods of repair that physicians use. Physicians understanding of natural nerve repair processes will allow for overall improvement in surgery, because they will be able to better interface their repair efforts with natural ones.\n", "In 2018 two distinct research teams from Minnesota's Mayo Clinic and Kentucky's University of Louisville managed to restore some mobility to patients suffering from paraplegia with an electronic spinal cord stimulator. The theory behind the new spinal cord stimulator is that in certain cases of spinal cord injury the spinal nerves between the brain and the legs are still alive, but just dormant. On 1 November 2018 a third distinct research team from the University of Lausanne published similar results with a similar stimulation technique in the journal Nature.\n", "A 2017 Cochrane systematic review aiming to assess the benefit of antiepileptic medications for several types of chronic non-cancer pains (including neuropathic pain) in children and adolescents found the evidence inconclusive. Two of the ten authors of this study declared receiving payments from pharmaceutical companies. \n\nSection::::Treatment.:Medications.:Opioids and opiates.\n", "Electro analgesia was the first deliberate application of electricity. By the nineteenth century, most western physicians were offering their patients electrotherapy delivered by portable generator. In the mid-1960s, however, three things converged to ensure the future of electro stimulation.\n\nBULLET::::1. Pacemaker technology, which had it start in 1950, became available.\n\nBULLET::::2. Melzack and Wall published their gate control theory of pain, which proposed that the transmission of pain could be blocked by stimulation of large afferent fibers.\n\nBULLET::::3. Pioneering physicians became interested in stimulating the nervous system to relieve patients from pain.\n", "The Somatosensory Rehabilitation of Neuropathic Pain, is a method whose aim is to treat conditions of a reduced sense of touch or sensation (hypoesthesia) in order to decrease neuropathic pain. Neuropathic pain, with a prevalency of 6.9% of the general population, represents an important public health problem. e.g. Carpal Tunnel Syndrome (CTS) concerns 2.7% of the general population.; i.e. Complex Regional Pain Syndrome (CRPS) concerns 26/100,000 person-years of the general population. Patients with chronic pain need every possible therapy to battle the pain. Chronic pain is not a symptom but a syndrome in its own right, and requires therapists from a wide range of disciplines.So too, transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation and other physical therapy procedures emerged rapidly, bringing substantial pain relief to large numbers of people.\n", "Paraplegia is a condition in which a person loses the ability to control or perceive his or her lower limbs. Patients that have lost functional limb control due to spinal cord injuries often have further complications past the point of injury. Due to paralysis, paraplegics remain unable to exercise the leg muscles and leads to muscle atrophy. In such cases, lumbar anterior root stimulators may offer a minimal and temporary solution by allowing paraplegics some capacity to exercise the legs. Some research has shown that root stimulators may allow cycling to be feasible to those who suffer from paraplegia as a proof of concept. The devices may show promise in applications of more complex leg movement processes such as walking. At the very least, they offer a potential solution to delaying the issue of atrophy in paraplegics so that they might have an easier recovery in the case that better treatments come along.\n" ]	[ "Can't feel pain when paralyzed. ", "If a person is paralyzed and can't feel anything, then there is no reason to prescribe pain meds." ]	[ "Ghost pain can still happen and pain meds can help with that.", "Humans are capable of feeling ghost pain, which is feeling pain in areas that are no longer a part of a person." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Can't feel pain when paralyzed. ", "If a person is paralyzed and can't feel anything, then there is no reason to prescribe pain meds." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Ghost pain can still happen and pain meds can help with that.", "Humans are capable of feeling ghost pain, which is feeling pain in areas that are no longer a part of a person." ]
2018-04886	How do Mountains affect the weather?	Air that used to be at sea level changes its thermodynamic properties at the top of the mountain. This changes, pressure, temperature and its speed. All have a factor on how much water the air contains or can hold. That is why it snows on top of mountains, because the water in the air comes out of solution and remains cold all year at high mountains because the air is colder intrinsically because of its elevation rise due to lower pressure. The pressure is lower because there is less weight of air pushing down above the air on the top of the mountain.	[ "The position of mountains influences climate, such as rain or snow. When air masses move up and over mountains, the air cools producing orographic precipitation (rain or snow). As the air descends on the leeward side, it warms again (in accordance with the adiabatic lapse rate) and is drier, having been stripped of much of its moisture. Often, a rain shadow will affect the leeward side of a range.\n\nSection::::Erosion.\n", "The effect of the climate on the ecology at an elevation can be largely captured through a combination of amount of precipitation, and the biotemperature, as described by Leslie Holdridge in 1947. Biotemperature is the mean temperature; all temperatures below are considered to be 0 °C. When the temperature is below 0 °C, plants are dormant, so the exact temperature is unimportant. The peaks of mountains with permanent snow can have a biotemperature below .\n\nSection::::Ecology.\n", "Section::::Factors.:Massenerhebung effect.\n\nThe physical characteristics and relative location of the mountain itself must also be considered in predicting altitudinal zonation patterns. The Massenerhebung effect describes variation in the tree line based on mountain size and location. This effect predicts that zonation of rain forests on lower mountains may mirror the zonation expected on high mountains, but the belts occur at lower elevations. A similar effect is exhibited in the Santa Catalina Mountains of Arizona, where the basal elevation and the total elevation influence the elevation of vertical zones of vegetation.\n\nSection::::Factors.:Other factors.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Orographic fog\" is formed as the air rises up the slope and will often envelope the summit. When the air is humid, some of the moisture will fall on the windward slope and on the summit of the mountain.\n", "The daytime increase of the PBL from up-slope winds is called \"mountain venting\". This phenomenon can sometimes cause a vertical exchange of the PBL air into the free troposphere.\n\nSimilarly to the daytime situation, during summer the top of the mountain is warmer than its surroundings creating a low pressure zone. Winds then blow up from the plains to the mountain top, which is an efficient lifting mechanism to carry PBL pollutants into the free atmosphere.\n\nSection::::Effect of landcover.\n\nBesides wind systems, the variation in land cover also plays a significant role in the PBL growth.\n", "A similar class of winds, the Sirocco, the Bora and Santa Ana winds, are examples where orographic lifting has limited effect since there is limited moisture to remove in the Saharan or other air masses; the Sirocco, Bora and Santa Ana are driven primarily by (adiabatic) compression heating.\n\nSection::::Effects of orographic lifting.:Associated clouds.\n\nAs air flows over mountain barriers, orographic lift can create a variety of cloud effects.\n", "Depending on the vertical and horizontal magnitude of a mountain range, it has the potential to have strong effects on global and regional climate patterns and processes including: deflection of atmospheric circulation, creation of orographic lift, altering monsoon circulation, and causing the rain shadow effect.\n", "Orographic or relief snowfall is caused when masses of air pushed by wind are forced up the side of elevated land formations, such as large mountains. The lifting of air up the side of a mountain or range results in adiabatic cooling, and ultimately condensation and precipitation. Moisture is removed by orographic lift, leaving drier, warmer air on the descending, leeward side. The resulting enhanced productivity of snow fall and the decrease in temperature with elevation means that snow depth and seasonal persistence of snowpack increases with elevation in snow-prone areas.\n\nSection::::Precipitation.:Cloud physics.\n", "During the late May and early June calving season, winds predominate from a southerly quadrant. Calm conditions are infrequent and average monthly wind speeds are on the order of per second. At an elevation of , there is a 15–20% chance that precipitation will occur as snow; that probability increases with altitude. Mixed rain and snow are common at that time of the year. Reduced air drainage, coupled with clear, calm nights, lowers minimum temperatures in the summer, reducing the frost-free period.\n\nSection::::Human history.\n\nSection::::Human history.:Occupation.\n", "BULLET::::- Oppland mountain area, Norway.\n\nBULLET::::- The Front Range Foothills of Northern Colorado – west of Boulder to Golden as storms pass by. Winter storms can produce of snow.\n\nSection::::Effects of orographic lifting.:Rain shadowing.\n", "Orographic lift\n\nOrographic lift occurs when an air mass is forced from a low elevation to a higher elevation as it moves over rising terrain. As the air mass gains altitude it quickly cools down adiabatically, which can raise the relative humidity to 100% and create clouds and, under the right conditions, precipitation.\n\nSection::::Effects of orographic lifting.\n\nSection::::Effects of orographic lifting.:Precipitation.\n\nPrecipitation induced by orographic lift occurs in many places throughout the world. Examples include:\n\nBULLET::::- The Mogollon Rim in central Arizona\n\nBULLET::::- The western slope of the Sierra Nevada range in California\n", "Section::::Wind systems.:Valley winds.\n\nValley winds are best developed on clear summer days and are driven by horizontal pressure gradients. During the day, the valley is warmer than the flat terrain (because it contains a smaller volume of air receiving the same amount of radiation), which creates a lower pressure zone over the valley, entraining the air from the plains up to the valley. The opposite process occurs at nighttime, where the valley cools faster and the air flows back down to the plains .\n\nSection::::Wind systems.:Slope winds.\n", "Weather varies greatly in the area due to the rain shadow caused by the Cascade Range. Air from the Pacific Ocean rises over the western slopes, which causes it to cool and dump its moisture as rain (or snow in the winter). Precipitation increases with elevation. Once the moisture is wrung from the air, it descends on the eastern side of the crest, which causes the air to be warmer and drier. On the western slopes, precipitation ranges from annually, while precipitation over the eastern slopes varies from in the east. Temperature extremes reach in summers and during the winters.\n", "The meteorological mechanism that causes Tehuano and Papagayo winds is relatively simple. In the winter, cold high-pressure weather systems move southward from North America over the Gulf of Mexico. These high pressure systems create strong pressure gradients between the atmosphere over the Gulf of Mexico and the warmer, moister atmosphere over the Pacific Ocean. Just as a river flows from high elevations to lower elevations, the air in the high pressure system will flow \"downhill\" toward lower pressure, but the Cordillera mountains block the flow of air, channeling it through Chivela Pass in Mexico, the lake district of Nicaragua, and also Gaillard (Culebra) Cut in Panama. Many times, a Tehuano wind is followed by Papagayo and Panama winds a few days later as the high pressure system moves south.\n", "Section::::Factors.\n\nA variety of environmental factors determines the boundaries of altitudinal zones found on mountains, ranging from direct effects of temperature and precipitation to indirect characteristics of the mountain itself, as well as biological interactions of the species. The cause of zonation is complex, due to many possible interactions and overlapping species ranges. Careful measurements and statistical tests are required prove the existence of discrete communities along an elevation gradient, as opposed to uncorrelated species ranges.\n\nSection::::Factors.:Temperature.\n", "Section::::Climate.\n", "The Mountain-Plain winds system is the largest scale phenomenon going across the mountain range. During daytime, incoming solar radiation heats up the mountain top faster than the plain, creating a mean low pressure zone at the top. Winds then blow towards the mountain on all sides, flow up the slope and converge at the top. A return flow occurs aloft and comes back down into the plains. The exact opposite happens during nighttime, when the top cools down faster than the plain, which creates a mean high pressure zone leading to winds coming from the mountain top down to the plain. This represents the idealized situation since many complications can arise from cross currents, forced or pressure driven channeling or even cold fronts approaching the mountain barrier.\n", "The highest precipitation amounts are found slightly upwind from the prevailing winds at the crests of mountain ranges, where they relieve and therefore the upward lifting is greatest. As the air descends the lee side of the mountain, it warms and dries, creating a rain shadow. On the lee side of the mountains, sometimes as little as 15 miles (25 km) away from high precipitation zones, annual precipitation can be as low as 8 inches (200 mm) per year.\n\nAreas where this effect is observed include:\n\nBULLET::::- The Himalayas block moisture from the Tibetan Plateau\n\nBULLET::::- The Atacama Desert in Peru and Chile\n", "Section::::Effect on precipitation.\n\nOrographic precipitation occurs on the windward side of mountains and is caused by the rising air motion of a large-scale flow of moist air across the mountain ridge, resulting in adiabatic cooling and condensation. In mountainous parts of the world subjected to consistent winds (for example, the trade winds), a more moist climate usually prevails on the windward side of a mountain than on the leeward or downwind side. Moisture is removed by orographic lift, leaving drier air (see foehn wind) on the descending and generally warming, leeward side where a rain shadow is observed.\n", "Section::::Distribution.\n", "Mountain jet\n\nMountain jets are a type of jet stream created by surface winds channeled through mountain passes, sometimes causing high wind speeds and drastic temperature changes.\n\nSection::::Central America jets.\n\nThe North Pacific east of about 120°W is strongly influenced by winds blowing through gaps in the Central American cordillera. Air flow in the region forms the Intra-Americas Low-Level Jet, a westward flow about 1 km above sea level. This flow, trade winds, and cold air flowing south from North America contribute to winds flowing through several mountain valleys.\n", "Climate of Mount Kenya\n\nThe climate of Mount Kenya has played a critical role in the development of the mountain, influencing the topography and ecology amongst other factors. It has a typical equatorial mountain climate which Hedberg described as \"winter every night and summer every day.\"\n", "During the dry season the mountain almost always follows the same daily weather pattern. Large daily temperature fluctuations occur which led Hedberg to exclaim \"winter every night and summer every day.\" There is variation in minimum and maximum temperatures day to day, but the standard deviation of the mean hourly pattern is small.\n", "water harvesting and keyline design, are examples of methods that might help prevent or lessen these drying effects.\n\nSection::::Mountain meteorological effects.\n\nSection::::Mountain meteorological effects.:Orographic lift.\n\nOrographic lift occurs when an air mass is forced from a low elevation to a higher elevation as it moves over rising terrain. As the air mass gains altitude it quickly cools down adiabatically, which can raise the relative humidity to 100% and create clouds and, under the right conditions, precipitation.\n\nSection::::Mountain meteorological effects.:Rain shadow.\n", "Section::::Climate.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-18187	Why is there a delay on the news when they hear from an off-site reporter, especially today when it is possible to video conference phone to phone with minimal delay?	Because you are using broadband/wired connection/4g they are using satellite receivers to send the signal so there is a delay between it being sent and being received.	[ "\"Especially on that first day, you were really just going to whomever had a piece of information,\" says \"48 Hours\" executive producer Susan Zirinsky, whose team produced the primetime coverage that first night. \"You were getting cameras up, you were putting people in place, you were trying to wrap your brain around it. You wanted to step back and synthesize some of the information, which is what we were trying to do ... At that point, we thought there were many more dead, and it was still a search-and-rescue mission. It was a very, very complicated day to try to give context to.\"\n", "Short-form news stories are what local news reporters deliver to their stations. Longer-form stories about the same topics are covered by national or international broadcast news magazines such as Dateline NBC, 20/20, Nightline, 48 Hours, 60 Minutes and Inside Edition. Depending upon the scope of the story, the number of crews vying for position at the story venue (press conference, court house, crime location, etc.) can potentially be dozens.\n", "Once the story is introduced, the network or local station may, if possible, choose to continue to show a live shot of the anchor or may cut away to video or images of the story that is being followed during the broadcast. Additionally, the coverage may be passed to a reporter at the location of the breaking event, possibly sharing more information about the story as it breaks.\n", "In the decades before 24-hour news networks such as CNN began to exist, programming interruptions were restricted to extremely urgent news, such as the death of an important political figure. For example, one of the earliest such interruptions that modern viewers would recognize as \"breaking news\" coverage was for the assassination of U.S. President John F. Kennedy in 1963, (with CBS News anchorman Walter Cronkite's coverage being especially noted), and as such reflected the relatively crude technology and procedures of that era. Such breaks are now common at 24-hour news channels, which may have an anchor available for live interruption at any time. Some networks, such as Sky News, largely emphasize this, even advertising the station/network as being \"\"first for breaking news\"\".\n", "If the event occurs during prime time, the anchor will usually remind viewers that there will be more details on their late local newscast and on the network's overnight news program (if applicable) the next morning. Programming at this time is either joined in progress or started back up at the point of the interruption, depending on whether the program is new to air, highly rated or has time left in its time slot to finish airing (for instance, ABC's breaking news report involving the April 2017 Shayrat missile strike took into account a new episode of the popular series \"Scandal\", where the show was resumed right at the point of interruption twice for those reports; NBC's coverage featured the low-rated \"\" joined in the middle of an episode in progress after their special report without any of that consideration). In either of the above instances, network (and in some cases, for local stations, syndicated) programs that have segments not aired or are pre-empted in their entirety by breaking news reports – particularly those that extend to or longer than 20 or 45 minutes, depending on the length of the previously scheduled program – may have to be rescheduled to air at a later time. \n", "Some events, like State of the Union addresses and presidential debates, are scheduled to start at the top of the hour during prime time. Under those circumstances, regularly scheduled network programming is preempted for the entire duration of the event. If there is sufficient time (generally 60 minutes or more) remaining in prime time, the network may broadcast its next regularly scheduled program in its entirety or join regularly scheduled programming in progress. However, if there is insufficient time remaining for any prime-time programs, the special report will continue until the network affiliates begin airing their late local newscasts.\n", "Outside broadcasts (also known as \"remote broadcasts\" and \"field operations\") are when the editing and transmission of the news story are done outside the station's headquarters. Use of ENG has made possible the greater use of outside broadcasts.\n\n\"Some stations have always required reporters to shoot their own stories, interviews and even standup reports and then bring that material back to the station where the video is edited for that evening's newscast. At some of these stations, the reporters sometimes even anchor the news and introduce the packages they have shot and edited.\"\n", "A media event at which no statements are made, and no questions allowed, is called a photo op. A government may wish to open their proceedings for the media to witness events, such as the passing of a piece of legislation from the government in parliament to the senate, via a media availability.\n\nTelevision stations and networks especially value news conferences: because today's TV news programs air for hours at a time, or even continuously, assignment editors have a steady appetite for ever-larger quantities of footage.\n", "1989 saw the introduction of the first \"One News\" foreign correspondents – Liam Jeory in London and Susan Wood in Sydney. The 6:30 pm bulletin was reduced back to 30 minutes on weekdays.\n", "Not only did the Vancouver newsroom receive less airtime overall; it was also unable to cover local news effectively. The Vancouver newsroom had been heavily dependent on Global BC for local news footages, and prior to the changeover, it routinely taped footages off Global BC’s 18:00 newscast to air on its own bulletin. However, under the single national feed, the Vancouver newsroom had to link up with Toronto at 16:30 Pacific in order to meet the 7:30pm Eastern deadline for the newscast. As such, the Vancouver newsroom now had to tape Global BC’s noon or even morning newscast instead (which often carried items from the previous day), resulting in Vancouver news items often being shown on a one-day delay.\n", "Researchers also find that attendees of business and medical videoconferences must work harder to interpret information delivered during a conference than they would if they attended face-to-face. They recommend that those coordinating videoconferences make adjustments to their conferencing procedures and equipment.\n\nSection::::Impact.:Impact on media relations.\n\nThe concept of press videoconferencing was developed in October 2007 by the PanAfrican Press Association (APPA), a Paris France-based non-governmental organization, to allow African journalists to participate in international press conferences on developmental and good governance issues.\n", "Such issues arose again during the 2003 Invasion of Iraq, when many embedded reporters accompanied soldiers as they made their way into the country. These reports were subject to censorship in that they were not allowed to reveal military-sensitive material.\n\nSection::::Prior restraint in the United States.:Pentagon Papers case.\n", "Section::::Reaction.\n\nThe Max Headroom incident made national headlines and was reported on the \"CBS Evening News\" the next day. WTTW received numerous phone calls from viewers who wondered what had occurred for the duration of the intrusion.\n\nAn investigating FCC engineer quoted at the time said the perpetrators of the intrusion faced a maximum $10,000 fine, up to a year in prison, or both.\n", "By 10:00 that morning, the cloud of smoke and ash had covered the area. News and information was coming in at rapid rate. Many people had concerns, questions, and announcements. Some of the station's other staff began to arrive a short time later. In the hours that followed, the experienced staff had established 2 other broadcast rooms to provide support to the main control room with regard to incoming news, interviews, recordings, editing, and production. Some of the staff answered phones and screened incoming calls. Officials were able to get through and were put on the air immediately.\n", "On Monday 19 September 1988 CTC's new one-hour \"Eyewitness News\" bulletin went to air at 6pm – just in time to cover day two of the Seoul Olympics. Anchored by veteran ABC newscaster Geoff Hiscock and TV8's Christine Kininmonth alongside weather presenter Mike Larkin and sports presenter Greg Robson. The team would steer CTC through the impending launch of two rival commercial stations which would see the viewing audience split into three within six months. A new set was constructed at the CTC studios in Watson in the same style as other Network Ten stations. During construction the news had been temporarily broadcast from Black Mountain Tower.\n", "Depending upon the story being followed, the report may last only a few minutes, or continue for multiple hours – or with the longest uninterrupted news events, four days – at a time (events in which the latter instances has occurred include the assassination of John F. Kennedy and the September 11 attacks, which took place between November 22–26, 1963 and September 11–15, 2001, respectively). If coverage continues for an extended amount of time, the network may integrate analysis about the story through analysts in-studio, via phone, satellite, broadband (B-GAN) or through other means of communication. Depending on the severity of the event, regular commercial advertising may be completely suspended for sustained coverage, and network affiliates will be required to insert their station identification in at the top of the hour overlaid during the report rather than through the usual means of a station imaging promo or program reminder. \n", "Newsrooms often have an assignment desk where staffers monitor emergency scanners, answer telephone calls, faxes and e-mails from the public and reporters. The assignment desk is also responsible for assigning reporters to stories or deciding what is covered and what isn't. In many newsrooms, the assignment desk is raised a step or two above the rest of the newsroom, allowing staffers who work at the desk to see everyone in the newsroom.\n", "This tape delay practice, even for major events, became increasingly frustrating with viewers, especially with the increased usage of social networking and websites (including the official Vancouver 2010 site and NBC's Olympic website) posting results in real time. This especially held true for viewers in the Pacific, Mountain, Hawaii and Alaska Time Zones, where events were delayed even further by three to six hours or more. The usage of tape delays were particularly frustrating for those in the Pacific Time Zone, as Vancouver not only lies in that time zone, but is in extremely close proximity to the United States – just north of the United States border (with Vancouver being an approximately 2½-hour drive from Seattle). As a result, NBC was just beginning its coverage of the games at 7:30 PM Pacific time in Seattle while the actual ceremony was deep into the artistic portion of the event.\n", "BULLET::::- Perlroth, Nicole. Cameras May Open Up the Board Room to Hackers, \"The New York Times online\", January 22, 2012. A version of this article appeared in print on January 23, 2012, on page B1 of the New York edition with the headline: \"Conferences Via the Net Called Risky\".\n\nBULLET::::- ProAV Magazine. Being There, \"ProAV Magazine\", November 7, 2008.\n", "Section::::News Xchange purpose.\n\nThe main purpose of the event is the discussion of issues currently affecting broadcast journalists and editors around the world. News Xchange attracts contributions from prominent figures from the broadcast news industry as well as politicians, opinion formers and other important individuals.\n\nSection::::Distinction from News Exchanges.\n", "The format of a \"special report\" or \"breaking news\" event on television commonly consists of the current non-news programming (or, in some cases, regularly scheduled newscasts) suddenly switching to a reverse countdown, usually from 5 seconds, to allow any affiliated stations to switch to the network news feed (television stations typically do not provide these countdowns for local coverage, normally leading with a graphic and/or voiceover announcing the cut-in). If a national network newscast is in progress when the breaking news event occurs, the newscast will pause temporarily to allow other network affiliates to join the network news feed.\n", "In Canada, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation made a widespread move into hiring video journalists (or retraining existing reporters or camera people to do multiple jobs) in the late 1990s. In most cases, they were assigned to local newsrooms to do daily news, just as full crews had before. Primarily, it was a cost-saving measure. Within a few years, however, it was clear that this rarely produced good results because of short deadlines and the assumption that VJ’s could work the same way and on the same stories. The effort was scaled back.\n", "When broadcasting is done via the Internet the term webcasting is often used.\n\nBroadcasting forms a very large segment of the mass media.\n\nBroadcasting to a very narrow range of audience is called narrowcasting.\n\nSection::::Broadcasting.:Television.\n\nIn a broadcast system (television), journalists or reporters are also involved with editing the video material that has been shot alongside their research, and in working on the visual narrative of the story. Broadcast journalists often make an appearance in the news story at the beginning or end of the video clip.\n", "BULLET::::- One memorable segment was at 8:20am on 22 June 2012 when a guest appeared drunk to talk about racehorse Black Caviar to which Henry remarked \"\"Can you hold your liquor or not?, because we've been drinking heavily\"\", however due to Breakfast's poor ratings the incident went relatively unnoticed.\n\nBULLET::::- Awkward moments on 9 August 2012 when none of the team could remember the date for the closing ceremony of the 2012 London Olympics.\n\nBULLET::::- On 28 August 2012, a security guard interrupted a live cross with reporter Joe Hill.\n", "The incident made national headlines and it is now referred to as an example of what is known in the television business as broadcast signal intrusion. The people responsible have never been identified.\n\nSection::::Signal intrusion.\n\nSection::::Signal intrusion.:WGN-TV.\n" ]	[ "Off-site television reporting signals should be as timely as phone-to-phone video conferencing.", "If people can video conference on the phone with minimal delay, then there should be no delays when hearing from an off site news reporter on the news." ]	[ "Phone videoconferencing uses broadband/wired connection/4G and off-site news feeds are using satellite receivers.", "There is a large difference between the broadband and or 4g that humans use versus the sattelite receivers that news reporters use." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Off-site television reporting signals should be as timely as phone-to-phone video conferencing.", "If people can video conference on the phone with minimal delay, then there should be no delays when hearing from an off site news reporter on the news." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Phone videoconferencing uses broadband/wired connection/4G and off-site news feeds are using satellite receivers.", "There is a large difference between the broadband and or 4g that humans use versus the sattelite receivers that news reporters use." ]
2018-01839	How do people come up with optical illusions? Is it at random, or is there an underlying method and a science to go with it?	While I'm certain that some are arrived at spontaneously, a vast majority are simply proofs of a concept. For example, all of the ones you linked appear to move but don't actually, and are intended to take advantage of the way colors (and their wavelengths) and lines/shapes (and their relative shapes and sizes) can be combined to to create the illusion of movement. One would really have to understand colors and shapes to design a decent optical illusion, furthermore understand the science of why and how our brains perceive these images in relationship to eachother. So yes, there is an underlying method and definitely a science.	[ "More recent empirical approaches to optical illusions have had some success in explaining optical phenomena with which theories based on lateral inhibition have struggled.\n\nSection::::Cognitive illusions.\n\nCognitive illusions are assumed to arise by interaction with assumptions about the world, leading to \"unconscious inferences\", an idea first suggested in the 19th century by the German physicist and physician Hermann Helmholtz. Cognitive illusions are commonly divided into ambiguous illusions, distorting illusions, paradox illusions, or fiction illusions.\n", "Once the signals from the retina enter the visual cortex, a host of local interactions are known to take place. In particular, neurons are tuned to target orientation and their response are known to depend on context. The widely accepted interpretation of, e.g. the Poggendorff and Hering illusions as manifestation of expansion of acute angles at line intersections, is an example of successful implementation of a \"bottom-up,\" physiological explanation of a geometrical-optical illusion.\n", "An optical illusion is characterized by visually perceived images that are deceptive or misleading. Therefore, the information gathered by the eye is processed by the brain to give, on the face of it, a percept that does not tally with a physical measurement of the stimulus source. A conventional assumption is that there are physiological illusions that occur naturally and cognitive illusions that can be demonstrated by specific visual tricks that say something more basic about how human perceptual systems work.\n", "The hypothesis claims that visual illusions occur because the neural circuitry in our visual system evolves, by neural learning, to a system that makes very efficient interpretations of usual 3D scenes based in the emergence of simplified models in our brain that speed up the interpretation process but give rise to optical illusions in unusual situations. In this sense, the cognitive processes hypothesis can be considered a framework for an understanding of optical illusions as the signature of the empirical statistical way vision has evolved to solve the inverse problem.\n", "To make sense of the world it is necessary to organize incoming sensations into information which is meaningful. Gestalt psychologists believe one way this is done is by perceiving individual sensory stimuli as a meaningful whole. Gestalt organization can be used to explain many illusions including the rabbit–duck illusion where the image as a whole switches back and forth from being a duck then being a rabbit and why in the figure–ground illusion the figure and ground are reversible.\n", "Section::::Cognitive neuroscience.\n\nThe focus of Tse's work in Cognitive Neuroscience is mid- and high-level human vision. In the domain of mid-level vision his group has worked on deciphering the rapid form-motion computations that go into the construction of subsequent conscious visual experience. His group focuses on visual illusions because they are mistakes made by the visual system that can inform us about the nature of processing that goes into the construction of conscious experience.\n", "Physiological illusions, such as the afterimages following bright lights, or adapting stimuli of excessively longer alternating patterns (contingent perceptual aftereffect), are presumed to be the effects on the eyes or brain of excessive stimulation or interaction with contextual or competing stimuli of a specific type—brightness, color, position, tile, size, movement, etc. The theory is that a stimulus follows its individual dedicated neural path in the early stages of visual processing and that intense or repetitive activity in that or interaction with active adjoining channels causes a physiological imbalance that alters perception.\n", "Some illusions are based on general assumptions the brain makes during perception. These assumptions are made using organizational principles (e.g., Gestalt theory), an individual's capacity for depth perception and motion perception, and perceptual constancy. Other illusions occur because of biological sensory structures within the human body or conditions outside the body within one's physical environment.\n", "Perception is linked to specific brain activity and so can be elicited by brain stimulation. The (illusory) percepts that can be evoked range from simple phosphenes (detections of lights in the visual field) to high-level percepts. In a single-case study on a patient undergoing presurgical evaluation for epilepsy treatment, electrical stimulation at the left temporo-parietal junction evoked the percept of a nearby (illusory) person who \"closely 'shadowed' changes in the patient's body position and posture\".\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Universal Veiling Techniques\n\nBULLET::::- What is an Illusion? by J.R. Block.\n\nBULLET::::- Optical illusions and visual phenomena by Michael Bach\n", "Section::::List of illusions.\n\nThere are a variety of different types of optical illusions. Many are included in the following list.\n\nSection::::In art.\n\nArtists who have worked with optical illusions include M. C. Escher, Bridget Riley, Salvador Dalí, Giuseppe Arcimboldo, Patrick Bokanowski, Marcel Duchamp, Jasper Johns, Oscar Reutersvärd, Victor Vasarely and Charles Allan Gilbert. Contemporary artists who have experimented with illusions include Jonty Hurwitz, Sandro del Prete, Octavio Ocampo, Dick Termes, Shigeo Fukuda, Patrick Hughes, István Orosz, Rob Gonsalves, Gianni A. Sarcone, Ben Heine and Akiyoshi Kitaoka. Optical illusion is also used in film by the technique of forced perspective.\n", "Optical illusions (also called visual illusions) are characterized by visually perceived images that differ from objective reality. The information gathered by the eye is processed in the brain to give a percept that differs from the object being imaged. Optical illusions can be the result of a variety of phenomena including physical effects that create images that are different from the objects that make them, the physiological effects on the eyes and brain of excessive stimulation (e.g. brightness, tilt, colour, movement), and cognitive illusions where the eye and brain make unconscious inferences.\n", "Section::::Live performances and media usage.\n", "Op art is a style of art that uses optical illusions to create an impression of movement, or hidden images and patterns. \"Trompe-l'œil\"\n\nuses realistic imagery to create the optical illusion that depicted objects exist in three dimensions.\n\nSection::::Cognitive processes hypothesis.\n", "Another traditional atelier method incorporates the use of illusions that fool the viewer into believing an image is accurate. This method is most often taught in conjunction with advanced compositional theory. Since it is not necessary to copy the subject accurately to achieve a successful illusion, this method allows the artist to experiment with many options while retaining what appears to be a realistic image.\n", "Speaking at the Skeptic's Toolbox about the importance of understanding optical illusions, Andrus said, \"The point of demonstrating illusions is not merely to show we can be fooled... rather to appreciate that the human mind is in fact working correctly... we look at a parked car on the street, we assume that the part of the car we can't see is there too; our brains have to do this so that we can make sense of the world around us\".\n", "Opinions vary among magicians on how to categorize a given effect, but a number of categories have been developed. Magicians may pull a rabbit from an empty hat, make something seem to disappear, or transform a red silk handkerchief into a green silk handkerchief. Magicians may also destroy something, like cutting a head off, and then \"restore\" it, make something appear to move from one place to another, or they may escape from a restraining device. Other illusions include making something appear to defy gravity, making a solid object appear to pass through another object, or appearing to predict the choice of a spectator. Many magic routines use combinations of effects.\n", "Veselago’s work has been more prominent in recent years due to the advancement in metamaterials, which are engineered materials that have special internal physical properties and have the ability to negatively refract light.\n\nSection::::Devices.\n\nAn illusion device is how illusion optics works—without a device there is no way to define how light is refracted and deflected. Based on a study on circular objects with illusion optic properties, (i.e. negative refraction indexes) there are three basics of an illusion device: the invisibility cloak, real object, and illusion object.\n", "The laboratory engages in research concerning illusions in order to investigate perceptual function. For example, the peripheral drift illusion illustrates that temporal differences in luminance processing produce a signal that tricks the motion system.\n\nSection::::Scientific research.:Mild perceptual impairment.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Illusions\" (Bach novel), a 1977 novel by Richard Bach\n\nBULLET::::- \"\", a 2014 novel by Richard Bach\n\nBULLET::::- \"Illusions\" (Pike novel), a 2011 novel by Aprilynne Pike\n\nBULLET::::- \"Illusion\" (musical), a 1986 stage musical by Peter Carey, Mike Mullins and Martin Armiger\n\nBULLET::::- \"Illusions\", by Charlotte Vale Allen\n\nBULLET::::- \"Illusions\", by Janet Dailey\n\nBULLET::::- \"Illusions\", by Jean Saunders\n\nSection::::Film.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Illusion\" (1929 film), an American film starring Buddy Rogers\n\nBULLET::::- \"Illusion\" (2004 film), a film starring Kirk Douglas\n\nBULLET::::- \"Illusion\" (1967 film), a Croatian film\n\nBULLET::::- \"Illusions\" (1982 film), a film by Julie Dash\n", "Section::::Writing and recording.\n", "Section::::Disorders.\n\nSome illusions occur as a result of an illness or a disorder. While these types of illusions are not shared with everyone, they are typical of each condition. For example, migraine sufferers often report fortification illusions.\n\nSection::::Neuroscience.\n", "List of optical illusions\n\nThis is a list of optical illusions.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Adaptation (eye)\n\nBULLET::::- Alice in Wonderland syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Auditory illusion\n\nBULLET::::- Camouflage\n\nBULLET::::- Contingent perceptual aftereffect\n\nBULLET::::- Contour rivalry\n\nBULLET::::- Depth perception\n\nBULLET::::- Emmert's law\n\nBULLET::::- Entoptic phenomenon\n\nBULLET::::- Gestalt psychology\n\nBULLET::::- Infinity pool\n\nBULLET::::- Kinetic depth effect\n\nBULLET::::- Mirage\n\nBULLET::::- Multistable perception\n\nBULLET::::- Op Art\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Optical Illusion Examples by Great Optical Illusions\n\nBULLET::::- Optical Illusions & Visual Phenomena by Michael Bach\n\nBULLET::::- Optical Illusions Database by Mighty Optical Illusions\n\nBULLET::::- Optical illusions and perception paradoxes by Archimedes Lab\n", "Section::::Difference with optical illusions.\n\nUnlike optical illusions that utilize the misinterpretation of the human brain to create illusionary perception different from the physical measurement, illusion optics changes the optical response or properties of objects. Illusion optic devices make these changes happen. Although both these terms deal with illusions, Illusion optics deal with the refraction and reflection of light, whereas while optical illusions are basically mind tricks.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The Illusionist\n\nThe Illusionist may refer to:\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Illusionist\" (novel), a 1995 novel by Irish author Jennifer Johnston\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Illusionist\" (1983 novel), a novel written by English author Anita Mason\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Illusionist\" (2006 book), is a new translation by Herma Briffault of \"Le Rempart des Béguines\", written by the French-Belgian writer Françoise Mallet-Joris in 1952, and previously translated as \"Into the Labyrinth\" and \"Loving and Daring\".)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Illusionist\" (1983 film), a Dutch comedy film\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Illusionist\" (2006 film), an American period film set in Vienna\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Illusionist\" (2010 film), a French-British animated film\n", "In addition, Gestalt theory can be used to explain the illusory contours in the Kanizsa's Triangle. A floating white triangle, which does not exist, is seen. The brain has a need to see familiar simple objects and has a tendency to create a \"whole\" image from individual elements. Gestalt means \"form\" or \"shape\" in German. However, another explanation of the Kanizsa's Triangle is based in evolutionary psychology and the fact that in order to survive it was important to see form and edges. The use of perceptual organization to create meaning out of stimuli is the principle behind other well-known illusions including impossible objects. Our brain makes sense of shapes and symbols putting them together like a jigsaw puzzle, formulating that which isn't there to that which is believable.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-11382	Why does time get added to the end of soccer matches rather than stopping the clock during game stoppages?	It’s just the way it has traditionally been done. Games are 90 mins in total. The clock keeps rolling no matter what. The added minutes are to make up for the “downtime” during the game to ensure 90 mins of pure gameplay	[ "A similar pattern of play can occur towards the end of association football matches, with a team protecting a lead by retaining possession, standing on or crowding around a stationary ball (particularly in the vicinity of the other team's corner flag), and generally trying to prevent the other team from gaining possession. Tactics like these are seen as unsporting in football; world governing body FIFA has attempted to outlaw teams using stalling tactics (most notably the back-pass rule, introduced in 1992, which forbids the goalkeeper using his hands to pick up a pass from a teammate), and referees may show a yellow card to any player they feel is excessively trying to kill the game and run out the clock.\n", "Timewasting in association football consists of two forms, extending the length of stoppages when the ball is out of play, and, while the ball is in play, playing in a way as to keep possession of the ball as long as possible rather than attempting to score. The former should, in theory, be negated by the addition of an equal amount of stoppage time, but teams nevertheless employ a variety of such methods. \n\nBULLET::::- Extending the length of stoppages\n", "Both types of timewasting are generally viewed negatively. Referees are empowered to book players who they feel are delaying the restart of play and several amendments to the Laws of the Game have been made to prevent timewasting.\n\nThe back-pass rule was introduced in 1992 in order to prevent timewasting by defenders repeatedly passing the ball back to their goalkeeper, who could then would pick it up.\n", "Teams have also been accused of timewasting by instructing (or allowing) their ball boys to delay returning the ball for the away team to take a throw in or a corner kick.\n\nBULLET::::- Maintaining possession\n", "A common timewasting tactic is to make substitututions late in the game, lengthening the duration of stoppages while the change is made. Players may also feign injury, kick the ball away (now a mandatory yellow card offence), obstruct the taking of a quick free kick by an opposing player, or delay the taking of their own free kicks or throw ins. If the referee considers a delay to be unreasonable, the offending player may be given a yellow card.\n", "BULLET::::- Association football (Soccer): Due to the continuous live action from opening kick throughout a half to the whistle at the conclusion of stoppage time, there are no formal television timeouts or commercial breaks; however, the interval between the two halves is approximately 15 minutes. There are no commercial breaks during any extra periods or during any penalty shootouts in FIFA World Cup matches; however, a television timeout may happen between the second period of extra time and the penalty shootout, depending on the broadcaster.\n", "One aspect that had alienated fans was that MLS experimented with rules deviations in its early years in an attempt to \"Americanize\" the sport. The league implemented the use of shootouts to resolve tie games. MLS also used a countdown clock and halves ended when the clock reached 0:00. The league realized that the rule changes had alienated some traditional soccer fans while failing to draw new American sports fans, and the shootout and countdown clock were eliminated after the 1999 season.\n", "BULLET::::- 10 seconds will be taken off the clock, and the clock started when the ball is spotted, if the offense, after the 2-minute warning of either half, fouls or commits certain other acts that cause the clock to stop (including an injury when the offense is out of timeouts, except under certain circumstances), unless the clock will stop anyway for a different reason. In Canadian football, the offense may execute one additional untimed play if the clock expires while the ball is not in play.\n", "Timewasting also occurs in other forms of football: In rugby union, it often takes place by one team deliberately collapsing a scrum. The penalty is a free kick, as it is considered a technical offence.\n\nIn the National Rugby League (rugby league), anti-time wasting measures include countdown clocks to achieve timely formations of the scrum and execution of line drop-outs, calling of time-off during the last five minutes of the match when a try has been scored, or when a conversion attempt runs longer than 80 seconds.\n", "BULLET::::- Either team calls for a timeout or an official calls for a timeout, perhaps because a player is injured or there is a penalty on the play. Officials will restart the clock after an official timeout, but not a team timeout, has concluded unless another of the conditions applies, or if the timeout is for a penalty enforcement after the 2-minute warning of the first half or inside the last 5 minutes of the second half/overtime (absent special timing rules for specific fouls).\n", "Timewasting\n\nIn sports, timewasting (or time-wasting) refers to the actions of one team which expend time, but do not otherwise have a tactical purpose. This is usually done by a team that is winning by a slim margin (or, occasionally, tied) near the end of a game, in order to reduce the time available for the opposing team to score. The term \"timewasting\" is generally reserved for varieties of football, though the practice exists in many other timed sports, including basketball, gridiron football, and hockey; timewasting in these sports is often referred to as running out the clock.\n\nSection::::Association football.\n", "BULLET::::- 2016 – The kick-off may be kicked in any direction.\n\nBULLET::::- 2018 – Video assistant referees permitted (but not required). A fourth substitution is permitted in extra time.\n", "Football referees, the governing body FIFA, and the International Football Association Board are trying to prevent \"simulation\" (such as diving and timewasting) with more powerful punishments as part of their ongoing target to stop all kinds of simulation in football.\n\nAn amendment to the Laws attempting to mitigate timewasting substitutions was made in 2019 — players are now required to leave the pitch at the nearest boundary, rather than making an often long and slow walk back to their teams' technical area.\n\nSection::::Other types of football.\n", "For the 2002–2003 season, UEFA introduced a new rule, the silver goal, to decide a competitive match. In extra time the team leading after the first fifteen-minute half would win, but the game would no longer stop the instant a team scored. Competitions that operated extra time would be able to decide whether to use the golden goal, the silver goal, or neither procedure during extra time.\n", "BULLET::::- Since a penalty will stop the clock, a team may commit a foul in order to stop the clock when no timeouts are available. Some leagues have instituted a 10-second runoff in order to negate the ability to do this. (See below.)\n", "MLS eventually conceded that the rule changes, particularly the shootout, had alienated some traditional soccer fans while failing to draw new American sports fans as hoped. The shootout and countdown clock were eliminated after the 1999 season. MLS continued to experiment with the settling of tie games in regular season play. In 2000, a 10-minute golden goal period replaced the shootout for tied games, but was abandoned after 2003 after the sudden-death rules were abolished from the Laws of the Game.\n", "Rather than stopping play, the referee may allow play to continue if doing so will benefit the team against which an offence has been committed. This is known as \"playing an advantage\". The referee may \"call back\" play and penalise the original offence if the anticipated advantage does not ensue within \"a few seconds\". Even if an offence is not penalised due to advantage being played, the offender may still be sanctioned for misconduct at the next stoppage of play.\n", "The referee is the official timekeeper for the match, and may make an allowance for time lost through substitutions, injured players requiring attention, or other stoppages. This added time is commonly referred to as \"stoppage time\" or \"injury time\", and must be reported to the match secretary and the two captains. The referee alone signals the end of the match.\n", "BULLET::::- 27 April – The U.S. NCAA tabled (placed on hold) a proposal passed in March by its soccer rules committee, which governs both men's and women's play, that would have called for the NCAA to adopt FIFA rules regarding timekeeping, with the official time being kept on the field by the referee and stadium clocks counting up instead of down. This means that the existing timekeeping system, with the official time being maintained by a visible, downward-counting clock, will remain in place.\n\nSection::::Fixed dates for national team matches.\n", "BULLET::::- After the three-minute warning in Canadian football, two key timing changes occur:\n\nBULLET::::- The clock stops after every play. The clock restarts when the referee whistles the ball in play after a tackle in bounds, and with the snap after an incomplete pass or a tackle out of bounds.\n", "The main criticism of golden goal is the quickness of ending the game, and the pressure on coaches and players. Once a goal is scored, the game is over and the opponent cannot attempt to answer the goal within the remaining time. Therefore, teams would place more emphasis on not conceding a goal rather than scoring a goal, and many golden goal extra time periods remained scoreless.\n", "Ties that are still without a winner after extra time are usually broken by kicks from the penalty spot, commonly called a penalty shootout. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, many international matches tried to reduce this by employing the golden goal (also called \"sudden death\") or silver goal rules (the game ending if a team has the lead after the first 15-minute period of extra time), but competitions have not retained these.\n\nSection::::Association football.:U.S. collegiate rules.\n", "In many matches, if the score is tied after the full 90 minutes, a draw results; however, if one team must be eliminated, some form of tie-breaking must occur. Originally, two 15-minute halves of extra time were held and if the teams remained equal at the end of the halves, kicks from the penalty mark are held.\n", "Since 2012, teams can call 3 \"team timeouts\" per game (up to two per half), which last one minute each. This right may only be invoked by the team in possession of the ball. Team representatives must show a green card marked with a black \"T\" on the timekeeper's desk. The timekeeper then immediately interrupts the game by sounding an acoustic signal and stops the time. Before 2012, teams were allowed only one timeout per half. For the purpose of calling timeouts, overtime and shootouts are extensions of the second half.\n\nSection::::Rules.:Referees.\n", "A rule change in the FIBA rules effective 1 October 2017 (Article D.4.2) permits drawn games at the end of the either leg of the two-legged tie. The definition states, \"If the score is tied at the end of the first game, no extra period shall be played.\"\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-17960	what's the difference between megabit download speed and megabyte download speed? And a modem and a router?	A bit is a binary 0 or 1. A byte has 8 bits in it, meaning it is 8 times the size. In computers, Mega/Giga aren't 1000 multipliers but 1024 multipliers (power of 2 in maths, since it is binary code). Therefore, an example : 1 Megabyte = 8 Megabit 1 Megabyte = 1024 KiloBytes = 8096 Kilobits 1 Kilobyte = 1024 Bytes = 8096 bits 25 Megabits = 3.125 Megabytes & #x200B; Megabit is Mb while Megabyte is MB. So it's the same principle, they just use Mb/s rather than MB/s for marketing purposes, for it's a larger number :)	[ "Contention in a wireless or noisy spectrum, where the physical medium is entirely out of the control of those who specify the protocol, requires measures that also use up throughput. Wireless devices, BPL, and modems may produce a higher line rate or gross bit rate, due to error-correcting codes and other physical layer overhead. It is extremely common for throughput to be far less than half of theoretical maximum, though the more recent technologies (notably BPL) employ preemptive spectrum analysis to avoid this and so have much more potential to reach actual gigabit rates in practice than prior modems.\n", "Section::::Performance.\n\nModern dial-up modems typically have a maximum theoretical transfer speed of 56 kbit/s (using the V.90 or V.92 protocol), although in most cases, 40–50 kbit/s is the norm. Factors such as phone line noise as well as the quality of the modem itself play a large part in determining connection speeds.\n", "Section::::Dial-up modem.:History.:Proprietary standards.\n\nMany other standards were also introduced for special purposes, commonly using a high-speed channel for receiving, and a lower-speed channel for sending. One typical example was used in the French Minitel system, in which the user's terminals spent the majority of their time receiving information. The modem in the Minitel terminal thus operated at 1,200 bit/s for reception, and 75 bit/s for sending commands back to the servers.\n", "Section::::Conventions.\n\nBy convention, bus and network data rates are denoted either in bits per second (bit/s) or bytes per second (B/s). In general, parallel interfaces are quoted in B/s and serial in bit/s. The more commonly used is shown below in bold type.\n\nOn devices like modems, bytes may be more than 8 bits long because they may be individually padded out with additional start and stop bits; the figures below will reflect this. Where channels use line codes (such as Ethernet, Serial ATA and PCI Express), quoted rates are for the decoded signal.\n", "The faster data rates of the newest wireless modem technologies (UMTS, HSPA, EVDO, WiMax) are also considered to be \"broadband wireless modems\" and compete with other broadband modems below.\n\nUntil the end of April 2011, worldwide shipments of USB modems surpassed embedded 3G and 4G modules by 3:1 because USB modems can be easily discarded, but embedded modems could start to gain popularity as tablet sales grow and as the incremental cost of the modems shrinks, so by 2016, the ratio may change to 1:1.\n", "In data communications, a 56k modem will transmit a data rate of 56 kilobits per second (kbit/s) over a 4-kilohertz-wide telephone line (narrowband or voiceband). In the late 1980s, the Broadband Integrated Services Digital Network (B-ISDN) used the term to refer to a broad range of bit rates, independent of physical modulation details. The various forms of digital subscriber line (DSL) services are \"broadband\" in the sense that digital information is sent over multiple channels. Each channel is at higher frequency than the baseband voice channel, so it can support plain old telephone service on a single pair of wires at the same time. However, when that same line is converted to a non-loaded twisted-pair wire (no telephone filters), it becomes hundreds of kilohertz wide (broadband) and can carry up to 100 megabits per second using very-high-bit-rate digital subscriber line (VDSL or VHDSL) techniques.\n", "Section::::Dial-up modem.:History.:Using compression to exceed 56 kbit/s.:Compression by the ISP.\n", "BULLET::::- A V.34 modem may transmit symbols at a baud rate of 3,420 Bd, and each symbol can carry up to ten bits, resulting in a gross bit rate of 3420 × 10 = 34,200 bit/s. However, the modem is said to operate at a net bit rate of 33,800 bit/s, excluding physical layer overhead.\n\nSection::::Symbols.:Line codes for baseband transmission.\n", "Many technologies are available for wide area network links. Examples include circuit-switched telephone lines, radio wave transmission, and optical fiber. New developments in technologies have successively increased transmission rates. In ca. 1960, a 110 bit/s (bits per second) line was normal on the edge of the WAN, while core links of 56 kbit/s to 64 kbit/s were considered fast. As of 2014, households are connected to the Internet with Dial-Up, ADSL, Cable, Wimax, 4G or fiber. The speeds that people can currently use range from 28.8 kbit/s through a 28K modem over a telephone connection to speeds as high as 100 Gbit/s over an Ethernet 100GBaseY connection.\n", "As an example, the goodput or data transfer rate of a V.92 voiceband modem is affected by the modem physical layer and data link layer protocols. It is sometimes higher than the physical layer data rate due to V.44 data compression, and sometimes lower due to bit-errors and automatic repeat request retransmissions.\n\nIf no data compression is provided by the network equipment or protocols, we have the following relation:\n\nfor a certain communication path.\n\nSection::::In data communications.:Progress trends.\n\nThese are examples of physical layer net bit rates in proposed communication standard interfaces and devices:\n", "Most of the listed rates are theoretical maximum throughput measures; in practice, the actual effective throughput is almost inevitably lower in proportion to the load from other devices (network/bus contention), physical or temporal distances, and other overhead in data link layer protocols etc. The maximum goodput (for example, the file transfer rate) may be even lower due to higher layer protocol overhead and data packet retransmissions caused by line noise or interference such as crosstalk, or lost packets in congested intermediate network nodes. All protocols lose something, and the more robust ones that deal resiliently with very many failure situations tend to lose more maximum throughput to get higher total long term rates.\n", "The figures below are simplex data rates, which may conflict with the duplex rates vendors sometimes use in promotional materials. Where two values are listed, the first value is the downstream rate and the second value is the upstream rate.\n\nAll quoted figures are in metric decimal units. Note that these aren't the traditional binary prefixes for memory size. These decimal prefixes have long been established in data communications. This occurred before 1998 when IEC and other organizations introduced new binary prefixes and attempted to standardize their use across all computing applications.\n\nSection::::Bandwidths.\n", "The relationship between the gross bit rate and net bit rate is affected by the FEC code rate according to the following.\n\nThe connection speed of a technology that involves forward error correction typically refers to the physical layer \"net bit rate\" in accordance with the above definition.\n\nFor example, the net bitrate (and thus the \"connection speed\") of an IEEE 802.11a wireless network is the net bit rate of between 6 and 54 Mbit/s, while the gross bit rate is between 12 and 72 Mbit/s inclusive of error-correcting codes.\n", "Custom modems have been developed which allow throughput rates of 19.2 kbit/s, 56 kbit/s, and even 1.2 Mbit/s over amateur radio links on FCC permitted frequencies of 440 MHz and above. However, special radio equipment is needed to carry data at these speeds. The interface between the \"modem\" and the \"radio\" is at the \"intermediate frequency\" part of the radio as opposed to the audio section used for 1,200 bit/s operation. The adoption of these high-speed links has been limited.\n", "Each media has one or more different settings, which use different modulation and encoding schemes. Along with the fragmentation rate, these factors determine the number of bits per network packet that are available for transmission, which ranges between 96 and 1824 bits, as can be seen in the following table. The duration of a UHF frequency hopping media coding frame is a classified number, and is shown by the notation \"CN\" in the table.\n\nSection::::Guidebook Chapter 1 : Link 22 Overview.:Section B : Features.:Network cycle structure.\n", "The figures below are grouped by network or bus type, then sorted within each group from lowest to highest bandwidth; gray shading indicates a lack of known implementations.\n\nSection::::Bandwidths.:Wireless networks.\n", "This is a list of interface bit rates, is a measure of information transfer rates, or digital bandwidth capacity, at which digital interfaces in a computer or network can communicate over various kinds of buses and channels. The distinction can be arbitrary between a \"computer bus\", often closer in space, and larger telecommunications networks. Many device interfaces or protocols (e.g., SATA, USB, SAS, PCIe) are used both inside many-device boxes, such as a PC, and one-device-boxes, such as a hard drive enclosure. Accordingly, this page lists both the internal ribbon and external communications cable standards together in one sortable table.\n", "During the late 1990s, Rockwell-Lucent and USRobotics introduced competing technologies based upon the digital transmission used in telephony networks. The standard digital transmission in modern networks is 64 kbit/s but some networks use a part of the bandwidth for remote office signaling (e.g. to hang up the phone), limiting the effective rate to 56 kbit/s DS0. This new technology was adopted into ITU standards V.90 and is common in modern computers. The 56 kbit/s rate is only possible from the central office to the user site (downlink). In the United States, government regulation limits the maximum power output, resulting in a maximum data rate of 53.3 kbit/s. The uplink (from the user to the central office) still uses V.34 technology at 33.6 kbit/s. USRobotics began work on the technology first, calling theirs X2 because 56k was twice the speed of 28k modems. USRobotics held a 40-percent share of the retail modem market, and Rockwell International held an 80-percent share of the modem chipset market. Concerned with being shut out of the market, Rockwell began work on a rival 56k technology and joined with Lucent and Motorola on what it called K56Flex or Flex. Both technologies reached the market around February 1997; although problems with K56Flex modems were noted in product reviews through July, within six months they worked equally well with variations dependent on local connection characteristics. The retail price of the 56K modems was about US$200, compared to $100 for 33K modems. Separate equipment was required by Internet service providers (ISPs) to support the incompatible technologies, with costs varying depending on whether their current equipment could be upgraded. About half of all ISPs offered 56K support by October 1997. Consumer sales were relatively low, which USRobotics and Rockwell attributed to conflicting standards.\n", "Section::::Dial-up modem.:History.:List of dial-up speeds.\n\nThese values are maximum values, and actual values may be slower under certain conditions (for example, noisy phone lines). For a complete list see the companion article \"list of device bandwidths\". A baud is one symbol per second; each symbol may encode one or more data bits.\n\nSection::::Dial-up modem.:Popularity.\n", "Broadband technologies supply considerably higher bit rates than dial-up, generally without disrupting regular telephone use. Various minimum data rates and maximum latencies have been used in definitions of broadband, ranging from 64 kbit/s up to 4.0 Mbit/s. In 1988 the CCITT standards body defined \"broadband service\" as requiring transmission channels capable of supporting bit rates greater than the primary rate which ranged from about 1.5 to 2 Mbit/s. A 2006 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) report defined broadband as having download data transfer rates equal to or faster than 256 kbit/s. And in 2015 the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) defined \"Basic Broadband\" as data transmission speeds of at least 25 Mbit/s downstream (from the Internet to the user's computer) and 3 Mbit/s upstream (from the user's computer to the Internet). The trend is to raise the threshold of the broadband definition as higher data rate services become available.\n", "802.11 networks in ad hoc mode are still half-duplex, but devices communicate directly rather than through an access point. In this mode all devices must be able to \"see\" each other, instead of only having to be able to \"see\" the access point.\n\nSection::::Bandwidths.:Computer buses.\n\nSection::::Bandwidths.:Computer buses.:Main buses.\n\n LPC protocol includes high overhead. While the gross data rate equals 33.3 million 4-bit-transfers per second (or ), the fastest transfer, firmware read, results in . The next fastest bus cycle, 32-bit ISA-style DMA write, yields only . Other transfers may be as low as .\n\nSection::::Bandwidths.:Computer buses.:Storage.\n", "In the late 1980s, modems operating over plain old telephone service (\"POTS\") typically achieved 9.6 kbit/s by employing four bits per symbol QAM modulation at 2,400 baud (symbols/second). This bit rate ceiling existed despite the best efforts of many researchers, and some engineers predicted that without a major upgrade of the public phone infrastructure, the maximum achievable rate for a POTS modem might be 14 kbit/s for two-way communication (3,429 baud × 4 bits/symbol, using QAM).\n", "An even more radical change was made for MNP 5, introducing on-the-fly data compression in the modem. With MNP 5, the data received from the computer are first compressed with a simple algorithm, and then passed into the MNP 4 packetizing system for transmission. On best-case data the system offered about 2:1 compression, but in general terms about 1.6:1 was typical, at least on text. As a result, a 2400 bit/s modem would appear to transfer text at ~4000 bit/s.\n", "The \"connection speed\" of a V.92 voiceband modem typically refers to the gross bit rate, since there is no additional error-correction code. It can be up to 56,000 bit/s downstreams and 48,000 bit/s upstreams. A lower bit rate may be chosen during the connection establishment phase due to adaptive modulationslower but more robust modulation schemes are chosen in case of poor signal-to-noise ratio. Due to data compression, the actual data transmission rate or throughput (see below) may be higher.\n", "Many \"modems\" provide the additional functionality to host a LAN so most Internet access today is through a LAN, often a very small LAN with just one or two devices attached. And while LANs are an important form of Internet access, this raises the question of how and at what data rate the LAN itself is connected to the rest of the global Internet. The technologies described below are used to make these connections.\n\nSection::::Technologies.:Hardwired broadband access.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03719	What is maximum dynamic pressure, or "max-q" in aerospace engineering?	Dynamic pressure is 1/2 * air density * velocity^2. It's the pressure exerted by the air velocity on the vehicle. Maximum Q is the point in the rocket's flight when this value is the highest, and therefore it's when the aerodynamic loads are the highest. If the rocket survives past the point of Max-Q, then it won't break due to aerodynamic loads.	[ "Max q\n\nThe max q condition is the point when an aerospace vehicle's atmospheric flight reaches maximum dynamic pressure. This is a significant factor in the design of such vehicles because the aerodynamic structural load on them is proportional to dynamic pressure. This may impose limits on the vehicle's flight envelope.\n\nDynamic pressure, \"q\", is defined mathematically as\n", "Max q (disambiguation)\n\nMax q is the maximum value of dynamic pressure associated with a body travelling through the atmosphere, typically a spacecraft during launch.\n\nMax q or Max Q may also refer to:\n\nBULLET::::- Max Q (astronaut band), a musical group from Houston, Texas, made up of NASA astronauts\n\nBULLET::::- Max Q (Australian band), a musical group from the 1980s, fronted by Michael Hutchence of INXS\n\nBULLET::::- \"Max Q\" (album), a 1989 studio album by Australian band Max Q\n\nBULLET::::- \"Max Q\" (film), a 1998 television movie about a fictional Space Shuttle disaster\n", "Therefore, by looking at the variation of formula_1 during flight, it is possible to determine how the stress will vary and in particular when it will reach its maximum value. The point of maximum aerodynamic load is often referred to as \"max Q\" and it is a critical parameter in many applications, such as launch vehicles.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n", "Therefore, (by Rolle's theorem) there will always be a point where the dynamic pressure is maximum.\n\nIn other words, before reaching max q, the dynamic pressure change due to increasing velocity is greater than that due to decreasing air density so that the dynamic pressure (opposing kinetic energy) acting on the craft continues to increase. After passing max q, the opposite is true. The dynamic pressure acting against the craft decreases as the air density decreases, ultimately reaching 0 when the air density becomes zero.\n\nSection::::Rocket launch examples.\n", "BULLET::::- Maximum dynamic pressure — Another effect related to the planet's atmosphere is the maximum dynamic pressure exerted on the launch vehicle during the launch. Dynamic pressure is related to both the atmospheric density and the vehicle's speed through the atmosphere. Just after liftoff the vehicle is gaining speed and increasing dynamic pressure faster than the reduction in atmospheric density can decrease the dynamic pressure. This causes the dynamic pressure exerted on the vehicle to increase until the two rates are equal. This is known as the point of maximum dynamic pressure (abbreviated \"max Q\"), and the launch vehicle must be built to withstand this amount of stress during launch. As before a trade off exists between gravity drag from flying higher first to avoid the thicker atmosphere when accelerating; or accelerating more at lower altitude, resulting in a heavier launch vehicle because of a higher maximum dynamic pressure experienced on launch.\n", "where \"ρ\" is the local air density, and \"v\" is the vehicle's velocity; the dynamic pressure can be thought of as the kinetic energy density of the air with respect to the vehicle. For a launch of a rocket from the ground into space, dynamic pressure is\n\nBULLET::::- zero at lift-off, when the air density \"ρ\" is high but the vehicle's speed \"v\" = 0\n\nBULLET::::- zero outside the atmosphere, where the speed \"v\" is high, but the air density \"ρ\" = 0\n\nBULLET::::- always non-negative, given the quantities involved\n", "At about 80 seconds, the rocket experienced maximum dynamic pressure (max \"Q\"). The dynamic pressure on a rocket varies with air density and the square of relative velocity. Although velocity continues to increase, air density decreases so quickly with altitude that dynamic pressure falls below max \"Q\".\n", "Military engines are often forced to work under conditions that maximize the heating load. For instance, the General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark was required to operate at speeds of Mach 1.1 at sea level. As a side-effect of these wide operating conditions, and generally older technology in most cases, military engines typically have lower overall pressure ratios. The Pratt & Whitney TF30 used on the F-111 had a pressure ratio of about 20:1, while newer engines like the General Electric F110 and Pratt & Whitney F135 have improved this to about 30:1.\n", "Q-Max\n\nQ-Max is a type of ship, specifically a membrane type liquefied natural gas carrier. In the name Q-Max, \"Q\" stands for Qatar and \"Max\" for the maximum size of ship able to dock at the LNG terminals in Qatar. Ships of this type are the largest LNG carriers in the world.\n\nSection::::Technical description.\n\nA ship of Q-Max size is long and measures wide and high, with a draft of approximately .\n", "The nozzle thrust is highest if the static pressure of the gas reaches the ambient value as it leaves the nozzle. This only happens if the nozzle exit area is the correct value for the nozzle pressure ratio (npr). Since the npr changes with engine thrust setting and flight speed this is seldom the case. Also at supersonic speeds the divergent area is less than required to give complete internal expansion to ambient pressure as a trade-off with external body drag. Whitford gives the F-16 as an example. Other underexpanded examples were the XB-70 and SR-71.\n", "During a normal Space Shuttle launch, for example, max q occurred at an altitude of approximately 11 km (35,000 ft). The three Space Shuttle Main Engines were throttled back to about 60-70% of their rated thrust (depending on payload) as the dynamic pressure approached max q; combined with the propellant grain design of the solid rocket boosters, which reduced the thrust at max q by one third after 50 seconds of burn, the total stresses on the vehicle were kept to a safe level.\n", "Section::::Entry vehicle design considerations.\n\nThere are four critical parameters considered when designing a vehicle for atmospheric entry:\n\nBULLET::::1. Peak heat flux\n\nBULLET::::2. Heat load\n\nBULLET::::3. Peak deceleration\n\nBULLET::::4. Peak dynamic pressure\n", "As \"T\" increases along the SOT plateau, the engines will throttle back, causing both a decrease in corrected airflow and overall pressure ratio. As shown, the chart implies a common \"T\" limit for both the low and high design \"T\" cycles. Roughly speaking, the \"T\" limit will correspond to a common overall pressure ratio at the \"T\" breakpoint. Although both cycles will increase throttle setting as \"T\" decreases, the low design \"T\" cycle has a greater 'spool-up' before hitting the corrected speed limit. Consequently, the low design \"T\" cycle has a higher design overall pressure ratio.\n\nSection::::Nomenclature.\n", "QFF\n\nQFF is an aeronautical code Q code. It is the MSL pressure derived from local meteorological station conditions in accordance with meteorological practice. This is the altimeter setting that is intended to produce correct altitude indication (i.e., no error) on an altimeter at the actual sea level elevation, while QNH is intended to have no error at the station elevation (or, especially when applied within a region with a relatively small range of surface elevations, at the altitudes close to the surface elevation within the region).\n", "BULLET::::- Plant cell turgidity\n\nBULLET::::- Pythagorean cup\n\nSection::::Types.:Explosion or deflagration pressures.\n\nExplosion or deflagration pressures are the result of the ignition of explosive gases, mists, dust/air suspensions, in unconfined and confined spaces.\n\nSection::::Types.:Negative pressures.\n\nWhile pressures are, in general, positive, there are several situations in which negative pressures may be encountered:\n\nBULLET::::- When dealing in relative (gauge) pressures. For instance, an absolute pressure of 80 kPa may be described as a gauge pressure of −21 kPa (i.e., 21 kPa below an atmospheric pressure of 101 kPa).\n", "The MAOP is less than the MAWP (maximum allowable working pressure). MAWP is defined as the maximum pressure based on the design codes that the weakest component of a pressure vessel can handle . Commonly standard wall thickness components are used in fabricating pressurized equipment, and hence are able to withstand pressures above their design pressure. The MAWP is the pressure stamped on the pressure equipment, and the pressure that must not be exceeded in operation. \n", "Just past the throat, the pressure of the gas is higher than ambient pressure and needs to be lowered between the throat and the nozzle exit by expansion. If the pressure of the jet leaving the nozzle exit is still above ambient pressure, then a nozzle is said to be \"underexpanded\"; if the jet is below ambient pressure, then it is \"overexpanded\".\n", "Maximum allowable operating pressure\n\nMaximum Allowable Operating Pressure or MAOP is a pressure limit set, usually by a government body, which applies to compressed gas pressure vessels, pipelines, and storage tanks. For pipelines, this value is derived from Barlow's Formula, which takes into account wall thickness, diameter, allowable stress (which is a function of the material used), and a Safety factor. \n", "Narcosis is a problem when breathing gases at high pressure. Typically, the maximum total partial pressure of narcotic gases used when planning for technical diving may be around 4.5 bar absolute, based on an equivalent narcotic depth of .\n", "Engineers that specialize in technical safety for offshore petrochemical facilities would be expected to exclusively refer to explosion loads in units of bar or bars. A bar is a convenient unit of measure for pressures generated by low frequency vapor cloud explosions that are commonly considered as part of accidental loading risk studies.\n\nIn the automotive field, turbocharger boost is often described in bars outside the United States. Tire pressure is often specified in bar.\n", "SFC is dependent on engine design, but differences in the SFC between different engines using the same underlying technology tend to be quite small. Increasing overall pressure ratio on jet engines tends to decrease SFC.\n", "The stagnation point of air flowing around a body is a point where its local velocity is zero. At this point the air flows around this location. A shock wave forms, which deflects the air from the stagnation point and insulates the flight body from the atmosphere. This can affect the lifting ability of a flight surface to counteract its drag and subsequent free fall. Ning describes a method for interrelating Reynolds number with Mach number.\n", "Section::::Limitations and solutions.:Output rating.\n", "Compression ratio and overall pressure ratio would be interrelated as follows, if the first sentence in this article would be incorrect, given as it is, what follows is valid only for static pressures, but not overall pressure ratios, as compression while slowing down flow without doing work is not changing stagnation pressure at all, and in supersonic flow with shock waves stagnation pressure will be less than 1 with 1 compression ratio:\n\nThe reason for this difference is that compression ratio is defined via the volume reduction:\n\nwhile pressure ratio is defined as the pressure increase:\n", "Section::::Maximum pressure.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-13735	What made Viking armies & navies so good?	Well, one of the things that I can think of is that Vikings didn't truly have armies or navies. At least not formalized ones. They also rarely took land. So the fear that came with them was their geurilla tactics. Their ships were unique however, build shallow so they could sail in both seas and rivers roughly the same, meaning that they could bypass most naval defenses. I'm not an expert though, so take this with a grain of salt.	[ "The Vikings were a feared force in Europe because of their savagery and speed of their attacks. Whilst seaborne raids were nothing new at the time, the Vikings refined the practice to a science through their shipbuilding, tactics and training. Unlike other raiders, the Vikings made a lasting impact on the face of Europe. During the Viking age, their expeditions, frequently combining raiding and trading, penetrated most of the old Frankish empire, the British Isles, the Baltic region, Russia, and both Muslim and Christian Iberia. Many served as mercenaries, and the famed Varangian Guard, serving the Emperor of Constantinople, was drawn principally of Scandinavian warriors.\n", "In the literature, Viking ships are usually seen divided into two broad categories: merchant ships and warships. These categories are overlapping; some kinds of merchant ships, built for transporting cargo specifically, could also be used as warships. The majority of Viking ships were designed for sailing rivers, fjords and coastal waters, while a few types, such as the \"knarr\", could navigate the open sea and even the ocean. The Viking ships ranged from the Baltic Sea to far from the Scandinavian homelands, to Iceland, the Faroe Islands, Greenland, Newfoundland, the Mediterranean, the Black Sea and Africa. Were also seen in the Egypt Red Sea\n", "The Vikings were able to be effective against stronger enemies through surprise and mobility. Like guerrillas in other wars, the Vikings could decide when and where to attack. In part because of their flat bottomed ships, which enabled them to sneak deep into Europe by river before carrying out an attack, the Vikings could frequently catch their enemies by surprise. Monasteries were common targets because they were seldom heavily defended and often contained substantial amounts of valuables. The Vikings were fearsome in battle, but they became even more so when they included Berserkers.\n", "Viking longships were swift and easily manoeuvered; they could navigate deep seas or shallow rivers, and could carry warriors that could be rapidly deployed directly onto land due to the longships being able to land directly. The longship was the enabler of the Viking style of warfare that was fast and mobile, relying heavily on the element of surprise, and they tended to capture horses for mobility rather than carry them on their ships. The usual method was to approach a target stealthily, strike with surprise and then retire swiftly. The tactics used were difficult to stop, for the Vikings, like guerrilla-style raiders elsewhere, deployed at a time and place of their own choosing. The fully armoured Viking raider would wear an iron helmet and a maille hauberk, and fight with a combination of axe, sword, shield, spear or great \"Danish\" two-handed axe, although the typical raider would be unarmoured, carrying only a bow and arrows, a knife \"seax\", a shield and spear; the swords and the axes were much less common.\n", "Section::::Medieval conquerors.:Vikings.\n", "Viking ships\n\nViking ships were marine vessels of unique structure, built by the Vikings during the Viking Age.\n", "The Vikings were also able to establish an extended period of economic and political rule of much of Ireland, England, and Scotland during the Norse Ivarr Dynasty that started in the late 9th century and lasted until 1094. In Ireland, coastal fortifications known as longphorts were established in many places after initial raidings, and they developed into trading posts and settlements over time. Quite a few modern towns in Ireland were founded in this way, including Dublin, Limerick and Waterford.\n\nSection::::Warships.\n", "The Vikings were the best naval architects of their day, and the Viking longship was both large and versatile. A longship found at Oseberg, Norway, was , more than wide, and had a draft of only . The shallow draft enabled them to navigate far inland in shallow rivers. Later on during the Viking period some of the ships were reported to be over long.\n", "In the 8th century the Vikings appeared, although their usual style was to appear quickly, plunder, and disappear, preferably attacking undefended locations. The Vikings raided places along the coastline of England and France, with the greatest threats being in England. They would raid monasteries for their wealth and lack of formidable defenders. They also utilized rivers and other auxiliary waterways to work their way inland in the eventual invasion of Britain. They wreaked havoc in Northumbria and Mercia and the rest of Anglia before being halted by Wessex. King Alfred the Great of England was able to stay the Viking invasions with a pivotal victory at the Battle of Edington. Alfred defeated Guthrum, establishing the boundaries of Danelaw in an 884 treaty. The effectiveness of Alfred's 'fleet' has been debated; Dr. Kenneth Harl has pointed out that as few as eleven ships were sent to combat the Vikings, only two of which were not beaten back or captured.\n", "Section::::Culture of war.\n\nVikings, according to Clare Downham in \"Viking Kings of Britain and Ireland\", are \"people of Scandinavian culture who were active outside Scandinavia... Danes, Norwegians, Swedes, Hiberno-Scandinavians, Anglo-Scandinavians, or the inhabitants of any Scandinavian colony who affiliated themselves more strongly with the culture of the coloniser than with that of the indigenous population.\"\n", "At that point, the Scandinavians had entered their medieval period and consolidated their kingdoms of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. This period marks the end of significant raider activity both for plunder or conquest. The resurgence of centralized authority throughout Europe limited opportunities for traditional raiding expeditions in the West, whilst the Christianisation of the Scandinavian kingdoms themselves encouraged them to direct their attacks against the still predominantly pagan regions of the eastern Baltic. The Scandinavians started adapting more continental European ways, whilst retaining an emphasis on naval power – the \"Viking\" clinker-built warship was used in war until the 14th century at least. However, developments in shipbuilding elsewhere removed the advantage the Scandinavian countries had previously enjoyed at sea, whilst castle building throughout frustrated and eventually ended Viking raids. Natural trading and diplomatic links between Scandinavia and Continental Europe ensured that the Scandinavians kept up to date with continental developments in warfare.\n", "The Viking raids that affected Anglo-Saxon England were primarily documented in the \"Anglo-Saxon Chronicle\", a collection of annals initially written in the late 9th century, most probably in the Kingdom of Wessex during the reign of Alfred the Great. The \"Chronicle\" is however a biased source, acting as a piece of \"wartime propaganda\" written on behalf of the Anglo-Saxon forces against their Norse opponents, and in many cases greatly exaggerates the size of the Norse fleets and armies, thereby making any Anglo-Saxon victories against them seem more heroic.\n\nSection::::Evidence.:Archaeological evidence.\n", "BULLET::::- Carey, Brian Todd. \"Technical marvels, Viking longships sailed seas and rivers, or served as floating battlefields\", \"Military History\" 19, no. 6 (2003): 70–72.\n\nBULLET::::- Downham, Clare. \"Viking Kings of Britain and Ireland: The Dynasty of Ívarr to A.D. 1014\". Edinburgh: Dunedin Academic Press, 2007\n\nBULLET::::- Hudson, Benjamin. \"Viking Pirates and Christian Princes: Dynasty, Religion, and Empire in the North Atlantic\". Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 .\n\nBULLET::::- Logan, F. Donald \"The Vikings in History\" (London: Hutchison & Co. 1983) .\n", "Vikings attacked ships, not with the intent to destroy them, but rather to board them and take control. This is because Vikings originally based their battles around economic gains rather than political or territorial gains. Most of these battles took place with other Viking fleets, as they had little to fear from European countries invading the inhospitable regions of Scandinavia. Rather, many naval battles were fought amongst Vikings, \"Dane against Norwegian, Swede against Norwegian, Swede against Dane.\"\n", "Section::::Seafaring military strategies.\n", "Section::::Common weapons.:Defensive equipment.\n", "Section::::Weapons.\n\nSection::::Weapons.:Bows and arrows.\n", "BULLET::::- Technological model: This model suggests that the Viking Age occurred as a result of technological innovations that allowed the Vikings to go on their raids in the first place. There is no doubt that piracy existed in the Baltic before the Viking Age, but developments in sailing technology and practice made it possible for early Viking raiders to attack lands farther away. Among these developments are included the use of larger sails, tacking practices, and 24-hour sailing.\n", "The Vikings were equipped with the technologically superior longships; for purposes of conducting trade however, another type of ship, the \"knarr\", wider and deeper in draft, were customarily used. The Vikings were competent sailors, adept in land warfare as well as at sea, and they often struck at accessible and poorly defended targets, usually with near impunity. The effectiveness of these tactics earned Vikings a formidable reputation as raiders and pirates. Chroniclers paid little attention to other aspects of medieval Scandinavian culture. This slant was accentuated by the absence of contemporary primary source documentation from within the Viking Age communities themselves. Little documentary evidence was available until later, when Christian sources began to contribute. As historians and archaeologists have developed more resources to challenge the one-sided descriptions of the chroniclers, a more balanced picture of the Norsemen has become apparent.\n", "The Viking kingdoms developed into coastal towns and forts, all of which were deeply dependent on the North Sea and the Baltic Sea for survival and development. Control of the waterways was of critical importance, and consequently advanced war ships were in high demand. But in fact, because of their overwhelming importance, ships became a mainstay of the Viking religion, as they evolved into symbols of power and prowess. Throughout the first millennium, respectable Viking chieftains and their relatives were commonly buried with an intact, luxurious ship to transport them in the afterlife. Furthermore, the Hedeby coins, among the earliest known Danish currency, have ships as emblems, showing the importance of naval vessels in the area. Through such cultural and practical significance, the Viking ship progressed into the most powerful, advanced naval vessel in Viking Age Europe.\n", "Section::::Longships.\n", "Section::::Fortifications.\n\nIn Europe, breakdowns in centralized power led to the rise of a number of groups that turned to large-scale pillage as a source of income. Most notably the Vikings (but also Arabs, Mongols, Huns, and Magyars) raided significantly. As these groups were generally small and needed to move quickly, building fortifications was a good way to provide refuge and protection for the people and the wealth in the region.\n", "The Vikings built many unique types of watercraft, often used for more peaceful tasks. The \"knarr\" was a dedicated merchant vessel designed to carry cargo in bulk. It had a broader hull, deeper draught, and a small number of oars (used primarily to manoeuvre in harbours and similar situations). One Viking innovation was the 'beitass', a spar mounted to the sail that allowed their ships to sail effectively against the wind. It was common for seafaring Viking ships to tow or carry a smaller boat to transfer crews and cargo from the ship to shore.\n", "The boat-types were quite varied, depending on what the ship was intended for, but they were generally characterized as being slender and flexible boats, with symmetrical ends with true keel. They were clinker built, which is the overlapping of planks riveted together. Some might have had a dragon's head or other circular object protruding from the bow and stern for design, although this is only inferred from historical sources. Viking ships were not just used for their military prowess but for long-distance trade, exploration and colonization. \n", "Viking fleets of over a hundred ships did occur, but often these fleets had little to no cohesion, being composed of smaller fleets led by numerous chieftains or different Norse bands. This was most often seen in the Francia raids between 841 and 892. They can be attributed to the fact that it was during this time that the Frankish aristocracy began paying off Vikings and buying mercenaries in return for protection from Viking raids. Thus, there appeared rudimentary structures of Viking armies.\n" ]	[ "Vikings had armies and navies.", "Vikings had armies and navies. " ]	[ "Vikings didn't have formal military units, they used guerilla tactics.", "Vikings did not have armies and navies. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Vikings had armies and navies.", "Vikings had armies and navies. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Vikings didn't have formal military units, they used guerilla tactics.", "Vikings did not have armies and navies. " ]
2018-02112	How many times do you need to flick a light switch on and off before its more efficient to leave the light on for an hour?	The cost effectiveness of when to turn off lights depends on the type of bulb and the cost of electricity. The type of lightbulb you use is important for several reasons. All lightbulbs have a nominal or rated operating life, which is affected by how many times they are turned on and off. The more often they are switched on and off, the lower their operating life. Incandescent Lighting Incandescent lights should be turned off whenever they are not needed, because they are the least efficient type of lighting. 90% of the energy they use is given off as heat, and only about 10% results in light. Turning lights off will also keep a room cooler, an extra benefit in the summer. Halogen Lighting While halogens are more efficient than traditional incandescent bulbs, they use the same technology and are far less efficient than CFLs and LEDs. Therefore, it is best to turn these lights off whenever they are not needed. CFL Lighting Since they are already very efficient, the cost effectiveness of turning CFLs off to conserve energy is a bit more complicated. A general rule-of-thumb is this: If you will be out of a room for 15 minutes or less, leave it on. If you will be out of a room for more than 15 minutes, turn it off. The operating life of CFLs is more affected by the number of times they are switched on and off. You can generally extend the life of a CFL bulb more by switching it on and off less frequently than if you simply use it less. It is a popularly held belief that CFLs use a lot of energy to get started and it is better not to turn them off for short periods. The amount of energy varies between manufacturers and models—however, ENERGY STAR© rated bulbs are required to endure rapid cycling for five-minute intervals to ensure that they can hold up to frequent switching. In any case, the relatively higher "inrush" current required lasts for half a cycle, or 1/120th of a second. The amount of electricity consumed to supply the inrush current is equal to a few seconds or less of normal light operation. Turning off fluorescent lights for more than 5 seconds will save more energy than will be consumed in turning them back on again. Therefore, the real issue is the value of the electricity saved by turning the light off relative to the cost of changing a lightbulb. This in turn determines the shortest cost-effective period for turning off a fluorescent light. The value of the energy saved by turning a CFL off depends on several factors: The price an electric utility charges its customers depends on the customer "classes," which are typically residential, commercial, and industrial. There can be different rate schedules within each class. Some utilities may charge different rates for electricity consumption during different times of the day. It generally costs more for utilities to generate power during certain periods of high demand or consumption, called peaks. Some utilities can charge commercial and industrial customers more per kilowatt-hour (kWh) during peak periods than for consumption off-peak. Some utilities may also charge a base rate for a certain level of consumption and higher rates for increasing blocks of consumption. Often a utility adds miscellaneous service charges, a base charge, and/or taxes per billing period that could be averaged per kWh consumed, if these are not already factored into the rate. LED Lighting The operating life of a light emitting diode (LED) is unaffected by turning it on and off. While lifetime is reduced for fluorescent lamps the more often they are switched on and off, there is no negative effect on LED lifetime. This characteristic gives LEDs several distinct advantages when it comes to operations. For example, LEDs have an advantage when used in conjunction with occupancy sensors or daylight sensors that rely on on-off operation. Also, in contrast to traditional technologies, LEDs turn on at full brightness almost instantly, with no delay. LEDs are also largely unaffected by vibration because they do not have filaments or glass enclosures. Calculating Energy Savings To calculate the exact value of energy savings by turning a lightbulb off, you need to first determine how much energy the bulb consumes when on. Every bulb has a watt rating printed on it. For example, if the rating is 40 watts, and the bulb is on for one hour, it will consume 0.04 kWh, or if it is off for one hour, you will be saving 0.04 kWh. (Note that many fluorescent fixtures have two or more bulbs. Also, one switch may control several fixtures—an "array." Add the savings for each fixture to determine the total energy savings.) Then you need to find out what you are paying for electricity per kWh (in general and during peak periods). You will need to look over your electricity bills and see what the utility charges per kWh. Multiply the rate per kWh by the amount of electricity saved, and this will give you the value of the savings. Continuing with the example above, let us say that your electric rate is 10 cents per kWh. The value of the energy savings would then be 0.4 cents ($ 0.004). The value of the savings will increase the higher the watt rating of the bulb, the greater the number of bulbs controlled by a single switch, and the higher the rate per kWh. The most cost-effective length of time that a light (or set of lights) can be turned off before the value of the savings exceeds the cost of having to replace bulbs (due to their shortened operating life) will depend on the type and model of bulb and ballast. The cost of replacing a bulb (or ballast) depends on the cost of the bulb and the cost of labor to do it. Lighting manufacturers should be able to supply information on the duty cycle of their products. In general, the more energy-efficient a lightbulb is, the longer you can leave it on before it is cost effective to turn it off. In addition to turning off your lights manually, you may want to consider using sensors, timers, and other automatic lighting controls. URL_0	[ "Some types of lamp are also sensitive to switching cycles. Rooms with frequent switching, such as bathrooms, can expect much shorter lamp life than what is printed on the box. Compact fluorescent lamps are particularly sensitive to switching cycles.\n\nSection::::Public lighting.\n\nThe total amount of artificial light (especially from street light) is sufficient for cities to be easily visible at night from the air, and from space. This light is the source of light pollution that burdens astronomers and others.\n\nSection::::Uses other than illumination.\n", "Time of use metering is a common way to motivate electricity users to reduce their peak load consumption. For instance, running dishwashers and laundry at night after the peak has passed, reduces electricity costs.\n", "Streetlights are usually set to come on automatically near the beginning of lighting-up time, although modern lamps monitor the light level and turn on when this gets too low, and so are influenced by weather. They may also be set to switch off automatically when road usage is reduced, often at midnight, although currently most stay on until about the end of lighting-up time.\n", "In the paper \"Energy savings due to occupancy sensors and personal controls: a pilot field study\", Galasiu, A.D. and Newsham, G.R have confirmed that automatic lighting systems including occupancy sensors and individual (personal) controls are suitable for open-plan office environments and can save a significant amount of energy (about 32%) when compared to a conventional lighting system, even when the installed lighting power density of the automatic lighting system is ~50% higher than that of the conventional system.\n\nSection::::Major techniques.:Use of sensors.:Components.\n", "Several studies have recorded the energy savings due to daylight harvesting. Energy savings for electric lighting in the range of 20-60% are common.\n", "Section::::Major techniques.:Smart lighting control.\n\nThe use of automatic light dimming is an aspect of smart lighting that serves to reduce energy consumption. Manual light dimming also has the same effect of reducing energy use.\n\nSection::::Major techniques.:Use of sensors.\n", "Energy saving is possible with older lighting, at the expense of lower light output, (e.g. incandescent or fluorescent and discharge lighting with inefficient ballast or control gear). Therefore, older commercial and office premises may save more than modern buildings or industrial sites. However modern lighting systems (typically LED) will save significantly more energy due to higher efficiency than energy saved on older lighting systems following installation of a voltage optimiser.\n", "Dimming systems are generally more expensive than on-off systems. They have the potential to save more energy, because they can reduce electric light output when daylight can only partially meet the needs of the space. However, dimming systems may also require a little more energy for their basic operation. If a dimming system is well-calibrated, the occupants of the space will not notice changes in electric lighting due to daylight harvesting, whereas they are very likely to notice the changes due to on-off or step switching.\n\nSection::::Energy savings.\n", "The need for grid storage to provide peak power is reduced by demand side time of use pricing, one of the benefits of smart meters. At the household level, consumers may choose less expensive off-peak times for clothes washer/dryers, dishwashers, showers and cooking. As well commercial and industrial users will take advantage of cost savings by deferring some processes to off-peak times.\n", "Daylight harvesting\n\nDaylight harvesting systems use daylight to offset the amount of electric lighting needed to properly light a space, in order to reduce energy consumption. This is accomplished using lighting control systems that are able to dim or switch electric lighting in response to changing daylight availability. The term Daylight Harvesting has become the standard in the fields of lighting, sustainable architecture, and active daylighting industries.\n\nSection::::System design and components.\n", "Ireland, as a whole, had a reduction in electricity use of about 1.5% for the evening. In the three-hour period between 6:30 p.m. and 9:30 pm, there was a reduction of 50 megawatts, saving 150 megawatt-hours, or approximately 60 tonnes of carbon dioxide.\n\nIn Dubai, where external lighting on several major city landmarks was turned off and street lighting in selected areas was dimmed by 50%, the Electricity and Water Authority reported savings of 100 megawatt-hours of electricity. This represented a 2.4% reduction in demand compared to before the hour began.\n", "Lastly, the type of light bulbs that are installed has a significant effect on energy consumption. The efficiency of light sources vary greatly. Fluorescent lights produce several times as much light, for given power input, as incandescent lights do, and LEDs are continuing to improve beyond that. Shades vary in their absorption. Light colored ceilings, walls and other surfaces increase ambient light by reflecting.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Christmas lights\n\nBULLET::::- Daylight harvesting\n\nBULLET::::- Energy conservation\n\nBULLET::::- Flicker fusion threshold\n\nBULLET::::- Hypertension\n\nBULLET::::- Light pollution\n\nBULLET::::- Light sensitivity\n\nBULLET::::- Seasonal affective disorder\n\nBULLET::::- World energy resources and consumption\n", "For a given period of time, a higher level of power causes more energy to be used. For a given power level, a longer run period causes more energy to be used. For a given amount of energy, a higher level of power causes that energy to be used in less time.\n\nSection::::Misuse of watts per hour.\n", "Section::::Transportation.:Street lighting.\n\nCities around the globe light up millions of streets with 300 million lights. Some cities are seeking to reduce street light power consumption by dimming lights during off-peak hours or switching to LED lamps. It is not clear whether the high luminous efficiency of LEDs will lead to real reductions in energy, as cities may end up installing extra lamps or lighting areas more brightly than in the past.\n\nSection::::Transportation.:Aircraft.\n", "The extra energy used to start a fluorescent lamp is equivalent to a few seconds of normal operation; it is more energy-efficient to switch off lamps when not required for several minutes.\n\nSection::::Disadvantages.:Health and safety issues.\n", "Section::::Critical reception.:Accolades.\n", "Section::::Critical reception.:\"A State of Trance 2017\" and Tune of the Year.\n", "A common application is the high current measure (typically up to 10 or 20 A) with multimeters. The maximum time length of short time duty (typically 10 to 30 seconds) is indicated near the corresponding socket (usually the left one) as well as the time to be waited for, before each of such measures might be repeated (typically \"each 15 minutes\"). Another common application is inflation with air compressors: those become very hot, if used for a too long time and have to be shut down after a certain time (for small compressors such that of the picture a typical time is 10 minutes).\n", "Section::::Environmental impact.\n", "Some of the main benefits to smart grid technology are that individual consumers have more control over their electricity consumption, which can lead to greater overall energy efficiency. Home appliances can be programmed to run at specific times when electrical demand is lowest. This has a two-pronged benefit of reducing the occurrence of brownouts and blackouts that frequent the current U.S. electrical grid, as well as reducing the need for peak power plants, which are typically more expensive to run.\n", "There is an incremental cost to daylight harvesting systems. Dividing this cost by the annual energy savings provides a \"simple payback\", the number of years for the system to pay for itself. The shorter the calculated payback period, the more likely it is that a building owner will invest in the system. Costs vary for a whole host of local factors, but generally if energy costs rise, or the cost of the control hardware and installation falls, the payback period will be reduced.\n\nSection::::Sustainability.\n", "At night, ORNL HSL uses variable-intensity fluorescent lighting electronic control ballasts. As the sunlight gradually decreases at sunset, the fluorescent fixture is gradually turned up to give a near-constant level of interior lighting from daylight until after it becomes dark outside.\n\nHSL may soon become an option for commercial interior lighting. It can transmit about half of the direct sunlight it receives.\n\nSection::::Solarium.\n", "For example: A lunch room in an office setting has limited hours of operation. During low-use periods a \"monitor\" level of heat () is provided by the central heating system. Peak use times between the hours of 11:00 and 14:00 are heated to \"comfort levels\" (). Significant savings can be realized in overall energy consumption, since infrared radiation losses through thermal radiation are not as large with a smaller temperature gradient both between this space and unheated outside air, as well as between the refrigerator and the (now cooler) lunch room.\n", "This means that a 5% reduction in operating voltage will more than double the life of the bulb, at the expense of reducing its light output by about 16%. This may be a very acceptable trade off for a light bulb that is in a difficult-to-access location (for example, traffic lights or fixtures hung from high ceilings). Long-life bulbs take advantage of this trade-off. Since the value of the electric power they consume is much more than the value of the lamp, general service lamps emphasize efficiency over long operating life. The objective is to minimize the cost of light, not the cost of lamps. Early bulbs had a life of up to 2500 hours, but in 1924 a cartel agreed to limit life to 1000 hours. When this was exposed in 1953, General Electric and other leading American manufacturers were banned from limiting the life.\n", "To reduce demand during the high cost peak usage periods, communications and metering technologies inform smart devices in the home and business when energy demand is high and track how much electricity is used and when it is used. It also gives utility companies the ability to reduce consumption by communicating to devices directly in order to prevent system overloads. Examples would be a utility reducing the usage of a group of electric vehicle charging stations or shifting temperature set points of air conditioners in a city. To motivate them to cut back use and perform what is called peak curtailment or peak leveling, prices of electricity are increased during high demand periods, and decreased during low demand periods. It is thought that consumers and businesses will tend to consume less during high demand periods if it is possible for consumers and consumer devices to be aware of the high price premium for using electricity at peak periods. This could mean making trade-offs such as cycling on/off air conditioners or running dishwashers at 9 pm instead of 5 pm. When businesses and consumers see a direct economic benefit of using energy at off-peak times, the theory is that they will include energy cost of operation into their consumer device and building construction decisions and hence become more energy efficient. \"See Time of day metering and demand response.\"\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02585	Why is it that militaries can't use tear gas but police forces do?	1. It's easy to confuse tear gas with chemical weapons, which are banned internationally 2. Tear gas is non-lethal and used for suppression. Most military forces aren't aiming for non-lethal tactics in war situations.	[ "Certain lachrymatory agents are often used by police to force compliance, most notably tear gas. In some countries (e.g., Finland, Australia, and the United States), another common substance is mace. The self-defense weapon form of mace is based on pepper spray, and comes in small spray cans, and versions including CS are manufactured for police use. Xylyl bromide, CN and CS are the oldest of these agents, and CS is the most widely used. CN has the most recorded toxicity.\n\nTear gas exposure is a standard in Australia for military, police and prison officer training programs.\n", "Observers have noted the militarizing of the policing of protests. Since the 1970s, riot police have fired at protesters using guns with rubber bullets or plastic bullets. Tear gas, which was developed by the United States Army for riot control in 1919, was widely used against protesters in the 2000s. The use of tear gas in warfare is prohibited by various international treaties that most states have signed; however, its law enforcement or military use for domestic or non-combat situations is permitted.\n", "Observers have noted the militarizing of the policing of protests. Since the 1970s, riot police have fired at protesters using guns with rubber bullets or plastic bullets. Tear gas, which was developed for riot control in 1919, is widely used against protesters in the 2000s. The use of tear gas in warfare is prohibited by various international treaties that most states have signed; however, its law enforcement or military use for domestic or non-combat situations is permitted.\n", "Lachrymatory agents are commonly used for riot control. Their use in warfare is prohibited by various international treaties. During World War I, increasingly toxic and deadly lachrymatory agents were used.\n\nSection::::Effects.\n", "Section::::Use.\n\nSection::::Use.:Warfare.\n\nUse of tear gas in warfare (as with all other chemical weapons,) is prohibited by various international treaties that most states have signed. Police and private self-defense use is not banned in the same manner. Armed forces can legally use tear gas for drills (practicing with gas masks) and for riot control. First used in 1914, xylyl bromide was a popular tearing agent since it was easily prepared.\n\nThe US Chemical Warfare Service developed tear gas grenades for use in riot control in 1919.\n\nSection::::Use.:Riot control.\n", "Tear gas is a non-specific term for any chemical that is used to temporarily incapacitate through irritation of eyes and/or respiratory system. It is used as a hand-held spray or can be fired in canisters that heat up spewing out an aerosol cloud at a steady rate.\n\nWhilst the use of tear gas in warfare is prohibited by various international treaties that most states have signed, police and private self-defense use is not banned in the same manner. \n", "Section::::Effects.:Risks.:Expiration.\n", "Since 2008, the SPVM police force in Montreal has increased its use of CS Gas for crowd control, although Police policy is to only use it as a \"last resort\". Several incidents where protesters have been seriously injured by having CS gas fired at them from point-blank range have raised concerns about the methodology and training of Officers in the Montreal Riot Squad, particularly in relation to \"Use of Force\".\n\nSection::::Use.:Chile.\n\nTear gas is extensively used in Chile by the Carbineros, to disrupt civilian protests.\n\nSection::::Use.:Cyprus.\n", "The Sudanese forces extensively used CS gas during the latest wave of demonstrations began in 2018. The use of the CS gas of gunshots type or hand grenade is not exclusive for police forces. It is widely used by non-trained militia to suppress protesters movement . CS gas shots is generally used as a shooting weapon aimed of the faces of protesters and cause serious injury and probably permanent eyes damage. Some cases were recorded of death of chocking on tear gas bombed in closed or semi-closed areas.\n\nSection::::Use.:United Kingdom.\n\nSection::::Use.:United Kingdom.:Northern Ireland.\n", "The only gas that has been identified by human rights organizations in protests \"is CS tear gas, typically used by police forces to disperse crowds,\" stated Egyptian journalist Farida Helmy. Egyptian use of CR gas has not been corroborated according to Human Rights Watch (HRW).\n\nSection::::Use.:Philippines.\n\nCR tear gas was used in suppression of the mutiny in Makati that was led by Sen. Antonio Trillanes. The tear gas was fired in the building and all the people in the building including reporters were affected.\n\nSection::::Use.:Sri Lanka.\n", "The California Poison Control System analyzed 3,671 reports of pepper spray injuries between 2002 and 2011. Severe symptoms requiring medical evaluation were found in 6.8% of people, with the most severe injuries to the eyes (54%), respiratory system (32%) and skin (18%). The most severe injuries occurred in law enforcement training, intentionally incapacitating people, and law enforcement (whether of individuals or crowd control).\n\nSection::::Effects.:Risks.\n", "While the medical consequences of the gases themselves are typically limited to minor skin inflammation, delayed complications are also possible: people with pre-existing respiratory conditions such as asthma, who are particularly at risk, are likely to need medical attention and may sometimes require hospitalization or even ventilation support. Skin exposure to CS may cause chemical burns or induce allergic contact dermatitis. When people are hit at close range or are severely exposed, eye injuries involving scarring of the cornea can lead to a permanent loss in visual acuity. Frequent or high levels of exposure carry increased risks of respiratory illness.\n", "A variety of protective equipment may be used, including gas masks and respirators. In riot control situations, protesters sometimes use equipment (aside from simple rags or clothing over the mouth) such as swimming goggles and adapted water bottles.\n\nIt has been suggested that \"The use of masks that filter solid particles is effective, if and only if, the membrane manages to catch particles with sizes smaller than 60 microns\".\n", "Since 2017, as a part of a graded response to violent protests, Indian security forces have used plastic bullets before employing pellet guns. They have multiple options for enforcing crowd control, such as tear smoke shells, PAVA shells, rubber bullets fired from gas guns, plastic bullets and pellet guns, before finally resorting to opening fire.\n\nSection::::Other crowd control equipment.:Tear gas.\n\nTear-gas shells are commonly used as crowd and riot control equipment in Jammu and Kashmir. \n", "Riot police often use special equipment termed riot gear to help protect themselves and attack protesters or rioters. Riot gear typically includes personal armor, batons, riot shields and riot helmets. Many riot police teams also deploy specialized less-than-lethal weapons, such as pepper spray, tear gas, rifles that fire rubber bullets or plastic bullets, flashbang grenades, and Long Range Acoustic Devices (sound cannons).\n", "As with all non-lethal, or less-lethal weapons, there is some risk of serious permanent injury or death when tear gas is used. This includes risks from being hit by tear gas cartridges, which include severe bruising, loss of eyesight, skull fracture, and even death. A case of serious vascular injury from tear gas shells has also been reported from Iran, with high rates of associated nerve injury (44%) and amputation (17%), as well as instances of head injuries in young people.\n", "All uniformed and most non-uniformed officers of the state police are routinely armed. In addition to their firearm, Policja officers carry handcuffs and a number of other pieces of equipment which usually includes a personal radio system for communication with other officers and their police station. Pepper spray is also commonly issued to officers in order to provide them with a non-lethal alternative weapon with which to incapacitate violent suspects.\n", "Blackwater Worldwide, acting as an agent of the United States, deployed CS in the Iraq War from a helicopter hovering over a checkpoint in the Green Zone in Baghdad.\n\nSection::::Use.:Israel.\n\nIsrael Police forces spray CS gas in riot control situations. It is widely used at demonstrations within the Palestinian Territories and at the Israeli West Bank barrier.\n\nSection::::Use.:Philippines.\n\nCS tear gas was used in suppression of the mutiny in Makati that was led by Sen. Antonio Trillanes. The tear gas was fired in the building and all the people in the building including reporters were affected. \n\nSection::::Use.:Romania.\n", "Following the 2011 England riots, there was consideration given to making CS gas, water cannon and other riot control measures available to police for use in the event of serious disorder.\n", "Section::::Non-Explosive Grenades.:Less-Than-Lethal.:Riot Control (Pacification).\n\nTear gas grenades are similar to smoke grenades in shape and operation. In tear gas grenades the filler is generally 80 to 120 grams of CS gas combined with a pyrotechnic composition which burns to generate an aerosol of CS-laden smoke. This causes extreme irritation to the eyes and, if inhaled, to the nose and throat. They were used in the Waco Siege. Occasionally CR gas is used instead of CS.\n\nSection::::Non-Explosive Grenades.:Lethal.\n\nSection::::Non-Explosive Grenades.:Lethal.:Incendiary.\n", "Section::::Gases and sprays.:Other chemical agents.\n\nBlister agents, including CR gas, are less often used riot control agents. Other irritants include CS gas and nonivamide (PAVA).\n\nSection::::Sticky foam.\n\nSticky foam was tried by the U.S. Marine Corps in the peacekeeping Operation United Shield in 1995 with some success, but as a result various complications in its field use were also discovered.\n\nSection::::Area denial.\n\nArea denial weapons work by either incapacitating or deterring the enemy.\n\nSection::::Area denial.:Anti-vehicle.\n", "Riot police in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania in September 2009 used CS gas and riot control techniques to disperse assemblies in the vicinity of the 2009 G-20 Pittsburgh summit.\n", "At room temperature, tear gases are white solids. They are stable when heated and have low vapor pressure. Consequently, they are usually dispersed as aerosols. All of them have low solubility in water but can be dissolved in several organic solvents. Hydrolysis of CN is very slow in a water solution, especially if alkali is added. CS is rapidly hydrolyzed in water solution (half-life at pH 7 is about 15 min. at room temperature) and extremely rapid when alkali is added (half-life at pH 9 is about 1 min.). CR is hydrolyzed only to a negligible extent in water solution.\n", "CS has been used by the government in South Africa; by Israel against Palestinians and Israelis; by the South Korean government in Seoul, and during the Balkan conflicts by Serbia. In Malta it was used by police between 1981 and 1987 to the detriment of Nationalist Party Supporters.\n\nCS tear gas was used at the G8 protests in Genoa, Italy and Quebec City, Canada during the FTAA anti-globalization demonstrations during the Quebec City Summit of the Americas.\n", "The Malaysia Federal Reserve Unit has also been known to use CS tear gas against its citizens who rallied for clean and fair elections under what were called Bersih rallies in 2011 and 2012.\n" ]	[ "Militaries can't use tear gas", "Militaries can't use tear gas but police forces can. " ]	[ "Militaries can use tear gas, but can also use lethal tactics.", "It is likely that tear gas is being confused with banned chemical weapons, in addition to this, the military has no use for a non lethal weapon. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Militaries can't use tear gas", "Militaries can't use tear gas but police forces can. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Militaries can use tear gas, but can also use lethal tactics.", "It is likely that tear gas is being confused with banned chemical weapons, in addition to this, the military has no use for a non lethal weapon. " ]
2018-16313	Did prehistoric humans cut their nails?	Specific nail trimming implements do extend into ancient history, possibly prehistory. Beyond that, ancient peoples tended to have a lot of work with their hands, which would contribute to general wear on the nails themselves, and even relatively primitive tools (or even unmodified objects) would be capable of cutting or wearing down nails without too much difficulty.	[ "The first nails were made of wrought-iron. Nails date back at least to Ancient Egypt — bronze nails found in Egypt have been dated 3400 BC. The Bible provides a number of references to nails, including the story in Judges of Jael the wife of Heber, who drives a nail (or tent-peg) into the temple of a sleeping Canaanite commander; the provision of iron for nails by King David for what would become Solomon's Temple; and in connection with the crucifixion of Christ.\n", "Prior to the invention of the modern nail clipper, people would use small knives to trim or pare their nails. Descriptions of nail trimming in literature date as far back as the 8th century BC. The Book of Deuteronomy exhorts in 21:12 that a man, should he wish to take a captive as a wife, \"shall bring her home to [his] house, and she shall shave her head and trim her nails\". A reference is made in Horace's \"Epistles\", written circa 20 BC, to \"A close-shaven man, it's said, in an empty barber's booth, penknife in hand, quietly cleaning his nails.\"\n", "In the wild, mandrills have been observed to clean their ears with modified tools. Scientists filmed a large male mandrill at Chester Zoo stripping down a twig, apparently to make it narrower, and then using the modified stick to scrape dirt from underneath its toenails.\n", "\"'I was a \"kozak\" before I was a pirate... They live in the saddle. I snatch naps like a panther watching beside the trail for a deer to come by. My ears keep watch while my eyes sleep.'\n\n\"And indeed the giant barbarian seemed as much refreshed as if he had slept the whole night on a golden bed. Having removed the thorns, and peeled off the tough skin, he handed the girl a thick, juicy cactus leaf.\n", "The production of wrought-iron nails continued well into the 19th century, but ultimately was reduced to nails for purposes for which the softer cut nails were unsuitable, including horseshoe nails.\n\nSection::::History.:Cut.\n", "One of the most common artifacts found in the French colonial site of Fort St. Pierre are hand wrought nails. Different types of nails were found at this site with the most common being the Rose Head nail, the “L” Head, “T” Head, as well as tacks. Hand-wrought nails have different uses and are applied in different scenarios for distinctive materials. For example, the Rose Head was more commonly used for practical uses while the “L” Head nail was used for furniture. By studying these artifacts, we can better understand the different uses for nails in this French Colonial space.\n", "The current record-holder for men, according to Guinness, is Shridhar Chillal from India who set the record in 1998 with a total of of nails on his left hand. His longest nail, on his thumb, was long.\n\nThe record-holder for women is Lee Redmond of the U.S., who set the record in 2001 and as of 2008 had nails with a total length on both hands of , with the longest nail on her right thumb at .\n\nSection::::Evolution in primates.\n", "Both bonobos and chimpanzees have been observed making \"sponges\" out of leaves and moss that suck up water and using these for grooming. Sumatran orangutans will take a live branch, remove twigs and leaves and sometimes the bark, before fraying or flattening the tip for use on ants or bees. In the wild, mandrills have been observed to clean their ears with modified tools. Scientists filmed a large male mandrill at Chester Zoo (UK) stripping down a twig, apparently to make it narrower, and then using the modified stick to scrape dirt from underneath his toenails. Captive gorillas have made a variety of tools.\n", "The slitting mill, introduced to England in 1590, simplified the production of nail rods, but the real first efforts to mechanise the nail-making process itself occurred between 1790 and 1820, initially in the United States and England, when various machines were invented to automate and speed up the process of making nails from bars of wrought iron. Also in Sweden in the early 1700s Christopher Polhem produced a nail cutting machine as part of his automated factory. These nails were known as \"cut nails\" or \"square nails\" because of their roughly rectangular cross section. Cut nails were one of the important factors in the increase in balloon framing beginning in the 1830s and thus the decline of timber framing with wooden joints. Though still used for historical renovations, and for heavy-duty applications, such as attaching boards to masonry walls, \"cut nails\" are much less common today than \"wire nails\".\n", "People have been pedicuring their nails for more than 4,000 years. In southern Babylonia, noblemen used solid gold tools to give themselves manicures and pedicures. The use of fingernail polish can be traced back even further. Originating in China in 3000 BC, nail color indicated one’s social status, according to a Ming Dynasty manuscript; royal fingernails were painted black and red. Ancient Egyptians have been manicuring all the way back to 2300 BC.\n", "The nail is an \"unguis\", meaning a keratin structure at the end of a digit. Other examples of \"ungues\" include the claw, hoof and talon. The nails of primates and the hooves of running mammals evolved from the claws of earlier animals.\n", "The Ming dynasty (1368-1644) was known for extremely long nails. Sometimes these nails were protected by gold and jewel-encrusted nail guards. Servants performed personal chores for the royals so their nails did not break or become damaged. Empress Dowager Cixi of China, who ruled from 1835 to 1908, was known for her outrageous nails. There are many photos showing the empress with 6-inch-long gold guards protecting her long nails. All of the aforementioned did not use nail art as it is widely known today, only stained, dyed, or dusted the finger and toenails. First actual record of nail art was from the short-lived Inca Empire (1438-1533), which at that time was one of the largest empires in South America. Incas would decorate their nails by painting eagles on them. In 1770 the first fancy gold and silver manicure sets were created. French King Louis XVI who ruled from 1774 until his deposition in 1792, always had his nails taken care of using these sets.\n", "Section::::Lesser recognized contenders.:Gum tragacanth.\n\nAfter gum tragacanth is harvested, it takes on the appearance of grotesque \"fingernails.\" It had been used for thousands of years as an ingredient in incense, and has been seriously considered as a likely candidate for onycha.\n\nSection::::Lesser recognized contenders.:Cloves.\n\nCloves or \"zipporen\" in Hebrew, have been considered as a possibility. In contemporary Hebrew the word means \"nails\".\n\nSection::::Lesser recognized contenders.:Amber.\n\nIt was the opinion of K.G. Jacob that shecheleth was amber.\n\nSection::::Lesser recognized contenders.:Cuttlefish bone.\n\nCuttlefish bone looks like large fingernails and can also be used in incense.\n\nSection::::Lesser recognized contenders.:Spikenard.\n", "A depiction of early manicures and pedicures was found on a carving from a pharaoh’s tomb, and the Egyptians were known for paying special attention to their feet and legs. The Egyptians also colored their nails, using red to show the highest social class. It is said that Cleopatra’s nails were painted a deep red, whereas Queen Nefertiti went with a flashier ruby shade. In ancient Egypt and Rome, military commanders also painted their nails to match their lips before they went off to battle.\n\nSection::::Pedicures in the United States.\n", "Iron mallets that could be employed \"ad hoc\" to shatter the bones of the fingers and toes were standard equipment in medieval European torture chambers. Toes were also torn from the feet with iron pincers or had their nails slowly extracted with forceps or, with remarkable cruelty, by slowly hammering sharp, thin iron wedges under the toenails.\n", "BULLET::::- In early 19th century Greece, upper-class women often wore empty pistachio shells over their nails, slowly spreading the artificial nail trend across Europe.\n\nBULLET::::- Egyptian women wore nail extensions made from bone, ivory and gold as a sign of status as these materials were luxuries available only to the wealthy.\n", "The Romans made extensive use of nails. The Roman army, for example, left behind seven tons of nails when it evacuated the fortress of Inchtuthil in Perthshire in the United Kingdom in 86 to 87 CE.\n\nThe term \"penny\", as it refers to nails, probably originated in medieval England to describe the price of a hundred nails. Nails themselves were sufficiently valuable and standardized to be used as an informal medium of exchange.\n\nUntil around 1800 artisans known as \"nailers\" or \"nailors\" made nails by hand – note the surname Naylor.\n", "Nailmakers would purchase their iron from the nailmasters and sell their nails to nailmasters at set prices, effectively at a piece-rate. The basic technique of nail production did not change much, involving in essence heating iron rods, making a point, half cutting the nail off, fully cutting it and hammering a head. Simple nails might take a few blows and take a matter of seconds to make, while complex nails could involve twelve to twenty blows. Both men and women made nails, men making the more complex nails requiring greater physical effort, and women producing the simpler, smaller nails. \n", "Although the modern nail file only appeared at the end of the 19th century, evidence of nail file-like tools exist even further back in history. Marie Antoinette was known for her obsession with the \"lime à ongles\", which was a nail file-like tool made of pumice stone. When her perfectly shaped nails were seen, it became the latest female trend in the French Court of Versailles. The pumice stone was carved into a pencil like shape, which was used to trim and shape the edges of the nail. This tool would not be disposed after use, but would be hand washed by the maids and placed by the bathtub to be used again.\n", "Painting the nails with coloured nail polish (also called nail lacquer and nail varnish) to improve the appearance is a common practice dating back to at least 3000 B.C. With the rise of smartphones, some analysts have noted a trend of the \"nelfie\" (nail selfie), wherein people share their nail art online.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.:Length records.\n\nGuinness World Records began tracking record fingernail lengths in 1955, when a Chinese priest was listed as having fingernails long.\n", "Elephants show an ability to manufacture and use tools with their trunk and feet. Both wild and captive Asian elephants (\"Elephas maximus\") use branches to swat flies or scratch themselves. Eight of 13 captive Asian elephants, maintained under a naturalistic environment, modified branches and switched with the altered branch, indicating this species is capable of the more rare behaviour of tool manufacture. There were different styles of modification of the branches, the most common of which was holding the main stem with the front foot and pulling off a side branch or distal end with the trunk. Elephants have been observed digging holes to drink water, then ripping bark from a tree, chewing it into the shape of a ball thereby manufacturing a \"plug\" to fill in the hole, and covering it with sand to avoid evaporation. They would later go back to the spot to drink.\n", "Nails, bolts or screws were often not available; wooden pegs, wire, or strips of greenhide might be used as fasteners. Greenhide strips might also be used as hinges for doors or shutters. Ron Edwards comments that 'Fencing wire was a very popular resource because it was always available. Bolts and long nails were expensive, and had to be ordered from town ... a shed or stockyard would be fastened together with wire and would be stronger than one that was nailed.'\n", "Nails have been used in art, such as the Nail Men—a form of fundraising common in Germany and Austria during World War I.\n\nBefore the 1850s bocce and pétanque boules were wooden balls, sometimes partially reinforced with hand-forged nails. When cheap, plentiful machine-made nails became available, manufacturers began to produce the \"boule cloutée\"—a wooden core studded with nails to create an all-metal surface. Nails of different metals and colors (steel, brass, and copper) were used to create a wide variety of designs and patterns. Some of the old \"boules cloutées\" are genuine works of art and valued collector's items.\n", "With the introduction of cheap wire nails, the use of wrought iron for nail making quickly declined, as more slowly did the production of cut nails. In the United States, in 1892 more steel-wire nails were produced than cut nails. In 1913, 90% of manufactured nails were wire nails. Nails went from being rare and precious to being a cheap mass-produced commodity. Today almost all nails are manufactured from wire, but the term \"wire nail\" has come to refer to smaller nails, often available in a wider, more precise range of gauges than is typical for larger common and finish nails.\n", "Insufficient vitamin B12 can lead to excessive dryness, darkened nails, and rounded or curved nail ends. Insufficient intake of both vitamin A and B results in fragile nails with horizontal and vertical ridges. Some over-the-counter vitamin supplements such as certain multivitamins and biotin may help in growth of strong nails, although this is quite subjective.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02636	Why does it seem like getting pregnant on purpose is hard, while accidentally getting pregnant is easy?	Getting pregnant on purpose is super easy, unless it's not. Almost 90% of women have no problem getting pregnant, but for the other 10%, it's a very stressful thing, so that 10% gets a lot more sympathy and coverage.	[ "Teenage mothers are nearly twice as likely to have a repeat pregnancy within 2 years if they experienced abuse within three months after delivery.\n\n26% of abused teenage girls reported that their boyfriends were trying to get them pregnant.\n\nSection::::Assessment and intervention.\n\nA typical assessment of women's reproductive health includes the following questions:\n\nBULLET::::- Has a current or former partner not let you use birth control, destroyed your birth control, or refused to wear a condom?\n\nBULLET::::- Has your partner ever tried to get you pregnant when you didn't want to be?\n", "BULLET::::- approximately 8.6% (or an estimated 10.3 million) of women in the United States reported ever having an intimate partner who tried to get them pregnant when they did not want to, or refused to use a condom, with 4.8% having had an intimate partner who tried to get them pregnant when they did not want to, and 6.7% having had an intimate partner who refused to wear a condom;\n", "In 2005, the World Health Organization estimated that 123 million women become pregnant worldwide each year, and around 87 million of those pregnancies or 70.7% are unintentional. Approximately 46 million pregnancies per year reportedly end in induced abortion. Approximately 6 million U.S. women become pregnant per year. Out of known pregnancies, two-thirds result in live births and roughly 25% in abortions; the remainder end in miscarriage. However, many more women become pregnant and miscarry without even realizing it, instead mistaking the miscarriage for an unusually heavy menstruation. The U.S. teenage pregnancy rate fell by 27 percent between 1990 and 2000, from 116.3 pregnancies per 1,000 girls aged 15–19 to 84.5. This data includes live births, abortions, and fetal losses. Almost 1 million American teenage women, 10% of all women aged 15–19 and 19% of those who report having had intercourse, become pregnant each year.\n", "Child psychologist Samuel Faulkner has an ideal romance with ballet teacher CJ Taylor. CJ is thinking about marriage and children. Samuel is against the idea of marriage as he is happy with how things are between them. This all changes when Rebecca declares she is pregnant, and when questioned by Samuel about her birth control she replies birth control is only 97% effective.\n", "The most common reason for the lower actual effectiveness is not mistakes on the part of instructors or users, but conscious user non-compliance—that is, the couple knowing that the woman is likely to be fertile at the time but engaging in sexual intercourse nonetheless. This is similar to failures of barrier methods, which are primarily caused by non-use of the method.\n\nSection::::To achieve pregnancy.\n\nSection::::To achieve pregnancy.:Intercourse timing.\n\nA review showed no evidence of a benefit in effect of timing intercourse on live births or pregnancies, compared to regular intercourse.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Effectiveness\" - There has been only one unplanned pregnancy among partners of the 250 volunteers who have been injected RISUG — apparently due to an improperly administered injection. Out of the 250 volunteers who have been injected RISUG, 15 received the injection more than 10 years ago.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Convenience\" - There is no interruption before the sexual act.\n", "Each year, almost 750,000 girls aged 15–19 become pregnant. Two-thirds of all teen pregnancies occur among the oldest teens (18–21-year-olds). Of them, 82% are unplanned, accounting for about 20% of all unintended pregnancies annually. Of pregnancies among 15–19-year-olds girls in 2008, 59% ended in birth, 26% in abortion, and the rest in miscarriage. Overall, 68 pregnancies occurred per 1,000 girls aged 15–19 in 2008. Nearly 7% of 15–19-year-old girls become pregnant each year. Pregnancies are much less common among girls younger than 15. In 2008, 6.6 pregnancies occurred per 1,000 teens aged 14 or younger. In other words, fewer than 1% of teens younger than 15 become pregnant each year. Stillborn and newborn deaths are 50% higher for teen moms than women aged 20–29, and are more likely to have a low birth weight.\n", "BULLET::::- approximately 10.4% (or an estimated 11.7 million) of men in the United States reported ever having an intimate partner who tried to get pregnant when they did not want to or tried to stop them from using birth control, with 8.7% having had an intimate partner who tried to get pregnant when they did not want to or tried to stop them from using birth control and 3.8% having had an intimate partner who refused to wear a condom.\n\nSection::::Prevalence.:Prevalence in teen pregnancy.\n", "In the U.S., according to the 2002 National Survey of Family Growth, sexually active adolescent women wishing to avoid pregnancy were less likely than older women to use contraceptives (18% of 15–19-year-olds used no contraceptives, versus 10.7% for women aged 15–44). More than 80% of teen pregnancies are unintended. Over half of unintended pregnancies were to women not using contraceptives, most of the rest are due to inconsistent or incorrect use. 23% of sexually active young women in a 1996 \"Seventeen\" magazine poll admitted to having had unprotected sex with a partner who did not use a condom, while 70% of girls in a 1997 \"PARADE\" poll claimed it was embarrassing to buy birth control or request information from a doctor.\n", "Imagine a woman is assessing her potential mate's commitment intent. The woman's father also has a vested interest in whether she reproduces because he shares genes with her and thus, his reproductive interests extend to his daughter's mate choice. The father also has a to evaluate the costs and benefits of the two types of errors she could make when evaluating her mate's commitment intent. If the chosen mate sexually deceives and then leaves her then the outcome is more costly for him than if his daughter is more cautious and underestimates intent. Thus, the father might take time before offering his parental seal of approval. The father shows the same skeptical commitment bias as his daughter, favouring the false negative error because it is less costly.\n", "In a study of 379 pregnant or parenting teens and 95 teenage girls without children, 62% of girls aged 11–15 and 56% of girls aged 16–19 reported experiencing domestic violence at the hands of their partners. Moreover, 51% of the girls reported experiencing at least one instance where their boyfriend attempted to sabotage their efforts to use birth control.\n\nSection::::Risk factors.:Socioeconomic factors.\n", "Ellis says the film was based on a personal experience. \"Twice in my life I've had girls ask me to oblige them in that way. And both times I've said yes. And both times they failed to turn up and go through with it. The frustrating stop-star love-making Geoff and Maureen indulge in as they go about graphing his sperm count and her temperature to maximise their chances of conceiving is also something I've been through. When Anne and I were trying to have our third child she'd kick me awake at four in the morning saying her temperature was up and I'd have to reorganise my protoplasm to suit the occasion.\"\n", "BULLET::::- It is too late in unintended pregnancies. The rate of Unintended pregnancy in the United States is approximately 49%. Half of unintended pregnancies result from not using birth control, and 45% of them from using birth control inconsistently or incorrectly.\n\nBULLET::::- Women not knowing, realizing, or understanding the benefits of visiting their physician or midwife before trying to become pregnant.\n", "BULLET::::- Experience of coerced sex at an early age reduces a woman's ability to see her sexuality as something over which she has control. As a result, it is less likely that an adolescent girl who has been forced into sex will use condoms or other forms of contraception, decreasing the likelihood of her not becoming pregnant.\n", "Infertility may have psychological effects. Partners may become more anxious to conceive, increasing sexual dysfunction. Marital discord often develops, especially when they are under pressure to make medical decisions. Women trying to conceive often have depression rates similar to women who have heart disease or cancer. Emotional stress and marital difficulties are greater in couples where the infertility lies with the man.\n", "While decisions about abortion may cause some individuals psychological distress, some find a reduction in distress after abortion. There is no evidence of widespread psychological harm from abortion. Unwanted pregnancy and births resulting from these pregnancies are also psychologically distressing, so considerations of psychological impact of abortion should be in comparison to potential harm from these stressors.\n\nSome find abortion morally objectionable. This could be due to religious beliefs, one's own personal beliefs or the context of the situation.\n\nSection::::Facts.:Adoption.\n", "Women also fall victim to misconceptions during male-female interactions. Haselton and Buss (2000) advocate that these errors primarily stem from women's perceived desire for a committed relationship by a male counterpart. Women have evolved strategies to protect themselves from deception. One of these evolved strategies is to commit the Skeptical Commitment Bias.\n\nSection::::Sexual underperception bias.:Females.:Skeptical commitment bias.\n", "Malcolm Gladwell's book on split-second decision making, \"Blink,\" introduces two professors at Columbia University who run speed-dating events. Drs. Sheena Iyengar and Raymond Fisman found, from having the participants fill out questionnaires, that what people said they wanted in an ideal mate did not match their subconscious preferences.\n\nSection::::Scientific research.:Olfaction and the MHC.\n\nA 1995 study at the University of Bern showed that women appear to be attracted to the smell of men who have different MHC profiles from their own, and that oral contraceptives reversed this effect.\n", "BULLET::::- More likely that mother smokes tobacco (about 30% more likely in the US) or drinks during pregnancy, which results in poorer health outcomes and additional costs for welfare system. (see also fetal alcohol spectrum disorder)\n\nBULLET::::- Greater relationship instability\n\nBULLET::::- More likely to delay initiation of prenatal care\n\nChildren whose births were unintended are:\n", "Pregnancy has risks and potential complications. On average, unintended pregnancies result in poorer outcomes for the mother and for the child, if birth occurs. Unintended pregnancy usually precludes pre-conception counseling and pre-conception care, and sometimes delays initiation of prenatal care. The great majority of abortions result from unintended pregnancies.\n\nResults of unintended pregnancy include:\n\nBULLET::::- Prenatal care initiated later, and less adequate. Adversely affects health of woman and of child and less preparation for parenthood. Delay from unintended pregnancy is in addition to that from other risk factors for delay. Unwanted pregnancies have more delay than mistimed.\n", "A female who cannot conceive by normal means and requires assistance to conceive may be constrained by social and sexual inhibitions and taboos from accepting a sperm donor or a friend to perform an intravaginal insemination, and the friend may be similarly inhibited; the friend may opt instead for the more expensive and arduous artificial insemination.\n", "In the period from 2001 to 2008, there were notable increases in the use of long-acting methods among younger women, while the pill and condom are most common, the more effective methods, such as intrauterine devices and implants, are recommended for young women and women without children.\n\nSection::::By country/region.:United States of America.:Rape.\n\nRape is defined as sexual intercourse that is forced on a person without his or her permission. It may involve physical force, the threat of force, or it may be done against someone who is unable to give consent.\n", "Couples often desire to control not just the number of children, but also the timing.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nBULLET::::- Not using contraception or family planning services.\n\nBULLET::::- Using contraception inconsistently or incorrectly.\n\nBULLET::::- Contraceptive failure (the method was used correctly, but did not work.) Contraceptive failure accounts for a relatively small fraction of unintended pregnancies when modern highly effective contraceptives are used. A condom breaking during intercourse or using a condom with a hole in it can lead to malfunctioning contraceptives.\n\nReasons contraceptives might not have been used or been used incorrectly include:\n", "Section::::Disparities in accessibility.:Contributing factors.\n\nSection::::Disparities in accessibility.:Contributing factors.:Unintended pregnancy.\n\nUnintended pregnancy precludes pre-conception counseling, and pre-conception care, and delays initiation of prenatal care. In unintended pregnancies, prenatal care is initiate later, and is less adequate. This adversely affects health of woman and of child, and the woman is less preparation for parenthood. Delay from unintended pregnancy is in addition to that from other risk factors for delay.\n", "The consequences of infertility are manifold and can include societal repercussions and personal suffering. Advances in assisted reproductive technologies, such as IVF, can offer hope to many couples where treatment is available, although barriers exist in terms of medical coverage and affordability. The medicalization of infertility has unwittingly led to a disregard for the emotional responses that couples experience, which include distress, loss of control, stigmatization, and a disruption in the developmental trajectory of adulthood. One of the main challenges in assessing the distress levels in women with infertility is the accuracy of self-report measures. It is possible that women “fake good” in order to appear mentally healthier than they are. It is also possible that women feel a sense of hopefulness/increased optimism prior to initiating infertility treatment, which is when most assessments of distress are collected. Some early studies concluded that infertile women did not report any significant differences in symptoms of anxiety and depression than fertile women. The further into treatment a patient goes, the more often they display symptoms of depression and anxiety. Patients with one treatment failure had significantly higher levels of anxiety, and patients with two failures experienced more depression when compared with those without a history of treatment. However, it has also been shown that the more depressed the infertile woman, the less likely she is to start infertility treatment and the more likely she is to drop out after only one cycle. Researchers have also shown that despite a good prognosis and having the finances available to pay for treatment, discontinuation is most often due to psychological reasons.\n" ]	[ "Getting pregnant on purpose is hard." ]	[ "90% of women have no problem getting pregnant." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Getting pregnant on purpose is hard." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "90% of women have no problem getting pregnant." ]
2018-21650	Why do halogens have colours? Why do the colours of halogens deepen when you go down the group?	Differences in the amount of energy in the electrons of the outer shell and the universe constant Planck's Constant Planck's Constant means that the amount of energy a photon has changes its frequency. Since frequency of light defines its color, that means that the different Halogens release different colored light when the electrons in their outer shell change orbits and release the energy as light.	[ "Section::::Characteristics.:Chemical.:Compounds.:Interhalogen compounds.\n\nInterhalogen compounds are in the form of XY where X and Y are halogens and n is one, three, five, or seven. Interhalogen compounds contain at most two different halogens. Large interhalogens, such as can be produced by a reaction of a pure halogen with a smaller interhalogen such as . All interhalogens except can be produced by directly combining pure halogens in various conditions.\n", "The reaction mechanisms underlying the formation of exciplex molecules (rare gas halides) are rather complex in which take part ground state atomic and molecular species, ionic species, and excited atomic species.\n\nThe formation of exciplex molecules is realized in two main ways. The first way is a three-body ion-ion recombination reaction of the positive rare gas ion and the negative halogen ion:\n\nwhere \"M\" is a collisional third partner which in many cases can be an atom or molecule of the working mixture or even of the buffer gas.\n", "Section::::Classes of compounds.:Overview of principal halomethanes.\n\nMost permutations of hydrogen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine on one carbon atom have been evaluated experimentally.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n\nBecause they have many applications and are easily prepared, halomethanes have been of intense commercial interest.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Solvents.\n", "Section::::Characteristics.:Chemical.:Compounds.:Organohalogen compounds.\n", "Many synthetic organic compounds such as plastic polymers, and a few natural ones, contain halogen atoms; they are known as \"halogenated\" compounds or \"organohalogens\". Organochlorides are the most common industrially used organohalides, although the other organohalides are used commonly in organic synthesis. Except for extremely rare cases, organohalides are not produced biologically, but many pharmaceuticals are organohalides. Notably, many pharmaceuticals such as Prozac have trifluoromethyl groups.\n\nFor information on inorganic halide chemistry, see halide.\n\nSection::::Chemical families.\n", "The table below is a summary of the key physical and atomic properties of the halogens. Data marked with question marks are either uncertain or are estimations partially based on periodic trends rather than observations.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Physical and atomic.:Isotopes.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nIn 1814, Jean-Jacques Colin described the formation of a liquid — with a metallic lustre — when he mixed together dry gaseous ammonia and dry iodine. The precise composition of the resulting I2...NH3 complex was established fifty years later by Frederick Guthrie. In his experiment, he added I to aqueous ammonia. The true nature of the molecular interaction was perhaps first understood only half of a century ago following Robert Mulliken's groundbreaking discoveries on charge-transfer interactions, and their detailed description by Odd Hassel.\n", "Section::::Applications.:Lighting.\n", "Section::::Production.\n\nIt is possible to produce larger interhalogens, such as ClF, by exposing smaller interhalogens, such as ClF, to pure diatomic halogens, such as F. This method of production is especially useful for generating halogen fluorides. At temperatures of 250 to 300 °C, this type of production method can also convert larger interhalogens into smaller ones. It is also possible to produce interhalogens by combining two pure halogens at various conditions. This method can generate any interhalogen save for IF.\n", "The physical properties of halomethanes depend on the number and identity of the halogen atoms in the compound. In general, halomethanes are volatile but less so than methane because of the polarizability of the halides. The polarizability of the halides and the polarity of the molecules makes them useful as solvents. The halomethanes are far less flammable than methane. Broadly speaking, reactivity of the compounds is greatest for the iodides and lowest for the fluorides.\n\nSection::::Production.\n\nSection::::Production.:Industrial routes.\n", "The group of halogens is the only periodic table group that contains elements in three of the main states of matter at standard temperature and pressure. All of the halogens form acids when bonded to hydrogen. Most halogens are typically produced from minerals or salts. The middle halogens, that is chlorine, bromine and iodine, are often used as disinfectants. Organobromides are the most important class of flame retardants. Elemental halogens are dangerous and can be lethally toxic.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Unsaturated compounds, especially alkenes and alkynes, add halogens:\n\nThe addition of halogens to alkenes proceeds via intermediate halonium ions. In special cases, such intermediates have been isolated.\n\nSection::::Organic chemistry.:Halogenation by reaction type.:Halogenation of aromatic compounds.\n\nAromatic compounds are subject to electrophilic halogenation:\n", "Most interhalogens are covalent gases. Some interhalogens, especially those containing bromine, are liquids, and most iodine-containing interhalogens are solids. Most of the interhalogens composed of lighter halogens are fairly colorless, but the interhalogens containing heavier halogens are deeper in color due to their higher molecular weight. In this respect, the interhalogens are similar to the halogens. The greater the difference between the electronegativities of the two halogens in an interhalogen, the higher the boiling point of the interhalogen. All interhalogens are diamagnetic. The bond length of interhalogens in the XY series increases with the size of the constituent halogens. For instance, ClF has a bond length of 1.628 Å, and IBr has a bond length of 2.47 Å.\n", "Section::::Characteristics.:Chemical.:Compounds.:Polyhalogenated compounds.\n\nPolyhalogenated compounds are industrially created compounds substituted with multiple halogens. Many of them are very toxic and bioaccumulate in humans, and have a very wide application range. They include PCBs, PBDEs, and perfluorinated compounds (PFCs), as well as numerous other compounds.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Chemical.:Reactions.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Chemical.:Reactions.:Reactions with water.\n\nFluorine reacts vigorously with water to produce oxygen (O) and hydrogen fluoride (HF):\n\nChlorine has maximum solubility of ca. 7.1 g Cl per kg of water at ambient temperature (21 °C). Dissolved chlorine reacts to form hydrochloric acid (HCl) and hypochlorous acid, a solution that can be used as a disinfectant or bleach:\n", "Halogens participating in halogen bonding include: iodine (I), bromine (Br), chlorine (Cl), and sometimes fluorine (F). All four halogens are capable of acting as XB donors (as proven through theoretical and experimental data) and follow the general trend: F Cl Br I, with iodine normally forming the strongest interactions.\n", "Halocarbons are typically classified in the same ways as the similarly structured organic compounds that have hydrogen atoms occupying the molecular sites of the halogen atoms in halocarbons. Among the chemical families are:\n\nBULLET::::- haloalkanes—compounds with carbon atoms linked by single bonds\n\nBULLET::::- haloalkenes—compounds with one or more double bonds between carbon atoms\n\nBULLET::::- haloaromatics—compounds with carbons linked in one or more aromatic rings with a delocalised donut shaped pi cloud.\n", "Dihalogens (I, Br, etc.) tend to form strong halogen bonds. The strength and effectiveness of chlorine and fluorine in XB formation depend on the nature of the XB donor. If the halogen is bonded to an electronegative (electron withdrawing) moiety, it is more likely to form stronger halogen bonds.\n", "Astatine has no biological role and nor does Tennessine.\n\nSection::::Toxicity.\n\nThe halogens tend to decrease in toxicity towards the heavier halogens.\n", "All four stable halogens experience intermolecular van der Waals forces of attraction, and their strength increases together with the number of electrons among all homonuclear diatomic halogen molecules. Thus, the melting and boiling points of chlorine are intermediate between those of fluorine and bromine: chlorine melts at −101.0 °C and boils at −34.0 °C. As a result of the increasing molecular weight of the halogens down the group, the density and heats of fusion and vaporisation of chlorine are again intermediate between those of bromine and fluorine, although all their heats of vaporisation are fairly low (leading to high volatility) thanks to their diatomic molecular structure. The halogens darken in colour as the group is descended: thus, while fluorine is a pale yellow gas, chlorine is distinctly yellow-green. This trend occurs because the wavelengths of visible light absorbed by the halogens increase down the group. Specifically, the colour of a halogen, such as chlorine, results from the electron transition between the highest occupied antibonding \"π\" molecular orbital and the lowest vacant antibonding \"σ\" molecular orbital. The colour fades at low temperatures, so that solid chlorine at −195 °C is almost colourless.\n", "Currently, XB is being exploited for a range of functional applications, e.g., crystal engineering, supramolecular chemistry, polymer sciences, liquid crystals, conductive materials and medicinal chemistry.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Crystal engineering.\n", "No interhalogen compounds containing three or more different halogens are definitely known, although a few books claim that and have been obtained, and theoretical studies seem to indicate that some compounds in the series are barely stable.\n\nSection::::Types of interhalogens.\n\nSection::::Types of interhalogens.:Diatomic interhalogens.\n", "The halogen atoms in halocarbon molecules are often called \"substituents,\" as though those atoms had been substituted for hydrogen atoms. However halocarbons are prepared in many ways that do not involve direct substitution of halogens for hydrogens.\n\nSection::::History and context.\n", "The elements become less reactive and have higher melting points as the atomic number increases. The higher melting points are caused by stronger London dispersion forces resulting from more electrons.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Chemical.:Compounds.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Chemical.:Compounds.:Hydrogen halides.\n\nAll of the halogens have been observed to react with hydrogen to form hydrogen halides. For fluorine, chlorine, and bromine, this reaction is in the form of:\n\nHowever, hydrogen iodide and hydrogen astatide can split back into their constituent elements.\n", "Section::::Applications.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Laboratory scale.\n\nThis reaction forms the basis of the iodoform test which was commonly used in history as a chemical test to determine the presence of a methyl ketone, or a secondary alcohol oxidizable to a methyl ketone. When iodine and sodium hydroxide are used as the reagents a positive reaction gives iodoform, which is a solid at room temperature and tends to precipitate out of solution causing a distinctive cloudiness.\n\nIn organic chemistry, this reaction may be used to convert a terminal methyl ketone into the analogous carboxylic acid.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Industrially.\n", "In 1950s, Robert S. Mulliken developed a detailed theory of electron donor-acceptor complexes, classifying them as being outer or inner complexes. Outer complexes were those in which the intermolecular interaction between the electron donor and acceptor were weak and had very little charge transfer. Inner complexes have extensive charge redistribution. Mulliken’s theory has been used to describe the mechanism by which XB formation occurs.\n\nAround the same time period that Mulliken developed his theory, crystallographic studies performed by Hassel began to emerge and became a turning point in the comprehension of XB formation and its characteristics.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-14924	why do car batteries last years without dying, but Ieave my lights on for a couple hours with the car off and suddenly the battery is dead?	Alternator charges the battery when the car is running. Because the lights are on but the car is not running, the battery drains.	[ "If a battery has been completely discharged (e.g. the car lights were left on overnight) and next is given a fast charge for only a few minutes, then during the short charging time it develops only a charge near the interface. The battery voltage may rise to be close to the charger voltage so that the charging current decreases significantly. After a few hours this interface charge will spread to the volume of the electrode and electrolyte, leading to an interface charge so low that it may be insufficient to start a car.\n", "Automotive lead–acid rechargeable batteries must endure stress due to vibration, shock, and temperature range. Because of these stresses and sulfation of their lead plates, few automotive batteries last beyond six years of regular use. Automotive starting batteries have many thin plates to maximize current. In general, the thicker the plates the longer the life. They are typically discharged only slightly before recharge.\n", "In the past, auto batteries required regular inspection and maintenance to replace water that was decomposed during operation of the battery. \"Low-maintenance\" (sometimes called \"zero-maintenance\") batteries use a different alloy for the plate elements, reducing the amount of water decomposed on charging. A modern battery may not require additional water over its useful life; some types eliminate the individual filler caps for each cell. A weakness of these batteries is that they are very intolerant of deep discharge, for example when the car battery is completely drained by leaving the lights on. This coats the lead plate electrodes with sulfate deposits and can reduce the battery's lifespan by a third or more. \n", "Flashlights used for extended periods every day may be more economically operated on rechargeable (secondary) batteries. Flashlights designed for rechargeable batteries may allow charging without removing the batteries; for example, a light kept in a vehicle may be trickle-charged and always ready when needed. Some rechargeable flashlights have indicators for the state of charge of the battery. Power-failure lights are designed to keep their batteries charged from a wall plug and to automatically turn on after an AC power failure; the power-failure light can be removed from the wall socket and used as a portable flashlight. Solar powered flashlights use energy from a solar cell to charge an on-board battery for later use.\n", "As with all lithium-ion batteries, electric vehicle batteries may degrade over long periods of time, especially if they are frequently overcharged, however, this may take at least several years before being noticeable.\n\nHowever, Nissan stated in 2015 that thus far only 0.01 percent of batteries had to be replaced because of failures or problems, and then only because of externally inflicted damage. The vehicles that had already covered more than , have no problems with the battery.\n\nSection::::Batteries.:Future.\n\nBULLET::::- Autonomous park-and-charge\n", "Even just a single string of batteries wired in series can have adverse interactions if new batteries are mixed with old batteries. Older batteries tend to have reduced storage capacity, and so will both discharge faster than new batteries and also charge to their maximum capacity more rapidly than new batteries.\n", "LED lamps are used for flashing beacon lights on vehicles such as maintenance trucks. Previously, traditional light sources required the engine to continue running to ensure that the battery would not become depleted if the lights were to be used for more than a few hours. The energy-efficient nature of the LED allows the engine to be turned off but the light continue to flash.\n", "\"Battery death\" and \"fuel blockage\" are thus dependent, conditional on their common effect \"car starting\". What the foregoing discussion indicates is that the obvious directionality in the common-effect graph belies a deep informational symmetry: If conditioning on a common effect\n\nincreases the dependency between its two parent causes, then conditioning on one of the causes must create the same increase in dependency between the second cause and the common effect. In Pearl's automotive example, if conditioning on \"car starts\" induces formula_2 bits of dependency between the two causes \"battery dead\" and \"fuel blocked\", then conditioning on\n", "Old rechargeable batteries self-discharge more rapidly than disposable alkaline batteries, especially nickel-based batteries; a freshly charged nickel cadmium (NiCd) battery loses 10% of its charge in the first 24 hours, and thereafter discharges at a rate of about 10% a month. However, newer low self-discharge nickel metal hydride (NiMH) batteries and modern lithium designs display a lower self-discharge rate (but still higher than for primary batteries).\n\nSection::::Lifetime.:Corrosion.\n\nInternal parts may corrode and fail, or the active materials may be slowly converted to inactive forms.\n\nSection::::Lifetime.:Physical component changes.\n", "Section::::Types.:Engine temperature/EV battery temperature.\n\nThe engine temperature tell-tale is usually installed singly, but has less commonly been installed in pairs. A pair of lights indicate insufficient (, blue) and excessive (, red) engine temperature. A single light usually indicates only an overheat condition in engine. In electric cars, it is usually to monitor the EV battery temperature and indicate the EV battery is overheating or is too cold to operate. One example is in a Nissan Leaf EV.\n\nSection::::Types.:Malfunction indicator (check engine/hybrid/EV system).\n", "Modern SLI batteries are lead-acid type, using six series-connected cells to provide a nominal 12 volt system (in most passenger vehicles and light trucks), or twelve cells for a 24 volt system in heavy trucks or earth-moving equipment, for example.\n\nSection::::Battery in modern cars.:Electric cars.\n\nBattery electric vehicles are powered by a high-voltage electric vehicle battery, but they usually have an automotive battery as well, so that they can use standard automotive accessories which are designed to run on 12 V.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "\"Keep-alive\" devices are used in automotive repair to maintain battery voltage for devices in the vehicle when the battery is disconnected or changed, usually by plugging in a small battery to the vehicle's 12 volt power outlet. A typical application is preventing the vehicle's radio or other device from going to \"code\" mode (security lockout) during vehicle repair. Typically a lower voltage source, such as a 9–volt battery, is sufficient for the purpose.\n", "The safety issues of battery electric vehicles are largely dealt with by the international standard ISO 6469. This document is divided in three parts dealing with specific issues:\n\nBULLET::::- On-board electrical energy storage, i.e. the battery\n\nBULLET::::- Functional safety means and protection against failures\n\nBULLET::::- Protection of persons against electrical hazards.\n", "BULLET::::- In South Africa the code on a battery to indicate production date is part of the casing and cast into the bottom left of the cover. The code is Year and week number. (YYWW) e.g. 1336 is for week 36 in the year 2013.\n\nSection::::Use and maintenance.\n\nExcess heat is a main cause of battery failures, as when the electrolyte evaporates due to high temperatures, decreasing the effective surface area of the plates exposed to the electrolyte, and leading to sulfation. Grid corrosion rates increase with temperature. Also low temperatures can lead to battery failure. \n", "An idiot light can indicate that the vehicle's alternator or generator is not properly charging the battery. The battery will then discharge, disabling the car. The light normally appears when the vehicle ignition is turned on, but the engine is not running, as it detects that no power is coming from the alternator (the alternator is powered off the engine so only generates when the engine is running). It subsequently extinguishes as soon as the engine starts and the alternator starts generating electricity. This light presents a pictogram of a battery, or it presents the legend or or .\n", "Consider a battery that has been completely discharged (such as occurs when leaving the car lights on overnight, a current draw of about 6 amps). If it then is given a fast charge for only a few minutes, the battery plates charge only near the interface between the plates and the electrolyte. In this case the battery voltage might rise to a value near that of the charger voltage; this causes the charging current to decrease significantly. After a few hours this interface charge will spread to the volume of the electrode and electrolyte; this leads to an interface charge so low that it may be insufficient to start the car. As long as the charging voltage stays below the gassing voltage (about 14.4 volts in a normal lead–acid battery), battery damage is unlikely, and in time the battery should return to a nominally charged state.\n", "Car batteries are most likely to explode when a short-circuit generates very large currents. Such batteries produce hydrogen, which is very explosive, when they are overcharged (because of electrolysis of the water in the electrolyte). During normal use, the amount of overcharging is usually very small and generates little hydrogen, which dissipates quickly. However, when \"jump starting\" a car, the high current can cause the rapid release of large volumes of hydrogen, which can be ignited explosively by a nearby spark, e.g. when disconnecting a jumper cable.\n", "\"Battery death\" and \"fuel blockage\" are thus dependent, conditional on their common effect \"car starting\". The obvious directionality in the common-effect graph belies a deep informational symmetry: If conditioning on a common effect\n\nincreases the dependency between its two parent causes, then conditioning on one of the causes must create the same increase in dependency between the second cause and the common effect. In Pearl's automotive example, if conditioning on \"car starts\" induces formula_19 bits of dependency between the two causes \"battery dead\" and \"fuel blocked\", then conditioning on\n", "Typically, starting uses less than three percent of the battery capacity. For this reason, automotive batteries are designed to deliver maximum current for a short period of time. They are sometimes referred to as \"SLI batteries\" for this reason, for Starting, Lighting, and Ignition. SLI batteries are not designed for deep discharging, and a full discharge can reduce the battery's lifespan.\n", "Section::::Categories and types of batteries.:Cell performance.\n\nA battery's characteristics may vary over load cycle, over charge cycle, and over lifetime due to many factors including internal chemistry, current drain, and temperature. At low temperatures, a battery cannot deliver as much power. As such, in cold climates, some car owners install battery warmers, which are small electric heating pads that keep the car battery warm.\n\nSection::::Capacity and discharge.\n", "As a mixed string of new and old batteries is depleted, the string voltage will drop, and when the old batteries are exhausted the new batteries still have charge available. The newer cells may continue to discharge through the rest of the string, but due to the low voltage this energy flow may not be useful, and may be wasted in the old cells as resistance heating.\n", "The battery cell stack has a main fuse which limits the current of the pack under a short circuit condition. A \"service plug\" or \"service disconnect\" can be removed to split the battery stack into two electrically isolated halves. With the service plug removed, the exposed main terminals of the battery present no high potential electrical danger to service technicians.\n", ", the world's all-time best-selling electric car is the Nissan Leaf, with more than 250,000 units sold since its inception in 2010. Nissan stated in 2015 that until then only 0.01 percent of batteries had to be replaced because of failures or problems and then only because of externally inflicted damage. There are a few vehicles that have already covered more than 200,000 km; none of these had any problems with the battery.\n\nSection::::Specifics.:Recycling.\n\nAt the end of their useful life they can be reused or batteries can be recycled.\n\nSection::::Specifics.:Safety.\n", "Some systems, operating at high temperature (Na-S) or using corrosive components are subject to failure even if they are not used (calendar ageing). Other technologies suffer from deterioration caused by charge-discharge cycles (cycle ageing), especially at high charging rates. These two types of ageing cause a loss of performance (capacity or voltage decrease), overheating and may eventually lead to critical failure (electrolyte leaks, fire, explosion). Some batteries can be maintained to prevent loss of performance due to ageing. For example, non-sealed lead-acid batteries produce hydrogen and oxygen from the aqueous electrolyte when overcharged. The water has to be refilled regularly to avoid damage to the battery and the inflammable gases have to be vented out to avoid explosion risks. However, this maintenance has a cost and recent batteries, such as Li-Ion, are designed to have a long lifespan without maintenance. Therefore, most of the current systems are composed of securely sealed battery packs which are electronically monitored and replaced once their performance falls below a given threshold. Sometimes battery storage power stations are built with flywheel storage power systems in order to conserve battery power. Flywheels may handle rapid fluctuations better than older battery plants.\n", "Batteries also have a small amount of internal resistance that will discharge the battery even when it is disconnected. If a battery is left disconnected, any internal charge will drain away slowly and eventually reach the critical point. From then on the film will develop and thicken. This is the reason batteries will be found to charge poorly or not at all if left in storage for a long period of time.\n\nSection::::Chargers and sulfation.\n" ]	[ "car batteries last years without dying but will die in a few hours with the lights left on." ]	[ "Car batteries only last years if the car gets turned on to charge the battery." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "car batteries last years without dying but will die in a few hours with the lights left on.", "car batteries last years without dying but will die in a few hours with the lights left on." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Car batteries only last years if the car gets turned on to charge the battery.", "Car batteries only last years if the car gets turned on to charge the battery. " ]
2018-03552	How do people get electrocuted in the shower during a storm?	Lightning + water pipes = electrified water pipes. Electrified water pipes + water = electrified water. Electrified water + shower = electrified shower. Electrified shower + wet person = electrified wet person. Electrified wet person + ground = complete circuit. (Always complete your circuit.) This is very unlikely though. You need to have metal pipes outside and no one uses metal pipes anymore. They use PVC pipes. Also the water generally discharges into the surroundings quite quickly so it won't reach the person with enough charge to give them more than a little static. Along with that for the thing to complete the circuit the person needs to be in contact with a conducting surface and tiles are pretty bad at conducting. Finally electricity takes the path of least resistance. In this case there is very little chance that this would be the path of least resistance.	[ "In Madison, a mother and daughter waiting for a Madison Metro bus were electrocuted when lightning struck a power line and caused it to fall onto a flooded street on which they were standing, while another child was injured. A passenger on the bus was killed, and the driver was injured, both having been shocked after coming out of the bus to help.\n", "The following are some examples of unsafe practices which could lead to electric injury (cannot cover every possible scenario):\n\nBULLET::::- Using electrical appliances while wet (showering, bathing, etc.) as plumbing is often connected to electrical ground, and wet skin loses much of its resistance. Exception for newer quality appliances \"intended for the bathroom\" when \"not\" simultaneously showering, bathing, being in a path of water going to plumbing, or touching bare concrete or sheet metal. Standing on a dry carpet or rug is ideal.\n", "Section::::Treatment.\n\nOnce the victim is safely on shore, first aid may be needed. Treatment depends on the specifics of each case, but is likely some combination of the treatments for electrocution and drowning individually. Even if the victim seems well, examination by healthcare professional is recommended as latent effects from the electricity may be undetected.\n", "It is also recommended to install residual-current devices for protection against electrocution. The greater danger associated with electrical shock in the water is that the person may be rendered immobile and unable to rescue themselves or to call for help and then drown.\n", "In March 2013, Californian Simona Wilson won a $4 million lawsuit against her power company after stray voltage from a substation near her house repeatedly shocked her and members of her family whenever they were in the shower.\n\nSection::::Effects.\n\nSection::::Effects.:Persons.\n", "Section::::Signs.\n\nThere is no visible warning to electrified water. Swimmers will be able to feel the electricity if the current is substantial. If the swimmers notice any unusual tingling feeling or symptoms of electrical shock, it is highly likely that stray currents exist and everyone needs to get out. Swimmers should always swim away from the suspected current source. In most cases this means swimming away from docks and boats and toward another safer portion of the shoreline.\n\nSection::::Rescue.\n", "The primary method of rescue is to get the swimmer away from the current source by any means possible, EXCEPT by sending out rescue swimmers. This means Row and Throw, but do not Go. If stray currents are suspected, a rescue by another swimmer should never be attempted. For cases where swimmers can feel mild tingling, getting flotation devices out to them can aid them to swim away from the current source under their own power. In cases where the current source is obvious, it may be possible for bystanders on foot to disconnect it. Dockside power hookups often have integrated or nearby breakers by which the source can be de-energized.\n", "Electric shock drownings are most commonly caused by improper electrical connections on boats and docks. By law, all connections near water are required to have working ground fault circuit interruption technology, GFCI. These devices break the electrical circuit if any stray current fails to return to the source connection. If GFCI devices are missing or faulty, it is possible for current to leak into the water. If a system is leaking current into the water, appliances will likely function as normal without any indication of a problem. Correctly functioning GFCI and ELCI devices will instantaneously detect the problem and disconnect the power source. \n", "Four workers died in separate incidents: Matthew Fuller and Mitchell Sweeney were electrocuted installing foil lined insulation, Ruben Barnes was electrocuted installing fibreglass \"pink batts\", while Marcus Wilson died from hyperthermia, also installing \"pink batts\".\n", "Potential differences between pool water and railings, or shower facilities and grounded drain pipes are not uncommon as a result of neutral to earth voltages (NEV), and can be a major nuisance, but are usually not life-threatening. However, contact voltage resulting from damaged insulation on a current carrying conductor can be very dangerous, and can lead to shock or electrocution. Such a condition can arise spontaneously from mechanical, thermal, or chemical stress on insulation materials, or from unintentional damage from digging activity, freeze-frost seizing, corrosion and collapse of conduit, or even workmanship issues.\n", "The most seriously injured victims were a 23-year-old tow truck driver from Brooklyn, who was scalded over 80 percent of his body by the steam and had to be put in a medically induced coma, and his passenger, a 30-year-old woman, who was being driven back to Brooklyn after her car broke down. A witness reported that the tow truck was lifted 12 feet (4 m) by the escaping steam, higher than a nearby city bus.\n\nSection::::Cause.\n", "Besides boats and dockside power hookups, several other potential causes exist. Lightning strikes over or near water have caused electric shock drownings. Faulty hydroelectric generators or damaged underwater power lines can cause leakage currents, potentially creating a hazard. In general, anything electrically active that comes in contact with water has the potential to create leakage currents and contribute to this type of safety hazard.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "Chip was the ballistic gel dummy who assisted in testing the \"Phone in a Thunderstorm\" myth. Chip was placed inside a miniature faux house built by the Mythbusters which was placed within a facility used to test the effects of lightning. After attaching a monitor to detect the amount of electricity running through Chip's heart, he was attached to a phone and placed in the shower with running water in separate experiements while simulated bolts of lightning struck wiring which lead directly into the house. The fuse was blown on the meter attached to Chip during each experiment, which led the team to assume the amount of electricity through Chip's heart was deadly. Thanks to Chip's sacrifice, the team concluded that the \"Phone in a Thunderstorm\" myth was confirmed as being potentially deadly, and the Shower in a Thunderstorm myth was deemed plausible as a dangerous or even deadly situation.\n", "In any situation where energized equipment is in intimate electrical contact with a person or animal (such as swimming pools, surgery, electric milking machines, car washes, laundries, and many others), particular attention must be paid to elimination of stray voltages. Dry intact skin has a higher resistance than wet skin or a wound, so voltages that would otherwise be unnoticed become significant for a wet or surgical situation.\n", "A public works employee was electrocuted by downed power lines in Southbridge.\n\nA dam failure was mistakenly reported in East Becket, yet 200 people were evacuated as a precaution.\n\nSection::::Impact.:United States.:New England.:Rhode Island.\n", "Bonding is particularly important for bathrooms, swimming pools and fountains. In pools and fountains, any metallic object (other than conductors of the power circuit) over a certain size must be bonded to assure that all conductors are at the same potential. Since it is buried in the ground, a pool can be a better ground than the electric panel ground. With all the conducting elements bonded, it is less likely that electric current will find a path through a swimmer. In concrete pools even the reinforcing bars of the concrete must be connected to the bonding system to ensure no dangerous potential gradients are produced during a fault.\n", "As of August 2008, sixteen American troops have died from accidental electrocutions in Iraq according to the Defense Department. One soldier had been electrocuted in a shower, while another had been electrocuted in a swimming pool. KBR, the contractor responsible, had been warned by employees of unsafe practices, and was criticised following the revelations.\n\nSection::::Coalition military casualties.:\"Nightline\" controversy.\n", "In Boston, NSTAR Electric (formerly Boston Edison) has also had problems with hazardous stray voltages, which have killed several dogs during the 1990s. As a result, the City of Boston government started a program to detect, report on, and repair stray voltage hazards.\n\nToronto Hydro pulled all employees off regular duty on the weekend of January 30, 2009 to deal with ongoing stray voltage problems in the city. This came after as many as five children were shocked though none suffered serious injury. The stray voltage problem had claimed the lives of two dogs in the previous few months.\n", "More than 100 people evacuated by rescue workers, and the workers themselves were hosed down, and had their clothes taken for testing at a decontamination area. People in the affected area who self-evacuated were initially advised to dispose of, or wash their contaminated clothing separately. Later, they were told to place their clothes in a plastic bag and turn them in to the utility for disposal and reimbursement.\n\nSection::::Effects.\n\nSection::::Effects.:Emergency response.\n", "BULLET::::- All power mains outlets should have a wall cover to avoid accidentally touching the electrified sides between the wall and outlet. This is especially important for children, as their small fingers can easily reach into this gap along the sides.\n\nBULLET::::- Using AC electrical appliances around bathtubs, swimming pools, hot tubs, etc. with the risk that the appliance may fall into the water and cause electrocution. Only battery-operated devices are safe.\n\nBULLET::::- Failure to use child safety plugs in all outlets, and keeping children away from electrical cords.\n", "In 2002, Jan was 13 years old and was playing table tennis with some school friends in his hometown of Malbork, Poland, when it suddenly started raining heavily. He sheltered from the rain in a nearby electrical transformer building, where he received a 15,000 volt electric shock. The burns and tissue damage sustained meant surgeons had to amputate his left crus and right forearm.\n\nSection::::Polar expeditions.\n", "The Bathtub residents celebrate the end of the storm and make plans to rebuild their community, but the environment is damaged because the salt water surge from the storm has contaminated the fresh water supply. Wink hatches a plan to drain the water away by destroying the levee. He and a small group of friends plant dynamite and blow a hole in the wall using an alligator gar, and the water recedes. Authorities arrive and enforce a mandatory evacuation order, removing the residents of the Bathtub to an emergency shelter. Wink receives surgery, but it is too late to restore his health. At the first opportunity, the evacuees escape back to their homes.\n", "Special attention is required toward electrical safety devices on boats. These safety devices can fail for various reasons. Since deterioration of insulation on wires is common in boating conditions it is critical for these devices to work properly. \n", "BULLET::::- At poolside, not having a non-metallic fiberglass pole or net on hand to pull someone to safety in case the pool water is electrified, and the victim is still conscious. Furthermore, to not know where the circuit breakers for the pool are located.\n", "Although sensors exist that can detect leakage current in the water, these are unsuitable to use as an alarm device. These instruments provide no advanced warning before a problem starts. If a hazard condition is created, swimmers will be affected at the same time the instrument detects the current. It is common for faults to be tied to appliances or circuits that come on intermittently, meaning that the condition of the water can change instantly and unpredictably. \n\nThe best strategy for avoiding electrical hazards is to swim in designated areas well away from any devices that present a risk.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00534	What is the Speed of a Photon as it Gets Reflected by a Mirror?	So! Your analogy of a ball isn't a bad one to start with. But instead of thinking about a ball being thrown up, and having its momentum acted on by gravity and reaching a moment of equilibrium, let's instead think about a ball being thrown down. When you bounce a ball it hits the earth and comes back more or less instantly, due to the laws of motion. (I realize I'm way beyond what a 5 year old would understand, stop me if I'm going too fast.) When it comes back up, of course, it is slower and doesn't go so high. That's because of gravity and friction, and inertia. Inertia is the thing that really matters here. A ball has mass and therefore has inertia that it has to overcome. Overcoming inertia slows things down, and inertia is relative to mass. A photon has no mass. And therefore no inertia. When it changes direction, it does it instantly. It bounces without slowing down or losing speed. It's also too small to have friction and while it is affected by gravity, well... We don't really understand gravity so we can't really understand how light is affected by it.	[ "BULLET::::- The excited portion of a reflecting mirror acts as a new source of light and the reflected light has the same velocity \"c\" with respect to the mirror as has original light with respect to its source. (Proposed by Richard Chase Tolman in 1910, although he was a supporter of special relativity).\n\nBULLET::::- Light reflected from a mirror acquires a component of velocity equal to the velocity of the mirror image of the original source (Proposed by Oscar M. Stewart in 1911).\n", "Beckmann and Mandics (1965) repeated the Michelson (1913) and Majorana (1918) moving mirror experiments in high vacuum, finding \"k\" to be less than 0.09. Although the vacuum employed was insufficient to definitively rule out extinction as the reason for their negative results, it was sufficient to make extinction highly unlikely. Light from the moving mirror passed through a Lloyd interferometer, part of the beam traveling a direct path to the photographic film, part reflecting off the Lloyd mirror. The experiment compared the speed of light hypothetically traveling at \"c + v\" from the moving mirrors, versus reflected light hypothetically traveling at \"c\" from the Lloyd mirror.\n", "BULLET::::- Flying relativistic mirrors use a shockwave (wake wave) in a plasma to produce not only specular but also coherent reflection of high-energy radiation with very short wavelengths, and are used in some types of X-ray lasers. The wake wave is produced by a very intense laser-pulse focused into the low-density plasma, which creates a wall of charged particles and free electrons moving at an extremely high velocity. Based on the Theory of Special Relativity, because of the wake wave's speed, it can reflect radiation with wavelengths much shorter than visible or UV light.\n\nSection::::Bibliography.\n", "BULLET::::2. A photon moving at speed 1 in the \"xy\"-plane starts at \"t\" = 0 at (\"x\", \"y\") = (0.5, 0.1) heading due east. Around every integer lattice point (\"i\", \"j\") in the plane, a circular mirror of radius 1/3 has been erected. How far from the origin is the photon at \"t\" = 10?\n\nBULLET::::3. The infinite matrix \"A\" with entries formula_2 is a bounded operator on formula_3. What is formula_4?\n\nBULLET::::4. What is the global minimum of the function formula_5\n", "Nowadays, using oscilloscopes with time resolutions of less than one nanosecond, the speed of light can be directly measured by timing the delay of a light pulse from a laser or an LED reflected from a mirror. This method is less precise (with errors of the order of 1%) than other modern techniques, but it is sometimes used as a laboratory experiment in college physics classes.\n\nSection::::Measurement.:Electromagnetic constants.\n", "BULLET::::4. The sum of those results for each photon represents total surface radiance returned by the surface intersection in the direction of the ray that struck it.\n\nSection::::Usage.:Optimizations.\n", "Einstein proposed as part of his theory of special relativity that light reflected from a mirror moving close to the speed of light will have higher peak power than the incident light because of temporal compression. Using a dense relativistic electron mirror created from a high-intensity laser pulse and nanometre-scale foil, the frequency of the laser pulse was shown to shift coherently from infrared to the ultraviolet. The results elucidate the reflection process of laser-generated electron mirrors and suggest future research in relativistic mirrors.\n\nSection::::Notable studies.:DiPOLE.\n", "BULLET::::- Relativistic Doppler effect, where light that bounces on an object that is moving in a very high speed will get its wavelength changed; if the light bounces at an object that is moving towards it, the impact will compress the photons, so the wavelength will become shorter and the light will be blueshifted and the photons will be packed more closely so the photon flux will be increased; if it bounces at an object that is moving away from it, it will be redshifted and the photons will be packed more sparsely so the photon flux will be decreased.\n", "BULLET::::- H. Lloyd, 1834, \"Report on the progress and present state of physical optics\", \"Report of the Fourth Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science\" (held at Edinburgh in 1834), London: J. Murray, 1835, pp.295–413.\n", "The number of photons observed per unit time is the photon flux. The photon flux per unit area is the photon irradiance if the photons are incident on a surface, or photon exitance if the emission of photons from a broad-area source is being considered. The flux per unit solid angle is the photon intensity. The flux per unit source area per unit solid angle is photon radiance. SI units for these quantities are summarized in the table below.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Single-photon source\n\nBULLET::::- Shot noise\n\nBULLET::::- Visible-light photon counter\n\nBULLET::::- Transition edge sensor\n\nBULLET::::- Superconducting nanowire single-photon detector\n", "BULLET::::- A photon emitter: it produces a single photon for the purposes of the experiment.\n\nBULLET::::- A photon: after being emitted, it travels through the box below.\n\nBULLET::::- A \"box\" which contains:\n\nBULLET::::- An initial half-silvered mirror: the photon enters the box when it encounters this \"beam splitter\". The photon will either pass through the mirror and travel along the \"lower path\" inside the box, or be reflected at a 90-degree angle and travel along the box's \"upper path\".\n", "Time of flight \"t\" of the ions with mass \"m\", charge \"q\", kinetic energy U is \n\nwhere L is the path length of the ions in a field-free space, \"L\" is the length of ion mirror, \"U\" is the voltage applied across the mirror. \n\nTo find a first-order compensation condition for flight time \"t\" with respect to spread \"dU\" in ion energy \"U\", the following condition should be fulfilled \n", "In this process (which is also known as phase conjugation), light bounces exactly back in the direction from which it came due to a nonlinear optical process. Not only the direction of the light is reversed, but the actual wavefronts are reversed as well. A conjugate reflector can be used to remove aberrations from a beam by reflecting it and then passing the reflection through the aberrating optics a second time.\n\nSection::::Other types of reflection.\n\nSection::::Other types of reflection.:Neutron reflection.\n", "If the reflecting surface is very smooth, the reflection of light that occurs is called specular or regular reflection. The laws of reflection are as follows:\n\nBULLET::::1. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the reflection surface at the point of the incidence lie in the same plane.\n\nBULLET::::2. The angle which the incident ray makes with the normal is equal to the angle which the reflected ray makes to the same normal.\n\nBULLET::::3. The reflected ray and the incident ray are on the opposite sides of the normal.\n", "In the case with He, the additional resonant laser could be used to release the atoms and provide them an additional velocity; the delay since the release of the atoms till the registration allowed to estimate this additional velocity; roughly, formula_20, where formula_21 is time delay since the release of atoms till the click at the detector. Practically, formula_22 could vary from .\n", "BULLET::::- A molecule absorbs the photon which results in reflection or scattering.\n\nBULLET::::- A molecule cannot absorb the energy of the photon and the photon continues on its path. This results in transmission (provided no other absorption mechanisms are active).\n", "In order to calculate surface radiance at an intersection point, one of the cached photon maps is used. The steps are:\n\nBULLET::::1. Gather the N nearest photons using the nearest neighbor search function on the photon map.\n\nBULLET::::2. Let S be the sphere that contains these N photons.\n\nBULLET::::3. For each photon, divide the amount of flux (real photons) that the photon represents by the area of S and multiply by the BRDF applied to that photon.\n", "When a photon enters a beam splitter, there are two possibilities: it will either be reflected or transmitted. The relative probabilities of transmission and reflection are determined by the reflectivity of the beam splitter. Here, we assume a 1:1 beam splitter, in which a photon has equal probability of being reflected and transmitted.\n\nNext, consider two photons, one in each input mode of a 1:1 beam splitter. There are four possibilities for the photons to behave:\n\nBULLET::::1. The photon coming in from above is reflected and the photon coming in from below is transmitted.\n\nBULLET::::2. Both photons are transmitted.\n", "The light sent to our eyes by most of the objects we see is due to diffuse reflection from their surface, so that this is our primary mechanism of physical observation.\n\nSection::::Reflection of light.:Retroreflection.\n\nSome surfaces exhibit \"retroreflection\". The structure of these surfaces is such that light is returned in the direction from which it came.\n", "The average acceleration (due to many photon absorption events over time) of an atom with mass, formula_1, a cycling transition with frequency, formula_2, and linewidth, formula_3, that is in the presence of a laser beam that has wavenumber, formula_4, and intensity formula_5 (where formula_6 is the saturation intensity of the laser) is\n", "BULLET::::- A plane mirror forms a virtual image positioned behind the mirror. Although the rays of light seem to come from behind the mirror, light from the source only exists in front of the mirror. The image in a plane mirror is not magnified (that is, the image is the same size as the object) and appears to be as far behind the mirror as the object is in front of the mirror.\n", "In the experiments with Ne atoms, usually just fall down, when the MOT is suddenly switched off. Then, the speed of atoms is determined as formula_14, where formula_15 is acceleration of free fall, and formula_16 is distance from the MOT to the sample. In experiments described, this distance was of order of , providing the speed of order of . Then, the transversal wavenumber can be calculated as formula_17, where formula_18 is mass of the atom, and formula_19 is the Planck constant.\n", "In 1937 Hunter, as part of his research paper on gloss, described six different visual criteria attributed to apparent gloss. The following diagrams show the relationships between an incident beam of light, I, a specularly reflected beam, S, a diffusely reflected beam, D and a near-specularly reflected beam, B. \n\nBULLET::::- Specular gloss – the perceived brightness and the brilliance of highlights\n\nDefined as the ratio of the light reflected from a surface at an equal but opposite angle to that incident on the surface.\n\nBULLET::::- Sheen – the perceived shininess at low grazing angles\n", "BULLET::::2. The angular divergence of the photons, or how fast the beam spreads out\n\nBULLET::::3. The cross-sectional area of the beam\n\nBULLET::::4. The photons falling within a bandwidth (BW) of 0.1% of the central wavelength or frequency\n\nThe resulting formula is:\n\nThe greater the brilliance, the more photons of a given wavelength and direction are concentrated on a spot per unit of time.\n\nIn most x-ray literature, the units for brilliance appear as:\n\nSection::::Brilliance.:Brightness, intensity, and other terminology.\n", "The bomb tester works by employing an interferometer. When a photon is fired into the device, it encounters a half-silvered mirror positioned so as reflect the photon at a ninety-degree angle. There is a 50-50 chance it will be reflected or pass through. Due to the quantum properties of the photon, it both passes through the mirror and is reflected off of it.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-05656	How do food manufacturers work out the calorie and nutrient content in their foods?	To work out the calorific content of food, you can use something called a “bomb calorimeter”. This is basically a combustion chamber immersed in water. You burn up the food and measure the change in the water temperature, which tells you how much energy is in it. There are other tests for various nutrients. In reality though, they look up standard measures for the ingredients they add to the food and combine the values.	[ "Another approach commonly used by FCD compilers is to ‘borrow’ or ‘adopt’ nutrient values that were originally generated by another organisation. Possible sources for borrowed data: are FCD from other countries, nutrient analyses from scientific literature or manufacturers’ data (e.g. from food labels). Compilers will need to evaluate the data in terms of both data quality and applicability of foods before incorporating it from any of these sources into their FCDBs. For example, fortification values can differ between countries so a fortified breakfast cereal for one country’s FCD might not be appropriate for another country.\n\nSection::::Data evaluation and quality.\n", "Food Balance Sheet\n\nFood balance sheet shows a brief picture of the pattern of the food supply of a country. For each food item, it sketches the primary commodity availability for human consumption i.e. the sources of supply and its utilization in terms of nutrient value.\n", "Calculations for nutrient intake can be estimated via computerized software programs that multiply the reported frequency of each food by the amount of nutrient in a serving of that food. References databases commonly used for this purpose are listed below. Note that to estimate total nutrient intake, it is necessary to include dietary supplements in the FFQ and add the nutrient intake from these, particularly when dealing with populations where the consumption of dietary supplements is common.\n", "Nutrition analysis\n\nNutrition analysis refers to the process of determining the nutritional content of foods and food products. The process can be performed through a variety of certified methods.\n\nSection::::Methods.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Laboratory analysis.\n\nTraditionally, food companies would send food samples to laboratories for physical testing. \n\nTypical analysis includes:\n\nMoisture (water) by loss of mass at 102 °C,\n\nProtein by analysis of total nitrogen, either by Dumas or Kjeldahl methods,\n\nTotal fat, traditionally by a solvent extraction, but often now by secondary methods such as NMR,\n\nCrude ash (total inorganic matter) by combustion at 550C,\n", "The Nutrient Rich Food Index has been developed by a research coalition involving food and nutrition practitioners. This index uses nutrient profiles that have been validated against accepted measures of a healthy diet, such as the Healthy Eating Index created by the USDA.\n\nSection::::International standards.\n\nThe Nutrient Profiling Scoring Calculator (NPSC) in Australia and New Zealand is a calculator for determining whether health claims can be made for a food by its reference to the Nutrient Profiling Scoring Criterion (NPSC). It is defined by the FSANZ Board, which operates under the FSANZ Act.\n", "Section::::Chemical analysis.\n", "Developed by Adam Drewnowski, University of Washington, NNR \"is based on mean percentage daily values (DVs) for 14 nutrients in 2000 kcal food, can be used to assign nutrient density values to foods within and across food groups. Use of the NNR score allows consumers to identify and select nutrient-dense foods while permitting some flexibility where the discretionary calories are concerned.\"\n\nSection::::Systems in use today.:ReViVer Score.\n", "The label begins with a standard serving measurement, calories are listed second, and then following is a breakdown of the constituent elements. Always listed are total fat, sodium, carbohydrates and protein; the other nutrients usually shown may be suppressed, if they are zero. Usually all 15 nutrients are shown: calories, calories from fat, fat, saturated fat, trans fat, cholesterol, sodium, carbohydrates, dietary fiber, sugars, protein, vitamin A, vitamin C, calcium, and iron.\n", "Nutrition facts label\n\nThe nutrition facts label (also known as the nutrition information panel, and other slight variations) is a label required on most packaged food in many countries, showing what nutrients (to limit and get enough of) are in the food. Labels are usually based on official nutritional rating systems. Most countries also release overall nutrition guides for general educational purposes. In some cases, the guides are based on different dietary targets for various nutrients than the labels on specific foods.\n", "The United Kingdom Ofcom nutrient profiling model provides \"a single score for any given food product, based on calculating the number of points for ‘negative’ nutrients which can be offset by points for ‘positive’ nutrients.\" A 2007 UK-commissioned review of nutrient profiling models commissioned by the UK Food Standards Agency identified over 40 different schemes.\n\nThe World Health Organization reviews scientific and operational issues related to human nutrition, specifically when developing world populations are impacted.\n\nSection::::Criticism.\n\nThe following aspects of nutrient density measures have been criticized.\n\nSection::::Criticism.:Measuring in proportion to energy content.\n", "BULLET::::- Estimating values from other sources, including manufacturers food labels, scientific literature and FCDBs from other countries.\n\nSection::::Food composition dataset.:History.\n\nSome of the earliest work related to detecting adulterated foods and finding the active components of medicinal herbs.\n", "When the density is defined in proportion to energy contents, nutrient-dense foods such as fruits and vegetables are the opposite of energy-dense food (also called \"empty calorie\" food), such as alcohol and foods high in added sugar or processed cereals.\n\nThe Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics reported in 2013 that:\n\nSeveral indicators of nutrient quality have been summarized by the Academy.\n", "Table of food nutrients\n\nThe tables below include tabular lists for selected basic foods, compiled from United States Dept. of Agriculture (USDA) sources. Included for each food is its weight in grams, its calories, and (also in grams,) the amount of protein, carbohydrates, dietary fiber, fat, and saturated fat. As foods vary by brands and stores, the figures should only be considered estimates, with more exact figures often included on product labels. For precise details about vitamins and mineral contents, the USDA source can be used.\n", "In the UK, FCD are listed in tables known as The Chemical Composition of Foods, McCance and Widdowson (1940). FCDBs have become available online on the internet, for example, the USDA Dataset in the States, the Japanese food composition dataset and a number of European food composition datasets. Foods from these national FCDBs can be identified by International Food Code (IFC).\n", "BULLET::::- The United States Department of Agriculture Food and Nutrient Database for Dietary Studies (FNDDS), which in turn is based on the USDA National Nutrient Database. To incorporate the effect of dietary supplements, the USDA Dietary Supplement Integrated Database (DSID) can be used.\n\nBULLET::::- The University of Minnesota Nutrition Coordinating Center (NCC)'s Food and Nutrient Database.\n\nFor non-quantitative FFQs, nutrient intake cannot be calculated as accurately, but the FFQ can still be used to get a rough idea of nutrient consumption.\n\nSection::::Analysis of data.:Calculation of food groups consumed.\n", "In the United States, the Nutritional Facts label lists the percentage supplied that is recommended to be met, or to be limited, in one day of human nutrients based on a daily diet of 2,000 calories.\n", "With certain exceptions, such as foods meant for babies, the following Daily Values are used. These are called Reference Daily Intake (RDI) values and were originally based on the highest 1968 Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) for each nutrient in order to assure that the needs of all age and sex combinations were met. These are older than the current Recommended Dietary Allowances of the Dietary Reference Intake. For vitamin C, vitamin D, vitamin E, vitamin K, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and manganese, the current highest RDAs are up to 50% higher than the older Daily Values used in labeling, whereas for other nutrients the recommended needs have gone down. A side-by-side table of the old and new adult Daily Values is provided at Reference Daily Intake. As of October 2010, the only micronutrients that are required to be included on all labels are vitamin A, vitamin C, calcium, and iron. To determine the nutrient levels in the foods, companies may develop or use databases, and these may be submitted voluntarily to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for review.\n", "EAR U.S. Estimated Average Requirements.\n\nRDA U.S. Recommended Dietary Allowances; higher for adults than for children, and may be even higher for women who are pregnant or lactating.\n\nAI U.S. Adequate Intake; AIs established when there is not sufficient information to set EARs and RDAs.\n\nPRI Population Reference Intake is European Union equivalent of RDA; higher for adults than for children, and may be even higher for women who are pregnant or lactating. For Thiamin and Niacin the PRIs are expressed as amounts per MJ of calories consumed. MJ = megajoule = 239 food calories.\n", "Nutritional rating systems\n\nNutritional rating systems are methods of ranking or rating food products or food categories to communicate the nutritional value of food in a simplified manner to a target audience. Rating systems are developed by governments, nonprofit organizations, or private institutions and companies.\n\nThe methods may use point systems to rank or rate foods for general nutritional value or they may rate specific food attributes such as cholesterol content. Graphics or other symbols may be used to communicate the ratings to the target audience.\n", "This lists the percentage of each of the nutrients in the food. The minimum percent of crude protein and crude fat, the maximum percent of crude fiber, and moisture are always required. Note that \"crude\" refers to the analysis method, rather than the quality of the nutrient.\n\n5. Ingredient Statement:\n\nIngredients must be listed in order of predominance by weight, on an \"as formulated basis\". The ingredient that makes up the highest percentage of the total weight as it goes into the product is listed first.\n\n6. Nutritional Adequacy Statement:\n", "Daily Values used by the FDA for the following macronutrients are Daily Reference Values.\n", "Estimated dietary fibre by various AOAC methods such as 985.29,\n\nSodium (and thereby Salt) either by flame photometry, AA or ICP-OES,\n\nTotal sugars, normally by a liquid chromatography technique, such as IC-HPAED or HPLC-RI,\n\nFatty acids by GC-FID,\n\nCarbohydrates and energy values are normally calculated from these analytical values.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Software.\n\nSoftware is available as an alternative to laboratory nutrition analysis. This software typically utilizes a database of ingredients that have previously been laboratory tested. The user can input ingredient data by matching their ingredients to ingredients found in the database; the analysis can then be calculated.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Online nutrition analysis.\n", "Section::::Systems in use today.:Nutrient Per Calorie.\n\nDeveloped by Efficiency Is Everything, a Data Science website. This expresses the amount of micronutrients in produce per the caloric value based on 40+ vitamins and minerals. Based off a sum of each nutrient vs that nutrients maximum value per calorie, Spinach, Parsely, Romaine Lettuce, and turnip greens top the list. This allows consumers to compare the nutritional quality of various produce.\n\nSection::::Systems used in the past.\n\nSection::::Systems used in the past.:Smart Choices Program.\n", "Over the course of her career, Holden published over 100 papers on food composition data production, collection, management, and documentation and nutrition analysis. Holden and her colleagues from the Agricultural Research Service's Nutrient Data Laboratory published 31 papers in the JFCA (Journal of Food Composition and Analysis). Holden was listed as an ISI Highly Cited researcher in 2014, meaning that she ranked among the top 1% most cited researchers in the field of agricultural science.\n", "In addition to its web site, the company also produces personal computer software and several popular books. Many of its products are based on the CalorieKing food database, which claims to contain over 100,000 foods in the American version and 20,000 foods in the Australian version.\n\nSection::::History.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-17075	At the end of Wind River a title card states that missing-persons statistics are kept for every demographic group except for Native American women, whose numbers remain unknown. Can someone explain why?	Many Native Americans live on reservations and live in a weird gray world of conflicting laws. The reservations were made to give them independence (or just off land people wanted... regardless) so many local laws to actually pertain to them as they have their own judicial and criminal systems. However some federal laws do apply to them that they have to comply with. This tends to leave a lot of gaps in terms of what people can get away with. Generally missing persons are handled by a local police officer from where the person is missing. However if a Native goes missing on a reservation land it probably falls under reservation authority and they may not keep the same records a standard police office would and thus they would not be captured in national data.	[ "There have also been cases of missing persons reports being accidentally purged from databases, leading to those persons becoming unreported missing.\n\nSection::::Risks.\n\nBeing unreported puts a person at a higher risk of exploitation than a person who is reported missing. Of the approximately 2,340 unreported missing foster children in the US (in 2002) who are not accounted for, it is estimated that 468 will be the victim of a homicide.\n\nSection::::Notable cases.\n\nBULLET::::- Barbara Precht, discovered in 2006 and was not identified until late 2014. She was never reported missing by her husband.\n", "One aspect of this registry that is not covered is the cases of unreported missing persons when there is a history of family estrangement. Due to the nature of the registry, families who have had a problematic relationship with someone who is abusive or has drug or mental problems and do not want anything to do with the Unreported Missing person, would not be likely to fill in the form and thus leaves out a large part of the unreported missing population from the research.\n\nSection::::Social Programs.:The Perception Project.\n", "The registry takes data relating to the reasons why the missing person could not be registered with Law Enforcement. It also keeps a record of the missing persons' state of mind and health at the time of disappearance. Other details contained in their registry form are whether the person had children, if they had known drug issues and whether they were homeless or institutionalized at the time of disappearance.\n", "Missing in America\n\nMissing in America is a 2005 drama film, directed, produced, and written by Gabrielle Savage Dockterman. It is based on a story by Ken Miller, a former Green Beret who was a helicopter pilot in the Vietnam War. The film debuted at the Seattle International Film Festival in May 2005.\n\nSection::::Plot.\n", "The Native Women's Association of Canada's (NWAC) database which they created with federal funding in 2005 to track, 2010 reported in 2010 that from the 1960s to 2010 there were 582.4 missing and murdered. This was the first time a number had been given based on research. but they believe there are many more.\n", "According to a February 16, 2016 CBC News article, Canada's minister for the status of women, Patty Hajdu said that, based on the Native Women's Association of Canada (NWAC) report, and originally collected by the 2008 Walk 4 Justice initiative, the estimated number of Indigenous women and girls who have gone missing or have been murdered in Canada since the 1970s is uncertain, could be as high as 4,000. The RCMP report estimated the number was approximately 1,000. CBC News reported on February 16, 2016 that, \"Activists working for the Walk 4 Justice initiative started collecting the names of indigenous women who are missing or murdered — they stopped counting when they got to 4,232.\" Hajdu said that historically there had been under-reporting by law enforcement of cases of murdered or missing Indigenous women.\n", "In Salt Lake City, Utah, a filed missing persons report led to additional criminal leads which included an outstanding warrant for drug-related crimes pertaining to \"Marilee Joann Borden\" in conjunction with the discovery of a deceased person. Third parties are also available in the United States, but can be expensive yielding limited results. These resources are in the form of bounty hunters and private investigators.\n\nSection::::Laws and statistics by country.:United States.:Background and statistics.\n", "In 2011, daily management of the NamUs program was transitioned to the University of North Texas Health Science Center, with continued administration and oversight by the National Institute of Justice. Management through the Center for Human Identification at the university enhanced NamUs's ability to facilitate DNA services and enhanced the quality and quantity of DNA information entered into NamUs.\n", "Over 600,000 individuals go missing in the United States every year. Many missing children and adults are quickly found, alive and well. However, tens of thousands of individuals remain missing for more than one year – what many agencies consider “cold cases”. A 2004 Bureau of Justice Statistics study found that each year, 4,400 unidentified bodies are recovered in the United States, with approximately 1,000 of those bodies remaining unidentified after one year. On June 15, 2018, there were over 14,000 missing person cases and over 12,000 unidentified person cases published in NamUs. The number of missing and unidentified remains in the United States has been deemed our nation's silent \"mass disaster over time\".\n", "Similar to Canada's situation, specific data on Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women (MMIW) in the United States has also been difficult to gather. Contributing to this difficulty is the fact that many times when Indigenous women and girls go missing, or when Indigenous murder victims are unidentified, forensic evidence has not been accurately collected or preserved by local law enforcement. Cases have been allowed to quickly go \"cold\", and crucial evidence has been \"lost\", or never forwarded on from local law enforcement to the appropriate agencies.\n", "From 2010 to 2018, in the US urban communities where most incidents occur, 71 communities were observed and data gathered. In those 71 cities 506 cases were reported. Of the 506 cases, 128 or 25% were reported missing, 280 or 56% were murdered, and 98 or 19% are still unknown.\n", "According to a database compiled as part of a 2013 PhD thesis, from 1946 to 2013, there were 824 missing or murdered Indigenous women identified. The RCMP's 2014 National Overview said that the \"number grew to almost 1,200 between 1980 and 2012.\"\n", "This registry is for families who have not been able to register their missing loved ones in any official lists. The aim of the registry is to gather actual data that can be used as case studies for policy making as well as training of Law Enforcement and other related agencies and the future development of prevention strategies.\n", "The term applies whether the missing person is a child or an adult. \"Unreported\" means the missing person is not part of the National Crime Information Center database of missing persons.\n\nPeople can become Kids Off The Grid or \"unreported missing\" for a variety of reasons, including:\n\nBULLET::::- the lost/missing person may be estranged from family or friends.\n\nBULLET::::- law enforcement may not take a \"missing\" report, or will stop investigations if they believe that the person is \"voluntarily missing\".\n\nBULLET::::- the lost/missing person may be in this country illegally.\n", "Various groups have collected data from different periods of time and different criteria. Available data suggests, however, that the number of missing and murdered Indigenous women is disproportionately high compared to their percentage of the total population.\n", "Section::::History of NamUs.\n", "Between 1992-1996, even though Indigenous women experienced similar or more rates of assault and crime, they were less likely to be reported.\n\nAs these cases go unreported, it allowed violence and murder to be inaccurately represented in statistical data against Indigenous women, but it has also allowed aggressors to go unpunished. Multiple groups have attempted to represent more accurate statistic or bring to light the lack of record keeping by law enforcement, such as the Bureau of Justice Statistics.\n", "In late 2013, the Commissioner of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) initiated a study of reported cases of missing and murdered Indigenous women across all police jurisdictions in Canada. The result of the inquiry was a 2014 report which was ordered by the Stephen Harper administration, which said that 1,181 Indigenous women were killed or went missing across the country between 1980 and 2012. The report entitled \"Missing and Murdered Aboriginal Women: A National Operational Overview\", was released on May 27, 2014 and covered the period from 1951. The 2014 National Operational Overview reported that, over a 33 year period (1980-2012) there were 1,181 incidents, there were 225 unsolved cases. Eighty per cent of all female homicides (Indigenous and non-Indigenous) were solved. Of the cases analyzed by the RCMP, 67% were murder victims, 20% were missing persons, 4% were suspicious deaths, and 9% were unknown.\n", "Another example is of children born to homeless or otherwise unreliable mothers. These children are sometimes not registered anywhere and can become victims of crimes such as human trafficking or forced prostitution without any of their other relatives or local agencies knowing. A study by Professor Kenna Quinet states that the \"most successful serial killers know to select the unmissed as victims if they intend to kill for an extended period of time\", referring to serial killers targeting transient people, as well as those in institutionalized care, because their absence is not easily noticed.\n", "Rain (Georgina Lightning), is a Native American woman living on the Fond-du-Lac reservation in Minnesota. One day, after she swerves to avoid some children in the road and winds up in a car accident, she finds out some of the children she's been seeing running around the community are not living children, but the spirits of dead children. The unquiet dead are the little girls and boys who were murdered at the Indian boarding school that used to kidnap, institutionalize, and abuse children in the community. \n", "Section::::US initiatives.\n\nActivism and proposed legislation has drawn the issue of MMIW to the attention of some lawmakers. In 2018 and 2019 many US states, including Washington, Minnesota, and Arizona have begun to take steps toward passing legislation to increase awareness of this issue and take steps toward building databases to reflect accurate statistics regarding missing and murdered indigenous women and girls.\n\nCurrently, the federal laws surrounding violent crimes create difficulties in dealing with non-Native perpetrators on native lands.\n", "According to Sen, \"These numbers tell us, quietly, a terrible story of inequality and neglect leading to the excess mortality of women.\"\n\nSection::::The problem and prevalence.:Estimates.\n\nSince Sen's original research, continued research in the field has led to varying estimates on the total numbers of missing women. Much of this variation is because of underlying assumptions for \"normal\" birth sex ratios and expected post-birth mortality rates for men and women.\n", "Some of the most widely covered missing person cases have been kidnappings of children by strangers; however these instances are rare. In most parts of the world, criminal abductions make up only a small percentage of missing person cases and, in turn, most of these abductions are by someone who knows the child (such as a non-custodial parent). A child staying too long with a non-custodial parent can be enough to qualify as an abduction. During the year 1999 in the United States, there were 800,000 reported missing children cases. Of these, 203,900 children were reported as the victims of family abductions and 58,200 of non-family abductions. However, only 115 were the result of \"stereotypical\" kidnaps (by someone unknown or of slight acquaintance to the child, taking them a long distance with intent to murder or to hold them permanently or for ransom).\n", "The high profile of the BC investigation caused other Canadian jurisdictions to create new task forces to deal with missing persons cold cases. Often these cases involve marginalized women, including sex workers, drug users, and Aboriginals. In Manitoba, Project Devote was looking for 28 people . Since 2003, Project KARE has been looking for \"cases of murdered or missing high risk persons from all parts of Alberta\".\n\nSection::::Criticism.\n", "In 2003, the National Institute of Justice began funding major efforts to maximize the use of DNA technology in the US criminal justice system, including in the investigation of missing and unidentified person cases. By 2005, the institute expanded its efforts with the “Identifying the Missing Summit”, where criminal justice practitioners, forensic scientists, policymakers, and victim advocates defined major challenges in investigating and solving missing and unidentified decedent cases. As a result of that summit, the Deputy Attorney General created the National Missing Persons Task Force, which identified the need to improve access to information that would help solve missing and unidentified person cases. The National Missing and Unidentified Persons System (NamUs) was created to meet that need.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01266	If we get uranium from the earth, why is nuclear waste such a big deal?	Because nuclear waste is not just leftover uranium. Regular uranium is fairly stable and harmless, but the waste after splitting it is not. It is highly radioactive, damaging to humans and all other life. Just like oil also comes from the ground, but when burned to CO2 it's a harmful greenhouse gas.	[ "Governments around the world are considering a range of waste management and disposal options, usually involving deep-geologic placement, although there has been limited progress toward implementing long-term waste management solutions. This is partly because the timeframes in question when dealing with radioactive waste range from 10,000 to millions of years, according to studies based on the effect of estimated radiation doses.\n", "Issues entirely separate from the question of the sustainability of nuclear fuel, relate to the use of nuclear fuel and the high-level radioactive waste the nuclear industry generates that if not properly contained, is highly hazardous to people and wildlife. The United Nations (UNSCEAR) estimated in 2008 that average annual human radiation exposure includes 0.01 millisievert (mSv) from the legacy of past atmospheric nuclear testing plus the Chernobyl disaster and the nuclear fuel cycle, along with 2.0 mSv from natural radioisotopes and 0.4 mSv from cosmic rays; all exposures vary by location. natural uranium in some inefficient reactor nuclear fuel cycles, becomes part of the nuclear waste \"once through\" stream, and in a similar manner to the scenario were this uranium remained naturally in the ground, this uranium emits various forms of radiation in a decay chain that has a half-life of about 4.5 billion years, the storage of this unused uranium and the accompanying fission reaction products have raised public concerns about risks of leaks and containment, however the knowledge gained from studying the Natural nuclear fission reactor in Oklo Gabon, has informed geologists on the proven processes that kept the waste from this 2 billion year old natural nuclear reactor that operated for hundreds of thousands of years. \n", "Nuclear power provides about 6% of the world's energy and 13–14% of the world's electricity. Nuclear energy production is associated with potentially dangerous radioactive contamination as it relies upon unstable elements. In particular, nuclear power facilities produce about 200,000 metric tons of low and intermediate level waste (LILW) and 10,000 metric tons of high level waste (HLW) (including spent fuel designated as waste) each year worldwide.\n", "Section::::Uranium in Ground and Surface Water in Canada.\n", "Section::::Waste streams.\n\nNuclear power has at least three waste streams that may impact the environment:\n\nBULLET::::1. [[Spent nuclear fuel]] at the reactor site (including [[Nuclear fission product\|fissicoalon products]] and [[plutonium]] waste)\n\nBULLET::::2. [[Tailings]] and waste rock at [[uranium]] mining mills\n\nBULLET::::3. Releases of ill-defined quantities of radioactive materials during [[Nuclear accidents\|accidents]]\n\nSection::::Radioactive waste.\n\nSection::::Radioactive waste.:High-level waste.\n", "[[File:LEUPowder.jpg\|thumb\|250px\|A drum of yellowcake]]\n\n[[File:Arandis Mine quer.jpg\|thumb\|[[Rössing Uranium Mine\|Rössing]] open pit uranium mine, Namibia]]\n\nUranium mining is the process of extraction of [[uranium]] ore from the ground. The worldwide production of uranium in 2009 amounted to 50,572 [[tonne]]s. [[Kazakhstan]], [[Canada]], and [[Australia]] are the top three producers and together account for 63% of world uranium production. A prominent use of uranium from mining is as fuel for [[nuclear power plant]]s. The mining and milling of uranium present significant dangers to the environment.\n", "Disposal of these wastes in engineered facilities, or repositories, located deep underground in suitable geologic formations is seen as the reference solution. The [[International Panel on Fissile Materials]] has said:\n", "The spent nuclear fuel from [[uranium-235]] and [[plutonium-239]] nuclear fission contains a wide variety of [[carcinogen]]ic [[radionuclide]] [[isotope]]s such as [[strontium-90]], [[iodine-131]] and [[caesium-137]], and includes some of the most long-lived [[Transuranium element\|transuranic elements]] such as [[americium-241]] and isotopes of [[plutonium]]. The most long-lived radioactive wastes, including spent nuclear fuel, are usually managed to be contained and isolated from the environment for a long period of time. Spent nuclear fuel storage is mostly a problem in the United States, following a 1977 President [[Jimmy Carter]] prohibition to nuclear fuel recycling. France, Great Britain and Japan, are some of the countries which rejected the repository solution. Spent nuclear fuel is a valuable asset, not simply waste.\n", "Ernest J. Moniz, a professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the current United States Secretary of Energy, testified in 2009 that an abundance of uranium had put into question plans to reprocess spent nuclear fuel. The reprocessing plans dated from decades previous, when uranium was thought to be scarce. But now, \"roughly speaking, we’ve got uranium coming out of our ears, for a long, long time,\" Professor Moniz said.\n\nSection::::Possible effects and consequences.\n", "BULLET::::- The world's endowment of uranium ore is now so depleted that the nuclear industry will never, from its own resources, be able to generate the energy it needs to clear up its own backlog of waste.\n", "Mining of uranium ore can disrupt the environment around the mine. Disposal of spent fuel is controversial, with many proposed long-term storage schemes under intense review and criticism. Diversion of fresh or spent fuel to weapons production presents a risk of nuclear proliferation. Finally, the structure of the reactor itself becomes radioactive and will require decades of storage before it can be economically dismantled and in turn disposed of as waste.\n\nSection::::Renewable energy.\n", "\"There should be no commitment to a large programme of nuclear fission power until it has been demonstrated beyond reasonable doubt that a method exists to ensure the safe containment of longlived, highly radioactive waste for the indefinite future.\"\n", "Depleted uranium is widely available as a feedstock. Stockpiles in the United States currently contain approximately 700,000 metric tons, which is a byproduct of the enrichment process. TerraPower has estimated that the Paducah enrichment facility stockpile alone represents an energy resource equivalent to $100 trillion worth of electricity. TerraPower has also estimated that wide deployment of TWRs could enable projected global stockpiles of depleted uranium to sustain 80% of the world's population at U.S. per capita energy usages for over a millennium.\n", "Claims exist that the problems of nuclear waste do not come anywhere close to approaching the problems of fossil fuel waste. A 2004 article from the BBC states: \"The World Health Organization (WHO) says 3 million people are killed worldwide by outdoor air pollution annually from vehicles and industrial emissions, and 1.6 million indoors through using solid fuel.\" In the U.S. alone, fossil fuel waste kills 20,000 people each year. A coal power plant releases 100 times as much radiation as a nuclear power plant of the same wattage. It is estimated that during 1982, US coal burning released 155 times as much radioactivity into the atmosphere as the Three Mile Island incident. In addition, fossil fuel waste causes global warming, which leads to increased deaths from hurricanes, flooding, and other weather events. The World Nuclear Association provides a comparison of deaths due to accidents among different forms of energy production. In their comparison, deaths per TW-yr of electricity produced from 1970 to 1992 are quoted as 885 for hydropower, 342 for coal, 85 for natural gas, and 8 for nuclear.\n", "One tonne of nuclear waste also reduces CO emission by 25 million tonnes.\n\nGovernments around the world are considering a range of waste management and disposal options, usually involving deep-geologic placement, although there has been limited progress toward implementing long-term waste management solutions. This is partly because the timeframes in question when dealing with radioactive waste range from 10,000 to millions of years, according to studies based on the effect of estimated radiation doses.\n", "Section::::Sources.:Nuclear fuel cycle.:Proliferation concerns.\n\nSince uranium and plutonium are nuclear weapons materials, there have been proliferation concerns. Ordinarily (in spent nuclear fuel), plutonium is reactor-grade plutonium. In addition to plutonium-239, which is highly suitable for building nuclear weapons, it contains large amounts of undesirable contaminants: plutonium-240, plutonium-241, and plutonium-238. These isotopes are extremely difficult to separate, and more cost-effective ways of obtaining fissile material exist (e.g., uranium enrichment or dedicated plutonium production reactors).\n", "Governments around the world are considering a range of waste management and disposal options, usually involving deep-geologic placement, although there has been limited progress toward implementing long-term waste management solutions. This is partly because the timeframes in question when dealing with radioactive waste range from 10,000 to millions of years, according to studies based on the effect of estimated radiation doses.\n", "There are additional concerns that the transportation of nuclear waste along roadways or railways opens it up for potential theft. The United Nations has since called upon world leaders to improve security in order to prevent radioactive material falling into the hands of terrorists, and such fears have been used as justifications for centralized, permanent, and secure waste repositories and increased security along transportation routes.\n", "In the second half of the 20th century, several methods of disposal of radioactive waste were investigated by nuclear nations, which are :\n\nBULLET::::- \"Long term above ground storage\", not implemented.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Disposal in outer space\" (for instance, inside the Sun), not implemented - as it would be currently too expensive.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Deep borehole disposal\", not implemented.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rock-melting\", not implemented.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Disposal at subduction zones\", not implemented.\n", "The greenhouse gas emissions from nuclear fission power are much smaller than those associated with coal, oil and gas, and the routine health risks are much smaller than those associated with coal. However, there is a \"catastrophic risk\" potential if containment fails, which in nuclear reactors can be brought about by overheated fuels melting and releasing large quantities of fission products into the environment. This potential risk could wipe out the benefits. The most long-lived radioactive wastes, including spent nuclear fuel, must be contained and isolated from the environment for a long period of time. On the other side, spent nuclear fuel could be reused, yielding even more energy, and reducing the amount of waste to be contained. The public has been made sensitive to these risks and there has been considerable [[Anti-nuclear movement\|public opposition ,so because of that it may impact our day to day life it splits the viral fever because of petrol and coal factorys\n", "In 2009, the Obama administration announced that the Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository would no longer be considered the answer for U.S. civilian nuclear waste. Currently, there is no plan for disposing of the waste and plants will be required to keep the waste on the plant premises indefinitely.\n\nThe disposal of low level waste reportedly costs around £2,000/m³ in the UK. High level waste costs somewhere between £67,000/m³ and £201,000/m³. General division is 80%/20% of low level/high level waste, and one reactor produces roughly 12 m³ of high level waste annually.\n", "The use of nuclear technology relying on fission requires Naturally occurring radioactive material as fuel. Uranium, the most common fission fuel, and is present in the ground at relatively low concentrations and mined in 19 countries. This mined uranium is used to fuel energy-generating nuclear reactors with fissionable uranium-235 which generates heat that is ultimately used to power turbines to generate electricity.\n", "Uranium mining is the process of extraction of uranium ore from the ground. A prominent use of uranium from mining is as fuel for nuclear power plants. After mining uranium ores, they are normally processed by grinding the ore materials to a uniform particle size and then treating the ore to extract the uranium by chemical leaching. The milling process commonly yields dry powder-form material consisting of natural uranium, \"yellowcake\", which is sold on the uranium market as UO, and uranium mining can use large amounts of water.\n", "BULLET::::- Extensive studies consistently show Yucca Mountain to be a sound site for nuclear waste disposal\n\nBULLET::::- The cost of not moving forward is extremely high\n\nBULLET::::- Nuclear waste disposal capability is an environmental imperative\n\nBULLET::::- Nuclear waste disposal capability supports national security\n\nBULLET::::- Demand for new nuclear plants also demands disposal capability\n", "In the United States, as of 2008, uranium ore reserves are primarily kept in Wyoming and New Mexico, totaling an estimated one billion, 227 million pounds. This uranium ore will be turned into fuel that will be used in the operation of nuclear power plants, creating low-levels of radioactive waste. \"Spent\" uranium fuel becomes radioactive waste as a result of the fission process. This \"spent\" fuel must be removed and replaced from nuclear power plants every 18 to 24 months; it is then shipped to specifically designed and licensed disposal sites. The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission and the U.S. Department of Transportation carefully control and regulate the management, packing, transport, and disposal of waste.\n" ]	[ "Nuclear waste should not be a big deal because it is just uranium which comes from the Earth.", "If uranium is obtained from the Earth, nuclear waste shouldn't be a big deal. " ]	[ "Uranium waste is radioactive and not safe for humans because the radiation.", "Nuclear waste isn't exclusively leftover uranium, regular uranium is fairly stable and harmless, but the waste is not harmless as it causes much damage to humans and other life." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Nuclear waste should not be a big deal because it is just uranium which comes from the Earth.", "If uranium is obtained from the Earth, nuclear waste shouldn't be a big deal. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Uranium waste is radioactive and not safe for humans because the radiation.", "Nuclear waste isn't exclusively leftover uranium, regular uranium is fairly stable and harmless, but the waste is not harmless as it causes much damage to humans and other life." ]
2018-02222	Why does water evaporate all the time on a normal day when it's boiling point is 100°C?	Evaporation of liquids into the atmosphere is a normal process that slowly takes place at any temperature. Individual molecules near the surface will occasionally escape away into the atmosphere, but below the liquid's boiling point, air pushes down on the liquid harder than the liquid pushes back, so evaporation is limited and slow. As the liquid heats, its molecules have more kinetic energy and start pushing against each other and against the air with more force. The boiling point is defined as the temperature at which the liquid and air are pushing against each other with equal force. At this point liquid molecules will very quickly start escaping into the air. The boiling point of a liquid is actually not a constant number either. Water boils at 100C at sea level. At higher altitudes the atmosphere is thinner and pushes down on the liquid with less force, so the boiling temperature lowers. This is why you'll often see special "high altitude" baking instructions for cakes and the like.	[ "At room temperature and pressure, the water jar reaches equilibrium when the air over the water has a humidity of about 3%. This percentage increases as the temperature goes up. At 100 °C and atmospheric pressure, equilibrium is not reached until the air is 100% water. If the liquid is heated a little over 100 °C, the transition from liquid to gas will occur not only at the surface, but throughout the liquid volume: the water boils.\n\nSection::::Number of phases.\n", "where \"P\", \"P\" are the vapor pressures at temperatures \"T\", \"T\" respectively, Δ\"H\" is the enthalpy of vaporization, and \"R\" is the universal gas constant. The rate of evaporation in an open system is related to the vapor pressure found in a closed system. If a liquid is heated, when the vapor pressure reaches the ambient pressure the liquid will boil.\n", "BULLET::::- STP conditions imply a temperature of 0 °C, at which the ability of water to become vapor is very restricted. Its concentration in air is very low at 0 °C. The red line on the chart to the right is the maximum concentration of water vapor expected for a given temperature. The water vapor concentration increases significantly as the temperature rises, approaching 100% (steam, pure water vapor) at 100 °C. However the difference in densities between air and water vapor would still exist (0.598 vs. 1.27 g/l).\n\nSection::::Properties.:Impact on air density.:At equal temperatures.\n", "Data in the table above is given for water–steam equilibria at various temperatures over the entire temperature range at which liquid water can exist. Pressure of the equilibrium is given in the second column in kPa. The third column is the heat content of each gram of the liquid phase relative to water at 0 °C. The fourth column is the heat of vaporization of each gram of liquid that changes to vapor. The fifth column is the work \"P\"Δ\"V\" done by each gram of liquid that changes to vapor. The sixth column is the density of the vapor.\n", "Boiling is the rapid vaporization of a liquid, which occurs when a liquid is heated to its boiling point, the temperature at which the vapour pressure of the liquid is equal to the pressure exerted on the liquid by the surrounding atmosphere. There are two main types of boiling: nucleate boiling where small bubbles of vapour form at discrete points, and critical heat flux boiling where the boiling surface is heated above a certain critical temperature and a film of vapor forms on the surface. Transition boiling is an intermediate, unstable form of boiling with elements of both types. The boiling point of water is 100 °C or 212 °F but is lower with the decreased atmospheric pressure found at higher altitudes.\n", "Chemists often use the phrase \"standard temperature and pressure\" or \"STP\" to convey that they are working at a temperature of 25 °C and one atmosphere of pressure. There are three states of matter under these conditions: solids, liquids, and gases. Although all three are distinct states, both solids and gases can dissolve (or disperse) in liquids. The most commonly occurring liquid in the biosphere is water. All components of the atmosphere are capable of dissolving in water to some degree. The bulk of the stable natural components of the atmosphere are nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, gaseous water, argon, and other trace gases. \n", "Some science suggests adding a water-soluble substance, such as salt or sugar also increases the boiling point. This is called boiling-point elevation. At palatable concentrations of salt, the effect is very small, and the boiling point elevation is difficult to notice and this is why experiments to prove this are considered inconclusive. However, while making thick sugar syrup, such as for Gulab Jamun, one will notice boiling point elevation. Due to variations in composition and pressure, the boiling point of water is almost never exactly 100 °C, but rather close enough for cooking.\n", "In the following table, material data are given for standard pressure of 0.1 MPa (equivalent to 1 bar). Up to 99.63 °C (the boiling point of water at 0.1 MPa), at this pressure water exists as a liquid. Above that, it exists as water vapor. Note that the boiling point of 100.0 °C is at a pressure of 0.101325 MPa (1 atm), which is the average atmospheric pressure.\n\nSection::::Additional data translated from German \"Wasser (Stoffdaten)\" page.:Physical and thermodynamic tables.:Triple point.\n", "Under certain conditions, such as when the boiling temperature of water is reached, a net evaporation will always occur during standard atmospheric conditions regardless of the percent of relative humidity. This immediate process will dispel massive amounts of water vapor into a cooler atmosphere.\n", "When the relative increase in the temperature difference is balanced by the relative reduction in the heat transfer coefficient, a maximum heat flux is achieved as observed by the peak in the graph. This is the critical heat flux. At this point in the maximum, considerable vapor is being formed, making it difficult for the liquid to continuously wet the surface to receive heat from the surface. This causes the heat flux to reduce after this point. At extremes, film boiling commonly known as the Leidenfrost effect is observed.\n", "Section::::Cloud formation: how the air becomes saturated.:Supersaturation.\n\nThe amount of water that can exist as vapor in a given volume increases with the temperature. When the amount of water vapor is in equilibrium above a flat surface of water the level of vapor pressure is called saturation and the relative humidity is 100%. At this equilibrium there are equal numbers of molecules evaporating from the water as there are condensing back into the water. If the relative humidity becomes greater than 100%, it is called supersaturated. Supersaturation occurs in the absence of condensation nuclei.\n", "Gaseous solutes exhibit more complex behavior with temperature. As the temperature is raised, gases usually become less soluble in water (to minimum, which is below 120 °C for most permanent gases), but more soluble in organic solvents.\n", "The following table is based on different, complementary sources and approximation formulas, whose values are of various quality and accuracy. The values in the temperature range of −100 °C to 100 °C were inferred from D. Sunday (1982) and are quite uniform and exact. The values in the temperature range of the boiling point of water up to the critical point (100 °C to 374 °C) are drawn from different sources and are substantially less accurate; hence they should be used only as approximate values.\n\nTo use the values correctly, consider the following points:\n", "The amount of water vapor in an atmosphere is constrained by the restrictions of partial pressures and temperature. Dew point temperature and relative humidity act as guidelines for the process of water vapor in the water cycle. Energy input, such as sunlight, can trigger more evaporation on an ocean surface or more sublimation on a chunk of ice on top of a mountain. The \"balance\" between condensation and evaporation gives the quantity called vapor partial pressure.\n", "Boiling is also a phase transition from the liquid phase to gas phase, but boiling is the formation of vapor as bubbles of vapor \"below the surface\" of the liquid. Boiling occurs when the equilibrium vapor pressure of the substance is greater than or equal to the environmental pressure. The temperature at which boiling occurs is the boiling temperature, or boiling point. The boiling point varies with the pressure of the environment.\n", "Since the saturation vapor pressure is proportional to temperature, cold air has a lower saturation point than warm air. The difference between these values is the basis for the formation of clouds. When saturated air cools, it can no longer contain the same amount of water vapor. If the conditions are right, the excess water will condense out of the air until the lower saturation point is reached. Another possibility is that the water stays in vapor form, even though it is beyond the saturation point, resulting in supersaturation.\n", "A number of chemical reactions have water as a product. If the reactions take place at temperatures higher than the dew point of the surrounding air the water will be formed as vapor and increase the local humidity, if below the dew point local condensation will occur. Typical reactions that result in water formation are the burning of hydrogen or hydrocarbons in air or other oxygen containing gas mixtures, or as a result of reactions with oxidizers.\n", "Liquids may change to a vapor at temperatures below their boiling points through the process of evaporation. Evaporation is a surface phenomenon in which molecules located near the liquid's edge, not contained by enough liquid pressure on that side, escape into the surroundings as vapor. On the other hand, boiling is a process in which molecules anywhere in the liquid escape, resulting in the formation of vapor bubbles within the liquid.\n\nSection::::Saturation temperature and pressure.\n", "Section::::Table of specific latent heats.\n\nThe following table shows the specific latent heats and change of phase temperatures (at standard pressure) of some common fluids and gases.\n\nSection::::Specific latent heat for condensation of water in clouds.\n\nThe specific latent heat of condensation of water in the temperature range from −25 °C to 40 °C is approximated by the following empirical cubic function:\n\nwhere the temperature formula_4 is taken to be the numerical value in °C.\n", "In the following table, material data are given with a pressure of 611.7 Pa (equivalent to 0.006117 bar). Up to a temperature of 0.01 °C, the triple point of water, water normally exists as ice, except for supercooled water, for which one data point is tabulated here. At the triple point, ice can exist together with both liquid water and vapor. At higher temperatures, the data are for water vapor only.\n\nSection::::Additional data translated from German \"Wasser (Stoffdaten)\" page.:Saturated vapor pressure.\n", "As can be seen from the above plot of the logarithm of the vapor pressure vs. the temperature for any given pure chemical compound, its normal boiling point can serve as an indication of that compound's overall volatility. A given pure compound has only one normal boiling point, if any, and a compound's normal boiling point and melting point can serve as characteristic physical properties for that compound, listed in reference books. The higher a compound's normal boiling point, the less volatile that compound is overall, and conversely, the lower a compound's normal boiling point, the more volatile that compound is overall. Some compounds decompose at higher temperatures before reaching their normal boiling point, or sometimes even their melting point. For a stable compound, the boiling point ranges from its triple point to its critical point, depending on the external pressure. Beyond its triple point, a compound's normal boiling point, if any, is higher than its melting point. Beyond the critical point, a compound's liquid and vapor phases merge into one phase, which may be called a superheated gas. At any given temperature, if a compound's normal boiling point is lower, then that compound will generally exist as a gas at atmospheric external pressure. If the compound's normal boiling point is higher, then that compound can exist as a liquid or solid at that given temperature at atmospheric external pressure, and will so exist in equilibrium with its vapor (if volatile) if its vapors are contained. If a compound's vapors are not contained, then some volatile compounds can eventually evaporate away in spite of their higher boiling points.\n", "These results led to the problem of how new phases can ever arise from old ones. For example, if a container filled with water vapour at slightly below the saturation pressure is suddenly cooled, perhaps by adiabatic expansion, as in a cloud chamber, the vapour may become supersaturated with respect to liquid water. It is then in a metastable state, and we may expect condensation to take place. A reasonable molecular model of condensation would seem to be that two or three molecules of water vapour come together to form a tiny droplet, and that this nucleus of condensation then grows by accretion, as additional vapour molecules happen to hit it. The Kelvin equation, however, indicates that a tiny droplet like this nucleus, being only a few ångströms in diameter, would have a vapour pressure many times that of the bulk liquid. As far as tiny nuclei are concerned, the vapour would not be supersaturated at all. Such nuclei should immediately re-evaporate, and the emergence of a new phase at the equilibrium pressure, or even moderately above it should be impossible. Hence, the over-saturation must be several times higher than the normal saturation value for spontaneous nucleation to occur.\n", "A naturally occurring example of non-biological kinetic fractionation occurs during the evaporation of seawater to form clouds under conditions in which some part of the transport is unidirectional, such as evaporation into very dry air . In this instance, isotopically lighter water molecules (i.e., those with O) will evaporate slightly more easily than will the isotopically heavier water molecules with O, and this difference will be greater than it would be if the evaporation was taking place under equilibrium conditions (with bidirectional transport).\n", "If the vapor then condenses to a liquid on a surface, then the vapor's latent energy absorbed during evaporation is released as the liquid's sensible heat onto the surface.\n\nThe large value of the enthalpy of condensation of water vapor is the reason that steam is a far more effective heating medium than boiling water, and is more hazardous.\n\nSection::::Usage.:Meteorology.\n", "Evaporation is a phase transition from the liquid phase to vapor (a state of substance below critical temperature) that occurs at temperatures below the boiling temperature at a given pressure. Evaporation occurs \"on the surface\". Evaporation only occurs when the partial pressure of vapor of a substance is less than the equilibrium vapor pressure. For example, due to constantly decreasing or negative pressures, vapor pumped out of a solution will leave behind a cryogenic liquid.\n" ]	[ "If the boiling point of water is 100 degrees celcius, then water should not evaporate at regular temperatures." ]	[ "Evaporation is a normal process that occurs regardless of the temperature." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "If the boiling point of water is 100 degrees celcius, then water should not evaporate at regular temperatures.", "If the boiling point of water is 100 degrees celcius, then water should not evaporate at regular temperatures." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Evaporation is a normal process that occurs regardless of the temperature.", "Evaporation is a normal process that occurs regardless of the temperature." ]
2018-02267	Embarrassing question, but why does it hurt when shampoo enters the urinary tract?	Shampoo contains chemicals that are designed to strip away the oils from your hair. As a result, it's somewhat harsh on skin. The skin/tissue inside of your urinary tract is particularly sensitive and thus much more likely to experience problems if such abrasive chemicals come in contact with it. If you read the labels, it'll probably say "for external use only" for this reason.	[ "The ureters are richly innervated by nerves that travel alongside the blood vessels, building the ureteric plexus. The primary sensation to the ureters is provided by nerves that come from T12-L2 segments of the spinal cord. Thus pain may be referred to the dermatomes of T12-L2, namely the back and sides of the abdomen, the scrotum (males) or labia majora (females) and upper part of the front of the thigh.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Microanatomy.\n", "Section::::Causes.:Noninfectious.\n\nUrethritis can be caused by mechanical injury (from a urinary catheter or a cystoscope), or by an irritating chemical (antiseptics or some spermicides).\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "BULLET::::- Study conducted on rats shows that pulegone can cause delayed action potential in cardiac muscles.\n\nBULLET::::- Study conducted shows pulegone damaged ovarian tissue in mice. Increased dosages correlated to more severe damage.\n\nBULLET::::- In a study, pulegone was given to female rats through oral administration in doses of 0, 75, or 150 mg/kg of body weight. Individual studies lasted for 4–6 weeks and increased instance of urothelial tumors appeared as a result.\n", "BULLET::::1. dilution, in case the product comes in contact with eyes after running off the top of the head with minimal further dilution\n\nBULLET::::2. adjusting pH to that of non-stress tears, approximately 7, which may be a higher pH than that of shampoos which are pH adjusted for skin or hair effects, and lower than that of shampoo made of soap\n\nBULLET::::3. use of surfactants which, alone or in combination, are less irritating than those used in other shampoos (e.g. Sodium lauroamphoacetate)\n", "Excess blood uric acid can induce gout, a painful condition resulting from needle-like crystals of uric acid precipitating in joints, capillaries, skin, and other tissues. Gout can occur where serum uric acid levels are as low as 6 mg per 100 ml (357 µmol/l), but an individual can have serum values as high as 9.6 mg per 100 ml (565 µmol/l) and not have gout.\n", "Shampoo (film)\n\nShampoo is a 1975 American satirical comedy-drama film written by Robert Towne and Warren Beatty, and directed by Hal Ashby. It stars Warren Beatty, Julie Christie, Goldie Hawn, Lee Grant, Jack Warden, Tony Bill, and Carrie Fisher in her film debut.\n", "BULLET::::- Randy Scheer as Dennis Lolly\n\nBULLET::::- Susanna Moore as Gloria\n\nBULLET::::- Carrie Fisher as Lorna Karpf\n\nBULLET::::- Luana Anders as Devra\n\nBULLET::::- Mike Olton as Ricci\n\nBULLET::::- Kathleen Miller as Anjanette\n\nBULLET::::- Richard E. Kalk as Detective Younger\n\nBULLET::::- Brad Dexter as Senator East\n\nBULLET::::- William Castle as Sid Roth\n\nBULLET::::- Howard Hesseman as Red Dog\n\nSection::::Soundtrack.\n", "Adenovirus infections can occur in the urethra of men. This is adenoviral urethritis, and it is classified as a type of non-gonococcal urethritis (NGU).\n\nSymptoms of adenoviral urethritis are similar to urethritis of other causes, and can include:\n\nBULLET::::- pain during sex or urination\n\nBULLET::::- unusual discharge from the penis\n\nBULLET::::- inflammation of the urinary meatus\n\nBULLET::::- Other non-gonococcal urethritis symptoms\n\nSection::::Serotype-specific features.\n", "The waterfall was known as McNair Falls throughout the 19th century, named after a local miller who operated a grist mill at the waterfall in the 1860s. In 1896, the community of Mammy, which had grown up around the Haley tavern, changed its name to Ozone, and the name was subsequently applied to the waterfall. The name reflected the high quality of air in the community, which may have been enhanced by the waterfall's mists.\n\nThe Ozone Falls State Natural Area was established in 1973, and originally consisted of . In 1996, it was expanded to .\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::2. The middle part of the ureter is supplied by the common iliac arteries, direct branches from the abdominal aorta, and gonadal arteries (the testicular artery in men or ovarian artery in women)\n\nBULLET::::3. The lower part of the ureter closest to the bladder is supplied by branches from the internal iliac arteries, as well as:\n\nWithin the periureteral adventitia these arteries extensively anastomose thus permitting surgical mobilization of the ureter without compromising the vascular supply as long as the adventitia is not stripped. Lymphatic and venous drainage mostly parallels that of the arterial supply.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Nerve supply.\n", "Severe irritation takes place if a latex catheter is inserted in the urinary tract of a person allergic to latex. That is especially severe in case of a radical prostatectomy due to the open wound there and the exposure lasting e.g. two weeks. Intense pain may indicate such situation.\n", "BULLET::::- Should not be coerced or under any pressure\n\nSection::::Technical procedure.:Anaesthesia.\n\nNo scalpel vasectomy is performed under local anaesthesia. Usually lidocaine 2 percent is infiltrated into the vas deferens and the puncture site on the scrotum. This makes the procedure pain free. Some patients may prefer to receive regional anaesthesia.\n\nSection::::Technical procedure.:Steps.\n", "Non-gonococcal urethritis\n\nNongonococcal urethritis (NGU) is an inflammation of the urethra that is not caused by gonorrheal infection.\n\nFor treatment purposes, doctors usually classify infectious urethritis in two categories: gonococcal urethritis, caused by gonorrhea, and nongonococcal urethritis (NGU).\n\nSection::::Symptoms.\n", "Commercially, \"Shampoo\" was a great success. Produced on a budget of $4 million, the film grossed $49,407,734 domestically and $60 million at the worldwide box office. It was the fourth most successful film of 1975 by box office takings, beaten only by \"Jaws\", \"One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest\", and \"The Rocky Horror Picture Show\".\n\nThe year after its release saw a blaxploitation send-up, \"Black Shampoo\".\n\nSection::::Awards and honors.\n\nBULLET::::- Academy Awards\n\n-Wins\n\nBULLET::::- Best Actress in a Supporting Role: Lee Grant\n\n-Nominations\n\nBULLET::::- Best Actor in a Supporting Role: Jack Warden\n", "Persons with spinal cord injury are at increased risk for urinary tract infection in part because of chronic use of catheter, and in part because of voiding dysfunction. It is the most common cause of infection in this population, as well as the most common cause of hospitalization. Additionally, use of cranberry juice or cranberry supplement appears to be ineffective in prevention and treatment in this population.\n\nSection::::Pathogenesis.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mycoplasma genitalium\"\n\nBULLET::::- Reactive arthritis\n\nBULLET::::- \"Trichomonas vaginalis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ureaplasma urealyticum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Group B streptococcus\"\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n\nIn female patients, urethritis can be caused by pelvic inflammatory disease.\n", "NGU is transmitted by touching the mouth, penis, vagina or anus by penis, vagina or anus of a person who has NGU.\n", "Section::::Role in disease.:Presentation.\n\nMost people infected with \"C. trachomatis\" are asymptomatic. However, the bacteria can present in one of three ways: genitourinary (genitals), pulmonary (lungs), and ocular (eyes). Genitourinary cases can include genital discharge, vaginal bleeding, itchiness (pruritus), painful urination (dysuria), among other symptoms. Often, symptoms are similar to those of a urinary tract infection.\n\nSection::::Role in disease.:Prevalence.\n", "The vas deferens is isolated by three-finger technique on both sides. The ideal entry point for the needle is midway between the top of the testes and the base of the penis. Usually, 100 mg lidocaine (without epinephrine) is injected to create a wheal. Afterwards, a ringed clamp is used to puncture the scrotal skin and elevate the vas deferens. A dissecting forceps is used to spread the tissue, pierce the wall of the vas deferens and deliver it outside. It is then occluded and ligated.\n\nSection::::Technical procedure.:Steps.:Methods of ligating and occluding the vas deferens.\n", "The bladder receives motor innervation from both sympathetic fibers, most of which arise from the superior and inferior hypogastric plexuses and nerves, and from parasympathetic fibers, which come from the pelvic splanchnic nerves. \n\nSensation from the bladder is transmitted to the central nervous system (CNS) via general visceral afferent fibers (GVA). GVA fibers on the superior surface follow the course of the sympathetic efferent nerves back to the CNS, while GVA fibers on the inferior portion of the bladder follow the course of the parasympathetic efferents.\n", "In sexually active men, \"Chlamydia trachomatis\" is responsible for two-thirds of acute cases, followed by \"Neisseria gonorrhoeae\" and \"E. coli\" (or other bacteria that cause urinary tract infection). Particularly among men over age 35 in whom the cause is \"E. coli\", epididymitis is commonly due to urinary tract obstruction. Less common microbes include \"Ureaplasma\", Mycobacterium, and \"cytomegalovirus\", or \"Cryptococcus\" in patients with HIV infection. \"E. coli\" is more common in boys before puberty, the elderly, and men who have sex with men. In the majority of cases in which bacteria are the cause, only one side of the scrotum or the other is the locus of pain.\n", "A urinary tract infection may cause similar symptoms.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n\nFactors that increase the likelihood of developing urethritis include sexual intercourse (particularly unprotected intercourse), inserting objects into or otherwise mishandling the urethra manually , and coming into genital contact with various chemicals, such as lotions, spermicides and certain other contraceptives. Even clothing washed in strong detergent can be an irritant.\n", "The epithelium of the glans penis is mucocutaneous tissue. Birley \"et al.\" report that excessive washing with soap may dry the mucous membrane which covers the glans penis and cause non-specific dermatitis.\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.:Differential diagnosis.\n\nIn women with cervicitis (inflammation of the cervix) or vaginitis (inflammation of the vagina) and in young men with UTI symptoms, a \"Chlamydia trachomatis\" or \"Neisseria gonorrheae\" infection may be the cause. These infections are typically classified as a urethritis rather than a urinary tract infection. Vaginitis may also be due to a yeast infection. Interstitial cystitis (chronic pain in the bladder) may be considered for people who experience multiple episodes of UTI symptoms but urine cultures remain negative and not improved with antibiotics. Prostatitis (inflammation of the prostate) may also be considered in the differential diagnosis.\n", "The decision was delivered by Justice Rehnquist. The court held that “Petitioners did not commit extortion within the Hobbs Act’s meaning because they did not ‘obtain’ property from respondents. “if the distinction between extortion and coercion, which we find controls these cases, is to be abandoned, such a significant expansion of the law’s coverage must come from Congress, and not from the courts.”\n\nSection::::The Court's decision.:Ginsburg's Concurrence.\n\nThe Justices expressed concern over the interpretation of RICO and maintained that with the passage of the FACE act, Congress recognized that RICO wouldn't apply to a clinic in this way.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00407	Why do certain stars have ridiculous names like "R13a1" or "VY Canis Majoris"?	There are a lot of stars out there. A lot a lot. Think of the biggest number you can hold on your head. That's nothing compared to the number of stars in the sky. Let's go back to the days before computers. You can't give a nice name to every one of those stars, but you still need to uniquely identify them if you want to be able to talk about a specific start with someone, so you start to number them. Very quickly, you start to realize you'll never be able to keep track of all these numbers. Was the red hypergiant your friend was studying star 3886 or 3668? There are too many to remember. So you come up with a different method. Your friend's star is in the constellation Canis Major, so you use use that as an identifier to get started. You decide to start ranking the stars by their apparent brightness, so you use the Greek alphabet and name the brightest star alpha, then beta, then gamma, and so on. When you run out of Greek letters, you start in on numbers. It's still a bit messy but at least it helps. But you didn't account for stars with variable brightness. No matter, they can be named separately. Start with A for the first one in the constellation that was ever discovered, then go through the alphabet to Z, then AA, AB, AC, etc. Just add a new letter each time you run out. Now, this method was actually developed in the days before telescopes. It was around before we knew there were more than a few thousand of them out there. It's still kind of a lacking system. Other systems were developed over the centuries, but until 80 years ago or so, there just weren't enough stars out there to REALLY be a problem. But then we had a space race between America and the USSR, sparking lots of interest in space exploration. With more resources than there ever were before being devoted to discoveries beyond our own planet, individual humans couldn't keep up. Soon computers were discovering stars for us. So many that it was meaningless to name them. So we began using computer assigned numbers and letters to name them. We can search databases these days to find individual star information instantly. We don't really NEED nice names for the stars. But we're sentimental, so we continue using old names like Betelgeuse and VY Canis Majoris alongside the newer designations. They're a little easier to remember anyway.	[ "BULLET::::- Sualocin and Rotanev for components of Alpha and Beta Delphini, two stars which appeared in the Palermo star catalogue of 1814. They were eventually identified as the reversed spelling of \"Nicolaus Venator\", a Latinised version of Nicolò Cacciatore, assistant to the astronomer Giuseppe Piazzi. It is not clear whether Piazzi intended to name the stars after his assistant, or if Cacciatore made the names up himself.\n\nSection::::Unapproved names.\n", "Stars may have multiple proper names, as many different cultures named them independently. Polaris, for example, has also been known by the names \"Alruccabah\", \"Angel Stern, Cynosura\", the \"Lodestar\", \"Mismar\", \"Navigatoria\", \"Phoenice\", the \"Pole Star\", the \"Star of Arcady\", \"Tramontana\" and \"Yilduz\" at various times and places by different cultures in human history.\n", "Proper names may be historical, often transliterated from Arabic or Chinese names. Such transliterations can vary so there may be multiple spellings. A smaller number of names have been introduced since the Middle Ages, and a few in modern times as nicknames have come into popular use, for example \"Sualocin\" for α Delphini and \"Navi\" for γ Cassiopeiae.\n", "BULLET::::- Huruhata's Variable is the WZ Sagittae type dwarf nova EG Cancri.\n\nBULLET::::- Innes' star, better known as LHS 40, is a high proper-motion star named after the discoverer of Proxima Centauri. In 1930 Luyten listed this as the fifth-closest star system, but his belief was mistaken as it turned out to be 41 light-years away.\n\nBULLET::::- Kapteyn's Star, a subdwarf, was discovered in 1897 by Jacobus Kapteyn, the star with the highest known proper motion at the time of its discovery.\n\nBULLET::::- Kemble's Cascade Star Chain is a chain of stars in Camelopardalis, discovered by Father Lucian Kemble.\n", "A few stars are named for individuals. These are mostly names in common use that were taken up by the scientific community at some juncture. The first such case (discounting characters from mythology) was Cor Caroli (α CVn), named in the 17th century for Charles I of England. The remaining examples are mostly named after astronomers, the best known are probably Barnard's Star (which has the highest known proper motion of any star and is thus notable even though it is far too faint to be seen with the naked eye), Kapteyn's Star and recently Tabby's Star.\n", "There are also contemporary proper names given to some stars, many of which refer to accomplished astronomers, deceased astronauts and English titles. For example, Gamma Velorum is named \"Regor\", which is \"Roger\" spelled backwards; the name honors Astronaut Roger B. Chaffee, who died in the Apollo I tragedy. Other contemporary names include \"The Persian\" (Alpha Indi) and \"The Head of Hydrus\" (Alpha Hydri), \"Herschel's Garnet Star\" (Mu Cephei), Barnard's Star, etc.\n", "BULLET::::- Because of imprecision in old star catalogs, it was not always clear exactly which star within a constellation a particular name corresponded to (e.g., Alniyat could refer to Sigma Scorpii or Tau Scorpii, Chara).\n\nBULLET::::- Some stars in entirely different constellations had the same name: Algenib in Perseus and Algenib in Pegasus; Gienah in Cygnus and Gienah in Corvus, Alnair in Grus and Alnair in Centaurus.\n", "The book \"\" by R. H. Allen (1899) has had effects on star names:\n\nBULLET::::- It lists many Assyrian/Babylonian and Sumerian star names recovered by archaeology, and some of these (e.g. Sargas and Nunki) have since been approved by the IAU WGSN.\n\nBULLET::::- It lists many Chinese star names (e.g. Cih alias Tsih), though these have not come into general usage.\n\nBULLET::::- Allen represented the \"kh\" sound by 'h' with a dot above (ḣ) and at least one astronomy book (by Patrick Moore), using Allen as a source, has misread this unfamiliar letter as 'li'.\n\nSection::::Proper names.:Stars named for individuals.\n", "BULLET::::- Van Biesbroeck's Star is VB 10, a very small, faint, red dwarf named after George Van Biesbroeck, who discovered it in 1944 – the smallest and faintest star then known.\n\nBULLET::::- Van Maanen's Star is a white dwarf, discovered in 1917 by Adriaan van Maanen, only the second white dwarf discovered.\n\nBULLET::::- Wachmann's Flare Star is V371 Orionis.\n\nBULLET::::- Walborn's Star is a Wolf-Rayet Star in the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) in Dorado.\n\nBULLET::::- Warren and Penfold's (WP) Star is the optical counterpart of X-3 in the Large Magellanic Cloud.\n", "For the brightest stars, nomenclature is based on the Bayer designation, first published for a total of 1,564 naked-eye stars in 1603. Only a minority of these have proper names. Many of the proper names that remain in use in modern astronomy are based on Arabic star names from medieval Islamic astronomy, which in turn was substantially based on Claudius Ptolemy’s \"Almagest\", which contained the original Greek and Latin names for stars.\n", "There are about two dozen stars such as Barnard's Star and Kapteyn's Star that have historic names and which were named in honor after astronomers. As a result of the NameExoWorlds campaign in December 2015 the IAU approved the names Cervantes (honoring the writer Miguel de Cervantes) and Copernicus (honoring the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus) for the stars Mu Arae and 55 Cancri A, respectively. In July 2016, the IAU WGSN approved the name \"Cor Caroli\" (Latin for 'heart of Charles') for the star Alpha Canum Venaticorum, so named in honour of King Charles I of England by Sir Charles Scarborough, his physician.\n", "BULLET::::- Dnoces for the star Iota Ursae Majoris and which is \"Second\" spelled backwards, alluding to Edward Higgins White, \"II\".\n\nBULLET::::- Regor for the star Gamma Velorum and which is \"Roger\" spelled backwards, the first name of \"Roger\" Bruce Chaffee.\n", "In 2016, the IAU organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. In its first bulletin of July 2016, the WGSN explicitly recognized the names of exoplanets and their host stars approved by the Executive Committee Working Group Public Naming of Planets and Planetary Satellites, including the names of stars adopted during the 2015 NameExoWorlds campaign. This star is now so entered in the IAU Catalog of Star Names.\n\nSection::::Stellar system.\n", "Stellar designations and names\n\nIn astronomy, stars have a variety of different stellar designations and names, including catalogue designations, current and historical proper names, and foreign language names.\n", "Section::::List.\n\nIn the table below, unless indicated by a \"†\", the \"modern proper name\" is that approved by the WGSN and entered in the List of IAU-approved Star Names. The WGSN decided to attribute proper names to individual stars rather than entire multiple systems. For such names relating to members of multiple star systems, and where a component letter (from e.g. Washington Double Star Catalog) is not explicitly listed, the WGSN says that the name should be understood to be attributed to the brightest component by visual brightness.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Biblical names of stars\n", "The IAU does not recognize the commercial practice of selling fictitious star names by commercial star-naming companies. The IAU's website uses the word charlatanry in this context.\n\nSection::::Stars.:Proper names.\n\nThere are about 300 to 350 stars with traditional or historical proper names. They tend to be the brightest stars in the sky and are often the most prominent ones of the constellation. Examples are Betelgeuse, Rigel and Vega. Most such names are derived from the Arabic language \"(see List of Arabic star names § History of Arabic star names)\".\n", "In practice, names are only universally used for the very brightest stars (Sirius, Arcturus, Vega, etc.) and for a small number of slightly less bright but \"interesting\" stars (Algol, Polaris, Mira, etc.). For other naked eye stars, the Bayer or Flamsteed designation is often preferred.\n", "It bore the traditional names \"Phecda\" or \"Phad\", derived from the Arabic phrase \"fakhth al-dubb\" 'thigh of the bear'. In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's first bulletin of July 2016 included a table of the first two batches of names approved by the WGSN; which included \"Phecda\" for this star.\n\nTo the Hindus this star was known as \"Pulastya\", one of the Seven Rishis.\n", "Section::::Proper names.\n\nSeveral hundred of the brightest stars had traditional names, most of which derived from Arabic, but a few from Latin. There were a number of problems with these names, however:\n\nBULLET::::- Spellings were often not standardized (Almach or Almaach or Almak or Alamak)\n\nBULLET::::- Many stars had more than one name of roughly equal popularity (Mirfak or Algenib or Alcheb; Regor or Suhail al Muhlif; Alkaid or Benetnasch; Gemma or Alphecca; Alpheratz and Sirrah)\n", "In July 2014 the IAU launched a process for giving proper names to exoplanets and their host stars, the outcome of which was announced in December 2015. As a result, the IAU approved two star names after individuals:-\n\nBULLET::::- Cervantes for the star Mu Arae honoring the writer Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra\n\nBULLET::::- Copernicus for the star 55 Cancri A honoring the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus\n", "In addition, many stars have catalogue designations that contain the name of their compiler or discoverer. This includes Wolf, Ross, Bradley, Piazzi, Lacaille, Struve, Groombridge, Lalande, Krueger, Mayer, Weisse, Gould, Luyten and others. For example, Wolf 359, discovered and catalogued by Max Wolf.\n\nSection::::Approved names.\n\nThe naming of astronomical bodies is controlled by the International Astronomical Union (IAU), which lays down strict standards for this naming.\n", "BULLET::::- Sidus Ludoviciana, an 8th-magnitude star in the asterism of the Big Dipper in the constellation Ursa Major, halfway between Mizar and Alcor. It was discovered on 2 December 1722 by Johann Georg Liebknecht, who mistook it for a planet and named it after Louis V, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt.\n\nBULLET::::- Scholz's star is a late-M dwarf + T-type brown dwarf (M9.5 + T5) system, discovered in 2013 by Ralf-Dieter Scholz. It has large parallax, but relatively small proper motion, and it is known for its close flyby to the Sun about 70,000 years ago.\n", "However, there are a number of non-scientific \"star-naming\" companies that offer to assign personalized names to stars within their own private catalogs. These names are used only within that company (and usually available for viewing on their web site), and are not recognized by the astronomical community, or by competing star-naming companies. A survey conducted by amateur astronomers discovered that 54% of consumers would still want to \"name a star\" with a non-scientific star-naming company even though they have been warned or informed such naming is not recognized by the astronomical community.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of Arabic star names\n", "In addition to the traditional names, a small number of stars that are \"interesting\" can have modern English names. For instance, two second-magnitude stars, Alpha Pavonis and Epsilon Carinae, were assigned the proper names Peacock and Avior respectively in 1937 by Her Majesty's Nautical Almanac Office during the creation of \"The Air Almanac\", a navigational almanac for the Royal Air Force. Of the fifty-seven stars included in the new almanac, these two had no traditional names. The RAF insisted that all of the stars must have names, so new names were invented for them. These names have been approved by the IAU WGSN.\n", "BULLET::::- Sanduleak-Pesch Binary Star is a white dwarf binary in Hercules.\n\nBULLET::::- Sanduleak-Stephenson Star/Object is also known as Sanduleak-Stephenson 433, SS433 in Aquila, a neutron star in radio source W50.\n\nBULLET::::- Schaeberle's Flaming Star is the source of the Flaming Star Nebula IC 405 (aka Cederblad 42) in Auriga.\n\nBULLET::::- Scheiner's Star is BD +15°2083 (HD 83225) in Leo (see Sky Catalogue 2000.0, page xlix, Glossary of Selected Astronomical Names).\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-08011	Why is it so hard to get some kids/teens to adopt hygiene habits?	For some, it just doesn’t seem important/they feel like they can spend that time doing something they enjoy instead.....or they just don’t care enough to bother with what they feel is a chore	[ "Should these therapies become accepted, public policy implications include providing green spaces in urban areas or even providing access to agricultural environments for children.\n", "The term \"hygiene hypothesis\" has been described as a misnomer because people incorrectly interpret it as referring to personal cleanliness. Reducing one's personal hygiene, such as not washing hands before eating, is expected to simply increase the risk of infection without having any impact on allergies or immune disorders. Hygiene is essential for protecting vulnerable populations such as the elderly from infections, preventing the spread of antibiotic resistance, and for combating emerging infectious diseases such as SARS and Ebola. The hygiene hypothesis does not suggest that having more infections during childhood would be an overall benefit.\n\nSection::::Overview.\n", "School hygiene as a major discipline was at its zenith in the United States and England in the late 19th and early 20th century, with major works of the subject being offered by various authors, among them Sir Arthur Newsholme, Edward R. Shaw, Robert A. Lyster, and G.G. Groff. After this time period, the school hygiene discipline became part of a comprehensive look at school health education; the American School Hygiene Association became inactive, and the American School Health Association was founded. Exclusive focus on hygiene was no longer prominent.\n", "School hygiene expert Fletcher B. Dresslar explained in his 1915 work \"School Hygiene\" that “School Hygiene is the branch of this science [hygiene] which has to do with the conservation and development of the health of school children.” The school was looked upon as existing “not only for the welfare of each child in attendance, but also for the welfare of the state and the nation.” Dresslar broke school hygiene up into two essential parts: “the physical environment of the child during his school life” and “the laws of mental hygiene as illustrated by the proper adjustment of the subjects of the curriculum to the mental powers and needs of the children.”\n", "Strachan's original formulation of the hygiene hypothesis also centred around the idea that smaller families provided insufficient microbial exposure partly because of less person-to-person spread of infections, but also because of \"improved household amenities and higher standards of personal cleanliness\". It seems likely that this was the reason he named it the \"hygiene hypothesis\". Although the \"hygiene revolution\" of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries may have been a major factor, it now seems more likely that, although public health measures such as sanitation, potable water and garbage collection were instrumental in reducing our exposure to cholera, typhoid and so on, they also deprived people of their exposure to the \"old friends\" that occupy the same environmental habitats.\n", "In the United States, among other countries, girls who are unable to afford feminine hygiene products may miss school in order \"to avoid the embarrassment of staining their clothes.\"\n\nSection::::Challenges.:Access to materials.\n\nIn low-income countries, girls’ choices of menstrual hygiene materials are often limited by the costs, availability and social norms.\n", "Information presented in Wikipedia can be considered to be only an outline of the requirements for professional occupational hygiene training. This is because the actual requirements in any country, state or region may vary due to educational resources available, industry demand or regulatory mandated requirements.\n", "Section::::The social role of occupational hygiene.\n", "The misunderstanding of the term \"hygiene hypothesis\" has resulted in unwarranted opposition to vaccination as well as other important public health measures.” It has been suggested that public awareness of the initial form of the hygiene hypothesis has led to an increased disregard for hygiene in the home. The effective communication of science to the public has been hindered by the presentation of the hygiene hypothesis and other health-related information in the media.\n\nSection::::Public health.:Cleanliness.\n", "Cultural beliefs and practices related to toilet training in recent times have varied. For example, beginning in the late 18th century parenting transitioned from the use of leaves or linens (or nothing) for the covering of a child's genitals, to the use of cloth diapers (or nappies), which needed to be washed by hand. This was followed by the advent of mechanical washing machines, and then to the popularization of disposable diapers in the mid 20th century. Each of which decreased the burden on parental time and resources needed to care for children who were not toilet trained, and helped to relax expectations about the timeliness of training. This trend did not manifest equally in all parts of the world. Those living in poorer countries may still face increased pressure to train as early as possible, as access to amenities such as disposable diapers may still pose a significant burden. Poorer families in developed countries also tend to train earlier than their more affluent peers.\n", "Coalitions of NGOs, designers (including Katharine Hamnett, American Apparel, Veja, Quiksilver, eVocal, and Edun) and campaign groups like the Clean Clothes Campaign (CCC) and the Institute for Global Labour and Human Rights as well as textile and clothing trade unions have sought to improve these conditions as much as possible by sponsoring awareness-raising events, which draw the attention of both the media and the general public to the workers.\n", "Section::::Public health.\n\nThe reduction of public confidence in hygiene has significant possible consequences for public health. Hygiene is essential for protecting vulnerable populations such as the elderly from infections, preventing the spread of antibiotic resistance, and for combating emerging infectious diseases such as SARS and Ebola.\n", "The support provided by development agencies to the government at national, state and district levels is helpful to gradually create what is commonly referred to as an enabling environment for WASH in schools. This includes sound policies, an appropriate and well-resourced strategy, and effective planning. Such efforts need to be sustained over longer time periods as ministries and departments of education are very large organizations, which generally show much inertia and are slow to reform.\n", "School hygiene\n\nSchool hygiene or school hygiene education is a healthcare science, a form of the wider school health education. School hygiene is a study of school environment influence; it explores the impact of schooling to mental and physical health of students.\n\nThe primary aims of school hygiene education is to improve behavior through useful practices connected to personal, water, food, domestic and public hygiene. Also, it aims to protect water and food supplies and to safely manage environmental factors.\n\nSection::::History of school hygiene.\n", "BULLET::::- Zinc costs 2 cents a tablet and a full life-saving course of zinc treatment (for diarrhea) would cost less than 30 cents.\n\nBULLET::::- It is estimated that 4% of child deaths could be prevented if diarrhea could be treated with zinc.\n\nHygiene\n\nBULLET::::- Washing hands with soap could prevent diarrheal disease and pneumonia, which combined are responsible for 2.9 million child deaths every year.\n\nBULLET::::- It is estimated that 3% of child deaths could be prevented if children had access to safe drinking water, improved sanitation facilities, and good hygiene (especially hand washing).\n\nBreastfeeding\n", "Personal hygiene involves those practices performed by an individual to care for one's bodily health and wellbeing through cleanliness. Motivations for personal hygiene practice include reduction of personal illness, healing from personal illness, optimal health and sense of wellbeing, social acceptance and prevention of spread of illness to others. What is considered proper personal hygiene can be cultural-specific and may change over time.\n", "Menstruation can be a barrier to education for many girls, as a lack of effective sanitary products restricts girls' involvement in educational and social activities. Often they do not attend school due to fear of leaking, shame or embarrassment, period pain or inadequate sanitation facilities that do not allow them to wash or change in privacy. This applies mainly to schoolgirls from low-income families, since disposable hygiene products are a monthly expense that many females simply cannot afford.\n", "Although media coverage of the hygiene hypothesis has declined, a strong ‘collective mindset’ has become established that dirt is ‘healthy’ and hygiene somehow ‘unnatural’. This has caused concern among health professionals that everyday life hygiene behaviours, which are the foundation of public health, are being undermined. In response to the need for effective hygiene in home and everyday life settings, the International Scientific Forum on Home Hygiene has developed a \"risk-based\" or targeted approach to home hygiene that seeks to ensure that hygiene measures are focussed on the places, and at the times most critical for infection transmission. Whilst targeted hygiene was originally developed as an effective approach to hygiene practice, it also seeks, as far as possible, to sustain \"normal\" levels of exposure to the microbial flora of our environment to the extent that is important to build a balanced immune system.\n", "BULLET::::- Consider transition to cotton underwear or training pants once the child achieves repeated success\n\nSection::::Approaches.:Timeline.\n", "In low-income countries, girls' and women's choices of menstrual hygiene materials are often limited by the costs, availability and social norms. Adequate sanitation facilities and access to feminine hygiene products are one part of the solution. Creating a culture that welcomes discussion and makes adequate education for women and girls is of equal importance. Research has found that not having access to menstrual hygiene management products can keep girls home from school during their period each month.\n", "Some regular hygiene practices may be considered good habits by a society, while the neglect of hygiene can be considered disgusting, disrespectful, or threatening.\n\nSection::::Etymology.\n\nFirst attested in English in 1676s, the word \"hygiene\" comes from the French \"hygiène\", the latinisation of the Greek ὑγιεινή (τέχνη) \"hugieinē technē\", meaning \"(art) of health\", from ὑγιεινός \"hugieinos\", \"good for the health, healthy\", in turn from ὑγιής (\"hugiēs\"), \"healthful, sound, salutary, wholesome\". In ancient Greek religion, Hygeia (Ὑγίεια) was the personification of health, cleanliness, and hygiene.\n\nSection::::Background.\n", "At the same time that concerns about allergies and other chronic inflammatory diseases have been increasing, so also have concerns about infectious disease. Infectious diseases continue to exert a heavy health toll. Preventing pandemics and reducing antibiotic resistance are global priorities, and hygiene is a cornerstone of containing these threats.\n\nSection::::Public health.:Infection risk management.\n", "Infection happens because of individuals bringing infections into a childcare environment and spreading infectious agents within that environment, which children then contact and become at risk for infection. Increased risk of infection is related to practices of those in the childcare environment, and infection risk can be reduced by taking precautions. Practices which reduce the likelihood of spreading infection include encouraging hand washing in all present, providing facial tissue to cover sneezes, doing food preparation in a place separate from other activity, cleaning and using a disinfectant on surfaces people touch, and among groups using diapers, having good practices to change and dispose of diapers while cleaning children and the changing area.\n", "To be a professional occupational hygienist, experience in as wide a practice as possible is required to demonstrate knowledge in areas of occupational hygiene. This is difficult for \"specialists\" or those who practice in narrow subject areas. Limiting experience to individual subject like asbestos remediation, confined spaces, indoor air quality, or lead abatement, or learning only through a textbook or “review course” can be a disadvantage when required to demonstrate competence in other areas of occupational hygiene.\n", "Access to WASH, in particular safe water, adequate sanitation, and proper hygiene education, can reduce illness and death, and also affect poverty reduction and socio-economic development. Lack of sanitation contributes to approximately 700,000 child deaths every year due to diarrhea. Chronic diarrhea can have a negative effect on child development (both physical and cognitive). In addition, lack of WASH facilities can prevent students from attending school, impose a burden on women, and diminish productivity.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00634	How is the Earth still spinning?	Conservation of momentum. While the moon and sun's gravity has caused a bit of drag and slowed the earth, it hasn't been enough to stop it.	[ "In the absence of external torques, the total angular momentum of Earth as a whole system must be constant. Internal torques are due to relative movements and mass redistribution of Earth's core, mantle, crust, oceans, atmosphere, and cryosphere. In order to keep the total angular momentum constant, a change of the angular momentum in one region must necessarily be balanced by angular momentum changes in the other regions.\n", "This gradual rotational deceleration is empirically documented with estimates of day lengths obtained from observations of tidal rhythmites and stromatolites; a compilation of these measurements found the length of day to increase steadily from about 21 hours at 600Myr ago to the current 24 hour value. By counting the microscopic lamina that form at higher tides, tidal frequencies (and thus day lengths) can be estimated, much like counting tree rings, though these estimates can be increasingly unreliable at older ages.\n\nSection::::Changes.:In rotational velocity.:Resonant stabilization.\n", "Section::::Changes.:In rotational velocity.:Global events.\n\nAdditionally, some large-scale events, such as the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, have caused the length of a day to shorten by 3 microseconds by affecting Earth's moment of inertia. Post-glacial rebound, ongoing since the last Ice age, is also changing the distribution of Earth's mass thus affecting the moment of inertia of Earth and, by the conservation of angular momentum, Earth's rotation period.\n", "Section::::Implications of wind speed changes.\n", "Earth rotates once in about 24 hours with respect to the Sun, but once every 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4 seconds with respect to other, distant, stars (see below). Earth's rotation is slowing slightly with time; thus, a day was shorter in the past. This is due to the tidal effects the Moon has on Earth's rotation. Atomic clocks show that a modern-day is longer by about 1.7 milliseconds than a century ago, slowly increasing the rate at which UTC is adjusted by leap seconds. Analysis of historical astronomical records shows a slowing trend of about 2.3 milliseconds per century since the 8th century BCE.\n", "The Earth's rotation rate is still slowing down, though gradually, by about two thousandths of a second per rotation every 100 years. Estimates of how fast the Earth was rotating in the past vary, because it is not known exactly how the moon was formed. Estimates of the Earth's rotation 500 million years ago are around 20 modern hours per \"day\".\n", "BULLET::::- Giant-impact hypothesis\n\nBULLET::::- History of Earth\n\nBULLET::::- History of geodesy, Space techniques\n\nBULLET::::- Inner core super-rotation\n\nBULLET::::- List of important publications in geology\n\nBULLET::::- Newcomb's \"Tables of the Sun\"\n\nBULLET::::- Nychthemeron\n\nBULLET::::- Spherical Earth\n\nBULLET::::- World Geodetic System\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- USNO Earth Orientation new site, being populated\n\nBULLET::::- USNO IERS old site, to be abandoned\n\nBULLET::::- IERS Earth Orientation Center: Earth rotation data and interactive analysis\n\nBULLET::::- International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS)\n\nBULLET::::- If the Earth's rotation period is less than 24 hours, why don't our clocks fall out of sync with the Sun?\n", "The globe was built with a scale of 1:1,000,000, on which one inch represents sixteen miles. As with most globes, it's mounted at a 23.5 degree angle, the same axial tilt as the Earth itself; thus the equator is diagonal to the floor. It uses a cantilever mount with two motors, and simulates one day's revolution and rotation every 18 minutes, though it is possible for the motors to fully rotate the globe in as little as one minute. \n", "Section::::Earth.\n", "Opposing the tidal deceleration of Earth is a mechanism that is in fact accelerating the rotation. Earth is not a sphere, but rather an ellipsoid that is flattened at the poles. SLR has shown that this flattening is decreasing. The explanation is that during the ice age large masses of ice collected at the poles, and depressed the underlying rocks. The ice mass started disappearing over 10000 years ago, but Earth's crust is still not in hydrostatic equilibrium and is still rebounding (the relaxation time is estimated to be about 4000 years). As a consequence, the polar diameter of Earth increases, and the equatorial diameter decreases (Earth's volume must remain the same). This means that mass moves closer to the rotation axis of Earth, and that Earth's moment of inertia decreases. This process alone leads to an increase of the rotation rate (phenomenon of a spinning figure skater who spins ever faster as they retract their arms). From the observed change in the moment of inertia the acceleration of rotation can be computed: the average value over the historical period must have been about −0.6 ms/century. This largely explains the historical observations.\n", "Because the dynamic motions of the planets are so well known, their nutations can be calculated to within arcseconds over periods of many decades. There is another disturbance of the Earth's rotation called polar motion that can be estimated for only a few months into the future because it is influenced by rapidly and unpredictably varying things such as ocean currents, wind systems, and hypothesised motions in the liquid nickel-iron outer core of the Earth.\n\nSection::::Nutation of the Earth's axis.\n\nSection::::Nutation of the Earth's axis.:Causes.\n", "During magnetic storms and substorms, charged particles can be deflected from the outer magnetosphere and especially the magnetotail, directed along field lines into Earth's ionosphere, where atmospheric atoms can be excited and ionized, causing the aurora.\n\nSection::::Orbit and rotation.\n\nSection::::Orbit and rotation.:Rotation.\n\nEarth's rotation period relative to the Sun—its mean solar day—is of mean solar time (). Because Earth's solar day is now slightly longer than it was during the 19th century due to tidal deceleration, each day varies between longer.\n", "Crustal movements (such as continental drift) or polar cap melting are slow secular events. The characteristic coupling time between core and mantle has been estimated to be on the order of ten years, and the so-called 'decade fluctuations' of Earth's rotation rate are thought to result from fluctuations within the core, transferred to the mantle. The length of day (LOD) varies significantly even for time scales from a few years down to weeks (Figure), and the observed fluctuations in the LOD - after eliminating the effects of external torques - are a direct consequence of the action of internal torques. These short term fluctuations are very probably generated by the interaction between the solid Earth and the atmosphere.\n", "Precession is a rotation of Earth's rotation axis, caused primarily by external torques from the gravity of the Sun, Moon and other bodies. The polar motion is primarily due to free core nutation and the Chandler wobble.\n\nSection::::Changes.:In rotational velocity.\n\nSection::::Changes.:In rotational velocity.:Tidal interactions.\n", "Section::::Exchange of angular momentum.\n", "Over millions of years, Earth's rotation slowed significantly by tidal acceleration through gravitational interactions with the Moon. In this process, angular momentum is slowly transferred to the Moon at a rate proportional to formula_1, where formula_2 is the orbital radius of the Moon. This process gradually increased the length of day to its current value and resulted in the Moon being tidally locked with Earth.\n", "The Milky Way is rotating around its dense galactic center, thus the sun is moving in a circle within the galaxy's gravity. Away from the central bulge, or outer rim, the typical stellar velocity is between . All planets and their moons move with the sun. Thus, the solar system is moving.\n\nSection::::List of \"imperceptible\" human motions.:Earth.\n", "The length of the mean solar day is slowly increasing due to the tidal acceleration of the Moon by the Earth and the corresponding slowing of Earth's rotation by the Moon.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The main reason for the slowing down of the Earth's rotation is tidal friction, which alone would lengthen the day by 2.3 ms/century. Other contributing factors are the movement of the Earth's crust relative to its core, changes in mantle convection, and any other events or processes that cause a significant redistribution of mass. These processes change the Earth's moment of inertia, affecting the rate of rotation due to conservation of angular momentum. Some of these redistributions increase Earth's rotational speed, shorten the solar day and oppose tidal friction. For example, glacial rebound shortens the solar day by 0.6 ms/century and the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake is thought to have shortened it by 2.68 microseconds. It is evident from the figure that the Earth's rotation has slowed at a decreasing rate since the initiation of the current system in 1971, and the rate of leap second insertions has therefore been decreasing.\n", "The Earth's rate of rotation is slowing down mainly because of tidal interactions with the Moon and the Sun. Since the solid parts of the Earth are ductile, the Earth's equatorial bulge has been decreasing in step with the decrease in the rate of rotation.\n\nSection::::Differences in gravitational acceleration.\n", "The \"global terrestrial stilling\" is not affecting in the same way the whole Earth's surface across both land and ocean surfaces. Spatially, increasing wind speed trends have been reported for some regions, in particular for high-latitudes, coastal and for ocean surfaces where different authors have evidenced an increased global trend of wind speed using satellite measurements in the last 30–40 years. Recent studies have shown a break in the negative tendency of terrestrial wind speeds, with a recent widespread recovery / strengthening of wind speed since around 2013. This creates uncertainty in understanding the phenomenon.\n", "The other consequence of tidal acceleration is the deceleration of the rotation of Earth. The rotation of Earth is somewhat erratic on all time scales (from hours to centuries) due to various causes. The small tidal effect cannot be observed in a short period, but the cumulative effect on Earth's rotation as measured with a stable clock (ephemeris time, atomic time) of a shortfall of even a few milliseconds every day becomes readily noticeable in a few centuries. Since some event in the remote past, more days and hours have passed (as measured in full rotations of Earth) (Universal Time) than would be measured by stable clocks calibrated to the present, longer length of the day (ephemeris time). This is known as ΔT. Recent values can be obtained from the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS). A table of the actual length of the day in the past few centuries is also available.\n", "Polar motion\n\nPolar motion of the Earth is the motion of the Earth's rotational axis relative to its crust. This is measured with respect to a reference frame in which the solid Earth is fixed (a so-called \"Earth-centered, Earth-fixed\" or ECEF reference frame). This variation is only a few meters.\n\nSection::::Analysis.\n", "The most celebrated test of Earth's rotation is the Foucault pendulum first built by physicist Léon Foucault in 1851, which consisted of a lead-filled brass sphere suspended from the top of the Panthéon in Paris. Because of Earth's rotation under the swinging pendulum, the pendulum's plane of oscillation appears to rotate at a rate depending on latitude. At the latitude of Paris the predicted and observed shift was about clockwise per hour. Foucault pendulums now swing in museums around the world.\n\nSection::::Periods.\n\nSection::::Periods.:True solar day.\n", "The apparent solar time is a measure of Earth's rotation and the difference between it and the mean solar time is known as the equation of time.\n\nSection::::Periods.:Stellar and sidereal day.\n" ]	[ "The Earth should have stopped spinning by now. " ]	[ "Conservation of momentum have allowed the Earth to spin this long." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The Earth should have stopped spinning by now. ", "The Earth should have stopped spinning by now. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Conservation of momentum have allowed the Earth to spin this long.", "Conservation of momentum have allowed the Earth to spin this long." ]
2018-03976	do fat people die less fast of starvation than average weight people?	Technically yes. But aside from the energy the extra fat would provide, both people still need essential vitamins that the body would not provide solely from stored fat. When you stop eating, your body starts breaking down muscle as well, including the muscles required to keep vital organs working. So in reality, the person with more muscle mass would have a better shot at surviving longer from total starvation than just who has the most stored fat.	[ "Speakman's critique of the thrifty gene hypothesis is based on an analysis of the pattern and level of mortality during famines. Despite much anecdotal evidence used to suggest that famines cause substantial mortality, Speakman suggests that where real data are available famines actually involve rather low levels of mortality and there is no evidence that fat people survive famines better than lean people. In fact mortality actually falls mostly on groups such as the very young and very old where differential mortality in relation to body composition is highly unlikely.\n", "In very obese persons, it has been shown that proteins can be depleted first and death from starvation is predicted to occur before fat reserves are used up. (There is nothing in the study about any of the five subjects dying.)\n\nSection::::In humans.:Biochemistry.\n", "Some research suggests that metabolically healthy obese individuals are at an increased risk of several adverse outcomes, including type 2 diabetes, depressive symptoms, and cardiovascular events. Other research also suggests that although MHO individuals display a favorable metabolic profile, this does not necessarily translate into a decrease in mortality. Research to date has produced conflicting results with respect to cardiovascular disease and mortality. MHO individuals are at a higher risk of cardiovascular disease compared to metabolically healthy non-obese individuals, but they are also at a lower risk thereof than individuals who are both unhealthy and obese. A 2016 meta-analysis found that MHO individuals were not at an increased risk of all-cause mortality (but were at an increased risk of cardiovascular events). The relatively low risk of cardiovascular disease among people with MHO relative to metabolically unhealthy obese people has been attributed to differences in white adipose tissue function between the two groups.\n", "In a study with a middle-aged to elderly sample, personal recollection of maximum weight in their lifetime was recorded and an association with mortality was seen with 15% weight loss for the overweight. Moderate weight loss was associated with reduced cardiovascular risk amongst obese men. Intentional weight loss was not directly measured, but it was assumed that those that died within 3 years, due to disease etc., had not intended to lose weight. This may reflect the loss of subcutaneous fat and beneficial mass from organs and muscle in addition to visceral fat when there is a sudden and dramatic weight loss.\n", "One study found that the vast majority of people labelled 'overweight' and 'obese' according to current definitions do not in fact face any meaningful increased risk for early death. In a quantitative analysis of a number of studies, involving more than 600,000 men and women, the lowest mortality rates were found for people with BMIs between 23 and 29; most of the 25–30 range considered 'overweight' was not associated with higher risk.\n\nSection::::Limitations.:Relationship to health.\n", "While there are studies that show the health and medical benefits of weight loss, a study in 2005 of around 3000 Finns over an 18-year period showed that weight loss from dieting can result in increased mortality, while those who maintained their weight fared the best. Similar conclusion is drawn by other studies, and although other studies suggest that intentional weight loss has a small benefit for individuals classified as unhealthy, it is associated with slightly increased mortality for healthy individuals and the slightly overweight but not obese. This may reflect the loss of subcutaneous fat and beneficial mass from organs and muscle in addition to visceral fat when there is a sudden and dramatic weight loss.\n", "Starvation ensues when the fat reserves are completely exhausted and protein is the only fuel source available to the body. Thus, after periods of starvation, the loss of body protein affects the function of important organs, and death results, even if there are still fat reserves left unused. (In a leaner person, the fat reserves are depleted earlier, the protein depletion occurs sooner, and therefore death occurs sooner.)\n\nThe ultimate cause of death is, in general, cardiac arrhythmia or cardiac arrest brought on by tissue degradation and electrolyte imbalances.\n", "In a 2001 article in Science magazine entitled \"Nutrition: The Soft Science of Dietary Fat\", Gary Taubes wrote \"it is still a debatable proposition whether the consumption of saturated fats above recommended levels (..) by anyone who's not already at high risk of heart disease will increase the likelihood of untimely death (..) [n]or have hundreds of millions of dollars in trials managed to generate compelling evidence that healthy individuals can extend their lives by more than a few weeks, if that, by eating less fat\". A New York Times Magazine article entitled \"What if It's All Been a Big Fat Lie?\" followed in 2002. A further critical analysis of the \"Seven Countries Study\" was undertaken by Taubes in his bestselling book \"Good Calories, Bad Calories\" (2007) which was followed by \"Why We Get Fat\" in 2010. In \"Good Calories, Bad Calories\", Taubes wrote that the \"Seven Countries Study\" \"was fatally flawed (..) Keys chose seven countries he knew in advance would support his hypothesis (..) [that] coronary heart disease is strongly influenced by the fats in the diet (..) [n]o consideration was given to alternative hypothesis.\" In his 2016 book \"The Case against Sugar\", Taubes states that \"of all the factors measured in these populations, the two that tracked best with heart disease—as Yudkin might have predicted—were sugar and saturated fat (..) and because populations in the study that ate a lot of one tended also to eat a lot of the other, Keys now suggested that this was ″adequate to explain the observed relationship between sucrose and [coronary heart disease] without recourse to the idea that sucrose″ (..) caused it. This was speculation (..) researchers typically assumed that if Keys was right, Yudkin was wrong, and vice versa (..) [w]hen researchers realized that the French had relatively low rates of heart disease despite a diet that was rich in saturated fats, they wrote it off as an inexplicable ″paradox,″ and ignored the fact that the French traditionally consumed far less sugar than did populations—the Americans and British, most notably—in which coronary disease seemed to be a scourge.\"\n", "I have personally observed for two or three years men, who were foregoing starches, and in general their bodies were slight and their complexions good. They could withstand wind, cold, heat, or dampness, but there was not a fat one among them. I admit that I have not yet met any who had not eaten starches in several decades, but if some people cut off from starches for only a couple of weeks die while these others look as well as they do after years, why should we doubt that the (deliberate) fasting could be prolonged still further? If those cut off from starches grow progressively weaker to death, one would normally fear that such a diet simply cannot be prolonged, but inquiry of those pursuing this practice reveals that at first all of them notice a lessening of strength, but that later they gradually get stronger month by month and year by year. Thus, there is no impediment to the possibility of prolongation. All those who have found the divine process for attaining Fullness of Life succeeded by taking medicines and swallowing breath; on this they are all in perfect agreement. A moment of crisis, however, generally occurs at an early stage when medicines are being taken and starches abandoned and it is only after forty days of progressive weakening, as one uses only holy water and feeds solely on breath, that one regains strength. (15, tr. Ware 1966:246-7) \n", "Starvation ensues when the fat reserves are completely exhausted and protein is the only fuel source available to the body. Thus, after periods of starvation, the loss of body protein affects the function of important organs, and death results, even if there are still fat reserves left unused. (In a leaner person, the fat reserves are depleted faster, the protein depletion occurs sooner, and therefore death occurs sooner.) The ultimate cause of death is, in general, cardiac arrhythmia or cardiac arrest brought on by tissue degradation and electrolyte imbalances. Alternatively, things like metabolic acidosis may also cause death in starving people.\n", "There is insufficient scientific data on exactly how long people can live without food. Although the length of time varies with an individual's percentage of body fat and general health, one medical study estimates that in adults complete starvation leads to death within 8 to 12 weeks. Starvation begins when an individual has lost about 30%, or about a third, of their normal body weight. Once the loss reaches 40% death is almost inevitable.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "BULLET::::- Shick SM, Wing RR, Klem ML, McGuire MT, Hill JO & Seagle HM (1998). Persons successful at long-term weight loss and maintenance continue to consume a low calorie, low fat diet. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 98, 408-413.\n\nBULLET::::- McGuire MT, Wing RR, Klem ML, Seagle HM & Hill JO (1998). Long-term maintenance of weight loss: Do people who lose weight through various weight loss methods use different behaviors to maintain their weight? International Journal of Obesity, 22, 572-577.\n", "In 2013, Flegal was the lead author of a systematic review and meta-analysis published in \"JAMA\" regarding the association of overweight and obesity with mortality. In a large sample, drawn from other countries as well as the US, overweight people had lower mortality relative to people of normal weight.\n\nSection::::Research.:Reaction.\n", "Another concern is reverse causation due to illness-induced weight loss. That is, it may not be low BMI that is causing death (and thereby making obesity seem protective) but rather imminent death causing low BMI. Indeed, unintentional weight loss is an extremely significant predictor of mortality. Terminally ill individuals often undergo weight loss before death, and classifying those individuals as lean greatly inflates the mortality rate in the normal and underweight categories of BMI, while lowering the risk in the higher BMI categories. Studies that employ strategies to reduce reverse causation such as excluding sick individuals at baseline and introducing time lag to exclude deaths at the beginning of follow-up have yielded estimates of increased risk for body mass indices above 25 kg/m. Critics of the \"paradox\" have also argued that studies supporting its existence almost always use BMI as the only measure of obesity. However, because BMI is an imperfect method of measuring obesity, critics argue that studies using other measures of obesity in addition to BMI, such as waist circumference and waist to hip ratio, render the existence of the \"paradox\" questionable.\n", "Carla Valentine, technical curator of the Pathology Museum at Queen Mary University, London has said: “Now that it’s out there that they’re considering this, I think it will be difficult to go back from that.” \n\nSection::::Medical condition.\n", "where formula_2 is the time (measured in weeks) elapsed since the beginning of the starvation period, formula_3 is the subject's weight at time formula_2, and formula_5 is the final weight that the subject was supposed to reach at the end of the 24-week period. The constant formula_6 is determined by the requirement that formula_7 be the initial weight formula_8, i.e. by solving\n\nfor formula_6; this gives\n\nThe authors expressed this in terms of the percent total weight loss formula_12,\n\n(which, as stated above, was supposed to be about 25% for all subjects), obtaining\n", "In 1997, he published a study showing that types of fat are more important than total amount of fat in determining risk of heart disease in the Nurses' Health Study. His recent work shows that unsaturated fats, especially polyunsaturated fats, and/or high-quality carbohydrates can be used to replace saturated fats to reduce coronary heart disease risk in the Nurses' Health Study and Health Professionals Follow-up Study.\n", "Section::::Physiology.:Genetics.\n\nThe thrifty gene hypothesis (also called the famine hypothesis) states that in some populations the body would be more efficient at retaining fat in times of plenty, thereby endowing greater resistance to starvation in times of food scarcity. This hypothesis, originally advanced in the context of glucose metabolism and insulin resistance, has been discredited by physical anthropologists, physiologists, and the original proponent of the idea himself with respect to that context, although according to its developer it remains \"as viable as when [it was] first advanced\" in other contexts.\n", "For each subject, the weight vs. time curve was taken to be quadratic in time (in fact, an upward-opening parabola) with the minimum located at 24 weeks, at which point the weight is supposed to be equal to the final target body weight (the minimum is where the curve has zero slope; this corresponds to the \"plateau\" mentioned above). Mathematically, this means that the curve for each subject was given by\n", "However, other studies indicate that suicide rates increase with extreme obesity, and it is difficult to control for conflating factors such as BMI-related differences in longevity, which have a significant bearing on suicide rates.\n\nSection::::Season.\n", "Section::::Related work.\n\nOne of the crucial observations of the Minnesota Starvation Experiment discussed by a number of researchers in the nutritional sciences—including Ancel Keys—is that the physical effects of the induced semi-starvation during the study closely approximate the conditions experienced by people with a range of eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. As a result of the study it has been postulated that many of the profound social and psychological effects of these disorders may result from undernutrition, and recovery depends on physical re-nourishment as well as psychological treatment.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Dieting\n\nBULLET::::- Eating disorders\n", "Data from the World Health Organization suggests 65% of the world's population live in countries where being overweight or obese kills more people than being underweight. The WHO defines “overweight” as a BMI greater than or equal to 25, and “obesity” as a BMI greater than or equal to 30. Both overweight and obesity are major risk factors for cardiovascular diseases, specifically heart disease and stroke, and diabetes.\n", "A 2007 review concluded that certain subgroups such as those with type 2 diabetes and women show long term benefits in all cause mortality, while outcomes for men do not seem to be improved with weight loss. A subsequent study found benefits in mortality from intentional weight loss in those who have severe obesity.\n\nSection::::Dieting.\n", "Lois obsessed about Dennis' weight, which according to medical records was appropriate for a child of his age and build at the point of his adoption. He was frequently starved, to rid him of \"sloppy fat,\" as Lois called it (she also called him \"Sloppy Fat\" as a nickname). Due to this frequent starvation, Dennis gained only three pounds in a two-and-a-half year period as he aged from one year old to three-and-a-half years old. The coroner noted in his report that Dennis had almost zero subcutaneous fat, at the level of a person who had died of starvation.\n", "In people with heart failure, those with a body mass index between 30.0–34.9 had lower mortality than those with what would normally be considered an ideal weight. This has been attributed to the fact that people often lose weight as they become progressively more ill. Similar findings have been made in other types of heart disease. People with class I obesity and heart disease do not have greater rates of further heart problems than people of normal weight who also have heart disease. In people with greater degrees of obesity, however, risk of further events is increased. Even after cardiac bypass surgery, no increase in mortality is seen in the overweight and obese. One study found that the improved survival could be explained by the more aggressive treatment obese people receive after a cardiac event. Another found that if one takes into account COPD in those with peripheral artery disease, the benefit of obesity no longer exists.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01954	Why doesn’t Coke stain?	I don’t know what you’re talking about. I can tell you for a fact that coke stains. There are still stains on the carpet in my parents house that can prove that.	[ "The Nile blue staining, according to Kleeberg, uses the following chemicals:\n\nBULLET::::- Nile Blue A\n\nBULLET::::- 1% acetic acid\n\nBULLET::::- Glycerol or glycerol gelatin\n\nSection::::Nile blue staining.:Workflow.\n", "Solvent-based coatings contain solvents at concentrations of approximately 70 to 75 percent by volume (1). The solvent composition is typically a mixture of aliphatic hydrocarbons, aromatics, ethers, cellosolves and acetates. This method produces significant VOC (volatile organic compound) and HAP (hazardous air pollutant) emissions. The coatings have good abrasion resistance and high quality, but the high VOC emissions have virtually eliminated their use in can plants.\n\nSection::::Food safety.\n", "By the late 1980s, regulations on liquid-paint spraying required all large manufacturing companies to convert to a high-solids paint. This was to be a costly and troublesome changeover. After researching all potential alternatives, in 1993 the company purchased and installed four powder-coating spray booths in a newly constructed paint building. The powder coating process eliminated all air pollution and hazardous waste, while increasing product appearance and durability.\n", "Delta Carbona L.P.\n\nDelta Carbona L.P. is a Fairfield, New Jersey-based American company which specializes in the production of stain-removal products. It was created in 1994 when its predecessor, the Carbona Products Company, was purchased by a German stain-removal corporation, Delta Pronatura.\n", "BULLET::::- Club Soda: This can be used for pet stains and out of doors. There is no chief underlying chemical reason why club soda would be superior to plain water in stain removal.\n\nBULLET::::- Glycerine: This can be used to soften \"set\" stains, especially on wool and non-water-washable fabrics.\n\nBULLET::::- Boiling Water: This can be used to take out fruit juice stains.\n\nBULLET::::- Lukewarm Water: Water is an excellent solvent for colorless sugary stains, such as sticky residues of dropped candy as well as Apple jam and honey.\n\nSection::::Stain removal.:Application of solvents.\n", "After the interim crisis since the 1970s when ICI had to stop, there have now been environmentally safe alternative industrial manufacturing of this dye that is supposed to work as well as 8GX but is called 8G since it is made differently. In attempt to answer what was the importance of discovering an alternative method of manufacturing this compound, a company (Anatech Ltd, USA) that remanufactured Alcian blue says:\n\nSection::::Etymology and capitalization of \"Alcian\".\n", "Section::::Common biological stains.:Ethidium bromide.\n", "BULLET::::- The third staining solution is composed of three dyes, Eosin Y, Light Green SF yellowish, and Bismarck brown Y in 95% ethyl alcohol with a small amount of phosphotungstic acid and lithium carbonate. This solution, designated EA, followed by a number which denotes the proportion of the dyes, other formulations include EA-36, EA-50, and EA-65.\n", "Enzymes are required to degrade stubborn stains composed of proteins (milk, cocoa, blood, egg yolk, grass), fats (chocolate, fats, oils), starch (flour and potato stains), and cellulose (damaged cotton fibrils, vegetable and fruit stains). Each type of stain requires a different type of enzyme: proteases (savinase) for proteins, lipases for greases, α-amylases for carbohydrates, and cellulases for cellulose.\n\nSection::::Components.:Other ingredients.\n", "Wastewater from coking is highly toxic and carcinogenic. It contains phenolic, aromatic, heterocyclic, and polycyclic organics, and inorganics including cyanides, sulfides, ammonium and ammonia. Various methods for its treatment have been studied in recent years. The white rot fungus \"Phanerochaete chrysosporium\" can remove up to 80% of phenols from coking waste water.\n\nSection::::Properties.\n\nThe bulk specific gravity of coke is typically around 0.77. It is highly porous.\n", "Section::::History.:\"14 Shades of Grey\" (2003–2004).\n", "Recently, many states decreased the VOC limit from 450 g/L to 350 g/L limit for the specialty primers, sealers and undercoats category. As state regulatory agencies continue to introduce stricter legislation concerning VOCs, this will pose an even tougher challenge to manufacturers of solvent-based stain-blocking primers. In order to decrease the VOC of a coating, it is necessary to remove solvent from the formulation. This has the effect of increasing relative solids content (both pigment + binder) in the formulation, which has a negative effect on viscosity. Increasing resin content primarily increases high-shear viscosity and that is important for sprayability. Increasing pigment content primarily affects low and medium shear viscosities, which are important for flow, leveling, and sag resistance. When formulating a low odor, low VOC primer, if the plan is to increase the binder, then resins with lower viscosity profiles and solubility in low-odor, isoparaffinic solvents are needed.\n", "Example of using anion exchange chromatography to purify albumin (Uppsala):\n\nBULLET::::- 2% of the endotoxin \"does not\" bind to the column. However, this 2% washes out before the albumin peak, and can thus be removed simply by starting collection after this 2% has washed out.\n\nBULLET::::- 10% of the endotoxin that \"does\" bind to the column (9.8% of the original total) will eventually wash out after the albumin peak. This can be prevented from entering the final product by stopping collection before this happens.\n", "The counterstains are dissolved in 95% ethyl alcohol which prevents cells from over staining which would obscure nuclear detail and cell outlines especially in the case when cells are overlapping on the slide. Phosphotungstic acid is added to adjust the PH of counterstains and helps to optimize the color intensity. The EA counterstain contains Bismarck brown and phosphotungstic acid, which when in combination, cause both to precipitate out of solution, reducing the useful life of the mixture.\n\nSection::::Results.\n", "Section::::Standard recipe.:First step (SC-1): organic clean + particle clean.\n\nThe first step (called SC-1, where SC stands for Standard Clean) is performed with a solution of (ratios may vary)\n\nBULLET::::- 5 parts of deionized water\n\nBULLET::::- 1 part of ammonia water, (29% by weight of NH)\n\nBULLET::::- 1 part of aqueous HO (hydrogen peroxide, 30%)\n", "BULLET::::- The spray is made up of a diluted mixture of the first and second solutions.\n\nWhen applied to the TLC plate, compounds containing phosphate ester show up immediately as blue spots.\n\nSection::::Isopoly molybdenum blues.\n", "Manufacturers later began dissolving the same printing inks in different carriers, such as acetone, lacquer thinner and other solvents, hoping to achieve increased penetration levels. In addition, UV inhibiting agents were added to new dyes to help with the UV instability issues. However, slight fading (5-8% per year) still occurs when the dye is exposed to direct sunlight.\n\nColored concrete can be obtained from many ready mix concrete companies and many have color charts available.\n\nSection::::Acid Staining.\n", "Section::::History.:\"Chapter V\" and \"The Singles\" (2005–2007).\n", "According to the Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) published by Procter & Gamble for \"PGP Comet Deoderizing Cleanser with Chlorinol\" and Prestige Brands for \"Comet Powdered Cleanser\", Comet cleanser contains 60–100% calcium carbonate (CaCO).\n\nIngredients common to all Prestige Brands Comet Powdered Cleansers are listed as:\n\nBULLET::::- Calcium Carbonate - Scrubbing Agent\n\nBULLET::::- Calcium Hydroxide - pH Adjuster\n\nBULLET::::- Fragrance - Smell\n\nBULLET::::- Green 7 - Colorant (except in \"Comet Lemon Powder\")\n\nBULLET::::- Sodium Carbonate - Builder/Sequestering Agent\n\nBULLET::::- Sodium Linear Alkylbenzenesulfonate Surfactant - Cleaning Agent\n\nBULLET::::- Trichloro-s-triazinetrione - Bleach\n\nBULLET::::- Trichloroisocyanuric acid (Symclosene) – Disinfectant\n", "One of the main use of thickeners is in the paint and printing industries, which depend heavily on rheology modifiers, to prevent pigments settling to the bottom of the can, yielding inconsistent results. Water based formulas would be nearly impossible with the exception of India ink and the few other water-soluble pigments, but these would have very little coverage and at best would stain wood slightly. All modern paints and inks will have some pigment added at the factory for opacity and to control the specularity of the finish, from matte to high gloss, dependent on thickener used, but more so on the size of the particles added as opacity modifier. One-micrometer (µm) particle sizes and below will be the limit of high gloss, probably confined to luxury automotive coatings, and about 100 µm particulates will make a bumpy surface on the microscopic scale, which scatters light and makes the surface appear matte.\n", "In March 2012, both The Coca-Cola Company and PepsiCo announced they had their caramel color suppliers modify their manufacturing processes to meet the new California standard; as of the announcement, the changes had already been made for beverages sold in California. The recipe is not changing in Europe, so the 4-MeI level will remain the same. Similarly, Pepsi and some Coke lots sold in the states other than California in the United States contain 4-MeI levels considered safe by the FDA and EFSA, but exceeding California standards. In 2016 PepsiCo lost The Pepsi Carcinogen Class Action Lawsuit \"Stacy Sciortino, et al. v. Pepsico Inc.\", Case No. 3:14-cv-00478, in the U.S. District Court for the Northern District of California. This affects all PepsiCo products shipped for sale within the United States. \n", "Chemicals commonly used in acid staining include hydrochloric acid, iron chloride, and sodium bicarbonate.\n\nSection::::Water based staining.\n", "BULLET::::- The additional ethyl group of the Hoechst dyes renders them more cell-permeable.\n\nBULLET::::- There are nuclei staining dyes that allow for viability of cells after staining.\n", "Lemon juice, containing citric acid which is the active bleaching agent, can effectively remove stains. Its action can be accelerated by exposing the stain to sunlight, or some other UV source, while soaking.\n\nVarious acids were used in the past such as Phosphoric acid as used in Calcium Lime Rust Remover (CLR) and Hydrofluoric acid as used in the Australian product made in Queensland called \"Rustiban\". Both of these Acids have been removed from sale to the general public due to toxicity concerns. Both of these acids were used primarily to remove rust.\n\nOther rust removal acids are oxalic acid.\n", "Most of the dyes commonly used in microscopy are available as BSC-certified stains. This means that samples of the manufacturer's batch have been tested by an independent body, the Biological Stain Commission (BSC), and found to meet or exceed certain standards of purity, dye content and performance in staining techniques. These standards are published in the Commission's journal Biotechnic & Histochemistry. Many dyes are inconsistent in composition from one supplier to another. The use of BSC-certified stains eliminates a source of unexpected results.\n" ]	[ "Coke doesn't cause stains." ]	[ "Coke causes stains. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Coke doesn't cause stains." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Coke causes stains. " ]
2018-00742	Why is it that Africa is still poor regardless of the fact that 1st world countries give them billions of dollars to raise the standards of living?	I'm not the most qualified, but considering the seemingly corrupt governments, warlords, and impoverished people the billions given to them may not go directly to most the people. Not to mention the diseases that plagues their low funded health and medical systems or the millions maybe billions of people/workers that have been and still are taken from there. But its important to not group the whole continent together. I think the sub saharan and west coast of africa may be doing the worse because of the listed above. But the major cities in Africa are thriving and they are expected to be pretty populous in the decade.	[ "The second trend has been a move from unfunded to funded solutions, and DB to DC schemes, albeit at a slower pace than in developed countries. This is a broad reflection of the increased pressure on government budgets, and the unsustainable fiscal burden that PAYG pension systems create.\n", "In the end, foreign aid may not even be helpful in the long run to many African nations. It often encourages them not to tax internal economic activities of multinational corporations within their borders to attract foreign investment. In addition, most African nations have at least some wealthy nationals, and foreign aid often allows them to avoid paying more than negligible taxes. As such, wealth redistribution and capital controls are often seen as a more appropriate way for African nations to stabilize funding for their government budgets and smooth out the boom and bust cycles that can often arise in a developing economy. However, this sort of strategy often leads to internal political dissent and capital flight.\n", "Dambisa Moyo, author and economist, discusses the counterintuitive negative impact associated with African Aid in the book \"Dead Aid\". Moyo \"describes the state of postwar development policy in Africa today and unflinchingly confronts one of the greatest myths of our time: that billions of dollars in aid sent from wealthy countries to developing African nations has helped to reduce poverty and increase growth.\"\n", "Many LED interventions in South Africa have taken a direct pro-poor intervention, leading to questions regarding whether this approach is more effective in terms of poverty relief than the spin-offs of more pro-growth focused endeavours. The Microeconomic Reform Strategy is a central component of the 2005 policy guidelines for implementing LED in South Africa. This strategy seeks to address the inequalities in the country and to build on the RDP (Reconstruction and Development Program), by focusing on issues of the geographical spread of activity, integration, black economic empowerment, knowledge-led growth, skills development and state responsiveness.\n", "What large sums of money that are in Africa are often used to develop mega-projects when the need is for smaller scale projects. For example, Ghana was the richest country in Africa when it obtained independence. However, a few years later, it had no foreign reserves of any consequence. The money was spent on large projects that turned out to be a waste of resources:\n", "Section::::Misused money.\n\nOver $500 billion (U.S.) has been sent to African nations in the form of direct aid. The consensus is that the money has had little long-term effect.\n", "BULLET::::- Robb, C (1999) Can the Poor Influence Policy? Participatory Poverty Assessments in the Developing World, First Edition, Directions in Development Series, World Bank, Washington DC.\n\nJournal articles and papers\n\nBULLET::::- Robb, C (2003) \"Poverty and Social Impact Analysis – Linking Macroeconomic Policies to Poverty Outcomes. Summary of Early Experiences\", Working Paper, Number 03/43, IMF, Washington DC.\n\nBULLET::::- Robb, C and Scott, A (2001) \"Reviewing Some Early Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers in Africa\", Policy Discussion Paper, Number 01/5, IMF, Washington DC.\n", "BULLET::::- Is Poverty Decreasing in Mozambique? (2007)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Do Bicycles Equal Development in Mozambique?\". With Teresa Smart, 2008. James Currey. .\n\nBULLET::::- \"Just Give Money to the Poor: The Development Revolution from the Global South \". With Armando Barrientos and David Hulme, 2010. Kumarian Press. .\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bangladesh Confronts Climate Change: \"Keeping Our Heads above Water\"\". With Manoj Roy and David Hulme, 2016. Anthem Press. .\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Faculty home page at the Development Policy and Practice department at the Open University, U.K.\n\nBULLET::::- Personal page at the Open University\n\nBULLET::::- Links to articles by Joseph Hanlon\n", "Researchers looked at how Ghana compares with groups of other countries that have been transitioning out of aid. They talk about how the World Bank reclassified Ghana from a low income country to a lower middle income country in 2010. They found Ghana experiencing significant improvements across development indicators since early 2000s with different changes for different indicators which is consistent or better than lower middle income country averages.\n\nSection::::Marshall Plan.\n", "Social programs in sub-Saharan Africa\n\nSocial protection in sub-Saharan Africa tends not to be very developed and yet the growth of some of the region's economies and concerted attempts to tackle poverty mean that this situation may change considerably in the future.\n\nSection::::Social security in Africa.\n\nCountries across Africa are at different stages of creating comprehensive and inclusive social security systems. Although some are further along this journey than others, most have introduced some form of arrangement for pension provision or have social security as a strategic goal.\n", "A major proportion of aid from donor nations is ‘tied’, mandating that a receiving nation buy products originating only from the donor country. This can be harmful economically. For example, Eritrea is forced to spend aid money on foreign goods and services to build a network of railways even though it is cheaper to use local expertise and resources. Money from the United States to fight AIDS requires it be spent on U.S brand name drugs that can cost up to $15,000 a year compared to $350 a year for generics from other countries. Only Norway, Denmark, Netherlands and Britain have stopped tying their aid.\n", "Critically, the external financing needs of $70 per capita are in line with the financial commitments made by the leaders of industrialized countries at the 2005 Summit in Gleneagles. G8 countries promised to raise their development assistance to Africa to the equivalent of $70 per capita by 2010.\n\nSection::::Prospects for increasing village-based interventions.\n", "Section::::Poverty reduction.:Increasing the supply of basic needs.:Reversing brain drain.\n\nThe loss of basic needs providers emigrating from impoverished countries has a damaging effect. As of 2004, there were more Ethiopia-trained doctors living in Chicago than in Ethiopia. Proposals to mitigate the problem include compulsory government service for graduates of public medical and nursing schools and promoting medical tourism so that health care personal have more incentive to practice in their home countries.\n\nSection::::Poverty reduction.:Increasing the supply of basic needs.:Controlling overpopulation.\n", "Economic reform began in Africa throughout Africa in the mid-1990s. Prior to that, the two decades of donor-sponsored reform efforts to Africa failed to help most sub-Saharan economies to overcome the fiscal and balance of payments deficits. During the mid-1990s, several civil wars ended and a wave of democratization started. The growth rate reached 1.2 percent a year between 1994 and 1997 which is the highest rate during that generation. However, the growth is a result of donor-led process of structural adjustment as compatible with the survival of the status quo. The growth rate started to decline after 1998 and civil wars reactivated again by then. The two-decade failure reform leave many African countries incapable of leading another economic reform.\n", "Finally, more recently, when comparing the impact of cash and in-kind grants on the profitability of microenterprises in urban Ghana, Woodruff, Marcel Fafchamps, McKenzie and Simon Quinn found a flypaper effect whereby - unlike cash - capital coming directly into the business \"sticks\" there, though neither type of grants has an impact on enterprise profitability when provided to female subsistence entrepreneurs.\n\nSection::::Research.:Further research on Latin America.\n", "Funds from aid and natural resources are often diverted into private hands and then sent to banks overseas as a result of graft. If Western banks rejected stolen money, says a report by Global Witness, ordinary people would benefit “in a way that aid flows will never achieve”. The report asked for more regulation of banks as they have proved capable of stanching the flow of funds linked to terrorism, money-laundering or tax evasion.\n\nSome, like Thomas Pogge, call for a global organization that can manage some form of Global Resources Dividend, which could evolve in complexity with time.\n", "Section::::Introduction of computer technology.:Alternatives to One Laptop Per Child.\n\nIn comparing the distribution of money of the One Laptop Per Child (OLPC) program with other channels of education betterment, there are many low-cost programs that have more definitive impact than OPLC's distribution laptops to \"low-income\" countries. Some other proposed cost-benefit ratios for other aid programs seeking to improve educational and socioeconomic conditions include:\n\nBULLET::::- Spending $8 per individual per year over a span of 5 years could potentially save 11 million lives.\n", "BULLET::::- Local value creation. The economic and geopolitical interests of global powers and not that of Africans, has for centuries shaped Africa’s destiny. In the years following the end of the Cold War, many African countries have seen steady economic growth, but fueled primarily by non-African exploitation of the continent’s natural resources with raw material exported as unimproved goods. This resource driven growth does not have the concomitant impact on job creation and other social issues that is required to take the continent out of poverty. Local value creation is an explicit effort on the part of businesses and African policymakers to facilitate more value addition within African economies to ensure more of the benefits of the continent’s natural resources remain in Africa.\n", "In 2015, Self Help Africa secured a number of major new grants to support its work, including $750,000 from The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation for a development project in West Africa, and from the European Union for work, providing training and developing enterprise opportunities for rural youth in Uganda.\n", "This system often gives an advantage to one native African group over another and is not just Europeans over Africans. For example, it was hoped that land reform in Zimbabwe would transfer land from European landowners to family farmers. Instead, it simply substituted native Africans with ties to the government for Europeans, leaving much of the population disadvantaged. Because of this abuse, foreign aid that was destined for land purchases was withdrawn. (See Land reform in Zimbabwe)\n", "BULLET::::- Apart from the success in Cambodia the importance of instituting a solid labour rights regime in fragile states needs to be further explored. It's a balancing act to create labour rights and protect workers while maintaining flexibility to bring efficient levels of employment to foster PSD and for business.\n\nBULLET::::- Microfinance isn't a one-stop solution to poverty reduction and depends on the fragile state in question.\n\nBULLET::::- CSR interventions can potentially do more harm than good and should not substitute government services or any other forms of development assistance.\n", "BULLET::::- Gouse, Marnus et al. Three seasons of subsistence insect-resistant maize in South Africa: have smallholders benefited? \"AgBioForum\" Volume 9, No. 1 (2006)\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Poverty in Africa from the World Bank\n\nBULLET::::- African Development Bank Group. Poverty Reduction: Knowledge Products (publications)\n\nBULLET::::- African Development Hindered by Vast US Corporate Interests in Continent’s Resources – video report by \"Democracy Now!\"\n\nBULLET::::- An Africa That Can Feed Africa - a short documentary by award-winning filmmaker Mark N. Hopkins\n\nBULLET::::- UN-OHRLLS List of Least Developed Countries\n", "Section::::The children.:Jean-Philippe Kaybotsi, Private Sector Advisor for the President of Rwanda.\n\nHe has skills in elaborating and promoting strategies to improve policies and regulations that affect and influence investors. He has a past for taking on these types of assignments for top executives and high level politicians, and now works in the private sector, advising the President of Rwanda for development.\n\nSection::::The children.:Sandro de Brito, National Director for Planning in the Ministry of Finance.\n", "With his book “Architects of Poverty: Why African Capitalism Needs Changing” in 2009 he has triggered a debate about governance, ethics and moral values in African governance processes.\n\nSection::::Career.:Writings.\n\nBULLET::::- Moeletsi Mbeki: \"Architects of Poverty. Why African Capitalism Needs Changing\", Central Books, April 2009,\n\nBULLET::::- Moeletsi Mbeki: \"Advocates for change. How to overcome Africa's challenges\", Picador Africa, 2011,\n\nHe has written many articles about the political and economic situation in South Africa, Zimbabwe and the rest of Africa.\n\nBULLET::::- Articles by Moeletsi Mbeki in the New Statesman\n\nBULLET::::- South Africa: Only a matter of time before the bomb explodes\n", "While 75 percent of the world's poor live in rural areas in developing countries, a mere 4 percent of official development assistance goes to agriculture. In Sub-Saharan Africa, a region heavily reliant on agriculture for overall growth, public spending for farming is also only 4 percent of total government spending and the sector is still taxed at relatively high levels. For the poorest people, GDP growth originating in agriculture is about four times more effective in raising incomes of extremely poor people than GDP growth originating outside the sector.\n" ]	[ "Billions of dollars are given to these countries to raise standard of living and the money is being used for that.", "Because Africa has been given billions of dollars, they should not be poor. " ]	[ "The money may not go directly to the people who need it the most because of corrupt government officials or other corruption. ", "Most of the money given to Africa didn't actually go to the people and could of likely ended up in the wrong hands." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Billions of dollars are given to these countries to raise standard of living and the money is being used for that.", "Because Africa has been given billions of dollars, they should not be poor. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The money may not go directly to the people who need it the most because of corrupt government officials or other corruption. ", "Most of the money given to Africa didn't actually go to the people and could of likely ended up in the wrong hands." ]
2018-01916	How did it come to be that Japanese Books/Comics/Manga are read from right-to-left, rather than left-to-right?	Japanese is traditionally written right to left, but vertically as well. The Chinese gave them their writing system, which evolved into the Japanese alphabets. They also write right to left.	[ "Since written Japanese fiction usually flows from right to left, manga artists draw and publish this way in Japan. When first translating various titles into Western languages, publishers reversed the artwork and layouts in a process known as \"flipping\", so that readers could follow the books from left-to-right. However, various creators (such as Akira Toriyama) did not approve of the modification of their work in this way, and requested that foreign versions retain the right-to-left format of the originals. Soon, due both to fan demand and to the requests of creators, more publishers began offering the option of right-to-left formatting, which has now become commonplace in North America. Left-to-right formatting has gone from the rule to the exception.\n", "Therefore, before the end of World War II in Japan, those signs were read right to left.\n", "Section::::History.:Authentic Manga.\n\nIn 2002, Tokyopop launched its line of 100% Authentic Manga, which was printed in the original Japanese right-to-left format and included the original Japanese printed sound effects.\n\nIn Japan, all published manga is written to read from right to left, but when an English translation was published in the U.S., however, the common practice was to use computer-reversed or mirror images that allowed the books to read from left to right. Unfortunately, this often compromised the integrity of the title's original artwork.\n", "In languages written from left to right, such as English, books are bound on the left side of the cover; looking from on top, the pages increase counter-clockwise. In right-to-left languages, books are bound on the right. In both cases, this is so the end of a page coincides with where it is turned. Many translations of Japanese comic books retain the binding on the right, which allows the art, laid out to be read right-to-left, to be published without mirror-imaging it.\n", "Vertical writing is commonly used for novels, newspapers, manga, and many other forms of writing. Because it goes downwards, vertical writing is invariably used on the spines of books. Some newspapers combine the two forms, using the vertical format for most articles but including some written horizontally, especially for headlines. Musical notation for some Japanese instruments such as the shakuhachi is written vertically.\n", "Today, the left-to-right direction is dominant in all three languages for horizontal writing: this is due partly to the influence of English and other Western languages to make it easier to read when the two languages are found together (for example, on signs at an airport or train station), and partly to the increased use of computerized typesetting and word processing software, most of which does not directly support right-to-left layout of East Asian languages. However, right-to-left horizontal writing is still seen in these scripts, in such places as signs, on the right-hand side of vehicles, and on the right-hand side of stands selling food at festivals. It is also used to simulate archaic writing, for example in reconstructions of old Japan for tourists, and it is still found in the captions and titles of some newspapers.\n", "Japanese graphic novels, also known as manga, tend to use vertical direction for text. Manga frames tend to flow in right-to-left horizontal direction. Frames in yonkoma manga tend to flow in a vertical direction. Page ordering is the same as books that use vertical direction: from right to left. Frames that are chronologically before or after each other use less spacing in between as a visual cue.\n", "In mainland China, where the Simplified Chinese orthographical reform has been adopted, vertical writing is now comparatively rare, more so in print than in writing and signage. Most publications are now printed in horizontal alignment, like English. Horizontal writing is written left to right in the vast majority of cases, with a few exceptions such as bilingual dictionaries of Chinese and right-to-left scripts like Arabic, in which case Chinese may follow the right-to-left alignment. Right-to-left writing direction can also often be seen on the right side of tourist buses, as it is customary to have the text run (on both sides of the vehicle) from the front of the bus to its rear.\n", "Horizontal text came into Japanese in the Meiji era, when the Japanese began to print Western language dictionaries. Initially they printed the dictionaries in a mixture of horizontal Western and vertical Japanese text, which meant readers had to rotate the book ninety degrees to read the Western text. Because this was unwieldy, the idea of \"yokogaki\" came to be accepted. One of the first publications to partially use \"yokogaki\" was a German to Japanese dictionary (, \"Shūchinsōzu Dokuwa Jisho\", \"pocket illustrated German to Japanese dictionary\") published in 1885 (Meiji 18).\n", "By 2002 VIZ Communications kept some publications in the original right-to-left format, while in other publications it mirrored pages from Japan's right-to-left reading format to fit the Western left-to-right reading style. During that year Dallas Middaugh, the senior marketing manager of VIZ, stated that the left-to-right version of \"Neon Genesis Evangelion\" outsold the right-to-left version of \"Neon Genesis Evangelion\" on a three to one basis; Middaugh concluded that readers wanted \"an easy reading experience.\" Akira Toriyama, creator of \"Dragon Ball\", requested that his work, which was separated by Viz into \"Dragon Ball\" and \"Dragon Ball Z\", be published in the original right-to-left format. \"Vagabond\" was printed in right-to-left to preserve historical accuracy. Middaugh said that younger readers of \"Dragon Ball\" adapted to the right to left format more easily than their parents.\n", "At the beginning of the change to horizontal alignment in Meiji era Japan, there was a short-lived form called \"migi yokogaki\" (, literally \"right horizontal writing\"), in contrast to \"hidari yokogaki\", (, literally \"left horizontal writing\"), the current standard. This resembled the right-to-left horizontal writing style of languages such as Arabic with line breaks on the left. It was probably based on the traditional single-row right-to-left writing. This form was widely used for pre-WWII advertisements and official documents (like banknotes), but has not survived outside of old-fashioned signboards.\n", "In Singapore, vertical writing has also become rare. In Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau, and among older overseas Chinese communities, horizontal writing has been gradually adopted since the 1990s. By the early 2000s, most newspapers in these areas had switched to left-to-right horizontal writing, either entirely or in a combination of vertical text with horizontal left-to-right headings.\n\nSection::::History.:Japanese.\n", "With the proliferation of horizontal text, both horizontal and vertical came to be used concurrently. Proponents of horizontal text argued that vertical text in right-to-left columns was smudged easily when written, and moreover demanded greater movement from the eyes when read. Vertical text proponents considered horizontal text to be a break from established tradition.\n", "The modern Japanese book differs little from the western book in construction. However, most books are printed to be read top-to-bottom and right-to-left, which includes \"manga\", a prominent part of Japanese culture today. The notable exception in arrangement is various technical books and textbooks, which tend to be printed according to the western model and are read left-to-right and top-to-bottom.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Bunkobon\n\nBULLET::::- Tankōbon\n\nBULLET::::- Secret Belgian binding, a bookbinding method inspired by Japanese bookbinding.\n\nSection::::References.\n", "In addition, the practice of writing horizontally in a right-to-left direction was generally replaced by left-to-right writing. The right-to-left order was considered a special case of vertical writing, with columns one character high, rather than horizontal writing per se; it was used for single lines of text on signs, etc. (e.g. the station sign at Tokyo reads ).\n", "In China (only areas using Traditional Chinese), Japan, and Taiwan, literary books are written top-to-bottom, right-to-left, and thus are bound on the right, while text books are written left-to-right, top-to-bottom, and thus are bound on the left. In mainland China the direction of writing and binding for all books was changed to be like left to right languages in the mid-20th century.\n\nSection::::Spine.:Titling.\n\nEarly books did not have titles on their spines; rather they were shelved flat with their spines inward and titles written with ink along their fore edges. Modern books display their titles on their spines.\n", "Horizontal and vertical writing in East Asian scripts\n\nMany East Asian scripts can be written horizontally or vertically. Chinese, Japanese and Korean scripts can be oriented in either direction, as they consist mainly of disconnected logographic or syllabic units, each occupying a square block of space, thus allowing for flexibility for which direction texts can be written, be it horizontally from left-to-right, horizontally from right-to-left, vertically from top-to-bottom, and even vertically from bottom-to-top. \n", "A few local publishing companies like VIVA-PSICOM Publishing feature manga created by local artists whose stories are usually based from popular written books from the writing site Wattpad and are read from left to right instead of the usual right-to-left format for Japanese manga. The very first commercial local manga is She Died, an adaptation of the book written by Wattpad writer HaveYouSeenThisGirl. The art was done by Enjelicious.\n", "Furigana are written to the right of the relevant character, in small print.\n\nWords, phrases, and sentences in Western characters (such as Roman letters) except acronyms like USA and NATO are often, but not always, written vertically by turning the page a quarter turn counterclockwise, so that when the page is viewed normally they are sideways. Each square can accommodate two Western characters. \n\nSection::::\"Genkō yōshi\" and manga.\n", "In some cases, horizontal writing in text bubbles may be used to indicate that a translation convention is in use – for example, that a character is actually speaking in English instead of Japanese.\n\nSome publishers that translate manga into European languages may choose to keep the original page order (a notable example is \"Shonen Jump\" magazine), while other publishers may reverse the page flow with use of mirrored pages.\n\nSection::::Usage.:By modern countries.\n\nSection::::Usage.:By modern countries.:Japanese and Traditional Chinese.\n", "With regards to directionality, Siddhaṃ texts were usually read from left-to-right then top-to-bottom, as with Indic languages, but occasionally they were written in the traditional Chinese style, from top-to-bottom then right-to-left. Bilingual Siddhaṃ-Japanese texts show the manuscript turned 90 degrees clockwise and the Japanese is written from top-to-bottom, as is typical of Japanese, and then the manuscript is turned back again, and the Siddhaṃ writing is continued from left-to-right (the resulting Japanese characters look sideways).\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Chinese.\n\nThe first printed Chinese text in horizontal alignment was Robert Morrison's \"Dictionary of the Chinese language\", published in 1815–1823 in Macau.\n\nThe earliest widely known Chinese publication using horizontal alignment was the magazine \"Science\" (). Its first issue in January 1915 explained the (then) unusual format:\n\nIn the subsequent decades, the occurrence of words in a Western script (predominantly English) became increasingly frequent, and readers began to appreciate the unwieldiness of rotating the paper at each occurrence for vertically set texts. This accelerated acceptance of horizontal writing.\n", "Horizontal writing is easier for some purposes; academic texts are sometimes written this way since they often include words and phrases in other languages, which are more easily incorporated horizontally. Scientific and mathematical texts are nearly always written horizontally, since in vertical writing equations must be turned sideways, making them more difficult to read.\n\nSimilarly, English language textbooks, which contain many English words, are usually printed in horizontal writing. This is not a fixed rule, however, and it is also common to see English words printed sideways in vertical writing texts.\n", "Both horizontal and vertical writing are used in Japan, Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan. Traditional Chinese is also used in Mainland China in a few limited contexts, such as some books on ancient literature, or as an aesthetic choice for some signs on shops, temples, etc. In those contexts, both horizontal and vertical writing are used as well.\n", "Vertical writing is still commonly used in Japan in novels, newspapers and magazines including the prolific manga book genre, while horizontal writing is used more often in other media, especially those containing English language references.\n\nSection::::History.:Korean.\n\nTraditionally, Korean writing has been vertical, with columns running right to left.\n\nIn 1988, \"The Hankyoreh\" became the first Korean newspaper to use horizontal writing, and after 1990, all other major newspapers followed suit. Today, major Korean newspapers hardly ever run text vertically.\n\nSection::::Usage.\n\nSection::::Usage.:Calligraphy.\n\nIn East Asian calligraphy, vertical writing remains the dominant direction.\n\nSection::::Usage.:Graphic Novels.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-08217	If species is defined as a group of organisms able to produce offspring with each other, how do biologists classify species that reproduce asexually?	Turns out there are lots of different species concepts and not a single concept that works for every species. You are describing the 'biological species concept', but species concepts exist that define species by their role in the environment, their physical appearance, their evolutionary history, etc. Many of those concepts work well for asexually reproducing species. Ultimately, scientists go by the concept that works best for the group they are studying.	[ "The genus \"Lepteutypa\" is teleomorphic (reproducing sexually) and the corresponding anamorphic name, used to describe the asexual form, is Seiridium (formerly \"Coryneum\"). For instance, the name \"Seiridium cupressi\" can still be used for the anamorphic form of that species, but now that it is known that a sexual stage exists, the name \"Lepteutypa cupressi\" should be preferred for the species as a whole. On the other hand, no sexual stage of species \"Seiridium cardinale\" is known, so that is its only name.\n", "BULLET::::- Synonyms in botany are equivalent to \"junior synonyms\" in zoology.\n\nBULLET::::- The homotypic or nomenclatural synonyms in botany are equivalent to \"objective synonyms\" in zoology.\n\nBULLET::::- The heterotypic or taxonomic synonyms in botany are equivalent to \"subjective synonyms\" in zoology.\n", "Asexual reproduction covers all those modes of multiplication of plants where normal gamete formation and fertilization does not take place making these distinctly different from normal seed production crops. In the absence of sexual reproduction, the genetic composition of plant material being multiplied remains essentially the same as its source plant.\n", "Species concept\n\nThe species problem is the set of questions that arises when biologists attempt to define what a species is. Such a definition is called a species concept; there are at least 26 recognized species concepts. A species concept that works well for sexually reproducing organisms such as birds is useless for species that reproduce asexually, such as bacteria. The scientific study of the species problem has been called microtaxonomy.\n", "While the term is from bacteriology, parallel examples are found throughout the tree of life. E.g. four-footed animals have evolved from piscine ancestors, yet are not generally considered fish. The four footed animals can thus be said to be \"fish in disguise\". In many cases, the paraphyly can be resolved by re-classifying the taxon in question under the parent group, but in bacteriology renaming groups may have serious consequences as it may cause confusion over the identity of pathogens, and is generally avoided for some groups.\n\nSection::::Examples of taxa in disguise in medically relevant microbial taxa.\n", "To qualify as a synonym in zoology, a name must be properly published in accordance with the rules. Manuscript names and names that were mentioned without any description (\"nomina nuda\") are not considered as synonyms in zoological nomenclature.\n\nSection::::Botany.\n\nIn botanical nomenclature, a synonym is a name that is not correct for the circumscription, position, and rank of the taxon as considered in the particular botanical publication. It is always \"a synonym of the correct scientific name\", but which name is correct depends on the taxonomic opinion of the author. In botany the various kinds of synonyms are:\n", "Section::::Reason for use.:Controversy.\n\nIf conflicting results exist or if there is not a consensus among researchers as to how a taxon relates to other organisms, it may be listed as \"incertae sedis\" until the conflict is resolved.\n\nSection::::In zoological nomenclature.\n", "Inheritance of asexual reproduction by a single recessive locus has also been found in the parasitoid wasp \"Lysiphlebus fabarum\".\n\nSection::::Examples in animals.\n\nAsexual reproduction is found in nearly half of the animal phyla. Parthenogenesis occurs in the hammerhead shark and the blacktip shark. In both cases, the sharks had reached sexual maturity in captivity in the absence of males, and in both cases the offspring were shown to be genetically identical to the mothers. The New Mexico whiptail is another example.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Binomial nomenclature\" is the correct term for botany, although it is also used by zoologists. Since 1953, \"binominal nomenclature\" is the technically correct term in zoology. A binominal name is also called a binomen (plural binomina).\n", "Candidatus is a component of the taxonomic name for a bacterium that cannot be maintained in a Bacteriology Culture Collection. It is an interim taxonomic status for noncultivable organisms. e.g. \"Candidatus Pelagibacter ubique\"\n\nSection::::Species concept.\n\nBacteria divide asexually and for the most part do not show regionalisms (\"Everything is everywhere\"), therefore the concept of species, which works best for animals, becomes entirely a matter of judgement.\n", "Some species that are capable of reproducing asexually, like hydra, yeast (See Mating of yeasts) and jellyfish, may also reproduce sexually. For instance, most plants are capable of vegetative reproduction—reproduction without seeds or spores—but can also reproduce sexually. Likewise, bacteria may exchange genetic information by conjugation.\n", "BULLET::::- If the name of a species changes solely on account of its allocation to a new genus (\"new combinations\"), in botany this is regarded as creating a synonym in the case of the original or previous combination but not in zoology (where the fundamental nomenclatural unit is regarded as the species epithet, not the binomen, and this has generally not changed). Nevertheless, in popular usage, previous or alternative/non current combinations are frequently listed as synonyms in zoology as well as in botany.\n\nSection::::Synonym lists.\n", "In some cases, the same genus-group or species-group name was published in the same year by the same author. In these cases it is useful to cite the page where the name was established.\n\nThere are cases where two homonyms were established by the same author in the same year on the same page:\n", "In botany, although a synonym must be a formally accepted scientific name (a validly published name): a listing of \"synonyms\", a \"synonymy\", often contains designations that for some reason did not make it as a formal name, such as manuscript names, or even misidentifications (although it is now the usual practice to list misidentifications separately).\n\nSection::::Comparison between zoology and botany.\n\nAlthough the basic principles are fairly similar, the treatment of synonyms in botanical nomenclature differs in detail and terminology from zoological nomenclature, where the correct name is included among synonyms, although as first among equals it is the \"senior synonym\":\n", "There are about 20,000 known lichen species. But what is meant by \"species\" is different from what is meant by biological species in plants, animals, or fungi, where being the same species implies that there is a common ancestral lineage. Because lichens are combinations of members of two or even three different biological kingdoms, these components \"must\" have a \"different\" ancestral lineage from each other. By convention, lichens are still called \"species\" anyway, and are classified according to the species of their fungus, not the species of the algae or cyanobacteria. Lichens are given the same scientific name (binomial name) as the fungus in them, which may cause some confusion. The alga bears its own scientific name, which has no relationship to the name of the lichen or fungus.\n", "BULLET::::- Bocage's longbill, \"Amaurocichla bocagei\", a species of passerine bird, belongs to the superfamily Passeroidea. Since it is unclear to which family it belongs, it is classified as Passeroidea \"incertae sedis\".\n\nBULLET::::- HeLa cells, descended from human cervical cancer cells, may diverge genetically from normal human cells sufficiently to be categorized as a new species with largely \"incertae sedis\" taxonomy.\n\nSection::::In formal nomenclature.\n", "Both Codes only consider taxa that are in their respective scope (animals for the ICZN; primarily plants for the ICN). Therefore, if an animal taxon has the same name as a plant taxon, both names are valid. Such names are called \"hemihomonyms\". For example, the name \"Erica\" has been given to both a genus of spiders, \"Erica\" Peckham & Peckham, 1892, and to a genus of heaths, \"Erica\" L. \n", "Humans born with sexual characteristics that are ambiguous or from both columns are called intersex.\n\nSection::::Invertebrates and plants.\n\nIn invertebrates and plants, hermaphrodites (which have both male and female sexual characteristics either at the same time or during their life cycle) are common, and in many cases, the norm.\n\nIn other varieties of multicellular life (e.g. the fungi division, Basidiomycota) sexual characteristics can be much more complex, and may involve many more than two sexes. For details on the sexual characteristics of fungi, see: Hypha and Plasmogamy.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Sex and gender distinction\n\nBULLET::::- Reproduction\n\nBULLET::::- Mammalian gestation\n", "Study of populations preliminarily labelled races may sometimes lead to classification of a new species. For example, in 2008, two populations of the brown planthopper (\"Nilaparvata lugens\") in the Philippines, one adapted to feeding on rice, and another on \"Leersia hexandra\" grass, were reclassified from races into \"two distinct, but very closely allied, sympatric species\", based on poor survival rate when given the opposite food source, barriers to hybridization between the populations, uniform preference for mating between members of the same population, differences in mating sounds, oviposition variances, and other distinguishable characteristics.\n", "The classification of this genus began in 1901 with Frederick Vincent Theobald. Despite the passage of time, the taxonomy remains incompletely settled. Classification into species is based on morphological characteristics - wing spots, head anatomy, larval and pupal anatomy, and chromosome structure, and more recently on DNA sequences.\n", "BULLET::::- In a publication prior to 1 January 1890, if only one infraspecific rank is used, it is considered to be that of variety. (Article 37.4) This commonly applies to publications that labelled infraspecific taxa with Greek letters, α, β, γ, ...\n\nSection::::Examples.\n", "There is no requirement for a species to be divided into infraspecific taxa, of whatever rank; in other words, a species does not have to have subspecies, varieties, forms, etc. However, if infraspecific ranks are created, then the name of the type of the species must repeat the specific epithet as its infraspecific epithet. The type acquires this name automatically as soon as any infraspecific rank is created. As an example, consider \"Poa secunda\" , whose type specimen is in the Wisconsin State Herbarium.\n", "Section::::Alternation between sexual and asexual reproduction.\n\nSome species can alternate between sexual and asexual strategies, an ability known as heterogamy, depending on \n", "In any event, the person who finally classifies and describes a species has the task of taxonomic circumscription. Circumscription means in essence that anyone competent in the matter can tell \"which creatures are included in the species described, and which are excluded\". It is in this process of species description that the question of the sense arises, because that is where the worker produces and argues his view of the proper circumscription. Equally, or perhaps even more strongly, the arguments for deciding questions concerning higher taxa such as families or orders, require very difficult circumscription, where changing the \"sense\" applied could totally upset an entire scheme of classification, either constructively or disastrously.\n", "In bacteriology, a valid publication of a name requires the deposition of the bacteria in a Bacteriology Culture Collection. Species for which this is impossible cannot receive a valid binomial name; these species are classified as Candidatus.\n\nSection::::Provisional names in botany.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-13275	Why is our ring finger harder to bend/straighten then our other fingers, but with the pinky finger up it is less hard to straighten it?	The ring and pinky fingers share a tendon, unlike your other fingers which each have their own. \ Tendons are what connects your bones to your muscles, allowing them to move	[ "Pinky ring\n\nA pinky ring is a ring worn on the little finger of either hand, which is also called the \"fifth finger\".\n\nSection::::Professional rings.\n", "Some British men wear a signet ring on the little finger of the left hand, which is considered to be the correct place for it.\n\nIn common with many American families, in homage to the British tradition, President Franklin D. Roosevelt wore a signet ring handed down to him by his father James, and which was inherited by FDR's son James Roosevelt. All three generations wore the signet on top of their wedding bands, on their left pinkies.\n\nFDR's pinky signet was noted and admired by Sir Winston Churchill (who wore his own gold signet on a different finger).\n", "Also, unlike the Circle change, when throwing the screwball the middle finger applies the most pressure to the baseball, while the ring and pinky exert no pressure at all. For left-handed pitchers, as the middle finger presses hard down on the ball, their hand pronates (turns) inwardly in a clockwise manner near the end of the pitching motion, until much of the hand is beneath the ball. Conversely, right-handed pitchers turn their hand counter-clockwise. \n\nSection::::Effects.\n", "Pliny the Elder noted, according to the 1938 Loeb Classical Library translation by Harris Rackham, \"Some people put all their rings on their little finger only, while others wear only one ring even on that finger, and use it to seal up their signet ring, which is kept stored away as a rarity not deserving the insult of common use, and is brought out from its cabinet as from a sanctuary; thus even wearing a single ring on the little finger may advertise the possession of a costlier piece of apparatus put away in store.\"\n", "The ratio of the length of the index finger to the length of the ring finger in adults is affected by the level of exposure to male sex hormones of the embryo in utero. This digit ratio is below 1 for both sexes but it is lower in males than in females on average.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.\n", "The SDFT is narrower in its middle third than its top or bottom sections, making it weaker. The top and bottom of the SDFT has a better supply of blood as well, with the top third supplied by the vessels from the knee, and the bottom third supplied by the vessels in the fetlock. The middle third has a poor supply of blood, relying on the tiny vessels of the peritendon (the membrane that surrounds the tendons). If this supply is for some reason compromised, the collagen fibers in the area may die, weakening the tendon in that area and making it more likely to tear.\n", "Little finger\n\nThe little finger, or pinky finger (in American English), also known as the fifth digit, or pinkie, is the most ulnar and smallest finger of the human hand, opposite the thumb, and next to the ring finger.\n\nSection::::Etymology.\n\nThe word \"pinky\" is derived from the Dutch word \"pink\", meaning \"little finger\".\n\nThe earliest recorded use of the term pinkie is in Scotland in 1808, although the term is virtually unknown in contemporary British English, but commonplace in American English.\n\nSection::::Muscles.\n\nThere are nine muscles that control the fifth digit:\n", "The baseball is held with the open end of the horseshoe shape (where the seams are closest together) facing upward. The thumb is placed just beneath the bottom of the horseshoe, the index finger is curled against the top of the thumb, forming a tight circle to the side of the ball. The middle finger is then placed on the top of the ball and grips against the top seam, (the seam closest to the index finger). The ring finger is placed outside the other top seam loosely and the pinky is held on the side opposite the thumb; all fingers are spread apart. The grip is similar to the Circle changeup , but with different placement in regards to the seams.\n", "The Iron Ring is a symbolic ring worn by most Canadian engineers. The Ring is a symbol of both pride and humility for the engineering profession, and is always worn on the pinky of the dominant hand. In the United States, the Engineer's Ring is a stainless steel ring worn on the fifth finger of the working hand by engineers who belong to the Order of the Engineer and have accepted the Obligation of an Engineer.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Fifth metacarpal bone, the bone in the hand proximal to the little finger\n", "Right-handed players use the fingers of the right hand to pluck the strings, with the thumb plucking from the top of a string downwards (downstroke) and the other fingers plucking from the bottom of string upwards (upstroke). The little finger in classical technique as it evolved in the 20th century is used only to ride along with the ring finger without striking the strings and to thus physiologically facilitate the ring finger's motion.\n", "For patients with low median nerve palsy, it has been shown that the flexor digitorum superficialis of the long and ring fingers or the wrist extensors best approximate the force and motion that is required to restore full thumb opposition and strength. This type of transfer is the preferred method for median nerve palsy when both strength and motion are required. In situations when only thumb mobility is desired, the extensor indicis proprius is an ideal transfer.\n", "After the injury occurs, the torn FDP tendon may retract slightly, remaining in the finger near the PIP joint, or can retract more fully into the palm of the hand. A person who suffers a jersey finger injury in which the FDP tendon is completely ruptured cannot flex the affected digit at the DIP joint without assistance.\n\nSection::::Anatomy.\n", "Research has linked the ratio of lengths between the index and ring fingers to higher levels of testosterone, and to various physical and behavioral traits such as penis length and risk for development of alcohol dependence or video game addiction.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Etymology.\n", "Section::::Fashion.\n\nThe more modern use of the pinky ring has weakened its traditional historic symbolism. In the early 20th century, these rings were popular in Parisian fashion, especially among the youth. In the United States, such rings have become a \"fundamental of American style\", in some way due to its symbolic past.\n\nSection::::Signet and wedding rings.\n", "The presence of an additional tendon may result in a condition called fourth compartment syndrome. Supernumerary tendons are common in the fourth extensor tendon compartment. Supernumerary tendons can refer to the additional tendons of normal structures or tendons of rare anatomical variants such as the extensor medii proprius or the extensor digitorum brevis manus. The increased pressure in the synovial sheath is known to directly or indirectly compress the posterior interosseous nerve of radial nerve. Also, the extra pressure causes synovitis which results in pain in the dorsal part of the wrist.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Misdiagnosis of rare anatomical variants.\n", "The signet ring is traditionally worn on the little finger of a gentleman's left hand, a practice still common especially in the United Kingdom, Australia, and European cultures. A signet ring is considered part of the regalia of many European monarchies, and also of the Pope, with the ring always worn on the left little finger. In modern times the location of the signet ring has relaxed, with examples worn on various different fingers, although little fingers still tend to be the most usual.\n", "\"Since the index finger is mostly on the strings when playing guitar, my middle finger cramps back into the hand and I can’t use it, and the most simple trill functions between the first 2 fingers became impossible and un-doable for me. This is why I now tap a lot more with more fingers of my right hand and I use more slides with the index finger and the pinky...I still live in constant fear that it starts affecting other fingers...I have to reduce my performance and practice amount to a healthy degree\"\n", "Together with the thumb, the four fingers form four oblique arches, of which the arch of the index finger functionally is the most important, especially for precision grip, while the arch of the little finger contribute an important locking mechanism for power grip. The thumb is undoubtedly the \"master digit\" of the hand, giving value to all the other fingers. Together with the index and middle finger, it forms the dynamic tridactyl configuration responsible for most grips not requiring force. The ring and little fingers are more static, a reserve ready to interact with the palm when great force is needed.\n", "Section::::Use in the British Royal Family.\n\nThe use of the left-hand pinky finger as the wedding ring and royal signet or initial ring of the British Royal Family is an ironclad tradition dating back to the sons of Queen Victoria, who favored pinky rings in imitation of their mother as well as following German custom.\n", "The anterior interosseous nerve (a branch of the median nerve) and the anterior interosseous artery and vein pass downward on the front of the interosseous membrane between the flexor pollicis longus and flexor digitorum profundus.\n\nInjuries to tendons are particularly difficult to recover from due to the limited blood supply they receive.\n\nSection::::Human anatomy.:Actions.\n\nThe flexor pollicis longus is a flexor of the phalanges of the thumb; when the thumb is fixed, it assists in flexing the wrist.\n\nSection::::Human anatomy.:Innervation.\n\nThe flexor pollicis longus is supplied by the anterior interosseous(C8-T1) branch of the median nerve (C5-T1).\n\nSection::::Human anatomy.:Variations.\n", "Section::::Society and culture.\n", "All four non-thumb digits (index finger, middle finger, ring finger and little finger) contain three bones called the \"phalanges\" that are aligned in a linear row like box cars in a train. These bones are designated the proximal phalanx (closest to the palm), the middle phalanx, and the distal phalanx (farthest from the palm). The joints between these bones are referred to as the proximal interphalangeal joint (PIP, between the proximal and middle phalanx) and the distal interphalangeal joint (DIP, between the middle and distal phalanx). muscles that begin in the forearm send long tendons to the fingers and these tendons attach at different points on these bones. Flexing and extending these digits occurs when these muscles contract and their tendons pull on their bony attachments. The deepest of the flexor muscles in the anterior forearm is called the flexor digitorum profundus muscle (FDP); it gives off four tendons that travel through the carpal tunnel into the hand and attach to the distal phalanx in each of the four non-thumb digits.\n", "In order for the thumb to maintain a normal position, a strict balance between these groups is required. Weak or absent extensors and/or abductors (the extensor pollicis brevis tendon, the extensor pollicis longus tendon or, rarely, the abductor pollicis longus tendon), can cause a disbalance, leading to an abnormal position of the thumb: congenital clasped thumb. There is also the possibility that two tendons are affected simultaneously.\n\nThe following tendon deviations can induce congenital clasped thumb:\n\nBULLET::::- The flexor tendons are too short (the thumb is drawn into the palm)\n\nBULLET::::- The abductor tendons are hypoplastic or absent\n", "In the Stevens technique, the mallets are held loosely. The two outside mallets are gripped with the little and ring fingers; the inside mallets are cantilevered between the flesh of the palm at the base of the thumb and the tip of the middle finger.\n", "At times, pinky rings have been worn with the intent to convey a message or indicate affiliation. During the Victorian era, both single men and women uninterested in pursuing marriage could wear a ring on the little finger of their left hand. Especially in the United States, pinky rings also developed an association with criminal activity. Grifters were thought to wear such rings, sometimes to provide their associates with a source of funding for their funeral expenses in case of their death, as were made men in the American Mafia. Movies such as \"Little Caesar\" and \"The Godfather\" contributed to the association of this style of jewellery with organized crime.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02025	why have my siblings and I all contracted the flu, at vastly different times, since getting the flu shot?	As I’m sure you know, the flu shot combines 3 strains of the flu virus that are statistically determined to be the most likely for the upcoming season. Unfortunately, the flu vaccine this year has poor effectiveness against the H3N2 strain, which is what’s spreading around right now.	[ "The specificity and the quality of the immune response against novel strains of influenza is often diminished in individuals who are repeatedly immunized (by vaccination or recurrent infections). However, the impact of antigenic sin on protection has not been well established, and appears to differ with each infectious agent vaccine, geographic location, and age. Researchers found reduced antibody responses to the 2009 pandemic H1N1 influenza vaccine in individuals who had been vaccinated against the seasonal A/Brisbane/59/2007 (H1N1) within the previous three months.\n\nSection::::In cytotoxic T cells.\n", "In some cases, an autoimmune response to an influenza infection may contribute to the development of Guillain–Barré syndrome. However, as many other infections can increase the risk of this disease, influenza may only be an important cause during epidemics. This syndrome has been believed to also be a rare side effect of influenza vaccines. One review gives an incidence of about one case per million vaccinations. Getting infected by influenza itself increases both the risk of death (up to 1 in 10,000) and increases the risk of developing GBS to a much higher level than the highest level of suspected vaccine involvement (approx. 10 times higher by recent estimates).\n", "When an infected person sneezes or coughs more than half a million virus particles can be spread to those close by. In otherwise healthy adults, influenza virus shedding (the time during which a person might be infectious to another person) increases sharply one-half to one day after infection, peaks on day 2 and persists for an average total duration of 5 days—but can persist as long as 9 days. In those who develop symptoms from experimental infection (only 67% of healthy experimentally infected individuals), symptoms and viral shedding show a similar pattern, but with viral shedding preceding illness by one day. Children are much more infectious than adults and shed virus from just before they develop symptoms until two weeks after infection. In immunocompromised people, viral shedding can continue for longer than two weeks.\n", "Origin of antiviral resistance\n\nThe genetic makeup of viruses is constantly changing, which can cause a virus to become resistant to currently available treatments. Viruses can become resistant through spontaneous or intermittent mechanisms throughout the course of an antiviral treatment. Immunocompromised patients, more often than immunocompetent patients, hospitalized with pneumonia are at the highest risk of developing oseltamivir resistance during treatment. Subsequent to exposure to someone else with the flu, those who received oseltamivir for \"post-exposure prophylaxis\" are also at higher risk of resistance.\n", "According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), \"Children of any age with neurologic conditions are more likely than other children to become very sick if they get the flu. Flu complications may vary and for some children, can include pneumonia and even death.\n\nNeurological conditions can include:\n\nBULLET::::- Disorders of the brain and spinal cord\n\nBULLET::::- Cerebral palsy\n\nBULLET::::- Epilepsy (seizure disorders)\n\nBULLET::::- Stroke\n\nBULLET::::- Intellectual disability\n\nBULLET::::- Moderate to severe developmental delay\n\nBULLET::::- Muscular dystrophy\n\nBULLET::::- Spinal cord injury\n", "Indeed, vaccines, including the influenza vaccine, Tdap, and pneumococcal vaccines, are less effective in adults over the age of 65. Nevertheless, the CDC recommends that elderly adults get the flu vaccine because influenza infection is particularly dangerous in this population and vaccine provides at least a moderate level of immunity to the flu virus.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Biological Causes.:Antibody Interference.\n", "People who contracted flu before 1957 appeared to have some immunity to H1N1 flu. Daniel Jernigan, head of flu epidemiology for the U.S. CDC, has stated: \"Tests on blood serum from older people showed that they had antibodies that attacked the new virus ... That does not mean that everyone over 52 is immune, since Americans and Mexicans older than that have died of the new flu\".\n", "The purpose of this study is to determine whether a third dose of vaccines containing A/Vietnam/1203/04 provides more immunity than two doses. Subjects who participate in this study, will have participated in DMID protocol 04-063 involving the A/Vietnam/1203/04. In this study, each subject will be asked to receive a third dose of the H5 vaccine at the same level administered in protocol 04-063.\n\nSection::::Individual studies.:H5 in the elderly - August 2006.\n\nStudy start: October 2005; Study completion: August 2006\n", "On August 6, 2013, the British Medical Journal released the results of epidemiological investigations conducted after a family cluster of two patients were infected with avian H7N9 in March 2013 and later died in April and May. A 60-year-old man became infected after an exposure to poultry and his daughter, who had not been exposed to poultry but had cared for her ill father, became infected as well. Genome sequence and analyses of phylogenetic trees showed that both viruses were almost genetically identical. Forty-three close contacts of the infected patients did not become ill and they all tested negative for haemagglutination inhibition antibodies specific for avian H7N9. It was concluded that the infection of the daughter probably resulted from close contact with her father during unprotected exposure, suggesting that the virus was able to transmit from person to person. However, the researchers consider the transmissibility of the virus to have remained limited and non-sustainable.\n", "Dr. Yuzo Arima and his colleagues at WHO report \"While poultry exposure appears to be a common risk factor, the age distribution among reported cases also raises the question why so few young adults (i.e. those of working age exposed to poultry as vendors/LBM [live bird market] workers/breeders/transporters) have been reported. This not only suggests greater exposure among elderly men but also a possible greater biological susceptibility to more severe outcomes.\" Danuta M. Skowronski, MD, of the British Columbia Centre for Disease Control and three colleagues put forward the hypothesis that older Chinese men have more lifetime exposure to H7 avian flu viruses and thus have immune responses which are weakly cross-reactive but not protective. This immune phenomenon is called antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE), and is perhaps best known in cases of Dengue fever when a person who has previously been infected with one serotype of Dengue fever becomes infected many months or years later with a different serotype. It is thought to occur when weakly cross-reactive antibodies form bridging complexes to facilitate uptake and replication of related but non-identical variants.\n", "Section::::Flu spread, by season.:2016–2017 flu season.\n\nBULLET::::- A/California/7/2009 (H1N1)pdm09-like virus,\n\nBULLET::::- A/Hong Kong/4801/2014 (H3N2)-like virus\n\nBULLET::::- B/Brisbane/60/2008-like virus (B/Victoria lineage)\n\nQuadrivalent influenza vaccine adds:\n\nBULLET::::- B/Phuket/3073/2013-like strain\n\nSection::::Flu spread, by season.:2017–2018 flu season.\n\nBULLET::::- A/Michigan/45/2015 (H1N1)pdm09-like virus\n\nBULLET::::- A/Hong Kong/4801/2014 (H3N2)\n\nBULLET::::- B/Brisbane/60/2008-like virus (B/Victoria lineage)\n\nQuadrivalent influenza vaccine adds\n\nBULLET::::- B/Phuket/3073/2013-like[B/Yamagata lineage]\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- 2009 H1N1 influenza outbreak\n\nBULLET::::- Bird flu\n\nBULLET::::- Dog flu\n\nBULLET::::- Horse flu\n\nBULLET::::- Human flu\n\nBULLET::::- Swine flu\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Graphic showing H3N2 mutations, amino acid by amino acid, among 207 isolates completely sequenced by the Influenza Genome Sequencing Project.\n", "For healthy adults, a 2018 Cochrane review showed that vaccines reduced the incidence of lab-confirmed influenza from 2.3% to 0.9%, which constitutes a reduction of risk of approximately 60%. However, for influenza-like illness which is defined as the same symptoms of cough, fever, headache, runny nose, and bodily aches and pains, vaccine reduced the risk from 21.5% to 18.1%. This constitutes a much more modest reduction of risk of approximately 16%. The difference is most probably explained by the fact that over 200 viruses cause the same or similar symptoms as the flu virus.\n", "Since November 2009, 14 deaths as a result of swine flu in Northern Ireland have been reported. The majority of the victims were reported to have pre-existing health conditions which had lowered their immunity. This closely corresponds to the 19 patients who had died in the year prior due to swine flu, where 18 of the 19 were determined to have lowered immune systems. Because of this, many mothers who have just given birth are strongly encouraged to get a flu shot because their immune systems are vulnerable. Also, studies have shown that people between the ages of 15 and 44 have the highest rate of infection. Although most people now recover, having any conditions that lower one's immune system increases the risk of having the flu become potentially lethal. In Northern Ireland now, approximately 56% of all people under 65 who are entitled to the vaccine have gotten the shot, and the outbreak is said to be under control.\n", "In July 2004, researchers led by H. Deng of the Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Harbin, China and Robert Webster of the St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, reported results of experiments in which mice had been exposed to 21 isolates of confirmed H5N1 strains obtained from ducks in China between 1999 and 2002. They found \"a clear temporal pattern of progressively increasing pathogenicity\". Results reported by Webster in July 2005 reveal further progression toward pathogenicity in mice and longer virus shedding by ducks.\n", "In unvaccinated adults, 16% get symptoms similar to the flu, while about 10% of vaccinated adults do. Vaccination decreased confirmed cases of influenza from about 2.4% to 1.1%. No effect on hospitalization was found.\n\nIn working adults, a review by the Cochrane Collaboration found that vaccination resulted in a modest decrease in both influenza symptoms and working days lost, without affecting transmission or influenza-related complications. In healthy working adults, influenza vaccines can provide moderate protection against virologically confirmed influenza, though such protection is greatly reduced or absent in some seasons.\n", "Section::::Vaccines.:Routine.\n\nCitizens of developed countries have most likely received their initial doses of the following:\n\nBULLET::::- tetanus and diphtheria (Td)\n\nBULLET::::- pertussis (whooping cough)\n\nBULLET::::- measles, mumps and rubella (MMR)\n\nBULLET::::- polio\n\nTravellers will most likely need to receive boosters of these, as many people in North America do not regularly update their shots and may be susceptible to these diseases, particularly measles, polio and pertussis .\n", "Section::::Individual studies.\n\nSection::::Individual studies.:Revaccination - January 2006.\n\nStudy completion: January 2006\n\nThe purpose of this study is to determine whether having received an H5 vaccine in the past primes the immune system to respond rapidly to another dose of H5 vaccine. Subjects who participate in this study will have participated in a previous vaccine study (involving the A/Hong/Kong/97 virus) during the fall of 1998 at the University of Rochester.\n\nSection::::Individual studies.:A/H5N1 in adult - February 2006.\n\nStudy start: April 2005; Study completion: February 2006\n", "Due to routine use of the Hib conjugate vaccine in the U.S. since 1990, the incidence of invasive Hib disease has decreased to 1.3/100,000 in children. However, Hib remains a major cause of lower respiratory tract infections in infants and children in developing countries where the vaccine is not widely used. Unencapsulated \"H. influenzae\" strains are unaffected by the Hib vaccine and cause ear infections (otitis media), eye infections (conjunctivitis), and sinusitis in children, and are associated with pneumonia.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "Hepatitis B is a contagious virus that affects the liver, infection can last from a few weeks to a serious lifelong illness. Two different types of infection exist for this disease, \"acute\" and \"chronic.\" Acute Hepatitis B is a short term illness that occurs within 6 months of exposure, Chronic Hepatitis B is long term and happens when the virus remains in the body.\n\nThe younger the child is, the greater their chance of developing a chronic infection and this risk goes down as the child gets older. Approximately 90% of infected infants will develop a chronic infection. \n", "The specific combination of fever and cough has been found to be the best predictor; diagnostic accuracy increases with a body temperature above 38°C (100.4°F). Two decision analysis studies suggest that \"during local outbreaks\" of influenza, the prevalence will be over 70%. Even in the absence of a local outbreak, diagnosis may be justified in the elderly during the influenza season as long as the prevalence is over 15%.\n", "As of February 2008, the \"median age of patients with influenza A (H5N1) virus infection is approximately 18 years [...] The overall case fatality proportion is 61% [...] Handling of sick or dead poultry during the week before the onset of illness is the most commonly recognized risk factor [...] The primary pathologic process that causes death is fulminant viral pneumonia.\"\n", "After an individual becomes infected, the immune system develops antibodies against that infectious agent. This is the body's main source of protection. Most children between five and ten years old have already produced antibodies for influenza virus C. As with all influenza viruses, type C affects individuals of all ages, but is most severe in young children, the elderly and individuals with underlying health problems. Young children have less prior exposure and have not developed the antibodies and the elderly have less effective immune systems. Influenza virus infections have one of the highest preventable mortalities in many countries of the world.\n", "As at least 50% of the people exposed to infected poultry had H7 antibodies detectable with the modified assay, it was estimated that avian influenza A/H7N7 virus infection occurred in at least 1000, and perhaps as many as 2000 people. The seroprevalence of H7 antibodies in people without contact with infected poultry, but with close household contact to an infected poultry worker, was 59%. This suggests that the population at risk for avian influenza was not limited to those with direct contact to infected poultry, and that person to person transmission may have occurred on a large scale. Final analysis of Dutch avian influenza outbreaks reveals much higher levels of transmission to humans than previously thought.\n", "One person in Virginia, United States in 2002, one person in New York, United States, in 2003, and one person in New York, United States, in 2016 were found to have serologic evidence of infection from H7N2; all fully recovered.\n", "Section::::Drug resistance.\n\nInfluenza viruses can show resistance to anti-viral drugs. Like the development of bacterial antibiotic resistance, this can result from over-use of these drugs. For example, a study published in the June 2009 Issue of Nature Biotechnology emphasized the urgent need for augmentation of oseltamivir (Tamiflu) stockpiles with additional antiviral drugs including zanamivir (Relenza) based on an evaluation of the performance of these drugs in the scenario that the 2009 H1N1 'Swine Flu' neuraminidase (NA) were to acquire the tamiflu-resistance (His274Tyr) mutation which is currently widespread in seasonal H1N1 strains.\n" ]	[ "Getting the flu shot would prevent the siblings from getting sick at all." ]	[ "A different strain of the virus then what the vaccine is for was also going around. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Getting the flu shot would prevent the siblings from getting sick at all." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "A different strain of the virus then what the vaccine is for was also going around. " ]
2018-00881	how does fast charge/ quick charge work ?	USB has a standardized voltage, quick charge at it's simplest is just using USB power delivery outside of the standard (more voltage). To not damage anything, the charger and your phone communicate to determine if they are quick charge compatible with each other, if not they revert to USB standard which is guaranteed to work.	[ "Quick Charge\n\nQuick Charge is a technology found in Qualcomm SoCs, used in devices such as mobile phones, for managing power delivered over USB. It offers more power and thus charges batteries in devices faster than standard USB rates allow. Quick Charge 2 onwards technology is primarily used for wall adaptors, but it is also implemented in car chargers and powerbanks (For both input and output power delivery). \n\nSection::::Details.\n", "Quick Charge was announce in 2012 and has more faster technology in 2016 using USB-C and USB-PD connector. It can charge mobile phone 4 times faster than standard micro USB.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Stationary battery plants.\n", "Quick Charge is a proprietary technology which allows for the charging of battery powered devices, primarily mobile phones, at levels above and beyond the typical 5 volts and 2 amps for which most USB standards allow. Numerous other companies have their own competing technologies; these include Mediatek's Pump Express, OPPO's VOOC (licensed to OnePlus as Dash Charge). To take advantage of Qualcomm Quick Charge, both the host providing power and the device must support it. In 2012 the USB Implementers Forum (USB IF) announced that their USB Power Delivery (USB PD) standard had been finalized which allows for devices to transfer up to 100 watts of power over capable USB ports. This new technology was first seen in a Xiaomi Mi Mix 3 prototype that went from 1% to 100% in a mere 17 minutes.\n", "Section::::Type.:Fast charger.\n\nFast chargers make use of control circuitry to rapidly charge the batteries without damaging any of the cells in the battery. The control circuitry can be built into the battery (generally for each cell) or in the external charging unit, or split between both. Most such chargers have a cooling fan to help keep the temperature of the cells at safe levels. Most fast chargers are also capable of acting as standard overnight chargers if used with standard NiMH cells that do not have the special control circuitry.\n\nSection::::Type.:Three stage charger.\n", "When a device doesn't recognize the faster-charging standard, generally the device and the charger fallback to the USB battery-charging standard of 5 V at 1.5 A (7.5 W).\n\nWhen a device detects it is plugged into a charger with a compatible faster-charging standard, the device pulls more current or the device tells the charger to increase the voltage or both to increase power (the details vary between standards).\n\nSuch standards include:\n\nBULLET::::- Qualcomm Quick Charge\n\nBULLET::::- MediaTek Pump Express\n\nBULLET::::- Samsung Adaptive Fast Charging\n\nBULLET::::- Oppo Super VOOC Flash Charge, also called OnePlus Dash Charge\n\nBULLET::::- Huawei SuperCharge\n", "Chargers take from a few minutes to several hours to charge a battery. Slow \"dumb\" chargers without voltage or temperature-sensing capabilities will charge at a low rate, typically taking 14 hours or more to reach a full charge. Rapid chargers can typically charge cells in two to five hours, depending on the model, with the fastest taking as little as fifteen minutes. Fast chargers must have multiple ways of detecting when a cell reaches full charge (change in terminal voltage, temperature, etc.) to stop charging before harmful overcharging or overheating occurs. The fastest chargers often incorporate cooling fans to keep the cells from overheating. Battery packs intended for rapid charging may include a temperature sensor that the charger uses to protect the pack; the sensor will have one or more additional electrical contacts.\n", "For faster charging, dedicated chargers can be built in permanent locations and provided with high-current connections to the grid. In this style of connection, the charger's DC output has no effective limit, theoretical or practical. Such high voltage and high-current charging is called a DC fast charge (DCFC) or DC quick charging (DCQC).\n", "Section::::Principle of rapid charging.\n", "The Tesla Model S was designed from the beginning to support fast battery swapping, with Tesla publicly discussing the capability as early as March 2009.\n", "Another standards organization, The International Electrotechnical Commission, defines charging in \"modes\" (IEC 62196).\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mode 1\" – slow charging from a regular electrical socket (single- or three-phase)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mode 2\" – slow charging from a regular socket but with some EV specific protection arrangement (e.g., the Park & Charge or the PARVE systems)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mode 3\" – slow or fast charging using a specific EV multi-pin socket with control and protection functions (e.g., SAE J1772 and IEC 62196)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mode 4\" – fast charging using some special charger technology such as CHAdeMO\n\nThere are three connection \"cases\":\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "The OPPO VOOC (Voltage Open Loop Multi-step Constant-Current Charging) Flash Charging system is a proprietary rapid-charge technology created by OPPO Electronics, which, at present, is able to charge certain OPPO devices from 0 to 75% in just 30 minutes. In contrast to Qualcomm's QuickCharge technology increasing the voltage during fast charging, VOOC uses a higher current than normal USB 2.0 charging. Thus, VOOC operates at 5V and 4A. The VOOC Flash Charge circuit technology reportedly lowers the temperature of the charging adapter, and creates an interface from the adapter to the phone, which improves the speed and safety of the charge.\n", "A typical intelligent charger fast-charges a battery up to about 85% of its maximum capacity in less than an hour, then switches to trickle charging, which takes several hours to top off the battery to its full capacity.\n\nSection::::Type.:Motion-powered charger.\n\nSeveral companies have begun making devices that charge batteries based on human motions. One example, made by Tremont Electric, consists of a magnet held between two springs that can charge a battery as the device is moved up and down, such as when walking. Such products have not yet achieved significant commercial success.\n", "BULLET::::- After the charge is ignited, a detonation wave propagates in the explosive charge placed in the interior of the central metallic tube (from left to right on the figure);\n\nBULLET::::- Under the effect of the pressure of the detonation wave, the tube deforms and becomes a cone which contacts the helically wrapped coil, diminishing the number of turns not short-circuited, compressing the magnetic field and creating an inductive current;\n\nBULLET::::- At the point of maximal flux compression, the load switch is opened, which then delivers the maximal current to the load.\n", "Control Pilot (Current limit): The charging station can use the wave signal to describe the maximum current that is available via the charging station with the help of pulse width modulation: a 16% PWM is a 10 A maximum, a 25% PWM is a 16 A maximum, a 50% PWM is a 32 A maximum and a 90% PWM flags a fast charge option.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "In response to addressing stopping power issues, the Mozambique Drill was developed to maximize the likelihood of a target's quick incapacitation.\n", "Timer based chargers also had the drawback that charging batteries that were not fully discharged, even if those batteries were of the correct capacity for the particular timed charger, would result in over-charging.\n\nSection::::Type.:Trickle charger.\n", "BULLET::::- The Great Wyvern is the combination of the Super Fire Dragon and the Super Jet Falcon. Its Final Rescue is the where a giant wave of electricity is fired from the great Wyvern's mouth, followed by a with the electrically-charged Rescue Dash-1 finishing the target.\n", "With pulse charging, high instantaneous voltages can be applied without overheating the battery. In a Lead–acid battery, this breaks down lead-sulfate crystals, thus greatly extending the battery service life.\n\nSeveral kinds of pulse charging are patented. Others are open source hardware.\n\nSome chargers use pulses to check the current battery state when the charger is first connected, then use constant current charging during fast charging, then use pulse charging as a kind of trickle charging to maintain the charge.\n\nSome chargers use \"negative pulse charging\", also called \"reflex charging\" or \"burp charging\".\n", "The output of a timer charger is terminated after a pre-determined time. Timer chargers were the most common type for high-capacity Ni-Cd cells in the late 1990s for example (low-capacity consumer Ni-Cd cells were typically charged with a simple charger).\n", "Section::::Versions of the specifications.:High-power charging.\n", "Level 2 most common was the 6.6 kW version. Level 3 higher power 50 kW fast charge versions were demonstrated.\n\nThis charger was unique in that its charge port used an inductive charge paddle, of which there were two sizes, a small and large paddle.\n\nThe system was designed to be safe even when used in the rain, and was demonstrated in operation fully submerged in water. These are often referred on electric vehicle charging station maps as SPI and LPI stations for Small Paddle Inductive and Large Paddle Inductive stations.\n", "The FAST was developed in the UK in 1998 by a group of stroke physicians, ambulance personnel, and an emergency department physician and was designed to be an integral part of a training package for ambulance staff. The FAST was created to expedite administration of intravenous tissue plasminogen activator to patients within 3 hours of acute stroke symptom onset. The instruments at this time with most evidence of validity were the Cincinnati Prehospital Stroke Scale (CPSS) and the Los Angeles Prehospital Stroke Screen (LAPSS).\n", "In 2013, Super Soaker produced the Flash Blast. While this blaster was spring-powered, this pistol-sized blaster used a system different from the previous two. Its slide was cocked back once. Then the trigger was pulled, firing a short stream of water. Function of this gun is similar to Nerf guns.\n\nSection::::Technology.:Motorized.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-05374	In a court of law, why are diaries of the accused admissible? Isn't that just a form of being forced to testify against yourself?	The production of the diary is considered voluntary testimony; you can't force someone to make statements, written or verbal, but if they choose to do so themselves they can be entered as evidence. The prohibition of forced incrimination doesn't mean someone can't do it themselves.	[ "Chapters formed from Helen's diary strictly follow its style and differ from Gilbert's narrative. It should be noted that his story is also taken from his own diary. Such adherence to the diaries may be considered as a 'testimony of experience'. Since the Renaissance writing a diary had been a popular form of documenting and expressing personal opinions.\n", "The debate over the diaries' validity started in 1936 with William J. Maloney's book, \"The Forged Casement Diaries\", in which he claimed to have proved that the British authorities had forged the diaries in order to discredit Casement. The poet W. B. Yeats was moved by this book to write a poem, 'Roger Casement', which he described as \"a ferocious ballad\". Another poet, Alfred Noyes, who had accepted the diaries as genuine in 1916, also criticised the establishment in a 1957 book, \"The Accusing Ghost or Justice for Casement\".\n", "The second category lists fictional works that are not written in diary form, but in which a character keeps a diary, or a diary is otherwise featured as part of the story. Some common uses for diaries in fiction are to reveal to the reader material that is concealed from other characters, to divulge information about past events, or as a device to provide real or false evidence to investigators in mystery or crime fiction. Examples of diaries being used in one of these ways include Amy Dunne's false diary in \"Gone Girl\" and Laura Palmer's secret diary in \"Twin Peaks\".\n", "BULLET::::- \"Star Trek\" episodes often contain entries in the Captain's log.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Superman\" (comics): Superman keeps a giant-sized diary at his Fortress of Solitude.\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Tenant of Wildfell Hall\" by Anne Brontë: The character Helen Graham gives the narrator Gilbert Markham her diaries to read; the diaries constitute the second volume of the novel.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Twin Peaks\" (television series) by David Lynch: Laura Palmer keeps a diary.\n\nBULLET::::- \"V for Vendetta\": Dr Delia Surrige keeps a diary.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Voyage of the Dawn Treader\" by C. S. Lewis: Eustace Clarence Scrubb keeps a diary.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Random Acts of Senseless Violence\" by Jack Womack\n\nBULLET::::- \"Runaway\" by Wendelin Van Draanen\n\nBULLET::::- \"Second Helpings\" by Megan McCafferty\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Secret Diary of Adrian Mole, Aged 13¾\" by Sue Townsend\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Secret Diary of Anne Boleyn\" by Robin Maxwell\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sloppy Firsts\" by Megan McCafferty\n\nBULLET::::- \"So Much To Tell You\" by John Marsden\n\nBULLET::::- \"Spud\" by John van de Ruit\n\nBULLET::::- \"Spud: the Madness Continues\" by John van de Ruit\n\nBULLET::::- \"Suzanne's Diary for Nicholas\" by James Patterson\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Tale of Murasaki\" by Liza Dalby\n", "BULLET::::- \"From the Files of Madison Finn\" series by Laura Dower\n\nBULLET::::- \"A Gathering of Days\" by Joan W. Blos\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gentlemen Prefer Blondes\" by Anita Loos\n\nBULLET::::- \"Go Ask Malice: A Slayer's Diary\" by Robert Joseph Levy\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hidden Passions: Secrets from the Diaries of Tabitha Lenox\" by Alice Alfonsi and James E. Reilly\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Horla\" by Guy de Maupassant\n\nBULLET::::- \"Houseboy\" by Ferdinand Oyono\n\nBULLET::::- \"I Capture the Castle\" by Dodie Smith\n\nBULLET::::- \"I Trissy\" by Norma Fox Mazer\n\nBULLET::::- \"Jazmin's Notebook\" by Nikki Grimes\n\nBULLET::::- \"A Journal of the Plague Year\" by Daniel Defoe\n", "The internet has also served as a way to bring previously unpublished diaries to the attention of historians and other readers, such as the diary of Michael Shiner, a 19th-century slave who documented his life in Washington, D.C.\n", "BULLET::::- The \"Amazing Days of Abby Hayes\" series by Anne Mazer\n\nBULLET::::- \"The American Diary of a Japanese Girl\" by Yone Noguchi\n\nBULLET::::- \"Any Human Heart:The Intimate Journals of Logan Mountstuart\" by William Boyd\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Basic Eight\" by Daniel Handler\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bert diaries\" by Anders Jacobsson and Sören Olsson.\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Book of the New Sun\" by Gene Wolfe\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bridget Jones's Diary\" by Helen Fielding\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Bunker Diary\" by Kevin Brooks\n\nBULLET::::- \"California Diaries\" (series) by Ann M. Martin\n\nBULLET::::- \"Candid Confessions\" by Patrick Maher\n\nBULLET::::- \"Catherine, Called Birdy\" by Karen Cushman\n", "The third category lists hoax diaries, that were presented as being true diaries of real people when first published, but were later discovered to be fiction. \"Go Ask Alice\", the first of a number of books by Beatrice Sparks purported to be based on diaries of real teenagers, was originally presented by Sparks as the non-fictional diary of an anonymous teenage girl, but was later classified by publishers as fiction.\n\nSection::::Fictional works in diary form.\n\nBULLET::::- The \"Adrian Mole\" series by Sue Townsend\n\nBULLET::::- \"Alice, I Think\" by Susan Juby\n", "BULLET::::- \"Kim: Empty Inside: The Diary of an Anonymous Teenager\" (2002) (The U.S. Copyright Office has noted that some material for this book was taken from a pre-existing diary.)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Finding Katie : The Diary of Anonymous, A Teenager in Foster Care\" (2005)\n\nSection::::Diaries appearing in fictional works.\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Basic Eight\" by Daniel Handler: Flannery Culp keeps diaries.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cloud Atlas\": Sections of the novel deal with the Pacific Journal of Adam Ewing.\n\nBULLET::::- \"A Devilfire Nightmare\": Thomas Willerson and Sarah Lovenald keeps their diaries.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets\" by J. K. Rowling: A magical diary created by Tom Riddle plays a role in the story and is eventually destroyed.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Homestuck\": Mindfang keeps a journal. Rose chronicles her adventures within Sburb.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade\" (film): Dr. Henry Walton Jones Sr. keeps a \"Grail Diary\".\n\nBULLET::::- \"John Winchester\"s diary in the TV show \"Supernatural\": The diary Sam and Dean's father keeps to record a list of supernatural creatures.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Charmed Thirds\" by Megan McCafferty\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Color Purple\" by Alice Walker\n\nBULLET::::- \"Confessions of Georgia Nicolson\" by Louise Rennison\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dangling Man\" by Saul Bellow\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dear America\", \"Dear Canada\" and \"My America\", series of historical novels for children in the form of diaries\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dear Dumb Diary\" by Jim Benton\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Debt to Pleasure\" by John Lanchester\n\nBULLET::::- \"Diary\" by Chuck Palahniuk\n\nBULLET::::- \"Diary of a Chav\" by Grace Dent\n\nBULLET::::- \"Diary of a Country Priest\" by Georges Bernanos\n\nBULLET::::- \"\" by Ridley Pearson\n\nBULLET::::- \"Diary of a Madman\" by Nikolai Gogol\n", "The institution's police department or security departments are required to maintain a public log of all crimes reported to them, or those of which they are made aware. The log is required to have the most recent 60 days' worth of information. Each entry in the log must contain the nature, date, time and general location of each crime and disposition of the complaint, if known. Information in the log older than 60 days must be made available within two business days. Crime logs must be kept for seven years, three years following the publication of the last annual security report.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Turner Diaries\" by William Luther Pierce (under the pseudonym Andrew MacDonald)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Vampire Diaries\" by L.J. Smith (This has only partial diary entries in diary format. The rest of the book is in text form.)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Yellow Wallpaper\" by Charlotte Perkins Gilman\n\nBULLET::::- \"Youth in Revolt\" by C.D. Pyane\n\nBULLET::::- \"Z for Zachariah\" by Robert C. O'Brien\n\nBULLET::::- \"\" by Dimitris Lyacos\n\nBULLET::::- Various works edited by Beatrice Sparks (author of \"Go Ask Alice\") including:\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Lacuna\" by Barbara Kingsolver\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Little White Bird\" by J.M. Barrie\n\nBULLET::::- \"Love That Dog\" by Sharon Creech\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Lost Journal of Indiana Jones\" by Henry Jones Jr.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mémoires d'Hadrien (Memoirs of Hadrian)\" by Marguerite Yourcenar\n\nBULLET::::- \"Memoirs of Miss Sidney Bidulph\" by Frances Sheridan\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Memory Book of Starr Faithfull: A Novel\" by Gloria Vanderbilt\n\nBULLET::::- \"Michael: A German Destiny in Diary Form\" by Joseph Goebbels\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Moneypenny Diaries\" by Samantha Weinberg (under the pseudonym Kate Westbrook)\n\nBULLET::::- \"A Month of Sundays\" by John Updike\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Moth Diaries\" by Rachel Klein\n", "Although a diary may provide information for a memoir, autobiography or biography, it is generally written not with the intention of being published as it stands, but for the author's own use. In recent years, however, there is internal evidence in some diaries (e.g. those of Ned Rorem, Alan Clark, Tony Benn or Simon Gray) that they are written with eventual publication in mind, with the intention of self-vindication (pre- or posthumous), or simply for profit.\n", "On 25 January 2017 the Witold Pilecki Center for Totalitarian Studies signed an agreement with the Hoover Institution, pursuant to which “Chronicles of Terror” will be supplemented by depositions relating to Communist crimes, taken from the archives of Gen. Anders’ Army. After World War II, documents containing the accounts of Poles – both soldiers and civilians who left the Soviet Union together with the Polish Army – were deposited with the Hoover Library, for it was feared that they could have been seized by the Communist authorities.\n\nSection::::Testimony database and its collections.\n", "Section::::Caveats.:Security clearance.\n\nWhen applying for a state professional license or job that is considered a public office or high security (such as security guard, law enforcement, or related to national security), you may be required to disclose that you have an expunged conviction. A false denial may result in the denial of a license or security clearance.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Criminal records in the United States\n\nBULLET::::- Expungement\n\nBULLET::::- Expungement in Texas\n\nBULLET::::- Difference between record sealing and expungement\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- 50-state guide to expungement and sealing laws from the Collateral Consequences Resource Center\n", "BULLET::::- \"Diary of a Nobody\" by George Grossmith and Weedon Grossmith\n\nBULLET::::- \"Diary of a Pilgrimage\" by Jerome K Jerome\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Diary of Samuel Marchbanks\" by Robertson Davies\n\nBULLET::::- \"Diary of a Seducer\" by Søren Kierkegaard\n\nBULLET::::- \"Diary of a Somebody\" by Christopher Matthew\n\nBULLET::::- \"Diary of a Wimpy Kid\" by Jeff Kinney\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dinotopia\" by James Gurney\n\nBULLET::::- \"Don't You Dare Read This, Mrs. Dunphrey\" by Margaret Peterson Haddix\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dork Diaries\" by Rachel Renee Russell\n\nBULLET::::- \"Double Eclipse\" by Melissa de la Cruz\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dracula\" by Bram Stoker\n\nBULLET::::- \"Flowers for Algernon\" by Daniel Keyes\n", "BULLET::::4. Business records exception: business records created during the ordinary course of business are considered reliable and can usually be brought in under this exception if the proper foundation is laid when the records are introduced into evidence. Depending on which jurisdiction the case is in, either the records custodian or someone with knowledge of the records must lay a foundation for the records, however. The use of police records, especially as substantive evidence against the accused in a criminal trial, is severely restricted under the Business Records exception. Typically, only generalized evidence about police procedure is admissible under this exception, and not facts about a specific case. For example, John is stopped for speeding 70 miles per hour in a 50-mile-per-hour zone. The officer, who determined John's speed with radar, records the speed in an incident report. He also calibrates and runs a diagnostic on his radar every day prior to beginning his shift. He records this in a log. At trial, the report itself would not be admissible as it pertained to the facts of the case. However, the officer's daily log in which he records his calibration and the daily diagnostics of his radar unit would be admissible under the business records exception.\n", "Most post-mortem privacy protection occurs on the state level. Thus, legislation and the degree of protection varies widely from state to state.\n\nSection::::Law.:Relevant court cases.\n\n\"Jesse James, Jr. v. Screen Gems Inc.\" established that rights of privacy do not survive death. The widow of Jesse James, Jr. filed suit against Screen Gems on behalf of her late husband, claiming the use of his name in a documentary was an invasion of his privacy. The court decided her claim was insufficient because it only applied to her husband.\n\nSection::::Medical confidentiality.\n", "Research published in 2016 again casts doubt on the \"Black Diaries\". \"The Casement Secret\" by Paul R. Hyde argues that there is no evidence of the existence of the diaries during Casement's lifetime since only typescript pages – allegedly copies – were circulated; no-one was shown the diaries now in the National Archives. An official memorandum by the British Secretary of State dated 6 March 1959 states: \"\"There is no record on the Home Office papers of the diaries or the copies having been shown to anyone outside the Government service before Casement's trial\"\".\n", "The writing of diaries was also often practiced from the 20th century onwards as a conscious act of self-exploration (of greater or lesser sincerity) – examples being the diaries of Carl Jung, Aleister Crowley and Anaïs Nin. Among important diaries by 20th-century literary figures are those of Franz Kafka, Edmund Wilson and the French writer Paul Léautaud (1872–1956). The self-reflective \"\" written by Saint Faustina contains accounts of her visions and conversations with Jesus.\n", "Marcel Matley, a second document examiner, stated, \"Even if every document examined were the authentic writing of Casement, this report does nothing to establish the fact.\" A very brief expert opinion in 1959 by a Home Office employee failed to identify Casement as author of the diaries. This opinion is almost unknown and does not appear in the Casement literature. As late as July 2015 the UK National Archives ambiguously described the \"Black Diaries\" as \"attributed to Roger Casement\", while at the same time unambiguously declaring their satisfaction with the result of the private Giles Report.\n", "In the United States the common law right to \"access court records to inspect and to copy\" was reaffirmed by the U.S. Supreme Court in \"Nixon v Warner Communications, Inc\" (1978), where the court found various parts of the right to access court records as inherent to the First, Fourth, Sixth, and Fourteenth Amendments. In the United States access to court records is governed by Civil Rights in the Amendments to the United States Constitution, not by the Freedom of Information Act.\n" ]	[ "Diaries are a form of being forced to testify against yourself.", "Diaries of the accused is a form of being forced to testify against yourself." ]	[ "A diary is considered voluntary testimony, as the writer chose to write the diary themselves, they were not forced to do so.", "The production of the diary is considered voluntary testimony." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Diaries are a form of being forced to testify against yourself.", "Diaries of the accused is a form of being forced to testify against yourself." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "A diary is considered voluntary testimony, as the writer chose to write the diary themselves, they were not forced to do so.", "The production of the diary is considered voluntary testimony." ]
2018-03014	How come when you hold your pee, the urge to go seems to come and go periodically?	Your desire to pee is periodic (when it is not severe) because of how chemical messengers and receptors function. There is also a prioritization which occurs in the brain; thus there exists a biological and biopsychological aspect. Biological: When your bladder begins to expand, there are proteins, cells, and tissues which expand along side of it. You can imagine these tissues and neurons being wrapped around like an elastic band. The process of expanding causes chemical gradients to occur in these tissues. Once enough of a gradient is formed, a signal is sent to your brain through neuropeptides (more chemical messengers, but for your brain). For neuropeptides, they don't last forever (otherwise you would feel like you need to pee all the time). In addition to this, once a cell has recieved a chemical message, it lets the signal sit in the receptor for a short period, then it recycles the receptor and consumes the chemical messenger. This also results in a delay. But even after all this, your bladder is still expanding and those gradient messages are still accumulating. For a short period, there is no signal due to the receptor recycling, and due to a re-buildup of the gradient messengers. After a short period, it comes back becuase of the same mechanisms. Importantly, it is a cumulative effect, where lots of signals need to occur for our brain to understand the actual severity. Biopsychological: Your body prioritizes things due to your actions. If you are focused or in states of concentration, your brain shifts these messages to be less important... there is a more frequent and rapid signal occurring in your parietal lobe of the brain saying "we have to seriously focus". All that needs to happen is for your concentration/attention to be greater than your need to pee, and you will over-ride those chemical signals. This aids in the periodicity of the signal because of shifting priorities.	[ "Urgency is considered the hallmark symptom of OAB, but there are no clear criteria for what constitutes urgency and studies often use other criteria. Urgency is currently defined by the International Continence Society (ICS), as of 2002, as \"Sudden, compelling desire to pass urine that is difficult to defer.\" The previous definition was \"Strong desire to void accompanied by fear of leakage or pain.\" The definition does not address the immediacy of the urge to void and has been criticized as subjective.\n", "In many cases, these symptoms may be exacerbated by the consumption of certain foods or beverages, such as caffeine, particularly coffee, regular tea, green tea, soda, diet soda and fruit juice. Cranberry juice, for example, may cause extreme urgency in those experiencing such urgency.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Non-medical causes.\n", "It is important that the clinician and the patient both reach a consensus on the term, 'urgency.' Some common phrases used to describe OAB include, 'When I've got to go, I've got to go,' or 'When I have to go, I have to rush, because I think I will wet myself.' Hence the term, 'fear of leakage,' is an important concept to patients.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "In healthy individuals, the lower urinary tract has two discrete phases of activity: the storage (or guarding) phase, when urine is stored in the bladder; and the voiding phase, when urine is released through the urethra. The state of the reflex system is dependent on both a conscious signal from the brain and the firing rate of sensory fibers from the bladder and urethra. At low bladder volumes, afferent firing is low, resulting in excitation of the outlet (the sphincter and urethra), and relaxation of the bladder. At high bladder volumes, afferent firing increases, causing a conscious sensation of urinary urge. When the individual is ready to urinate, he or she consciously initiates voiding, causing the bladder to contract and the outlet to relax. Voiding continues until the bladder empties completely, at which point the bladder relaxes and the outlet contracts to re-initiate storage. The muscles controlling micturition are controlled by the autonomic and somatic nervous systems. During the storage phase the internal urethral sphincter remains tense and the detrusor muscle relaxed by sympathetic stimulation. During micturition, parasympathetic stimulation causes the detrusor muscle to contract and the internal urethral sphincter to relax. The external urethral sphincter (sphincter urethrae) is under somatic control and is consciously relaxed during micturition.\n", "Timed voiding programs involve establishing a schedule for urination. To do this a patient fills in a chart of voiding and leaking. From the patterns that appear in the chart, the patient can plan to empty his or her bladder before he or she would otherwise leak. Some individuals find it helpful to use a vibrating reminder watch to help them remember to use the bathroom. Vibrating watches can be set to go off at certain intervals or at specific times throughout the day, depending on the watch. Through this bladder training exercise, the patient can alter their bladder’s schedule for storing and emptying urine.\n", "Diuresis (production of urine by the kidney) occurs constantly, and as the bladder becomes full, afferent firing increases, yet the micturition reflex can be voluntarily inhibited until it is appropriate to begin voiding.\n\nSection::::Anatomy and physiology.:Physiology.:Voiding phase.\n\nVoiding begins when a voluntary signal is sent from the brain to begin urination, and continues until the bladder is empty.\n", "Whenever We Wanted\n\nWhenever We Wanted is American singer-songwriter and musician John Mellencamp's 11th album, and the first to be credited simply to Mellencamp's given name (i.e., without the \"Cougar\" name).\n", "Urinary retention is a common disorder in elderly males. The most common cause of urinary retention is BPH. This disorder starts around age 50 and symptoms may appear after 10–15 years. BPH is a progressive disorder and narrows the neck of the bladder leading to urinary retention. By the age of 70, almost 10 percent of males have some degree of BPH and 33% have it by the eighth decade of life. While BPH rarely causes sudden urinary retention, the condition can become acute in the presence of certain medications (blood pressure pills, anti histamines, antiparkinson medications), after spinal anaesthesia or stroke.\n", "Section::::Anatomy and physiology.:Disorders.\n\nSection::::Anatomy and physiology.:Disorders.:Clinical conditions.\n\nMany clinical conditions can cause disturbances to normal urination, including:\n\nBULLET::::- Urinary incontinence, the inability to hold urine\n\nBULLET::::- Stress incontinence, incontinence as a result of external mechanical disturbances\n\nBULLET::::- Urge incontinence, incontinence that occurs as a result of the uncontrollable urge to urinate\n\nBULLET::::- Mixed incontinence, a combination of the two types of incontinence\n\nBULLET::::- Urinary retention, the inability to initiate urination\n\nBULLET::::- Overactive bladder, a strong urge to urinate, usually accompanied by detrusor overactivity\n\nBULLET::::- Interstitial cystitis, a condition characterized by urinary frequency, urgency, and pain\n", "Each action potential is followed by a refractory period, which can be divided into an \"absolute refractory period\", during which it is impossible to evoke another action potential, and then a \"relative refractory period\", during which a stronger-than-usual stimulus is required. These two refractory periods are caused by changes in the state of sodium and potassium channel molecules. When closing after an action potential, sodium channels enter an \"inactivated\" state, in which they cannot be made to open regardless of the membrane potential—this gives rise to the absolute refractory period. Even after a sufficient number of sodium channels have transitioned back to their resting state, it frequently happens that a fraction of potassium channels remains open, making it difficult for the membrane potential to depolarize, and thereby giving rise to the relative refractory period. Because the density and subtypes of potassium channels may differ greatly between different types of neurons, the duration of the relative refractory period is highly variable.\n", "As it functions to innervate the external urethral sphincter it is responsible for the tone of the sphincter mediated via acetylcholine release. This means that during periods of increased acetylcholine release the skeletal muscle in the external urethral sphincter contracts, causing urinary retention. Whereas in periods of decreased acetylcholine release the skeletal muscle in the external urethral sphincter relaxes, allowing voiding of the bladder to occur. (Clarification: Unlike the internal sphincter muscle, the external sphincter is made of skeletal muscle, therefore it is under voluntary control of the somatic nervous system.)\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.:Anesthesia.\n", "Urinary frequency is considered abnormal if the person urinates more than eight times in a day. This frequency is usually monitored by having the patient keep a voiding diary where they record urination episodes. The number of episodes varies depending on sleep, fluid intake, medications, and up to seven is considered normal if consistent with the other factors.\n", "As water is pumped out, the bladder's walls are sucked inwards by the partial vacuum created, and any dissolved material inside the bladder becomes more concentrated. The sides of the bladder bend inwards, storing potential energy like a spring. Eventually, no more water can be extracted, and the bladder trap is 'fully set' (technically, osmotic pressure rather than physical pressure is the limiting factor).\n", "Urininary urgency may be as a result of anxiety or in some cases extended sexual arousal. When a human male is attracted to a mate, there is an autonomic nervous system response, and the body is therefore not entirely under conscious control, with many hormones including norepinephrine being released in the parasympathetic system in a cascade of ways designed by genetics to make the male more likely to breed. Specifically, the release of norepinephrine will lead to sweaty palms, inability to find words, rough and lowered voice, increased need to blink and urinary urgency. \n", "In the 1940s, Francis Ernest Lloyd conducted extensive experiments with carnivorous plants, including \"Utricularia\", and settled many points which had previously been the subject of conjecture. He proved that the mechanism of the trap was purely mechanical by both killing the trigger hairs with iodine and subsequently showing that the response was unaffected, and by demonstrating that the trap could be made ready to spring a second (or third) time immediately after being set off if the bladder's excretion of water were helped by a gentle squeeze; in other words, the delay of at least fifteen minutes between trap springings is due solely to the time needed to excrete water, and the triggers need no time to recover irritability (unlike the reactive trigger hairs of Venus Flytraps, for example).\n", "The absolute refractory period coincides with nearly the entire duration of the action potential. In neurons, it is caused by the inactivation of the Na channels that originally opened to depolarize the membrane. These channels remain inactivated until the membrane hyperpolarizes. The channels then close, de-inactivate, and regain their ability to open in response to stimulus.\n", "OAB causes similar symptoms to some other conditions such as urinary tract infection (UTI), bladder cancer, and benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). Urinary tract infections often involve pain and hematuria (blood in the urine) which are typically absent in OAB. Bladder cancer usually includes hematuria and can include pain, both not associated with OAB, and the common symptoms of OAB (urgency, frequency, and nocturia) may be absent. BPH frequently includes symptoms at the time of voiding as well as sometimes including pain or hematuria, and all of these are not usually present in OAB. Diabetes insipidus, which causes high frequency and volume, though not necessarily urgency.\n", "Section::::Effects on neuronal firing.:Implications for disease.\n\nDifferences in persistent and resurgent currents have been implicated in certain human neurological and neuromuscular disorders. In epilepsy, mutations in sodium channels genes delay inactivation. This leads to the channel staying open for longer and thus longer-lasting neuronal firing. Higher levels of persistent current are observed in epilepsy. This constant, low-level neuronal stimulation has been linked to the seizures typical of this disorder.\n", "Section::::Causes.:Thalamus.:White matter.\n", "Once the seal is disturbed, the bladder walls instantly spring back to a more rounded shape; the door flies open and a column of water is sucked into the bladder. The animal which touched the lever, if small enough, is inevitably drawn in, and as soon as the trap is filled, the door resumes its closed position—the whole operation being completed in as little as one-hundredth of a second.\n", "Section::::Causes.\n\nCommon causes include, but not limited to:\n\nBULLET::::- Incomplete emptying of the bladder\n\nBULLET::::- Irritable bladder\n\nBULLET::::- Constipation\n\nBULLET::::- Stress\n\nBULLET::::- Urinary tract infection\n\nBULLET::::- Urgency (not “making it” to the bathroom in time)\n\nBULLET::::- Anatomic abnormality\n\nBULLET::::- Poor toileting habits\n\nBULLET::::- Small bladder capacity\n\nBULLET::::- Medical conditions like overactive bladder disorder\n\nSection::::Management.\n", "Without diagnostic evaluation, the cause of UAB is unclear, as there are multiple possible causes. UAB symptoms can accurately reflect impaired bladder emptying due either to DU or obstruction (normal or large storage volumes, elevated post-void residual volume), or can result from a sense of incomplete emptying of a hypersensitive bladder (small storage volumes, normal or elevated postvoid residual volume). UAB potentially might also result from inaccurate perceptions of bladder function, such as in neurologic or psychiatric disease. DU itself is often linked to a weak detrusor muscle (impaired contractility), however this association is weak. Both UAB and DU have been associated with diminished sensitivity to bladder volumes rather than objective detrusor weakness, suggesting both symptoms (UAB) and function (DU) have a significant component of sensory dysfunction, leading to impaired bladder sensations and control (Smith et al., 2015). \n", "In “Identifying Needs in Education\" Noddings (2003) provides criteria for deciding whether a want should be recognized or treated as a need. This criteria is as follows:\n\nBULLET::::- The want is fairly stable over a considerable period of time and/or it is intense.\n\nBULLET::::- The want is demonstrably connected to some desirable end or, at least, to one that is not harmful; further, the end is impossible or difficult to reach without the object wanted.\n\nBULLET::::- The want is in the power (within the means) of those addressed to grant it.\n", "In Molinari's case he slips sideways in time under the drug's influence and is able to pull alternate versions of his present self into his own timeline and then keep them there.\n", "Demand patterns need to be studied in different segments of the market. Service organizations need to constantly study changing demands related to their service offerings over various time periods. They have to develop a system to chart these demand fluctuations, which helps them in predicting the demand cycles. Demands do fluctuate randomly, therefore, they should be followed on a daily, weekly or a monthly basis.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00234	How efficient are humans at generating electricity (through an exercise bike for example) relative to food intake?	Let's take a man who works hard and eats 4 million calories/day(about what's recommended for intense physical work), he also can sustain solid 75 watts of work for all of his 8 working hours. 1 watt is 1 joule/second, so it's 75\8\60\*60 = 2160000 joules of mechanical energy. Let's say you can convert it to electricity with 100% efficiency(though you probably can't in reality) On the other hand 1 calorie = 4.184 joules so he ate 16736000 joules worth of food energy. 2160000/16736000 = 13% efficiency	[ "While attempts have been made to fit electric generators to exercise equipment, the energy collected is of low value compared to the cost of the conversion equipment.\n\nSection::::Human-powered transport.\n", "Although this shows a large \"relative\" increase in food required for low power cycling, in practice it is hardly noticed, as the extra energy cost of an hour's cycling can be covered with 50 g nuts or chocolate. With long and fast or uphill cycling, the extra food requirement however becomes evident.\n\nTo complete the efficiency calculation, the type of food consumed determines the overall efficiency. For this the energy needed to produce, distribute and cook the food must be considered.\n\nSection::::Typical speeds.\n", "In lab experiments an average \"in-shape\" cyclist can produce about 3 watts/kg for more than an hour (e.g., around 200 watts for a rider), with top amateurs producing 5 watts/kg and elite athletes achieving 6 watts/kg for similar lengths of time. Elite track sprint cyclists are able to attain an instantaneous maximum output of around 2,000 watts, or in excess of 25 watts/kg; elite road cyclists may produce 1,600 to 1,700 watts as an instantaneous maximum in their burst to the finish line at the end of a five-hour-long road race.\n\nSection::::Modes.\n\nSection::::Modes.:Non-vehicular.\n\nBULLET::::- Crawling (human)\n\nBULLET::::- Walking (240 watts)\n", "During a bicycle race, an elite cyclist can produce close to 400 watts of mechanical power over an hour and in short bursts over double that — 1000 to 1100 watts; modern racing bicycles have greater than 95% mechanical efficiency. An adult of good fitness is more likely to average between 50 and 150 watts for an hour of vigorous exercise. Over an 8-hour work shift, an average, healthy, well-fed and motivated manual laborer may sustain an output of around 75 watts of work. However, the potential yield of human electric power is decreased by the inefficiency of any generator device, since all real generators incur considerable losses during the energy conversion process.\n", "Human powered direct current generators are commercially available, and have been the project of some DIY enthusiasts. Typically operated by means of pedal power, a converted bicycle trainer, or a foot pump, such generators can be practically used to charge batteries, and in some cases are designed with an integral inverter. An average \"healthy human\" can produce a steady 75 Watts (0.1 horsepower) for a full eight hour period, while a \"first class athlete\" can produce approximately 298 Watts (0.4 horsepower) for a similar period. At the end of which an undetermined period of rest and recovery will be required. At 298 Watts the average \"healthy human\" becomes exhausted within 10 minutes. The net electrical power that can be produced will be less, due to the efficiency of the generator. Portable radio receivers with a crank are made to reduce battery purchase requirements, see clockwork radio. During the mid 20th century, pedal powered radios were used throughout the Australian outback, to provide schooling (School of the Air), medical and other needs in remote stations and towns.\n", "There is also research into energy production for devices that would operate \"in vivo\", called bio-nano generators. A bio-nano generator is a nanoscale electrochemical device, like a fuel cell or galvanic cell, but drawing power from blood glucose in a living body, much the same as how the body generates energy from food. To achieve the effect, an enzyme is used that is capable of stripping glucose of its electrons, freeing them for use in electrical devices. The average person's body could, theoretically, generate 100 watts of electricity (about 2000 food calories per day) using a bio-nano generator. However, this estimate is only true if all food was converted to electricity, and the human body needs some energy consistently, so possible power generated is likely much lower. The electricity generated by such a device could power devices embedded in the body (such as pacemakers), or sugar-fed nanorobots. Much of the research done on bio-nano generators is still experimental, with Panasonic's Nanotechnology Research Laboratory among those at the forefront.\n", "The conversion efficiency of energy from respiration into mechanical (physical) power depends on the type of food and on the type of physical energy usage (e.g., which muscles are used, whether the muscle is used aerobically or anaerobically). In general, the efficiency of muscles is rather low: only 18 to 26% of the energy available from respiration is converted into mechanical energy. This low efficiency is the result of about 40% efficiency of generating ATP from the respiration of food, losses in converting energy from ATP into mechanical work inside the muscle, and mechanical losses inside the body. The latter two losses are dependent on the type of exercise and the type of muscle fibers being used (fast-twitch or slow-twitch). For an overall efficiency of 20%, one watt of mechanical power is equivalent to per hour. For example, a manufacturer of rowing equipment shows calories released from 'burning' food as four times the actual mechanical work, plus per hour, which amounts to about 20% efficiency at 250 watts of mechanical output. It can take up to 20 hours of little physical output (e.g., walking) to \"burn off\" more than a body would otherwise consume. For reference, each kilogram of body fat is roughly equivalent to of food energy (i.e., 3,500 kilocalories per pound).\n", "The required food can also be calculated by dividing the output power by the muscle efficiency. This is 18–26%. From the example above, if a 70 kg person is cycling at 15 km/h by expending 60 W and a muscular efficiency of 20% is assumed, roughly 1 kJ/(km∙kg) \"extra\" food is required. For calculating the \"total\" food required during the trip, the BMR must first be added to the input power. If the 70 kg person is an old, short woman, her BMR could be 60 W, in all other cases a bit higher. Viewed this way the efficiency in this example is effectively halved and roughly 2 kJ/(km∙kg) \"total\" food is required.\n", "Note that producing electricity from fuel requires much more primary energy than the amount of electricity produced.\n\nSection::::Units of measurement.:Food energy.\n\nEnergy consumption:\n\nBULLET::::- calories burnt by the body's metabolism per kilometre; e.g., Cal/km.\n\nBULLET::::- calories burnt by the body's metabolism per mile; e.g., Cal/miles.\n\nSection::::Overview.\n", "Piezoelectric nanofibers in clothing could generate enough electricity from the wearer's body movements to power small electronic devices, such as iPods or some of the electronic equipment used by soldiers on the battlefield, based on research by University of California, Berkeley Professor Liwei Lin and his team. One million such fibers could power an iPod, and would be altogether as large as a grain of sand. Researchers at Stanford University are developing \"eTextiles\" — batteries made of fabric — that might serve to store power generated by such technology.\n", "This input power can be determined by measuring oxygen uptake, or in the long term food consumption, assuming no change of weight. This includes the power needed just for living, called the basal metabolic rate BMR or roughly the resting metabolic rate.\n", "BULLET::::- Electric bicycle\n\nBULLET::::- Electric skateboard\n\nBULLET::::- Hovercraft\n\nBULLET::::- Moped\n\nBULLET::::- Motorcycle\n\nBULLET::::- Motorized wheelchair\n\nBULLET::::- Private jet\n\nBULLET::::- Motor ship\n\nBULLET::::- Submarine\n\nBULLET::::- Non-motorized:\n\nBULLET::::- Bicycle\n\nBULLET::::- Horse-drawn vehicle\n\nBULLET::::- Hot air balloon\n\nBULLET::::- Ice skates\n\nBULLET::::- Inline skates\n\nBULLET::::- Pack animal\n\nBULLET::::- Roller skates\n\nBULLET::::- Scooter\n\nBULLET::::- Skateboard\n\nBULLET::::- Walking\n\nBULLET::::- Wheelchair\n\nCycling and walking, above all, have been recognized as the most sustainable transport systems. In general, all muscle-driven mobility will have a similar energy efficiency while at the same time being almost emission-free (apart from the CO2 exhaled during breathing).\n", "BULLET::::- Running (1,000 watts)\n\nBULLET::::- Sprinting (1,700 watts at )\n\nBULLET::::- Swimming\n\nBULLET::::- Climbing and mountaineering\n\nBULLET::::- Ice skating, roller skating, and inline skating\n\nBULLET::::- Cross-country skiing\n\nSection::::Modes.:Human-powered vehicles (HPVs).\n\nSection::::Modes.:Human-powered vehicles (HPVs).:Land vehicles.\n\nSkateboards have the advantage of being so small and light that users can easily carry them when not skating.\n\nThe most efficient human-powered land vehicle is the bicycle. Compared to the much more common upright bicycle, the recumbent bicycle may be faster on level ground or down hills due to better aerodynamics while having similar power transfer efficiency.\n", "Another way of energy harvesting is through the oxidation of blood sugars. These energy harvesters are called biobatteries. They could be used to power implanted electronic devices (e.g., pacemakers, implanted biosensors for diabetics, implanted active RFID devices, etc.). At present, the Minteer Group of Saint Louis University has created enzymes that could be used to generate power from blood sugars. However, the enzymes would still need to be replaced after a few years. In 2012, a pacemaker was powered by implantable biofuel cells at Clarkson University under the leadership of Dr. Evgeny Katz.\n\nSection::::Devices.:Tree-based.\n", "Section::::Land transport means.:Motorized bicycle.\n\nA motorized bicycle allows human power and the assistance of a engine, giving a range of . Electric pedal-assisted bikes run on as little as per 100 km, while maintaining speeds in excess of . These best-case figures rely on a human doing 70% of the work, with around per 100 km coming from the motor. This makes an electric bicycle one of the most efficient possible motorized vehicles, behind only a motorized velomobile.\n\nSection::::Land transport means.:Electric kick scooter.\n", "Over the years, many factors have been examined in order to explain variation in running energy expenditure across species. Some of these factors were examined well over a century ago when Zuntz discovered in 1897 that the energetic cost of animals of similar mass to run a given distance was independent of limb number. In other words, there is no difference in the energetic cost to run a given distance as a quadruped or as a biped provided the animals are similar in body weight. Since Zuntz, a large amount of evidence has suggested that the COT decreases in direct proportion to body weight, with larger animals exhibiting a lower COT than smaller animals. \n", "BULLET::::- Measurements of food intake: In estimating energy intakes, measurements of food intake are made, and these are known to be subject to considerable uncertainty. Even in studies under very close supervision the errors in weighing individual food items are rarely less than ±5%. A certain degree of pragmatism must therefore be used when assessing procedures for calculating energy intakes, and many authors impute greater accuracy to quoted calculated energy intakes than is justifiable.\n\nBULLET::::- Individual variation: Variations in individuals are seen in all human studies, and these variations are not allowed for in most calculations.\n", "However, since 2009 there is a general trend to move towards wireless systems. \n\nPower meters generally transmit data over ANT+ or Bluetooth Low Energy protocols and can be paired to standard bike computers that display information about the power output generated by the rider.\n\nSection::::Use in training.\n\nPower meters provide an objective measurement of real output that allows training progress to be tracked very simply—something that is more difficult when using, for example, a heart rate monitor alone. \n\nCyclists will often train at different intensities depending on the adaptations they are seeking. \n", "In a study comparing rats active at high altitude versus rats active at sea level, with two sedentary control groups, it was observed that muscle fiber types changed according to homeostatic challenges which led to an increased metabolic efficiency during the beta oxidative cycle and citric acid cycle, showing an increased utilization of ATP for aerobic performance.\n", "According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, the average minimum energy requirement per person per day is about .\n\nRecommendations in the United States are for men and women (respectively) between 31 and 35, at a physical activity level equivalent to walking about per day at in addition to the light physical activity associated with typical day-to-day life. French guidance suggests roughly the same levels.\n", "Studies of animals indicate that physical activity may be more adaptable than changes in food intake to regulate energy balance.\n\nMice having access to activity wheels engaged in voluntary exercise and increased their propensity to run as adults. Artificial selection of mice exhibited significant heritability in voluntary exercise levels, with \"high-runner\" breeds having enhanced aerobic capacity, hippocampal neurogenesis, and skeletal muscle morphology.\n", "Chester Kyle and Frank Berto reported in \"Human Power\" 52 (Summer 2001) that testing on three derailleur systems (from 4 to 27 gears) and eight gear hub transmissions (from 3 to 14 gears), performed with 80W, 150W, 200W inputs, gave results as follows:\n\nEfficiency testing of bicycle gearing systems is complicated by a number of factors - in particular, all systems tend to be better at higher power rates. 200 watts will drive a typical bicycle at 20 mph, while athletes can achieve 400W, at which point efficiencies 'approaching 98%' are claimed.\n", "There are many great projects related to wearable technology or wearable power generation. One concept, for example, is an article of clothing that has the ability to convert the movements of the wearer into electricity using nano-ion pumps. It is based on nanotechnology and has the ability to generate electricity for the purposes of building muscle mass and improving coordination. Emergency workers like firemen and paramedics could use chest-implanted sensors to create a floor plan of unfamiliar buildings; making a rookie perform his job as efficiently as a veteran. With cameras becoming cheaper and smaller, wearable generators may also serve as a quick method to recharge the batteries on those devices. The environmental burden of disposing used batteries has contributed to e-waste; something that wearable generators may drastically reduce. Enough energy can theoretically be harnessed from a person's body heat to power a smartphone or tablet.\n", "The energy input to the human body is in the form of food energy, usually quantified in kilocalories [kcal] or kiloJoules [kJ=kWs]. This can be related to a certain distance travelled and to body weight, giving units such as kJ/(km∙kg). The rate of food consumption, i.e. the amount consumed during a certain period of time, is the input power. This can be measured in kcal/day or in J/s = W (1000 kcal/d ~ 48.5 W).\n", "In the 1989 Race Across America, one team (Team Strawberry) used an experimental device comprising a rear wheel hub, a sensor, and a handlebar mounted processor, to measure each cyclist's power output.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00875	Why is the president saluted while they retain a civilian status?	The President of the USA is also Commander in Chief of all branches of the military. So, he is technically a part of the military chain of command, and is treated appropriately by military personnel.	[ "The custom of saluting commissioned officers relates wholly to the commission given by Her Majesty the Queen to that officer, not the person. Therefore, when a subordinate airman salutes an officer, he is indirectly acknowledging Her Majesty as Head of State. A salute returned by the officer is on behalf of the Queen.\n", "Salute to America featured an overarching theme of American military appreciation and patriotism. Trump requested the inclusion of tanks, and that the chiefs of the Air Force, Army, Marines, and Navy stand next to him on stage during the event. However due to preparations beginning only weeks prior to the occasion, most of the joint chiefs were on leave or traveling and were not available to attend. The chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, General Joseph Dunford, Jr., was available and attended, joining the president and then-Acting Secretary of Defense Mark Esper on stage halfway through the president's address.\n", "Section::::Civilian military auxiliaries (U.S.).\n\nSection::::Civilian military auxiliaries (U.S.).:Civil Air Patrol.\n", "The National Park Service stated that Trump's event was not expected to conflict with other traditional Independence Day events held at the Capitol, such as the National Independence Day Parade, the televised \"A Capitol Fourth\" concert, and its associated fireworks display (although due to Salute to America, fireworks were launched from West Potomac Park, rather than the Lincoln Memorial Reflecting Pool). The producers of \"A Capitol Fourth\" distanced themselves from Trump's festivities, emphasizing that they were an independent and separate event. Due to the circumstances of Trump's presence, the Federal Aviation Administration suspended flights at Reagan Airport during the event.\n", "Section::::Reception.\n\nSection::::Reception.:Pre-event.\n\nTrump's supporters considered the event to be a display of the president's pride for the country and its military. Comparisons were drawn to \"Honor America Day\"—a 1970 Independence Day rally at the Capitol in support of Richard Nixon, who appeared via a pre-recorded speech to attendees, in the wake of controversy over the invasion of Cambodia and the Kent State shootings. That event also faced opposition, notably by anti-Vietnam War protesters and other protesters smoking cannabis in support of legalization.\n\nSection::::Reception.:Pre-event.:Concerns and criticism.\n", "In the Israel Defense Forces, saluting is normally reserved for special ceremonies. Unlike in the US Army, saluting is not a constant part of day to day barracks life.\n\nSection::::Military salutes.:Military salutes in different countries.:Pakistan Armed Forces.\n", "More reminiscent of a military funeral during interment, presidents are automatically accorded full military honors in recognition of their role as Commander-in-Chief of the United States Armed Forces. A three-volley salute is fired over the gravesite by seven members who form a rifle party. This however, does \"not\" constitute a 21-gun salute. \"Taps\", a bugle call sounded over the grave dating from the era of the American Civil War is performed by one lone bugler from the United States Marine Band, thirty to fifty yards away. Immediately thereafter, the United States Marine Band will perform William Whiting's \"Eternal Father, Strong to Save\" as the \"Final Salute\" is given.\n", "BULLET::::3. Officers of Law Enforcement Agencies when in uniform will salute senior officers of neighboring Arm / Force / Law Enforcement Agency. They will also \"SALUTE\" National / State office holders (both elected and nominated) before each official meet. Rule for saluting will be governed by above stipulated precedence. Correspondingly, office holders / civilian officials will also greet senior officers of Law Enforcement Agencies considering their protocol.\n", "Salute to America was an event held on Independence Day, July 4, 2019, in Washington, D.C. arranged by the Trump administration. The event took place in the National Mall and included presentations of U.S. military vehicles, an address by President Donald Trump from the Lincoln Memorial, flyovers by military aircraft, and a fireworks display. The event occurred alongside pre-existing annual Independence Day events such as the National Independence Day Parade and the PBS-televised \"A Capitol Fourth\" concert. It was the first time a U.S. president addressed a crowd at the National Mall on Independence Day in 68 years.\n", "BULLET::::- Although not required by law or military regulation, members of the uniformed services are encouraged to render salutes to recipients of the Medal of Honor as a matter of respect and courtesy regardless of rank or status, whether or not they are in uniform. This is one of the few instances where a living member of the military will receive salutes from members of a higher rank.\n\nSection::::Legal protection.\n", "In the United States, civilian military auxiliaries such as the Civil Air Patrol are required to salute all commissioned and warrant officers of higher rank and return the salute of those with lower ranks of the U.S. Uniformed Services (Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, Coast Guard, U.S. Public Health Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Commissioned Corps) senior in rank to them, as well as all friendly foreign officers, though military members are not required to reciprocate (they may salute voluntarily if they choose). CAP officers are required to salute one another though this is not uniformly observed throughout the CAP. Cadets are required to salute all senior members and military/uniformed services personnel.\n", "The Defense Authorization Act of 2009, signed by President Bush, contained a provision that gave veterans and active-duty service members not in uniform the right to salute during the playing of the national anthem. Previous legislation authorized saluting when not in uniform during the raising, lowering and passing of the flag. However, because a salute is a form of communication protected by the Free Speech clause of the First Amendment, legislative authorization is not required for any civilian—veteran or non-veteran—to salute the U.S. flag. Civilians in some other countries, like Italy, South Africa, Afghanistan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, South Korea, Croatia, Poland, Kazakhstan, and Nigeria also render the same civilian salute as their U.S. counterparts when hearing their respective national anthems.\n", "Having being stationed in the Philippines as a member of the United States Marine Corps, NCO Sgt. Maj. William Bailey (Beery) is retired after having served there for 30 years. This happens several months prior to the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor and their laying siege to large areas of the South Pacific. \n", "Journalist and writer Jeff Greenfield noted that prior presidents have given speeches on Independence Day and that political parties have used the holiday as a platform since their inception. He added that the inclusion of military equipment could be excused as an attempt to \"emulate Thomas Jefferson\" in 1801 rather than an authoritarian celebration of militarism \"more common to Moscow and Pyongyang.\" However, Greenfield did argue that Trump, with his affinity for \"over-the-top celebrations and honors\", was \"wreathing himself in the most potent symbols of American history ... without any appreciation for the history that made that whole landscape possible.\"\n", "Prior to the event, Michelle Cottle of \"The New York Times\", former House Republican David Jolly, and radio host Charlie Sykes accused Trump of turning the \"non-partisan\" Independence Day holiday into a political event—co-opting the celebration to promote his 2020 presidential re-election campaign.\n", "In February 2019, Trump announced on Twitter plans for a \"Salute to America\" celebration on Independence Day, promising entertainment, a \"major\" fireworks display, and \"an address by your favorite President, me!\" It was later revealed that this speech would take place from the steps of the Lincoln Memorial. Trump became the first president since Harry Truman in 1951—marking the 175th anniversary of the signing of the Declaration of Independence—to address from the National Mall on Independence Day.\n", "Section::::Civilian military auxiliaries (U.S.).:U.S. Coast Guard Auxiliary.\n\nThe U.S. Coast Guard Auxiliary requires its members to salute all commissioned and warrant officers of higher rank and return the salute of those with lower ranks; since Auxiliarists hold \"office\" rather than \"grade\" (indicated by modified military insignia), all Auxiliarists are required to perform this courtesy. Saluting between Auxiliarists is not usually the custom, but is not out of protocol to do so. When operating in direct support of the USCG, or when on military installations in general, Auxiliarists usually wear \"member\" insignia unless specified otherwise by the officer/NCO in charge.\n", "Pre-event concerns were also shown for the prominent incorporation of the military; retired lieutenant general David Barno told \"Politico\" that Salute to America \"looks like it's becoming much more of a Republican Party event—a political event about the president—than a national celebration of the Fourth of July\", and that it was \"absolutely obscene\" for Trump to \"[use] the armed forces in a political ploy for his reelection campaign.\" Some military and Pentagon officials had raised similar concerns. Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington noted that Department of Defense rules forbid military members from participating in political events, and that the Hatch Act could also potentially apply. Some media outlets also reported on the potential damage military vehicles could cause to local roads. It was later confirmed that while military vehicles would be featured during the event, they would be parked on the National Mall and not parading.\n", "As a religious head, the Agha Khan received a personal 11-gun salute. In certain cases, a ruler of a non-salute state or a junior member of a princely family could merit a personal salute or the personal style of \"Highness\".\n\nSection::::Salute states that acceded to India.\n\nAt independence in 1947, the gun salutes enjoyed by the 113 states that acceded to the Union of India were as follows:\n", "BULLET::::- In 2019, President Donald Trump announced plans for a Salute to America celebration in the Capitol, including displays of military vehicles at the National Mall, a presidential address from the steps of the Lincoln Memorial, flyovers by the Blue Angels and the presidential aircraft, and a fireworks display. Trump had attended the Bastille Day military parade with French president Emmanuel Macron in 2017, and had expressed a desire for the U.S. to \"top it\" — including a proposed military parade on Veterans Day in 2018, which was cancelled due to cost concerns. Trump's plans faced criticism at the time for being an attempt to politicize the holiday and use it as a political event due to presidents historically not involving themselves directly in Independence Day festivities; comparisons were also drawn to the similarly controversial \"Honor America Day\" held on Independence Day in 1970 by supporters of President Richard Nixon. According to a July 4 \"The Times\" article, the Pentagon said that the commanders of the Joint Chiefs of Staff of the United States Navy, United States Army, United States Air Force, and United States Marine Corps would \"not attend President Trump's Salute to America speech because of \"schedule conflict,\" although the chairman of the Joint Chiefs did attend.\n", "During a presidential visit to France in July 2017, Donald Trump attended the Bastille Day military parade in Paris alongside French president Emmanuel Macron. Following the parade, Trump expressed admiration for the event, and stated that he wanted the United States to eventually \"top it\" with a similar, military-focused event. Trump proposed that a military parade be held in Washington on Veterans Day in 2018, in honor of the centenary of World War I's conclusion. However, the proposal was rejected due to cost concerns.\n", "Water salutes have been used to mark the retirement of a senior pilot or air traffic controller, the first or last flight of an airline to an airport, the first or last flight of a type of aircraft, or other notable events. When the Concorde flew its last flight from John F. Kennedy International Airport, blue, white and red coloured plumes were used. United States President Donald Trump received a water salute on his first departure from LaGuardia Airport after winning the presidential election in 2016. \n", "The order of precedence within the U.S. Department of Defense is set by DoD Directive 1005.8 and is not dependent on the date of creation by the U.S. Congress.\n\nSection::::Federal executive departments.:United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS).\n\nBULLET::::- United States Coast Guard (USCG): 4 August 1790\n", "A salute of one gun for each state in the United States, called a \"salute to the union,\" is fired on Independence Day at noon by any capable military base.\n", "Some estimate that in the United States there are nearly 100,000 people who are accorded the \"Honorable\" title, many in the Washington, D.C. region. Although the civilian officials, including the service secretaries (e.g., Secretary of the Army) of the Pentagon receive the title, military officers do not receive this title, although they are confirmed by the Senate.\n" ]	[ "President is saluted while they are a civilian." ]	[ "President is also the Commander in Chief to the military and they will treat the president as such. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "President is saluted while they are a civilian." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "President is also the Commander in Chief to the military and they will treat the president as such. " ]
2018-04972	What gives acid a burning property like Sulfuric Acid? Why doesnt Vinegar or Lemon juice "burn"?	They do. The acid in lemon juice and vinegar can trigger the same chemical reactions as sulfuric acid, but they're much weaker and the reactions aren't nearly as intense. Lemon juice can be used to make a battery, can cause mild burns on sensitive parts of your skin, and can even "cook" food in ways very similar to weak sulfuric acid. The sour taste of lemons and vinegar is a sign of the acid in them. I accidentally got a taste of dilute sulfuric acid once: it tasted like the sourest lemon you could possibly imagine. (Do not try this at home, obv.)	[ "Citric acid exists in greater than trace amounts in a variety of fruits and vegetables, most notably citrus fruits. Lemons and limes have particularly high concentrations of the acid; it can constitute as much as 8% of the dry weight of these fruits (about 47 g/l in the juices). The concentrations of citric acid in citrus fruits range from 0.005 mol/L for oranges and grapefruits to 0.30 mol/L in lemons and limes; these values vary within species depending upon the cultivar and the circumstances in which the fruit was grown.\n", "Although tomatoes usually are considered an acid food, some are now known to have pH values slightly above 4.6. Figs also have pH values slightly above 4.6. Therefore, if they are to be canned as acid foods, these products must be acidified to a pH of 4.6 or lower with lemon juice or citric acid. Properly acidified tomatoes and figs are acid foods and can be safely processed in a boiling-water canner.\n", "In 1831, British vinegar merchant Peregrine Phillips patented the contact process, which was a far more economical process for producing sulfur trioxide and concentrated sulfuric acid. Today, nearly all of the world's sulfuric acid is produced using this method.\n\nSection::::Safety.\n\nSection::::Safety.:Laboratory hazards.\n", "With a p\"K\" of 4.76, it is about as acidic as acetic acid.\n", "On the other hand, the pH of a 1 mM solution of citric acid will be about 3.2. The pH of fruit juices from citrus fruits like oranges and lemons depends on the citric acid concentration, being lower for higher acid concentration and conversely.\n\nAcid salts of citric acid can be prepared by careful adjustment of the pH before crystallizing the compound. See, for example, sodium citrate.\n", "Section::::Citric acid.\n", "Low-acid foods have pH values higher than 4.6. They include red meats, seafood, poultry, milk, and all fresh vegetables except for most tomatoes. Most mixtures of low-acid and acid foods also have pH values above 4.6 unless their recipes include enough lemon juice, citric acid, or vinegar to make them acidic. Acid foods have a pH of 4.6 or lower. They include fruits, pickles, sauerkraut, jams, jellies, marmalades, and fruit butters.\n", "BULLET::::1. Oxidation of SO into SO by V:\n\nBULLET::::- 2SO + 4V + 2O → 2SO + 4V\n\nBULLET::::2. Oxidation of V back into V by dioxygen (catalyst regeneration):\n\nBULLET::::- 4V + O → 4V + 2O\n\nHot sulfur trioxide passes through the heat exchanger and is dissolved in concentrated HSO in the absorption tower to form oleum:\n\nNote that directly dissolving SO in water is impractical due to the highly exothermic nature of the reaction. Acidic vapor or mists are formed instead of a liquid.\n\nOleum is reacted with water to form concentrated HSO.\n\nSection::::Purification unit.\n", "Acidulated water\n\nAcidulated water is water where some sort of acid is added—often lemon juice, lime juice, or vinegar—to prevent cut or skinned fruits or vegetables from browning so as to maintain their appearance. Some vegetables and fruits often placed in acidulated water are apples, avocados, celeriac, potatoes and pears. When the fruit or vegetable is removed from the mixture, it will usually resist browning for at least an hour or two, even though it is being exposed to oxygen.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Sulfuric acid must be stored carefully in containers made of nonreactive material (such as glass). Solutions equal to or stronger than 1.5 M are labeled \"CORROSIVE\", while solutions greater than 0.5 M but less than 1.5 M are labeled \"IRRITANT\". However, even the normal laboratory \"dilute\" grade (approximately 1 M, 10%) will char paper if left in contact for a sufficient time.\n", "The reaction with copper(II) sulfate can also demonstrate the dehydration property of sulfuric acid. The blue crystal is changed into white powder as water is removed.\n\nSection::::Chemical properties.:Acid-base properties.\n\nAs an acid, sulfuric acid reacts with most bases to give the corresponding sulfate. For example, the blue copper salt copper(II) sulfate, commonly used for electroplating and as a fungicide, is prepared by the reaction of copper(II) oxide with sulfuric acid:\n\nSulfuric acid can also be used to displace weaker acids from their salts. Reaction with sodium acetate, for example, displaces acetic acid, , and forms sodium bisulfate:\n", "In modern science, it is generally accepted that most ignes fatui are caused by the oxidation of phosphine (PH), diphosphane (PH), and methane (CH). These compounds, produced by organic decay, can cause photon emissions. Since phosphine and diphosphane mixtures spontaneously ignite on contact with the oxygen in air, only small quantities of it would be needed to ignite the much more abundant methane to create ephemeral fires. Furthermore, phosphine produces phosphorus pentoxide as a by-product, which forms phosphoric acid upon contact with water vapor.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Will-o'-the-wisp (Ghost lights)\n\nBULLET::::- Marfa lights\n\nBULLET::::- Brown Mountain Lights\n\nBULLET::::- Hessdalen light\n", "Vinegar contains acetic acid. When acid molecules dissociate, the concentration of the undissociated acid molecules (HA) decreases and the concentrations of the product ions (H and A) increase. Thus the chemical potential of HA decreases and the sum of the chemical potentials of H and A increases. When the sums of chemical potential of reactants and products are equal the system is at equilibrium and there is no tendency for the reaction to proceed in either the forward or backward direction. This explains why vinegar is acidic, because acetic acid dissociates to some extent, releasing hydrogen ions into the solution.\n", "Section::::Names of inorganic oxyacids.\n\nMany inorganic oxyacids are traditionally called with names ending with the word \"acid\" and which also contain, in a somewhat modified form, the name of the element they contain in addition to hydrogen and oxygen. Well-known examples of such acids are sulfuric acid, nitric acid and phosphoric acid.\n", "It is also produced by the aerobic oxidation of propionaldehyde. In the presence of cobalt or manganese ions, this reaction proceeds rapidly at temperatures as mild as 40–50 °C:\n\nLarge amounts of propionic acid were once produced as a byproduct of acetic acid manufacture. At the current time, the world's largest producer of propionic acid is BASF, with approximately 150 kt/a production capacity.\n", "Section::::Background.:Sulfide.\n\nThe sulfide ion (S) is present in some anoxic sediments as a result of bacterial activity. In environments containing little or no oxygen gas (O) but large amounts of sulfate ion (SO), sulfate-reducing bacteria use sulfate in their metabolism as an electron acceptor. This process creates sulfide as a product according to Equation 1.\n\nThe sulfide ion produced by this process is sensitive to biological or chemical oxidation in the presence of oxygen, so it only persists in sediments that are continuously anoxic.\n\nSection::::Background.:Metal-Sulfide Interactions.\n", "For this reason, alkali is kept in stoppered vessels to inhibit reaction with atmospheric carbon dioxide. In geochemistry complex silicates are often written as though they are the products of an acid-base reaction. For example, the chemical formula of the mineral olivine can be written either as (Mg,Fe)SiO or as (MgO,FeO)SiO. This mineral is said to be ultramafic, meaning that it has a very high nominal content of the bases magnesium oxide and iron oxide and hence, a low content of the acid silicon dioxide.\n\nSection::::Reactions of acidic oxides.:Examples of reactions.\n\nBULLET::::- Carbon dioxide is the anhydride of carbonic acid:\n", "Normally, these oxidations are performed under strong basic conditions, because this promotes a greater oxidation speed and selectivity. In substrates sensitive to strong base, the reaction can be carried out at a lower pH—or even under acidic conditions—at the cost of a greatly decreased reaction velocity.\n", "Ascorbic acid, also known as vitamin C, is found in young wine grapes prior to veraison, but is rapidly lost throughout the ripening process. In winemaking, it is used with sulfur dioxide as an antioxidant, often added during the bottling process for white wines. In the European Union, use of ascorbic acid as an additive is limited to 150 mg/l.\n\nButyric acid is a bacteria-induced wine fault that can cause a wine to smell of spoiled Camembert or rancid butter.\n", "Its corrosiveness can be mainly ascribed to its strong acidic nature, and, if at a high concentration, its dehydrating and oxidizing properties. It is also hygroscopic, readily absorbing water vapor from the air. Upon contact, sulfuric acid can cause severe chemical burns and even secondary thermal burns; it is very dangerous even at moderate concentrations.\n\nSulfuric acid is a very important commodity chemical, and a nation's sulfuric acid production is a good indicator of its industrial strength. It is widely produced with different methods, such as contact process, wet sulfuric acid process, lead chamber process and some other methods.\n", "Section::::Cheletropic reactions involving SO.:Kinetics.\n\nThe cheletropic reactions of 1,3-dienes with sulfur dioxide have been extensively investigated in terms of kinetics (see above for general reaction).\n", "Similarly, mixing starch into concentrated sulfuric acid will give elemental carbon and water as absorbed by the sulfuric acid (which becomes slightly diluted). The effect of this can be seen when concentrated sulfuric acid is spilled on paper which is composed of cellulose; the cellulose reacts to give a burnt appearance, the carbon appears much as soot would in a fire.\n\nAlthough less dramatic, the action of the acid on cotton, even in diluted form, will destroy the fabric.\n", "On the other hand, at least three pathways exist for the oxidation of thiosulfate (SO) :\n\nBULLET::::- The aforementioned Sox pathway, through which both sulfur atoms in thiosulfate are reduced to sulfate without the formation of any free intermediate.\n\nBULLET::::- The oxidation of thiosulfate (SO) via the formation of tetrathionate (SO) intermediate, that is present in several obligate chemolithotrophic \"Gamma\" and \"Betaproteobacteria\" as well as in facultative chemolithotrophic \"Alphaproteobacteria\".\n", "There are also two other less well-known laboratory methods of producing sulfuric acid, albeit in dilute form and require some extra effort in purification. A solution of copper (II) sulfate can be electrolyzed with a copper cathode and platinum/graphite anode to give spongy copper at cathode and evolution of oxygen gas at anode, the solution diluted sulfuric acid that indicates completed reaction when it turns from blue to clear (production of hydrogen at cathode is another sign):\n" ]	[ "Vinegar and lemon juice do not burn like sulfuric acid does." ]	[ "Vinegar and lemon juice do have the same chemical reactions as sulfuric acid but they're much weaker." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Vinegar and lemon juice do not burn like sulfuric acid does." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Vinegar and lemon juice do have the same chemical reactions as sulfuric acid but they're much weaker." ]
2018-03731	Why do some shots hurt after you get them?	So it depends on several factors 1) placement: under the skin, in the muscle or in a vein. Vein- it goes in and that’s that. Muscle and under the skin both will have a “bubble” of the medicine or whatever form. Each allows it to displace and absorb differently. 2) what it is being injected. Some shots are more viscous or have stuff in them that will irritate the surrounding tissue 3) volume - rather obvious 4) how often is that location used for shots. 5) needle sharp/dull?	[ "BULLET::::- intracavernous injection, an injection into the base of the penis\n\nBULLET::::- intradermal, (into the skin itself) is used for skin testing some allergens, and also for mantoux test for tuberculosis\n\nBULLET::::- intralesional (into a skin lesion), is used for local skin lesions, e.g. acne medication\n\nBULLET::::- intramuscular (into a muscle), e.g. many vaccines, antibiotics, and long-term psychoactive agents. Recreationally the colloquial term 'muscling' is used.\n\nBULLET::::- intraocular, into the eye, e.g., some medications for glaucoma or eye neoplasms\n", "BULLET::::- hypovolemia (as neuraxial analgesia decreases systemic vascular resistance)\n\nBULLET::::- remote infection distant to injection site\n\nSection::::Side effects.\n", "BULLET::::- Numbness or paralysis may develop immediately or come on gradually as bleeding or swelling occurs in or around the spinal cord\n\nSection::::Mechanism.\n", "BULLET::::- For the treatment of chronic pain or palliation of symptoms in terminal care, usually in the short- or medium-term.\n", "BULLET::::- Claudication of the jaw\n\nBULLET::::- Engorged, tender vessels\n\nSpecific symptoms usually develop in the advanced stages of temporal arteritis.\n\nPolyarteritis nodosa of unknown mechanism can cause testicular pain. It is often associated with aneurysms and Hepatitis B.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Medications.\n", "BULLET::::- Dull, aching, throbbing pain in the area of the socket, which is moderate to severe and may radiate to other parts of the head such as the ear, eye, temple and neck. The pain normally starts on the second to fourth day after the extraction, and may last 10–40 days. The pain may be so strong that even strong analgesics do not relieve it.\n\nBULLET::::- Intraoral halitosis (oral malodor).\n\nBULLET::::- Bad taste in the mouth.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "BULLET::::- The most common adverse effect of this injection is accidental self-inflicted trauma after the procedure, either by biting the lip or tongue or by thermal burn caused by inadvertent drinking of fluid that is too hot. This classically occurs in children or those with learning disability.\n\nBULLET::::- A blood vessel may be punctured accidentally and a hematoma or \"blood blister\" may occur that will heal over time.\n", "BULLET::::- Oral surgery procedures, as in the extraction of lower molar teeth, may cause trismus as a result either of inflammation to the muscles of mastication or direct trauma to the TMJ.\n\nBULLET::::- Barbing of needles at the time of injection followed by tissue damage on withdrawal of the barbed needle causes post-injection persistent paresthesia, trismus and paresis.\n\nBULLET::::- Treatment: in acute phase:\n\nBULLET::::- Heat therapy\n\nBULLET::::- Analgesics\n\nBULLET::::- A soft diet\n\nBULLET::::- Muscle relaxants (if necessary)\n\nBULLET::::- Note: When acute phase is over the patient should be advised to initiate physiotherapy for opening and closing mouth.\n\nSection::::Differential diagnosis.:Extra-articular causes.:Trauma.\n", "Section::::Compressive residual stress.\n", "BULLET::::- Abductor pollicis longus muscle – One of the extrinsic muscles of the hand. Its major function is to abduct the thumb at the wrist.\n\nBULLET::::- Abscess – A collection of pus that has built up within the tissue of the body.\n\nBULLET::::- Accommodation – the process by which the eye focuses on an object.\n\nBULLET::::- Accommodation reflex – a reflex action of the eye, measured as a response to focusing on a near object, then looking at a distant object (and vice versa).\n", "BULLET::::- acute angle closure glaucoma - implies injury to the optic nerve with the potential for irreversible vision loss which may be permanent unless treated quickly, as a result of increased pressure within the eyeball. Not all forms of glaucoma are acute, and not all are associated with increased 'intra-ocular' pressure.\n\nBULLET::::- injury\n\nBULLET::::- keratitis - a potentially serious inflammation or injury to the cornea (window), often associated with significant pain, light intolerance, and deterioration in vision. Numerous causes include virus infection. Injury from contact lenses can lead to keratitis.\n", "BULLET::::- Influenza vaccines based on inactivated viruses are commonly administered intramuscularly (although there is active research being conducted as to the best route of administration).\n\nPlatelet-rich plasma injections can be administered intramuscularly.\n\nCertain substances (e.g. ketamine) are injected intramuscularly for recreational purposes.\n\nSection::::Injection sites.\n\nPossible sites for IM injection include: deltoid, dorsogluteal, rectus femoris, vastus lateralis and ventrogluteal muscles. Sites that are bruised, tender, red, swollen, inflamed or scarred are avoided.\n\nSection::::Injection sites.:Deltoid muscle.\n", "Section::::Track listing.\n\nThe album \"Shots\" contains ten tracks and is fifty minutes in length.\n\nSection::::Reaction.\n", "BULLET::::- Referred pain: dull to extreme ache in and around clavicle area, including surrounding muscles\n\nBULLET::::- Possible nausea, dizziness, and/or spotty vision due to extreme pain\n\nSection::::Mechanism.\n", "BULLET::::- Eyes: local burning, conjunctival hyperemia, corneal epithelial changes/ulceration, diplopia, visual changes (opacification)\n\nBULLET::::- Skin: itching, depigmentation, rash, urticaria, edema, angioedema, bruising, inflammation of the vein at the injection site, irritation of the skin when applied topically\n\nBULLET::::- Blood: methemoglobinemia\n\nBULLET::::- Allergy\n", "BULLET::::- Epidural haematoma formation (very rare, about 1 in 168,000).\n\nBULLET::::- Neurological injury lasting longer than 1 year (extremely rare, about 1 in 240,000).\n\nBULLET::::- Paraplegia (1 in 250,000).\n\nBULLET::::- Arachnoiditis is a rare and devastating complication of epidural injection, with many purported causative agents that requires management by a pain specialist.\n\nBULLET::::- Death (extremely rare, less than 1 in 100,000).\n\nThe figures above relate to epidural anaesthesia and analgesia in healthy individuals.\n\nEvidence to support the assertion that epidural analgesia increases the risk of anastomotic breakdown following bowel surgery is lacking.\n\nControversial claims:\n", "BULLET::::- supraorbital pressure - this is the manual stimulation of the supraorbital nerve by pressing a thumb into the indentation above the eye, near the nose.\n\nBULLET::::- sternal rub - this involves creating a turning pressure (akin to a grinding motion with a pestle and mortar) on the patient's sternum\n", "BULLET::::- Fallopian tube contraction: After ovulation, the fallopian tubes contract (similar to peristalsis of the esophagus), which may cause pain in some women.\n\nBULLET::::- Smooth muscle cell contraction: At ovulation, this pain may be related to smooth muscle cell contraction in the ovary as well as in its ligaments. These contractions occur in response to an increased level of prostaglandin F2-alpha, itself mediated by the surge of luteinizing hormone (LH).\n\nBULLET::::- Irritation: At the time of ovulation, blood or other fluid is released from the ruptured egg follicle. This fluid may cause irritation of the abdominal lining.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "BULLET::::- Bloody tap (occurs in about 1 in 30–50). Epidural veins can be inadvertently punctured with the needle during the procedure. This is a common occurrence and is not usually considered a complication. In people who have normal blood clotting, permanent neurological problems are extremely rare (estimated less than 0.07%). However, people who have a coagulopathy may be at risk of epidural hematoma.\n", "\"Shots\" was Dempsey's third studio album, the successor to his 2003 platinum selling album \"Seize the Day\" which was the occasion during which his music became more noticed and appreciated. Since then he has received praise from musicians such as Christy Moore, Sinéad O'Connor and Shane MacGowan, whilst Morrissey invited him on tour with him in 2004. \"Shots\" was recorded in Rockfield Studio in Wales and produced by John Reynolds who has worked with Dempsey before.\n\nSection::::Song meanings.\n", "BULLET::::- Psoas sign – pain with extension of the hip and tensing of the psoas muscle\n\nBULLET::::- Obturator sign – pain when tensing the obturator muscle\n\nBULLET::::- Rovsing's sign – pain in the right lower abdominal quadrant on palpation of the left side of the abdomen\n\nBULLET::::- McBurney's sign - deep tenderness at McBurney's point\n\nBULLET::::- Carnett's sign – pain when tensing the abdominal wall muscles\n\nBULLET::::- Patafio's sign – pain when the patient is asked to cough whilst tensing the psoas muscle\n\nBULLET::::- Cough test – pain when the patient is asked to cough\n", "BULLET::::- phlebitis: an inflammation of the vein resulting from mechanical or chemical irritation or from an infection. Phlebitis can be avoided by carefully choosing the site for cannulation and by checking the type of infusate used.\n\nSection::::Medicine.:Nasal cannulation and oral-nasal cannulation.\n", "Section::::Adverse effects.\n\nBULLET::::- The most common local adverse reactions in ≥20% of patients were pain, redness, and swelling at the injection site.\n\nBULLET::::- The most common general adverse events in ≥20% of subjects were fatigue, headache, muscle pain (myalgia), gastrointestinal symptoms, and joint pain (arthralgia).\n\nIn common with some other prefilled syringe vaccination products, the tip cap and the rubber plunger of the needleless prefilled syringes contain dry natural latex rubber that may cause allergic reactions in latex sensitive individuals. The vial stopper does not contain latex.\n\nSection::::Ingredients.\n\nThe active components of the vaccine are:\n", "Damage to the valves and endocardium can be caused by:\n\nBULLET::::- Altered, turbulent blood flow. The areas that fibrose, clot, or roughen as a result of this altered flow are known as jet lesions. Altered blood flow is more likely in high pressure areas, so ventricular septal defects or patent ductus arteriosus can create more susceptibility than atrial septal defects.\n\nBULLET::::- Catheters, electrodes, and other intracardiac prosthetic devices.\n\nBULLET::::- Solid particles from repeated intravenous injections.\n\nBULLET::::- Chronic inflammation. Examples include auto-immune mechanisms and degenerative valvular lesions.\n", "BULLET::::- Obstruction to CSF flow and/or absorption can occur in hydrocephalus (blockage in ventricles or subarachnoid space at base of brain, e.g., by Arnold-Chiari malformation), extensive meningeal disease (e.g., infection, carcinoma, granuloma, or hemorrhage), or obstruction in cerebral convexities and superior sagittal sinus (decreased absorption).\n\nBULLET::::- Increased CSF production can occur in meningitis, subarachnoid hemorrhage, or choroid plexus tumor.\n\nBULLET::::- Idiopathic or unknown cause (idiopathic intracranial hypertension, a common cause in otherwise well people especially younger obese women)\n\nBULLET::::- Craniosynostosis\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03190	Why are the spaces between airplane windows smaller than the space between seats?	Because the windows are part of the overall design of the entire plane body whereas the internal seating arrangement is based on what the airline chooses and can vary over the life of a plane.	[ "Most \"narrow-body\" airliners with more than 100 seats have space below the cabin floor, while smaller aircraft often have a special compartment separate from the passenger area but on the same level.\n", "Section::::Windows.\n", "\"Wide-body\" airliners frequently have a compartment like the ones described above, typically called a \"bulk bin\". It is normally used for late arriving luggage or bags which may have been checked at the gate.\n\nHowever, most baggage and loose freight items are loaded into containers called Unit Load Devices (ULDs), often referred to as \"cans\". ULDs come in a variety of sizes and shapes, but the most common model is the LD3. This particular container has approximately the same height as the cargo compartment and fits across half of its width.\n", "Section::::Baggage holds.\n\nAirliners must have space on board to store \"checked\" baggage – that which will not safely fit in the passenger cabin.\n\nDesigned to hold baggage as well as freight, these compartments are called \"cargo bins\", \"holds\", or occasionally \"pits\". Occasionally baggage holds may be referred to as cargo decks on the largest of aircraft. These compartments can be accessed through doors on the outside of the aircraft.\n", "Full-flat seats in business-class rose from 65% of 777 deliveries in 2008 to nearly 100% of the 777s and 787s delivered in 2017, excepted for low-cost carriers having 10% premium cabin on their widebodies.\n\nFirst-class seats were halved over the past 5–10 years, typically from eight to four.\n\nTo differentiate from business class, high-end first class move to full-height enclosures like Singapore Airlines, Emirates, and Etihad.\n\nBusiness class became the equivalent of what first class was a few years ago.\n", "Container capacity of an aircraft is measured in \"positions\". Each half-width container (LD1/LD2/LD3) in the aircraft it was designed for occupies one position. Typically, each row in a cargo compartment consists of two positions. Therefore, a full-width container (LD6/LD8/LD11) will take two positions. An LD6 or an LD11 can occupy the space of two LD3s. An LD8 takes the space of two LD2s.\n", "Aircraft cabin\n\nAn aircraft cabin is the section of an aircraft in which passengers travel. At cruising altitudes of modern commercial aircraft, the surrounding atmosphere is too thin for passengers and crew to breathe without an oxygen mask, so cabins are pressurized at a higher pressure than ambient pressure at altitude.\n", "BULLET::::- Fully flat suites in a reverse herringbone 1–2–1 configuration were found on all Airbus A330-200 and A330-300s. These were the \"Cirrus\" model designed by Sicma Aeroseat and featured a fully flat semi-private \"pod\".\n\nBULLET::::- Internationally configured Boeing 767-200s featured deep recline cradle seats with around 165 degrees of recline.\n\nPreviously, the first row of all Airbus A330-300s were fully flat seats, formerly US Airways' international first class product. With the transition from three- to two-class international service, these seats were, for a time, offered at a fee to Envoy customers.\n", "Main deck ULDs and pallets are not only taller than lower deck ULDs, they are frequently two or four times longer. They are usually organized like an LD6, using the width of the plane and missing two profile corners, or two very long LD3s, stored in parallel to use the plane's width and each missing one profile corner, but often twice or four times as long from plane's nose to tail.\n", "Many air cargo companies use main deck ULDs that have both features called dual-profile, so that on smaller planes such as the Boeing 727, they are stored widthwise and have two corners contoured, and on the bigger Boeing 767, they can be rotated 90 degrees and shipped in parallel like LD3s, so that only one corner is contoured when being used like an LD3. This greatly simplifies transportation of cargo containers at slight cost of cargo volume.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- 463L master pallet, used for military aircraft transport and airdrops\n", "Depending on how the airline configures the aircraft, the size and seat pitch of the airline seats will vary significantly. For example, aircraft scheduled for shorter flights are often configured at a higher seat density than long-haul aircraft. Due to current economic pressures on the airline industry, high seating densities in the economy class cabin are likely to continue.\n\nIn some of the largest single-deck wide-body aircraft, such as the Boeing 777, the extra space above the cabin is used for crew rest areas and galley storage.\n", "\"Pallet Wide\" containers have about more internal floor width than standard containers to accommodate more Euro-pallets, common in Europe. These containers typically have an internal width of , to be able to load either two or three of the long by wide pallets side by side. Many sea shipping providers in Europe allow these, as overhangs on standard containers are sufficient and they fit in the usual interlock spaces (or with the same floor panel the side ribs of pallet-wide containers are embossed to the outside instead of being molded to the inside).\n", "First- and business-class are refurbished every 5–7 years compared to 6–10 years for economy.\n\nA 337 seats cabin (36 business, 301 economy) in a 787-10 for Singapore Airlines costs $17.5 million each.\n\nEmirates invested over $15 million each to refurbish its 777-200LR in a new two-class configuration in 55 days initially then 35 days.\n\nSection::::Evolution.:Mezzanine seating.\n\nIn the mid 2000s, Formation Design Group proposed using the taller wide-body cabins to layer the bed and seat arrangements for higher density.\n", "Bar and lounge areas which were once installed on wide-body aircraft have mostly disappeared, but a few have returned in first class or business class on the Airbus A340-600, Boeing 777-300ER, and on the Airbus A380. Emirates has installed showers for first-class passengers on the A380; twenty-five minutes are allotted for use of the room, and the shower operates for a maximum of five minutes.\n", "A form of windowboxing is also occasionally encountered in 3D film; by containing the reference plane in a box smaller than the actual screen, the filmmaker can increase the stereoscopic effect of objects coming out of the plane and toward the viewer by having them extend outside the windowbox.\n", "In 2013, Airbus said, for long haul flights, there should be an industry standard for a minimum seat width of 18 inches in economy cabins, but its rival Boeing argued it was up for airlines to decide. People get bigger as a result of change in diets, the weight of the average American male in his 40s has increased by 10 percent between the early 1970s, when the Boeing 747 defined modern long-haul travel, and the turn of the century. The narrower 17 inches wide seat favoured by Boeing is a legacy from the 1950s when passenger jets were first introduced. In the 1970s and 1980s with the introduction of the Boeing 747 and the first Airbus jets, 18-inches become standard for long-haul flights. Seats were widened to 18.5 inches with the Boeing 777 in the 1990s and A380 superjumbo in the 2000s. Many airlines are adopting lighter 17-inch-wide seats on their Boeing 777 and 787 and 18-inch seats for A350s. Although for almost 20 years, the standard setup in the back of a Boeing 777 was nine seats per row, in 2012 nearly 70% of the biggest version of that plane were delivered with 10-abreast seating. When Airbus introduced its A380, it offered 10-abreast seating, giving each passenger up to 19 inches of hip space. In 2013, ten airlines fly Airbus A330 with nine 16.7-inch seats in each row, rather than the eight it was designed for. A research report commissioned by Airbus concluded that an extra inch in seat width improves sleep quality by 53 percent.\n", "Section::::Cabin configurations and features.:Overhead bins.\n", "Section::::Materials.\n", "Baggage is normally stacked within the bin by hand, sorted by destination category. Netting that fits across the width of the bin is secured to limit movement of the bags. Airliners often carry items of freight and mail. These may be loaded separately from the baggage or mixed in if they are bound for the same destination. For securing bulky items \"hold down\" rings are provided to tie items into place.\n\nSection::::Baggage holds.:Wide-body airliners.\n", "In commercial air travel, particularly in airliners, cabins may be divided into several parts. These can include travel class sections in medium and large aircraft, areas for flight attendants, the galley and storage for in-flight service. Seats are mostly arranged in rows and alleys. The higher the travel class, the more space is provided. Cabins of the different travel classes are often divided by curtains, sometimes called class dividers, but not on all airlines. Passengers are not usually allowed to visit higher travel class cabins in commercial flights.\n", "The recommendations for checked baggage are: advised maximum weight 23 kg (50.71 lbs), weight limit 32 kg (70.55 lbs), advised maximum size 158 cm (62.2 in) length + width + height, limit 203 cm (nearly 80 in). The limit of 23 kg is present because of similar limits in health and safety regulations.\n", "Most commercial jetliners have a service (or certificated) ceiling of about and some business jets about . Before its retirement, the Concorde Supersonic transport (SST) routinely flew at .\n\nSection::::Absolute ceiling.\n", "The 787, intended to replace the 767, was designed to use the LD3/6/11 family of ULDs to solve the wasted volume issue.\n\nSection::::Aircraft compatibility.:ULD capacity.\n\nAircraft loads can consist of containers, pallets, or a mix of ULD types, depending on requirements. In some aircraft the two types must be mixed as some compartments take only specific ULDs.\n", "The CSeries' cross section was designed to give enhanced seating comfort for passengers, with features like broader seats and armrests for the middle passenger and larger windows at every seat to give every passenger the physical and psychological advantages of ample natural light.\n", "Cabin windows, made from much lighter than glass stretched acrylic glass, consists of multiple panes: an outer one built to support four times the maximum cabin pressure, an inner one for redundancy and a scratch pane near the passenger. Acrylic is susceptible to crazing : a network of fine cracks appears but can be polished to restore optical transparency, removal and polishing typically undergo every 2–3 years for uncoated windows.\n\nSection::::Wing integration.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01556	How do vecotr drawings work? Specifically are they enlarged w/o losing quality?	They work by being determined by shapes and their relations to each other, not pixels. In raster drawing, you have a set amount of colored boxes, pixels. If you enlarge the image, the boxes get enlarged as well and you loose quality. In vector drawing. You have information about shapes and where they should be. So it doesn't matter how big the canvas is, when you still know where on it should the shape be.	[ "Section::::Description.:Lilliput effects.\n\nThe Lilliput effect is a term coined in 1993, used to describe the dramatic reduction in size observed in populations of a taxa which have survived a major extinction event, attributable to a variety of environmental factors. This effect has been documented in numerous “survivor” taxa of such events. In his work, Adam K. Huttenlocker examined fossil records of \"Moschorhinus kitchingi\" from before and after the mass extinction demarcating the Permo-Triassic boundary. Specifically, he looked at changes in cranial size and limb bone histology indicating vascular growth patterns.\n", "In May 2012, Kevin Kwok was reading about seam carving, an algorithm which was able to rescale images without distorting or damaging the quality of the image. Kwok noticed that they tend to converge and arrange themselves in a way that cut through the spaces in between letters. A particularly verbose comic inspired him to develop a software which can read images (with canvas), figure the positions of the lines and letters, and draw selection overlays to assuage a pervasive text-selection habit.\n", "Section::::Opposition to Haeckel.:Contemporary criticism of Haeckel: Michael Richardson and Stephen Jay Gould.\n\nMichael Richardson and his colleagues in a July 1997 issue of \"Anatomy and Embryology\", demonstrated that Haeckel falsified his drawings in order to exaggerate the similarity of the phylotypic stage.\n", "In the Müller-Lyer illusion, the visual system would in this explanation detect the depth cues, which are usually associated with 3D scenes, and incorrectly decide it is a 3D drawing. Then the size constancy mechanism would make us see an erroneous length of the object which, for a true perspective drawing, would be farther away.\n\nIn the perspective drawing in the figure, we see that in usual scenes the heuristic works quite well. The width of the rug should obviously be considered shorter than the length of the wall in the back.\n\nSection::::Centroid explanation.\n", "Oettermann’s publication was a groundbreaking and pioneering work. However, the low reproduction quality of the images do not entirely do justice to Warlich’s work. The quality of the original designs deviates strikingly from that of the reproductions. Therefore, a completely new and appropriate edition is planned.\n\nSection::::Research Projekt.\n", "Section::::Different forms.\n\n\"Calamites\" come in a variety of different \"form genera\". One type, \"Calamites suckowi\", is distinguishable from other \"Calamites\" forms by its prominent, swollen nodes and relatively wide-spaced longitudinal ribs. Another example, \"Calamites cisti\", has much smaller nodes and the ribs are typically closer together.\n\nIn addition, the distance between successive node lines on a \"Calamites suckowi\" specimen is typically much wider than the diameter. In other forms like \"Calamites cisti\", the opposite is true or the specimen is just slightly wider than the diameter.\n", "\"Phonerpeton\" is represented only by relatively small specimens compared to the much larger \"Acheloma\". Dilkes (1990) diagnosed \"Phonerpeton\" by the semilunar curvature of the squamosal, doming of the parietals along the midline, a closed basicranial joint with a clear suture between the pterygoid and the basipterygoid process of the parasphenoid (the basicranial joint), an unossified sphenethmoid, long and slender mid-dorsal ribs, a radius with a semicircular cross section, and a ridge along the anterolateral edge of the ulna. He differentiated it from \"Acheloma\" by the large and posteriorly open otic notch, a posterodorsal process of the quadrate consisting of two sheets of bone separated by a poorly ossified region, a semilunar curvature of the squamosal, and an unfused basicranial joint. Schoch & Milner (2014) retained only the absence of a slit-like notch (which is found in \"Acheloma\") in the diagnosis. \n", "Section::::Growth and morphology.\n\nSection::::Growth and morphology.:Teleomorph.\n", "Maniacal Renderings\n\nManiacal Renderings is a 2006 release by Jon Oliva's Pain. It was their first full-length studio recording released for new label, AFM Records.\n", "The illustrations are grouped in framed miniatures occupying an entire page, with between two and five miniatures per page, with the corresponding text being on the other side of the pages; there are fourteen miniatures in total. One folio contains only text. The illustrations, although much damaged, are done in the illusionistic style of late antiquity.\n\nSection::::Style and context.\n", "Researchers have also examined the susceptibility of people with autism to a range of optical illusions. This research seems to indicate that people with autism don't experience visual size illusions. This finding is consistent with the idea that autism involves an excessive focus on details. These findings have recently been contradicted. Recent research, which included the Jastrow illusion, placed these findings in doubt.\n", "Section::::Description.\n", "Morphometric analysis relies on chord and arc measurements of the endocast surface. Length, width, bregma-basion, and height measurements of an endocast are taken with spreading calipers. Frontal lobe, parietal lobe, and occipital lobe chord length (the length of the lobe at its widest point along the midsagittal plane) are measured using a dioptograph in which landmarks are projected onto a two-dimensional surface. Measurements may be skewed if the orientation of the endocast has not been properly determined before the dioptograph is made. Geometric morphometrics (systems of coordinates superimposed over the measurements of the endocast) are often applied to allow comparison between specimens of varying size. Measurements may also be taken in reference to Broca's area, height of the endocast at 25% intervals of the maximum length, and the vault module (mean of maximum length, width, and middle height). Although other measurements may be taken, the choice of landmarks are not always consistent between studies.\n", "The Hieroglyphic Luwian is read boustrophedon, with the direction of any individual line pointing into the front of the animals or body parts constituting certain hieroglyphs. However, unlike Egyptian hieroglyphs with their numerous ideograms and logograms, which show an easy directionality, the lineal direction of the text in hieroglyphic Luwian is harder to see.\n\nSection::::Other examples.\n", "Haeckel was not the only one to create a series of drawings representing embryonic development. Karl E. von Baer and Haeckel both struggled to model one of the most complex problems facing embryologists at the time: the arrangement of general and special characters during development in different species of animals. In relation to developmental timing, von Baer's scheme of development differs from Haeckel's scheme. Von Baer's scheme of development need not be tied to developmental stages defined by particular characters, where recapitulation involves heterochrony. Heterochrony represents a gradual alteration in the original phylogenetic sequence due to embryonic adaptation.\n", "Individuals experiencing hemimicropsia often complain that objects in their left or right visual field appear to be shrunken or compressed. They may also have difficulty appreciating the symmetry of pictures. When drawing, patients often have a tendency to compensate for their perceptual asymmetry by drawing the left or right half of objects slightly larger than the other. In a case of one person with hemimicropsia asked to draw six symmetrical objects, the size of the picture on the left half was on average 16% larger than the corresponding right half.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "In the 1990s, Horvat became interested in computer technology and produced \"Yao the Cat\" (1993), \"Bestiary\" (1994), and \"Ovid’s Metamorphoses\" (1995). He transgressed the Cartier-Bressonian rule of the \"decisive moment\" by combining parts of images shot at different times and in different places. A few years later, he produced \"A Trip to Carrara\".\n\nSection::::Biography.:The Third Millennium.\n", "Morph target animation\n\nMorph target animation, per-vertex animation, shape interpolation, shape keys, or blend shapes is a method of 3D computer animation used together with techniques such as skeletal animation. In a morph target animation, a \"deformed\" version of a mesh is stored as a series of vertex positions. In each key frame of an animation, the vertices are then interpolated between these stored positions.\n\nSection::::Technique.\n", "A Zurbarán in the Cleveland Museum of Art shows that the size of a white cloth was expanded after the dark background under-paint had been applied; the expanded area is a darker white.\n", "Some artworks were particularly difficult to capture and re-present accurately as virtual, two-dimensional images. For example, Google described the inclusion of Hans Holbein the Younger's \"The Ambassadors\" as \"tough\". This was due to the anamorphic techniques distorting the image of a skull in the foreground of the painting. When looking at the original painting at the National Gallery in London, the depiction of the skull appears distorted until the viewer physically steps to the side of the painting. Once the viewer is looking at the shape from the intended vantage point, the lifelike depiction of the skull materializes. The effect is still apparent in the gigapixel version of the painting, but was less pronounced in the \"walk-through\" function.\n", "Many taxa show variability and it is often difficult to capture the constant features using a small number of photographs. Illustrations by artists or post processing of photographs help in emphasising specific features needed to for reliable identification. Peterson introduced the idea of lines to point to these key features. He also noted the advantages of illustrations over photographs:\n", "One remarkable feature of the book is that it shows skeletons in animated postures as though they were alive and engaged in natural activities. The majority of the illustrations were drawn from skeletons that were cleaned and assembled by her husband at their home, leaving Katrina van Grouw free to concentrate on the illustrations and text. In the book's acknowledgments the author states, \"no bird was harmed during the making of this book\" before going on to give an exhaustive list of people who donated dead specimens which had died of natural causes, and of museum collections used. \n", "In the early 1990s computer techniques that often produced more convincing results began to be widely used. These involved distorting one image at the same time that it faded into another through marking corresponding points and vectors on the \"before\" and \"after\" images used in the morph. For example, one would morph one face into another by marking key points on the first face, such as the contour of the nose or location of an eye, and mark where these same points existed on the second face. The computer would then distort the first face to have the shape of the second face at the same time that it faded the two faces. To compute the transformation of image coordinates required for the distortion, the algorithm of Beier and Neely can be used.\n", "Of the 1,658 illustrations within the Sacra Parallela Parisinus Graecus 923, approximately 402 are scenic illustrations and 1,256 are portraits. The placement of images in a manuscript usually follows a pattern. However, as a result of its structure as a florilegium text, the author of the Sacra Parallela lacked any notion of design when distributing the images. Some pages are full of illustrations closely followed by several that do not have any. Passages from the Church Fathers are the lengthiest and since patristic texts rarely have narrative illustrations, they are responsible for the long gaps that lack images.\n", "\"C. teleta\" is a segmented worm found in North America that is capable of regenerating posterior segments after amputation. This regeneration uses the interaction of several sets of \"Hox\" genes, as well as blastema formation. All of the \"Hox\" genes concerned in epimorphosis are present in the abdominal area of the worm, but not in the anterior portion. However, the genes do not, themselves, direct the anterior-posterior patterning of the worm's thorax.\n\nSection::::In invertebrates.:\"Planaria vitta\".\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00320	Why do bad smells linger around and last longer than good ones? Just mildly curious...	Because your brain evaluates smells. Good smells are hints for good things (mostly food and mates), and stop being important after you found the good thing. (After all, you can't eat that orange twice, but the smell of it lingering might make you miss the less strongly smelling nut.) Bad smells are an indication of danger (spoiled food, poison, predators, fire ...), and stay important even after you noticed them - a lingering smell of smoke is an indication that there's fire in the vicinity, after all. EDIT: Added missing "less", that turned meaning of sentence.	[ "Section::::Preserving perfume.\n\nFragrance compounds in perfumes will degrade or break down if improperly stored in the presence of heat, light, oxygen, and extraneous organic materials.\n\nProper preservation of perfumes involves keeping them away from sources of heat and storing them where they will not be exposed to light. An opened bottle will keep its aroma intact for several years, as long as it is well stored. However, the presence of oxygen in the head space of the bottle and environmental factors will in the long run alter the smell of the fragrance.\n", "The perception of irritation from odor sensation is hard to investigate because exposure to a volatile chemical elicits a different response based on sensory and physiological signals, and interpretation of these signals is influenced by experience, expectations, personality, or situational factors. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) may have higher concentrations in confined indoor environments, due to restricted infiltration of fresh air, as compared to the outdoor environment, leading to greater potential for toxic health exposures from a variety of chemical compounds. Health effects of odor are traced to the sensation of an odor or the odorant itself. Health effects and symptoms vary—including eye, nose, or throat irritation, cough, chest tightness, drowsiness, and mood change—all of which decrease as an odor ceases. Odors may also trigger illnesses such as asthma, depression, stress-induced illness, or hypersensitivity. The ability to perform tasks may decrease, and other social/behavioral changes may occur.\n", "Odors that a person is used to, such as their own body odor, are less noticeable than uncommon odors. This is due to \"habituation\". After continuous odor exposure, the sense of smell is fatigued, but recovers if the stimulus is removed for a time. Odors can change due to environmental conditions: for example, odors tend to be more distinguishable in cool dry air.\n", "Section::::Consequences of persistence.:Long-range transport.\n", "The study of odors is a growing field but is a complex and difficult one. The human olfactory system can detect many thousands of scents based on only very minute airborne concentrations of a chemical. The sense of smell of many animals is even better. Some fragrant flowers give off \"odor plumes\" that move downwind and are detectable by bees more than a kilometer away.\n", "Encroachment by disease resistant bacteria: The widespread development and use of pharmaceutical drugs to control disease has created a situation in which bacteria are mutating and treatment-resistant bacteria are becoming a major challenge to hospitals. Here encroachment by progressive pharmaceutical response to disease engenders encroachment by bacterial resistance to those treatments. \n", "The sense of smell is not overlooked as a way of marketing products. The deliberate and controlled application of scent is used by designers, scientists, artists, perfumers, architects, and chefs. Some applications of scents in environments are in casinos, hotels, private clubs, and new automobiles. For example, \"technicians at New York City’s Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center disperse vanilla-scented oil into the air to help patients cope with the claustrophobic effects of MRI testing. Scents are used at the Chicago Board of Trade to lower the decibel level on the trading floor.\"\n", "Perfumes are best preserved when kept in light-tight aluminium bottles or in their original packaging when not in use, and refrigerated to relatively low temperatures: between 3–7 °C (37–45 °F). Although it is difficult to completely remove oxygen from the headspace of a stored flask of fragrance, opting for spray dispensers instead of rollers and \"open\" bottles will minimize oxygen exposure. Sprays also have the advantage of isolating fragrance inside a bottle and preventing it from mixing with dust, skin, and detritus, which would degrade and alter the quality of a perfume.\n", "Section::::Local government.\n", "An odor can cue recall of a distant memory. Most memories that pertain to odor come from the first decade of life, compared to verbal and visual memories which usually come from the 10th to 30th years of life. Odor-evoked memories are more emotional, associated with stronger feelings of being brought back in time, and have been thought of less often as compared to memories evoked by other cues.\n\nSection::::Behavioral cues.:Use in design.\n", "The owner of a perfume shop in Paris is horrified to find a skunk, Pepé Le Pew, testing the wares inside his store. A strong and powerful gendarme, also repelled by the odor, is of no help.\n", "Section::::Types.\n\nSome odors are sought after, such as from perfumes and flowers, some of which command high prices. Whole industries have developed around products to remove unpleasant odors (see deodorant). The perception of odors is also very much dependent upon circumstance and culture. Cooking smells may be pleasant while one is cooking, but not necessarily after the meal.\n", "Many air management districts in the US have numerical standards of acceptability for the intensity of odor that is allowed to cross into a residential property. For example, the Bay Area Air Quality Management District has applied its standard in regulating numerous industries, landfills, and sewage treatment plants. Example applications this district has engaged are the San Mateo, California, wastewater treatment plant; the Shoreline Amphitheatre in Mountain View, California; and the IT Corporation waste ponds, Martinez, California.\n\nSection::::In plants and animals.\n", "Tracking and localization methods for diffusion-dominated fluid flow – which is mostly used in underground odor localization – must be designed so that olfaction machinery can operate in environments in which fluid motion is dominated by viscosity. This means that diffusion leads to the dispersal of odor flow, and the concentration of odor decreases from the source as a Gaussian distribution.\n\nThe diffusion of chemical vapor through soil without external pressure gradient is often modeled by Fick's second law:\n\nwhere is the diffusion constant, is distance in the diffusion direction, is chemical concentration and is time.\n", "Section::::Pathophysiology.:Odor perception.\n\nOdor identity, quality, and familiarity are mainly deciphered by the piriform cortex. Consciousness of smell is achieved by projections from the piriform cortex to the medial dorsal nucleus of the thalamus and to the orbitofrontal cortex, which the secondary olfactory cortex is part of.\n", "It was found that in the absence of other possible predictors, bacteria belonging to the genus \"Sulfurimonas\" grow in a unimodal relationship, suggesting they increase in bacterial diversity and productivity. This means that without predictors, these bacteria can differentiate and grow exponentially .\n\nSection::::Biotic Interactions.:Symbiosis.\n", "Odor perception is a primal sense. The sense of smell enables pleasure, can subconsciously warn of danger, help locate mates, find food, or detect predators. Humans have a surprisingly good sense of smell (even though they only have 350 functional olfactory receptor genes compared to the 1,300 found in mice), correlated to an evolutionary decline in sense of smell. A human's sense of smell is just as good as many animals and can distinguish a diversity of odors—approximately 10,000 scents. Studies reported that humans can distinguish about one trillion odors.\n\nSection::::Physiology of smell.:Habituation or adaptation.\n", "Habituation affects the ability to distinguish odors after continuous exposure. The sensitivity and ability to discriminate odors diminishes with exposure, and the brain tends to ignore continuous stimulus and focus on differences and changes in a particular sensation. When odorants are mixed, a habitual odorant is blocked. This depends on the strength of the odorants in the mixture, which can change the perception and processing of an odor. This process helps classify similar odors as well as adjust sensitivity to differences in complex stimuli.\n\nSection::::Physiology of smell.:Genetic component.\n", "There is evidence that once a pollutant is no longer in use, or once its use is heavily restricted, the human body burden of that pollutant declines. Through the efforts of several large-scale monitoring programs, the most prevalent pollutants in the human population are fairly well known. The first step in reducing the body burden of these pollutants is eliminating or phasing out their production.\n", "There has been a significant amount of research on the role that microbes play in various odors in the built environment. For example, Diekmann et al. examined the connection between volatile organic emissions in automobile air conditioning units. They reported that the types of microbes found were correlated to the bad odors found. Park and Kim examined which microbes found in an automobile air conditioner could produce bad smelling volatile compounds and identified candidate taxa producing some such compounds.\n\nSection::::Methods Used.\n", "Section::::Consequences of persistence.:Bioaccumulation.\n", "Pregnant women have increased smell sensitivity, sometimes resulting in abnormal taste and smell perceptions, leading to food cravings or aversions. The ability to taste also decreases with age as the sense of smell tends to dominate the sense of taste. Chronic smell problems are reported in small numbers for those in their mid-twenties, with numbers increasing steadily, with overall sensitivity beginning to decline in the second decade of life, and then deteriorating appreciably as age increases, especially once over 70 years of age.\n\nSection::::Physiology of smell.:Smell acuity compared to other animals.\n", "Odor perception is a complex process involving the central nervous system and can evoke psychological and physiological responses. Because the olfactory signal terminates in or near the amygdala, odors are strongly linked to memories and can evoke emotions. The amygdala participates in the hedonic or emotional processing of olfactory stimuli. Odors can disturb our concentration, diminish productivity, evoke symptoms, and in general increase a dislike for an environment. Odors can impact the liking for a person, place, food, or product as a form of conditioning. Memories recalled by odors are significantly more emotional and evocative than those recalled by the same cue presented visually or auditorily. Odors can become conditioned to experiential states and when later encountered have directional influences on behavior. Doing a frustrating task in a scented room decreases performance of other cognitive tasks in the presence of the same odor. Nonhuman animals communicate their emotional states through changes in body odor, and human body odors are indicative of emotional state.\n", "Infection with \"Toxoplasma gondii\" has been shown to alter the behavior of mice and rats in ways thought to increase the rodents’ chances of being preyed upon by cats. Infected rodents show a reduction in their innate aversion to cat odors; while uninfected mice and rats will generally avoid areas marked with cat urine or with cat body odor, this avoidance is reduced or eliminated in infected animals. Moreover, some evidence suggests this loss of aversion may be specific to feline odors: when given a choice between two predator odors (cat or mink), infected rodents show a significantly stronger preference to cat odors than do uninfected controls.\n", "Olfaction of dogs is used for a long time by the police (location of drug, of explosives, of weapon, body of missing persons, criminals' identification) or the services of rescue (bodies buried under avalanches). From 1910, a dog handler Friedo Schmidt describes in his book Verbrecherspur und Polizeihund («The criminal links and the police dog») how smells left by a criminal on a crime scene can be stocked in glassy jars for identification for purposes.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-09410	Why Are Things Like Homophobia, Transphobia And Islamophobia Called Phobias When They're Not Phobias?	In our vernacular, "phobia" pretty much means fear, but that is not the only use of the suffix. In the world of chemistry, for example, a substance that attracts water is called "hydrophilic" (it loves water!) and a substance that does not attract (or may even repel) water is called "hydrophobic". In the case of homophobia, transphobia, islamophobia, the do not have to do with irrational fear, but rather ideologies or practices that are disliked, disapproved, not embraced, not found compatible. That kind of stuff.	[ "Section::::Society and culture.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.:Terminology.\n\nThe word \"phobia\" comes from the (\"phóbos\"), meaning \"aversion\", \"fear\" or \"morbid fear\". In popular culture, it is common for specific phobias to have names based on a Greek word for the object of the fear, plus the suffix \"-phobia\". Creating these terms is something of a word game. Few of these terms are found in medical literature. In ancient Greek mythology Phobos was the twin brother of Deimos (terror).\n", "An article published in 1897 in \"American Journal of Psychology\" noted \"the absurd tendency to give Greek names to objects feared (which, as Arndt says, would give us such terms as klopsophobia – fear of thieves, – fear of the number 13...\".\n\nSection::::Psychological conditions.\n", "For more information on the psychiatric side, including how psychiatry groups phobias such as agoraphobia, social phobia, or simple phobia, see phobia. The following lists include words ending in \"-phobia\", and include fears that have acquired names. In some cases, the naming of phobias has become a word game, of notable example being a 1998 humorous article published by \"BBC News\". In some cases, a word ending in \"-phobia\" may have an antonym with the suffix \"-phil-\", e.g. Germanophobe/Germanophile.\n", "The word \"phobia\" may also refer to conditions other than true phobias. For example, the term \"hydrophobia\" is an old name for rabies, since an aversion to water is one of that disease's symptoms. A specific phobia to water is called aquaphobia instead. A hydrophobe is a chemical compound that repels water. Similarly, the term photophobia usually refers to a physical complaint (aversion to light due to inflamed eyes or excessively dilated pupils), rather than an irrational fear of light.\n\nSection::::Society and culture.:Non-medical use.\n", "A number of terms with the suffix -phobia are used non-clinically to imply irrational fear or hatred. Examples include:\n\nBULLET::::- Chemophobia – Negative attitudes and mistrust towards chemistry and synthetic chemicals.\n\nBULLET::::- Xenophobia – Fear or dislike of strangers or the unknown, sometimes used to describe nationalistic political beliefs and movements.\n\nBULLET::::- Homophobia – Negative attitudes and feelings toward homosexuality or people who are identified or perceived as being lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender (LGBT).\n", "The word \"Islamophobia\" is a neologism formed from \"Islam\" and \"-phobia\", a Greek suffix used in English to form \"nouns with the sense 'fear of – – ', 'aversion to – – '.\"\n", "The word \"transphobia\" is a classical compound patterned on the term \"homophobia\". The first component is the neo-classical prefix trans- (originally meaning \"across, on the far side, beyond\") from \"transgender\", and the second component -phobia comes from the , \"phóbos\", \"fear\". Along with \"lesbophobia\", \"biphobia\" and \"homophobia\", \"transphobia\" is a member of the family of terms used when intolerance and discrimination is directed toward LGBT people.\n\n\"Transphobia\" is not a phobia as defined in clinical psychology (i.e., an anxiety disorder). Its meaning and usage parallels \"xenophobia\".\n", "\"Biphobia\" need not be a phobia as defined in clinical psychology (i.e., an anxiety disorder). Its meaning and use typically parallel those of \"xenophobia\".\n\nSection::::Forms.\n\nSection::::Forms.:Denial and erasure.\n", "The term \"ergophobia\" comes from the Greek \"ergon\" (work) and \"phobos\" (fear).\n\nSection::::Phobias.\n", "Section::::Etymology and definitions.:Fear.\n\nAs opposed to being a psychological or individualistic phobia, according to professors of religion Peter Gottschalk and Gabriel Greenberg, \"Islamophobia\" connotes a social anxiety about Islam and Muslims. Some social scientists have adopted this definition and developed instruments to measure Islamophobia in form of fearful attitudes towards, and avoidance of, Muslims and Islam, arguing that Islamophobia should \"essentially be understood as an affective part of social stigma towards Islam and Muslims, namely fear\".\n\nSection::::Etymology and definitions.:Racism.\n", "The word \"neophobia\" comes from the Greek νέος, \"neos\", meaning \"new, young\", and φόβος, \"phobos\", for \"fear\". \"Cainophobia\" comes from the Greek καινός, \"kainos\", meaning \"new, fresh\". Alternative terms for neophobia include metathesiophobia, prosophobia, cainotophobia (or cainophobia), and kainophobia (or kainolophobia).\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nNorway rats and house mice are thought to have evolved increased levels of neophobia as they became commensal with humans because humans were routinely devising new methods (e.g., mousetraps) to eradicate them.\n", "The first recorded use of the term in English, according to the \"Oxford English Dictionary\", was in 1923 in an article in \"The Journal of Theological Studies\". The term entered into common usage with the publication of the Runnymede Trust's report in 1997. \"Kofi Annan asserted at a 2004 conference entitled \"Confronting Islamophobia\" that the word Islamophobia had to be coined in order to \"take account of increasingly widespread bigotry\".\n\nSection::::Origins and causes.:Contrasting views on Islam.\n\nThe Runnymede report contrasted \"open\" and \"closed\" views of Islam, and stated that the following \"closed\" views are equated with Islamophobia:\n", "A specific phobia is a marked and persistent fear of an object or situation. Specific phobias may also include fear of with losing control, panicking, and fainting from an encounter with the phobia. Specific phobias are defined in relation to objects or situations whereas social phobias emphasize social fear and the evaluations that might accompany them.\n", "With the changes of technologies, new challenges are coming up on a daily basis. New kinds of phobias have emerged (the so-called techno-phobias). Since the first mobile phone was introduced to the consumer market in 1983, these devices have become significantly mainstream in the majority of societies. \n", "When discrimination towards Muslims has placed an emphasis on their religious affiliation and adherence, it has been termed Muslimphobia, the alternative form of Muslimophobia, Islamophobism, antimuslimness and antimuslimism. Individuals who discriminate against Muslims in general have been termed \"Islamophobes\", \"Islamophobists\", \"anti-Muslimists\", \"antimuslimists\", \"islamophobiacs\", \"anti-Muhammadan\", \"Muslimphobes\" or its alternative spelling of \"Muslimophobes\", while individuals motivated by a specific anti-Muslim agenda or bigotry have been described as being \"anti-mosque\", \"anti-Shiites\" (or \"Shiaphobes\"), \"anti-Sufism\" (or \"Sufi-phobia\") and \"anti-Sunni\" (or \"Sunniphobes\").\n\nSection::::Etymology and definitions.\n", "Researchers have proposed alternative terms to describe prejudice and discrimination against LGBT people. Some of these alternatives show more semantic transparency while others do not include -\"phobia\":\n\nBULLET::::- \"Homoerotophobia\", being a possible precursor term to \"homophobia\", was coined by Wainwright Churchill and documented in \"Homosexual Behavior Among Males\" in 1967.\n\nBULLET::::- The etymology of \"homophobia\" citing the union of \"homos\" and \"phobos\" is the basis for LGBT historian Boswell's criticism of the term and for his suggestion in 1980 of the alternative \"homosexophobia\".\n", "Panphobia\n\nPanphobia, omniphobia, pantophobia, or panophobia is a vague and persistent dread of some unknown evil. Panphobia is not registered as a type of phobia in medical references.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "\"Biphobia\" is a portmanteau word patterned on the term \"homophobia\". It derives from the English neo-classical prefix \"bi-\" (meaning \"two\") from \"bisexual\" and the root \"-phobia\" (from the , \"phóbos\", \"fear\") found in \"homophobia\". Along with \"transphobia\" and \"homophobia\", it is one of a family of terms used to describe intolerance and discrimination against LGBT people. The adjectival form \"biphobic\" describes things or qualities related to biphobia, and the less-common noun \"biphobe\" is a label for people thought to harbor biphobia.\n", "Use of \"homophobia\", \"homophobic\", and \"homophobe\" has been criticized as pejorative against LGBT rights opponents. Behavioral scientists William O'Donohue and Christine Caselles stated in 1993 that \"as [\"homophobia\"] is usually used, [it] makes an illegitimately pejorative evaluation of certain open and debatable value positions, much like the former disease construct of homosexuality\" itself, arguing that the term may be used as an \"ad hominem\" argument against those who advocate values or positions of which the user does not approve. Philosopher Gary Colwell stated in 1999 that \"the boundary of the term 'homophobia' is made so elastic that it can stretch around, not just phobias, but every kind of rational fear as well; and not just around every kind of fear, but also around every critical posture or idea that anyone may have about the practice of homosexuality\".\n", "For instance, in case of the fear of heights (acrophobia), the CS is heights such as a balcony on the top floors of a high rise building. The UCS originates from an aversive or traumatizing event in the person's life, such as almost falling down from a great height. The original fear of almost falling down is associated with being on a high place, leading to a fear of heights. In other words, the CS \"(heights)\" associated with the aversive UCS \"(almost falling down)\" leads to the CR \"(fear)\".\n", "Specialists may prefer to avoid the suffix \"-phobia\" and use more descriptive terms such as personality disorders, anxiety disorders, and avoidant personality disorder. Terms should strictly have a Greek prefix although many are irregularly formed with Latin or even English prefixes. Many use inaccurate or imprecise prefixes, such as aerophobia (fear of air) for fear of flying.\n\nSection::::Biology, chemistry.\n\nBiologists use a number of \"-phobia/-phobic\" terms to describe predispositions by plants and animals against certain conditions. For antonyms, see here\n\nSection::::Prejudices and discrimination.\n\nSection::::Prejudices and discrimination.:Racist and xenophobic sentiments.\n", "The root word for emetophobia is \"emesis\", from the Greek word \"emein\", which means \"an act or instance of vomiting\", with \"-phobia\" meaning \"an exaggerated usually inexplicable fear of a particular object, class of objects, or situation.\"\n", "Writing in 2008 Ed Husain, a former member of Hizb ut-Tahrir and co-founder of Quilliam, said that under pressure from Islamist extremists, \"'Islamophobia' has become accepted as a phenomenon on a par with racism\", claiming that \"Outside a few flashpoints where the BNP is at work, most Muslims would be hard-pressed to identify Islamophobia in their lives\".\n\nSalman Rushdie criticized the coinage of the word 'Islamophobia' saying that it \"was an addition to the vocabulary of Humpty Dumpty Newspeak. It took the language of analysis, reason and dispute, and stood it on its head\".\n", "The term \"trypophobia\" is believed to have been coined by a participant in an online forum in 2005. The word is from the , ', meaning \"hole\" and , ', meaning \"fear\". Groups on social media sites such as Facebook and Instagram exist for self-identified trypophobics to share and discuss images that they say induce the reaction.\n", "Coined by George Weinberg, a psychologist, in the 1960s, the term \"homophobia\" is a blend of (1) the word \"homosexual\", itself a mix of neo-classical morphemes, and (2) \"phobia\" from the Greek φόβος, phóbos, meaning \"fear\", \"morbid fear\" or \"aversion\". Weinberg is credited as the first person to have used the term in speech. The word \"homophobia\" first appeared in print in an article written for the May 23, 1969, edition of the American pornographic magazine \"Screw\", in which the word was used to refer to heterosexual men's fear that others might think they are gay.\n" ]	[ "Homophobia, transphobia And Islamophobia are not phobias.", "It doesn't make sense to use the suffix \"phobia\" in cases such as Homophobia, Transphobia." ]	[ "The word \"phobia\" can refer to attitudes towards ideologies or practices such as dislike, disappproval, and/or incompatibility; some examples are homophobia, transphobia, and Islamophobia.", "While \"phobia\" usually means fear, in these cases \"phobia\" instead has the meaning of disliked or disapproved or not embraced." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Homophobia, transphobia And Islamophobia are not phobias.", "It doesn't make sense to use the suffix \"phobia\" in cases such as Homophobia, Transphobia." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The word \"phobia\" can refer to attitudes towards ideologies or practices such as dislike, disappproval, and/or incompatibility; some examples are homophobia, transphobia, and Islamophobia.", "While \"phobia\" usually means fear, in these cases \"phobia\" instead has the meaning of disliked or disapproved or not embraced." ]
2018-12431	Why is "0-60 in x seconds" used to measure a car's acceleration?	It's the rough amount of speed a person needs to attain in order to get onto a highway/freeway from a standstill at a stop sign/red light. It's a useful determiner for the average user because we all will generally use this feature. Knowing the exact amount of horsepower, torque, or thrust-to-weight ratio doesn't really help the average user.	[ "The precision and verifiability of numbers sometimes make them a more effective sales tool than vague and non-numeric descriptions such as \"state of the art\" or \"leaves the others in the dust\". When used in deceptive advertising, the deception lies more in the question of relevance rather than truth since the number quoted, as a figure of merit may not be enough to determine performance when comparing products. For example, when purchasing a laptop a consumer could choose on the basis of the capacity of its hard drive. The RPM, buffer, and seek times may not be noted, but may significantly affect performance.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Ford 9 inch\" – a Ford rear differential assembly used from 1957 to 1981 Ford cars and trucks. It is commonly used in street and racing (drag, oval, and road) applications due to its reputation for durability, regardless of vehicle manufacturer.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Full furniture\" – the car has not been lightened through the removal of seats and interior components\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gears\" – refers to the final drive ratio, which is typically around 3.0 for production automobiles, and up to 7.0 for high-performance cars (the number refers to the number of engine revolutions for each rotation of the driven axle).\n", "In 1948, as part of its preparatory work for the SI, the CGPM adopted symbols for many units of measure that did not have universally agreed symbols, one of which was the symbol \"h\" for \"hours\". At the same time the CGPM formalised the rules for combining units – quotients could be written in one of three formats resulting in , and being valid representations of \"kilometres per hour\". The SI standards, which were MKS-based rather than CGS-based were published in 1960 and have since then have been adopted by many authorities around the globe including academic publishers and legal authorities.\n", "Several representations of \"kilometres per hour\" have been used since the term was introduced and many are still in use today; for example, dictionaries list \"km/h\", \"kmph\" and \"km/hr\" as English abbreviations. The SI representations, classified as symbols, are \"km/h\", \"\" and \"\".\n\nSection::::Notation history.:Abbreviations.\n\nAbbreviations for \"kilometres per hour\" did not appear in the English language until the late nineteenth century.\n", "Measuring the 0 to 60 mph speed of vehicles is usually done in a closed setting such as a race car track or closed lot used for professional drivers. This is done to reduce risk to the drivers, their teams, and the public in general. The closed course is set up for test-drives in order to reduce any variables, such as wind, weather, and traction. Each variable can have a dramatic impact on the friction of the track and the drag placed on the vehicle, which will influence the overall 0 to 60 time that is recorded.\n", "Piston engine aircraft with constant-speed propellers also use inches of mercury to measure manifold pressure, which is indicative of engine power produced. In automobile racing, particularly United States Auto Club and Champ Car Indy car racing, inches of mercury was the unit used to measure turbocharger inlet pressure. However, the inch of mercury is still used today in car performance modification to measure the amount of vacuum within the engine's intake manifold. This can be seen on boost/vacuum gauges.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Cooling systems.\n", "BULLET::::- Measurement of treading on the signal from a revolution counter or threshold switches on the crank, or at another suitable location\n\nBULLET::::- Measurement of both force and the speed\n\nBULLET::::- Measurement of acceleration or drawbar force at the push trailer\n\nBULLET::::- Measuring electrical values in the serial hybrid (pedal generator)\n\nIn addition, the speed of the vehicle are measured on the wheel, in particular, for example, to drive the motor from 25 km/h off.\n", "In the early twentieth century, a so-called \"SAE horsepower\" was sometimes quoted for U.S. automobiles. This long predates the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) horsepower measurement standards and was really just another term for the widely used ALAM or NACC horsepower figure, which was the same as the British RAC horsepower, used for tax purposes.\n\nSection::::Engine power test standards.:Society of Automotive Engineers/SAE International.:SAE gross power.\n", "In 1988 the United States National Highway Traffic Safety Administration promulgated a rule stating that \"MPH and/or km/h\" were to be used in speedometer displays. On May 15, 2000 this was clarified to read \"MPH, or MPH and km/h\". However, the Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard number 101 (\"Controls and Displays\") allows \"any combination of upper- and lowercase letters\" to represent the units.\n\nSection::::Conversions.\n\nBULLET::::- ≡ , the SI unit of speed, metre per second\n\nBULLET::::- ≈ ≈\n\nBULLET::::- ≡ (exactly)\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Knot\n\nBULLET::::- Metre per second\n\nBULLET::::- Miles per hour\n\nBULLET::::- Orders of magnitude (speed)\n", "BULLET::::- Units of distance per fixed fuel unit: Miles per gallon (mpg) is commonly used in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Canada (alongside L/100 km). Kilometers per liter (km/L) is more commonly used elsewhere in the Americas, Asia, parts of Africa and Oceania. In Arab countries km/20 L, which is known as kilometers per \"tanaka\" (or \"Tanakeh\") is used, where \"tanaka\" is a metal container which has a volume of twenty liters. When the mpg unit is used, it is necessary to identify the type of gallon used: the imperial gallon is 4.54609 liters, and the U.S. gallon is 3.785 liters. When using a measure expressed as distance per fuel unit, a higher number means more efficient, while a lower number means less efficient.\n", "Section::::Applications.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Aircraft and automobiles.\n", "The manufacturers do make velocity measurements, however. These measurements are made during production for quality control with respect to the user's performance expectations of the product for its purpose.\n", "In order to get \"road parameters\", vehicle must be driving on ideal flat road with no wind from any direction, gear set to neutral and time needed to slow down without braking is measured in certain intervals e.g. 100–90 km/h, 90–80 km/h, 80–70 km/h 70–60 km/h etc. Slowing down from higher speed takes shorter time mainly due to air resistance.\n\nThose parameters are later set in dynamometer workstation, together with vehicle inertia. Vehicle is restrained and so called vehicle adaptation has to be performed.\n", "BULLET::::- Photo and video cameras are standardized to mount to tripods using -20 and -16 screws, which are dimensioned in inches, as per ISO 1222:2010.\n\nBULLET::::- Automobile tyre pressure is commonly measured in units of psi in several countries including Brazil, Peru, Mexico, Argentina, Australia, and Chile, the UK and the US.\n\nBULLET::::- Automotive engine power is usually measured in horsepower (rather than in kilowatts) in Russia, most other ex-USSR countries and German-speaking countries (note that this is typically \"metric horsepower\" rather than imperial horsepower), although in the EU from 2010 the horsepower is permitted only as a supplementary unit.\n", "Because of frictional and mechanical losses in the various drivetrain components, the measured wheel brake horsepower is generally 15-20 percent less than the brake horsepower measured at the crankshaft or flywheel on an engine dynamometer.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nThe Graham-Desaguliers Dynamometer was invented by George Graham and mentioned in the writings of John Desagulier in 1719. Desaguliers modified the first dynamometers, and so the instrument became known as the Graham-Desaguliers dynamometer.\n\nThe Regnier dynamometer was invented and made public in 1798 by Edmé Régnier, a French rifle maker and engineer.\n", "BULLET::::- Joule (J) – the unit of energy. Energy is defined as the product of power and time, the joule being defined as watts times seconds. In many countries energy quantities are often expressed in kilowatt-hours (kW⋅h). Since there are 1000 watts in a kilowatt and 3600 seconds in an hour, there are 1000 × 3600 joules in a kilowatt-hour; i.e. . (One megajoule is one million joules.)\n", "As well as speed sensing, these probes are often used to calculate distance travelled by multiplying wheel rotations by wheel circumference.\n", "The kilometre, a unit of length, first appeared in English in 1810, and the compound unit of speed \"kilometers per hour\" was in use in the US by 1866. \"Kilometres per hour\" did not begin to be abbreviated in print until many years later, with several different abbreviations existing near-contemporaneously.\n", "Tools and fasteners with sizes measured in inches are sometimes called \"SAE bolts\" or \"SAE wrenches\" to differentiate them from their metric counterparts. The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) originally developed fasteners standards using U.S. units for the U.S. auto industry; the organization now uses metric units.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Acre-foot\n\nBULLET::::- Board foot\n\nBULLET::::- Conversion of units\n\nBULLET::::- Cord (unit)\n\nBULLET::::- Fahrenheit (vs. Celsius vs. Kelvin)\n\nBULLET::::- History of measurement, systems, and units of measurement\n\nBULLET::::- Plan for Establishing Uniformity in the Coinage, Weights, and Measures of the United States (1790)\n\nBULLET::::- Mars Climate Orbiter\n\nBULLET::::- Standard cubic foot\n", "Section::::In other fields.\n\nIt is:\n\nBULLET::::- In time, the number of seconds in a minute, and the number of minutes in an hour. (a legacy of the Babylonian number system)\n\nBULLET::::- The number of feet in the standard measurement tool to evaluate an automotive launch on a dragstrip, as the time taken to travel the first of the track.\n\nBULLET::::- The number of miles per hour an automobile accelerates to from rest (0-60) as one of the standard measurements of performance\n\nBULLET::::- The number of years in a Sexagenary cycle\n\nBULLET::::- \"60 Minutes\", a CBS investigative television show\n", "Another common unit of speed is meters per second (m/s), used especially for lifts and cable cars. Odometers are permitted to record miles or kilometers, but must be clearly labeled as to which unit they record.\n\nTire inflation for passenger cars is typically about 30 pounds per square inch (psi) or 207 kilopascals (kPa). This is displayed on tires beside its metric equivalent. Post model year 2006 regulations also mandate an internationally standard \"Tire and Loading Information\" sticker which gives capacities in SI units followed by customary equivalents.\n\nSection::::Current use.:Hybrid units.\n", "BULLET::::2. Controlled acceleration sweep: similar in basic usage as the (above) simple fixed load sweep test, but with the addition of active load control that targets a specific rate of acceleration. Commonly, 20fps/ps is used.\n\nBULLET::::3. Controlled acceleration rate: the acceleration rate used is controlled from low power to high power engines, and overextension and contraction of \"test duration\" is avoided, providing more repeatable tests and tuning results.\n", "Tire pressures and lubricants have to be as recommended by the manufacturer (Higher tire pressures are required on a particular dynamometer type, but this is to compensate for the different rolling resistance of the dynamometer, not to produce an unrealistic load on the vehicle). Normally the quoted figures a manufacturer publishes have to be proved by the relevant authority witnessing vehicle/engine tests. Some jurisdictions independently test emissions of vehicles in service, and as a final measure can force a recall of all of a particular type of vehicle if the customer vehicles do not fulfill manufacturers' claims within reasonable limits. The expense and bad publicity from such a recall encourages manufacturers to publish realistic figures. The US Federal government retests 10–15% of models), to make sure that the manufacturer's tests are accurate.\n", "BULLET::::- \"CFM\" (cubic feet per minute) – refers to the maximum intake flow capacity of a carburetor (e.g., 850)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Clutch mods\" – The car builder may have modified the clutch to introduce some slip at lower rpm with lever weights to lock the transmission input shaft to the flywheel speed as the engine reaches a pre-selected optimum (this is done to limit power application at starting line). Also, on drag motorcycles, a typical modification is an air shifter—compressed air is used to instantaneously change gears as the driver presses a thumb button\n", "The most common unit for specific impulse is the second, both in SI contexts as well as where imperial or customary units are used. The advantage of seconds is that the unit and numerical value are identical across systems of measurements, and essentially universal. Nearly all manufacturers quote their engine performance in seconds, and the unit is also useful for specifying aircraft engine performance.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-20025	Do essential oils have any effect on health?	They may have a slight medical benefit, but not nearly the level that people make them out to be. I believe the biggest benefit is the placebo effect.	[ "Essential oils are often used for aromatherapy, a form of alternative medicine in which healing effects are ascribed to aromatic compounds. Aromatherapy may be useful to induce relaxation, but there is not sufficient evidence that essential oils can effectively treat any condition. Improper use of essential oils may cause harm including allergic reactions and skin irritation, and children may be particularly susceptible to the toxic effects of improper use.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Some essential oils, such as those of juniper and agathosma, are valued for their diuretic effects. With relatively recent concerns about the overuse of antibacterial agents, many essential oils have seen a resurgence in off-label use for such properties and are being examined for this use clinically.\n", "Estimates of total production of essential oils are difficult to obtain. One estimate, compiled from data in 1989, 1990, and 1994 from various sources, gives the following total production, in tonnes, of essential oils for which more than 1,000 tonnes were produced.\n\nSection::::Pharmacology and medical uses.\n\nThe medical value of essential oils is the subject of ongoing research, and varies among species, presence or absence of active compound(s), route of administration, potency, and dosage. Some may be inappropriate for persons with certain medical conditions or who take certain prescriptions or over-the-counter (OTC) medications.\n", "Section::::Dangers.:Ingestion.\n\nSome essential oils qualify as GRAS flavoring agents for use in foods, beverages, and confectioneries according to strict Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) and flavorist standards. Pharmacopoeia standards for medicinal oils should be heeded. Some oils can be toxic to some domestic animals, cats in particular. The internal use of essential oils can pose hazards to pregnant women, as some can be abortifacients in dose 0.5–10 mL, and thus should not be used during pregnancy.\n\nSection::::Dangers.:Pesticide residues.\n", "Aromatherapy is a form of alternative medicine in which healing effects are ascribed to the aromatic compounds in essential oils and other plant extracts. Aromatherapy may be useful to induce relaxation, but there is not sufficient evidence that essential oils can effectively treat any condition. Scientific research indicates that essential oils cannot treat or cure any chronic disease or other illnesses. Much of the research on the use of essential oils for health purposes has serious methodological errors. In a systemic review of 201 published studies on essential oils as alternative medicines, only 10 were found to be of acceptable methodological quality, and even these 10 were still weak in reference to scientific standards. Use of essential oils may cause harm including allergic reactions and skin irritation; there has been at least one case of death. As such, the use of essential oils as an alternative medicine should be approached with caution.\n", "Medical applications proposed by those who sell medicinal oils range from skin treatments to remedies for cancer and often are based solely on historical accounts of use of essential oils for these purposes. Claims for the efficacy of medical treatments, and treatment of cancers in particular, are now subject to regulation in most countries.\n\nSection::::Production.\n\nSection::::Production.:Distillation.\n", "Industrial users of essential oils should consult the safety data sheets (SDS) to determine the hazards and handling requirements of particular oils. Even certain therapeutic grade oils can pose potential threats to individuals with epilepsy or pregnant women.\n\nEssential Oil use in children can pose a danger when misused because of their thin skin and immature livers. This might cause them to be more susceptible to toxic effects than adults. \n\nSection::::Dangers.:Flammability.\n", "Interest in essential oils has revived in recent decades with the popularity of aromatherapy, a branch of alternative medicine that uses essential oils and other aromatic compounds. Oils are volatilized, diluted in a carrier oil and used in massage, diffused in the air by a nebulizer, heated over a candle flame, or burned as incense.\n", "Estrogenic and antiandrogenic activity have been reported by \"in vitro\" study of tea tree oil and lavender essential oils. Two published sets of case reports suggest the lavender oil may be implicated in some cases of gynecomastia, an abnormal breast tissue growth in prepubescent boys. The European Commission's Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety dismissed the claims against tea tree oil as implausible, but did not comment on lavender oil. In 2018, a BBC report on a study stated that tea tree and lavender oils contain eight substances that when tested in tissue culture experiments, increasing the level of estrogen and decreasing the level of testosterone. Some of the substances are found in \"at least 65 other essential oils\". The study did not include animal or human testing.\n", "Section::::Raw materials.:Balsam of Peru.\n\nBalsam of Peru, an essential oil derived from the \"Myroxylon\", is used in food and drink for flavoring, in perfumes and toiletries for fragrance, and in medicine and pharmaceutical items for healing properties. However, a number of national and international surveys have identified Balsam of Peru as being in the \"top five\" allergens most commonly causing patch test allergic reactions in people referred to dermatology clinics.\n\nSection::::Raw materials.:Garlic oil.\n\nGarlic oil is an essential oil derived from garlic.\n\nSection::::Raw materials.:Eucalyptus oil.\n", "In any form, using essential oils as green pesticides rather than synthetic pesticides has ecological benefits such as decreased residual actions. In addition, increased use of essential oils as pest control could have not only ecological, but economical benefits as the essential oil market diversifies and popularity increases among organic farmers and environmentally conscious consumers.\n\nSection::::Use in food.\n\nIn relation with their food applications, although these oils have been used throughout history as food preservatives, it was in the 20 century when EOs were considered as Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). \n", "Research has shown that essential oils have potential as a natural pesticide. In case studies, certain oils have been shown to have a variety of deterring effects on pests, specifically insects and select arthropods. These effects may include repelling, inhibiting digestion, stunting growth, decreasing rate of reproduction, or death of pests that consume the oil. However, the molecules within the oils that cause these effects are normally non-toxic for mammals. These specific actions of the molecules allow for widespread use of these green pesticides without harmful effects to anything other than pests. Essential oils that have been investigated include rose, lemon grass, lavender, thyme, peppermint, and eucalyptus.\n", "There is some concern about pesticide residues in essential oils, particularly those used therapeutically. For this reason, many practitioners of aromatherapy buy organically produced oils. Not only are pesticides present in trace quantities, but also the oils themselves are used in tiny quantities and usually in high dilutions. Where there is a concern about pesticide residues in food essential oils, such as mint or orange oils, the proper criterion is not solely whether the material is organically produced, but whether it meets the government standards based on actual analysis of its pesticide content.\n\nSection::::Dangers.:Pregnancy.\n", "GRAS Substances According to the FDA\n\nSection::::Dilution.\n\nEssential oils are usually lipophilic (literally: \"\"oil-loving\"\") compounds that usually are not miscible with water. They can be diluted in solvents like pure ethanol and polyethylene glycol.\n\nThe most common way to safely dilute essential oils for topical use is in a carrier oil. This can be any vegetable oil readily available, the most popular for skin care being jojoba, coconut, wheat germ, olive and avocado.\n\nSection::::Raw materials.\n\nEssential oils are derived from sections of plants. Some plants, like the bitter orange, are sources of several types of essential oil.\n", "While some advocate the ingestion of essential oils for therapeutic purposes, licensed aromatherapy professionals do not recommend self-prescription due to the highly toxic nature of some essential oils. Some very common oils like eucalyptus are extremely toxic when taken internally. Doses as low as 2 mL have been reported to cause clinically significant symptoms and severe poisoning can occur after ingestion of as little as 4 mL. A few reported cases of toxic reactions like liver damage and seizures have occurred after ingestion of sage, hyssop, thuja and cedar oils. Accidental ingestion may happen when oils are not kept out of reach of children. As with any bioactive substance, an essential oil that may be safe for the general public could still pose hazards for pregnant and lactating women.\n", "Many essential oils included in herbal pharmacopoeias are claimed to possess antimicrobial activity, with the oils of bay, cinnamon, clove and thyme reported to be the most potent in studies with foodborne bacterial pathogens. Active constituents include terpenoid chemicals and other secondary metabolites. Despite their prevalent use in alternative medicine, essential oils have seen limited use in mainstream medicine. While 25 to 50% of pharmaceutical compounds are plant-derived, none are used as antimicrobials, though there has been increased research in this direction. Barriers to increased usage in mainstream medicine include poor regulatory oversight and quality control, mislabeled or misidentified products, and limited modes of delivery.\n", "Section::::Use in aromatherapy.\n", "Section::::Dangers.:Handling.\n", "Section::::Use as pesticide.\n", "Certain essential oils are safe to use during pregnancy, but care must be taken when selecting quality and brand. Some essential oils may contain impurities and additives that may be harmful to pregnant women. Sensitivity to certain smells may cause pregnant women to have adverse side effects with essential oil use, such as headache, vertigo, and nausea. Pregnant women often report an abnormal sensitivity to smells and taste, and essential oils can cause irritation and nausea when ingested. Always consult a doctor before use.\n\nSection::::Dangers.:Toxicology.\n", "Essential oils are generally extracted by distillation, often by using steam. Other processes include expression, solvent extraction, \"sfumatura\", absolute oil extraction, resin tapping, wax embedding, and cold pressing. They are used in perfumes, cosmetics, soaps and other products, for flavoring food and drink, and for adding scents to incense and household cleaning products.\n", "The potential danger of an essential oil is sometimes relative to its level or grade of purity, and sometimes related to the toxicity of specific chemical components of the oil. Many essential oils are designed exclusively for their aroma-therapeutic quality; these essential oils generally should not be applied directly to the skin in their undiluted or \"neat\" form. Some can cause severe irritation, provoke an allergic reaction and, over time, prove hepatotoxic.\n\nSome essential oils, including many of the citrus peel oils, are photosensitizers, increasing the skin's vulnerability to sunlight.\n", "Many essential oils affect the skin and mucous membranes in ways that are valuable or harmful. Many essential oils, particularly tea tree oil, may cause contact dermatitis. They are used in antiseptics and liniments in particular. Typically, they produce rubefacient irritation at first and then counterirritant numbness. Turpentine oil and camphor are two typical examples of oils that cause such effects. Menthol and some others produce a feeling of cold followed by a sense of burning. This is caused by its effect on heat-sensing nerve endings. Some essential oils, such as clove oil or eugenol, were popular for many hundred years in dentistry as antiseptics and local anesthetics. \n", "Section::::Production.:Florasols extraction.\n\nFlorasol is another solvent used to obtain essential oils. It was originally developed as a refrigerant to replace Freon. Although Florasol is an \"ozone-friendly\" product, it has a high global warming potential (GWP; 100-yr GWP = 1430). The European Union has banned its use, with a phase-out process that began in 2011, to be completed in 2017. One advantage of Florasol is that the extraction of essential oils occurs at or below room temperature so degradation through high temperature extremes does not occur. The essential oils are mostly pure and contain little to no foreign substances.\n\nSection::::Production.:Production quantities.\n", "Most oils can be toxic to humans as well. A report of three cases documented gynecomastia in prepubertal boys who were exposed to topical lavender and tea tree oils. The Aromatherapy Trade Council of the UK issued a rebuttal. The Australian Tea Tree Association, a group that promotes the interests of Australian tea tree oil producers, exporters and manufacturers issued a letter that questioned the study and called on the \"New England Journal of Medicine\" for a retraction. Another article published by a different research group also documented three cases of gynecomastia in prepubertal boys who were exposed to topical lavender oil.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-15299	Why do US households have washing machine and dryer as two different appliances instead of a single appliance ?	A combined unit isn’t as efficient as 2 individual ones. You can fit more in a washing load than a drying load, so you either need to do more, smaller loads, or take some clothes out before the drying cycle starts. Also, you can only do one load at a time. If you have separate units you can start a second wash whilst the first is in the dryer. And as previously mentioned, if something goes wrong, you can’t wash or dry anything	[ "There is a trend of networking home appliances together, and combining their controls and key functions. For instance, energy distribution could be managed more evenly so that when a washing machine is on, an oven can go into a delayed start mode, or vice versa. Or, a washing machine and clothes dryer could share information about load characteristics (gentle/normal, light/full), and synchronize their finish times so the wet laundry does not have to wait before being put in the dryer.\n", "BULLET::::- 1994 44-liter washing machines and dryers refreshed, new control panel design\n\nBULLET::::- 1995 Final year for the 44-liter top load washing machines, final refresh of the 44-liter washing machines and related tumble dryers, all models now have a internal model number ending with A (ie, 20005-WM200A) timer models now have hybrid timers, all models equipped with magnet drain pumps, control panel refreshed once again\n\nBULLET::::- 1998 50-liter machines introduced with a all-new design, still using Quattro. Door seal moved from outer tub to door\n\nBULLET::::- 2000 Takeover by Antonio Merloni\n", "BULLET::::- Coffee grinder\n\nBULLET::::- Cold-pressed juicer\n\nBULLET::::- Combo washer dryer\n\nBULLET::::- Comparison of domestic robots\n\nBULLET::::- Computer\n\nBULLET::::- Digital camera\n\nBULLET::::- Dish draining closet\n\nBULLET::::- Dishwasher\n\nBULLET::::- Drawer dishwasher\n\nBULLET::::- DVD player\n\nBULLET::::- Electric water boiler\n\nBULLET::::- Evaporative cooler\n\nBULLET::::- Exhaust hood\n\nBULLET::::- Fan heater\n\nBULLET::::- Flame supervision device\n\nBULLET::::- Forced-air\n\nBULLET::::- Futon dryer\n\nBULLET::::- Garbage disposal unit\n\nBULLET::::- Gas appliance\n\nBULLET::::- Go-to-bed matchbox\n\nBULLET::::- Hair dryer\n\nBULLET::::- Hair iron\n\nBULLET::::- Hob (hearth)\n\nBULLET::::- Home server\n\nBULLET::::- Humidifier\n\nBULLET::::- HVAC\n\nBULLET::::- Icebox\n\nBULLET::::- Kimchi refrigerator\n\nBULLET::::- Light fixture\n\nBULLET::::- Light\n\nBULLET::::- Mangle (machine)\n\nBULLET::::- Meat grinder\n\nBULLET::::- Micathermic heater\n", "There are several design patterns adopted by computer appliance vendors, a few of which are shown below. Since the whole concept of an appliance rests on keeping such implementation details away from the end user, it is difficult to match these patterns to specific appliances, particularly since they can and do change without affecting external capabilities or performance.\n", "For many years energy and water efficiency were not regulated, and little attention was paid to them. From the last part of the twentieth century increasing attention was paid to efficiency, with regulations enforcing some standards, and efficiency being a selling point, both to save on running costs and to reduce carbon dioxide emissions associated with energy generation, and waste of water.\n", "There are also combo washer dryer machines that combine washing cycles and a full drying cycle in the same drum, eliminating the need to transfer wet clothes from a washer to a dryer machine. In principle, these machines are convenient for overnight cleaning (the combined cycle is considerably longer), but the effective capacity for cleaning larger batches of laundry is drastically reduced. The drying process tends to use much more energy than using two separate devices, because a combo washer dryer not only must dry the clothing, but also needs to dry out the wash chamber itself. These machines are used more in Europe, because they can be fitted into small spaces, and many can be operated without dedicated utility connections. In these machines, the washer and dryer functions often have different capacities, with the dryer usually having the lowest capacity. These machines should not be confused with a dryer on top of a washer installation, or with a laundry center, which is a one piece appliance offering a compromise between a washer-dryer combo and a full washer to the side of the dryer installation or a dryer on top of a washer installation. Laundry centers usually have the dryer on top of the washer, with the controls for both machines being on a single control panel. Often, the controls are simpler than the controls on a washer-dryer combo or a dedicated washer and dryer. Some implementations are patented under US Patent US6343492B1 and US Patent US 6363756B1.\n", "Section::::Effects of technology and advertising.\n\nMany home appliances have been invented that make housework faster or more effective compared to before the industrial revolution. These include:\n\nBULLET::::- Washing machine\n\nBULLET::::- Clothes dryer\n\nBULLET::::- Dishwasher\n\nBULLET::::- Sewing machine\n\nBULLET::::- Vacuum cleaner\n\nBULLET::::- Small electrics like the electric mixer, blender, toaster, and coffee maker\n\nBULLET::::- Microwave oven\n\nBULLET::::- Refrigerator, reducing the number of grocery trips or the amount of food preservation work to do\n\nUtilities can potentially eliminate work like gathering and chopping firewood, shovelling coal, fetching water from outdoors, and heating cold tap water.\n", "BULLET::::- 1965 Fully automatic washing machines and compact dishwasher introduced\n\nBULLET::::- 1967 Appliance export started\n\nBULLET::::- 1978 ASEA takeover, name changed to ASEA Cylinda\n\nBULLET::::- 1984 Introduction of the \"Quattro\" line of machines with four shock absorbers, no springs and a direct-connecting door, Asea starts selling washing machines and tumble dryers in The Netherlands\n\nBULLET::::- 1988 Takeover by ASKO, name changed to ASKO ASEA\n\nBULLET::::- 1992 Name change to ASKO, washing machine 20003 introduced with, a world's first for a domestic machine, frequency converter (FU) brushless motor, 44-liter machines refreshed, models 11003 and 12003 now with 1400 RPM.\n", "BULLET::::- Samsung (South Korea) including Kenmore (USA)\n\nBULLET::::- Sharp (Japan)\n\nBULLET::::- TCL (China)\n\nBULLET::::- Toshiba (Japan)\n\nBULLET::::- Vestel (Turkey): Vestel, Regal, Vestfrost (Denmark)\n\nBULLET::::- Videocon (India)\n\nBULLET::::- Whirlpool(US): including the brand names Acros, Admiral, Amana, Bauknecht, Estate, Inglis, Kenmore, Laden, Maytag, Magic Chef, Kirkland, Roper & Philips, Brastemp and Consul (Brazilian market)\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Centrifugation\n\nBULLET::::- Clothes dryer\n\nBULLET::::- Combo washer dryer\n\nBULLET::::- Detergent\n\nBULLET::::- Drying cabinet\n\nBULLET::::- Energetic efficiency\n\nBULLET::::- Home appliance\n\nBULLET::::- Ironing\n\nBULLET::::- Laundry detergent\n\nBULLET::::- Laundry symbols\n\nBULLET::::- List of home appliances\n\nBULLET::::- Major appliance\n\nBULLET::::- Silver Nano\n\nBULLET::::- Standpipe\n\nBULLET::::- L'Increvable\n\nSection::::References.\n", "The \"laundry center\" is a compromise between the stackable and the combo configurations. Like the washer dryer combo, the laundry center is a one-piece appliance. Like the stackable configuration, the laundry center comprises two separate machines, the washer and the dryer. In most laundry centers, the dryer is mounted above the washer, making for a one-piece design that offers the compact footprint of a washer dryer combo with the functionality and capacity of stackable washing machines and drying machines.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Combination washer dryers are popular among those living in smaller urban properties as they only need half the amount of space usually required for a separate washing machine and clothes dryer, and may not require an external air vent. Additionally, combination washer dryers allow clothes to be washed and dried \"in one go\", saving time and effort from the user. Many washer dryer combo units are also designed to be portable so it can be attached to a sink instead of requiring a separate water line.\n", "Many consumers confuse the term \"washer dryer combo\" with similar washer and dryer configurations like stackable machines and laundry centers. The main design factor that distinguishes washer dryer combos from other configurations is the fact that the washer dryer combo is a single machine (typically the size of a stand-alone washing machine) that can do both washing and drying tasks in a single combo machine.\n", "Major appliances, also known as white goods, comprise major household appliances and may include: air conditioners, dishwashers, clothes dryers, drying cabinets, freezers, refrigerators, kitchen stoves, water heaters, washing machines, trash compactors, microwave ovens, and induction cookers. White goods were typically painted or enameled white, and many of them still are.\n\nSection::::Small appliances.\n", "Washer dryer combination units have most of the features found in modern washing and drying machines. Combination machines, despite being half the size of a separate washer and dryer setup, may have a similar price because they must still contain all the component parts of both.\n\nSection::::Disadvantages.\n", "Some washer dryer combination units are Energy Star certified, which means that they meet a minimum standard for energy efficiency. Some of these washers are also rated well for their water consumption. However, overall environmental and financial impact of any given installation must be calculated not only from the instantaneous energy and water consumption rates, but also the time it must be run per load. A combo machine with smaller capacity than separate machines may have to be run more than once for an amount of laundry that larger machines might handle in one pass, and in doing so could potentially use more energy or water per load than larger, separate machines even if it does have a lower rated power consumption. Conversely, separate machines may be less efficient overall if their capacity is larger than necessary for the loads they will be required to handle.\n", "Additionally, some manufacturers of home appliances are quickly beginning to place hardware that enables Internet connectivity in home appliances to allow for remote control, automation, communication with other home appliances, and more functionality enabling connected cooking. Internet-connected home appliances were especially prevalent during recent Consumer Electronic Show events.\n\nSection::::Recycling.\n", "Small appliances are typically small household electrical machines, also very useful and easily carried and installed. Yet another category is used in the kitchen, including: juicers, electric mixers, meat grinders, coffee grinders, deep fryers, herb grinders, food processors, electric kettles, waffle irons, coffee makers, blenders and dough blenders, rice cookers, toasters and exhaust hoods.\n", "Small appliances can be very inexpensive, such as an electric can opener, hot pot, toaster, or coffee maker which may cost only a few U.S. dollars, or very expensive, such as an elaborate espresso maker, which may cost several thousand U.S. dollars. Most homes in developed economies contain several cheaper home appliances, with perhaps a few more expensive appliances, such as a high-end microwave oven or mixer.\n\nSection::::Powering.\n", "BULLET::::- Microwave oven\n\nBULLET::::- Mobile charger\n\nBULLET::::- Mousetrap\n\nBULLET::::- MP3 player\n\nBULLET::::- Nightlight\n\nBULLET::::- Oil heater\n\nBULLET::::- Oven\n\nBULLET::::- Patio heater\n\nBULLET::::- Paper shredder\n\nBULLET::::- Radiator (heating)\n\nBULLET::::- Radio receiver\n\nBULLET::::- Refrigerator\n\nBULLET::::- Internet refrigerator\n\nBULLET::::- Thermal mass refrigerator\n\nBULLET::::- Sewing machine\n\nBULLET::::- Space heater\n\nBULLET::::- Steam mop\n\nBULLET::::- Stove\n\nBULLET::::- Sump pump\n\nBULLET::::- Telephone\n\nBULLET::::- Television\n\nBULLET::::- Tie press\n\nBULLET::::- Toaster and toaster ovens\n\nBULLET::::- Trouser press\n\nBULLET::::- Vacuum cleaner\n\nBULLET::::- Manual vacuum cleaner\n\nBULLET::::- Robotic vacuum cleaner\n\nBULLET::::- Washing machine\n\nBULLET::::- Water cooker\n\nBULLET::::- Water purifier\n\nBULLET::::- Water heater\n\nBULLET::::- Solar water heater\n\nBULLET::::- Window fan\n", "But after new mandatory Federal Standards were introduced, many US washers were manufactured to be more energy- and water-efficient than required by the federal standard, or even certified by the more stringent Energy Star standard. Manufacturers were found to be motivated to exceed mandatory standards by a program of direct-to-manufacturer tax credits.\n\nIn North America, the Energy Star program compares and lists energy efficient clothes washers. Certified Energy Star units can be compared by their Modified Energy Factor (MEF) and Water Factor (WF) coefficients.\n", "Since major appliances in a home consume a significant amount of energy, they have become the objectives of programs to improve their energy efficiency in many countries. Energy efficiency improvements may require changes in construction of the appliances, or improved control systems.\n\nSection::::Brands.\n", "Aside from the early wringer/washer machine of the mid-19th century, washing and drying machines were not combined until the fully electronic versions of the machines were better perfected in the latter half of the 20th century. Shortly after the very first completely automatic clothes washer was developed by Bendix Home Appliances in 1937, the same company also invented the first washer dryer combination unit in 1953. Throughout the years, washing machines, drying machines, and combo machines alike have received numerous improvements in technology, making for better functionality, effectiveness, and efficiency. Today, washer dryer combination units have many of the features that would be found on a typical washer and dryer. While these units are far more popular in Europe and some countries in the East, they are gaining popularity in the United States as a practical and functional laundry solution.\n", "The many different ways different manufacturers have solved the same problem over the years is a good example of many different ways to solve the same engineering problem with different goals, different manufacturing capabilities and expertise, and different patent encumbrances.\n\nSection::::Types.:Top-loading.:Reversible motor.\n", "In the 1990s, the appliance industry was very consolidated, with over 90% of the products being sold by just five companies. For example, in 1991, dishwasher manufacturing market share was split between General Electric with 40% market share, Whirlpool with 31% market share, Electrolux with 20% market share, Maytag with 7% market share and Thermador with just 2% of market share.\n\nSection::::Major appliances.\n", "The amount a combo washer dryer unit can hold varies depending on the type of unit. Most hold a slightly smaller amount compared to full size machines. LG makes the only full size washer dryer combos available in the US. Like the equivalent difference between washers and dryers, the washing capacity is greater than the drying capacity on most combo units. Airflow through the drum is a necessary part of clothes drying, so the difference is greater (these units can generally dry only 1/2 to 3/4 of their maximum wash capacity).\n\nSection::::Heat pump combo.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "All US households have a washing machine and dryer as two separate appliances." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "US households can have a combined washer-drier unit or separate units." ]
2018-07358	How did/do people train messenger or carrier pidgeons????	They fly back home by themselves, however, you cannot train them to fly anywhere else. They were usually transported in a cage to the sender location.	[ "By the 12th century, messenger pigeons were used in Baghdad. Naval chaplain Henry Teonge (c. 1620–1690) describes in his diary a regular pigeon postal service being used by merchants between İskenderun and Aleppo in the Levant. The Mughals also used messenger pigeons. \n", "Henry Clark Pidgeon\n\nSection::::Life.\n\nPigeon practised as an artist and teacher of drawing in London. In 1847 he moved to Liverpool, where he was professor of the school of drawing at the Liverpool Institute, gave private lessons, and drew local scenes and antiquities. He became a member of the Liverpool Academy of Arts in 1847, and was its secretary in 1850. He was a non-resident member from then to the reconstruction of the academy in 1865.\n", "Because of this skill, messenger pigeons were used to carry messages as messenger pigeons. They are usually referred to as \"pigeon post\" if used in post service, or \"war pigeon\" during wars.\n\nMessenger pigeons are often incorrectly categorized as English Carrier pigeons, a breed of fancy pigeons selectively-bred for its distinctively rounded hard wattle. The purpose of using them was to send messages or mails.\n\nSection::::Sexual dimorphism.\n", "Although homing pigeons had long been used to send messages (an activity known as pigeon mail), the first mail to be carried by an air vehicle was on January 7, 1785, on a hot air balloon flight from Dover to France near Calais. It was flown by Jean-Pierre Blanchard and John Jeffries. The letter was written by an American Loyalist William Franklin to his son William Temple Franklin who was serving in a diplomatic role in Paris with his grandfather Benjamin Franklin.\n", "The use of homing pigeons to carry messages is as old as the ancient Persians from whom the art of training the birds probably came. The Greeks conveyed the names of Olympic victors to their various cities by this means. Before the telegraph this method of communication had a considerable vogue amongst stockbrokers and financiers. The Dutch government established a civil and military system in Java and Sumatra early in the last century, the birds being obtained from Baghdad. Details of the employment of pigeons during the siege of Paris in 1870–71 France led to a revival in the training of pigeons for military purposes.\n", "Messenger pigeons were used as early as 1150 in Baghdad and also later by Genghis Khan. By 1167 a regular service between Baghdad and Syria had been established by Sultan Nur ad-Din. In Damietta, by the mouth of the Nile, the Spanish traveller Pedro Tafur saw carrier pigeons for the first time, in 1436, though he imagined that the birds made round trips, out and back. The Republic of Genoa equipped their system of watch towers in the Mediterranean Sea with pigeon posts. Tipu Sultan of Mysore (1750–1799) also used messenger on pigeons; they returned to the Jamia Masjid mosque in Srirangapatna, which was his headquarters. The pigeon holes may be seen in the mosque's minarets to this day.\n", "The undertail covert feathers taken from adjutant were exported to London during the height of the plume trade under the name of Commercolly (or Kumarkhali, now in Bangladesh) or \"marabout\". Specimens of tippets, victorines and boas made from these feathers were displayed at the Great Exhibition of 1851.\n", "Another important postal service was created in the Islamic world by the \"caliph\" Mu'awiyya; the service was called \"barid\", for the name of the towers built to protect the roads by which couriers traveled.\n\nWell before the Middle Ages and during them, homing pigeons were used for pigeon post, taking advantage of a singular quality of this bird, which when taken far from its nest is able to find its way home due to a particularly developed sense of orientation. Messages were then tied around the legs of the pigeon, which was freed and could reach its original nest.\n", "Numerous societies were established for keeping pigeons of this class in all important European countries; and, in time, various governments established systems of communication for military purposes by pigeon post. When the possibility of using the birds between military fortresses had been thoroughly tested attention was turned to their use for naval purposes, to send messages from the coast to ships at sea.\n", "Before the advent of radio, carrier pigeons were frequently used on the battlefield as a means for a mobile force to communicate with a stationary headquarters. In the 6th century BC, Cyrus, king of Persia, used carrier pigeons to communicate with various parts of his empire. In Ancient Rome, within many texts, there are references to pigeons being used to send messages by Julius Caesar .\n", "In May 1788 Sir Thomas Benger imported Messenger to Pennsylvania. In 1793, Messenger was sold to Henry Astor. Messenger was once advertised in a Philadelphia newspaper as: \"Available for service: Inquiries to be made to a certain Alexander Clay at the sign of the Black Horse in Market Street\".\n\nSection::::Offspring and Legacy.\n", "Pitcairn Mailwing\n\nThe Pitcairn Mailwing family was a series of mail carrier and sport aircraft produced in the U.S. from 1927 to 1931.\n\nSection::::Design and development.\n\nThe Pitcairn Mailwings were developed by Pitcairn to carry air mail for the U.S. Postal Service. Of simple and robust construction, they also had relatively benign flying characteristics.\n", "During the establishment of formal pigeon post services, the registration of all birds was introduced. At the same time, in order to hinder the efficiency of the systems of foreign countries, difficulties were placed in the way of the importation of their birds for training, and in a few cases falcons were specially trained to interrupt the service war-time, the Germans having set the example by employing hawks against the Paris pigeons in 1870–71. No satisfactory method of protecting the weaker birds seems to have been developed, though the Chinese formerly provided their pigeons with whistles and bells to scare away birds of prey. \n", "Five distinct issues showing the running messenger were made. Beginning in 1902 and continuing for 20 years, Special Delivery messengers were issued bicycles to deliver the mail and correspondingly a stamp was issued that year which depicted a messenger riding a bicycle and delivering the mail.\n", "The 1955 book \"Bird Navigation\" describes efforts at training homing behavior in species other than pigeons. \"Bird Navigation\" mentions Desbouvrie as an early experimenter, and also a passage from Pliny the Elder in which \"Caecina of Volterra\" (possibly Caecina Paetus) used painted swallows to report the colors of winning horses in a race. It is uncertain whether Desbouvrie was aware of the Pliny's report.\n", "Before the telegraph, this method of communication had a considerable vogue amongst stockbrokers and financiers. The Dutch government established a civil and military system in Java and Sumatra early in the 19th century, the birds being obtained from Baghdad. In 1851, the German-born Paul Julius Reuter opened an office in the City of London which transmitted stock market quotations between London and Paris via the new Calais to Dover cable. Reuter had previously used pigeons to fly stock prices between Aachen and Brussels, a service that operated for a year until a gap in the telegraph link was closed.\n", "BULLET::::- Lucy M Blanchard, \"Chico, the Story of a Homing Pigeon in the Great War\", Diggory Press,\n", "My father Sgt Halsey was in-charge of the National Pigeon Service lofts on Thorney Island during WWII. He supervised a group of men in the running of the lofts and training of pigeons for all types of special missions. He received Gustav as an 8 week old pigeon that was donated to the Pigeon Service by his good friend Fred Jackson. Gustav was trained by my father and was named after his Corporal and good friend, a Canadian, \"Gus Randell\". \n", "Section::::Roles.:Wartime communication.\n\nBirds were used extensively during World War I. One homing pigeon, Cher Ami, was awarded the French Croix de guerre for her heroic service in delivering 12 important messages, despite having been very badly injured.\n", "Commercial free-flight rubber-band powered toy ornithopters have long been available. The first of these was sold under the name \"Tim Bird\" in Paris in 1879. Later models were also sold as Tim Bird (made by G de Ruymbeke, France, since 1969).\n", "During World War I and World War II, carrier pigeons were used to transport messages back to their home coop behind the lines. When they landed, wires in the coop would sound a bell or buzzer and a soldier of the Signal Corps would know a message had arrived. He would go to the coop, remove the message from the canister, and send it to its destination by telegraph, field phone, or personal messenger.\n", "In the past, mail-carrying aircraft had to carry a special official emblem on the fuselages; in case of British-registered aircraft, a special \"Royal Air Mail pennant\" (a blue triangular flag with a crowned bugle emblem in yellow and the letters \"ROYAL AIR MAIL\" in white) would sometimes be flown as well.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nThe sport of flying messenger pigeons was well-established as early as 3000 years ago. They were used to proclaim the winner of the Ancient Olympics.\n", "The stallion retired to stud at his place of foaling, Brownstown, beginning his breeding career as a five-year-old in 1838. Birdcatcher's first crop of foals did well, and he was moved to Barrow's Paddock in Newmarket for 1846 and 1847, before he was leased for 1848 and 1849 to Easby Abbey in Yorkshire. The stallion then returned home to Brownstown for 1850, and was sent back to England for the 1852 season, and returned home to Ireland for the 1859 season.\n", "Topus was born in Brooklyn, New York on March 15, 1924. He grew up in Flatbush where he fell in love with pigeons at an early age and befriended several local pigeon handlers who taught him to handle the birds. In 1942 he enlisted in the United States Army Signal Corps as a pigeoneer. He was stationed at Camp Ritchie in Maryland - one of several camps where birds were raised and trained for use as messengers. He taught other soldiers how to train and care for carrier pigeons, how to fasten on the tiny capsules containing messages written on lightweight paper, to drop pigeons from airplanes; and to jump out of airplanes themselves, with pigeons tucked against their chests.\n" ]	[ "Carrier pigeons are trained to fly places other than home. ", "People train messenger or carrier pigeons." ]	[ "Carrier pigeons only fly home and are not trained to fly other places. ", "Messenger or carrier pigeons instinctively fly home from where they are released, but they cannot be trained to fly to specific locations." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Carrier pigeons are trained to fly places other than home. ", "People train messenger or carrier pigeons." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Carrier pigeons only fly home and are not trained to fly other places. ", "Messenger or carrier pigeons instinctively fly home from where they are released, but they cannot be trained to fly to specific locations." ]
2018-01200	Why is a super blue blood moon so rare and why are the time between them so different.	Its a combination of obscure factors that need to sync up. A super moon is when the moon is full or close to and at its closest point. There are 3-4 full moons per year that would qualify for this A blue moon is the second full moon within a calendar month, since the moon's cycle is 29.5 days its pretty unlikely to get 2 full moons in a month so it occurs every 2.7 years A blood moon is the moon during a lunar eclipse, there are two of those a year. In order to get a super blue blood moon you need all of these events to sync up and with all their different periods it takes a long time between successive events.	[ "The following blue moons occur between 2009 and 2021. These dates use UTC as the timezone; exact dates vary with different timezones.\n\nSection::::Blue moons between 2009 and 2021.:Seasonal.\n\nUsing the \"Maine Farmers' Almanac\" definition of blue moon (meaning the third full moon in a season of four full moons, but referenced to astronomical rather than equal seasons), blue moons have occurred or will occur on:\n\nBULLET::::- November 21, 2010\n\nBULLET::::- August 20, 2013\n\nBULLET::::- May 21, 2016\n\nBULLET::::- May 18, 2019\n\nBULLET::::- August 22, 2021\n\nSection::::Blue moons between 2009 and 2021.:Calendar.\n", "BULLET::::- The frequency of a blue moon can be calculated as follows. It is the period of time it would take for an extra synodic orbit of the moon to occur in a year. Given that a year is approximately 365.2425 days and a synodic orbit is 29.5309 days, then there are about 12.368 synodic months in a year. For this to add up to another full month would take 1/0.368 years. Thus it would take about 2.716 years, or 2 years, 8 months and 18 days for another blue moon to occur.\n", "The key to a blue moon is having lots of particles slightly wider than the wavelength of red light (0.7 micrometer)—and no other sizes present. It is rare, but volcanoes sometimes produce such clouds, as do forest fires. Ash and dust clouds thrown into the atmosphere by fires and storms usually contain a mixture of particles with a wide range of sizes, with most smaller than 1 micrometer, and they tend to scatter blue light. This kind of cloud makes the moon turn red; thus red moons are far more common than blue moons.\n\nSection::::Blue moons between 2009 and 2021.\n", "Owing to the rarity of a blue moon, the term \"blue moon\" is used colloquially to mean a rare event, as in the phrase \"once in a blue moon\".\n", "As this supermoon was also a blue moon (the second full moon in a calendar month), it was referred to as a \"super blue blood moon\"; \"blood\" refers to the typical red color of the Moon during a total lunar eclipse. This coincidence last occurred on December 30, 1982 for the eastern hemisphere, and otherwise before that on March 31, 1866. The next occurrence will be on January 31, 2037, one metonic cycle (19 years) later.\n\nSection::::Background.\n", "Unlike the astronomical seasonal definition, these dates are dependent on the Gregorian calendar and time zones.\n\nTwo full moons in one month (the second of which is a \"blue moon\"):\n\nBULLET::::- 2009: December 2 and 31 (partial lunar eclipse visible in some parts of the world), only in time zones west of UTC+05.\n\nBULLET::::- 2010: January 1 (partial lunar eclipse) and 30, only in time zones east of .\n\nBULLET::::- 2010: March 1 and 30, only in time zones east of UTC+07.\n\nBULLET::::- 2012: August 2 and 31, only in time zones west of UTC+10.\n", "BULLET::::- 2012: September 1 and 30, only in time zones east of .\n\nBULLET::::- 2015: July 2 and 31.\n\nBULLET::::- 2018: January 2 and 31, only in time zones west of UTC+11.\n\nBULLET::::- 2018: March 2 and 31, only in time zones west of UTC+12.\n\nBULLET::::- 2020: October 1 and 31, only in time zones west of UTC+10.\n", "In the 1998 paranormal romance fiction novel by Laurell K. Hamilton of the same name, \"Blue Moon\" refers to two full moons occurring within the same month. In the 2009 young adult fiction novel by Alyson Noël of the same name, \"Blue Moon\" refers to two full moons occurring within the same month and the same astrological sign. Note that if two full moons fall within the same astrological sign they will fall in different calendar months, and \"vice versa\". In the novels of Simon R. Green the blue moon plays a significant magical role, and also figures in titles of three of his novels: \"Blue Moon Rising\", \"Beyond the Blue Moon\", and \"Once in a Blue Moon\", all of the Hawk & Fisher fantasy series.\n", "The next time New Year's Eve falls on a Blue Moon (as occurred on December 31, 2009 in time zones west of UTC+05) is after one Metonic cycle, in 2028 in time zones west of UTC+08. At that time there will be a total lunar eclipse.\n\nSection::::Popular culture.\n\nBlue moons have been referenced in popular culture.\n\nSection::::Popular culture.:Music.\n", "Section::::Legacy.\n", "BULLET::::- Duncan Mackenzie, son of Robert and Alyssa, father to Rachel and Denny and CEO of Mackenzie Metals\n\nBULLET::::- Denny Mackenzie, son of Duncan and Apollonaire\n\nBULLET::::- Bryce Mackenzie, Robert's son and Head of Finance of Mackenzie Metals\n\nBULLET::::- Jade Sun, second wife of Robert Mackenzie\n\nBULLET::::- Hadley Mackenzie, son of Robert and Jade\n\nBULLET::::- Analiese Mackenzie, Wagner's lover\n\nBULLET::::- Jorge Nardes, musician and Lucas' lover\n\nBULLET::::- Grigori Vorontsov, one of Lucasinho's classmates and male lovers\n\nBULLET::::- Kojo Asamoah, one of Lucasinho's classmates and male lovers\n\nBULLET::::- Abena Asamoah, Kojo's sister and the object of Lucasinho's desire\n", "The \"Lunar\" stories take place on an inhabitable moon called Lunar, or \"The Silver Star,\" that orbits a planet known as \"The Blue Star.\" Thousands of years ago, the Blue Star was infected with evil by a dark god named Zophar. His evil corrupted the hearts of people, turning some into monsters to do his bidding. The survivors cried out to the patron-deity of the Blue Star, a Goddess named Althena, for help. She confronted Zophar in an epic battle, and was only able to stop him by using her powers of creation to seal him in another dimension, destroying nearly all life on the planet in the process.\n", "Section::::Popular culture.:Video Games.\n\nBlue moon is the name of a country in Nintendo's Advance Wars series.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Black moon\n\nBULLET::::- Blood moon\n\nBULLET::::- Wet moon\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Information about the August 2012 Blue Moon\n\nBULLET::::- \"Folklore of the Blue Moon\" by Philip Hiscock\n\nBULLET::::- \"What's a Blue Moon?\" by Donald W. Olson, Richard T. Fienberg, and Roger W. Sinnott, \"Sky & Telescope\". Article explaining that originally a blue moon meant the 3rd full moon in a season of 4 full moons, and how the \"2nd in a month\" error began.\n", "The full moon of 31 January 2018 was the second full moon that calendar month (in most time zones), making it, under one definition of the term, a \"blue moon\". \n\nAdditionally referencing the orange or red \"blood\" colors that occur during a lunar eclipse, media sources described the event as a \"super blue blood Moon\".\n\nSection::::Characteristics.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Visibility.\n", "Section::::Plot.\n\nSection::::Plot.:Characters.\n\nThe character of \"Lunar; Eternal Blue\" were designed by artist and \"Lunar\" veteran Toshiyuki Kubooka.\n\nBULLET::::- Hiro – a young man and would-be explorer who is skilled with a sword and boomerangs\n\nBULLET::::- Ruby – a pink, winged cat-like creature with a crush on Hiro who claims to be a baby red dragon\n\nBULLET::::- Gwyn – Hiro's adoptive grandfather, and an archaeologist\n\nBULLET::::- Lucia – a mysterious and soft-spoken girl from the Blue Star who is skilled with magic and mostly naive of the world's customs\n\nBULLET::::- Ronfar – a priest-turned-gambler with healing skills\n", "BULLET::::- The \"Maine Farmers' Almanac\" called the third full moon in a season that had four the \"blue moon\".\n", "One lunation (an average lunar cycle) is 29.53 days. There are about 365.24 days in a tropical year. Therefore, about 12.37 lunations (365.24 days divided by 29.53 days) occur in a tropical year. In the widely used Gregorian calendar, there are 12 months (the word \"month\" is derived from \"moon\") in a year, and normally there is one full moon each month. Each calendar year contains roughly 11 days more than the number of days in 12 lunar cycles. The extra days accumulate, so every two or three years (seven times in the 19-year Metonic cycle), there is an extra full moon. The extra full moon necessarily falls in one of the four seasons, giving that season four full moons instead of the usual three, and, hence, a blue moon.\n", "Section::::Audio.\n", "BULLET::::- Ariel Corta, Lucas' sister, a lawyer in the Court of Clavius\n\nBULLET::::- Robson Corta, Rafa Corta's young son by Rachel Mackenzie\n\nBULLET::::- Robert Mackenzie, centegenarian Mackenzie patriarch and founder of Mackenzie Metals\n\nBULLET::::- Duncan Mackenzie, son of Robert and Alyssa, father to Rachel and Denny, and CEO of Mackenzie Metals\n\nBULLET::::- Adrian Mackenzie, eldest son of Duncan Mackenzie and Apollonaire Vorontsov, husband to Jonathan Kayode\n\nBULLET::::- Denny Mackenzie, son of Duncan and Apollonaire\n\nBULLET::::- Bryce Mackenzie, Robert's son and Head of Finance of Mackenzie Metals\n\nBULLET::::- Jade Sun, Robert's second wife, elder sister of Amanda Sun\n", "To compare, in 1983 the equal seasons began at 1.48 AM on 23 March, 9.15 AM on 22 June, 4.42 PM on 21 September and 12.10 AM on 22 December, while the astronomical seasons began at 4.39 AM on 21 March, 11.09 PM on 21 June, 2.42 PM on 23 September and 10.30 AM on 22 December (all times GMT). When a season has four full moons the third is called the \"blue moon\" so that the last can continue to be called with the proper name for that season.\n\nSection::::\"Maine Farmers' Almanac\" blue moons.:\"Sky and Telescope\" calendar misinterpretation.\n", "The most literal meaning of \"blue moon\" is when the moon (not necessarily a full moon) appears to a casual observer to be unusually bluish, which is a rare event. The effect can be caused by smoke or dust particles in the atmosphere, as has happened after forest fires in Sweden and Canada in 1950 and 1951, and after the eruption of Krakatoa in 1883, which caused the moon to appear blue for nearly two years. Other less potent volcanoes have also turned the moon blue. People saw blue moons in 1983 after the eruption of the El Chichón volcano in Mexico, and there are reports of blue moons caused by Mount St. Helens in 1980 and Mount Pinatubo in 1991. In the Antarctic diary of Robert Falcon Scott for July 11, 1911 his entry says, \"... the air thick with snow, and the moon a vague blue\". On that date the moon phase would have looked full.\n", "BULLET::::- Using the common Sky & Telescope misunderstanding, when one calendar month has two full moons; the second one is called a \"blue moon\". On rare occasions in a calendar year (as happened in 2010 in time zones east of UTC+07), both January and March each have two full moons, so that the second one in each month is called a \"blue moon\"; in this case, the month of February, with only 28 or 29 days, has no full moon. Under this misinterpretation a blue moon can be more frequent.\n\nSection::::Origin of the term.\n", "Mahiru begins to have recurring dreams of a demon, and these dreams soon lead to her becoming entangled with the \"Lunar Race\" — a collection of creatures of folklore such as vampires, werewolves, kitsune, and tengu. These creatures' powers are related to the phase of the moon, strongest when the moon is full and weakest when it is new.\n", "Once in a Blue Moon\n\nOnce in a Blue Moon may refer to:\n\nSection::::Books.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Once in a Blue Moon\" (comics), a 2004 graphic novel by Nunzio DeFilippis and Christina Weir\n\nBULLET::::- \"Once in a Blue Moon\" (stories), a 2003 story collection by Magnus Mills\n\nSection::::Film and television.\n\nSection::::Film and television.:Film.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Once in a Blue Moon\" (1936 film), an American film directed by Ben Hecht\n\nBULLET::::- \"Once in a Blue Moon\" (1995 film), a Canadian film starring Simon R. Baker\n", "Primary supporting characters include the servants of the Goddess Althena, the creator of Lunar thought to have vanished centuries ago who suddenly appeared in mortal form to lead her people. \n\nBULLET::::- Borgan – an obese, self-absorbed magician with his eyes on the seat of power in the magic guild\n\nBULLET::::- Lunn – a martial artist and Jean's former instructor\n\nBULLET::::- Mauri – Leo's sister and Ronfar's love interest.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-05060	How do games run out of memory? I know that Pac Man reaches the kill screen when one half of the board runs out of memory,but how does it happen??	The kill screen in pacman doesn't occur because it runs out of memory, it happens because of an integer overflow. The game keeps the current level stored as a single byte integer. A byte can hold a number between 0 and 255. When it passes level 255 is increments this counter, but instead of reaching 256 it rolls back to 0 - that's what the "overflow" means. The game code however doesn't know how to handle "level 0" (the code assumes the level number is 1 or larger) which causes it to malfunction. A more in-depth explanation can be found here: URL_0	[ "If you use 6502 to: load register x with the x coordinate, load register y with the y coordinate, load accumulator with a color, and then call \"Draw line\", you have used up 9 bytes. If there are a total of 1000 such lines in all game images, then that would be 9K gone. The actual memory used for a draw command in the game is 2 bytes.\n", "The gameplay for \"World’s Biggest Pac-Man\" is similar to classic \"Pac-Man\", but with a few differences. As before, the goal is to eat all of the dots and power pellets in the maze without being caught by the ghosts roaming through it. The number of power pellets is not fixed at four, but is rather determined by the user who created that particular maze. In addition, there are no tunnels; instead, doorways at each edge of the screen allow Pac-Man to travel to an adjacent maze, with a new arrangement of dots and obstacles. Every maze has a fresh set of four ghosts, but they do not use the doorways. The player can move to a new maze without clearing the current one, and can return to an unfinished maze at a later time. The game continues until the player runs out of lives.\n", "The player must navigate a series of mazes with Ms. Pac-Man. Along the way, she encounters such obstacles as moving blocks, exploding boxes, and locked doors. To help her, there is 'Pac-Dot Radar' to locate missing dots the player will need before being allowed to reach the next section of a level. Placed about the maze are such devices as spring tiles (to jump over the walls of the maze, and sometimes on top of them); switches, keys, hearts to regain her health, and 'Power Pellets' used to allow Ms. Pac-Man to eat all the enemies in the area for a limited time.\n", "The bug is caused by the calculation of the number of fruit to draw rolling over to zero. The code attempts to draw 256 fruit–236 more than it was designed for–resulting in the maze being corrupted. The tilemap that holds the fruits is 20 elements long and is arranged into three cases. Case A handles levels less than seven. Case B handles levels 8–19 and Case C handles level 19 and above. When the game reaches level 256, the level counter overflows back to 0 and thus, level 256 is treated as level 0. The game executes Case A rather than Case C because the level number is less than seven. The algorithm that draws the fruits continues to draw fruit till the fruit number and the level number match. Upon reaching fruit number 255, the fruit number overflows back to 0 (matching the level number) and 256 \"fruit\" have been drawn. The game draws the first 13 fruit with no issues, but upon reaching fruit number 14, it begins to draw fruit on the right side of the map. Once the game reaches the 20th entry in the fruit table, the game can no longer draw any more fruit, but there are still 236 fruit it needs to draw and, thus, the game begins to draw pieces of the tile map onto the screen to substitute the 236 extra fruit. Pac-Man can move through most of the pieces, but some of them act like walls. Once all 256 fruit are drawn, the game draws 7 extra blank spaces after the final fruit. The level is impossible to beat using only one game, as the player needs to eat 244 dots to move to the next level. Most of the dots have been overwritten by the tilemap. There are nine dots hidden within the glitch screen that re-spawn when the player dies, but with a maximum of five extra lives, this limits the number of dots to 168; however, if a player is able to \"continue\", the re-spawned dots can be eaten until the level is beaten. If level \"0\" is beaten, the player is returned to level 1, with the ghosts' difficulty set to very high (thus no Ghost Blue Time). There are also two broken keys at the bottom of the screen, one under the live counter and one under the level counter, which disappear if the round is beaten.\n", "In some games such as \"Asteroids\" there is no boundary and objects can travel over any part of the screen edge and reappear on the other side. Others such as \"Pac-Man\", \"Wizard of Wor\", and some games in the \"Bomberman\" series, have a boundary surrounding most of the playing area but have few paths connecting the left side to the right, or the top to the bottom, that characters can travel on.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- Ghost Tag: All players play as ghosts. A Ms. Pac-Man icon will appear that allows you to turn into Ms. Pac-Man when you get it. Once you are Ms. Pac-Man eat Pac-Dots as fast as you can avoiding the other three ghosts. If you get touched by one of the three ghosts you are returned to your starting corner (though without losing any Pac-Dots) and the player who touched you becomes Ms. Pac-Man. As the ghost again go touch Ms. Pac-Man to change back. First to hold 50 Pac-Dots wins.\n", "\"Tetris Screwed\" (2004) is based upon \"Tetris\"; modified to play at a very slow speed, where it takes about 8 hours for the blocks to fall in one complete game. The blocks can still be moved from left to right, but takes minutes for the blocks to fall pixel by pixel. \"Tetris Screwed\" is a binary hack, where the constant delay loop was written by hand in 6502 binary.\n\nSection::::Works.:\"Super Mario Movie\".\n", "BULLET::::- Season 1 Episode 8: \"Game On\" (2013) – Sanjay and Craig's favorite video game disappears at the Frycade.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Seinfeld\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Season 9 Episode 18: The Frogger\" (1998) - At Mario's Pizza Parlor, George Costanza discovers he still has the high score on the old \"Frogger\" video game he played in high school, with a score of 860,630 points. He decides to buy the \"Frogger\" machine to preserve his fame, but Jerry asks him how he is going to move it and keep it plugged in to preserve the high score.\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Simpsons\"\n", "In an episode of the TV series \"Seinfeld\", George is astonished to find that the \"Frogger\" machine he played as a teen still retains his high score. With the owners wanting to get rid of it, George decides to keep the machine for posterity, the catch being that he has to move the game without unplugging it, because if he unplugs the game the high score will be erased. Unfortunately, the machine is destroyed when he unsuccessfully tries to move it across the street in a spoof of the gameplay.\n", "The mazes are now two times the width of the monitor and scroll horizontally. A total of seven mazes appear throughout the game, and five of them have six energizers instead of four, but none of them have tunnels that wrap around from one side of the screen to the other. As in the previous games, bonus items (such as tricycles, kites, and balloons) appear in each round, starting above the ghost regenerator and moving around the maze-like in \"Ms. Pac-Man\". As an item encounters dots, it changes them into larger dots that are worth 50 points instead of 10, but also slow Jr. Pac-Man down as he is eating them. If an item has been out for long enough and then encounters an energizer, it will self-destruct, taking the energizer with it. If Jr. Pac-Man should die, all larger dots will disappear from the maze, except if there are only a few left—those revert to their original smaller size.\n", "BULLET::::- Instead of appearing in the center of the maze, the fruits bounce randomly around the maze, entering and (if not eaten) leaving through the warp tunnels. Once all fruits have been encountered, they appear in random sequence for the rest of the game, starting on the eighth round; a 5000-point banana can be followed by a 100-point pair of cherries.\n\nBULLET::::- The orange monster is called Sue, rather than Clyde; her color was later changed to purple in \"Pac-Land\" to differentiate her.\n", "Continuing the game, the player would discover a \"piece of memory\", which not only increases scales of the said gauge by one, but also might be a clue to find her further memory. When all of B.D.'s memories are lifted, the game would be accomplished.\n\nSection::::Plot.\n", "BULLET::::- The game has four different mazes that appear in different color schemes, and alternate after each of the game's intermissions are seen. The pink maze appears in levels 1 & 2, the light blue maze appears in levels 3, 4, & 5, the brown maze appears in levels 6 through 9, and the dark blue maze appears in levels 10 through 14. After level 14, the maze configurations alternate every 4th level.\n\nBULLET::::- Three of the four mazes (the first, second, and fourth ones) have two sets of warp tunnels, as opposed to only one in the original maze.\n", "Section::::Gameplay.\n", "Section::::Gameplay.:Level 256.\n\n\"Pac-Man\" was not designed to have an ending. However, at level 256, a bug corrupts the entire right half of the maze with seemingly random symbols and tiles, overwriting the values of edible dots, which makes it impossible to eat enough dots to complete the level. Serving as effectively the final level, it is known as \"the split screen\".\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mega Man series\": Weapons are earned from the Robot Masters/Mavericks upon defeating them. The weapons are kept until the game is turned off (unless a password is used which can bring the player back to a point after the weapon was acquired) or when the game is completed.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Donkey Kong\": The hammer that Mario (Jumpman) can use to destroy barrels and fireballs.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pac-Man\": Power pellets can be picked up by Pac-Man, allowing him to attack ghosts. This also makes Pac-Man temporarily invulnerable.\n", "If a memory card is present, the players are allowed to save their progress and resume into the last stage the game saved at.\n\nSection::::Plot.\n", "BULLET::::- The codice_31 instruction on line 4 has a WAW dependence on the codice_34 instruction on line 2 since both stores write to the same memory address.\n\nSection::::Memory disambiguation mechanisms.\n\nModern microprocessors use the following mechanisms, implemented in hardware, to resolve ambiguous dependences and recover when a dependence was violated.\n\nSection::::Memory disambiguation mechanisms.:Avoiding WAR and WAW dependencies.\n", "When a page is found in Windy World, the player can jump onto it, where Bart will shrink down on the page, and the player has to choose one out of a selection of two randomly chosen mini-games. The player must point Bart to one of the two color-coded doors to play a mini-game and retrieve a lost page of Bart's homework. The doors and games are:\n", "Section::::Excavation.\n", "Section::::Expertise.:Choking under pressure.\n", "The gameplay of \"Jr. Pac-Man\" is very similar to that of its predecessors: The player controls the eponymous Jr. Pac-Man (who wears an animated propeller beanie), and scores points by eating all of the dots in the maze, while four ghosts chase him around the maze and attempt to kill him. The player can eat an energizer to turn the ghosts blue, making them vulnerable for a short period of time, and allowing the player to eat them for extra points. Once the maze is cleared, a new maze is presented and the gameplay continues.\n", "BULLET::::- \"\": infantry do pushups when left idle for a short period.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Commander Keen in Goodbye, Galaxy\": Keen becomes impatient, tapping his foot then sitting down to read a book. There is also an easter egg: the first time Keen becomes idle when standing on one of the moon symbols in the Pyramid of the Moons, instead of the above sequence he \"moons\" the player.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Crash Bandicoot\": Crash sometimes plays with a Wumpa fruit or a yo-yo.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Donkey Kong Country Returns\": Donkey Kong sits down and plays on the Nintendo DS.\n", "Section::::Canon policy.\n", "On later cartridge-based console games, such as \"Kirby's Adventure\" and \"The Legend of Zelda\", saved games were stored in battery-backed RAM on the game cartridge itself. In recent consoles, which use disc-based media for storing games, saved games are stored in other ways, such as by use of memory cards or internal hard drives on the game machine itself.\n\nSome games do not save the player's progress towards completing the game, but rather high scores, custom settings, and other features. The first game to save the player's score was Taito's seminal 1978 shoot 'em up title \"Space Invaders\".\n" ]	[ "Pac man kill screen is because it runs out of memory." ]	[ "Pac man kill screen is an integer overflow error." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Pac man kill screen is because it runs out of memory." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Pac man kill screen is an integer overflow error." ]
2018-00850	Even if gold price reduces or increases how do gold dealers keep their profit even if what they buy in or sell out is reasonably a "loss?"	Your premise is false. They buy for less than the full market price, and they try to sell for the full market price. If the price goes up in the meantime, they make extra profit. If the price goes down in the meantime, they make less profit, or even lose some money.	[ "The price of gold bullion is volatile, but unhedged gold shares and funds are regarded as even higher risk and even more volatile. This additional volatility is due to the inherent leverage in the mining sector. For example, if one owns a share in a gold mine where the costs of production are $300 per ounce and the price of gold is $600, the mine's profit margin will be $300. A 10% increase in the gold price to $660 per ounce will push that margin up to $360, which represents a 20% increase in the mine's profitability, and possibly a 20% increase in the share price. Furthermore, at higher prices, more ounces of gold become economically viable to mine, enabling companies to add to their production. Conversely, share movements also amplify falls in the gold price. For example, a 10% fall in the gold price to $540 will decrease that margin to $240, which represents a 20% fall in the mine's profitability, and possibly a 20% decrease in the share price.\n", "Typically a commission of 0.4% is charged for trading in gold ETFs and an annual storage fee is charged. U.S. based transactions are a notable exception, where most brokers charge only a small fraction of this commission rate. The annual expenses of the fund such as storage, insurance, and management fees are charged by selling a small amount of gold represented by each share, so the amount of gold in each share will gradually decline over time. All gold ETFs in the United States have an annual expense ratio between .25% and .4%. In some countries, gold ETFs represent a way to avoid the sales tax or the VAT which would apply to physical gold coins and bars.\n", "As of 2009 holders of COMEX gold futures have experienced problems taking delivery of their metal. Along with chronic delivery delays, some investors have received delivery of bars not matching their contract in serial number and weight. The delays cannot be easily explained by slow warehouse movements, as the daily reports of these movements show little activity. Because of these problems, there are concerns that COMEX may not have the gold inventory to back its existing warehouse receipts.\n", "Conversely, if the amount proposed for sale is higher, he must lower the price. This will have the exact opposite effects from above, increasing the number of proposed purchases and decreasing the number of proposed sales.\n\nThis process iterates until a fix is found. Buyers are charged 20 cents per troy ounce as a premium to fund the fix process; this results in an implicit bid-offer spread.\n\nAs with other forms of market making, participants attempt to predict the direction of the market and increase profits through timing.\n", "Gold certificates allow gold investors to avoid the risks and costs associated with the transfer and storage of physical bullion (such as theft, large bid-offer spread, and metallurgical assay costs) by taking on a different set of risks and costs associated with the certificate itself (such as commissions, storage fees, and various types of credit risk).\n", "Otherwise, the chair must change the proposed price. If the amount of gold the banks proposed to buy is higher than the amount proposed for sale, he must raise the price. That will decrease the number of proposed purchases, both because more buy limit orders will fail and because of proprietary traders. At the same time, it increases the number of proposed sales, both because more sell limit orders succeed and because of proprietary trading.\n", "Typically a small commission is charged for trading in gold ETPs and a small annual storage fee is charged. The annual expenses of the fund such as storage, insurance, and management fees are charged by selling a small amount of gold represented by each certificate, so the amount of gold in each certificate will gradually decline over time.\n", "Section::::Advice.\n", "According to Lydia DePillis of Wonkblog, when Goldman bought the warehouses it \"started paying traders extra to bring their metal\" to Goldman's warehouses \"rather than anywhere else. The longer it stays, the more rent Goldman can charge, which is then passed on to the buyer in the form of a premium.\" The effect is \"amplified\" by another company, Glencore, which is \"doing the same thing in its warehouse in Vlissingen\".\n", "Accordingly, for the dealer, the cost of laying-off, a loss to the dealer, is the dealer's primary variable cost and is built into the dealer's spread. The range of the dealer's price, therefore, according to Treynor's conclusions, can be anywhere between 30-40% of the security's value all without any valuation changes from the VBT to compensate for the cost of laying-off.\n", "Instead of buying gold itself, investors can buy the companies that produce the gold as shares in . If the gold price rises, the profits of the gold mining company could be expected to rise and the worth of the company will rise and presumably the share price will also rise. However, there are many factors to take into account and it is not always the case that a share price will rise when the gold price increases. Mines are commercial enterprises and subject to problems such as flooding, subsidence and structural failure, as well as mismanagement, negative publicity, nationalization, theft and corruption. Such factors can lower the share prices of mining companies.\n", "Section::::Facts.\n", "The LBMA \"traceable chain of custody\" includes refiners as well as vaults. Both have to meet their strict guidelines. Bullion products from these trusted refiners are traded at face value by LBMA members without assay testing. By buying bullion from an LBMA member dealer and storing it in an LBMA recognized vault, customers avoid the need of re-assaying or the inconvenience in time and expense it would cost. However this is not 100% sure, for example, Venezuela moved its gold because of the political risk for them, and as the past shows, even in countries considered as democratic and stable, for example in the US in the 1930s gold was seized by the government and legal moving was banned.\n", "The lead participant will begin the fixing process by proposing a price near the current gold spot price. The participants then simulate the result of trading at that price. The simulations do not merely factor physical gold, but include gold trading contracts (\"Paper Gold\") which are marginally backed and which therefore inflate market volumes and alter the supply/demand valuation formulas that would otherwise apply to the physical gold commodity.\n", "BULLET::::- Metrics such as cash costs, revenue for years prior to 2011 were changed due to the transition in accounting standards from Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) to International Financial Reporting Standards.\n\nBULLET::::- For 2012 Barrick Gold's overall losses can be attributed to a $4 billion writedown on copper assets incurred during the final quarter.\n\nBULLET::::- Gold Fields production down due to unbundling of certain assets in South Africa into a newly created company called Sibanye Gold.\n", "By purchasing what it expects to be uninformed order flow, a market-maker can buy at the bid and sell at the ask with less risk of trading at a loss than with an informed trader who knows that the market is mispricing the security. Thus, market-makers who pay for order flow can capture the spread while reducing the risk that the spread is too narrow to adequately compensate them for the risk of loss.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Albarian told \"The New York Times\" that prices range from as low as 5% for bullion coins and as high as 54% for unusual and historical coins. While giving Goldline an A+ rating according to the \"New York Times\", and declared that it was standing by the company as it was \"a company with not that many complaints\" and that \"there was a remarkable difference in how each one addressed complaints\" when it came to BBB complaints, still wrote \"Guaranteed profits are an illusion\" in conjunction with certain advertising campaigns.\n", "The five participating banks are market makers. They may have gold orders on their own behalf (proprietary trading), their clients' behalf (brokerage), or frequently some of each. Client orders will generally be limit orders. A sell limit order isn't executed unless the price is above a preset value. A buy limit order isn't executed unless the price is below a preset value.\n", "In January 2017 Detour Gold notified shareholders of an unsolicited mini-tender offer made by TRC Capital Corporation to purchase up to 5,000,000 common shares, or approximately 2.86 percent of the Company's outstanding common shares, at a price of CA$15.25 per share. Detour Gold did not endorse the unsolicited mini-tender offer and recommended shareholders not to tender their shares in response.\n\nDetour Gold produced 537,765 ounces of gold in 2016 at all-in sustaining costs of approximately $1,005 per ounce.\n", "Goldline is a retail seller of gold coins, silver coins, platinum, bullion bars and bullion coins, special collections, currencies, and other precious metals for investors and collectors. According to the \"Los Angeles Business Journal\", in 2009, Goldline had more than 300 employees and sales revenue of $825 million which the newspaper said made it the \"6th fastest growing company\" in Los Angeles County, California for 2010 David Lazarus, the business columnist for the \"Los Angeles Times\", said revenues are expected to climb to $1 billion in 2010/2011.\n\nSection::::Business operations.:Marketing.\n", "According to Lydia DePillis of Wonkblog, when Goldman bought the warehouses it \"started paying traders extra to bring their metal\" to Goldman's warehouses \"rather than anywhere else. The longer it stays, the more rent Goldman can charge, which is then passed on to the buyer in the form of a premium.\" The effect is \"amplified\" by another company, Glencore, which is \"doing the same thing in its warehouse in Vlissingen\".\n", "To reduce this volatility, some gold mining companies hedge the gold price up to 18 months in advance. This provides the mining company and investors with less exposure to short-term gold price fluctuations, but reduces returns when the gold price is rising.\n\nSection::::Investment strategies.\n\nSection::::Investment strategies.:Fundamental analysis.\n\nInvestors using fundamental analysis analyze the macroeconomic situation, which includes international economic indicators, such as GDP growth rates, inflation, interest rates, productivity and energy prices. They would also analyze the yearly global gold supply versus demand.\n\nSection::::Investment strategies.:Gold versus stocks.\n", "By the early 1980s, the company was the largest retailer of gold bullion and the oldest and largest retail foreign exchange dealer in the United States. While Deak described himself as a gold bug, the company felt the strain of growing too rapidly during the gold economic bubble which burst by 1982. At that point, they planned on expanding into the wholesale market, offering services to companies instead of the public. The company was the country's leading seller of South Africa's Krugerrand before it was pressured to halt sales because of South Africa's apartheid system in 1985.\n", "According to some analysts, compared with Wall Street the Chinese Dama practice a kind of bottom fishing; their investment cannot support gold prices in the long run, and the gold sellers are the chief beneficiary.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Without strong Chinese physical demand, gold prices would likely be trading at a much lower price now.\" – Joyce Liu, analyst with the Singapore brokerage Phillip Futures\n\nBULLET::::- \"More buying in China likely would act as a catalyst for gold prices, taken together with other drivers.\" – Axel Merk, chief investment officer at Merk Investments\n", "The law does not allow precious metal dealers, such as Goldline, to guarantee a buy-back. The customer will pay a 1% liquidation fee on the bid price of the coin (the price Goldline is willing to buy back the coin before discounting for the fee). For example, if Goldline sells a coin for $1,500 and their bid price is $1,200, the seller would receive $1,188 ($1,200 - $12). Goldline will consider purchasing coins sold by other companies but generally their offer will be less than equivalent coins they sell originally.\n\nSection::::Business policies.:Prices.\n" ]	[ "Gold dealers maintain a constant profit.", "Gold dealers might be buying or selling gold at a loss.", "Gold dealers pay full market price for gold." ]	[ "Gold dealers lose money when the price of gold goes down.", "Gold deals are buying for less than full market price and then try to sell at full market price.", "Gold dealers pay less than full market price for gold." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Gold dealers maintain a constant profit.", "Gold dealers might be buying or selling gold at a loss.", "Gold dealers pay full market price for gold." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Gold dealers lose money when the price of gold goes down.", "Gold deals are buying for less than full market price and then try to sell at full market price.", "Gold dealers pay less than full market price for gold." ]
2018-03440	How do people die from a drug overdose by using drugs you ingest? Wouldn’t your body just throw it up?	Not everything that's bad for you makes you throw up. That's your body's reaction to specific stimuli, not to everything bad. Plus, you can only throw up what's still in your stomach. It's possible to absorb enough of something into your bloodstream to kill you, at which point throwing up won't help because it's already too late.	[ "Reports of overdose in medical literature are generally from abuse, and often involve other drugs as well. Symptoms include vomiting, excessive sweating, coma, periods of stopped breathing, seizures, agitation, loss of psychomotor skills, and coma. Overdose can lead to death due to respiratory depression. People who overdose may die from asphyxiation from their own vomit. People that have overdosed or suspected of overdosing may need to be made to vomit, be intubated, or/and put on a respirator.\n\nSection::::Interactions.\n", "Usage of illicit drugs of unexpected purity, in large quantities, or after a period of drug abstinence can also induce overdose. Cocaine users who inject intravenously can easily overdose accidentally, as the margin between a pleasurable drug sensation and an overdose is small. Unintentional misuse can include errors in dosage caused by failure to read or understand product labels. Accidental overdoses may also be the result of over-prescription, failure to recognize a drug's active ingredient, or unwitting ingestion by children. A common unintentional overdose in young children involves multi-vitamins containing iron. Iron is a component of the hemoglobin molecule in blood, used to transport oxygen to living cells. When taken in small amounts, iron allows the body to replenish hemoglobin, but in large amounts it causes severe pH imbalances in the body. If this overdose is not treated with chelation therapy, it can lead to death or a permanent coma. The term 'overdose' is often misused as a descriptor for adverse drug reactions or negative drug interactions due to mixing multiple drugs simultaneously.\n", "According to the manufacturer, overdose is possible due to accumulation of the ingredients when Corvalol is used frequently and in large doses. Symptoms of overdose include central nervous system depression, confusion, dizziness, ataxia, and somnolence. In serious cases overdose may result in breathing depression, tachycardia, arrhythmia, hypotension (low blood pressure), cardiovascular collapse, and coma.\n\nSection::::Drug interactions.\n", "The word \"overdose\" implies that there is a common safe dosage and usage for the drug; therefore, the term is commonly only applied to drugs, not poisons, even though some poisons are harmless at a low enough dosage. Drug overdose is caused to commit suicide, the result of intentional or unintentional misuse of medication. Intentional misuse leading to overdose can include using prescribed or unprescribed drugs in excessive quantities in an attempt to produce euphoria.\n", "BULLET::::- In Andrew Holleran's novel \"Dancer from the Dance\" (1978), a case of overdose in a discotheque is mentioned: \"The boy passed out on the sofa from an overdose of Tuinols [sic] was a Puerto Rican who washed dishes in the employees' cafeteria at CBS, but the doctor bending over him had treated presidents.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Organophosphate poisoning\n\nBULLET::::- DDT\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n\nThe substance that has been taken may often be determined by asking the person. However, if they will not, or cannot, due to an altered level of consciousness, provide this information, a search of the home or questioning of friends and family may be helpful.\n\nExamination for toxidromes, drug testing, or laboratory test may be helpful. Other laboratory test such as glucose, urea and electrolytes, paracetamol levels and salicylate levels are typically done. Negative drug-drug interactions have sometimes been misdiagnosed as an acute drug overdose, occasionally leading to the assumption of suicide.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "Monitoring of biochemical parameters such as electrolytes and solutes, liver and kidney function, urinalysis, and complete blood count is undertaken along with frequent checking of salicylate and blood sugar levels. Arterial blood gas assessments will typically find respiratory alkalosis early in the course of the overdose due to hyperstimulation of the respiratory center, and may be the only finding in a mild overdose. An anion-gap metabolic acidosis occurs later in the course of the overdose especially if it is a moderate to severe overdose, due to the increase in protons (acidic contents) in the blood.\n", "If there is evidence of overdose or it is suspected, the patient should be given gastric lavage, activated charcoal, or both; this could make the difference between life and death in a close situation. It can however aggravate the patient which should be taken into account.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nSigns and symptoms of an overdose vary depending on the drug or exposure to toxins. The symptoms can often be divided into differing toxidromes. This can help one determine what class of drug or toxin is causing the difficulties.\n", "Ibuprofen overdose has become common since it was licensed for OTC use. Many overdose experiences are reported in the medical literature, although the frequency of life-threatening complications from ibuprofen overdose is low. Human response in cases of overdose ranges from absence of symptoms to fatal outcome despite intensive-care treatment. Most symptoms are an excess of the pharmacological action of ibuprofen, and include abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, drowsiness, dizziness, headache, ear ringing, and nystagmus. Rarely, more severe symptoms, such as gastrointestinal bleeding, seizures, metabolic acidosis, high blood levels of potassium, low blood pressure, slow heart rate, fast heart rate, atrial fibrillation, coma, liver dysfunction, acute kidney failure, cyanosis, respiratory depression, and cardiac arrest have been reported. The severity of symptoms varies with the ingested dose and the time elapsed; however, individual sensitivity also plays an important role. Generally, the symptoms observed with an overdose of ibuprofen are similar to the symptoms caused by overdoses of other NSAIDs.\n", "Symptoms of overdose in particular include: collapse into a seizure; chest pain (possible precursor of a heart attack); fast, pounding heartbeat, which may cause raised blood pressure (hypertension); irregular heartbeat (cardiac arrhythmia), which may cause paradoxical lowered blood pressure (hypotension); nervousness and tremor; headache; dizziness and nausea/vomiting; weakness or exhaustion (medical fatigue); dry mouth; and insomnia.\n", "Drug overdose\n\nA drug overdose (or simply overdose or OD) is the ingestion or application of a drug or other substance in quantities greater than are recommended. Typically it is used for cases when a risk to health will potentially result. An overdose may result in a toxic state or death.\n\nSection::::Classification.\n", "Many overdoses have resulted from recreational users combining these drugs to combine their individual effects without being aware of the enzyme-induction induced potentiation.\n\nSection::::Overdose.\n\nAs with other GABAergic drugs, combination with other GABAergic drugs, including alcohol, as well as with sedatives in general, possess a significant risk to the user in the form of overdose. Overdose symptoms are similar to those of other GABAergics including excessive sedation and unresponsiveness to stimuli, severe ataxia, amnesia, confusion, agitation, intoxication and inappropriate (potentially violent) behavior. Severe overdoses may present with respiratory depression (and subsequent pulmonary aspiration), coma, and death.\n", "DEET may be quantitated in blood, plasma or urine by gas or liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry to confirm a diagnosis of poisoning in hospitalized patients or to provide evidence in a medicolegal death investigation. Blood or plasma DEET concentrations are expected to be in a range of 0.3-3.0 mg/L during the first 8 hours after dermal application in persons using the chemical appropriately, 6 mg/L in intoxicated patients and 100 mg/L in victims of acute intentional oral overdose.\n\nSection::::Effects on materials.\n", "A typical drug overdose uses random prescription and over-the-counter substances. In this case, death is highly uncertain, and an attempt may leave a person alive but with severe organ damage, although that itself may in turn eventually prove fatal. Drugs taken orally may also be vomited back out before being absorbed. Considering the very high doses needed, vomiting or losing consciousness before taking enough of the active agent is often a major problem for people attempting this.\n", "Deaths that have occurred from diflunisal usually involved mixed drugs and or extremely high dosage. The oral is 500 mg/kg. Symptoms of overdose include coma, tachycardia, stupor, and vomiting. The lowest dose without the presence of other medicines which caused death was 15 grams. Mixed with other medicines, a death at 7.5 grams has also occurred. Diflunisal usually comes in 250 or 500 mg, making it relatively hard to overdose by accident.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Diflunisal: MedlinePlus Drug Information\n\nBULLET::::- Dolobid Prescribing Information (manufacturer's website)\n\nBULLET::::- Dolobid Medication Guide (manufacturer's website)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Single dose oral diflunisal for acute postoperative pain in adults\"\n", "In August 2018, there were almost one hundred overdose cases reported over two days in New Haven, Connecticut from a bad batch of K2. The synthetic cannabinoid was believed to have been mixed with fentanyl, although no fentanyl was identified in samples of the drug tested by the DEA.\n\nIn September 2018, at least 10 people overdosed on a synthetic cannabinoid, either AMB-FUBINACA or AB, in Christchurch, New Zealand over two days. Some of the people are in critical condition in the Intensive Care Unit.\n", "The use of \"A. ferox\" as a criminal poison recently gained notoriety in the U.K. as a result of the murder trial of a Ms. Lakhvir Singh, a Sikh woman from Southall (a suburban district of the London Borough of Ealing). Ms.Singh was found guilty of the murder of her ex-lover, 'Lucky' Lakhvinder Cheema and the attempted murder of his fiancée, Gurjeet Choongh with a curry spiked with \"bikh\" poison acquired from India. After consuming the poisoned curry, the unfortunate Mr. Cheema began to vomit and over the course of the next hour suffered total paralysis of all four limbs, blindness, a drastic fall in blood pressure and heart failure, leading to his death within an hour of his admission to hospital. Ms. Choongh was more fortunate, having consumed less of the lethal dish, and later recovered, after having been placed in an induced coma.\n", "Massive overdose can result in death. The LD of caffeine in humans is dependent on individual sensitivity, but is estimated to be 150–200 milligrams per kilogram of body mass (75–100 cups of coffee for a 70 kilogram adult). A number of fatalities have been caused by overdoses of readily available powdered caffeine supplements, for which the estimated lethal amount is less than a tablespoon. The lethal dose is lower in individuals whose ability to metabolize caffeine is impaired due to genetics or chronic liver disease. A death was reported in a man with liver cirrhosis who overdosed on caffeinated mints.\n", "There have been a few human deaths reported. In one case, a 56-year-old gardener who had come in contact with too much of the insecticide, was found unconscious in his car after vomiting and was taken to a hospital. He developed a severe case of pulmonary edema within an hour of admission, and after three hours, he died and 26.4 mg/L ethiofencarb, along with 0/12 g/100 mL ethanol, 37.9 mg/L ethiofencarbsulfoxide and 0.9 mg/L ethiofencarbsulfone were found in his urine analysis.\n\nSection::::Regulation.\n", "Cases of severe overdose have been reported and symptoms displayed might include prolonged deep coma or deep cyclic coma, apnea, respiratory depression, hypoxemia, hypothermia, hypotension, bradycardia, cardiac arrest, and pulmonary aspiration, with the possibility of death. Severe consequences are rare following overdose of benzodiazepines alone but the severity of overdose is increased significantly if benzodiazepines are taken in overdose in combination with other medications. Significant toxicity may result following recreation drug misuse in conjunction with other CNS depressants such as opioids or ethanol. The duration of symptoms following overdose is usually between 12 and 36 hours in the majority of cases. The majority of drug-related deaths involve misuse of heroin or other opioids in combination with benzodiazepines or other CNS depressant drugs. In most cases of fatal overdose it is likely that lack of opioid tolerance combined with the depressant effects of benzodiazepines is the cause of death.\n", "Section::::Cause.\n\nTricyclics have a narrow therapeutic index, \"i.e.\", the therapeutic dose is close to the toxic dose. Factors that increase the risk of toxicity include advancing age, cardiac status, and concomitant use of other drugs. However, serum drug levels are not useful for evaluating risk of arrhythmia or seizure in tricyclic overdose.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "Section::::Mechanism of action.:Symptoms.\n\nAn overdose of ouabain can be detected by the presence of the following symptoms: rapid twitching of the neck and chest musculature, respiratory distress, increased and irregular heartbeat, rise in blood pressure, convulsions, wheezing, clicking, and gasping rattling. Death is caused by cardiac arrest.\n\nSection::::Mechanism of action.:Toxicology.\n", "Section::::Poisoning.\n\nOverdose results in serious, sometimes fatal uncontrolled hemorrhage.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Copper sulfate was also used in the past as an emetic. It is now considered too toxic for this use.\n\nHydrogen peroxide is used as an emetic in veterinary practice.\n\nSection::::Differential diagnosis.:Miscellanea.\n\nBULLET::::- Self-induced\n\nBULLET::::- Eating disorders (anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa)\n\nBULLET::::- To eliminate an ingested poison (some poisons should not be vomited as they may be more toxic when inhaled or aspirated; it is better to ask for help before inducing vomiting)\n\nBULLET::::- Some people who engage in binge drinking induce vomiting to make room in their stomachs for more alcohol consumption.\n" ]	[ "If the body consumes something bad, you always vomit.", "Body should throw up drugs before they kill you from overdose." ]	[ "The body vomits in reaction to specific stimuli, both negative and positive substances.", "Your body can only get rid of what is still in your stomach and it is possible to absorb enough to kill you before you throw it up. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "If the body consumes something bad, you always vomit.", "Body should throw up drugs before they kill you from overdose." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The body vomits in reaction to specific stimuli, both negative and positive substances.", "Your body can only get rid of what is still in your stomach and it is possible to absorb enough to kill you before you throw it up. " ]
2018-21837	For TV series, why is each episode directed by a different person each time? Why isn't it one director like in movies?	Pumping out weekly episodes is a difficult task. There's too much work in arranging for everything for one person. So they split out the series between different directors, each managing a few episodes. Then the challenge becomes arranging time with the actors and for shared sets.	[ "The rule that a film can only have one single director was adopted to preserve the continuity of a director's vision and to avoid producers and actors lobbying for a director's credit, or studios hiring multiple directors for a single film or television episode.\n", "Some shows have a small stable of directors, but also usually rely on outside directors. Given the time constraints of broadcasting, a single show might have two or three episodes in pre-production, one or two episodes in principal photography, and a few more in various stages of post-production. The task of directing is complex enough that a single director can usually not work on more than one episode or show at a time, hence the need for multiple directors.\n\nSection::::Production.:Principal photography.\n", "It is common for certain personnel involved with a production in another capacity to also function as a second unit director, benefiting from their understanding of the material and relationship with the production's director or producers. For example, English actor Andy Serkis, who plays Gollum, was second unit director on Peter Jackson's three-part adaptation of J.R.R. Tolkien's fantasy novel \"The Hobbit\". Actor George Peppard, whilst the star of the detective drama \"Banacek\", also served as second unit director for several episodes of the series.\n", "Second unit director can be a stepping stone for aspiring directors to gain experience. Unlike an assistant director, who is second-in-command to the main director, a second unit director operates independently. Second unit directors who have gone on to become fully-fledged film directors include former editor John Glen (\"On Her Majesty's Secret Service\"), stunt coordinator David R. Ellis (\"Final Destination 2\"), and Frank Marshall, who directed second unit for Steven Spielberg whilst also working as producer, on \"Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade\", \"Empire of the Sun\", and \"The Color Purple\". Some who became directors may return to working predominantly as second unit directors for the remainder of their career. Notable examples include Yakima Canutt (\"Ben-Hur\", 1959) and Michael D. Moore, who worked on more than sixty films, including \"Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid\" (1969), \"Patton\" (1970), and the first three Indiana Jones films in the 1980s.\n", "On the hit TV series \"Smallville\" James Marshall had an important role throughout the history of the show. As go-to-guy Greg Beeman stopped directing the high profile \"Smallville\" episodes (due to his commitment to the Heroes) TV series, series creators Alfred Gough and Miles Millar began to look to James Marshall, who first began directing on \"Smallville\" during the second half of the first season. After producing \"Smallville\" for many years, starting at season seven Marshall became an executive producer on the show. With this position Marshall began directing fewer episodes, and in season nine he directed no episodes, returning to the director's chair once in season 10.\n", "Since the film director depends on the successful cooperation of many different creative individuals with possibly strongly contradicting artistic ideals and visions, he or she also needs to possess conflict resolution skills in order to mediate whenever necessary. Thus the director ensures that all individuals involved in the film production are working towards an identical vision for the completed film. The set of varying challenges he or she has to tackle has been described as \"a multi-dimensional jigsaw puzzle with egos and weather thrown in for good measure\". It adds to the pressure that the success of a film can influence when and how they will work again, if at all.\n", "Cavalier said \"The year of working together changed us [...] I wasn’t in charge the way a director is in charge. And we discovered things gradually. I used to plan the last shot from the start, and thought about that from the beginning. I had studied Greek tragedy, I was influenced by films like Renoir's \"Partie de campagne\" and John Huston's \"Asphalt Jungle\". Now I want to forget all that.\"\n", "Section::::Production.\n\nSection::::Production.:Writing and directing.\n", "When filming fell behind schedule, another director came in to assist the main unit director in finishing the episode. Greg Beeman assisted director Chris Long for the two \"visceral visions of the future\" that appeared in the episode \"Hourglass\". \"Jitters\" was an episode with so many changes that its initial scheduling as the second episode of the season was pushed back to the eighth spot. By the time filming for \"Jitters\" was completed, three directors had worked on the project: Greg Beeman, Phil Sgriccia, and Michael Watkins; however, Watkins was given sole directing credit for the episode.\n\nSection::::Production.:Effects.\n", "The direction was nearly all done by Powell, but even so The Archers generally worked as a team, with the cast and crew often making suggestions. Pressburger was always on hand, usually on the studio floor, to make sure that these late changes fitted seamlessly into the story.\n", "Some film directors started as screenwriters, film editors, producers, actors, or film critics, as well as directing for similar media like television and commercials. Several American cinematographers have become directors, including Barry Sonnenfeld, originally the Coen brothers' DP; Wally Pfister, cinematographer on Christopher Nolan's three Batman films made his directorial debut with \"Transcendence\". Despite the misnomer, assistant director has become a completely separate career path and is not typically a position for aspiring directors, but there are exceptions in some countries such as India where assistant directors are indeed directors-in-training.\n\nSection::::Career pathways.:Education.\n", "The directing of \"Scott & Bailey\" is undertaken in a method whereby \"each director directs a 'block' of two or three episodes, dictated by the schedule – when each episode has finished shooting, the director goes into the edit and a new director takes over for the next block\", according to Calkin. The most prolific director of \"Scott & Bailey\" is Morag Fullerton, who directed seven episodes.\n\nSection::::Production.:Casting.\n", "In a television show composed of individual episodes, the television director's role may differ from a film director's in that he or she will usually work only on some television episodes instead of being the \"auteur\" of the entire production. In an episodic television production, the major creative control will likely reside with the television producer(s) of the show. However, the director has input, whether it be how, if and why something can or cannot be done.\n\nSection::::Types of television director.:Drama television director.\n", "Section::::Production.\n\nSection::::Production.:Crew.\n\nWhile most of the staff and crew remain the same from show to show, the directors may vary based on the filming location. For example, Richard Valverde served as director for shows in Paris, Michael Watt directed shows in Canada and the United States, and Victor Fable directed in the United States. Notable directors include The Voice's Alan Carter, who directed six shows in the United States, CEO of production company A. Smith & Co. Kent Weed, of six shows in the United States, and NBC director Ron de Moraes who directed four shows.\n", "Mitton left following the completion of the Series 7 of \"Thomas & Friends\". Following Mitton's departure, crew member Steve Asquith took his place as director from Series 8 to Series 12. In 2006, Mitton started another company, Pineapple Squared Entertainment, with director David Lane, whom Mitton had worked with on Thunderbirds earlier in his career.\n", "The director is one of the few positions that requires intimate involvement during every stage of film production. Thus, the position of film director is widely considered to be a highly stressful and demanding one. It has been said that \"20-hour days are not unusual\". Some directors also take on additional roles, such as producing, writing or editing.\n", "He became a screenwriter and later a director. In film, he directed mainly \"B\" pictures, but after he moved to television, he directed hundreds of series episodes. He was one of the house directors on \"I Love Lucy\" in the 1950s. He directed \"My Three Sons\" for most of two seasons in the 1960s. When he died suddenly of a heart attack at age 57, several episodes of the show remained only partially completed for the 1966/67 season, so director James Sheldon was brought in by series producers to round out the season.\n", "Historically, assistant directing was a stepping stone to directing work; Alfred Hitchcock was an AD, as well as Akira Kurosawa. This was when the role was more general and encompassed all aspects of filmmaking such as set design and script editing. This transition into film directing is no longer common in feature films, as the role has focused into a more logistical and managerial position. It is more common now for an assistant director to transition to a theatre production management or producer role than to directing, with contemporary exceptions such as James McTeigue. \n\nSection::::Sub-roles.\n", "BULLET::::- TV series \"Mr. Lucky\" - episode 8: \"Little Miss Vow\" (1959) + episode 9: \"A Business Measure\" (1959) + episode 16: \" The Brain Picker\" (1960) + episode 23: \"His Maiden Voyage\" (1960)\n\nBULLET::::- TV series \"Hong Kong\" - episode 2: \"Murder Royal\" (1960) + episode 3 \"Pearl Flower\" (1960) + episode 11: \"Nine Lives\" (1960) + episode 13: \"When Strangers Meet\" (1960) + episode 15: \"Lesson in Fear\" (1961) + episode 16: \"The Survivor\" (1961)\n\nBULLET::::- TV series \"Combat!\" - season 1, episode 11: \"A Day in June\" (1962)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dime with a Halo\" (1963)\n", "BULLET::::34. Frank Borzage (see no. 2 and no. 25) \"The Day I Met Caruso\" (September 5, 1956; written by Zoe Akins; story by Elizabeth Bacon Rodewald)\n\nBULLET::::35. Allan Dwan (see no. 15) \"High Air\" (September 12, 1956; written by A. I. Bezzerides; story by Borden Chase)\n\nSection::::Television.:Directors listed by number of \"Best Director\" Academy Award nominations.\n", "Each ten-episode season of \"Game of Thrones\" has four to six directors, who usually direct back-to-back episodes. Alan Taylor has directed seven episodes, the most episodes of the series. Alex Graves, David Nutter, Mark Mylod, and Jeremy Podeswa have directed six each. Daniel Minahan directed five episodes, and Michelle MacLaren, Alik Sakharov, and Miguel Sapochnik directed four each; MacLaren is also the only female director in the entire series' run. Brian Kirk directed three episodes during the first season, and Tim Van Patten directed the series' first two episodes. Neil Marshall directed two episodes, both with large battle scenes: \"Blackwater\" and \"The Watchers on the Wall\". Other directors have been Jack Bender, David Petrarca, Daniel Sackheim, Michael Slovis and Matt Shakman. David Benioff and D. B. Weiss have directed two episodes together but only credited one each episode, which was determined after a coin toss.\n", "BULLET::::- The episode director of \"Exodus!\" fourth and ninth episodes, and an episode director for \"The Third Girls Aerial Squad\".\n\nBULLET::::- The episode director of \"Exodus!\" third episode, and \"The Third Aerial Girls Squad\"s third and seventh episodes.\n", "Franklin M. Heller, one of television's pioneering directors, essentially saved the show. He felt that the biggest problems with the show were too much camera movement and lens changing. Heller said, \"I figured once I could get those cameramen and their flowered shirts controlled and fairly immobile, we might be able to let this show emerge.\"\n", "BULLET::::- TV series \"Alfred Hitchcock Presents\" - season 1, episode 1: \"Revenge\" (1955) + season 1, episode 7: \"Breakdown\" (1955) + season 1, episode 10: \"The Case of Mr. Pelham\" (1955) + season 1, episode 23:\"Back for Christmas\" (1956) + season 2, episode 2: \"Wet Christmas\" (1956) + season 2, episode 13: \"Mr. Blanchard's Secret\" (1956) + season 2, episode 28: \"One More Mile to Go\" (1957) + season 3, episode 3: \"The Perfect Crime\" (1957) + season 3, episode 28, \"Lamb to the Slaughter\" (1958) + season 3, episode 35: \"Dip in the Pool\" (1958) + season 4, episode 1: \"Poison\" (1958) + season 4, episode 29: \"Banquo's Chair\" (1959) + season 5, episode 1: \"Arthur\" (1959) + season 5, episode 2: \"The Crystal Touch\" (1959) + season 6, episode 1: \"Mrs. Bixby and the Colonel's Coat\" (1960) + season 6, episode 22: \"The Horse Player\" (1960) + season 7, episode 2: \"Bang! You're Dead\" (1961)\n", "A number of directors helmed more than one episode. Bette Gordon and Ernest D. Farino each directed four episodes; Gerald Cotts (directing as \"Jerry Smith\") and Jeffrey Wolf each directed three episodes; and Warner Shook, Theodore Gershuny, Brian Thomas Jones, Allen Coulter, and Tom Noonan each directed two episodes.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02433	how does finger print reading under the glass work and how is it so accurate?	It will work on OLED screens as they don't need a backlight to display the image like LCD screens, instead they have thousands/millions of individual pixels that can change colour. In between the pixels are tiny gaps allowing the sensor to be behind the pixels and look through at your fingerprint.	[ "BULLET::::- Smart glass is seen in the television series \"Lie to Me\" with the interrogation/interview room at the Lightman Group offices consisting of what amounts to a room-sized box within a larger room, with smart glass walls. The walls appear to be white and opaque most of the time, but can be rendered clear to reveal those observing a subject from the outside.\n\nBULLET::::- Smart glass was featured in 2005 video game \"\" in a fifth mission, \"Displace International\", enabling the main character to quickly switch between on and off modes with his OCP pistol attachment.\n", "BULLET::::- The 1982 film \"Blade Runner\" contains an early depiction of smart glass in a scene in which a room is darkened with a smart-glass-like shade so Rick Deckard, played by Harrison Ford, can administer a polygraph-style test to determine whether Rachael, portrayed by Sean Young, is an organic robot known as a replicant.\n", "After that, the two of them transcribed Grant's thumbprint onto various mediums and then tested whether the biometric fingerprint lock could be cracked by...\n\nSection::::Episode 59 – \"Crimes and Myth-Demeanors 2\".:Thermal Motion Sensor.\n\nThermographic cameras note any changes in the temperature gradient within its field of view (as seen in the 1992 film \"Sneakers\"). Kari, Tory and Grant tested whether a thermal motion sensor can be fooled by...\n\nSection::::Episode 59 – \"Crimes and Myth-Demeanors 2\".:Ultrasonic Motion Sensor.\n", "Fingerprint readers take a sample of a fingerprint and match it with an approved-person database. The particular door-mounted scanner tested optically samples the fingerprint, and had some extra \"liveness-sensing\" features that supposedly looks for pulse, body heat, and sweat (though, in the end, the door-scanner ended up being fooled much easier than the low-tech fingerprint scanner on Jamie's laptop).\n", "Concerns have been raised by cyber forensics experts at the University of Massachusetts who have developed a way to steal smartphone and tablet passwords using Google Glass. The specialists developed a software program that uses Google Glass to track finger shadows as someone types in their password. Their program then converts the touchpoints into the keys they were touching, allowing them to catch the passcodes.\n", "BULLET::::- Smart glass can be seen in the third season of the television series \"24\", where Jack Bauer changed the visibility to frosted glass to conceal the view as he was injecting heroin.\n\nBULLET::::- Smart glass is mentioned in season three, episode five of \"\", entitled \"Legal\", in which a young lady working undercover to expose underage drinking is murdered in a room shielded by what Ryan Wolfe refers to as \"intelligent glass\", where closing the door completes an electrical circuit, making the glass frost over and become opaque. The episode first aired in 2004.\n", "Section::::Present day biometric devices.:Iris recognition system.\n", "BULLET::::- In the 1999 game Dino Crisis, there is a \"bulletproof glass made of liquid crystal. You can't see through it because it is currently set to \"smoke\" mode\" as the main protagonist Regina describes a panel of glass in the final area of the game.\n\nBULLET::::- Smart glass is seen in the 2002 motion picture \"The Sum of All Fears\", in which Jack Ryan, played by Ben Affleck, is ushered into a secret room in the Pentagon, the windows of which whiten over as the door is shut.\n", "At the Police Service of Northern Ireland Lisburn station, a Livescan electronic fingerprint device reader was used to obtain impressions of the suspects' fingerprints. Elliott’s left thumbprint matched a print that had been found on the packaging of the stolen materials.\n", "Some well-known smartphone manufactures have chosen Fingerprint Cards technology in their products. Fingerprint Cards' sensors are mainly used in smartphones and since its first inclusion in the Android phone in 2014, over 330 different phone models feature Fingerprint Cards' technology. Fingerprint Cards has sold over a billion sensors since its first commercial sensor in 2013. Some of the most recognisable companies that use Fingerprint Cards' technology include; Google, Huawei, Oppo and BlackBerry. Fingerprint Cards' sensor, FPC1025, was chosen by Google for their first Pixel smartphone. The newest Pixel also include a Fingerprint Cards sensor (FPC1035) which was released on May 8, 2019.\n", "Following the release of the iPhone 5S model, a group of German hackers announced on September 21, 2013, that they had bypassed Apple's new Touch ID fingerprint sensor by photographing a fingerprint from a glass surface and using that captured image as verification. The spokesman for the group stated: \"We hope that this finally puts to rest the illusions people have about fingerprint biometrics. It is plain stupid to use something that you can't change and that you leave everywhere every day as a security token.\" In September 2015 Apple included a fingerprint scanner in the iPhone home button with the iPhone 6s. The use of the Touch ID fingerprint scanner was optional and could be configured to unlock the screen or pay for mobile apps purchases. Since December 2015, cheaper smartphones with fingerprint recognition have been released, such as the $100 UMI Fair. Samsung also recently introduced fingerprint sensors to its mid-range A-series smartphones.\n", "One approach to OGS is called \"sensor-on-lens” (also known as “touch-on-lens” or “sensor-on-glass”), with the \"lens\" in this case referring to the cover glass layer. Next, a layer of indium tin oxide (ITO) is deposited onto the back of the cover glass in a pattern to create electrodes to sense touch. A thin insulator layer is applied before a second ITO layer is deposited in a pattern creating electrodes running at right angles to the first layer. The assembly is then laminated onto a standard LCD panel.\n", "BULLET::::- Smart glass was shown in the movie \"Iron Man (2008)\", after the reporter Christine Everhart wakes up after a one night stand with Tony Stark.\n\nBULLET::::- Smart glass is seen in use in \"White Collar\" season 1 episode 8 \"Hard Sell\" when Neal comes to tell Daniel Reed that Avery plans to betray him. Daniel flips a switch and his office window becomes frosted over, preventing Avery from peeking inside while they talk.\n\nBULLET::::- Smart glass was featured in the 2012 James Bond movie \"Skyfall\", revealing Raoul Silva to M after he is captured.\n", "Contactless fingerprinting\n\nContactless fingerprinting technology (CFP) was described in a government-funded report as an attempt to gather and add fingerprints to those gathered via wet-ink process and then, in a \"touchless\" scan, verify claimed identify and, a bigger challenge, identify their owners without additional clues.\n\nAlthough an early source of this technology, which worked with phone cameras (and not needing additional hardware), opened in 2003 and closed in 2011, others in this space are still, several years later, using the words \"one of the first.\"\n", "BULLET::::- The second company is footnoted as a \"closed business.\"\n\nBULLET::::- The third product scans the person's fingerprints and then encodes them into a small object that the person can then present; verification takes \"approximately two seconds.\" The objective had been \"to speed access through restricted, high traffic areas.\" Also, unlike the first product, which could operate at a \"distance of 2 meters\" this one has \"optimum focal length of approximately three inches from the camera.\" Another limitiation is that only works with one finger per person.\n", "The Galaxy Note 7 also offers an iris recognition system, using a front-facing camera and infrared illumination. The iris scanner can be used for unlocking, and as authentication for other features of the device (such as Samsung Pay and Secure Folder). A fingerprint reader is also embedded in the home button.\n\nSection::::Specifications.:Software.\n", "BULLET::::- On May 28, 2015, Fujitsu released ARROWS NX F-04G the first smartphone with iris scanner.\n", "Microsoft Fingerprint Reader\n\nMicrosoft Fingerprint Reader was a device sold by Microsoft, primarily for homes and small businesses. The underlying software providing the biometrics was developed by Digital Persona. \n\nFingerprint readers are more secure, reliable and convenient than a normal traditional password, although they have been subject to spoofing. A fingerprint recognition system is more tightly linked to a specific user than, e.g., an access card, which can be stolen. \n\nSection::::History.\n", "In January 2016, ISORG, a French developer of organic photodetectors, worked with FlexEnable to fabricate a large-area flexible fingerprint sensor, based on plastic . The companies claimed that the breakthrough has been designed for biometric applications, with the technology being able to measure fingerprints as well as veins.\n\nIn February 2016, FlexEnable revealed a wrist-worn, conformable OLCD for wearable applications that is based on the company’s flexible electronics platform .\n\nSection::::Technology.\n", "BULLET::::- The 2010 film RED includes a scene where Bruce Willis' character uses a contact lens to pass an iris scan and gain access to CIA headquarters.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Biometric technology in access control\n\nBULLET::::- Iris Recognition Immigration System\n\nBULLET::::- Eye vein verification\n\nBULLET::::- Finger Vein recognition\n\nBULLET::::- Fingerprint recognition\n\nBULLET::::- Iris Challenge Evaluation\n\nBULLET::::- Samsung Galaxy S8\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- ; also: issued 2/3/1987.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Home page of IrisCode inventor John Daugman\n\nBULLET::::- ISO/IEC 19794-6:2011 International standard for iris images\n\nBULLET::::- NIST Iris Challenge Evaluation – a contest for competing iris-recognition algorithms\n", "The first smartphone with a fingerprint reader was the Motorola Atrix 4G in 2011. In September 2013, the iPhone 5S was unveiled as the first smartphone on a major U.S. carrier since the Atrix to feature this technology.\n", "Face ID replaces the Touch ID authentication system. The facial recognition sensor consists of two parts: a \"Romeo\" module that projects more than 30,000 infrared dots onto the user's face, and a \"Juliet\" module that reads the pattern. The pattern is sent to the Secure Enclave in the A11 Bionic chip to confirm a match with the phone owner's face. By default, the system will not work with eyes closed, in an effort to prevent unauthorized access but this requirement can be disabled in settings.\n", "Face recognition has been leveraged as a form of biometric authentication for various computing platforms and devices; Android 4.0 \"Ice Cream Sandwich\" added facial recognition using a smartphone's front camera as a means of unlocking devices, while Microsoft introduced face recognition login to its Xbox 360 video game console through its Kinect accessory, as well as Windows 10 via its \"Windows Hello\" platform (which requires an infrared-illuminated camera). Apple's iPhone X smartphone introduced facial recognition to the product line with its \"Face ID\" platform, which uses an infrared illumination system.\n", "A 30-page white paper titled \"Risks and Opportunities of Contactless Biometrics\" identified \"spoofing as a serious limitation, and ranks \"what people know\" (password, challenge question) and \"what they have\" (keycard, identify \"token\") higher than \"biometrics\".\n\nAlthough it ranks facial recognition and iris recognition ahead of contactless fingerprint identification, it is the fingerprint that ranks hightest of the three for high-security situations. The whitepaper noted that the Canadian Border Services Agency was planning to utilize a combination of facial recognition and fingerprints.\n\nOne such experiment used an assist: using flight manifests to compare faces with passport photos of those listed.\n", "In 2014, Fingerprint Cards acquired AnaCatum Design AB for an undisclosed amount. AnaCatum is a Swedish-based company from Linköping, founded in 2009. AnaCatum Design AB specialises in technology licensing and ASIC development. Shortly after the acquisition in 2014, AnaCatum and Fingerprint Cards announced a new fingerprint sensor, the FPC1150. The FPC1150 was the world's first touch fingerprint sensor that could be mounted on the front side of Android smartphones. The development of the FPC1150 was possible through cooperation with AnaCatum Design. The new sensor was half the size of the previous sensor (FPC1020), allowing it to be mounted in the home button of mobile devices. This had never been possible before due to size constraints. Previous sensors that the company had developed could only be mounted on the backside of smartphones.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-06704	Why the USA has such high rape rate beign a developed country?	Getting accurate crime statistics is difficult, and comparing statistics between countries is even more difficult. Rape is probably one of the most difficult comparisons to make, because of the massive cultural differences in how it's defined by the criminal laws as well as how comfortable victims are reporting it and how the police respond when they do. That said, the UNODC data showed the US having a rape rate that was pretty comparable to other developed countries, like Australia, New Zealand, Iceland, and Belgium.	[ "Section::::Policy and statistics by country.:Ghana.\n\nIn a survey of Ghanaians, 8% of women reported having been raped by a man in their lifetimes and 5% of men reported having raped a wife or girlfriend.\n\nSection::::Policy and statistics by country.:Iceland.\n", "In a 2010 report on sexual violence in Nicaragua, Amnesty International stated that \"Rape of girls is endemic\". In Nicaragua, between 1998 and 2008, police recorded 14,377 cases of rape, with more than two thirds of reports involving girls under the age of 17. Reporting of rape, however, is estimated to be low, because rape victims often face social hostility and indifference from authorities. Since 2008, abortion is illegal without any exception, and this ban has been criticized as oppressive to rape victims who become pregnant.\n", "Apart from the offence of 'rape', there are also other sexual offences. Marital rape was made illegal in 1991; before that date, rape was defined as a man forcing, by violence or threat of thereof, a woman to engage in sexual intercourse outside of marriage.\n\nAccording to a 2014 study published by the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, the Netherlands had the fourth highest prevalence rate of physical and sexual violence against women in Europe, with 45% of women having experienced such violence, which is well above the European average of 33%.\n\nSection::::Policy and statistics by country.:Nicaragua.\n", "In Australia the reported rape rate per 100,000 people is relatively high, although it is in a decreasing trend, coming down from 91.6 in 2003 to 28.6 in 2010. This stands in contrast to reported rape rate of 1.2 per 100,000 in Japan, 1.8 per 100,000 in India, 4.6 rapes per 100,000 in Bahrain, 12.3 per 100,000 in Mexico, 24.1 per 100,000 in United Kingdom, 28.6 per 100,000 in United States, 66.5 per 100,000 in Sweden.\n", "Although there is a wide range of research on the consequences of sexual violence on victims, there is little information on the economic effect, especially for economically vulnerable victims such as Black and Latina women. These consequences of sexual violence disproportionately harm these specific demographics, because they make up a large portion of the group afflicted by income-poverty and asset poverty. Simply being from one of these poverty backgrounds increases the risk of sexual violence and discourages victims from reporting a rape crime as there is less confidence in the police services and there is a higher crime rate in areas of poverty.\n", "In a 1996 three-year longitudinal study of 4,000 American women, physician Melisa Holmes estimated from data from her study that forced sexual intercourse causes over 32,000 pregnancies in the United States each year. Physician Felicia H. Stewart and economist James Trussell estimated that the 333,000 assaults and rapes reported in the US in 1998 caused about 25,000 pregnancies, and up to 22,000 of those pregnancies could have been prevented by prompt medical treatment, such as emergency contraception.\n\nSection::::Rape-pregnancy incidence.:Rate.\n", "Innovative measures have been pioneered in a number of countries to end violence against women. In Brazil and Jordan, women's police stations have been introduced, and one-stop women's shelters were created in Malaysia and Nicaragua.\n\nMarital rape has been illegal in every American state and the District of Columbia since 1993, but is rarely prosecuted in America.\n", "There are concerns in Norway about the low reporting and conviction rate for rape. According to Amnesty International, 84% of rape cases reported to the police do not reach court; of those that reach trial, 36% end in acquittal. In 2003, the CEDAW Committee expressed concern about the situation of sexual violence in Norway, stating, \"[The Committee] is also concerned that an extremely low percentage of reported rapes results in convictions and that the police and public prosecutors dismiss an increasing number of such cases.\"\n\nSection::::Policy and statistics by country.:Pakistan.\n", "Section::::Policy and statistics by country.:Canada.\n", "A 1997 report by the U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics found that 91% of rape victims are female and 9% are male, and that 99% of arrestees for rape are male. However, these statistics are based on reports of \"forced penetration\". This number excludes instances where men were \"made to penetrate\" another person, which are assessed separately under \"sexual violence\". Denov (2004) states that societal responses to the issue of female perpetrators of sexual assault \"point to a widespread denial of women as potential sexual aggressors that could work to obscure the true dimensions of the problem.\"\n", "A 2013 study found that rape may be grossly underreported in the United States. Furthermore, a 2014 study suggested that police departments may eliminate or undercount rapes from official records in part to \"create the illusion of success in fighting violent crime\". For the last reported year, 2013, the annual prevalence rate for all sexual assaults including rape was 0.1% (annual prevalence rate represents the number of victims each year, rather than the number of assaults since some are victimized more than once during the reporting period). The survey included males and females aged 12+. Since rapes are a subset of all sexual assaults, the prevalence of rape is lower than the combined statistic. Of those assaults, the Bureau of Justice Statistics stated that 34.8% were reported to the police, up from 29.3% in 2004.\n", "In March 2011, there was an article published that stated that there are about 10 new cases of corrective rape a week in Cape Town. Cape Town, South Africa specifically has 2.5 million people and since 2011, the prevalence of Corrective Rape has only increased.\n\nSection::::Prevalence.:Uganda.\n\nFive cases in which the victims were lesbians or transgender males were reported in Uganda between June and November, 2011.\n\nSection::::Prevalence.:United States.\n", "In 2006, the UN Secretary-General's in-depth study on all forms of violence against women stated that (page 113):\n\nIn 2011, the UN Women report Progress of the World's Women:In Pursuit of Justice stated that (page 17):\n", "In 2008, the incidence of rapes recorded by the police was 21.6 per 100,000 people, according to data by UNODC. A 2010 study found that 6% of Icelandic women had been sexually victimized in an intimate relationship during their lifetime.\n\nSection::::Policy and statistics by country.:India.\n", "A study in Addis Ababa of high school boys found that 4.3% had been raped in their lives. According to the \"WHO Multi-country Study on Women's Health and Domestic Violence against Women\", 59% of women reported sexual abuse by a partner; while one third of women reported being \"physically forced\" to have sex against their will with their partner within the past 12 months. This was the highest prevalence of all countries surveyed.\n\nSection::::Policy and statistics by country.:Finland.\n", "8 out of 10 of the countries with the highest number of reported rape in the 2011 UNODC report were members of OECD, an organization of high-income economies with a very high Human Development Index. 6 out of 10 countries with the highest number of reported rapes were also in the top of the Global Gender Gap Index rankings.\n\nSection::::Victim surveys.\n", "A March 2013 report from the United States Department of Justice's Bureau of Justice Statistics, from 1995 to 2010, the estimated annual rate of female rape or sexual assault had declined by 58%, from 5.0 victimizations per 1,000 females age 12 or older to 2.1 per 1,000. However, a study in 2013 regarding rape in the United States found that cases remain underreported. Law enforcement in the United States also manipulates rape statistics to \"create the illusion of success in fighting violent crime\" according to a 2014 study. When investigated, defendants are rarely convicted.\n\nSection::::Types of violence.:Sexual assault.\n", "Section::::Policy and statistics by country.:South Africa.\n", "Section::::Prevalence.\n\nCountries that have been described as having \"rape cultures\" include Australia Canada, Pakistan, South Korea, Brazil, South Africa, the United Kingdom, and the United States.\n\nWhile research about rape culture has been mostly conducted in Westernized countries, particularly the United States, there are a number of other countries that have been described as \"rape supportive\" societies. These places have similarities to Western countries in terms of beliefs and gender stereotyping, but there are some significant differences that explain the high rate of rape and sexual assault in these less developed parts of the world.\n\nSection::::Prevalence.:In Pakistan.\n", "Denov (2004) states that societal responses to the issue of female perpetrators of sexual assault \"point to a widespread denial of women as potential sexual aggressors that could work to obscure the true dimensions of the problem.\" Particularly as an increasing population of un-convicted felons and rapists who continue to insist that accusation of sexual assault is a punishment in lieu of justice through law enforcement agencies. It is thought that to be accused of rape brings shame to their families and social communities.\n", "Section::::Policy and statistics by country.:Norway.\n", "RAINN asserts that from 2000 to 2005, 59% of rapes were not reported to law enforcement. For college students, the figure was 95% in 2000. One factor relating to this is the misconception that most rapes are committed by strangers. According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics, 38% of victims were raped by a friend or acquaintance, 28% by \"an intimate\" and 7% by another relative, and 26% were committed by a stranger to the victim. About four out of ten sexual assaults take place at the victim's own home.\n\nSection::::Policy and statistics by country.:Yemen.\n", "Rape is, however, not only a third world issue but also affects developed countries. According to a 2001 World Health Organization study, 20% of women worldwide had been victims of rape or attempted rape at least once in their lives. According to figures from a 2011 report from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, one in five women in America are victims of sexual assault. More than 40% of these victims are children, reporting they were first raped before they were 18 years old.\n\nSection::::Types of devices.\n\nSection::::Types of devices.:Physical deterrents.\n", "According to the US Department of State, there were 31,833 cases of rape in China in 2007.\n\nSection::::Policy and statistics by country.:Colombia.\n\nThe armed conflict in Colombia has resulted in increased sexual violence against women; and Colombian authorities have been accused of failing to investigate rape complaints and failing to control sexual attacks in the country. Marital rape was criminalized in 1996. Rape is very common among internally displaced women: it is reported that 1 in 5 of these women were raped.\n\nSection::::Policy and statistics by country.:Democratic Republic of the Congo.\n", "The most frequently cited research on sexual violence was conducted by Statistics Canada in 1992, which involved a national random sample of 12,300 women (Johnson and Sacco, 1995). The research found that over one in three women had experienced a sexual assault and that only 6% of sexual assaults were reported to the police. According to Justice Institute of British Columbia, one out of every 17 women is raped, 62% of rape victims were physically injured, 9% were beaten or disfigured.\n\nSection::::Policy and statistics by country.:China.\n" ]	[ "The USA is too much of a developed country to have a high rape rate.", "Amongst developed countries, the USA has a significantly higher rape rate." ]	[ "It is difficult to determine what a high crime rate is because determining accurate crime statistics is difficult, especially rape. Therefore is no for sure way to determine is USA has a high rape rate or not.", "According to UNODC data, the US has a rape rate comparable to other developed countries such as Australia, New Zealand, Iceland, and Belgium." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The USA is too much of a developed country to have a high rape rate.", "Amongst developed countries, the USA has a significantly higher rape rate." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "It is difficult to determine what a high crime rate is because determining accurate crime statistics is difficult, especially rape. Therefore is no for sure way to determine is USA has a high rape rate or not.", "According to UNODC data, the US has a rape rate comparable to other developed countries such as Australia, New Zealand, Iceland, and Belgium." ]
2018-06634	Why do airline pilots print off large piles of paper on a dot matrix printer at the gate?	Airline pilot here. TLDR - this is the simple way to produce documents that have to be signed and then copies go to various different places. Often when we get to the gate we collect the flight plan, weather charts and briefing information. This is mostly laser printed and is a backup to the same content on our company ipads. The documents that you may see being printed on a dot matrix printer include the loadsheet, fuel receipt, dangerous goods declaration / notice to captain etc. The significance of this is that an impact method printer like dot matrix can be used with carbon paper to produce duplicate/triplicate copies of the document. These particular documents are legal documents that require the captain’s signature on them. Therefore, these documents are printed off, the captains signs on them, then a copy stays with the crew, a copy goes with the dispatcher and a copy gets filed somewhere. It’s a simple way to evidence what documentation was used for the flight and to ensure there are no discrepancies between what the crew are using and what ops have on record. You can’t really do that with a laser printer or an ipad (at the moment).	[ "BULLET::::- many point-of-sale terminals br\n\nBULLET::::- Dot matrix impact printers such as the Epson tm-u220b (which don't need thermal paper) are more tolerant of the hot and dirty operating conditions found in many industrial settings, allowing them to be used even in settings such as restaurant or cafeteria kitchens.\n\nBULLET::::- Dot matrix printers, when used with continuous forms to produce hard copy, can be used for a computer room console log's output, producing a \"permanent\" record that cannot be remotely altered or otherwise manipulated.\n", "Professor Ron Bertolina was a pioneer of the preflighting concept in electronic publishing. In the mid 1990s, he wrote published technical articles and conducted workshops across the US on preflighting for the Graphic Arts Technical Foundation. His preflight checklist, included in the article \"Preflighting Digital Files\" for GATFWorld magazine, became a standard for printing companies to follow to help to reduce costly errors and thus was a great benefit to the publishing industry. Eventually, preflighting software entered the marketplace to assist designers and publishers in efficiently publishing electronic files.\n", "One often-overlooked application for dot-matrix printers is in the field of IT security. Copies of various system and server activity logs are typically stored on the local filesystem, where a remote attacker – having achieved their primary goals – can then alter or delete the contents of the logs, in an attempt to \"cover their tracks\" or otherwise thwart the efforts of system administrators and security experts. However, if the log entries are simultaneously output to a printer, line-by-line, a local hard-copy record of system activity is created – and this cannot be remotely altered or otherwise manipulated. Dot-matrix printers are ideal for this task, as they can sequentially print each log entry, one entry at a time, as they are added to the log. The usual dot-matrix printer support for continuous stationery also prevents incriminating pages from being surreptitiously removed or altered without evidence of tampering.\n", "The advantages are:\n\nlow purchase cost, can handle multipart forms, cheap to operate, only needs fresh ribbons, rugged, low repair cost and the ability to print on continuous paper. This makes it possible to print long banners that span across several sheets of paper.\n\nThe disadvantages are:\n", "Thermal printing is gradually supplanting them in some of these applications, but full-size dot-matrix impact printers are still used to print multi-part stationery. For example, dot matrix impact printers are still used at bank tellers and auto repair shops, and other applications where use of tractor feed paper is desirable such as data logging and aviation. Some of these printers are even fitted with USB interfaces as standard to aid connection to modern computers without legacy ports.\n\nSection::::PC usage.:Contemporary use.:Vendors.\n", "Colour laser transfer is very similar to the inkjet transfer paper process and allows the decoration of any combination of fabric blends including 50/50 poly/cotton blends as well as 100% cotton textiles. This type of transfer paper is used for industrial printing jobs on a large scale offering better quality paper and image transfer.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- image files are not corrupt\n\nBULLET::::- confirm that the page layout document size, margins, bleeds, marks and page information all fit within the constraints of the output device and match the client specifications\n\nBULLET::::- confirm that the correct colour separations or ink plates are being output\n\nOther, more advanced preflight steps might also include:\n\nBULLET::::- removing non-printing data, such as non-printing objects, hidden objects, objects outside the printable area and objects on layers below\n\nBULLET::::- flattening transparent objects into a single opaque object\n\nBULLET::::- converting fonts to paths\n", "Dot matrix printers are still commonly used in low-cost, low-quality applications such as cash registers, or in demanding, very high volume applications like invoice printing. Impact printing, unlike laser printing, allows the pressure of the print head to be applied to a stack of two or more forms to print multi-part documents such as sales invoices and credit card receipts using continuous stationery with carbonless copy paper. Dot-matrix printers were being superseded even as receipt printers after the end of the twentieth century.\n\nSection::::Technology.:Obsolete and special-purpose printing technologies.:Impact printers.:Line printers.\n", "The process of preflighting a file helps reduce the likelihood of rasterization problems that cause production delays. Page layout software applications (which allow users to combine images, graphics, and text from a variety of formats) automate portions of the preflight process. Typically, client-provided materials are verified by a preflight operator for completeness and to confirm that the incoming materials meet the production requirements. The pre-flight process checks for:\n\nBULLET::::- transparencies that run on Pantone instead of CMYK\n\nBULLET::::- color corrections wherever required such as rich blacks combinations, color shifts due to overprinting\n", "Standard office paper has traditionally been designed for use with typewriters and copy machines, where the paper usually does not get wet. With these papers, moisture tends to wick through the fibers and away from the point of contact. For inkjet printing, this dulls edges of lines and graphic boundaries, and lessens pigment intensity.\n", "Section::::Printers.\n\nDot matrix and daisy wheel impact printers are also able to use carbon paper to produce several copies of a document in one pass, and most models feature adjustable impact power and head spacing to accommodate up to three copies plus the original printout. Usually, this feature is used in conjunction with continuous, prearranged perforated paper and carbon supplies for use with a tractor feeder, rather than with single sheets of paper, for example, when printing out commercial invoices or receipts.\n", "Recent advances in technology and miniaturization have seen the development and deployment of electronic flight bags (EFBs), which contain electronic manuals and documents, as well as automated calculation and navigation tools. According to United Airlines, a conventional paper-based flight bag contains an average of 12,000 sheets of paper per pilot. The airline estimated that deployment of an EFB system running on Apple iPads would save the airline nearly 16 million sheets of paper a year, as well as saving 326,000 gallons of jet fuel due to the reduced weight on board the aircraft.\n", "Section::::PC usage.:Personal computers.:PC Software.\n\nInitially, third-party printer enhancement software offered a quick fix to the quality issue. General strategies were:\n\nBULLET::::- doublestrike (print each line twice), and\n\nBULLET::::- double-density mode (slow the print head to allow denser and more precise dot placement).\n\nSome newer dot-matrix impact printers could reproduce bitmap images via \"dot-addressable\" capability. In 1981, Epson offered a retrofit EPROM kit called Graftrax to add this to many early MX series printers. Banners and signs produced with software that used this ability, such as Broderbund's Print Shop, became ubiquitous in offices and schools throughout the 1980s.\n", "The dot pattern can be printed on a professional offset printing press or on a laser printer. Dots are printed in black; other colors of ink are invisible to the pen's IR sensor. On a color laser printer, CMY can be mixed to produce a near-black color that is human-readable. For offset printing, Anoto developed an ink color called \"Anoto substitute black\", a non-carbon-based black ink that is invisible in the IR region, allowing the user to include human-readable black marks with the dot pattern without interference.\n", "During the printing process the print-shuttle vibrates in horizontal direction with high speed while the print hammers are fired selectively. Each hammer prints a series of dots in horizontal direction for one pass of the shuttle, then paper advances at one step and the shuttle prints the following row of dots\n\nSection::::Line Matrix Printers versus Laser Printers.\n", "Impact dot matrix printing uses a print head that moves back-and-forth, or in an up-and-down motion, on the page and prints by impact, striking an ink-soaked cloth ribbon against the paper, much like the print mechanism on a typewriter. However, unlike a typewriter or daisy wheel printer, letters are drawn out of a dot matrix, and thus, varied fonts and arbitrary graphics can be produced.\n\nThese printers can print on multi-part (carbon or carbonless paper) forms since they print using mechanical pressure.\n", "Section::::Uses.\n\nThe hardware known as dot matrix printers, in the 1970s and 1980s, were generally considered the best combination of expense and versatility, and until the 1990s they were by far the most common form of printer used with personal and home computers.\n\nSection::::Advantages and disadvantages.\n", "The alternative to dot matrix printing is sometimes known as a letter-quality printer or a line printer which use fully formed type elements that impact a sheet of paper.\n\nSection::::Overview.\n", "A DOD process uses software that directs the heads to apply between zero and eight droplets of ink per dot, only where needed. Piezo inkjet technology is often used on production lines to mark products. For instance, the \"use-before\" date is often applied to products with this technique; in this application the head is stationary and the product moves past. This application requires a relatively large gap between the print head and the substrate, but also yields a high speed, a long service life, and low operating cost.\n\nSection::::Ink formulations.\n", "In addition a strip may be \"cocked out\", or offset, from normal alignment to highlight potential issues. This can be used either as a personal reminder or as a form of communication between controllers.\n\nFor filed flight plans, strips are initially printed from a computer and often contain more information than this. Further information is then added by controllers and assistants in various colored pens to show the role of person making the annotation. For 'free-calling' aircraft (generally smaller aircraft transiting airspace), strips must be fully hand-written by the controller or assistant from information passed by radio.\n", "One of the Indigo Forms software's innovations when it was introduced was its ability to have its forms installed into Laserjet font cartridges. This meant that the product only had to send forms data to the printer; since the form was already encoded in the font cartridge. Given the slow printer interfaces used at that time, this greatly reduced print times.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Adobe Central / Central Pro Output Server end of Extended Support, June 30, 2016\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Legacy JetForm/Accelio Form Products FAQ\", PDF, accessed November 3, 2005\n", "In a commercial environment such as an office, it is becoming increasingly common for businesses to use external software that increases the performance and efficiency of laser printers in the workplace. Software can be used to set rules dictating how employees interact with printers, such as setting limits on how many pages can be printed per day, limiting usage of color ink, and flagging jobs that appear to be wasteful.\n\nSection::::Color laser printers.\n", "BULLET::::- gathering embedded image and graphic files to one location accessible to the system\n\nBULLET::::- compressing files into an archive format\n\nThe specifics of what checks are made is governed by the features of the preflight application, the formats of the client provided files, and the targeted output device as well as the printing specifications.\n", "In some countries, strips have been replaced by electronic equivalents. These generally use touch-screens to show the flight information, while still trying to keep some of the physical aspects of paper strips and strip racks.\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Saipher ATC - Electronic Flight Strips (see TATIC® Solution)\n\nBULLET::::- FAAO 7110.65 Chapter 2: General Control, Section 3: Flight Progress Strips\n\nBULLET::::- UK CAP493 Manual of Air Traffic Services, Part 1 Appendix D\n\nBULLET::::- Nav Canada's NavCan ATM, NavCan Strips system\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- The use of Flight Progress Strips at Ronaldsway Airport, Isle of Man\n", "Section::::Safety hazards, health risks, and precautions.:Air transport ban.\n\nAfter the 2010 cargo plane bomb plot, in which shipments of laser printers with explosive-filled toner cartridges were discovered on separate cargo airplanes, the US Transportation Security Administration prohibited pass-through passengers from carrying toner or ink cartridges weighing over on inbound flights, in both carry-on and checked luggage. \"PC Magazine\" noted that the ban would not impact most travelers, as the majority of cartridges do not exceed the prescribed weight.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Cardboard engineering\n\nBULLET::::- Daisy wheel printer\n\nBULLET::::- Document automation\n\nBULLET::::- Dot matrix printer\n\nBULLET::::- Dye-sublimation printer\n\nBULLET::::- LED printer\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04411	If a virus requires a living host to survive then how can viruses exist in the first place?	The answer is not clear; as of now. One of the main theories is that viruses were originally alive but over time, they have devolved into needing a living host.	[ "The mechanisms for infection, proliferation, and persistence of a virus in cells of the host are crucial for its survival. For example, some diseases such as measles employ a strategy whereby it must spread to a series of hosts. In these forms of viral infection, the illness is often treated by the body's own immune response, and therefore the virus is required to disperse to new hosts before it is destroyed by immunological resistance or host death. In contrast, some infectious agents such as the Feline leukemia virus, are able to withstand immune responses and are capable of achieving long-term residence within an individual host, whilst also retaining the ability to spread into successive hosts.\n", "Viral life cycle\n\nViruses are only able to replicate themselves by commandeering the reproductive apparatus of cells and making them reproduce the virus's genetic structure instead. Thus, a virus cannot function or reproduce outside a cell, thereby being totally dependent on a host cell in order to survive. Most viruses are species specific, and related viruses typically only infect a narrow range of plants, animals, bacteria, or fungi.\n\nSection::::Life cycle process.\n\nSection::::Life cycle process.:Viral entry.\n", "Viral production without cell lysis has recently been observed in \"O. tauri\" cells. Thomas et al. (2011) found that in resistant host cells, the viral genome was replicated and viruses were released via a budding mechanism. This low rate of viral release through budding allows for prolonged survivability of the host and virus progeny, resulting in a stable co-existence.\n\nSection::::Encoded proteins.\n", "It is common for viruses to take pieces of their host's genome with them if it aids their success. On the other hand, hosts can also keep viral DNA in their genome in some advantageous or non-deleterious cases. In the case of HERVs, viral DNA integrated into the germ-line genome of a human ancestor. Thus, all the progeny of the infected human ancestor would have this viral genome integrated into every cell in their bodies.\n", "Section::::How Host Tropism Works.:Transcription Factors, Nutrients, and Pathogenic Replication.\n\nIn order for viruses to replicate within a host cell and for bacteria to carry out the metabolic processes needed to grow and divide, they must first take in necessary nutrients and transcription factors from their surroundings. Even if a virus is able to bind to a host cell and transfer its genetic material through the cell membrane, the cell may not contain the necessary polymerases and enzymes necessary for viral replication to occur and for pathogenesis to continue.\n", "Opinions differ on whether viruses are a form of life, or organic structures that interact with living organisms. They have been described as \"organisms at the edge of life\", since they resemble organisms in that they possess genes, evolve by natural selection, and reproduce by creating multiple copies of themselves through self-assembly. Although they have genes, they do not have a cellular structure, which is often seen as the basic unit of life. Viruses do not have their own metabolism, and require a host cell to make new products. They therefore cannot naturally reproduce outside a host cell—although bacterial species such as rickettsia and chlamydia are considered living organisms despite the same limitation. Accepted forms of life use cell division to reproduce, whereas viruses spontaneously assemble within cells. They differ from autonomous growth of crystals as they inherit genetic mutations while being subject to natural selection. Virus self-assembly within host cells has implications for the study of the origin of life, as it lends further credence to the hypothesis that life could have started as self-assembling organic molecules.\n", "The virus has also evolved to become more infectious between hosts. There are three different mechanisms that allow HIV to evolve at a population level. One includes the continuous battle to evolve and overcome the immune system which slows down the evolution of HIV and shifts the virus’ focus towards a population level. Another includes the slow evolution of viral load due to viral load mutations being neutral within the host. The last mechanism focuses on the virus' preference to transmit founding viral strains stored during the early stages of infection. This preference of the virus to transmit its stored genome copies explains why HIV evolves more quickly within the host than between hosts.\n", "After a virus has made many copies of itself, it has usually exhausted the cell of its resources. The host cell is now no longer useful to the virus, therefore the cell often dies and the newly produced viruses must find a new host. The process by which virus progeny are released to find new hosts, is called shedding. This is the final stage in the viral life cycle.\n\nSection::::Life cycle process.:Viral latency.\n", "Next, a virus must take control of the host cell's replication mechanisms. It is at this stage a distinction between susceptibility and permissibility of a host cell is made. Permissibility determines the outcome of the infection. After control is established and the environment is set for the virus to begin making copies of itself, replication occurs quickly by the millions.\n\nSection::::Life cycle process.:Viral shedding.\n", "Viral host tropism is determined by a combination of susceptibility and permissiveness: a host cell must be both permissive (allow viral replication) and susceptible (possess the receptor complement needed for viral entry) for a virus to establish infection. Once a virus binds to a host cell, the host cell must then provide the necessary transcription factors needed for viral replication to be carried out. When the virus is able to use the cell to replicate its genetic information, the virus can spread infection throughout the body.\n\nSection::::Viral Tropism.:Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV).\n", "The evolution of viruses, which often occurs in concert with the evolution of their hosts, is studied in the field of viral evolution.\n\nWhile viruses reproduce and evolve, they do not engage in metabolism, do not move, and depend on a host cell for reproduction. The often-debated question of whether they are alive or not is a matter of definition that does not affect the biological reality of viruses.\n\nSection::::Viral diseases and host defenses.\n", "The most common argument in support of viruses as living organisms is their ability to undergo evolution and replicate through self-assembly. Some scientists argue that viruses neither evolve nor self- reproduce. In fact, viruses are evolved by their host cells, meaning that there was co-evolution of viruses and host cells. If host cells did not exist, viral evolution would be impossible. This is not true for cells. If viruses did not exist, the direction of cellular evolution could be different, but cells would nevertheless be able to evolve. As for the reproduction, viruses totally rely on hosts' machinery to replicate. The discovery of viral metagenomes with genes coding for energy metabolism and protein synthesis fueled the debate about whether viruses belong in the tree of life. The presence of these genes suggested that viruses were once able to metabolize. However, it was found later that the genes coding for energy and protein metabolism have a cellular origin. Most likely, these genes were acquired through horizontal gene transfer from viral hosts.\n", "Transmission between the vector and the host occurs when the vector feeds on the blood of the vertebrate, wherein the virus that has established an infection in the salivary glands of the vector comes into contact with the host's blood. While the virus is inside the host, it undergoes a process called amplification, where the virus replicates at sufficient levels to induce viremia, a condition in which there are large numbers of viruses present in the blood. The abundance of viruses in the host's blood allows the host to transmit the virus to other organisms if its blood is consumed by them. When uninfected vectors become infected from feeding, they are then capable of transmitting the virus to uninfected hosts, resuming amplification of virus populations. If viremia is not achieved in a vertebrate, the species can be called a \"dead-end host\", as the virus cannot be transmitted back to the vector.\n", "A provirus does not directly make new DNA copies of itself while integrated into a host genome in this way. Instead, it is passively replicated along with the host genome and passed on to the original cell's offspring; all descendants of the infected cell will also bear proviruses in their genomes. This is known as lysogenic viral reproduction. Integration can result in a latent infection or a productive infection. In a productive infection, the provirus is transcribed into messenger RNA which directly produces new virus, which in turn will infect other cells via the lytic cycle. A latent infection results when the provirus is transcriptionally silent rather than active.\n", "Many viruses specialize in infecting related hosts. Viral generalists that infect hosts across taxonomic orders may exist. Most CRISPR spacer matches were from viral sequences to hosts within one species or genus. Some mVCs were linked to multiple hosts from higher taxa. A viral group composed of macs from human oral samples contained three distinct photo-spacers with nearly exact matches to spacers in Actionbacteria and Firmicutes.\n", "Section::::Transmission.\n\nViruses have been able to continue their infectious existence due to evolution. Their rapid mutation rates and natural selection has given viruses the advantage to continue to spread. One way that viruses have been able to spread is with the evolution of virus transmission. The virus can find a new host through:\n\nBULLET::::- Droplet transmission- passed on through body fluids (sneezing on someone)\n\nBULLET::::- An example is the influenza virus\n\nBULLET::::- Airborne transmission- passed on through the air (brought in by breathing)\n\nBULLET::::- An example would be how viral meningitis is passed on\n", "BULLET::::- Vector transmission- picked up by a carrier and brought to a new host\n\nBULLET::::- An example is viral encephalitis\n\nBULLET::::- Waterborne transmission- leaving a host, infecting the water, and being consumed in a new host\n\nBULLET::::- Poliovirus is an example for this\n\nBULLET::::- Sit-and-wait-transmission- the virus is living outside a host for long periods of time\n\nBULLET::::- The smallpox virus is also an example for this\n", "Endogenous retroviruses and other EVEs that occur as proviruses can potentially remain capable of producing infectious virus in their endogenous state. Replication of such 'active' endogenous viruses can lead to the proliferation of viral insertions in the germline. For most non-retroviral viruses, germline integration appears to be a rare, anomalous event, and the resulting EVEs are often only fragments of the parent virus genome. Such fragments are usually not capable of producing infectious virus, but may express protein or RNA and even cell surface receptors.\n\nSection::::Diversity and distribution.\n", "The human immunodeficiency virus exhibits host tropism for CD4 related immune cells (e.g. T helper cells, macrophages or dendritic cells). These cells express a CD4 receptor, to which HIV can bind, through the gp120 and gp41 proteins on its surface. HIV also requires a second co-receptor along with the CD4-gp120 complex to enter the target cells - either CCR5 or CXCR4. This demonstrates an example of how cell surface receptors can affect the tropism of a viral pathogen. Since humans are the only organisms that have cells with these receptors, HIV only displays host tropism for humans. Simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), a virus similar to HIV, is capable of infecting primates.\n", "Some viruses can cause lifelong or chronic infections where the viruses continue to reproduce in the body despite the host's defence mechanisms. This is common in hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C virus infections. People chronically infected with a virus are known as carriers. They serve as important reservoirs of the virus. If there is a high proportion of carriers in a given population, a disease is said to be endemic.\n", "As a member of the group I of the Baltimore classification, \"Enterobacteria phage Wphi\" is a dsDNA viruses. All the members of family Myoviridae share a nonenveloped morphology consisting of a head and a tail separated by a neck. Its genome is linear. The propagation of the virions includes the attaching to a host cell (a bacterium, as \"Enterobacteria phage Wphi\" is a bacteriophage) and the injection of the double stranded DNA; the host transcribes and translates it to manufacture new particles. To replicate its genetic content requires host cell DNA polymerases and, hence, the process is highly dependent on the cell cycle.\n", "There is ongoing debate as to whether viruses can be included in the tree of life. The ten arguments against include the fact that they are obligate intracellular parasites that lack metabolism and are not capable of replication outside of a host cell. Another argument is that their placement in the tree would be problematic, since it is suspected that viruses have arisen multiple times, and they have a penchant for harvesting nucleotide sequences from their hosts.\n\nOn the other hand, arguments favor their inclusion.\n", "Generally, at each pandemic event, the new form of the virus outcompetes existing lineages.\n\nThe study of viral phylodynamics in influenza primarily focuses on the continual circulation and evolution of epidemic influenza, rather than on pandemic emergence.\n\nOf central interest to the study of viral phylodynamics is the distinctive phylogenetic tree of epidemic influenza A/H3N2, which shows a single predominant trunk lineage that persists through time and side branches that persist for only 1–5 years before going extinct.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Phylodynamics of influenza.:Selective pressures.\n", "Viral replication is nuclear. Entry into the host cell is achieved by attachment to host receptors, which mediate internalization via endocytosis. Capsids are metastable, undergoing a series of structural shifts during cell entry that sequentially expose peptides carrying PLA2 activity and trafficking signals . These signals ultimately mediate delivery of the intact virion into the cell nucleus, where genome uncoating allows the establishment of viral DNA replication and transcription complexes that rely predominantly upon the synthetic machinery of their host cell. Replication follows the unidirectional strand displacement mechanism discussed above. Packaged virions from viruses in at least two genera (\"Protoparvovirus\" and \"Bocaparvovirus\") have mechanisms that allow mature virions to be trafficked out of viable host cells prior to cell lysis, but members of most other genera are only released into the environment following death and lysis of the infected cell. Natural animal hosts for parvoviruses include a wide range of vertebrates, arthropods (insects and some crustacea) and echinoderms (sea stars). For viruses in the \"Parvovirinae\" transmission routes are commonly fecal-oral or respiratory.\n", "Through these mechanisms new viruses are constantly emerging and present a continuing challenge in attempts to control the diseases they cause. Most species of viruses are now known to have common ancestors, and although the \"virus first\" hypothesis has yet to gain full acceptance, there is little doubt that the thousands of species of modern viruses have evolved from less numerous ancient ones. The morbilliviruses, for example, are a group of closely related, but distinct viruses that infect a broad range of animals. The group includes measles virus, which infects humans and primates; canine distemper virus, which infects many animals including dogs, cats, bears, weasels and hyaenas; rinderpest, which infected cattle and buffalo; and other viruses of seals, porpoises and dolphins. Although it is not possible to prove which of these rapidly evolving viruses is the earliest, for such a closely related group of viruses to be found in such diverse hosts suggests the possibility that their common ancestor is ancient.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-07162	How do countries get rid of nuclear warheads when they decide they no longer want/need them?	They take them apart and mix the plutonium with a ceramic forming a fuel pellet. These pellets are then shipped to the correct type of nuclear reactor and used as nuclear fuel. A lot of Soviet and American warheads dismantled due to treaties ended up as fuel in Canadian nuclear reactors as the two powers didn't trust each other.	[ "The United States is one of the five recognized nuclear powers by the signatories of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT). As of 2017, the US has an estimated 4,018 nuclear weapons in either deployment or storage. This figure compares to a peak of 31,225 total warheads in 1967 and 22,217 in 1989, and does not include \"several thousand\" warheads that have been retired and scheduled for dismantlement. The Pantex Plant near Amarillo, Texas, is the only location in the United States where weapons from the aging nuclear arsenal can be refurbished or dismantled.\n", "Under terms of the treaty, the number of strategic nuclear missile launchers will be reduced by half. A new inspection and verification regime will be established, replacing the SORT mechanism. It does not limit the number of operationally inactive stockpiled nuclear warheads that remain in the high thousands in both the Russian and American inventories.\n\nSection::::Overview.\n", "All of the former Soviet bloc countries with nuclear weapons (Belarus, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan) returned their warheads to Russia by 1996.\n", "The United States has also purchased many thousands of weapons' worth of uranium formerly in Soviet nuclear weapons for conversion into reactor fuel. As a consequence of this latter effort, it has been estimated that the equivalent of one lightbulb in every ten in the United States is powered by nuclear fuel removed from warheads previously targeted at the United States and its allies during the Cold War.\n", "In 1996, the US government decided that large numbers of its nuclear weapons would require replacement, refurbishing, or decommissioning. Accordingly, the Department of Energy set up a refurbishment program aimed at extending the service lives of older nuclear weapons. In 2000, the NNSA specified a life-extension program for W76 warheads that would enable them to remain in service until at least 2040.\n", "The alternating layers of fission and fusion material in the secondary are an application of the Alarm Clock/Sloika principle.\n\nSection::::Specific designs.:Reliable replacement warhead.\n\nThe United States has not produced any nuclear warheads since 1989, when the Rocky Flats pit production plant, near Boulder, Colorado, was shut down for environmental reasons. With the end of the Cold War two years later, the production line was idled except for inspection and maintenance functions.\n", "BULLET::::- \"F1 TURBO - Once Around The Block\" (1986) – follows the development of the Ford Cosworth GBA TEC V6 Twin Turbo Formula 1 engine\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dismantling The Bomb\" (1994) – just how do you dismantle the world's nuclear weapons stockpile?\n\nBULLET::::- \"It Runs On Water\" (1995) – the alternative energy and over-unity energy revolution – foreword by Arthur C Clarke\n\nBULLET::::- \"A Very British Bomb\" (1997) – the development of the UK's home grown H-bomb\n", "A major downblending undertaking called the Megatons to Megawatts Program converts ex-Soviet weapons-grade HEU to fuel for U.S. commercial power reactors. From 1995 through mid-2005, 250 tonnes of high-enriched uranium (enough for 10,000 warheads) was recycled into low-enriched-uranium. The goal is to recycle 500 tonnes by 2013. The decommissioning programme of Russian nuclear warheads accounted for about 13% of total world requirement for enriched uranium leading up to 2008.\n", "The United States Enrichment Corporation has been involved in the disposition of a portion of the 174.3 tonnes of highly enriched uranium (HEU) that the U.S. government declared as surplus military material in 1996. Through the U.S. HEU Downblending Program, this HEU material, taken primarily from dismantled U.S. nuclear warheads, was recycled into low-enriched uranium (LEU) fuel, used by nuclear power plants to generate electricity.\n\nBULLET::::- A uranium downblending calculator designed by the WISE Uranium Project\n\nSection::::Global enrichment facilities.\n", "BULLET::::- 1990 – October 16 – The Radiation Exposure Compensation Act is ratified in the United States, providing monetary compensation to victims of radiation-related illnesses, including cancer, caused by contact with nuclear testing and uranium mining.\n\nBULLET::::- 1991 – South Africa signs the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty; they also announce that from 1979 to 1989, they had built and then dismantled a number of nuclear weapons. The IAEA confirms that the program has been fully dismantled.\n\nBULLET::::- 1991 – France and China ratify the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.\n", "By 1999, all the warhead's various parts had been dismantled. The high explosives were removed from around the plutonium pits at the Pantex Plant and the pits were put into secure storage. Non-nuclear components were taken to the Savannah River Site and the National Security Campus. The canned subassemblies were moved to Y-12 National Security Complex, where recovery of the uranium began in 2012 and was completed in 2016.\n\nThe W69 design was one of many derived from the B61 nuclear bomb design.\n\nSection::::Specifications.\n", "In 2014, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists released a report, stating that there are a total of 2,530 warheads kept in reserve, and 2,120 actively deployed. Of the warheads actively deployed, the number of strategic warheads rests at 1,920 (subtracting 200 tactical B61s as part of Nato nuclear weapon sharing arrangements). The amount of warheads being actively disabled rests at about 2,700 warheads, which brings the total United States inventory to about 7,400 warheads.\n\nSection::::Nuclear weapons.:Land-based ICBMs.\n", "The Cooperative Threat Reduction program of the Defense Threat Reduction Agency was established after the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991 to aid former Soviet bloc countries in the inventory and destruction of their sites for developing nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons, and their methods of delivering them (ICBM silos, long-range bombers, etc.). Over $4.4 billion has been spent on this endeavor to prevent purposeful or accidental proliferation of weapons from the former Soviet arsenal.\n", "Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, a number of Soviet-era nuclear warheads remained on the territories of Belarus, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan. Under the terms of the Lisbon Protocol to the NPT, and following the 1995 Trilateral Agreement between Russia, Belarus, and the USA, these were transferred to Russia, leaving Russia as the sole inheritor of the Soviet nuclear arsenal. It is estimated that the Soviet Union had approximately 45,000 nuclear weapons stockpiled at the time of its collapse.\n", "In 2004, Polish troops found nineteen 1980s-era rocket warheads, thwarting an attempt by militants to buy them at $5000 each. Some of the rockets contained extremely deteriorated nerve agent.\n", "Since the United States has also not tested nuclear weapons since 1992, this leaves the task of its stockpile maintenance resting on the use of simulations (using non-nuclear explosives tests and supercomputers, among other methods) and applications of scientific knowledge about physics and chemistry to the specific problems of weapons aging (the latter method is what is meant when various agencies refer to their work as \"science-based\"). It also involves the manufacture of additional plutonium \"pits\" to replace ones of unknown quality, and finding other methods to increase the lifespan of existing warheads and maintain a confident nuclear deterrent.\n", "Section::::Nuclear weapons.:Dismantling.\n", "The increase of decommissioned missile silos has led governments to sell some of them to private individuals. Some buyers convert them into unique homes, ultimate safe rooms, or for other purposes.\n\nIn 2000 William Leonard Pickard and a partner were convicted, in the largest lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) manufacturing case in history, of conspiracy to manufacture large quantities of LSD in a decommissioned SM-65 Atlas missile silo near Wamego, Kansas.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Missile launch control center\n\nBULLET::::- Minuteman Missile National Historic Site\n\nBULLET::::- Titan Missile Museum\n\nBULLET::::- Transporter erector launcher\n\nBULLET::::- Underground Great Wall of China\n", "During the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, huge stockpiles of uranium were amassed and tens of thousands of nuclear weapons were created using enriched uranium and plutonium made from uranium. Since the break-up of the Soviet Union in 1991, an estimated 600 short tons (540 metric tons) of highly enriched weapons grade uranium (enough to make 40,000 nuclear warheads) have been stored in often inadequately guarded facilities in the Russian Federation and several other former Soviet states. Police in Asia, Europe, and South America on at least 16 occasions from 1993 to 2005 have intercepted shipments of smuggled bomb-grade uranium or plutonium, most of which was from ex-Soviet sources. From 1993 to 2005 the Material Protection, Control, and Accounting Program, operated by the federal government of the United States, spent approximately US $550 million to help safeguard uranium and plutonium stockpiles in Russia. This money was used for improvements and security enhancements at research and storage facilities. \"Scientific American\" reported in February 2006 that in some of the facilities security consisted of chain link fences which were in severe states of disrepair. According to an interview from the article, one facility had been storing samples of enriched (weapons grade) uranium in a broom closet before the improvement project; another had been keeping track of its stock of nuclear warheads using index cards kept in a shoe box.\n", "BULLET::::- Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons—signed 2017, not yet in force: prohibits possession, manufacture, development, and testing of nuclear weapons, or assistance in such activities, by its parties.\n\nOnly one country has been known to ever dismantle their nuclear arsenal completely—the apartheid government of South Africa apparently developed half a dozen crude fission weapons during the 1980s, but they were dismantled in the early 1990s.\n\nSection::::United Nations.\n", "BULLET::::- Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty (SORT or Moscow Treaty)—signed 2002, into force 2003: A very loose treaty that is often criticized by arms control advocates for its ambiguity and lack of depth, Russia and the United States agreed to reduce their \"strategic nuclear warheads\" (a term that remained undefined in the treaty) to between 1,700 and 2,200 by 2012. Was superseded by New Start Treaty in 2010.\n", "Section::::Life cycle of nuclear fuel.:Nuclear decommissioning.\n\nThe financial costs of every nuclear power plant continues for some time after the facility has finished generating its last useful electricity. Once no longer economically viable, nuclear reactors and uranium enrichment facilities are generally decommissioned, returning the facility and its parts to a safe enough level to be entrusted for other uses, such as greenfield status.\n\nAfter a cooling-off period that may last decades, reactor core materials are dismantled and cut into small pieces to be packed in containers for interim storage or transmutation experiments.\n", "As nuclear weapons are becoming surplus to national military interests, they are slowly being dismantled, and in some cases their fissile material is being recycled to fuel civilian nuclear-reactors.\n\nSection::::Radiation legacies.\n", "The Treaty of Pelindaba came into effect on 15 July 2009 once it had been ratified by 28 countries. This treaty requires that parties will not engage in the research, development, manufacture, stockpiling acquisition, testing, possession, control or stationing of nuclear explosive devices in the territory of parties to the treaty and the dumping of radioactive wastes in the African zone by treaty parties. The African Commission on Nuclear Energy, in order to verify compliance with the treaty, has been established and will be headquartered in South Africa.\n\nSection::::Nuclear weapons.:Dismantling.:Weapons grade uranium stores.\n", "Only one country—South Africa—has ever fully renounced nuclear weapons they had independently developed. The former Soviet republics of Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine returned Soviet nuclear arms stationed in their countries to Russia after the collapse of the USSR.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-14814	why does california always have big wildfires?	Drought, lightning strikes, dead forests, pollution, and cigarette butts. It's the same in B.C., which has been on fire every summer for the past seven years.	[ "Because natural wildfires are more likely to appear towards the end of long, dry summers, they have become a more serious problem in recent years because of climate change, which makes wildfires increasingly larger and more frequent. Additionally, climate change has also widened the wildfire \"season\" from a few summer months to virtually the entire year. At the same time, climate scientists are expecting that climate change will diminish the strength of the Santa Ana winds, potentially limiting its role in spreading wildfires.\n\nSection::::Physical Geography.\n", "With the mild rainy winters, California is more susceptible to drought, and in many parts of the state including Eastern California, there is very high fire danger and there have been several devastating wildfires.\n\nSection::::Economy.\n", "California has dry, windy and often hot weather conditions from spring through late autumn that can produce moderate to devastating wildfires. At times, these wildfires are fanned or made worse by strong, dry winds, known as Diablo winds when they occur in the northern part of the state and Santa Ana winds when they occur in the south. Wildfires in California are growing more dangerous because of climate change and because people build more in rural burn areas. United States taxpayers pay about US$3 billion a year to fight wildfires, and big fires can lead to billions of dollars in property losses.\n", "On July 5, 2008, California Governor Schwarzenegger commented that \"I've been driving up and down the state of California going to all the various fires, and you can imagine, this state is very prepared for fire, but when you wake up one morning and have 500 fires across the state, it was a real shock to me... only to find the next morning there were 1,000 fires, and the next morning 1,400 fires, and then 1,700 fires igniting over 14 days.\"\n", "Section::::Climate.:Wildfires.\n\nBecause of the hot, dry and windy nature of southern California, wildfires are common. While most of them only affect small areas, wildfire can quickly get out of control and spread across large areas of woodland, particularly when fanned by the Santa Ana winds. Hot and extremely dry, they are also known as \"Devil winds\", and descend on the coastal region from the continental interior of the American West, increasing in temperature as they approach the ocean.\n", "In some parts of California, fires can recur in areas with histories of fires. In Oakland for example fires of various size and ignition occurred in 1923, 1931, 1933, 1937, 1946, 1955, 1960, 1961, 1968, 1970, 1980, 1990, 1991, 1995, 2002, and 2008. Orange County, Riverside County, San Bernardino County, and Los Angeles County are other examples. Orange and San Bernardino counties share a border that runs north to south through the Chino Hills State Park, with the park's landscape ranging from large green coastal sage scrub, grassland, and woodland, to areas of brown sparsely dense vegetation made drier by droughts or hot summers. The valley's grass and barren land can become easily susceptible to dry spells and drought, therefore making it a prime spot for brush fires and conflagration, many of which have occurred since 1914. Hills and canyons have seen brush or wildfires in 1914, the 1920s, 1930s, 1940s, 1950s, 1960s, 1970s, 1980s, 1990s, 2000s, and into today.\n", "The ENSO cycle has a huge effect on rainfall and snowfall patterns in California, especially during the winter and spring seasons. During the El Niño phase, the jet stream is located south through California, allowing for warmer temperatures and more heavy rains to occur, particularly in the southern portions of the state. During the La Niña phase, the jet stream is much further north, and therefore the far northern portions of California are wetter, while the southern half stays cool and dry.\n\nSection::::Wildfires.\n", "By July 5, 2008, 328 wildfires were burning, and those fires were only 81% contained. For the first time since 1977, the US military helped with ground-based firefighting, when Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger dispatched 400 California National Guard troops, including Chief Medical Officer Susan Pangelinan, to manage fire lines. He said the number of fires had stretched the state's fire-fighting resources thin. \"One never has resources for 1,700 fires. Who has the resources for that?\" Schwarzenegger said, adding, \"Something is happening, clearly. There's more need for resources than ever before... it's fire season all year round.\"\n\nSection::::Major Fires.\n", "Section::::Western U.S. wildfire trends.\n\nOver the last several decades, the Western United States has become a region of widespread, high-intensity wildfires. Since the 1970s, the Western U.S. has experienced three times the amount of \"large fires\" (fires that burn 1,000 acres or more) that are now burning on average more than 1.7 million acres of land per year— six times the average of 1970. The region has also experienced wildfire seasons that are 78 days longer than they were in 1970. It has been found that throughout the whole United States, 84% of these wildfires are started by humans.\n", "Summers in inland California can see temperatures well over during the day and less than of monthly rainfall, particularly in the southern areas. This makes them prone to wildfires. These can be life-threatening and cause evacuation. Wildfires are less common along the coast because of the cooler, more humid summers, but can occur in autumn when the marine layer is less common, making temperatures warmer and humidity drop significantly.\n\nSection::::Glossary.\n\nThe following are terms used to describe local or regional weather events.\n", "As a consequence of further global warming, it is projected that there will be an increase in risk due to climate-driven wildfires in the coming decades. Because of warming, frequent droughts, and the legacy of past land management and expansion of residential areas, both people and the ecology with which we coexist are more vulnerable to wildfires. Wildfire activity is closely tied to temperature and drought over time. Globally, the length of the fire season increased by nearly 19% from 1979 to 2013, with significantly longer seasons in the western states. Since 1985, more than 50% of the wildfire area burned in the western United States can be attributed to anthropogenic climate change. In addition, due to human fire suppression methods, there is a build of fuels in some ecosystems, making them more vulnerable to wildfires. There is greater risk of fires occurring in denser, dryer forests, where historically these fires have occurred in low-density areas. Lastly, with increases in human population, we have expanded our communities into areas that are at higher risk to wildfire threat, making these same populations more vulnerable to structural damage and death due to wildfires. Since 1990, the average annual number of homes lost to wildfires has increased by 300%. Almost 900,000 of western US residences are currently in high risk wildfire areas with nearly 35% of wildfires in California starting within this high risk areas. Thus, policies must be generated that allow for adaptation to increased wildfire risk and reduce further vulnerability in these high risk areas.\n", "More than 350,000 people in California live in towns completely within zones considered at very high risk of fire. In total more than 2.7 million people live in \"very high fire hazard severity zones\", when those whose jurisdiction also includes areas at lesser risk.\n\nThe following is a list of notable wildfires of various sizes that have occurred in California.\n\nSection::::Largest wildfires.\n\nThese are the 20 largest wildfires in California since 1932 (when accurate records started to be kept), according to the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection (CAL FIRE).\n", "Throughout the early months of 2017, there was heavy rainfall over most of California, which triggered widespread flooding, thus temporarily mitigating the state's historic drought conditions. However, according to a report published by the National Interagency Fire Center, the potential for large fires was \"expected to remain near normal through the spring, but once fine fuels dry out, there will likely be a spike in grass fire activity.”\n", "In Southern California, the normal wildfire season begins in October, with the arrival of the infamous Santa Ana winds, and it is unusual to see fires spread so rapidly during other times of year. However, temperatures throughout the southern part of the state exceeded 100 °F (38 °C) for much of late August. The combination of high temperatures, low humidity and a large quantity of tinder-dry fuel, some of which had not burnt for decades, allowed some of the normal fires to quickly explode out of control despite the lack of winds to spread the flames. These conditions, along with extreme terrain in many undeveloped areas that slowed access to burn areas, made firefighting difficult.\n", "Major contributing factors to the extreme fire conditions were drought in Southern California, hot weather, and the unusually strong Santa Ana winds, with gusts reaching 112 mph (180 km/h). California's \"fire season,\" which traditionally runs from June to October, has become a year-round threat, due to a mixture of perennial drought and the increasing number of homes built in canyons and on hillsides, surrounded by brush and forest. \n", "Lastly, there have been problems with droughts and pest infestations. These include the roundheaded pine beetle, European mistletoe and caterpillars. Some residents see the event as divine will but others place global warming. It is not know how much of the oaks, junipers and pines that make up most of the forested areas have been compromised but there are visible yellow patches seen in the otherwise green forest. The pests have been able to infest more because trees are weak due to drought conditions.\n", "Major contributing factors to the extreme fire conditions were drought in Southern California, hot weather, and unusually strong Santa Ana winds, with gusts reaching 85 mph (140 km/h). California's \"fire season,\" which traditionally runs from June to October, has become a year-round threat, due to a mixture of perennial drought and the increasing number of homes built in canyons and on hillsides, surrounded by brush and forest.\n", "2014 saw several notable wildfires igniting in California, especially during the month of May, when multiple fires were ablaze concurrently in Southern California, and during September, when several massive wildfires were burning in Northern California. In the context of the 2012–13 North American drought (especially the 2011–17 California drought), as well as powerful Santa Ana winds, weather conditions were ideal for wildfires. A total of 7,865 wildfires ignited throughout the year, which burned at least of land. The wildfires caused a total of 146 injuries and 2 fatalities, in addition to causing at least $204.05 million (2014 USD) in damage. \n", "Increases in wildfire risk pose a threat to conservation in WUI growth regions. Between 1985-94 and 2005-14, the area burned by wildfires in the United States nearly doubled from 18,000 to 33,000 square kilometers, and this increase can partly be attributed to WUI growth. In North America, Chile, and Australia, unnaturally high fire frequencies have resulted in incidences of exotic annual grasses replacing native shrublands.\n\nSection::::Wildfire risk assessment.\n", "BULLET::::- Mount Vision Fire (1995). 45 homes destroyed. Cause: illegal campfire.\n\nSection::::Post-2000.\n\nStarting in 2001, the National Interagency Fire Center began keeping more accurate records on the total fire acreage burned in each state.\n\nSection::::Post-2000.:Yearly statistics.\n\nA 2015 study addressed whether the increase in fire risk in California is attributable to climate change.\n\nSection::::Areas of repeated ignition.\n", "The fire danger in the foothills is very high. Almost all of the cities that the hills go through are cities for which CAL FIRE has made recommendations on Very High Fire Hazard Severity Zones. There have been a number of wild fires in the foothills of the San Gabriel Valley, that is part of the area's natural environment. Global warming has occurred rapidly over the course of the past half-century. In California, less precipitation will occur as snow, meaning that less water is able to be stored in the snow-pack, and that dry summers could see even less water availability. Summertime peak temperatures will increase in many places. Fire \"seasons\" may become even longer. The declaration of fire season in California is actually a change in preparedness levels for the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection. When weather patterns in an area of the state become warm and dry, and vegetation (fuels) are at a low moisture content point, Emergency response dispatch levels are typically increased, facilities are staffed 24 hours a day and additional firefighters are hired. When cooling weather, rain and snow are sufficient to reduce the fire threat, CAL FIRE then reduces its preparedness levels by releasing additional firefighters, closing some of the stations, and repositioning aircraft.\n", "With the adoption of no-till farming practices in the Palouse region in the early 2000s, the negative environmental impact of agriculture has visibly decreased.\n\nSection::::Fires.\n", "BULLET::::- San Francisco reaches a daytime temperature of 106 degrees Fahrenheit, its highest recorded temperature since record keeping began in 1874.\n\nBULLET::::- Hiking and mountain bike trails open to the peak of Mount Umunhum in San Mateo County, a spur of the Bay Area Ridge Trail\n\nBULLET::::- October\n\nBULLET::::- Fourteen large wildfires, including the Atlas and Tubbs Fires, spread over a 200-mile region north of San Francisco, in Napa, Sonoma and Yuba counties, kill at least 10 people and destroy over 1,500 structures \"(smoke from fires pictured)\"\n\nBULLET::::- November\n", "Section::::Level IV ecoregions.:Low Olympics (1c).\n", "Fire suppression and climate change has resulted in larger, more intense wildfire events which are seen today. In economic terms, expenditures used for wildfire suppression in the early 20th century have contributed to increased suppression costs which are being realized today.\n\nSection::::Regional burden of wildfires in the United States.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-23232	Why is music subjective? How can one persons music taste differ completely from another’s?	Almost everything in existence with a taste preference is subjective. I had read somewhere that people’s music taste is generally fixed by age 14, baseline that is. It’s a lot to do with familiarity, what you were raised with, this is why certain musical tastes are highly geographic or cultural. So, if you had an eclectic music taste at 14, you probably still will, if you only listened to hip hop at 14, you probably still will, if you listened to vacuous lowest common denominator ‘radio friendly’ pop at 14, you probably still will. Interestingly, there are some objective factors ubiquitous to almost all global musical cultures that are covered in quite some detail by Dimitri Tymoczko in his book A Geometry of Music. For instance, people overwhelmingly prefer tonal and rhythmic music over atonal or arhthymic ‘music’.	[ "BULLET::::- In music, subjective constancy is the identification of a musical instrument as constant under changing timbre or \"conditions of changing pitch and loudness, in different environments and with different players.\"\n\nBULLET::::- In speech perception this means that vowels or consonants are perceived as constant categories even if acoustically, they vary greatly due to phonetic environment (coarticulation), speech tempo, speaker's age and sex, speaker's dialect, etc.\n\nSection::::Research.\n", "Chapter 4: Analysis of the Subjective Impression of Music\n", "In this framework, Clifton finds that there are two things that separate music from non-music: (1) musical meaning is presentative, and (2) music and non-music are distinguished in the idea of personal involvement. \"It is the notion of personal involvement which lends significance to the word \"ordered\" in this definition of music\" . This is not to be understood, however, as a sanctification of extreme relativism, since \"it is precisely the 'subjective' aspect of experience which lured many writers earlier in this century down the path of sheer opinion-mongering. Later on this trend was reversed by a renewed interest in 'objective,' scientific, or otherwise non-introspective musical analysis. But we have good reason to believe that a musical experience is not a purely private thing, like seeing pink elephants, and that reporting about such an experience need not be subjective in the sense of it being a mere matter of opinion\" .\n", "BULLET::::- \"Aesthetic Claim 2\": The best music arises from an alliance of a compositional grammar with the listening grammar.\n", "Section::::Preferences.:Dual cultures.\n", "BULLET::::- \"By 'esthesic' I understand not merely the artificially attentive hearing of a musicologist, but the description of perceptive behaviors within a given population of listeners; that is how this or that aspect of sonorous reality is captured by their perceptive strategies\" .\n\nBULLET::::- The neutral level is that of the physical \"trace\", (Saussere's sound-image, a sonority, a score), created and interpreted by the esthesic level (which corresponds to a perceptive definition; the perceptive and/or \"social\" construction definitions below) and the poietic level (which corresponds to a creative, as in compositional, definition; the organizational and social construction definitions below).\n", "Section::::Composition and recording.\n", "\"Music, often an art/entertainment, is a total social fact whose definitions vary according to era and culture,\" according to Jean . It is often contrasted with noise. According to musicologist Jean-Jacques Nattiez: \"The border between music and noise is always culturally defined—which implies that, even within a single society, this border does not always pass through the same place; in short, there is rarely a consensus... By all accounts there is no \"single\" and \"intercultural\" universal concept defining what music might be\" . Given the above demonstration that \"there is no limit to the number or the genre of variables that might intervene in a definition of the musical,\" an organization of definitions and elements is necessary.\n", "Section::::19th century aesthetics of music.\n", "Section::::Determinants.:Experience and familiarity: evidence from musical change deafness.\n", "Beginning with Peter Kivy's work in the 1970s, analytic philosophy has contributed extensively to the aesthetics of music. Analytic philosophy pays very little attention to the topic of musical beauty. Instead, Kivy inspired extensive debate about the nature of emotional expressiveness in music. He also contributed to the debate over the nature of authentic performances of older music arguing that much of the debate was incoherent because it failed to distinguish among four distinct standards of authentic performance of music (1995).\n\nSection::::21st century aesthetics of music.\n", "It also became clear that CP was not quite the all-or-none effect Liberman had originally thought it was: It is not that all /pa/s are indistinguishable and all /ba/s are indistinguishable: We can hear the differences, just as we can see the differences between different shades of red. It is just that the within-category differences (pa1/pa2 or red1/red2) sound/look much smaller than the between-category differences (pa2/ba1 or red2/yellow1), even when the size of the underlying physical differences (voicing, wavelength) are actually the same.\n\nSection::::Identification and discrimination tasks.\n", "In the 21st century philosphers such as Nick Zangwill have extended the study of aesthetics in music as studied in the 20th century by scholars such as Jerrold Levinson and Peter Kivy. In his 2014 book on the aesthetics of music titled \"Music and Aesthetic Reality: Formalism and the Limits of Description\", Zangwill introduces his realist position by stating, \"By 'realism' about musical experience, I mean a view that foregrounds the \"aesthetic properties\" of music and our experience of these properties: Musical experience is an awaremeness of an array of sounds and out the sound structure and its aesthetic properties. This is the content of musical experience.\"\n", "Section::::Music vs. musicality.\n", "Section::::Emotion recognition.:Complexity.\n\nBecause musical complexity is a psychophysical dimension, the cue-redundancy model predicts that complexity is perceived independently of experience. However, South African and Finnish listeners assign different complexity ratings to identical African folk songs. Thus, the cue-redundancy model may be overly simplistic in its distinctions between structural feature detection and cultural learning, at least in the case of complexity.\n\nSection::::Emotion recognition.:Repetition.\n", "Most definitions of music include a reference to sound and a list of universals of music can be generated by stating the elements (or aspects) of sound: pitch, timbre, loudness, duration, spatial location and texture (). However, in terms more specifically relating to music: following Wittgenstein, cognitive psychologist Eleanor Rosch proposes that categories are not clean cut but that something may be more or less a member of a category . As such the search for musical universals would fail and would not provide one with a valid definition . This is primarily because other cultures have different understandings in relation to the sounds that English language writers refer to as music.\n", "When listening to music from within one's own cultural tradition, repetition plays a key role in emotion judgments. American listeners who hear classical or jazz excerpts multiple times rate the elicited and conveyed emotion of the pieces as higher relative to participants who hear the pieces once.\n\nSection::::Emotion recognition.:Methodological limitations.\n", "Section::::Definitions.:Social construct.\n\nMany people do, however, share a general idea of music. The Websters definition of music is a typical example: \"the science or art of ordering tones or sounds in succession, in combination, and in temporal relationships to produce a composition having unity and continuity\" (\"Webster's Collegiate Dictionary\", online edition).\n\nSection::::Definitions.:Subjective experience.\n", "“I was always my own worst critic so I would sit down before I format a song and study what are the things to appeal to people … beats, pulse, the instruments and the cords … if you catch them with the music that’s how you draw them in. I make sure the beats are so infectious the words follow automatically.”\n", "Section::::Criticisms and responses.\n\nThe reaction of musicologists to Cantometrics was complex, as some critics questioned whether one could ever have enough statistics to prove anything about music and culture. One, Richard Middleton, called it an example of sociological homology.\n", "Subjective evaluation attempts to measure how well an audio component performs according to the human ear. The most common form of subjective test is a listening test, where the audio component is simply used in the context for which it was designed. This test is popular with hi-fi reviewers, where the component is used for a length of time by the reviewer who then will describe the performance in subjective terms. Common descriptions include whether the component has a 'bright' or 'dull' sound, or how well the component manages to present a 'spatial image'.\n", "More traditional listeners often reject these views sharply, asserting that music can be meaningful, as well as deeply emotional, while being essentially about itself (notes, themes, keys, and so on), and without any connection to the political and societal conflicts of our own day, but consciously associated with non-musical ideas, images, or events (poems, art works, etc.)\n\nSection::::In the Western canon.\n\nSection::::In the Western canon.:Baroque and Classical eras.\n", "Section::::Reception and legacy.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Difference\" (album), a 2005 power metal album by Dreamtale\n\nBULLET::::- \"Differences\" (song), by Ginuwine\n\nBULLET::::- \"Difference in Me\", a song by Westlife from the album \"Gravity (Westlife album)\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Difference\", a song by Westlife from the album \"Where We Are\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Difference\", a song by Nick Jonas from the album \"Last Year Was Complicated\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Difference\", a song by Meek Mill featuring Quavo, from the mixtape \"DC4\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Difference\" (The Wallflowers song), by The Wallflowers\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Difference\" (album)\n\nSection::::Others.\n\nBULLET::::- Difference (philosophy), a key concept in continental philosophy\n", "Section::::Composition and style.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Music taste is entirely subjective." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Music tastes have a lot to do with familiarity, what a person is raised with, and are are highly geographic or cultural. " ]
2018-02755	How do moguls on ski runs get formed? Are they a result of the grooming process or simply the natural result of people skiing down the hill?	They are formed by the action of the skiers. As they turn, they kick up snow, which over time forms the heaps of snow that become moguls. Over time, moguls slowly actually move uphill, as skiers kick snow off the front of each mogul and towards the back. Grooming the piste is what stops them from forming.	[ "Moguls are a series of bumps on a piste formed when skiers push snow into mounds as they do sharp turns. This tends to happen naturally as skiers use the slope but they can also be constructed artificially. Once formed, a naturally occurring mogul tends to grow as skiers follow similar paths around it, further deepening the surrounding grooves known as troughs. Since skiing tends to be a series of linked turns, moguls form together to create a bump field.\n\nThe term \"mogul\" is from the Bavarian/Austrian German word \"Mugel\", meaning \"mound, hillock\".\n\nSection::::Competition.\n", "Snow groomers built for ski slopes employ front mounted, hydraulically operated blades, powered rotary tillers and specialized shaping equipment for not only maintaining ski slopes, but also for building half pipes, ski/snowboard terrain parks and snow tube parks. Cross country ski trails are also groomed in similar fashion, but use specialized drags that imprint ski guides instead of grooming a wide path suitable for high speed snowmobile use.\n\nManufacturers include Formatic, , Prinoth, Ratrak, Logan Machine Company, Tucker Sno-Cat, Snow Trac, Thiokol, the Ohara Corporation (Japan) and Aztec, SAS (France).\n", "Summer training also includes training on trampolines, diving boards, and other acrobatic or gymnastic training apparatus.\n\nSection::::Forms of freestyle skiing.:Mogul skiing.\n\nMoguls are a series of bumps on a trail formed when skiers push the snow into mounds or piles as they execute short-radius turns. Moguls can also be formed deliberately, by piling mounds of snow.\n\nSection::::Forms of freestyle skiing.:Ski ballet (Acroski).\n", "Modern downhill technique is generally a combination of carving and skidding, varying the ratio between the two when rapid control over the turn or speed is required. Nevertheless, pure carving and pure stemming are used in certain circumstances. Pure carving is a useful technique on slopes of moderate steepness and smooth snow—\"groomer carving\" is widespread and there are skis dedicated to this style. However, competitive mogul skiing remains an almost pure parallel Christie technique, although the turn initiation is aided by the moguls themselves.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "In the 1980s, an additional surface lift was installed in parallel to the back side of the Curve T-bar to bring skiers from the base of the far-side chair back up to the front side. One summer Hugh Smyth, then manager of Blackcomb who also worked at Fortress, took this additional lift apart and took it to Blackcomb and installed it on Blackcomb glacier, thereby making Blackcomb’s high alpine glacier more accessible.\n", "Groomed trail skiing occurs at facilities such as Nordmarka (Oslo), Royal Gorge Cross Country Ski Resort and Gatineau Park in Quebec, where trails are laid out and groomed for both classic and skate-skiing. Such grooming and track setting (for classic technique) requires specialized equipment and techniques that adapt to the condition of the snow. Trail preparation employs snow machines which tow snow-compaction, texturing and track-setting devices. Groomers must adapt such equipment to the condition of the snow—crystal structure, temperature, degree of compaction, moisture content, etc. Depending on the initial condition of the snow, grooming may achieve an increase in density for new-fallen snow or a decrease in density for icy or compacted snow. Cross-country ski facilities may incorporate a course design that meets homologation standards for such organizations as the International Olympic Committee, the International Ski Federation, or national standards. Standards address course distances, degree of difficulty with maximums in elevation difference and steepness—both up and downhill, plus other factors.\n", "Different types of skis have different sidecuts. Skis with drastic sidecuts tend to make quicker sharper turns and have a smaller turn radius. For example, a world cup slalom ski would have an extremely large tip (probably around 120 mm) a narrow waist (in around 60mm) and a large tail (slightly narrower than the tip). The drastic shape of this ski would allow it to make extremely quick turns (radius between 11m and 14m) without skidding. The disadvantage to a pronounced sidecut is that the ski will be less stable at high speeds, preferring short, quick turns. Also, skis with a drastic sidecut will perform poorly in moguls. Most skis have a moderate amount of sidecut. This allows reasonably fast turns (radius around 17m on most skis) while still maintaining some stability at higher speeds. Another possibility is a very slight sidecut. This is commonly found on giant slalom skis and competition level mogul skis. The straighter sidecut allows skis to make long, fast, highly stable turns (radius around 30m for giant slalom, even more for most mogul skis). In mogul skis, the narrow width, straighter sidecut, and light weight allow the ski to be maneuvered through the tight troughs in the bumps. Jumping skis are very wide and have virtually parallel sides, as the ski jumper is more concerned about maintaining a fast and straight trajectory, and not turning at all.\n", "BULLET::::- Chaser Clip: Hair is removed from a line below the poll to the stifle, legs are left on. This is a popular clip for steeplechasers as it keeps the horses' back warm but also allows for hard work.\n\nBULLET::::- Strip clip or Belly clip: Hair is clipped along the jugular groove, chest and under the barrel. This is a minimal clip, and many horses with this clip do not need extra care beyond regular blanketing.\n\nSection::::The mane.\n", "These factors contribute to the metamorphism of snow, i.e. the process of reshaping snow crystals into smaller, more rounded ice grains, which in turn consolidates and settles the snow pack. Increased density increases strength by joining of grains though sintering and freezing of melted water. New-fallen snow may have a density of 150 - 200 kg/m. Whereas a snowmobile can pack snow to a density of 300 - 350 kg/m, the densities required for recreational trails are 450 kg/m and for racing, 500 kg/m or higher.\n\nSection::::Grooming.:Grooming basics.\n\nAs described in the \"Cross Country Canada officials manual,\" basic grooming involves six processes, as follows:\n", "Early downhill techniques were based on two techniques, the telemark style or stemming. Over time, the latter became much more popular, and the more athletic telemark has remained a niche technique since the 1900s. Stemming is based on creating turning forces by the edge of the ski over the snow at an angle to the forward movement of the skier. The angle between the ski and the motion over the snow creates sideways forces that cause the skier to turn. In general, the skier angles the ski by keeping the tip roughly in-line with their shoulders, while pushing the tail of the ski out and to the side. The various styles of stemming turns differ primarily in form;\n", "\"Skiers\" include those using either alpine or telemark equipment or, in two instances, a \"mono ski.\" The category here excludes snowboarders on the premise that the orientation of the skier's body to a slope differs significantly from that of a \"boarder\" affecting the capacities to negotiate a pitch. A separate entry tracks snowboard descents on 8000 meter peaks (). Even within the category of \"skiers\" equipment has evolved significantly from the time of Yuichiro Miura's first foray on skis above 8000m in 1970. Big mountain skiers have benefited greatly from incorporation of lighter and stronger composite materials into the manufacture of skis, boots and bindings, reducing the carry weight of their ski gear in addition to similar advances in designs for their other climbing gear and attire. Today's ski-mountaineer has likely shaved .) off their gear packs compared to when, for example, Sylvain Saudan hop turned down the face of Gasherbrum I in 1982, perhaps the first full descent of an 8000-meter peak. The length, width and shape of skis has evolved to facilitate turning and flotation in deeper snow conditions. (Reports for most high altitude descents actually are far more likely to complain of hard, rutted ice than deep snow. Back country skiing whether at altitude or on the lower ranges has also seen the development of \"alpine touring\" bindings with detached and fixed heel configurations for use in both upslope (in the \"walk\" configuration) and downslope (in the \"fixed-heel\" configuration).\n", "Modern alpine skis are shaped to enable carve turning, and have evolved significantly since the 1980's, with variants such as powder skis, freestyle skis, all-mountain skis, kid's skis and more. Powder skis are usually used when there is a large amount of fresh snow, as the shape of a powder ski is wide allowing the ski to float on top of the snow compared to a normal downhill ski which would most likely sink into the snow. Freestyle skis are used by skiers who ski terrain parks. These skis are meant to help a skier who skis jumps, rails, and other features placed throughout the terrain park. Freestyle skis are usually fully symmetric, meaning they are the same dimensions from the tip of the ski to the backside of the ski. All-mountain skis are the most common type of ski, and tend to be used as a typical alpine ski. All-mountain skis are built to do a little bit of everything; they can be used in fresh snow (powder) or used when skiing groomers. Slalom race skis, usually referred to as race skis are short, narrow skis, which tend to be stiffer because they are meant for those who want to go fast as well as make quick sharp turns.\n", "The latest arrival is from UK company Proslope who produce a matting with variable filament lengths to emulate the gradual edge grip and release of snow. As with some other surfaces, the system is coloured white, is modular, and works both with and without a misting system.\n\nSection::::Ski and board preparation.\n", "Snow grooming is the process of manipulating snow for recreational uses with a tractor, snowmobile, piste caterpillar, truck or snowcat towing specialized equipment. The process is used to maintain ski hills, cross country ski trails and snowmobile trails by grooming (moving, flattening, rototilling, or compacting) the snow on them. A snow groomer is usually employed to pack snow and improve skiing and snowboarding and snowmobile trail conditions. The resulting pattern on the snow is known as corduroy, and is widely regarded as a good surface on which to ski or ride. Snow groomers can also move accumulated snow made by snow machines as part of a process, called \"snow farming\".\n", "Section::::Grooming.\n\nUntil well into the 20th century and the advent of mechanized trail grooming, cross-country tracks were always made by the first skiers to pass through undisturbed, fresh snow and leave a parallel set of ski tracks behind them. Certain local and regional trails are available where the passage of skiers is the sole source of tracks.\n\nSection::::Grooming.:Grooming guidance.\n", "In the 1980s the ski area had a beginner slope that was 1/4 mile long, the Middlefield slope, running the full 1/2 mile length of the mountain and was perennially the first slope to open and the last to close each season, the Glade, which was a narrower run than the others and open less frequently, due to the lack of snow making, the 747, which sometimes had moguls near the top and was considered the more Difficult run, and finally, the Dinosaur, presumably named for the small park of dinosaur foot prints at one of the ski area's entrances.\n", "BULLET::::- Grooming procedures – Grooming is best done with a falling temperature—typically after nightfall—to prevent excessive hardening. Once groomed, the tilled surface needs 1–2 hours to coalesce. Too-frequent grooming can destroy snow crystals and contaminate snow with oil and dirt.\n\nSection::::Grooming.:Snow conditions.\n\nSnow conditions define the tools and techniques needed for grooming. The \"Cross Country Canada officials manual\" explains snow conditions, starting with fundamentals of heat gain and loss In the snow layer, which include:\n\nBULLET::::- The temperature gradient within the snow pack from the surface to the ground.\n", "Asymmetrical skis were used at least in northern Finland and Sweden up until the 1930s. On one leg the skier wore a long straight non-arching ski for sliding, and on the other a shorter ski for kicking. The bottom of the short ski was either plain or covered with animal skin to aid this use, while the long ski supporting the weight of the skier was treated with animal fat in similar manner to modern ski waxing. Early record of this type of skis survives in works of Olaus Magnus. He associates them to Sami people and gives Sami names of savek and golos for the plain and skinned short ski. Finnish names for these are \"lyly and kalhu\" for long and short ski.\n", "Ski geometry\n\nSki geometry is the shape of the ski. Described in the direction of travel, the front of the ski, typically pointed or rounded, is the tip, the middle is the waist and the rear is the tail. Skis have four aspects that define their basic performance: length, width, sidecut and camber. Skis also differ in more minor ways to address certain niche roles. For instance, skis for moguls are much softer to absorb shocks from the quick and sharp turns of the moguls and skis for powder are much wider to provide more \"float\" in deeper, softer snow.\n", "Pistes are usually maintained using tracked vehicles known as snowcats to compact or \"groom\" the snow to even out trail conditions, remove moguls, and redistribute snow to extend the ski season. Natural snow is often augmented with snow making machines early in the season or when the snowpack is low.\n\nSection::::Ratings.\n", "Section::::Geometry.\n\nDescribed in the direction of travel, the front of the ski, typically pointed or rounded, is the tip, the middle is the waist and the rear is the tail. Skis have four aspects that define their basic performance: length, width, sidecut and camber. Skis also differ in more minor ways to address certain niche roles. For instance, \"mogul skis\" are softer to absorb shocks, \"powder skis\" are wider to provide more float and \"rocker skis\" bent upwards (\"reverse camber\") at the tip and tail to make it easier to turn in deep and heavy snow.\n\nSection::::Construction.\n", "This type of ski was used at least in northern Finland and Sweden until the 1930s. On one leg, the skier wore a long straight non-arching ski for sliding, and on the other a shorter ski for kicking. The bottom of the short ski was either plain or covered with animal skin to aid this use, while the long ski supporting the weight of the skier was treated with animal fat in similar manner to modern ski waxing. Early record of this type of skis survives in works of Olaus Magnus. He associates them to Sami people and gives Sami names of \"savek\" and \"golos\" for the plain and skinned short ski.\n", "To contrast to the high budget ski films and online webisodes, Line created the Traveling Circus to document pro skiers adventures in an average person’s playground. High School friends and professional skiers Will Wesson and Andy Parry first approached Levinthal with the idea of traveling around and skiing after they graduated from college, and filmed a pilot episode at Mt. Hood, Oregon. \n", "Dry ski slope\n\nA dry ski slope or artificial ski slope is a ski slope that mimics the attributes of snow using materials that are stable at room temperature, to enable people to ski, snowboard or snow tube in places where natural, snow-covered slopes are inconvenient or unavailable.\n", "In 1998, Line introduced a full-length pro model, \"The Ostness Dragon\", as well as a short, center mounted, symmetrical ski called the Twelve Sixty. K2 Skis had previously released the short, unwieldy K2 Poacher, and Salomon had produced the Salomon 1080.\n\nSection::::History.:Post-establishment.\n\nBy this time, in 1999, Levinthal was producing 4,000 skis a year through various garages. Months later, Line Skis was acquired by the Canadian manufacturer Karhu, from Cowansville, Quebec, who began producing Line Skis; Karhu already produced Karhu skis and some Burton snowboards.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-09063	Why does it seem like every movie is produced by both a large well known company and a small, never heard from again company?	The producers for each movie form a company that exists only to finance that movie. This allows them to isolate the money and debt involved with the film. If there is some sort of problem and the production company is sued, then only the money raised for that film is at stake. If a large company produced the film, all their assets could be at stake in a lawsuit. NOTE: I'm not advocating for or against this business practice, merely stating why it happens.	[ "The partners at This Is That have been responsible for over fifty feature films. In addition to their seven Academy Award Nominations their films have received eighteen Indie Spirit Nominations. Three of their films have won the Grand Prize at the Sundance Film Festival. \n\nIn both 2007 & 2008, This Is That producer team has been named in Hollywood Reporter's Indie Power List. \n\nTed Hope was a key figure in the successful 2003 anti-trust suit against the MPAA, popularly known as the Screener Ban. This Is That has been represented by United Talent Agency since 2001.\n\nSection::::Staff.\n", "Section::::Other details.\n\nFor legal reasons, it is common within the entertainment industry for production companies not to accept unsolicited materials from any other company, talent, or the general public. It is also common for filmmakers or producers to become entrepreneurs and open their own production companies so that they can have more control over their careers and pay, while acting as an \"in-house\" creative and business driving force for their company but continuing to freelance as an artist for other companies, if desired.\n\nSection::::Deals.\n", "With at least two films being released each year since their creation in 2004, This Is That also made, in association with Likely Story and This Is That's former partner Anthony Bregman, \"Carriers\", written and directed by brothers Alex and David Pastor, and \"Sleep Dealer\", a Spanish-language science-fiction romance from writer-director Alex Rivera that won the Best Screenplay award at the 2008 Sundance Film Festival.\n\nSection::::Closing.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Parenthood\" (With Universal Pictures)\n\nSection::::Feature-film division.:1990s.\n\n1990\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cry-Baby\" (With Universal Pictures)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Opportunity Knocks\" (With Universal Pictures)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Kindergarten Cop\" (With Universal Pictures)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Problem Child\" (With Universal Pictures)\n\n1991\n\nBULLET::::- \"Backdraft\" (With Universal Pictures)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Closet Land\" (With Universal Pictures)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Doors\" (With TriStar Pictures)\n\nBULLET::::- \"My Girl\" (With Columbia Pictures)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Problem Child 2\" (With Universal Pictures)\n\n1992\n\nBULLET::::- \"Boomerang\" (With Paramount Pictures)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Far and Away\" (With Universal Pictures)\n\nBULLET::::- \"HouseSitter\" (With Universal Pictures)\n\n1993\n\nBULLET::::- \"CB4\" (With Universal Pictures)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cop and a Half\" (With Universal Pictures)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Matilda\" (1978)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Wanderers\" (1979)\n\nBULLET::::- \"A Change of Seasons\" (1980)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Little Lord Fauntleroy\" (1980)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Final Countdown\" (1981)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Das Boot\" (1981)\n\nBULLET::::- \"An American Werewolf in London\" (1981)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dead and Buried\" (1981)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Endless Love\" (1981)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Young Doctors in Love\" (1982)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cujo\" (1983)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Day After\" (1983)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fire and Ice\" (1983)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Never Say Never Again\" (1983)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Outsiders\" (1983)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Silkwood\" (1983)\n\nBULLET::::- \"La Traviata\" (1983)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Adventures of Buckaroo Banzai Across the Eighth Dimension\" (1984)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Defective Detective\" (1984)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Neverending Story\" (1984)\n", "BULLET::::- \"For Love or Money\" (With Universal Pictures)\n\n1994\n\nBULLET::::- \"Greedy\" (With Universal Pictures)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Cowboy Way\" (With Universal Pictures)\n\nBULLET::::- \"My Girl 2\" (With Columbia Pictures)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Paper\" (With Universal Pictures)\n\n1995\n\nBULLET::::- \"Apollo 13\" (With Universal Pictures)\n\n1996\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Chamber\" (With Universal Pictures)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fear\" (With Universal Pictures)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Nutty Professor\" (With Universal Pictures)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ransom\" (With Touchstone Pictures)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sgt. Bilko\" (With Universal Pictures)\n\n1997\n\nBULLET::::- \"Inventing the Abbotts\" (With 20th Century Fox)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Liar Liar\" (With Universal Pictures)\n\n1998 \n\nBULLET::::- \"Mercury Rising\" (With Universal Pictures)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Psycho\" (With Universal Pictures)\n\n1999\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Missing\" (With Columbia Pictures and Revolution Studios)\n\n2004\n\nBULLET::::- \"Friday Night Lights\" (With Universal Pictures)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Alamo\" (With Touchstone Pictures)\n\n2005\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cinderella Man\" (With Universal Pictures and Miramax Films)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Flightplan\" (With Touchstone Pictures)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fun with Dick and Jane\" (With Columbia Pictures)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Inside Deep Throat\" (With Universal Pictures)\n\n2006\n\nBULLET::::- \"Curious George\" (With Universal Pictures)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Da Vinci Code\" (With Columbia Pictures)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Inside Man\" (With Universal Pictures and 40 Acres and a Mule Filmworks)\n\n2007\n\nBULLET::::- \"American Gangster\" (With Universal Pictures and Scott Free Productions)\n\n2008\n\nBULLET::::- \"Changeling\" (With Universal Pictures)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Frost/Nixon\" (With Universal Pictures and StudioCanal, Working Title Films, Relativity Media)\n\n2009\n\nBULLET::::- \"Angels & Demons\" (With Columbia Pictures)\n\nBULLET::::- \"\" (With Universal Pictures)\n\nSection::::Feature-film division.:2010s.\n\n2010\n\nBULLET::::- \"Robin Hood\" (With Universal Pictures)\n\n2011\n\nBULLET::::- \"Take Me Home Tonight\" (With Relativity Media and Rogue Pictures)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Dilemma\" (with Universal Pictures and Spyglass Entertainment)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cowboys & Aliens\" (with Universal Pictures, Paramount Pictures, DreamWorks Pictures and Platinum Studios)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Restless\" (with Sony Pictures Classics and Columbia Pictures)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tower Heist\" (with Universal Pictures and Relativity Media)\n\nBULLET::::- \"J. Edgar\" (with Warner Bros. Pictures, Malpaso Productions and Wintergreen Productions)\n\n2012\n", "BULLET::::- 2017 - \"Genius\"; National Geographic; Imagine Television; Fox 21 Television Studios v. o.\n\nBULLET::::- 2017 - \"Taken\"; Luc Besson; Universal Television v.o. & russ. coach\n\nBULLET::::- 2017 - \"\"; Regie: D. J. Caruso Vin Diesel Columbia Pictures Paramount Pictures v.o.\n\nBULLET::::- 2017 - \"Shameless\"; Warner Bros. Television v.o.\n\nBULLET::::- 2017 - \"Shooter (TV series)\"; Paramount Television v.o.\n\nBULLET::::- 2017 - \"GLOW\"; Netflix v.o.\n\nBULLET::::- 2017 - \"Designated Survivor (TV series)\"; ABC Studios v.o.\n\nBULLET::::- 2017 - \"Riviera\"; TV mini series; Philipp Kadelbach v.o.\n\nBULLET::::- 2017 - \"Blue Bloods (TV series)\"; David Barrett (director) v.o.\n", "In 2006, Sony Pictures Classics released This Is That's Nicole Holofcener-directed \"Friends with Money\", starring Jennifer Aniston, Catherine Keener, Frances McDormand and Joan Cusack. The film, which was the opening night selection at the 2006 Sundance Film Festival, was Sony Pictures Classic's highest grossing film that year.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Never Put It in Writing\" (1964); with Allied Artists Pictures\n\nBULLET::::- \"Seven Days in May\" (1964); with Paramount Pictures\n\nBULLET::::- \"A Global Affair\" (1964); with MGM\n\nBULLET::::- \"Promise Her Anything\" (1965); with Paramount Pictures\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Nanny\" (1965); with Hammer Films\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Hill\" (1965); with MGM\n\nBULLET::::- \"Is Paris Burning?\" (1966); with Paramount Pictures\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Defector\" (1966)\n\nBULLET::::- \"\" (1966); with Hammer Films\n\nBULLET::::- \"One Million Years B.C.\" (1966); with Hammer Films\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Frozen Dead\" (1966)\n\nBULLET::::- \"\" (1966); with Twentieth Century Fox\n\nBULLET::::- \"This Property Is Condemned\" (1966); with Paramount Pictures\n", "Studios supplement these movies with independent productions, made with small budgets and often independently of the studio corporation. Movies made in this manner typically emphasize high professional quality in terms of acting, directing, screenwriting, and other elements associated with production, and also upon creativity and innovation. These movies usually rely upon critical praise or niche marketing to garner an audience. Because of an independent film's low budget, a successful independent film can have a high profit-to-cost ratio while a failure will incur minimal losses, allowing for studios to sponsor dozens of such productions in addition to their high-stakes releases.\n", "In rare occasional cases, a few troubled major studios would also shed their distribution and/or marketing staffs, mainly due to reduced resources, and resort to co-investing and/or co-distributing film projects with larger studios, operating as virtual, production-only movie studios. Notable examples include legendary studio Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, which, after many years of box office flops (mostly with low budgets), bad management and distribution, and bankruptcy, was restructured at the end of 2010 under new management and currently struck deals with some of the Big Six studios (most notably the Sony Pictures Motion Picture Group and Warner Bros.); Miramax, which was downsized by former owner Disney into a smaller division after the Weinstein brothers' 2005 divestment and, after 17 years under Disney ownership, was sold to a group of investors at the end of 2010 who eventually struck deals to co-finance the studio's projects with other independent companies; and DreamWorks Pictures, the independently run live action studio, which currently releases many projects through Universal Pictures and formerly released their projects through Disney after spinning off from Paramount Pictures (which purchased the studio in 2006 and stripped it of its independent distributor status) in 2008.\n", "Dialogue director Mickey Knox recalled that in order to bring in American dollars and British pounds many countries behind the former Iron Curtain offered producers lucrative deals. In exchange for a share of the profits or an outright payment the host country would pick up most of the local charges; with the film often credited as a co-production.\n", "It all started when James and I returned from the Sundance Film Festival, where we had screened 'Saw' to much success. Our 'representatives' promptly told us that we should get another deal for a film stitched up before it was released. It was presented as a kind of insurance – if 'Saw' was a flop, we had another film to fall back on. Seems logical. There was only one problem – I didn't have any ideas for a new film. I had barely been able to catch my breath throughout the whole 'Saw' experience, let alone dream up another film idea. Instead of telling our representatives that they had to wait until I came up with an idea I really liked though, I locked myself in the bedroom of the crappy apartment we had rented in Hollywood and tried to force an idea out like a particularly stubborn hangover shit. It was creativity at gunpoint. If I could go back in time, I would politely tell everyone to go fuck themselves, but back then...no. I paced and paced and even took up smoking for a while, so stressed out was I.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Bowfinger\" (With Universal Pictures)\n\nBULLET::::- \"EDtv\" (With Universal Pictures)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Life\" (With Universal Pictures)\n\nSection::::Feature-film division.:2000s.\n\n2000\n\nBULLET::::- \"\" (With Universal Pictures)\n\nBULLET::::- \"How the Grinch Stole Christmas\" (With Universal Pictures)\n\n2001\n\nBULLET::::- \"A Beautiful Mind\" (With Universal Pictures and DreamWorks)\n\n2002\n\nBULLET::::- \"8 Mile\" (With Universal Pictures)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Blue Crush\" (With Universal Pictures)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Stealing Harvard\" (With Columbia Pictures and Revolution Studios)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Undercover Brother\" (With Universal Pictures)\n\n2003\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Cat in the Hat\" (With Universal Pictures and DreamWorks)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Intolerable Cruelty\" (With Universal Pictures and Mike Zoss Productions)\n", "Lambert later recalled the after she was hired, \"the person who hired me left, and the person who came in didn't want to produce films and didn't want me. While I managed to make some films I was proud of... Dreamchild, and Clockwise... it was terribly tough and not a very happy experience. But I was determined to see out my three-year contract. By the end I'd had enough of corporate life and wanted to see what I could do as an independent.\"\n\nSection::::History.:Denouement.\n", "BULLET::::- \"\" (with Paramount Pictures, Insurge Pictures and MTV Films)\n\n2013\n\nBULLET::::- \"Rush\" – independently financed (with Universal Pictures, Exclusive Media, Cross Creek Pictures, Revolution Films and Working Title Films)\n\n2014\n\nBULLET::::- \"Get on Up\" (with Universal Pictures)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Good Lie\" (with Warner Bros, Alcon Entertainment, Black Label Media, and Reliance Entertainment)\n\n2015\n\nBULLET::::- \"\" (with Universal 1440 Entertainment)\n\nBULLET::::- \"In the Heart of the Sea\" (with Warner Bros. Pictures, Village Roadshow Pictures and Roth Films)\n\n2016\n\nBULLET::::- \"Inferno\" (with Columbia Pictures)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lowriders\" (with Universal Pictures)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Birth of Love\" (\"La naissance de l'amour\") (1993), directed by Philippe Garrel\n\nBULLET::::- \"Don't Forget You're Going to Die\" (\"N'oublie pas que tu vas mourir\") (1995), directed by Xavier Beauvois\n\nBULLET::::- \"My Sex Life... or How I Got into an Argument\" (\"Comment je me suis disputé... (ma vie sexuelle)\") (1996), directed by Arnaud Desplechin\n\nBULLET::::- \"Wild Innocence\" (\"Sauvage innocence\") (2001), directed by Philippe Garrel\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Perfume of the Lady in Black\" (2005), directed by Bruno Podalydès\n\nBULLET::::- \"Assault on Precinct 13\" (2005), directed by Jean-François Richet\n", "BULLET::::- Lucasfilm - purchased in 2012 by The Walt Disney Company.\n\nBULLET::::- Marvel Studios/Marvel Entertainment - purchased in 2009 by The Walt Disney Company.\n\nBULLET::::- Pixar Animation Studios - purchased in 2006 by The Walt Disney Company.\n\nBULLET::::- The Samuel Goldwyn Company - purchased in 1996 by John Kluge/Metromedia International; purchased in 1997 by MGM.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:The majors before the Golden Age.\n", "BULLET::::- Anne Carey, producer\n\nBULLET::::- Ted Hope, producer\n\nBULLET::::- Diana Victor, Head of Business Affairs\n\nBULLET::::- Shani Geva, Creative Executive\n\nBULLET::::- Josh Stern, Creative Executive\n\nSection::::Filmography.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Collaborator\" (2011)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Martha Marcy May Marlene\" (2011)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The American\" (2010)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Super\" (2010)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carriers\" (2009)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Adventureland\" (2008)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sleep Dealer\" (2008)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Towelhead\" (2007)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Savages\" (2007)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Trainwreck: My Life as an Idoit\" (2007)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Ex\" (2006)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Fay Grim\" (2006)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Hawk Is Dying\" (2006)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Friends with Money\" (2006)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Thumbsucker\" (2005)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Devil and Daniel Johnston\" (2005)\n", "In 2015, Zahler told \"Creative Screenwriting\", \"I’ve had maybe a minimum of 21 different screenplays optioned or sold, and not one of them was made in Hollywood. I had one [\"The Incident\"] made by a French company in Belgium, but the other 20 or more – and some of those have been optioned multiple times, I had a television series that was at FX that went to Starz that went to AMC – none of them have been made.\"\n", "In 1997, Steven Spielberg and John Davis were producing the film adaptation \"The Martian Chronicles,\" with Michael Tolkin and John Orloff were some of the writers who worked on a script, which failed to get off the ground for Universal Pictures. In 2011, Paramount Pictures acquired the film rights and will produce a film franchise with Davis producing through Davis Entertainment.\n\nSection::::1990s.:\"The Truman Show\".\n\nSpielberg was among the list of filmmakers considered to direct \"The Truman Show\" (1998) before Peter Weir officially assumed the position.\n\nSection::::1990s.:\"Inspector Gadget\".\n", "BULLET::::- \"Kindergarten Cop 2\" (with Universal Pictures, Universal 1440 Entertainment and Where's Arnold Productions)\n\n2017\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Dark Tower\" (with Columbia Pictures, Media Rights Capital and Weed Road Pictures)\n\nBULLET::::- \"American Made\" (with Universal Pictures and Cross Creek Pictures)\n\n2018\n\nBULLET::::- \"\" (with Lucasfilm)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Spy Who Dumped Me\" (with Lionsgate Films)\n\nBULLET::::- 2019\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pavarotti\" (with Polygram Entertainment, Decca Records and White House Pictures)\n\nSection::::Feature-film division.:Future.\n\nTBA\n\n\"Hillbilly Elegy\" (with Netflix)\n\nTBA\n\n\"The Shrinking of Treehorn\" (with Paramount Pictures)\n\nSection::::Television division.\n", "A production company is responsible for the development and filming of a specific production or media broadcast. In entertainment, the production process begins with the development of a specific project. Once a final script has been produced by the screenwriters, the production enters into the pre-production phase, most productions never reach this phase for financing or talent reasons. In pre-production, the actors are signed on and prepared for their roles, crew is signed on, shooting locations are found, sets are built or acquired, and the proper shooting permits are acquired for on location shooting. Actors and crew are hand picked by the producer, director, and casting director, who often use collaborators or referenced personnel to prevent untrusted or unwelcomed people from gaining access to a specific production and compromising the entire production through leaks. Once a production enters into principal photography, it begins filming. Productions are almost never cancelled once they reach this phase. Codenames are often used on bigger productions during filming to conceal the production's shooting locations for both privacy and safety reasons. In many cases, the director, producers, and the leading actors are often the only people with access to a full or majority of a single script. Supporting actors, background actors, and crew often never receive a full copy of a specific script to prevent leaks. Productions are often shot in secured studios, with limited to no public access, but they are also shot on location on secured sets or locations. Due to the exposure, when shooting in public locations, major productions often employ security to ensure the protection of the talent and crew working on a specific production. After filming is completed, the production enters into post production, which is handled by a post production company and overseen by the production company. The editing, musical score, visual effects, re-recording of the dialog, and sound effects are \"mixed\" to create the final film, which is then screened at the final screening. Marketing is also launched during this phase, such as the release of trailers and posters. Once a final film has been approved, the film is taken over by the distributors, who then release the film.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02759	Why does an old TV screen or some lights flicker when you look away from them, but when you look right at them it seems the light is stable.	The center of your eyes field of vision is attuned more for detail while the edges are more for sensing movement.	[ "Successive contrast occurs when the perception of currently viewed stimuli is modulated by previously viewed stimuli.\n\nFor example, staring at the dot in the center of one of the two colored disks on the top row for a few seconds and then looking at the dot in the center of the disk on the same side in the bottom row makes the two lower disks appear to have different colors for a few moments, though they have the same color.\n", "This optical illusion is caused by the fact that the human optic nerve responds to changes in light at about 10 cycles per second, so changes about double of this are registered as motion instead of being separate distinct images.\n\nSection::::Examples of use.\n\nOne example of the beta movement effect would be a set of LEDs, as shown at the adjacent picture. The LEDs, electronically, are individually controlled, but our eyes and brains perceive them as a snake running clockwise around the four edges of the square picture. This is also seen commonly on LED displays.\n\nSection::::Experiment.\n", "BULLET::::5. Calculate the resulting \"static contrast\" for the two test patterns using one of the metrics listed above (CR,C or K).\n\nWhen luminance and/or chromaticity are measured before the optical response has settled to a stable steady state, some kind of \"transient contrast\" has been measured instead of the \"static contrast\".\n\nSection::::Transient contrast.\n\nWhen the image content is changing rapidly, e.g. during the display of video or movie content, the optical state of the display may not reach the intended stable steady state because of slow response and thus the apparent contrast is reduced if compared to the static contrast.\n", "BULLET::::- Flicker can be noticed except at very high refresh rates, as each eye is effectively receiving only half of the monitor's actual refresh rate. However, modern LC glasses generally work in higher refresh rates and eliminate this problem for most people.\n\nBULLET::::- Until recently, the method only worked with CRT monitors; some modern flat-panel monitors now support high-enough refresh rates to work with some LC shutter systems. Many projectors, especially DLP-based ones, support 3D out of the box.\n", "This principle is used in full flight simulators (FFS), that have specially designed systems for displaying imagery of the Out-The-Window (OTW) scene to the pilots in the replica aircraft cabin.\n\nIn aircraft where two pilots are seated side by side, if the OTW imagery were projected in front of the pilots on a screen, one pilot would see the correct view but the other would see a view where some objects in the scene would be at incorrect angles.\n", "The illusion is easily seen when fixating off to the side of it, and then blinking as fast as possible. Most observers can see the illusion easily when reading text with the illusion figure in the periphery. The motion of such illusions is consistently perceived in a dark-to-light direction.\n", "If the reflective properties of the projection screen (usually depending on direction) are included in the measurement, the luminance reflected from the centers of the rectangles has to be measured for a (set of) specific directions of observation.\n\nLuminance, contrast and chromaticity of LCD-screens is usually varying with the direction of observation (i.e. viewing direction). The variation of electro-optical characteristics with viewing direction can be measured sequentially by mechanical scanning of the viewing cone (\"gonioscopic\" approach) or by simultaneous measurements based on conoscopy.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Contrast (vision)\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Charles Poynton:\" Reducing eyestrain from video and computer monitors\"\n", "Section::::Process.:Visual parallels.\n\nA similar 'sensory fading,' or \"filling-in\", can be seen of a fixated stimulus when its retinal image is made stationary on the retina (a \"stabilized retinal image\"). Stabilization can be done in at least three ways.\n\nBULLET::::- First, one can mount a tiny projector on a contact lens. The projector shines an image into the eye. As the eye moves, the contact lens moves with it, so the image is always projected onto the same part of the retina;\n\nBULLET::::- Second, one can monitor eye movements and move the stimulus to cancel the eye movements;\n", "The Purkinje effect occurs at the transition between primary use of the photopic (cone-based) and scotopic (rod-based) systems, that is, in the mesopic state: as intensity dims, the rods take over, and before color disappears completely, it shifts towards the rods' top sensitivity.\n\nThe effect occurs because in mesopic conditions the outputs of cones in the retina, which are generally responsible for the perception of color in daylight, are pooled with outputs of rods which are more sensitive under those conditions and have peak sensitivity in blue-green wavelength of 507 nm.\n\nSection::::Use of red lights.\n", "In actual use, the pilot initially sets the brightness of the line so that it just disappears when looking at it with their central vision. When the line does move due to an aircraft attitude change, the peripheral vision, being more sensitive to movement, picks up the movement and the brain subconsciously registers the information, and makes use of it.\n", "Outside of the laboratory, you can experience this as well, for example when riding on a train or on the lower deck of a bus. Assume one is looking straight out of the train car's window at the adjacent track. If the train is moving fast enough, the track one is seeing will be just a blur - the angular speed of the track's motion on the retina is too fast for the eye to compensate with optokinetic tracking. Then, one starts looking to the left and right along the track - just as if one was to catch something that was either speeding past on the track or lagging behind. Looking right and left along the adjacent track in fact means that one alternates the gaze between the left and right portions of the track. Changing the point of gaze is done as saccades. If, due to the car's motion, the track is 'escaping' to one's left, a left-going saccade will try to 'catch up' with the track's motion.\n", "Measurements made by viewing the position of some marker relative to something to be measured are subject to parallax error if the marker is some distance away from the object of measurement and not viewed from the correct position. For example, if measuring the distance between two ticks on a line with a ruler marked on its top surface, the thickness of the ruler will separate its markings from the ticks. If viewed from a position not exactly perpendicular to the ruler, the apparent position will shift and the reading will be less accurate than the ruler is capable of.\n", "The phenomenon described by Bridgeman et al. (Bridgeman, G., Hendry, D., & Stark, L., 1975) is characterized by the inability to detect changes in the location of a target when the change occurs immediately before, during, or shortly after the saccade, following a time course very similar to that of the suppression of visual sensitivity, with a magnitude perhaps even more striking than that of visual sensitivity (4 log units vs. 0.5-0.7 log units (Bridgeman et al., 1975; Volkmann, 1986)).\n", "Where eye movements fixate is affected by both bottom-up and top-down factors. Even an initial glimpse of a scene has an influence on subsequent eye movements.\n\nIn bottom-up factors, the local contrast or prominence of features in an image, such as a large contrast in luminance or a greater density of edges, can affect the guidance of eye movements.\n", "Contrast not only modifies latency, but also the amplitude of perceived motion. Any difference in latency between different edges will move the diamond along the upright ellipse, but will not tilt the path from the vertical.\n\nContrast modifies the perceived motion amplitudes of each side before edge motion coupled with boundary intersections.\n\nContrast effects not only real smooth movement, but also stroboscopic clear movement.\n\nA blue bus and a yellow bus placed one on top of another, surging back and forth horizontally over a quarter of the square.\n", "Parallax error can be seen when taking photos with many types of cameras, such as twin-lens reflex cameras and those including viewfinders (such as rangefinder cameras). In such cameras, the eye sees the subject through different optics (the viewfinder, or a second lens) than the one through which the photo is taken. As the viewfinder is often found above the lens of the camera, photos with parallax error are often slightly lower than intended, the classic example being the image of person with his or her head cropped off. This problem is addressed in single-lens reflex cameras, in which the viewfinder sees through the same lens through which the photo is taken (with the aid of a movable mirror), thus avoiding parallax error.\n", "A similar error occurs when reading the position of a pointer against a scale in an instrument such as an analog multimeter. To help the user avoid this problem, the scale is sometimes printed above a narrow strip of mirror, and the user's eye is positioned so that the pointer obscures its own reflection, guaranteeing that the user's line of sight is perpendicular to the mirror and therefore to the scale. The same effect alters the speed read on a car's speedometer by a driver in front of it and a passenger off to the side, values read from a graticule not in actual contact with the display on an oscilloscope, etc.\n", "BULLET::::1. Apply the first test pattern to the electrical interface of the display under test and wait until the optical response has settled to a stable steady state,\n\nBULLET::::2. Measure the luminance and/or the chromaticity of the first test pattern and record the result,\n\nBULLET::::3. Apply the second test pattern to the electrical interface of the display under test and wait until the optical response has settled to a stable steady state,\n\nBULLET::::4. Measure the luminance and/or the chromaticity of the second test pattern and record the result,\n", "In her book \"Fixing my Gaze\", Susan Barry gives a detailed description of her surprise, elation and subsequent experiences when her stereo vision suddenly set in.\n\nHubel wrote of her book:\n", "Listing's law persists but takes on a torsional bias when the head is held at a tilted posture and the eyes counter-roll, and when the head is held steady upward or downward Listing's plane tilts slightly in the opposite direction.\n", "Troxler's fading, discovered by Troxler in 1804, is a very similar phenomenon in which an object away from one's focus of attention disappears and reappears irregularly. There is no necessity for a moving background for this illusion to occur. Other similar phenomena in which salient stimuli disappear and reappear include binocular rivalry, discovered as early as 1593, monocular rivalry, and flash suppression.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Consequently, higher contrast movements look faster than lower contrast. This illusion effect disappears when the street texture is removed because there is no contrast without background. This special illusion shows how the background of the object or the object around it has a significant effect on the perceived speed of the object.\n\nSection::::Historical Background.\n\nStepping feet illusion was initially demonstrated by Stuart Anstis in 2003.\n\nHe proposed that the contrast effect was experienced by drivers in foggy conditions in which the difference in brightness between the car and its surroundings is generally less than a sunny day.\n", "The effect was usually caused by accidentally exposing an exposed plate or film to light during developing. The artist Man Ray perfected the technique which was accidentally discovered the darkroom of fellow artist Lee Miller. It is evident from publications in the 19th century that this phenomenon was \"discovered\" many times by many photographers as it tends to occur whenever a light is switched on inadvertently in the darkroom while a film or print is being developed.\n\nSection::::Explanation.\n", "For example, when looking out of the window at a moving train, the eyes can focus on a moving train for a short moment (by stabilizing it on the retina), until the train moves out of the field of vision. At this point, the eye is moved back to the point where it first saw the train (through a saccade).\n\nSection::::Near response.\n\nThe adjustment to close-range vision involves three processes to focus an image on the retina.\n\nSection::::Near response.:Vergence movement.\n", "The input must be held steady in a period around the rising edge of the clock known as the aperture. Imagine taking a picture of a frog on a lily-pad. Suppose the frog then jumps into the water. If you take a picture of the frog as it jumps into the water, you will get a blurry picture of the frog jumping into the water—it's not clear which state the frog was in. But if you take a picture while the frog sits steadily on the pad (or is steadily in the water), you will get a clear picture. In the same way, the input to a flip-flop must be held steady during the aperture of the flip-flop.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02291	how come people sometimes shake their legs or bounce them up and down repetitively when when they are sitting?	I do this because of ADHD. Fidgeting is therapeutic, helps me focus, and is more often than not subconscious.	[ "Section::::Causes and effects.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Associated conditions.\n\nThe disorder is closely associated with developmental disabilities or autism. More recent studies have shown there is a strong link between prolonged RMD and ADHD.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Section::::Causes.:Possible associations.\n", "Historically, to temporarily alleviate symptoms, patients have tried positional maneuvers, such as tilting their head to one side or upside down, lie down on their backs, or sit in a chair with their head between their knees. Similarly, a routine of lying down four times per day with legs elevated to around 20 inches for at least two weeks has been attempted as well. Depending on the underlying cause of the disorder, the individual may need to remove caffeine from their diet, reduce exercise, or gain weight. It may be the case that the symptoms are induced by anxiety; anxiolytic drugs or supplements (e.g., GABA) combined with the removal of caffeine from the diet could offer a simple strategy to determine if anxiety is the root cause.\n", "An association has been observed between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and RLS or periodic limb movement disorder. Both conditions appear to have links to dysfunctions related to the neurotransmitter dopamine, and common medications for both conditions among other systems, affect dopamine levels in the brain. A 2005 study suggested that up to 44% of people with ADHD had comorbid (i.e. coexisting) RLS, and up to 26% of people with RLS had confirmed ADHD or symptoms of the condition.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Medications.\n\nCertain medications may cause or worsen RLS, or cause it secondarily, including:\n\nBULLET::::- certain antiemetics (antidopaminergic ones)\n", "There are, however, issues with the use of dopamine agonists including augmentation. This is a medical condition where the drug itself causes symptoms to increase in severity and/or occur earlier in the day. Dopamine agonists may also cause rebound when symptoms increase as the drug wears off. In many cases, the longer dopamine agonists have been used the higher the risk of augmentation and rebound as well as the severity of the symptoms. Also, a recent study indicated that dopamine agonists used in restless leg syndrome can lead to an increase in compulsive gambling.\n", "Section::::Causes.:Hormonal factors.\n", "In his book \"Awakenings,\" the neurologist Dr. Oliver Sacks discussed how patients with Parkinson's disease experience deficits in their awareness of time and tempo. For example, Mr E, when asked to clap his hands steadily and regularly, did so for the first few claps before clapping faster and irregularly, culminating in an apparent freezing of motion. When he finished, Mr E asked if his observers were glad he did it correctly, to which they replied \"no\". Mr E was offended by this because to him, his claps were regular and steady.\n", "Section::::Causes.:Psychosocial factors.\n", "Section::::Disorders.:Restless leg syndrome.\n", "Tics may increase as a result of stress, fatigue, boredom, or high-energy emotions, which can include negative emotions, such as anxiety, as well as positive emotions, such as excitement or anticipation. Relaxation may result in a tic increase (for instance, watching television or using a computer), while concentration on an absorbing activity often leads to a decrease in tics. Neurologist and writer Oliver Sacks described a physician with severe Tourette syndrome (Canadian Mort Doran, M.D., a pilot and surgeon in real life, although a pseudonym was used in the book), whose tics remitted almost completely while he was performing surgery.\n", "Restless leg syndrome is a disorder in which patients feel uncomfortable or unpleasant sensations in the legs. These sensations usually occur in the evening, while the patient is sitting or lying down and relaxing. Patients feel like they have to move their legs to relieve the sensations, and walking generally makes the symptoms disappear. In many patients, this can lead to insomnia and excessive daytime sleepiness. This is a very common problem and can occur at any age.\n", "Stretching the leg muscles can bring temporary relief. Walking and moving the legs, as the name \"restless legs\" implies, brings temporary relief. In fact, those with RLS often have an almost uncontrollable need to walk and therefore relieve the symptoms while they are moving. Unfortunately, the symptoms usually return immediately after the moving and walking ceases. A vibratory counter-stimulation device has been found to help some people with primary RLS to improve their sleep.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Iron.\n\nThere is some evidence that intravenous iron supplementation moderately improves restlessness for people with RLS.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Medications.\n", "Periodic limb movement disorder is characterized by recurrent episodes of frequent limb movements while sleeping. It mostly happens in the lower parts of the body like the toes, ankles, knees and hips. It can also, in some cases, appear in the upper extremities of the body. These movements can lead the patient to wake up, and if so, sleep interruption can be the origin of excessive daytime sleepiness.\n", "A point of confusion is that RLS and delusional parasitosis are entirely different conditions that have both been called \"Ekbom syndrome\", as both syndromes were described by the same person, Karl-Axel Ekbom. Today, calling WED/RLS \"Ekbom syndrome\" is outdated usage, as the unambiguous names (WED or RLS) are preferred for clarity.\n\nSection::::Controversy.\n", "In the past the variation was attributed to random effects. A more recent interpretation is that sway has a fractal structure. A fractal pattern consists of a motif repeated at varying levels of magnification. The levels are related by a ratio called the fractal dimension. It is believed that the fractal pattern offers a range of fine and gross control tuning. Fractal dimension is altered in some motor dysfunctions. In other words, the body cannot compensate well enough for imbalances.\n\nSection::::Pathology.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Sleep.\n\nBecause of the abnormal writhing movements, often patients’ sleep patterns are disrupted. This may be due to RMD’s comorbidity with sleep apnea, which has been observed in some patients\n", "Healy, et al. (2006), described the following regarding akathisia: tension, insomnia, a sense of discomfort, motor restlessness, and marked anxiety and panic. \n\nJack Henry Abbott (1981) describes the sensation:\n\nIn addition, not all observable restless motion is akathisia. For example, mania, agitated depression, and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder may look like akathisia, but the movements feel voluntary and not due to restlessness.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Drug-induced.\n", "The first known medical description of RLS was by Sir Thomas Willis in 1672. Willis emphasized the sleep disruption and limb movements experienced by people with RLS. Initially published in Latin (\"De Anima Brutorum\", 1672) but later translated to English (\"The London Practice of Physick\", 1685), Willis wrote:\n\nThe term \"fidgets in the legs\" has also been used as early as the early nineteenth century.\n", ". In unique cases, RMD sufferers hum or moan while asleep during an episode. Some patients describe the repetitive movements as relaxing and are only occasionally awakened by an RMD episode. Often, it is the sufferer’s partner or parent who first notes the symptoms. Additionally, it is often the partner or parent who led patients to seek medical attention.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Motor symptoms.\n\nSymptoms of rhythmic movement disorder vary, but most sufferers share common large muscle movement patterns. Many sufferers show consistent symptoms including:\n\nBULLET::::- body rocking, where the whole body is moved while on the hands and knees.\n", "The direct cause and pathophysiological basis of RMD is still unknown and can occur in children and adults of perfect or non-perfect health. Rare cases of adult RMD have developed due to head trauma, stress, and herpes encephalitis. Familial cases have been reported suggesting there may be some genetic aspect to the disorder; however, to date, this explanation has not been directly tested. As familial incidence rate is still relatively low, it is believed that behavioral aspects may play a larger role in RMD than family history and genetics. Many sufferers report no family history of the disorder. Another theory suggests that RMD is a learned, self-stimulating behavior to alleviate tension and induce relaxation, similar to tic movements. \n", "Another abnormality commonly found upon clinical examination is a brisk reflex action known as \"hyperreflexia\". Standard laboratory tests are unremarkable. According to neurologist John C. Kincaid:\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nSome degree of control of the fasciculations may be achieved with the same medication used to treat essential tremor (beta-blockers and anti-seizure drugs). However, often the most effective approach to treatment is to treat any accompanying anxiety. No drugs, supplements, or other treatments have been found that completely control the symptoms. In cases where fasciculations are caused by magnesium deficiency, supplementing magnesium can be effective in reducing symptoms.\n", "An alternative theory suggests that the rhythmic movements help develop the vestibular system in young children, which can partially explain the high prevalence of RMD in infants. It has been seen that children who have underdeveloped vestibular systems benefit from performing RMD-like movements which stimulate the vestibular system\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "Oscillatory rhythms at 10 Hz have been recorded in a brain area called the inferior olive, which is associated with the cerebellum. These oscillations are also observed in motor output of physiological tremor and when performing slow finger movements. These findings may indicate that the human brain controls continuous movements intermittently. In support, it was shown that these movement discontinuities are directly correlated to oscillatory activity in a cerebello-thalamo-cortical loop, which may represent a neural mechanism for the intermittent motor control.\n\nSection::::Function.:Memory.\n", "These 'dance-like' movements of chorea often occur with athetosis, which adds twisting and writhing movements. Walking may become difficult, and include odd postures and leg movements.\n\nUnlike ataxia, which affects the quality of voluntary movements, or Parkinsonism, which is a hindrance of voluntary movements, the movements of chorea and ballism occur on their own, without conscious effort. Thus, chorea is said to be a hyperkinetic movement disorder.\n\nWhen chorea is serious, slight movements will become thrashing motions; this form of severe chorea is referred to as ballism or ballismus.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Huntington’s disease.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03682	Why a mother's allergies or autoimmune diseases antibodies don't get transmitted through colostrum to its newborn, but the rest of the antibodies do?	Not all antibodies are the same. Colostrum is mostly IgG, IgA, and IgM. Allergies are usually IgE mediated. IgE generally causes a very strong response, and is used in fighting parasites in a normal animal. Generally IgE is located in tissues and is very reactive (skin and lungs especially), and is very low in the blood. Colostrum gets antibodies (and other stuff) from the blood, so since there isn’t much to begin with it doesn’t get into colostrum in meaningful amounts. Autoimmune diseases aren’t always due to autoantibodies, but those can be transmitted. I can’t find much evidence that it causes disease, but it could. However, colostral antibodies don’t last forever. Generally they get cleared after awhile and the individual’s own immune system takes over.	[ "Colostrum is crucial for newborn farm animals. They receive no passive transfer of immunity via the placenta before birth, so any antibodies that they need have to be ingested (unless supplied by injection or other artificial means). The ingested antibodies are absorbed from the intestine of the neonate. The newborn animal must receive colostrum within 6 hours of being born for maximal absorption of colostral antibodies to occur. Recent studies indicate that colostrum should be fed to bovines within the first thirty minutes to maximize IgG absorption rates.\n", "Newborn infants have no prior exposure to microbes and are particularly vulnerable to infection. Several layers of passive protection are provided by the mother. During pregnancy, a particular type of antibody, called IgG, is transported from mother to baby directly through the placenta, so human babies have high levels of antibodies even at birth, with the same range of antigen specificities as their mother. Breast milk or colostrum also contains antibodies that are transferred to the gut of the infant and protect against bacterial infections until the newborn can synthesize its own antibodies. This is passive immunity because the fetus does not actually make any memory cells or antibodies—it only borrows them. This passive immunity is usually short-term, lasting from a few days up to several months. In medicine, protective passive immunity can also be transferred artificially from one individual to another via antibody-rich serum.\n", "Still, the placenta does allow maternal IgG antibodies to pass to the fetus to protect it against infections. However, these antibodies do not target fetal cells, unless any fetal material has escaped across the placenta where it can come in contact with maternal B cells and make those B cells start to produce antibodies against fetal targets. The mother does produce antibodies against foreign ABO blood types, where the fetal blood cells are possible targets, but these preformed antibodies are usually of the IgM type, and therefore usually do not cross the placenta. Still, rarely, ABO incompatibility can give rise to IgG antibodies that cross the placenta, and are caused by sensitization of mothers (usually of blood type 0) to antigens in foods or bacteria.\n", "Therefore, in the first six months of life, the newborn has the same antibodies as the mother and the child can defend itself against all the pathogens that the mother encountered in her life (even if only through vaccination) until these antibodies are degraded. This repertoire of immunoglobulins is crucial for the newborns who are very sensitive to infections above all for the respiratory and digestive systems.\n", "Hyperimmune colostrum is natural bovine colostrum collected from a population of cows immunized repeatedly with a specific pathogen. The colostrum is collected within 24 hours of the cow giving birth. Antibodies towards the specific pathogens or antigens that were used in the immunization are present in higher levels than in the population before treatment. Although some papers have been published stating that specific human pathogens were just as high as in hyperimmune colostrum, and natural colostrum nearly always had higher antibody titers than did the hyperimmune version. Clinical trials have shown that if the immunization is by surface antigens of the bacteria, the Bovine Colostrum Powder can be used to make tablets capable of binding to the bacteria so that they are excreted in stools. This prevents the successful colonization of the gut, which would otherwise lead to bacteria releasing enterotoxigenic materials.\n", "Newborns have very immature and small digestive systems, and colostrum delivers its nutrients in a very concentrated low-volume form. It has a mild laxative effect, encouraging the passing of the baby's first stool, which is called meconium. This clears excess bilirubin, a waste-product of dead red blood cells, which is produced in large quantities at birth due to blood volume reduction from the infant's body and helps prevent jaundice. Colostrum is known to contain immune cells (as lymphocytes) and many antibodies such as IgA, IgG, and IgM. These are some of the components of the adaptive immune system. In preterm infants some IgA may be absorbed through the intestinal epithelium and enter the blood stream though there is very little uptake in full term babies. This is due to the early \"closure\" of the intestinal epithelium to large molecule uptake in humans unlike the case in cattle which continue to uptake immunoglobulin from milk shortly after birth. Other immune components of colostrum include the major components of the innate immune system, such as lactoferrin, lysozyme, lactoperoxidase, complement, and proline-rich polypeptides (PRP). A number of cytokines (small messenger peptides that control the functioning of the immune system) are found in colostrum as well, including interleukins, tumor necrosis factor, chemokines, and others. Colostrum also contains a number of growth factors, such as insulin-like growth factors I (IGF-1), and II, transforming growth factors alpha, beta 1 and beta 2, fibroblast growth factors, epidermal growth factor, granulocyte-macrophage-stimulating growth factor, platelet-derived growth factor, vascular endothelial growth factor, and colony-stimulating factor-1.\n", "Passive immunity is also provided through colostrum and breast milk, which contain IgA antibodies that are transferred to the gut of the infant, providing local protection against disease causing bacteria and viruses until the newborn can synthesize its own antibodies. Protection mediated by IgA is dependent on the length of time that an infant is breastfed, which is one of the reasons the World Health Organization recommends breastfeeding for at least the first two years of life.\n", "Infants who are exclusively breastfed for the first six months are less likely to die of gastrointestinal infections than infants who switched from exclusive to partial breastfeeding at three to four months.\n\nDuring breastfeeding, approximately 0.25–0.5 grams per day of secretory IgA antibodies pass to the baby via milk. This is one of the important features of colostrum. The main target for these antibodies are probably microorganisms in the baby's intestine. The rest of the body displays some uptake of IgA, but this amount is relatively small.\n", "At the prenatal and neonatal stages of life, the presence of antibodies is provided by passive immunization from the mother. Early endogenous antibody production varies for different kinds of antibodies, and usually appear within the first years of life. Since antibodies exist freely in the bloodstream, they are said to be part of the humoral immune system. Circulating antibodies are produced by clonal B cells that specifically respond to only one antigen (an example is a virus capsid protein fragment). Antibodies contribute to immunity in three ways: They prevent pathogens from entering or damaging cells by binding to them; they stimulate removal of pathogens by macrophages and other cells by coating the pathogen; and they trigger destruction of pathogens by stimulating other immune responses such as the complement pathway. Antibodies will also trigger vasoactive amine degranulation to contribute to immunity against certain types of antigens (helminths, allergens).\n", "Section::::Mechanisms.:Other mechanisms.\n\nStill, the placental barrier is not the sole means to evade the immune system, as foreign fetal cells also persist in the maternal circulation, on the other side of the placental barrier.\n\nThe placenta does not block maternal IgG antibodies, which thereby may pass through the human placenta, providing immune protection to the fetus against infectious diseases.\n", "IgG antibodies can pass through the human placenta, thereby providing protection to the fetus \"in utero\". This transfer of antibodies begins as early as the 20th week of gestational age, and certainly by the 24th week. This passive immunity lingers for several months after birth, thus providing the newborn with a carbon copy of the mother's long-term humoral immunity to see the infant through the crucial first months of extrauterine life. IgM, however, cannot cross the placenta, which is why some infections acquired \"during\" pregnancy can be hazardous for the fetus.\n", "Maternal factors also play a role in the body’s immune response. At birth, most of the immunoglobulin present is maternal IgG. Because IgM, IgD, IgE and IgA don’t cross the placenta, they are almost undetectable at birth. Some IgA is provided by breast milk. These passively-acquired antibodies can protect the newborn for up to 18 months, but their response is usually short-lived and of low affinity. These antibodies can also produce a negative response. If a child is exposed to the antibody for a particular antigen before being exposed to the antigen itself then the child will produce a dampened response. Passively acquired maternal antibodies can suppress the antibody response to active immunization. Similarly the response of T-cells to vaccination differs in children compared to adults, and vaccines that induce Th1 responses in adults do not readily elicit these same responses in neonates. Between six and nine months after birth, a child’s immune system begins to respond more strongly to glycoproteins, but there is usually no marked improvement in their response to polysaccharides until they are at least one year old. This can be the reason for distinct time frames found in vaccination schedules.\n", "Neonatal myasthenia gravis is a very rare condition in which a mother with myasthenia gravis passes down her antibodies to her infant through the placenta, causing the it to be born with antibodies that will attach self-antigens.(reference 12)\n", "As part of the late stage adaptive immune response, pathogens and other particles are marked by IgG antibodies. These antibodies interact with Fc receptors on macrophages and neutrophils resulting in phagocytosis. The C1 complement complex can also interact with the Fc region of IgG and IgM immune complexes activating the classical complement pathway and marking the antigen with C3b. C3b can spontaneously bind to pathogen surfaces through the alternative complement pathway. Furthermore, pentraxins can directly bind to C1q from the C1 complex.\n\nSP-A opsonizes a number of bacterial and viral pathogens for clearance by lung alveolar macrophages.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Section::::Immunological memory.:Passive memory.\n\nPassive memory is usually short-term, lasting between a few days and several months. Newborn infants have had no prior exposure to microbes and are particularly vulnerable to infection. Several layers of passive protection are provided by the mother. \"In utero\", maternal IgG is transported directly across the placenta, so that, at birth, human babies have high levels of antibodies, with the same range of antigen specificities as their mother. Breast milk contains antibodies (mainly IgA) that are transferred to the gut of the infant, protecting against bacterial infections, until the newborn can synthesize its own antibodies.\n", "Colostrum is a form of milk produced by the mammary glands of mammals (including humans) in late pregnancy. Colostrum also contains multiple immune modulating molecules, including high antibody levels. Based on studies noting an overlap in the observed in vitro effects between a molecule contained in colostrum called colostrinin and the dialyzable leukocyte extract mentioned above, a hypothesis formed that the two were the same. There has been no recent research investigations comparing the two entities and thus there is no verifiable evidence that either colostrum or egg whites do or do not contain the cellular product that shares the name transfer factor. The orally available transfer factor is not obtained from humans nor from blood products of any mammal or animal and thus does not carry the presumed risks of contracting blood-borne or animal tissue derived diseases. Retailers of dietary supplement transfer factors advice against use by those with an organ transplant or women that are pregnant.\n", "Maternal IgG antibodies cross the placenta, giving the fetus passive immunity against those diseases for which the mother has antibodies. This transfer of antibodies in humans begins as early as the fifth month (gestational age) and certainly by the sixth month.\n\nSection::::Developmental problems.\n", "The body’s capability to react to antigens depends on a person's age, antigen type, maternal factors and the area where the antigen is presented. Neonates are said to be in a state of physiological immunodeficiency, because both their innate and adaptive immunological responses are greatly suppressed. Once born, a child’s immune system responds favorably to protein antigens while not as well to glycoproteins and polysaccharides. In fact, many of the infections acquired by neonates are caused by low virulence organisms like \"Staphylococcus\" and \"Pseudomonas\". In neonates, opsonic activity and the ability to activate the complement cascade is very limited. For example, the mean level of C3 in a newborn is approximately 65% of that found in the adult. Phagocytic activity is also greatly impaired in newborns. This is due to lower opsonic activity, as well as diminished up-regulation of integrin and selectin receptors, which limit the ability of neutrophils to interact with adhesion molecules in the endothelium. Their monocytes are slow and have a reduced ATP production, which also limits the newborn's phagocytic activity. Although, the number of total lymphocytes is significantly higher than in adults, the cellular and humoral immunity is also impaired. Antigen-presenting cells in newborns have a reduced capability to activate T cells. Also, T cells of a newborn proliferate poorly and produce very small amounts of cytokines like IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IL-12, and IFN-g which limits their capacity to activate the humoral response as well as the phagocitic activity of macrophage. B cells develop early during gestation but are not fully active.\n", "Hosts can become immune to infection by a cestode if the lining, the mucosa, of the gut is damaged. This exposes the host's immune system to cestode antigens, enabling the host to mount an antibody defence. Host antibodies can kill or limit cestode infection by damaging their digestive enzymes, which reduces their ability to feed and therefore to grow and to reproduce; by binding to their bodies; and by neutralising toxins that they produce. When cestodes feed passively in the gut, they do not provoke an antibody reaction.\n\nSection::::Evolution and phylogeny.\n\nSection::::Evolution and phylogeny.:Fossil history.\n", "The presence of maternal antibodies in infants limits the efficacy of inactivated, attenuated and subunit vaccines. Maternal antibodies can bind to epitopes on the proteins produced by the virus in the vaccination. The recognition of viral proteins by maternal antibodies neutralizes the virus. Further, the maternal antibodies outcompete B cell receptors on the infant's B cells for binding to the antigen. Thus, an infant's immune system is not highly activated and the infant produces fewer antibodies. Even when B cells do bind to the pathogen, immune response is still frequently repressed. If B cell receptors bind to the antigen and FC receptors simultaneously bind to the maternal antibody, the FC receptors send a signal to B cell receptors that inhibits cell division. Because the infant's immune system is not stimulated and B cell division is inhibited, few memory B cells are produced. The level of memory B-cells is not adequate to ensure an infant's lifelong resistance to the pathogen.\n", "In most infants, maternal antibodies disappear 12–15 months after birth, so vaccines administered outside this window are not compromised by maternal antibody interference.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Biological Causes.:Longevity of Memory B Cells.\n", "IgG is secreted as a monomer that is small in size allowing it to easily perfuse tissues. It is the only antibody isotype that has receptors to facilitate passage through the human placenta, thereby providing protection to the fetus \"in utero\". Along with IgA secreted in the breast milk, residual IgG absorbed through the placenta provides the neonate with humoral immunity before its own immune system develops. Colostrum contains a high percentage of IgG, especially bovine colostrum. In individuals with prior immunity to a pathogen, IgG appears about 24–48 hours after antigenic stimulation.\n", "In contrast to this data, placental micro-vesicles, which also have high expression of synctin-1 have been shown through peripheral blood mononuclear cell assays to activate the immune system thought the production of cytokines and chemokines. This suggests placental micro-vesicles can modulate the mother's immune system. Today, it is still difficult to tell the exact mechanism that ERVWE-1 uses to suppress and/or activate the mother's immune system.\n\nSection::::Mechanism of Expression and Environmental Factors.\n", "The syncytial property is important since the mother's immune system includes white blood cells that are able to migrate into tissues by \"squeezing\" in between cells. If they were to reach the fetal side of the placenta many foreign proteins would be recognised, triggering an immune reaction. However the syncytium acts as a giant cell so there are no gaps for immune cells to migrate through.\n", "Only a few other species besides humans transfer maternal antibodies before birth, including primates and lagomorphs (which includes rabbits and hares). In some of these species IgM can be transferred across the placenta as well as IgG. All other mammalian species predominantly or solely transfer maternal antibodies after birth through milk. In these species, the neonatal gut is able to absorb IgG for hours to days after birth. However, after a period of time the neonate can no longer absorb maternal IgG through their gut, an event that is referred to as \"gut closure\". If a neonatal animal does not receive adequate amounts of colostrum prior to gut closure, it does not have a sufficient amount of maternal IgG in its blood to fight off common diseases. This condition is referred to as failure of passive transfer. It can be diagnosed by measuring the amount of IgG in a newborn's blood, and is treated with intravenous administration of immunoglobulins. If not treated, it can be fatal.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Mother should pass allergies to child." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Allergies do not get passed to child due to certain things mediating hormones not passing to child." ]
2018-01529	Why does caffeine greatly affect certain people (energy bursts, withdrawal symptoms, etc.) but not others?	There are actually multiple reasons for this, but the main reason is your genetics! More specifically, genetics which affect your liver. When you drink caffeinated drinks, the caffeine enters your bloodstream, and circulates around in the blood until it eventually enters your liver. In the liver, the drug (caffeine) is metabolized (deactivated). Afterwards you pee out these metabolized blends. Where do your genetics play in? Well, your liver is actually made up of several enzymes, and each enzyme metabolizes several different drugs. Your genetics decide how much of an enzyme is produced, which in turn decides how quickly you metabolize a certain drug. *Note:* I am by no means an expert and I did have to do minor research on my own to write this answer. I might have gotten some aspects wrong and I know for sure that my explanation didn't cover everything!	[ "Studies have demonstrated that people who take in a minimum of 100 mg of caffeine per day (about the amount in one cup of coffee) can acquire a physical dependence that would trigger withdrawal symptoms that include headaches, muscle pain and stiffness, lethargy, nausea, vomiting, depressed mood, and marked irritability. Professor Roland Griffiths, a professor of neurology at Johns Hopkins in Baltimore strongly believes that caffeine withdrawal should be classified as a psychological disorder. His research suggested that withdrawals affects 50% of habitual coffee drinkers, beginning within 12-24 hours after cessation of caffeine intake, and peaking in 20-48 hours, lasting as long as 9 days. Continued exposure to caffeine leads the body to create more adenosine receptors in the central nervous system which makes it more sensitive to the effects of adenosine in two ways: It reduces the stimulatory effects of caffeine by increasing tolerance, and it increases the withdrawal symptoms of caffeine as the body becomes more sensitive to the effects of adenosine once caffeine intake stops. Caffeine tolerance develops very quickly. Tolerance to the sleep disruption effects of caffeine were seen after consumption of 400 mg of caffeine 3 times a day for 7 days, whereas complete tolerance was observed after consumption of 300 mg taken 3 times a day for 18 days.\n", "According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, caffeine overdose can result in a state of excessive stimulation of the central nervous system and the essential feature of Caffeine Intoxication is the recent consumption of caffeine. This diagnosis requires the presence of at least five signs or symptoms, from a list of 12, that develop during or shortly after\n\ncaffeine use. This syndrome regularly happens when a person ingested large amounts of caffeine from any source (e.g., more than 400–500 mg at a time).\n", "Caffeine increases intraocular pressure in those with glaucoma but does not appear to affect normal individuals.\n\nSection::::Overdose.\n\nConsumption of per day is associated with a condition known as \"caffeinism.\" Caffeinism usually combines caffeine dependency with a wide range of unpleasant symptoms including nervousness, irritability, restlessness, insomnia, headaches, and palpitations after caffeine use.\n", "Caffeine is a bio-active ingredient found in commonly consumed beverages such as coffee, tea, and sodas. Short-term physiological effects of caffeine include increased blood pressure and sympathetic nerve outflow. Habitual consumption of caffeine may inhibit physiological short-term effects. Consumption of caffeinated espresso increases parasympathetic activity in habitual caffeine consumers; however, decaffeinated espresso inhibits parasympathetic activity in habitual caffeine consumers. It is possible that other bio-active ingredients in decaffeinated espresso may also contribute to the inhibition of parasympathetic activity in habitual caffeine consumers.\n", "While many factors contribute to individual differences in a person's response to caffeine, such as environmental and demographic factors (i.e. age, drug use, circadian factors, etc.), genetics play an important role in individual variability. This inconsistency in responses to caffeine can take place either at the metabolic or at the drug-receptor level. The effects of genetic factors can occur either directly by changing acute or chronic reactions to the drug or indirectly by altering other psychological or physiological processes.\n", "Death can occur when a person had a caffeine overdose. The LD of caffeine in humans is dependent on individual sensitivity, but is estimated to be 150–200 milligrams per kilogram of body mass (75–100 cups of coffee for a 70 kilogram adult). A number of fatalities have been caused by overdoses of readily available powdered caffeine supplements, for which the estimated lethal amount is less than a tablespoon. The lethal dose is lower in individuals whose ability to metabolize caffeine is impaired due to genetics or chronic liver disease A death was reported in a man with liver cirrhosis who overdosed on caffeinated mints.\n", "Caffeine is a central nervous system stimulant that reduces fatigue and drowsiness. At normal doses, caffeine has variable effects on learning and memory, but it generally improves reaction time, wakefulness, concentration, and motor coordination. The amount of caffeine needed to produce these effects varies from person to person, depending on body size and degree of tolerance. The desired effects arise approximately one hour after consumption, and the desired effects of a moderate dose usually subside after about three or four hours.\n", "A 2011 review found that increased caffeine intake was associated with a variation in two genes that increase the rate of caffeine catabolism. Subjects who had this mutation on both chromosomes consumed 40 mg more caffeine per day than others. This is presumably due to the need for a higher intake to achieve a comparable desired effect, not that the gene led to a disposition for greater incentive of habituation.\n\nSection::::Chemistry.\n", "Tolerance to the effects of caffeine occurs for caffeine induced elevations in blood pressure and the subjective feelings of nervousness. Sensitization, the process whereby effects become more prominent with use, occurs for positive effects such as feelings of alertness and well being. Tolerance varies for daily, regular caffeine users and high caffeine users. High doses of caffeine (750 to 1200 mg/day spread throughout the day) have been shown to produce complete tolerance to some, but not all of the effects of caffeine. Doses as low as 100 mg/day, such as a 6 oz cup of coffee or two to three 12 oz servings of caffeinated soft-drink, may continue to cause sleep disruption, among other intolerances. Non-regular caffeine users have the least caffeine tolerance for sleep disruption. Some coffee drinkers develop tolerance to its undesired sleep-disrupting effects, but others apparently do not.\n", "Caffeine acts in multiple ways within the brain and the rest of the body. However, due to the concentration of caffeine required, antagonism of adenosine receptors is the primary mode of action. The following mechanisms are ways in which caffeine may act within the body, but depending on necessary caffeine concentration and other factors may not be responsible for the clinical effects of the substance.\n\nSection::::Mechanism of caffeine action.:Mobilization of intracellular calcium.\n", "BULLET::::4. periods of inexhaustibility, and\n\nBULLET::::5. psychomotor agitation,\n\nBULLET::::6. anorexia (loss of appetite).\n\nThe symptoms of caffeine intoxication are comparable to the symptoms of overdoses of other stimulants. In cases of much larger overdoses, mania, depression, lapses in judgment, disorientation, disinhibition, delusions, weight loss, loss of appetite, hallucinations, or psychosis may occur.\n", "Caffeine overdose can result in a state of central nervous system over-stimulation called \"caffeine intoxication\" (DSM-IV 305.90). This syndrome typically occurs only after ingestion of large amounts of caffeine, well over the amounts found in typical caffeinated beverages and caffeine tablets (e.g., more than 400–500 mg at a time). The symptoms of caffeine intoxication are comparable to the symptoms of overdoses of other stimulants: they may include restlessness, fidgeting, anxiety, excitement, insomnia, flushing of the face, increased urination, gastrointestinal disturbance, muscle twitching, a rambling flow of thought and speech, irritability, irregular or rapid heart beat, and psychomotor agitation. In cases of much larger overdoses, mania, depression, lapses in judgment, disorientation, disinhibition, delusions, hallucinations, or psychosis may occur, and rhabdomyolysis (breakdown of skeletal muscle tissue) can be provoked.\n", "Some of these processes include wakefulness, stimulation, and mood and cognition enhancement. Low doses can result in psychological effects of \"mild euphoria, alertness, and enhanced cognitive performance\"; higher doses produce physiological side effects of nausea, anxiety, trembling, and jitteriness.\n\nThere are individuals who are prone to caffeine's anxiogenic effects whilst others are susceptible to its caffeine-induced sleep disturbances and insomnia. Studies with twins have shown that genetics influence individual differences in response to caffeine. Homozygous twins have been found to react in more consistent ways to the caffeine than heterozygous twins.\n\nSection::::Behavioral effects.\n", "Section::::Interactions.:Tobacco.\n\nSmoking tobacco increases caffeine clearance by 56%.\n\nSection::::Interactions.:Birth control.\n\nBirth control pills can extend the half-life of caffeine, requiring greater attention to caffeine consumption.\n\nSection::::Interactions.:Medications.\n\nCaffeine sometimes increases the effectiveness of some medications, such as those for headaches. Caffeine was determined to increase the potency of some over-the-counter analgesic medications by 40%.\n\nThe pharmacological effects of adenosine may be blunted in individuals taking large quantities of methylxanthines like caffeine.\n\nSection::::Pharmacology.\n\nSection::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacodynamics.\n", "There are four caffeine-induced psychiatric disorders recognized by the \"Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition\": caffeine intoxication, caffeine-induced anxiety disorder, caffeine-induced sleep disorder, and caffeine-related disorder not otherwise specified (NOS).\n\nThere are also risks associated with consuming caffeine during pregnancy, with studies having shown more than 200 mg of caffeine per day can result in miscarriage.\n\nSection::::Naturally low-caffeine coffees.\n", "Mild physical dependence can result from excessive caffeine intake. Caffeine addiction, or a pathological and compulsive form of use, has not been documented in humans.\n", "There is also existing evidence that reflects on the duration of the caffeine avoidance period in relation to the significance of the withdrawal symptoms. In the study previously mentioned, the strongest withdrawal effects were seen among participants who underwent a 13-hour avoidance period, followed by the 7-day avoidance group. This would imply that memory effects would be at their strongest around the 13-hour mark and would continue to be affected for the following days. Memory would not be affected, however, within the first few hours. This appears valid considering most daily caffeine users need to consume caffeine shortly after awaking from sleep. For example, coffee drinkers were given either caffeine or a placebo after overnight caffeine abstinence. The study showed that regular coffee drinkers became less alert and more anxious than non-coffee drinkers when receiving the placebo. To coincide with this finding, another study in 2001 found a dose-related improvement in cognitive performance for daily caffeine users. This means that coffee drinkers experience the same positive effects every day they consume coffee.\n", "Massive overdose can result in death. The LD of caffeine in humans is dependent on individual sensitivity, but is estimated to be 150–200 milligrams per kilogram of body mass (75–100 cups of coffee for a 70 kilogram adult). A number of fatalities have been caused by overdoses of readily available powdered caffeine supplements, for which the estimated lethal amount is less than a tablespoon. The lethal dose is lower in individuals whose ability to metabolize caffeine is impaired due to genetics or chronic liver disease. A death was reported in a man with liver cirrhosis who overdosed on caffeinated mints.\n", "BULLET::::- Theophylline (4%): Relaxes smooth muscles of the bronchi, and is used to treat asthma. The therapeutic dose of theophylline, however, is many times greater than the levels attained from caffeine metabolism.\n\n1,3,7-Trimethyluric acid is a minor caffeine metabolite. Each of these metabolites is further metabolized and then excreted in the urine. Caffeine can accumulate in individuals with severe liver disease, increasing its half-life.\n", "In moderate doses, caffeine is used to reduce physical fatigue, to prevent drowsiness and sleep, and to maintain and restore mental alertness and wakefulness. However, at higher doses, these stimulatory effects can become excessive and lead to a wide range of unpleasant symptoms including a dysphoric physical and mental state that is labeled caffeinism and is also known colloquially as ‘‘coffee nerves’’ or ‘‘caffeine jitters.’’ This symptoms including nervousness, irritability, restlessness, insomnia, headaches, and palpitations after caffeine use.\n\nCaffeinism usually occurs when consumption of caffeine reaches per day.\n", "The consumption of caffeinated drinks is often intended entirely or partly for the physical and mental effects of caffeine. Examples include the consumption of tea or coffee with breakfast in many westernized societies, in order to 'wake oneself up', or the deliberate consumption of energy drinks by students wishing to study through the night, or revellers seeking to maintain an alert attitude during social recreation. Caffeine can cause a physical dependence, if consumed in excessive amounts. The need for caffeine can be identified when individuals feel headaches, fatigue and muscle pain 24 hours after their last energy drink.\n", "The signs and symptoms are divided into one group that can appear after an intake of as little as 100 mg of caffeine (roughly the amount contained in a cup of brewed coffee) and another group of symptoms that appear at higher levels of intake (more than 1 g per day). Low-dose symptoms include \n\nBULLET::::1. restlessness,\n\nBULLET::::2. nervousness,\n\nBULLET::::3. excitement,\n\nBULLET::::4. insomnia,\n\nBULLET::::5. flushed face,\n\nBULLET::::6. diuresis (increased urination), and\n\nBULLET::::7. gastrointestinal disturbance.\n\nSymptoms associated with high doses of caffeine include \n\nBULLET::::1. muscle twitching,\n\nBULLET::::2. rambling flow of thought and speech,\n\nBULLET::::3. tachycardia and cardiac arrhythmia,\n", "In cases of prolonged consumption of excess amounts of caffeine, studies show that individuals exhibit a reduced response to HPA axis activation by the hormone ACTH and a generalized increase in basal levels of stress hormone corticosterone. This led researchers to conclude that \"caffeine consumption decreases adrenal gland sensitivity to ACTH. A blunted HPA response to psychological stress has been seen in humans with panic disorder compared to healthy controls following administration of a psychosocial test\".\n\nSection::::Populations most susceptible.\n", "The effects of caffeine on parasympathetic activity may vary depending on the position of the individual when autonomic responses are measured. One study found that the seated position inhibited autonomic activity after caffeine consumption (75 mg); however, parasympathetic activity increased in the supine position. This finding may explain why some habitual caffeine consumers (75 mg or less) do not experience short-term effects of caffeine if their routine requires many hours in a seated position. It is important to note that the data supporting increased parasympathetic activity in the supine position was derived from an experiment involving participants between the ages of 25 and 30 who were considered healthy and sedentary. Caffeine may influence autonomic activity differently for individuals who are more active or elderly.\n", "Caffeine can have both positive and negative health effects. It can treat and prevent the premature infant breathing disorders bronchopulmonary dysplasia of prematurity and apnea of prematurity. Caffeine citrate is on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines. It may confer a modest protective effect against some diseases, including Parkinson's disease. Some people experience sleep disruption or anxiety if they consume caffeine, but others show little disturbance. Evidence of a risk during pregnancy is equivocal; some authorities recommend that pregnant women limit consumption to the equivalent of two cups of coffee per day or less. Caffeine can produce a mild form of drug dependence – associated with withdrawal symptoms such as sleepiness, headache, and irritability – when an individual stops using caffeine after repeated daily intake. Tolerance to the autonomic effects of increased blood pressure and heart rate, and increased urine output, develops with chronic use (i.e., these symptoms become less pronounced or do not occur following consistent use).\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-05845	how does a food processor and a blender give you such different consistencies when all they both do is have a blade spinning in circles.	I would think that it is the shape of the blades. One may have just a two pronged flat blade. The other is more articulated and has additional arms/blades. Here is a cool video (kind of) touching on the subject. URL_0	[ "Food processor\n\nA food processor is a kitchen appliance used to facilitate repetitive tasks in the preparation of food. Today, the term almost always refers to an electric-motor-driven appliance, although there are some manual devices also referred to as \"food processors\".\n\nFood processors are similar to blenders in many forms. A food processor typically requires little to no liquid during use, unlike a blender, which requires a set amount of liquid in order for the blade to properly blend the food. Food processors are used to blend, chop, dice, and slice, allowing for quicker meal preparation.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "A stick blender comprises an electric motor driving rotating cutting blades at the end of a shaft which can be immersed in the food being blended, inside a housing which can be held by hand. Some can be used while a pan is on the stove. Immersion blenders are distinguished from worktop blenders and food processors that require food to be placed in a special vessel for processing. They are distinguished from hand mixers, which mix but do not chop.\n", "BULLET::::- Will It Blend? – The blender product Blendtec, claimed by its creator Tom Dickson to be the most powerful blender, is featured in a series of YouTube videos, \"\"Will It Blend?\"\" where numerous food and non-food items are used within the blender.\n", "Blenders are blade grinders designed specifically for use with wet ingredients. Blenders are popular tools for production of purées and pastes, using both the cutting and shearing effects of high speed blades.\n\nSection::::Types.:Food processor.\n\nA food processor is similar to a blender. The primary difference is that food processors use interchangeable blades and disks (attachments) rather than a fixed blade. Also, their bowls are wider and shorter, a more proper shape for the solid or semi-solid foods usually worked in a food processor.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Blade\n\nBULLET::::- Cavitation\n\nBULLET::::- Impeller\n\nBULLET::::- Grinding machine\n\nBULLET::::- Milling machine\n\nBULLET::::- Mixer (cooking)\n", "Commercial blenders were developed in the 1920s. With increasing miniaturization of the electric motor, the first consumer blender, the Waring Blendor, was developed in the 1930s, and a canister blender, the Osterizer, entered the market in 1946. The first immersion blenders were patented in the 1950s.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nSection::::Types.:Coffee grinders.\n\nSpecial purpose coffee grinders usually are either blade grinders or burr grinders: blade grinders being less expensive and having additional uses, burr grinders giving a better quality of grind (see Coffee preparation#Grinding). Special purpose spice grinders usually are either blade grinders or mortar and pestle (or related tools).\n", "In cases where the blades are removable, the container should have an O-ring or gasket between the body of the container and the base to seal the container and prevent the contents from leaking. The blending container is generally shaped in a way that encourages material to circulate through the blades, rather than simply spinning around.\n", "The hand-held immersion blender or stick blender has no container of its own, but instead has a mixing head with rotating blades that can be immersed in a container. Immersion blenders are convenient for homogenizing volumes that are too large to fit in the bowl of a stationary blender or as in the case of soups, are too hot to be safely poured into the bowl.\n\nThe operation of an immersion blender requires that the user hold down a switch for as long as the blades operate, which can be tiresome for the user.\n", "With the rising popularity of smoothies, Frappucinos and other frozen drinks prepared in front of the customer, new models of commercial blenders often include a sound-reducing enclosures and computerized controls.\n\nSpecialized blenders for making smoothies are becoming popular, chiefly resembling an ordinary model with a spigot added for quick serving. Some models also feature a gimballed stirring rod mounted on the lid, constructed so that mixtures can be stirred whilst the machine is running with no chance of the stirrer fouling the blades.\n", "One of the first electric food processors was the Starmix, introduced by German company Electrostar in 1946. Although the basic unit resembled a simple blender, numerous accessories were available, including attachments for slicing bread, milk centrifuges and ice cream bowls. In a time when electric motors were expensive, they also developed the piccolo, where the food processor's base unit could drive a vacuum cleaner. In the 1960s, Albrecht von Goertz designed the Starmix MX3 food processor. Although the entire company was rebranded as Starmix in 1968 following the success of the processors, they later focused on vacuum cleaners and electric hand-dryers and the last mixer was produced around the year 2000. \n", "Handheld blenders are ideal for small and specific tasks but do not have as many uses as a countertop blender.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n\nCountertop blenders are designed to mix, purée, and chop food. Their strength is such that the ability to crush ice is an expected feature.\n\nBlenders are used both in home and commercial kitchens for various purposes, including to:\n\nBULLET::::- Grind semi-solid ingredients, such as fresh fruits and vegetables, into smooth purées\n\nBULLET::::- Blend ice cream, milk, and sweet sauces to make milkshakes\n\nBULLET::::- Mix and crush ice in cocktails such as the Zombie, piña colada and frozen margarita\n", "Coffee beans can be chopped by using blades rotating at high speed (20,000 to 30,000 rpm), either in a blade grinder designed specifically for coffee and spices, or in a general use home blender. Devices of this sort are cheaper than burr grinders, but the grind is not uniform and will produce particles of widely varying sizes, while ideally all particles should have the same size, appropriate for the method of brewing. Moreover, the particles get smaller and smaller during the grinding process, which makes it difficult to achieve a consistent grind from batch to batch.\n", "BULLET::::- Continuous Processor\n\nBULLET::::- Cone Screw Blender\n\nBULLET::::- Screw Blender\n\nBULLET::::- Double Cone Blender\n\nBULLET::::- Double Planetary\n\nBULLET::::- High Viscosity Mixer\n\nBULLET::::- Counter-rotating\n\nBULLET::::- Double & Triple Shaft\n\nBULLET::::- Vacuum Mixer\n\nBULLET::::- High Shear Rotor Stator\n\nBULLET::::- Impinging mixer\n\nBULLET::::- Dispersion Mixers\n\nBULLET::::- Paddle\n\nBULLET::::- Jet Mixer\n\nBULLET::::- Mobile Mixers\n\nBULLET::::- Drum Blenders\n\nBULLET::::- Intermix mixer\n\nBULLET::::- Horizontal Mixer\n\nBULLET::::- Hot/Cold mixing combination\n\nBULLET::::- Vertical mixer\n\nBULLET::::- Turbomixer\n\nBULLET::::- Planetary mixer\n\nBULLET::::- A \"planetary mixer\" is a device used to mix round products including adhesives, pharmaceuticals, foods (including dough), chemicals, electronics, plastics and pigments.\n", "Section::::Techniques.\n\nThe techniques used by a mixologist are mostly bound to the new equipment which is provided by the molecular gastronomy. They are, for the most part, adaptations of new techniques for food preparation, for example: were originally created for food applications, but nowadays you can find aires on top of cocktails.\n\nSection::::Techniques.:Spherification.\n\nSpherification, one of the techniques applied to molecular mixology, is the culinary process of shaping a liquid into spheres. They can be small like caviar or larger like an egg yolk.\n\nSection::::Techniques.:Suspension (thickening).\n", "Blender\n\nA blender (sometimes called a liquidiser in British English) is a kitchen and laboratory appliance used to mix, purée, or emulsify food and other substances. A stationary blender consists of a blender jar with a rotating metal blade at the bottom, powered by an electric motor in the base. Some powerful models can also crush ice. The newer immersion blender configuration has a motor on top connected by a shaft to a rotating blade at the bottom, which can be used with any container.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.\n", "In France, the concept of a machine to process food began when a catering company salesman, Pierre Verdun, observed the large amount of time his clients spent in the kitchen chopping, shredding and mixing. He produced a simple but effective solution, a bowl with a revolving blade in the base. In 1960, this evolved into Robot-Coupe, a company established to manufacture commercial \"food processors\" for the catering industry. In the late 1960s, a commercial food processor driven by a powerful commercial induction motor was produced. Robot-Coupe's Magimix food processor arrived from France in the UK in 1974, beginning with the Model 1800. Then, a UK company Kenwood Limited started their own first Kenwood Food Processor, 'processor de- luxe,' in 1979.\n", "A range of additional accessories are available, most of these are the typical accessories for a large mixer. Most attachments are driven using the main drive shaft used to drive the bowl, however, some – such as the meat grinder or pasta roller – require the machine to be tilted on its side.\n\nThe attachments available are:\n\nBULLET::::- Meat mincer\n\nBULLET::::- Vegetable grater\n\nBULLET::::- Citrus press\n\nBULLET::::- Pasta roller\n\nBULLET::::- Coffee and grain mill\n\nBULLET::::- Double beater for lighter cake mixtures.\n\nThe meat mincer also has many additional attachments, such as a sausage horn, strainer or nut grinder.\n", "Countertop blenders use a 1–2 liters (4–8 cups) blending container made of glass, plastic, stainless steel. Glass blenders are heavier and more stable. Plastic is prone to scratching and absorbing the smell of blended food. Stainless steel is preferred for its looks, but limits visibility of the food as it is blended.\n\nCountertop blenders typically offer 3–16 speed settings, but having more choices in speed settings is not an indication of increased utility for all users.\n", "Blade grinders for home grinding of coffee beans are commonly used for grinding spices. However, larger, more powerful versions are used, particularly in Asia. Commonly found in pharmacies in China for grinding Chinese traditional medicine, the blades of this style of grinder can rotate at 28,000 rpm or more and are capable of reducing hard, dried roots to powder. This type of grinder is also used in restaurants for spices as well as for laboratory use.\n\nSection::::Types.:Blenders.\n", "Food mills are usually made of stainless steel or aluminum. The bowl may be plastic, particularly for smaller sizes marketed for preparing baby food. Older \"heirloom\" utensils were usually made from tinplate. \n\nThis piece of kitchen equipment, of long-proven efficiency, bridges the gap between a sieve (or tamis, china cap, or chinoise) and the electric blender or food processor. Its function is similar to that of a potato ricer or \"hob\" type of spätzle maker.\n", "There are a number of different type of mixers used in the feed industry with the most widely used being:\n\nBULLET::::- Vertical Mixer – Used in small farms, they consist of a vertical screw which takes material to the top where it falls back down again, and repeats that process to mix materials\n\nBULLET::::- Horizontal Mixer – Consisting of paddles (paddle mixer ) or blades (ribbon blender) attached to a horizontal rotor, these mixers usually have a higher consistent homogeneity and short mixing times.\n\nThese machines come in a variety of configurations:\n", "Blade grinders also resemble industrial blade (propeller) mixers, which like meat grinders rotate at much slower speeds. Unlike blade grinders, these mixers do not alter (break, cut, shred, macerate, pulverize) the material being mixed. The high speed of rotation of blade grinders is necessary to achieve their cutting action. In a blender application, the high speed of rotation contributes to shearing, which in turn contributes to aeration and the formation of emulsions. These are desirable qualities in many food preparations. A blade grinder can run on batteries or more commonly on utility electricity.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Development.:South America.\n", "An immersion blender, stick blender, wand blender, hand blender, or Bermixer (after the brand name of professional models made by Dito-Electrolux) is a kitchen blade grinder used to blend ingredients or purée food in the container in which they are being prepared. The immersion blender was invented in Switzerland by , who patented the idea on March 6, 1950. He called the new appliance \"bamix\", a portmanteau of the French \"batere et mixe\" (beats and mixes). Larger immersion blenders for commercial use are sometimes nicknamed boat motors (popularized by Emeril Lagasse and Alton Brown). Uses include puréeing soups and emulsifying sauces.\n", "When an educator differentiates by product or performance, they are affording students various ways of demonstrating what they have learned from the lesson or unit (Anderson, 2007; Nunley, 2006). It is done by using menu unit sheets, choice boards or open-ended lists of final product options. It is meant to allow students to show what they learned based on their learning preferences, interests and strengths.\n\nExamples of differentiated structures include Layered Curriculum, tiered instruction, tic-tac-toe extension menus, Curry/Samara models, RAFT writing activities, and similar designs. (see external links below)\n", "Section::::Mixing.:Pre-mixer.\n\nThe measured amounts of water and semolina are mixed together in pre-mixer to form a crumbly dough. The traditional type of pre-mixer is a trough with a cylindrical section inside which rotates a mixing shaft with blades. More advanced systems use a high-speed (centrifuge) pre-mixer in which water and semolina are sprayed into the chamber, so that each particle of semolina absorbs the correct amount of water.\n\nSection::::Mixing.:Final mixing.\n" ]	[ "Food processors and blenders should not create different consistencies in food when they perform the same task.", "Because food processors and blenders perform similar actions, they should not create different consistencies within food. " ]	[ "Food processors and blenders may have blades of different shapes, and/or a differing number of blades, which will give food different consistencies. ", "The actions of food processors and blenders don't determine the consistency of the food, the blade to the device does. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Food processors and blenders should not create different consistencies in food when they perform the same task.", "Because food processors and blenders perform similar actions, they should not create different consistencies within food. ", "Food processors and blenders have similar blades." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Food processors and blenders may have blades of different shapes, and/or a differing number of blades, which will give food different consistencies. ", "The actions of food processors and blenders don't determine the consistency of the food, the blade to the device does. ", "Food processors and blenders may have blades of different shapes, and/or a differing number of blades." ]
2018-05569	How can our relatively tiny eyeballs simultaneously absorb all the photons bouncing off something as large as the moon so that we can see it as a whole?	They're not. If your eyes were absorbing all the photons bouncing off the moon, nobody else would be able to see it... plus your eyes would probably boil. Your eyes detect the minuscule proportion of photons that reach your pupils, and no more than that. Visible things scatter reflected and retracted light in lots of directions. Luminous things emit light in lots of directions. Only a fraction of those need to get to your eyeballs for you to be able to discern something.	[ "The ability of two-photon excitation to address molecules deep within a sample without affecting other areas makes it possible to store and retrieve information in the volume of a substance rather than only on a surface as is done on the DVD. Therefore, 3D optical data storage has the possibility to provide media that contain terabyte-level data capacities on a single disc.\n\nSection::::Compounds.\n", "Section::::White cell.\n", "Research continues in an attempt to eliminate the limited field of vision in current bifocals. New materials and technologies may provide a method which can selectively adjust the optical power of a lens. Researchers have constructed such a lens using a liquid crystal layer applied between two glass substrates.\n\nSection::::Bifocals in the animal world.\n", "Moonlight\n\nMoonlight consists of mostly sunlight (with little earthlight) reflected from the parts of the Moon's surface where the Sun's light strikes.\n\nSection::::Illumination.\n\nThe intensity of moonlight varies greatly depending on its phase, but even the full Moon typically provides only about 0.05–0.1 lux illumination. When the full Moon is at perigee and viewed around upper culmination from the tropics, the illuminance can reach up to 0.32 lux. From Earth, the apparent magnitude of the full Moon is only about that of the Sun.\n", "Above the range of visible light, ultraviolet light becomes invisible to humans, mostly because it is absorbed by the cornea below 360 nm and the internal lens below 400 nm. Furthermore, the rods and cones located in the retina of the human eye cannot detect the very short (below 360 nm) ultraviolet wavelengths and are in fact damaged by ultraviolet. Many animals with eyes that do not require lenses (such as insects and shrimp) are able to detect ultraviolet, by quantum photon-absorption mechanisms, in much the same chemical way that humans detect visible light.\n", "Under some conditions, an energy transition can be excited by \"two\" photons that individually would be insufficient. This allows for higher resolution microscopy, because the sample absorbs energy only in the spectrum where two beams of different colors overlap significantly, which can be made much smaller than the excitation volume of a single beam (see two-photon excitation microscopy). Moreover, these photons cause less damage to the sample, since they are of lower energy.\n", "LUCI is a small technology demonstrator without 3-axis pointing freedom, so it will rely on the motion of the lunar sky. The optical system is a two-spherical mirror configuration and a double-pass corrector lens. Its primary lens is all-spherical measuring 80 mm transmitting light through the system to a photon-counting charge-coupled device (CCD) detector which is sensitive to ultraviolet wavelengths. The detector is an 8 mm UV-sensitive CCD with the response between 200 - 900 nm, so the engineers placed a solar blind filter before the CCD to restrict the bandpass to 200 - 320 nm.\n", "One special detail about adipose eyelids is their ability to filter out specific wavelengths of light. For example, different fish have a different concentration of epithelial tissue in their eyelids. However, there is a range that most of the eyelids will filter. Most adipose eyelids can filter out light that has a wavelength shorter than 305 nanometers. Another fact is that these eyelids can also reflect light and this level of reflection corresponds to polarization of the light and the angle at which it is shone. To test for these ranges, different fish eyelids were exposed to light generated from photometers and polarizing microscopes.\n", "In his \"Hypothesis of Light\" of 1675, Newton posited the existence of the ether to transmit forces between particles. In 1704, Newton published \"Opticks\", in which he expounded his corpuscular theory of light. He considered light to be made up of extremely subtle corpuscles, that ordinary matter was made of grosser corpuscles and speculated that through a kind of alchemical transmutation \"Are not gross Bodies and Light convertible into one another, ...and may not Bodies receive much of their Activity from the Particles of Light which enter their Composition?\"\n\nSection::::Renaissance and Early Modern.:Diffractive optics.\n", "The Moon's light is used by zooplankton in the Arctic when the Sun is below the horizon for months and must have been helpful to the animals that lived in Arctic and Antarctic regions when the climate was warmer.\n\nSection::::History of observations and measurements.\n", "of the Earth’s total mass. The self energy of the Moon is smaller yet, about of its mass. (The contribution for any object of laboratory size is negligible, about , so only measurements of planet-sized or bigger objects have any hope of seeing this effect.)\n", "Computer modeling of light transmission through translucent ceramic alumina has shown that microscopic pores trapped near grain boundaries act as primary scattering centers. The volume fraction of porosity had to be reduced below 1% for high-quality optical transmission (99.99 percent of theoretical density). This goal has been readily accomplished and amply demonstrated in laboratories and research facilities worldwide using the emerging chemical processing methods encompassed by the methods of sol-gel chemistry and nanotechnology.\n", "Section::::Pfund Cell.\n", "The Moon's average orbital distance is , or 1.28 light-seconds. This is about thirty times the diameter of Earth. The Moon's apparent size in the sky is almost the same as that of the Sun, since the star is about 400 times the lunar distance and diameter. Therefore, the Moon covers the Sun nearly precisely during a total solar eclipse. This matching of apparent visual size will not continue in the far future because the Moon's distance from Earth is gradually increasing.\n", "In 2010s, three photon microscopy is developed further. In January 2013, Horton, Wang and Kobat invented in vivo imaging of an intact mouse brain by employing point scanning method to three photon microscope. In May 2017, Rowlands applied wide-field three-photon excitation to three photon microscope for larger penetration depth. In Oct 2018, T Wang, D Ouzounov, and C Wu were able to image vasculature and GCaMP6 calcium using three photon microscope.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n", "The White cell was first described in 1942 by John U. White in his paper \"Long Optical Paths of Large Aperture\", and was a significant improvement over previous long path spectroscopic measurement techniques. A White cell is constructed using three spherical, concave mirrors having the same radius of curvature. The animation on the right shows a White Cell in which a beam makes eight reflective passes or traversals. The number of traversals can be changed quite easily by making slight rotational adjustments to either M2 or M3; however, the total number of traversals must always occur in multiples of four. The entering and exiting beams do not change position as traversals are added or removed, while the total number of traversals can be increased many times without changing the volume of the cell, and therefore the total optical path length can be made large compared to the volume of the sample under test.\n", "BULLET::::- A molecule absorbs the photon which results in reflection or scattering.\n\nBULLET::::- A molecule cannot absorb the energy of the photon and the photon continues on its path. This results in transmission (provided no other absorption mechanisms are active).\n", "The light-gathering power of an optical telescope, also referred to as light grasp or aperture gain, is the ability of a telescope to collect a lot more light than the human eye. Its light-gathering power is probably its most important feature. The telescope acts as a \"light bucket\", collecting all of the photons that come down on it from a far away object, where a larger bucket catches more photons resulting in more received light in a given time period, effectively brightening the image. This is why the pupils of your eyes enlarge at night so that more light reaches the retinas. The gathering power formula_27 compared against a human eye is the squared result of the division of the aperture formula_2 over the observer's pupil diameter formula_29, with an average adult having a pupil diameter of 7mm. Younger persons host larger diameters, typically said to be 9mm, as the diameter of the pupil decreases with age.\n", "Light energy enters the eye through the cornea, through the pupil and then through the lens. The lens shape is changed for near focus (accommodation) and is controlled by the ciliary muscle. Photons of light falling on the light-sensitive cells of the retina (photoreceptor cones and rods) are converted into electrical signals that are transmitted to the brain by the optic nerve and interpreted as sight and vision.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Size.\n", "At the Moon's surface, the beam is about wide and scientists liken the task of aiming the beam to using a rifle to hit a moving dime away. The reflected light is too weak to see with the human eye. Out of photons aimed at the reflector, only one is received back on Earth, even under good conditions. They can be identified as originating from the laser because the laser is highly monochromatic. This is one of the most precise distance measurements ever made, and is equivalent in accuracy to determining the distance between Los Angeles and New York to within . \n", "The natural (\"wild-type\") ChR2 absorbs blue light with an absorption and action spectrum maximum at 480 nm. When the all-\"trans\"-retinal complex absorbs a photon, it induces a conformational change from all-\"trans\" to 13-\"cis\"-retinal. This change introduces a further one in the transmembrane protein, opening the pore to at least 6 Å. Within milliseconds, the retinal relaxes back to the all-trans form, closing the pore and stopping the flow of ions. Most natural channelrhodopsins are nonspecific cation channels, conducting H, Na, K, and Ca ions. Recently, anion-conducting channelrhodopsins have been discovered.\n\nSection::::Designer-channelrhodopsins.\n", "Section::::Development of the field and potential applications.:3D photopolymerization.\n\nIn 3D microfabrication, a block of gel containing monomers and a 2-photon active photoinitiator is prepared as a raw material. Application of a focused laser to the block results in polymerization only at the focal spot of the laser, where the intensity of the absorbed light is highest. The shape of an object can therefore be traced out by the laser, and then the excess gel can be washed away to leave the traced solid.\n\nSection::::Development of the field and potential applications.:Imaging.\n", "Section::::Applications of SIL.:Optical data storage.\n\nBecause SIL provides high spatial resolution, the spot size of laser beam through the SIL can be smaller than diffraction limit in air, and the density of the associated optical data storage can be increased.\n\nSection::::Applications of SIL.:Photolithography.\n\nSimilar to immersion lithography, the use of SIL can increase spatial resolution of projected photolithographic patterns, creating smaller components on wafers.\n\nEmission Microscopy \n\nOffers advantages for semiconductor wafer emission microscopy which detects faint emissions of light (Photons) from electron-hole recombination under the influence of electrical stimulation \n", "Section::::Processes for creating written data.:Writing by nonresonant multiphoton absorption.\n\nAlthough there are many nonlinear optical phenomena, only multiphoton absorption is capable of injecting into the media the significant energy required to electronically excite molecular species and cause chemical reactions. Two-photon absorption is the strongest multiphoton absorbance by far, but still it is a very weak phenomenon, leading to low media sensitivity. Therefore, much research has been directed at providing chromophores with high two-photon absorption cross-sections.\n", "Photons can also be absorbed by nuclei, atoms or molecules, provoking transitions between their energy levels. A classic example is the molecular transition of retinal (CHO), which is responsible for vision, as discovered in 1958 by Nobel laureate biochemist George Wald and co-workers. The absorption provokes a cis-trans isomerization that, in combination with other such transitions, is transduced into nerve impulses. The absorption of photons can even break chemical bonds, as in the photodissociation of chlorine; this is the subject of photochemistry.\n\nSection::::Technological applications.\n" ]	[ "Our eyes can see something as large as the moon as a whole by absorbing all of the photons bouncing off the object." ]	[ "Eyes cannot do this - they can detect a very tiny proportion of the photons, but only a fraction of the photons are needed to be able to discern something." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Our eyes can see something as large as the moon as a whole by absorbing all of the photons bouncing off the object." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Eyes cannot do this - they can detect a very tiny proportion of the photons, but only a fraction of the photons are needed to be able to discern something." ]
2018-07788	Why can Illegal Immigrants in America get Driver's Licenses, go to Public Schools, etc. if they are illegal?	Immigration laws are federal laws & enforced by the federal government. Drivers licenses & schools are run by the states. It's neither their job nor responsibility to enforce immigration law. The states just want to ensure that drivers are qualified & you don't have uneducated children running around causing havoc. These people are still going to exist. If you don't give them licenses, they're still going to drive.	[ "Section::::New York.:Reaction.\n", "In \"Plyler v. Doe\" (1982) the Supreme Court struck down a Texas statute denying free public education to illegal immigrants as a violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment because discrimination on the basis of illegal immigration status did not further a substantial state interest. The Court reasoned that illegal aliens and their children, though not citizens of the United States or Texas, are people \"in any ordinary sense of the term\" and, therefore, are afforded Fourteenth Amendment protections.\n", "Section::::New York.:First attempts to restore access to drivers licences for illegal immigrants.\n", "The point we need make is that when people do come here, they ought to live with their heads up. They ought to live in the light, not the darkness. They ought to not be afraid of seeing a police car. It's not just in our benefit that we solve this problem. It's in the benefit of those who do come to this country so nobody looks at a person of maybe Hispanic origin and questions whether or not they are legal. We ought to have the assumption that everybody here is legal, that nobody here is illegal.\n", "In 1982, the U.S. Supreme Court reminded all immigration officials that \"once an alien gains admission to our country and begins to develop the ties that go with permanent residence, his constitutional status changes accordingly.\" That opinion was issued after Congress and the Reagan administration \"firmly resettled\" in the United States thousands of refugee families from totalitarian states, such as Afghanistan, Cambodia, Cuba, Laos, Vietnam, etc. As U.N.-recognized refugees, these people had permanently lost their homes, farms, businesses, properties, livelihood, families, relatives, pets, etc. They similarly lost their former nationalities after obtaining permanent resident cards (green cards) of the United States, and thus gradually became like the rest of Americans.\n", "In 2012, an estimated 14 million people live in families in which the head of household or the spouse is in the United States without authorization. Illegal immigrants arriving recently before 2012 tend to be better educated than those who have been in the country a decade or more. A quarter of all immigrants who have arrived in recently before 2012 have at least some college education. Nonetheless, illegal immigrants as a group tend to be less educated than other sections of the U.S. population: 49 percent haven't completed high school, compared with 9 percent of native-born Americans and 25 percent of legal immigrants.\n", "Driver's licenses for illegal immigrants in the United States\n\nAs of June 2019, 13 U.S. states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico issue driver's licenses or permits to some or all of the population residing unlawfully in the United States. State laws permitting this are on the books in California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Hawaii, Illinois, Maryland, New Mexico, Nevada, New York, Utah, Vermont, and Washington. The issue is being debated in New Jersey, while Oregon issued such licenses until 2008 and briefly from 2013 until the 2014 Oregon Ballot Measure 88.\n\nSection::::California.\n", "Generally, eligibility for citizenship is denied for the millions of people living in the United States illegally, although from time to time, there have been amnesties. In 2006, there were mass protests numbering hundreds of thousands of people throughout the US demanding U.S. citizenship for illegal immigrants. Many carried banners which read \"We Have A Dream Too\". One estimate is that there were 12 million illegal immigrants in the U.S. in 2006. Many American high school students have citizenship issues. In 2008, it was estimated that there were 65,000 illegal immigrant students. The number was less clear for post-secondary education. A 1982 Supreme Court decision entitled illegal immigrants to free education from kindergarten through high school. Undocumented immigrants who get arrested face difficulties in the courtroom as they have no constitutional right to challenge the outcome of their deportation hearings. In 2009, writer Tom Barry of the \"Boston Review\" criticized the crackdown against illegal immigrants since it \"flooded the federal courts with nonviolent offenders, besieged poor communities, and dramatically increased the U.S. prison population, while doing little to solve the problem itself\". Barry criticized the United States' high incarceration rate as being \"fives times greater than the average rate in the rest of the world\". Virginia senator Jim Webb agreed that \"we are doing something dramatically wrong in our criminal justice system\".\n", "Various Supreme Court rulings have been made regarding the Constitutional rights of illegal immigrants over the years. In \"Yick Wo v. Hopkins\" (1886), the court ruled that under the Fourteenth Amendment, all people, regardless of \"race, of color, or of nationality\" or \"aliens...alleged to be here illegally\" have the right to due process and equal protection under the law.\n\nA similar ruling of \"Wong Wing v. US\" (1896) stated that all persons within the territory of the United States are afforded equal protections under the Fifth Amendment and Sixth Amendment.\n", "Children of legal migrants won't qualify as Dreamers under DACA protection because they entered the country legally. This is highlighted as the biggest contradiction in US immigration policy by many advocates of legal immigrants.\n", "An estimated 65,000 undocumented youth graduate from high school every year but only 5 to 10 percent go on to college.\n\nStudies have shown that undocumented immigrants are wary of disclosing their immigration status to counselors, teachers and mentors. In other words, undocumented students sometimes did not disclose their status to the very individuals that could help them find pathways to higher education.\n\nSection::::Harm to illegal immigrants.\n", "Section::::State and city responses.:Nebraska.\n\nGovernor Dave Heineman opposed Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals and in 2012 directed the Nebraska Department of Motor Vehicles to not issue driver's licenses to people who received deferred action under DACA. Heineman said that providing any benefit, including a driver's license, to an illegal immigrant would be a violation of Nebraska state law.\n", "Immigrant activist organizations have complained that the majority of illegal immigrants deported by ICE had not committed murder, kidnapping, robbery, or any of the most serious criminal offenses, while many were considered non-criminal.\n", "U.S. Presidents and the U.S. Congress have expressly favored some \"legal immigrants\" because they were admitted to the United States as refugees, i.e., people who escaped from genocides and have absolutely no safe country of permanent residence other than the United States. Removing such protected people from the United States constitutes a grave international crime, especially if they qualify as Americans or have physically and continuously resided in the United States for at least 10 years without committing any offense that triggers removability.\n", "On April 23, 2010, Arizona Governor Jan Brewer signed into law SB 1070, which supporters dubbed the \"Support Our Law Enforcement and Safe Neighborhoods Act\". The act made it a state misdemeanor crime for an illegal immigrant to be in Arizona without carrying registration documents required by federal law, authorizes state and local law enforcement of federal immigration laws, and penalized those found to be knowingly sheltering, hiring and transporting illegal immigrants.\n", "Several pieces of legislation signed into law in 1996 marked a turn towards harsher policies for both legal and illegal immigrants. The Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act (AEDPA) and Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act (IIRIRA) vastly increased the categories of criminal activity for which immigrants, including green card holders, can be deported and imposed mandatory detention for certain types of deportation cases. As a result, well over 2 million individuals have been deported since 1996.\n\nSection::::21st century.\n", "Section::::Legislation affecting undocumented students.\n\nSection::::Legislation affecting undocumented students.:\"Plyler v. Doe\".\n\nIn the United States, children are given the right to an elementary and secondary education (K-12) regardless of their immigration status.\n", "In the state of New York, obtaining a driver's license did not require proof of legal presence; however, New York blocked off this access in 2002, by asking all driver license applicants to provide a valid social security number. In 2019, the legislature passed the \"Driver's License Access and Privacy Act\" restoring access to drivers licenses for the illegal immigrant population.\n", "From 2001 to 2019, undocumented immigrants were not eligible for driver's licenses in New York. Although there is nothing in New York law that requires legal status in order to obtain a standard driver's license, a 2001 executive order issued by then-Governor George Pataki created a rule that effectively prevents undocumented immigrants and other individuals without a Social Security number from obtaining licenses.\n\nSection::::New York.:Green Light New York Coalition.\n", "However, in Plyler v. Doe, 457 U.S. 202 (1982), a case involving educational entitlements for children in the United States unlawfully, Justice Brennan, writing for a five-to-four majority, held that such persons were subject to the jurisdiction of the United States and thus protected by its laws. In a footnote, he observed, \"no plausible distinction with respect to Fourteenth Amendment 'jurisdiction' can be drawn between resident immigrants whose entry into the United States was lawful, and resident immigrants whose entry was unlawful.\"\n", "In the state of California, obtaining a driver's license did not require proof of legal presence since the early 1990s. However, California blocked off this access in 1991, by asking all driver license applicants to provide proof of citizenship. Two years later, California explicitly committed to require proof of license to state issued driver's licenses by passing Senate Bill 976. Under SB 976 anyone requesting a driver's license from the Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) needed to provide proof of lawful presence in the United States.\n", "According to analysis of the 2010 United States Census, \"immigrants to the United States are significantly less likely than native-born citizens to be incarcerated. The authors found that 1.6 percent of immigrant males age 18-39 are incarcerated, compared to 3.3 percent of the native-born... The divide was even sharper when the authors examined the incarceration rate among immigrant men the authors believe likely to be undocumented — specifically less-educated men from El Salvador and Guatemala between age 18-29. ... According to the analysis, these likely undocumented immigrants had an incarceration rate of 1.7 percent, compared with 10.7 percent for native-born men without a high school diploma\".\n", "2014 and 2018 studies found that undocumented immigration to the United States did not increase violent crime rates. A 2017 study found that \"Increased undocumented immigration was significantly associated with reductions in drug arrests, drug overdose deaths, and DUI arrests, net of other factors.\" A 2017 study found that California's extension of driving licenses to unauthorized immigrants \"did not increase the total number of accidents or the occurrence of fatal accidents, but it did reduce the likelihood of hit and run accidents, thereby improving traffic safety and reducing costs for California drivers ... providing unauthorized immigrants with access to driver's licenses can create positive externalities for the communities in which they live.\"\n", "What this means is that holdings such as \"Stone v. INS\", 514 U.S. 386, 405 (1995) (case obviously decided prior to IIRIRA of 1996, which materially changed the old \"judicial review provisions of the INA\"), are statutorily not binding upon any agency or any court. Congress clearly spoken about this at 8 U.S.C. § 1252(d)(2) (eff. April 1, 1997). Its intent was sufficiently shown when amending § 1252 during the enactment of the Real ID Act of 2005. There, it added \"(statutory or nonstatutory)\" after every relevant \"notwithstanding any other provision of law\" in § 1252. The overall purpose of this is obviously to protect the United States and the over 13 million LPRs against lawless government actions. In other words, the lives of these vulnerable people should not be in the hands of a few judges, who often make serious reversible errors in immigration-related cases. An unknown number of these LPRs statutorily qualify as Americans.\n", "Section::::Background.:Immigration law.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-19684	Why do countries have different names in different languages? Shouldn't names be universal like they are with people?	Names aren't universal with people at all. Different languages pronounce names differently, or have different "versions" of common names.	[ "Formal writing in (especially older) Dutch uses almost as much Latin as the lawyer's English, and, for instance, \"N.N.\" was and is commonly used as a \"John Doe\" placeholder in class schedules, grant proposals, etc.\n\nEmperor Justinian's codification of Roman law follows the custom of using \"Titius\" and \"Seius\" as names for Roman citizens, and \"Stichus\" and \"Pamphilus\" as names for slaves.\n\nSection::::Latvian.\n\nSection::::Latvian.:Names.\n", "Old place names that have become outdated after renaming may afterwards still be used as historicisms. For example, even today one would talk about the Siege of Leningrad, not the Siege of St. Petersburg, because at that time (1941–1944) the city was called Leningrad. Likewise, one would say that Immanuel Kant was born in Königsberg in 1724, not in Kaliningrad (Калининград), as it has been called since 1946.\n", "BULLET::::- : The extreme upper limit of purism. In this pattern, everything expressed by human speech can become a target for puristic intervention, even geographical names, proper names, and names of physical elements, chemicals, etc. (The attitude – in itself \"puristic\" and associated with increased education and foreign language competency – opposed to the translation or adaptation of toponyms, or even personal names, is historically quite recent, as names are not considered fixed or unchanging in most cultures; and there are many exceptions even in English, especially the names of historical personages, Native Americans, and even contemporary royalty. Historically, names were part of the lexicon of a language just as every other word, and it was common to have different names associated with different language communities. See exonym and endonym. Also, the names of physical elements and chemicals, or astronomical objects, do vary between languages, sometimes quite radically. The longer established the tradition of a name or term, the more likely are strong differences.) The only two recorded examples of this are High Icelandic (Háfrónska), and the usage of the German renaissance humanist Johann Georg \"Turmair\" who even translated the name of the ancient Roman general Fabius Cunctator into \"Zauderer Bohnenmaier\" (i. e. literally \"Laggard Bean-Mayor\"). While not ultra-purism per se, phono-semantic matching is commonly used in a number of languages, notably for translating proper names into Chinese.\n", "In earlier times, the name of the first tribe or village encountered became the exonym for the whole people beyond. Thus the Romans used the tribal names \"Graecus\" (Greek) and \"Germanus\", the Russians used the village name of \"Chechen\", medieval Europeans took the tribal name \"Tatar\" as emblematic for the whole Mongolic confederation (and then confused it with \"Tartarus\", a word for Hell, to produce \"Tartar\"), and the Magyar invaders were equated with the 500-years-earlier Hunnish invaders in the same territory, and were called \"Hungarians\".\n", "Valentin Blazhes gives some examples of the stories. The one that was collected at the Mramorsky village is as follows:\n\nEvery time people went to Azov-mountain, they always heard the moaning. They say that a cursed queen lives there. She lives in the cave. If someone approaches here, she will come out. She has a name. If her name will be the same as the name of the person who found the cave, there will be no more moaning—the curse be lifted.\n", "The adoption of words and names from one language to another is also a process that has been going on since time immemorial, although it causes problems in that the phonology of the source language is almost certainly going to be different from that in the destination language, and so mutation of the pronunciation is inevitable. This is perhaps even more of a thorny issue than the above examples of change within a language, because of the possibility that speakers of the source language may be upset at what they may see as the mangling of their language.\n", "The names for a country and a people are often different terms, which is a complication for an outsider, with a noticeable examples being people from the \"Netherlands\" being called the \"Dutch\" by native English speakers and in Italian the use of \"tedesco\" for German and \"Germania\" for Germany.\n", "Countries are listed alphabetically by their current best-known name in English. Each English name is followed by its currently best-known equivalents in other languages, listed in English alphabetical order (ignoring accents) by name and by language. Historical and/or alternative versions, where included, are noted as such. Foreign names that are the same as their English equivalents are listed, to provide an answer to the question \"What is that name in...\"?. See also: List of alternative country names\n", "Albanisation of names\n\nAlbanisation of names or lexical cleansing is Albanisation of non-Albanian personal names and toponyms in Albania, Kosovo and Western Macedonia.\n", "Exonyms may derive from different roots, as in the case of Germany for \"Deutschland\", or they may be cognate words which have diverged in pronunciation or orthography, or they may be fully or partially translated (a calque) from the native language. For example, London (originally Latin \"Londinium\") is known by the cognate exonyms \"Londres\" in Catalan, Filipino, French, Galician, Portuguese, and Spanish; \"Londino\" (Λονδίνο) in Greek; \"Londen\" in Dutch; \"Londra\" in Italian, Maltese, Romanian, Sardinian and Turkish; \"Londër\" in Albanian; \"Londýn\" in Czech and Slovak; \"Londyn\" in Polish; \"Lundúnir\" in Icelandic; \"Lontoo\" in Finnish. An example of a translated exonym is the French name \"Pays-Bas\" for the Netherlands, \"Nederland\" in Dutch, all of which mean \"Low Countries\".\n", "In Basque, the term \"erdara\"/\"erdera\" is used for speakers of any language different to Basque (usually Spanish or French).\n\nWhile the Irish and Scottish Gaelic words for England and its people are \"Sasana/Sasann\" and \"Sasanach/Sasannach\" (\"Saxons\"), the word for the English language is \"Béarla/Beurla\", which derives ultimately from a word meaning \"lips\". In Old Irish, this word was applied to any foreign language, but by the medieval period it had come to be used exclusively for the English language.\n\nSection::::Confusion with renaming.\n", "BULLET::::- List of traditional Greek place names\n\nBULLET::::- List of Coptic placenames\n\nBULLET::::- Place names in Irish\n\nBULLET::::- Names of places in Finland in Finnish and in Swedish\n\nBULLET::::- List of renamed Indian cities and states\n\nSection::::References.\n\nSection::::References.:Bibliography.\n\nBULLET::::- Jordan, Peter / Bergmann, Hubert / Burgess, Caroline / Cheetham, Catherine (eds.): Trends in Exonym Use. Proceedings of the 10th UNGEGN Working Group on Exonyms Meeting, Tainach, 28–30 April 2010. Hamburg 2011 (= Name & Place 1).\n", "Bilingual name\n\nA bilingual name is a name of a person that is spelled, if not pronounced, exactly the same in two languages. The speakers of a certain language usually have names that do not exist in another language. Even when the name has a common root or refers to the same historic or religious figure, different languages will spell and pronounce the name in a unique way. Thus a name with identical spelling in two languages may be of interest to parents of Third Culture Kids, or immigrants.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Differentiated spelling.\n", "World generation is also changed: new terrain features, geothermal fissures and volcanoes, spawn along mountain ridges separating continents, and floodplains now spawn in larger clusters exclusively along rivers. Mountain ranges, rivers, volcanoes and deserts are now named after the civilization that discovered them. For example, a river discovered by the English might be named the Thames, whereas one discovered by the French could be named the Seine.\n", "In Brazil the most usual expression is by far , with sounding a little more formal; the Portuguese demonym for the country of India is . is still in common use, including among people of Indigenous identity. In Mexico, Brazil, and several other countries, these names are normally applied only to the ethnic groups that have maintained their identity and, to a some extent, their original way of life.\n\nLess common terms for Indigenous peoples of the Americas include (in Spanish) and (in Portuguese).\n", "Over time, the Slavic exonym was borrowed by some non-Slavic languages. The Hungarian name for Germany is \"Németország\" (from the stem Német-. lit. Német Land). The popular Romanian name for German is \"neamț\", used alongside the official term, \"german\", which was borrowed from Latin. The Arabic name for Austria النمسا \"an-Nimsā\" was borrowed from the Ottoman Turkish and Persian word for Austria, \"نمچه\" – \"Nemçe\", from one of the South Slavic languages (in the 16–17th centuries the Austrian Empire was the biggest German-speaking country bordering on the Ottoman Empire) and like in Polish also doesn't refer to a specific country but only to the people occupying it. \n", "In Flanders, an obsolete object (or an old fashioned person) is said to date \"van de jaren Stillekes\" (from the Gently years) or in Dutch \"zo oud als Methusalem\" (as old as the biblical Methuselah); \"van het jaar kruik\" (from the year of the crock), referring to Roman times, is less used.\n\nSection::::Dutch.:Persons.\n", "BULLET::::- In other languages, if that language doesn’t already have an established toponym for the place (very seldom), the choice between Finnish and Swedish toponyms is based on the demographic situation. Finnish place names are used when handling a municipality where Finnish is the majority language (90% of all municipalities, 93% of the cities). Swedish place naming is used when handling a municipality where Swedish is the majority language. Concerning the Sami Homeland, toponyms are written in Finnish and appended with the Sami place names.\n", "Section::::Polish.:People's names.\n\nA universal placeholder name for a man is \"Jan Kowalski\" (kowal meaning smith, blacksmith); for a woman, \"Janina Kowalska\" is used less often, sometimes with a different first name. A second unspecified person would be called \"Nowak\" (\"Newman\"), choice of first name being left to the author’s imagination, often also \"Jan\" for a man; this surname is unisex. \"Jan\" is the most popular male first name in Polish, and \"Kowalski\" and \"Nowak\" are the most popular Polish surnames.\n", "BULLET::::- Replacement of the parent language is one of the most dramatic processes of change. If, for whatever reason, a new language becomes spoken in the area, a place name may lose all meaning. At its most severe, the name may be completely replaced. However, often the name may be recycled and altered in some way. Typically, this will be in one of the above ways; as the meaning of place-name is forgotten, it becomes changed to a name suitable for the new language. For instance Brittonic \"Eborakon\" (perhaps 'place of the yew trees') became Anglo-Saxon \"Eoforwic\" ('Boar-town'), then Old Norse \"Jorvik\" ('Horse-bay'), and modern English \"York\".\n", "List of country names in various languages\n\nonlyincludeMost countries of the world have different names in different languages. Some countries have also undergone name changes for political or other reasons. This article attempts to give all known alternative names for all nations, countries and sovereign states. It does not offer any opinion about what the \"original\", \"official\", \"real\", or \"correct\" name of any country is or was.\n", "The abundance of placeholder names appears generally in the spoken variety of the language.\n\nSection::::Polish.:Common nouns.\n", "In German-speaking areas most inherited surnames were formed only after the \" period, and many surnames derive from the home village or home town of an ancestor, but many German surnames are in fact Germanized Wendish placenames.\n\nThe former ethnic difference in German (') and Slavic (', ', ') placenames disappeared in the after war Polish and Czech republics. Villages and towns got new or reconstructed Slavic names because the remembrance of the history of colonization and the historical presence of Germans was no longer appreciated by national correctness.\n\nSection::::Marches and regions affected.\n\nSection::::Marches and regions affected.:Nordalbingen.\n", "This presents some challenges to indigenous people. In traditional society, people lived together in small bands of extended family, and name duplication was less common. Today, as people have moved into larger communities (with upwards of 300 to 600 people), the logistics of name avoidance have become increasingly difficult. Exotic and rare names have therefore become very common, particularly in Central Australia and desert communities, to deal with this new challenge.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Australian Aboriginal culture\n\nBULLET::::- Australian Aboriginal kinship\n\nBULLET::::- Australian Aboriginal sign languages\n\nBULLET::::- Avoidance language\n\nBULLET::::- Taboo against naming the dead\n", "BULLET::::- Italian exonyms\n\nBULLET::::- List of English exonyms for Italian toponyms\n\nBULLET::::- Latvian exonyms\n\nBULLET::::- Names of Lithuanian places in other languages\n\nBULLET::::- Lithuanian exonyms\n\nBULLET::::- Names of Belarusian places in other languages\n\nBULLET::::- Maltese exonyms\n\nBULLET::::- Norwegian exonyms\n\nBULLET::::- Polish exonyms\n\nBULLET::::- Names of Belarusian places in other languages\n\nBULLET::::- Names of Lithuanian places in other languages\n\nBULLET::::- Portuguese exonyms\n\nBULLET::::- Romanian exonyms\n\nBULLET::::- Russian exonyms\n\nBULLET::::- Names of Belarusian places in other languages\n\nBULLET::::- Names of Lithuanian places in other languages\n\nBULLET::::- Serbian exonyms\n\nBULLET::::- Slavic toponyms for Greek places\n\nBULLET::::- Slovak exonyms\n\nBULLET::::- Slovenian exonyms\n" ]	[ "Names of people are universal.", "Because people are from different countries, they should have universal names regardless of the language spoken within the country. " ]	[ "People's names are not universal, since in different languages they can vary in pronounciation or common names could have different versions.", "Names are not universal within countries and cannot be due to the languages within the country pronouncing names differently." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Names of people are universal.", "Because people are from different countries, they should have universal names regardless of the language spoken within the country. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "People's names are not universal, since in different languages they can vary in pronounciation or common names could have different versions.", "Names are not universal within countries and cannot be due to the languages within the country pronouncing names differently." ]
2018-02510	Can anyone in IT break down the difference between a Database, Data Warehouse, Data Lake, Data Mart?	Database - This is a general term and the other 3 are just types of databases that are structured differently. But it may be that those you are talking with are applying this to be the main user application. Data Warehouse - Is a database that has been designed specifically to hold data in a form that makes it easy to create reports from and it structured to perform that task quickly and efficiently. It often contains data from across different areas of an organisation, so report the number of widgets made from the manufacturing system beside the sickness/absence rate of the people in manufacturing. Data Mart - This is usually a subset of data within a data warehouse for a specific area. Data Lake - Trendy name for a huge data warehouse but probably just for a specific subject area	[ "Types of data marts include dependent, independent, and hybrid data marts.\n", "BULLET::::- Different tools and applications for the variety of users;\n\nBULLET::::- Metadata, data quality, and governance processes must be in place to ensure that the warehouse or mart meets its purposes.\n\nIn regards to source systems listed above, R. Kelly Rainer states, \"A common source for the data in data warehouses is the company's operational databases, which can be relational databases\".\n\nRegarding data integration, Rainer states, \"It is necessary to extract data from source systems, transform them, and load them into a data mart or warehouse\".\n\nRainer discusses storing data in an organization's data warehouse or data marts.\n", "A data mart is a simple form of a data warehouse that is focused on a single subject (or functional area), hence they draw data from a limited number of sources such as sales, finance or marketing. Data marts are often built and controlled by a single department within an organization. The sources could be internal operational systems, a central data warehouse, or external data. Denormalization is the norm for data modeling techniques in this system. Given that data marts generally cover only a subset of the data contained in a data warehouse, they are often easier and faster to implement.\n", "A data mart is a subset of an organizational data store, usually oriented to a specific purpose or major data subject, that may be distributed to support business needs. Many Keyword Services Platform providers require real-time database access. The database may contain a list of reference keywords, their corresponding traffic, most recent click-through data, and data mining model contents. This data is updated through ETL data pipelines on a regular basis based on the provider's requirements. \n\nSection::::Technology transfer.\n", "A data mart is a structure / access pattern specific to \"data warehouse\" environments, used to retrieve client-facing data. The data mart is a subset of the data warehouse and is usually oriented to a specific business line or team. Whereas data warehouses have an enterprise-wide depth, the information in data marts pertains to a single department. In some deployments, each department or business unit is considered the \"owner\" of its data mart including all the \"hardware\", \"software\" and \"data\". This enables each department to isolate the use, manipulation and development of their data. In other deployments where conformed dimensions are used, this business unit ownership will not hold true for shared dimensions like customer, product, etc.\n", "Organizations build data warehouses and data marts because the information in the database is not organized in a way that makes it readily accessible, requiring queries that are too complicated or resource-consuming.\n\nWhile transactional databases are designed to be updated, data warehouses or marts are read only. Data warehouses are designed to access large groups of related records. Data marts improve end-user response time by allowing users to have access to the specific type of data they need to view most often by providing the data in a way that supports the collective view of a group of users.\n", "BULLET::::- Performance: to offload the data mart to a separate computer for greater efficiency or to eliminate the need to manage that workload on the centralized data warehouse.\n\nBULLET::::- Security: to separate an authorized data subset selectively\n\nBULLET::::- Expediency: to bypass the data governance and authorizations required to incorporate a new application on the Enterprise Data Warehouse\n\nBULLET::::- Proving Ground: to demonstrate the viability and ROI (return on investment) potential of an application prior to migrating it to the Enterprise Data Warehouse\n", "Data warehouses (DW) often resemble the hub and spokes architecture. Legacy systems feeding the warehouse often include customer relationship management and enterprise resource planning, generating large amounts of data. To consolidate these various data models, and facilitate the extract transform load process, data warehouses often make use of an operational data store, the information from which is parsed into the actual DW. To reduce data redundancy, larger systems often store the data in a normalized way. Data marts for specific reports can then be built on top of the data warehouse.\n", "BULLET::::- Lower cost than implementing a full data warehouse\n\nBULLET::::- Potential users are more clearly defined than in a full data warehouse\n\nBULLET::::- Contains only business essential data and is less cluttered.\n\nSection::::Dependent data mart.\n\nAccording to the Inmon school of data warehousing, a dependent data mart is a logical subset (view) or a physical subset (extract) of a larger data warehouse, isolated for one of the following reasons:\n\nBULLET::::- A need refreshment for a special data model or schema: e.g., to restructure for OLAP\n", "BULLET::::- 1983 – Teradata introduces the DBC/1012 database computer specifically designed for decision support.\n\nBULLET::::- 1984 – Metaphor Computer Systems, founded by David Liddle and Don Massaro, releases a hardware/software package and GUI for business users to create a database management and analytic system.\n\nBULLET::::- 1985 - Sperry Corporation publishes an article (Martyn Jones and Philip Newman) on information centers, where they introduce the term MAPPER data warehouse in the context of information centers.\n", "BULLET::::- 1996 – Ralph Kimball publishes the book \"The Data Warehouse Toolkit\".\n\nBULLET::::- 2000 – Dan Linstedt releases in the public domain the Data vault modeling conceived in 1990 as an alternative to Inmon and Kimball to provide long-term historical storage of data coming in from multiple operational systems, with emphasis on tracing, auditing and resiliance to change of the source data model.\n", "Section::::Data warehouse characteristics.\n\nThere are basic features that define the data in the data warehouse that include subject orientation, data integration, time-variant, nonvolatile data, and data granularity.\n\nSection::::Data warehouse characteristics.:Subject-Oriented.\n\nUnlike the operational systems, the data in the data warehouse revolves around subjects of the enterprise (database normalization). Subject orientation can be really useful for decision making.\n\nGathering the required objects is called subject oriented.\n\nSection::::Data warehouse characteristics.:Integrated.\n", "Section::::Related systems (data mart, OLAP, OLTP, predictive analytics).\n", "BULLET::::- Politics: a coping strategy for IT (Information Technology) in situations where a user group has more influence than funding or is not a good citizen on the centralized data warehouse.\n\nBULLET::::- Politics: a coping strategy for consumers of data in situations where a data warehouse team is unable to create a usable data warehouse.\n\nAccording to the Inmon school of data warehousing, tradeoffs inherent with data marts include limited scalability, duplication of data, data inconsistency with other silos of information, and inability to leverage enterprise sources of data.\n", "In the \"bottom-up\" approach, data marts are first created to provide reporting and analytical capabilities for specific business processes. These data marts can then be integrated to create a comprehensive data warehouse. The data warehouse bus architecture is primarily an implementation of \"the bus\", a collection of conformed dimensions and conformed facts, which are dimensions that are shared (in a specific way) between facts in two or more data marts.\n\nSection::::Design methods.:Top-down design.\n", "Section::::Evolution in organization use.\n\nThese terms refer to the level of sophistication of a data warehouse:\n\nBULLET::::- Offline operational data warehouse: Data warehouses in this stage of evolution are updated on a regular time cycle (usually daily, weekly or monthly) from the operational systems and the data is stored in an integrated reporting-oriented data\n\nBULLET::::- Offline data warehouse: Data warehouses at this stage are updated from data in the operational systems on a regular basis and the data warehouse data are stored in a data structure designed to facilitate reporting.\n", "BULLET::::- Data center – or data centre, is a dedicated space used to house computer systems and associated components, such as telecommunications and storage systems. It generally includes redundant or backup components and infrastructure for power supply, data communications connections, environmental controls (e.g. air conditioning, fire suppression) and various security devices.\n\nBULLET::::- Database – is an organized collection of data, generally stored and accessed electronically from a computer system. Where databases are more complex they are often developed using formal design and modeling techniques.\n\nBULLET::::- Data mining –\n", "A data warehouse or data lake collects data, usually from the same source and with the same structure of information. While this information can be manually synthesized, neither type of system delivers the identity resolution needed to build a consolidated single customer view. Data warehouses are often updated at scheduled intervals whereas CDPs ingest and make available data in real time. In practice, most CDPs use the same technologies as data lakes; the difference is the CDP has built-in features to do additional processing to make the data usable, while a data lake may not.\n\nSection::::Marketing automation systems.\n", "A data mart is basically a condensed and more focused version of a data warehouse that reflects the regulations and process specifications of each business unit within an organization. Each data mart is dedicated to a specific business function or region. This subset of data may span across many or all of an enterprise’s functional subject areas. It is common for multiple data marts to be used in order to serve the needs of each individual business unit (different data marts can be used to obtain specific information for various enterprise departments, such as accounting, marketing, sales, etc.).\n", "The data found within the data warehouse is integrated. Since it comes from several operational systems, all inconsistencies must be removed. Consistencies include naming conventions, measurement of variables, encoding structures, physical attributes of data, and so forth.\n\nSection::::Data warehouse characteristics.:Time-variant.\n", "Netezza announced a \"data appliance\" in 2003, and used specialized field-programmable gate array hardware.\n\nKickfire followed in 2008 with what they called a dataflow \"sql chip\".\n", "MATLAB and Cloud Storage systems like VMware, Firefox OS use \"datastore\" as a term for abstracting collections of data inside their respective applications.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nData store can refer to a broad class of storage systems including:\n\nBULLET::::- Paper files\n\nBULLET::::- Simple files like a spreadsheet\n\nBULLET::::- File systems\n\nBULLET::::- Email storage systems (both server and client systems)\n\nBULLET::::- Databases\n\nBULLET::::- Relational databases, based on the relational model of data\n\nBULLET::::- Object-oriented databases. They can save objects of an object-oriented design.\n\nBULLET::::- NoSQL databases\n\nBULLET::::- Key-value databases\n\nBULLET::::- Wide Column Store\n\nBULLET::::- Distributed data stores\n\nBULLET::::- Directory services\n", "BULLET::::- 1988 – Barry Devlin and Paul Murphy publish the article \"An architecture for a business and information system\" where they introduce the term \"business data warehouse\".\n\nBULLET::::- 1990 – Red Brick Systems, founded by Ralph Kimball, introduces Red Brick Warehouse, a database management system specifically for data warehousing.\n\nBULLET::::- 1991 – Prism Solutions, founded by Bill Inmon, introduces Prism Warehouse Manager, software for developing a data warehouse.\n\nBULLET::::- 1992 – Bill Inmon publishes the book \"Building the Data Warehouse\".\n\nBULLET::::- 1995 – The Data Warehousing Institute, a for-profit organization that promotes data warehousing, is founded.\n", "A data warehouse maintains a copy of information from the source transaction systems. This architectural complexity provides the opportunity to:\n\nBULLET::::- Integrate data from multiple sources into a single database and data model. More congregation of data to single database so a single query engine can be used to present data in an ODS.\n\nBULLET::::- Mitigate the problem of database isolation level lock contention in transaction processing systems caused by attempts to run large, long-running, analysis queries in transaction processing databases.\n\nBULLET::::- Maintain data history, even if the source transaction systems do not.\n", "The related term spreadmart is a pejorative describing the situation that occurs when one or more business analysts develop a system of linked spreadsheets to perform a business analysis, then grow it to a size and degree of complexity that makes it nearly impossible to maintain.\n\nSection::::Data mart vs data warehouse.\n\nData warehouse:\n\nBULLET::::- Holds multiple subject areas\n\nBULLET::::- Holds very detailed information\n\nBULLET::::- Works to integrate all data sources\n\nBULLET::::- Does not necessarily use a dimensional model but feeds dimensional models.\n\nData mart:\n\nBULLET::::- Often holds only one subject area- for example, Finance, or Sales\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-09377	Why don’t books come with digital codes for ebooks like Blurays do with digital copies?	The very simple answer is money. They can’t charge you for the ebook on top of it then. At least with textbooks, the publishers really are that greedy. You can’t really stream a book either like you do with movies and those companies gain a lot of revenue from those services book companies won’t get as a result. There are ebook subscriptions but they are notably less popular.	[ "While a paper book is vulnerable to various threats, including water damage, mold and theft, e-books files may be corrupted, deleted or otherwise lost as well as pirated. Where the ownership of a paper book is fairly straightforward (albeit subject to restrictions on renting or copying pages, depending on the book), the purchaser of an e-book's digital file has conditional access with the possible loss of access to the e-book due to digital rights management provisions, copyright issues, the provider's business failing or possibly if the user's credit card expired.\n\nSection::::Market share.\n\nSection::::Market share.:United States.\n", "The text from Mark Bide's publication from \"The ebook Revolution\" supports this movement.\"If ebooks become a significant medium for the consumption of backlist titles, it can only be a matter of time before market demand drives publishers in the direction of publishing their frontlist in ebook formats. 'Ebook-only' publishing may currently be largely confined to what many dismiss as an enhanced form of vanity publishing in the US; this is unlikely to remain the case for long...libraries cannot afford to ignore developments in ebook publishing.\"\n", "Section::::Controversies.:eBooks.\n\nIn March 2011, HarperCollins announced it would distribute eBooks to libraries with DRM enabled to delete the item after being lent 26 times. HarperCollins has drawn criticism of this plan, in particular its likening eBooks, which are purely digital, to traditional paperback trade books, which wear over time.\n\nSection::::Controversies.:Omission of Israel from an atlas.\n", "BULLET::::- TeX and LaTeX\n\nBULLET::::- Web fiction\n\nBULLET::::- Braille translator\n\nBULLET::::- Perkins Brailler\n\nBULLET::::- Comparison of e-readers\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- James, Bradley (November 20, 2002). The Electronic Book: Looking Beyond the Physical Codex, \"SciNet\"\n\nBULLET::::- Cory Doctorow (February 12, 2004). Ebooks: Neither E, Nor Books, \"O'Reilly Emerging Technologies Conference\"\n\nBULLET::::- Lynch, Clifford (May 28, 2001). The Battle to Define the Future of the Book in the Digital World, \"First Monday – Peer reviewed journal\".\n\nBULLET::::- .\n\nBULLET::::- Dene Grigar & Stuart Moulthrop (2013–2016) \"Pathfinders: Documenting the Experience of Early Digital Literature\", \"Washington State University Vancouver\", July 1, 2013.\n", "BULLET::::- Where a traditional library may record descriptive metadata regarding a book in its collection, the book will not dissolve into a series of unconnected pages if the library fails to record structural metadata regarding the book's organization, nor will scholars be unable to evaluate the book's worth if the library fails to note, for example, that the book was produced using a Ryobi offset press.\n", "BULLET::::6. Fidelity to the original. In each case, the text is intended to represent the book as originally printed, so far as that is possible. Printer's errors are preserved, hand-written changes are ignored, duplicate scans are omitted, out-of-order images are keyed in the intended order, and most of the unusual characters of the original are preserved.\n", "In the EU media products (among other things paper books) have often a tax reduction. Therefore, the VAT for conventional books is often lower than for e-books. In legal terms, ebooks are considered a service (buying an ebook is regarded as a temporary lease of the product). On the other hand, conventional books are considered a product. Therefore, ebook prices are often similar to paper book prices, even if the production of ebooks has a lower cost.\n\nThere are many concerned about lost they freedom with e-readers and about e-reader's secretive aspect.\n\nSection::::Positive aspects.\n", "Most e-book publishers do not warn their customers about the possible implications of the digital rights management tied to their products. Generally, they claim that digital rights management is meant to prevent illegal copying of the e-book. However, in many cases, it is also possible that digital rights management will result in the complete denial of access by the purchaser to the e-book. The e-books sold by most major publishers and electronic retailers, which are Amazon.com, Google, Barnes & Noble, Kobo Inc. and Apple Inc., are DRM-protected and tied to the publisher's e-reader software or hardware. The first major publisher to omit DRM was Tor Books, one of the largest publishers of science fiction and fantasy, in 2012. Smaller e-book publishers such as O'Reilly Media, Carina Press and Baen Books had already forgone DRM previously.\n", "One significant dramatic Digital Age change in relation to novels is the dynamic hybrid novel. Sean Stewart and Jordan Weisman's young-adult novel \"Cathy's Book: If Found Call (650) 266-8233\" (2006), is an illustration of the hybrid novel, given that the text is thoroughly integrated by website addresses, letters, pictures, birth certificates, doodles and phone numbers within the margins, for the purpose of solving the mysterious disappearance of a partner posed within the novel.\n", "eBooks compatible with the Kobo Aura HD can be borrowed from many public libraries, including the Ottawa Public Library and the Toronto Public Library. These books with DRM require authentication from Adobe in order to be read on the device. Books may be added to the device with the Kobo Desktop app or third party apps such as Calibre.\n", "The arrival and democratization of Internet is slowly giving small publishing houses the opportunity to publish their books directly online. Some websites, like Amazon, let their users buy eBooks; Internet users can also find many educative platforms (free or not), encyclopedic websites like Wikipedia, and even digital magazines platforms. The eBook then becomes more and more accessible through many different supports, like the e-reader and even smartphones. The digital book had, and still has, an important impact on publishing houses and their economical models; it is still a moving domain, and they yet have to master the new ways of publishing in a digital era.\n", "Unencrypted Mobipocket books can be read on the Amazon Kindle natively, as well as in Amazon Kindle programs on Mac OS X, iOS devices, Android devices, Windows, and Windows Phone devices. By using third-party programs such as Lexcycle Stanza, calibre or Okular, unencrypted Mobipocket books can also be read on Mac OS X, iOS, Android devices and Linux. Third party tools exist to decrypt encrypted Mobipocket books, allowing them to be read using software that does not support encryption.\n", "Many of the major book retailers and third-party developers offer e-reader applications for desktops, tablets and mobile devices, to allow the reading of e-books and other documents independently of dedicated e-book devices. The e-reader applications are available for the Mac and PC computers as well as for Android, iOS and Windows devices.\n\nSection::::Impact.\n\nThe introduction of e-readers brought substantial changes to the publishing industry, also awakening fears and predictions about the possible disappearance of books and print periodicals.\n\nSection::::Criticism.\n", "BULLET::::- Five major US e-book publishers, as part of their settlement of a price-fixing suit, are ordered to refund about $3 for every electronic copy of a New York Times best-seller that they sold from April 2010 to May 2012. This could equal $160 million in settlement charges.\n\nBULLET::::- Barnes & Noble releases the Nook Glowlight, which has a 6-inch touchscreen using E Ink Pearl and Regal, with built-in front LED lights.\n", "In August 2011, Microsoft announced they were discontinuing both Microsoft Reader and the use of the .lit format for ebooks at the end of August 2012, and ending sales of the format on November 8, 2011.\n\nSection::::Format descriptions.:Mobipocket.\n\nThe Mobipocket e-book format is based on the Open eBook standard using XHTML and can include JavaScript and frames. It also supports native SQL queries to be used with embedded databases. There is a corresponding e-book reader.\n", "Adobe Digital Editions uses .epub format for its e-books, with digital rights management (DRM) protection provided through their proprietary ADEPT mechanism. The ADEPT framework and scripts have been reverse-engineered to circumvent this DRM system.\n\nSection::::Format descriptions.:eReader.\n\nBULLET::::- Formerly Palm Digital Media/Peanut Press\n", "BULLET::::3. E-Book services: Most document types listed above may be converted into the popular EPUB and Mobi Pocket (Amazon Kindle) e-book formats. The service also supports conversion of documents into the EPUB3 format, including EPUB3 books with media overlay. Furthermore, EPUB may be converted to Mobi Pocket and vice versa. To accommodate users with low vision, the base line of the body text in an e-book may be raised to allow for more appropriate text scaling in mainstream e-book readers.\n", "From 2014, brick and mortar shops have been performing better, seeing a light at the end of the Recession period and the boom of the Kindle. Looking at the data provided, Richard Mollet, chief executive of The Publishers Association, explains that \"those who ever tried to maintain that this was a binary choice have been shown to have been posing the question in the wrong way. It is not a question of either physical or digital winning out, but rather of the sector coalescing around a balanced marketplace where all formats have place. While publishing has been efficient and effective in its adaptation, the underlying driver of the evolution is of course the reader. What the 21st-century consumer desires above all is choice. As long as publishers can give readers the option of paper or screen, the market will - and is - taking care of itself. The ebook is no more a challenge to the lifespan of paper than television is to the theatre\".\n", "BULLET::::- March – US Department of Justice prepares anti-trust lawsuit against Apple, Simon & Schuster, Hachette Book Group, Penguin Group, Macmillan, and HarperCollins, alleging collusion to increase the price of books sold on Amazon.\n\nBULLET::::- March – PocketBook releases the PocketBook Touch, an E Ink Pearl e-reader, winning awards from German magazines \"Tablet PC\" and \"Computer Bild\".\n\nBULLET::::- June – Kbuuk releases the cloud-based e-book self-publishing SaaS platform on the Pubsoft digital publishing engine.\n\nBULLET::::- September – Amazon releases the Kindle Paperwhite, its first e-reader with built-in front LED lights.\n\nBULLET::::- 2013\n", "The \"multimedia ebook\" term is used in contrast to media which only utilize traditional forms of printed or text books. Multimedia ebooks include a combination of text, audio, images, video, or interactive content formats. Much like how a traditional book can contain images to help the text tell a story, a multimedia ebook can contain other elements not formerly possible to help tell the story.\n\nWith the advent of more widespread tablet-like computers, such as the smartphone, some publishing houses are planning to make multimedia ebooks, such as Penguin.\n\nSection::::Format descriptions.:Newton Digital Book.\n", "BULLET::::- Adobe's DRM is applied to EPUBs and PDFs, and can be read by several third-party e-book readers, as well as Adobe Digital Editions (ADE) software. Barnes & Noble uses a DRM technology provided by Adobe, applied to EPUBs and the older PDB (Palm OS) format e-books.\n\nBULLET::::- Amazon's DRM is an adaption of the original Mobipocket encryption and is applied to Amazon's .azw4, KF8, and Mobipocket format e-books. Topaz format e-books have their own encryption system.\n", "The first traceable scene release of an e-book can be dated back to around the year 2000. In 2008, sUppLeX wrote in one of their NFOs that \"ebooks do not really belong to 0day anymore, so we definitely need rules for that. Most countries got their own rules for the local ebook section in their country, but there's nothing similar for the whole world.\" sUppLeX were releasing their ebooks in RAR/SFV format at that time, but reverted two years later.\n\nStandards existed for the German and Polish ebook scenes. \n", "BULLET::::- Joseph Jacobson, Barrett O. Comiskey and Jonathan D. Albert are granted US patents related to displaying electronic books, these patents are later used in the displays for most e-readers.\n\nBULLET::::- Stephen King releases his novella \"Riding the Bullet\" exclusively online and it became the first mass-market e-book, selling 500,000 copies in 48 hours.\n\nBULLET::::- Microsoft releases the Microsoft Reader with ClearType for increased readability on PCs and handheld devices.\n\nBULLET::::- Microsoft and Amazon work together to sell e-books that can be purchased on Amazon, and using Microsoft software downloaded to PCs and handhelds.\n", "Section::::Preservation and archiving.\n\nElectronic literature, according to Hayles, becomes unplayable after a decade or less due to the \"fluid nature of media\". Therefore, electronic literature risks losing the opportunity to build the \"traditions associated with print literature\". On the other hand, classics such as Michael Joyce's afternoon, a story (1987) are still read and have been republished on CD, while simple HTML hypertext fictions from the 1990s are still accessible online and can be read in modern browsers.\n", "Depending on possible digital rights management, e-books (unlike physical books) can be backed up and recovered in the case of loss or damage to the device on which they are stored, a new copy can be downloaded without incurring an additional cost from the distributor, as well as being able to synchronize the reading location, highlights and bookmarks across several devices.\n\nSection::::Comparison to printed books.:Disadvantages.\n" ]	[ "Because blurays come with digital copies, books should also come with digital copies such as ebooks." ]	[ "It is not exactly possible for companies to do as such do to costs, and the inability to charge for the ebook in the first place. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Because blurays come with digital copies, books should also come with digital copies such as ebooks.", "Because blurays come with digital copies, books should also come with digital copies such as ebooks." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "It is not exactly possible for companies to do as such do to costs, and the inability to charge for the ebook in the first place. ", "It is not exactly possible for companies to do as such do to costs, and the inability to charge for the ebook in the first place. " ]
2018-04350	Do cannabinoid receptors in humans suggest that our ancestors were potheads, or is there some other use for them?	These receptors were discovered when attempting to determine marijuana’s activity in the brain, hence the name. The receptors didn’t actually evolve for the sole purpose of getting high. Endocannabinoids are cannabinoids produced within the body that will bind to these receptors, regulating a slew of physiological and cognitive processes— appetite being one of them, a familiar side effect of marijuana smoke.	[ "Phytocannabinoids are known to occur in several plant species besides cannabis. These include \"Echinacea purpurea\", \"Echinacea angustifolia\", \"Acmella oleracea\", \"Helichrysum umbraculigerum\", and \"Radula marginata\". The best-known cannabinoids that are not derived from Cannabis are the lipophilic alkamides (alkylamides) from \"Echinacea\" species, most notably the cis/trans isomers dodeca-2E,4E,8Z,10E/Z-tetraenoic-acid-isobutylamide. At least 25 different alkylamides have been identified, and some of them have shown affinities to the CB-receptor. In some \"Echinacea\" species, cannabinoids are found throughout the plant structure, but are most concentrated in the roots and flowers. Yangonin found in the Kava plant has significant affinity to the CB1 receptor. Tea (Camellia sinensis) catechins have an affinity for human cannabinoid receptors. A widespread dietary terpene, beta-caryophyllene, a component from the essential oil of cannabis and other medicinal plants, has also been identified as a selective agonist of peripheral CB-receptors, \"in vivo\". Black truffles contain anandamide. Perrottetinene, a moderately psychoactive cannabinoid, has been isolated from different \"Radula\" varieties.\n", "CB receptors are found primarily in the brain, more specifically in the basal ganglia and in the limbic system, including the hippocampus and the striatum. They are also found in the cerebellum and in both male and female reproductive systems. CB receptors are absent in the medulla oblongata, the part of the brain stem responsible for respiratory and cardiovascular functions. CB1 is also found in the human anterior eye and retina.\n\nSection::::Cannabinoid receptors.:Cannabinoid receptor type 2.\n", "The CB receptor is expressed by a number of neurons that project from the anterior olfactory nucleus to the ipsilateral main olfactory bulb. However, the effects of cannabinoids on synaptic activity in these neurons has not been well-studied and its effects on olfaction warrant further research in rodents. Cannabinoids are not known to have effects on olfaction in humans. However, as with the rest of the brain, it plays a crucial role in modulation of NT release.\n\nSection::::Use of antagonists.\n", "They are also found in other parts of the body. For instance, in the liver, activation of the CB receptor is known to increase de novo lipogenesis.\n\nSection::::CB.\n", "CB receptors are predominantly found in the immune system, or immune-derived cells with the greatest density in the spleen. While found only in the peripheral nervous system, a report does indicate that CB is expressed by a subpopulation of microglia in the human cerebellum. CB receptors appear to be responsible for the anti-inflammatory and possibly other therapeutic effects of cannabis seen in animal models.\n\nSection::::Phytocannabinoids.\n\nSection::::Phytocannabinoids.:Cannabis-derived cannabinoids.\n", "In humans, this results from the influence that limbic CB1 receptors have on mesolimbic dopamine neurons, specifically dopamine receptors in the nucleus accumbens. As a consequence, CB1 receptor antagonists can reduce drug seeking behavior in some addicts.\n\nSection::::Function.:Olfaction.\n", "Application of CB-specific antagonists has found that these receptors are also involved in mediating analgesic effects in the peripheral nervous system. However, these receptors are not expressed by nociceptive sensory neurons, and at present are believed to exist on an undetermined, non-neuronal cell. Possible candidates include mast cells, known to facilitate the inflammatory response. Cannabinoid mediated inhibition of these responses may cause a decrease in the perception of noxious-stimuli.\n\nSection::::Function.\n\nSection::::Function.:Immune system.\n", "Section::::Signaling.\n\nCannabinoid receptors are activated by cannabinoids, generated naturally inside the body (endocannabinoids) or introduced into the body as cannabis or a related synthetic compound. Similar responses are produced when introduced in alternative methods, only in a more concentrated form than what is naturally occurring.\n", "Cannabinoids usually contain a 1,1'-di-methyl-pyran ring, a variedly derivatized aromatic ring and a variedly unsaturated cyclohexyl ring and their immediate chemical precursors, constituting a family of about 60 bi-cyclic and tri-cyclic compounds. Like most other neurological processes, the effects of cannabis on the brain follow the standard protocol of signal transduction, the electrochemical system of sending signals through neurons for a biological response. It is now understood that cannabinoid receptors appear in similar forms in most vertebrates and invertebrates and have a long evolutionary history of 500 million years. The binding of cannabinoids to cannabinoid receptors decrease adenylyl cyclase activity, inhibit calcium N channels, and disinhibit K channels. There are at least two types of cannabinoid receptors (CB1 and CB2).\n", "CB1 and CB2 are the primary cannabinoid receptors responsible for several of the effects of cannabinoids, although other receptors may play a role as well. Both belong to a group of receptors called G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). CB1 receptors are found in very high levels in the brain and are thought to be responsible for psychoactive effects. CB2 receptors are found peripherally throughout the body and are thought to modulate pain and inflammation.\n\nSection::::Pharmacology.:Absorption.\n\nCannabinoid absorption is dependent on its route of administration.\n", "Section::::Other cannabinoid receptors.\n", "For centuries hashish and marijuana from the Indian hemp \"Cannabis sativa\" L. have been used for medicinal and recreational purposes. In 1840, Schlesinger S. was apparently the first investigator to obtain an active extract from the leaves and flowers of hemp. A few years later, in 1848, Decourtive E. described the preparation of an ethanol extract that on evaporation of the solvent gave a dark resin, which he named “cannabin”. In 1964 the main active constituent of \"C. sativa\" L., Δ-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), was isolated and synthesized by Mechoulam's laboratory. Two types of cannabinoid receptors, CB and CB, responsible for the effects of THC were discovered and cloned in the early 1990s. Once cannabinoid receptors had been discovered, it became important to establish whether their agonists occur naturally in the body. This search led to the discovery of the first endogenous cannabinoid (endocannabinoid), anandamide (arachidonoyl ethanolamide). Later on other endocannabinoids were found, for example 2-AG (2-arachidonoyl glycerol). These findings raised further questions about the pharmacological and physiological role of the cannabinoid system. This revived the research on cannabinoid receptor antagonists which were expected to help answer these questions. The use of the cannabinoid agonist, THC, in its many preparations to enhance appetite is a well known fact. This fact led to the logical extension that blocking of the cannabinoid receptors might be useful in decreasing appetite and food intake. It was then discovered that the blockage of the CB receptor represented a new pharmacological target. The first specific CB receptor antagonist / inverse agonist was rimonabant, discovered in 1994.\n", "Section::::Function.:Motor control.\n\nCB receptors are expressed throughout motor regions of the mammalian brain, suggesting that CB has a role in motor control. CB activation has been shown to effect specific kinematic variables in rodents, such as the rate of applied force during lever pressing, and the amplitude (but not timing) of whisker movements.\n\nSection::::Function.:Drug and behavioral addictions.\n\nSeveral recent reviews on CB1 receptors and addiction have indicated that CB1 receptor activation reinstates drug seeking behavior in addicts.\n", "Before the 1980s, it was often speculated that cannabinoids produced their physiological and behavioral effects via nonspecific interaction with cell membranes, instead of interacting with specific membrane-bound receptors. The discovery of the first cannabinoid receptors in the 1980s helped to resolve this debate. These receptors are common in animals, and have been found in mammals, birds, fish, and reptiles. At present, there are two known types of cannabinoid receptors, termed CB and CB, with mounting evidence of more. The human brain has more cannabinoid receptors than any other G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) type.\n\nSection::::Cannabinoid receptors.:Cannabinoid receptor type 1.\n", "The cannabinoid receptor is a typical G protein-coupled receptor. A characteristic of this type of receptor is the distinct pattern of how the molecule spans the cell membrane seven times. Cannabinoid receptors are located on the cell membrane, and both outside (extracellularly) and inside (intracellularly) the cell membrane. CB1 receptors, the bigger of the two, are extraordinarily abundant in the brain: 10 times more plentiful than the μ-opioid receptors responsible for the effects of morphine. CB2 receptors are structurally different (the sequence similarity between the two subtypes of receptors is 44%), found only on cells of the immune system, and seems to function similarly to its CB1 counterpart. CB2 receptors are most prevalent on B-cells, natural killer cells, and monocytes, but can also be found on polymorphonuclear neutrophil cells, T8 cells, and T4 cells. In the tonsils the CB2 receptors appear to be restricted to B-lymphocyte-enriched areas.\n", "CB receptors are mainly expressed on T cells of the immune system, on macrophages and B cells, and in hematopoietic cells. They also have a function in keratinocytes. They are also expressed on peripheral nerve terminals. These receptors play a role in antinociception, or the relief of pain. In the brain, they are mainly expressed by microglial cells, where their role remains unclear. While the most likely cellular targets and executors of the CB receptor-mediated effects of endocannabinoids or synthetic agonists are the immune and immune-derived cells (e.g. leukocytes, various populations of T and B lymphocytes, monocytes/macrophages, dendritic cells, mast cells, microglia in the brain, Kupffer cells in the liver, astrocytes, etc.), the number of other potential cellular targets is expanding, now including endothelial and smooth muscle cells, fibroblasts of various origins, cardiomyocytes, and certain neuronal elements of the peripheral or central nervous systems.\n", "The areas of the brain where cannabinoid receptors are most prevalent are consistent with the behavioral effects produced by cannabinoids. Brain regions in which cannabinoid receptors are very abundant are the basal ganglia, associated with movement control; the cerebellum, associated with body movement coordination; the hippocampus, associated with learning, memory, and stress control; the cerebral cortex, associated with higher cognitive functions; and the nucleus accumbens, regarded as the reward center of the brain. Other regions where cannabinoid receptors are moderately concentrated are the hypothalamus, which regulates homeostatic functions; the amygdala, associated with emotional responses and fears; the spinal cord, associated with peripheral sensations like pain; the brain stem, associated with sleep, arousal, and motor control; and the nucleus of the solitary tract, associated with visceral sensations like nausea and vomiting.\n", "The first approach to develop cannabinoid antagonists in the late 1980s was to modify the structure of THC, but the results were disappointing. In the early 1990s new family of cannabinoid agonists was discovered from the NSAID (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory) drug pravadoline which led to the discovery of aminoalkyl indole antagonists with some but limited success. As the search based on the structure of agonists was disappointing it was no surprise that the first potent and selective cannabinoid antagonist belonged to an entirely new chemical family. In 1994 the first selective cannabinoid antagonist, SR141716 (rimonabant), was introduced by Sanofi belonging to a family of 1,5-diarylpyrazoles.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Changes in endocannabinoid levels and/or CB receptor expressions have been reported in almost all diseases affecting humans, ranging from cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, liver, kidney, neurodegenerative, psychiatric, bone, skin, autoimmune, lung disorders to pain and cancer. The prevalence of this trend suggests that modulating CB receptor activity by either selective CB receptor agonists or inverse agonists/antagonists depending on the disease and its progression holds unique therapeutic potential for these pathologies \n\nSection::::Function.:Modulation of cocaine reward.\n", "Prenatal cannabis exposure (PCE) has been shown to perturb the fetal endogenous cannabinoid signaling system. This pertubation has not been shown to directly affect neurodevelopment nor cause lifelong cognitive, behavioral, or functional abnormalities, but it may predispose offspring to abnormalities in cognition and altered emotionality from post-natal factors.. Additionally, PCE may alter the wiring of brain circuitry in foetal development and cause significant molecular modifications to neurodevelopmental programs that may lead to neurophysiological disorders and behavioural abnormalities.\n\nSection::::Cannabinoid treatments.\n", "The genus \"Cannabis\" contains two species which produce useful amounts of psychoactive cannabinoids: \"Cannabis indica\" and \"Cannabis sativa\", which are listed as Schedule I medicinal plants in the US; a third species, \"Cannabis ruderalis\", has few psychogenic properties. Cannabis contains more than 460 compounds; at least 80 of these are cannabinoids – chemical compounds that interact with cannabinoid receptors in the brain. As of 2012, more than 20 cannabinoids were being studied by the U.S. FDA.\n", "There are currently two known subtypes of cannabinoid receptors, termed CB and CB. The CB receptor is expressed mainly in the brain (central nervous system or \"CNS\"), but also in the lungs, liver and kidneys. The CB receptor is expressed mainly in the immune system and in hematopoietic cells. Mounting evidence suggests that there are novel cannabinoid receptors that is, non-CB and non-CB, which are expressed in endothelial cells and in the CNS. In 2007, the binding of several cannabinoids to the G protein-coupled receptor GPR55 in the brain was described.\n", "It appears that cannabinoid receptors are unique to the phylum Chordata and, as such, they have a rather restricted phylogenetic distribution in the animal kingdom. However, enzymes involved in biosynthesis/inactivation of endocannabinoids and endocannabinoid signalling in general (involving targets other than CB1/2-type receptors) occur throughout the animal kingdom. Although the cannabinoid receptors are unique to Chordates, other organisms are still able to process the endocannabinoids through other techniques.\n\nSection::::CB.\n", "Cannabinoid binding sites exist throughout the central and peripheral nervous systems. The two most relevant receptors for cannabinoids are the CB and CB receptors, which are expressed predominantly in the brain and immune system respectively. Density of expression varies based on species and correlates with the efficacy that cannabinoids will have in modulating specific aspects of behavior related to the site of expression. For example, in rodents, the highest concentration of cannabinoid binding sites are in the basal ganglia and cerebellum, regions of the brain involved in the initiation and coordination of movement. In humans, cannabinoid receptors exist in much lower concentration in these regions, which helps explain why cannabinoids possess a greater efficacy in altering rodent motor movements than they do in humans.\n" ]	[ "cannabinoid receptors in humans suggest that our ancestors were potheads", "Cannabinoid receptors suggest that ancestors of humans commonly chose to get high." ]	[ "Cannabinoid receptors were just named that way because they were discovered when trying to figure out how cannabis affects the brain. They also serve other functions. ", "The receptors were actually only discovered when people attempted to determine Marijuana's activity in the brain, and not so much for the sole purpose of being under the influence." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "cannabinoid receptors in humans suggest that our ancestors were potheads", "Cannabinoid receptors suggest that ancestors of humans commonly chose to get high." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Cannabinoid receptors were just named that way because they were discovered when trying to figure out how cannabis affects the brain. They also serve other functions. ", "The receptors were actually only discovered when people attempted to determine Marijuana's activity in the brain, and not so much for the sole purpose of being under the influence." ]
2018-17979	if oil is ancient organic matter, then how is there so much of it?	Hundreds of millions of years of swamps doing swampy things... ...like sucking down carbon from the atmosphere and sinking it in anoxic environments where it turns to kerogen and then to fossil fuels. The Carboniferous period predated the Permian Triassic Mass Extinction Event —aka: The Great Dying— by laying down gigatons of Carbon... which turned to coal, oil, and methane... huge volumes of which were burned by the EXTREME volcanism of the Siberian Traps. Like 96%+ of the tree of life went extinct. [Burning Fossil Fuels Almost Ended Life on Earth]( URL_0 )	[ "The presence of low-oxygen and hydroxyl-poor hydrocarbons in natural living media is supported by the presence of natural waxes (n=30+), oils (n=20+) and lipids in both plant matter and animal matter, for instance fats in phytoplankton, zooplankton and so on. These oils and waxes, however, occur in quantities too small to significantly affect the overall hydrogen/carbon ratio of biological materials.\n", "Organic oils are produced in remarkable diversity by plants, animals, and other organisms through natural metabolic processes. \"Lipid\" is the scientific term for the fatty acids, steroids and similar chemicals often found in the oils produced by living things, while oil refers to an overall mixture of chemicals. Organic oils may also contain chemicals other than lipids, including proteins, waxes (class of compounds with oil-like properties that are solid at common temperatures) and alkaloids.\n", "Section::::Uses of triglyceride vegetable oil.:Uses in antiquity.\n\nOils extracted from plants have been used since ancient times and in many cultures. As an example, in a 4,000-year-old kitchen unearthed in Indiana's Charlestown State Park, archaeologist Bob McCullough of Indiana University-Purdue University Fort Wayne found evidence that large slabs of rock were used to crush hickory nuts and the oil was then extracted with boiling water. Archaeological evidence shows that olives were turned into olive oil by 6000 BC and 4500 BC in present-day Israel and Palestine.\n", "It may be possible to make petroleum from any kind of organic matter under suitable conditions. The concentration of organic matter is not very high in the original deposits, but petroleum and natural gas evolved in places that favored retention, such as sealed-off porous sandstones. Petroleum, produced over millions of years by natural changes in organic materials, accumulates beneath the earth's surface in extremely large quantities.\n", "Crude oil is found in all oil reservoirs formed in the Earth's crust from the remains of once-living things. Evidence indicates that millions of years of heat and pressure changed the remains of microscopic plant and animal into oil and natural gas.\n\nRoy Nurmi, an interpretation adviser for Schlumberger oil field services company, described the process as follows:\n", "Heavy oils can be found in shallow, young reservoirs, with rocks from the Pleistocene, Pliocene, and Miocene (younger than 25 million years). In some cases, it can also be found in older Cretaceous, Mississippian, and Devonian reservoirs. These reservoirs tend to be poorly sealed, resulting in heavy oil and oil-sands.\n\nSection::::Chemical properties.\n", "Analysis of 22 trace elements in oils correlate significantly better with chondrite, serpentinized fertile mantle peridotite, and the primitive mantle than with oceanic or continental crust, and shows no correlation with seawater.\n\nSection::::Biotic (microbial) hydrocarbons.:Reduced carbon.\n\nSir Robert Robinson studied the chemical makeup of natural petroleum oils in great detail, and concluded that they were mostly far too hydrogen-rich to be a likely product of the decay of plant debris, assuming a dual origin for Earth hydrocarbons. However, several processes which generate hydrogen could supply kerogen hydrogenation which is compatible with the conventional explanation.\n", "Petroleum is a naturally occurring liquid found in rock formations. It consists of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights, plus other organic compounds. It is generally accepted that oil is formed mostly from the carbon rich remains of ancient plankton after exposure to heat and pressure in Earth's crust over hundreds of millions of years. Over time, the decayed residue was covered by layers of mud and silt, sinking further down into Earth’s crust and preserved there between hot and pressured layers, gradually transforming into oil reservoirs.\n\nSection::::History.:Early history.\n", "Olefins, the unsaturated hydrocarbons, would have been expected to predominate by far in any material that was derived in that way. He also wrote: \"Petroleum ... [seems to be] a primordial hydrocarbon mixture into which bio-products have been added.\"\n\nThis has however been demonstrated later to be a misunderstanding by Robinson, related to the fact that only short duration experiments were available to him. Olefins are thermally very unstable (that is why natural petroleum normally does not contain such compounds) and in laboratory experiments that last more than a few hours, the olefins are no longer present.\n", "BULLET::::- Kapok seed oil, from the seeds of \"Ceiba pentandra\", used as an edible oil, and in soap production.\n\nBULLET::::- Kenaf seed oil, from the seeds of \"Hibiscus cannabinus\". An edible oil similar to cottonseed oil, with a long history of use.\n\nBULLET::::- Lallemantia oil, from the seeds of \"Lallemantia iberica\", discovered at archaeological sites in northern Greece.\n", "In both cases, this may happen in isolated or complex environmental microbial communities. So far the understanding on the interaction between pH and environmental microbial communities remains unknown, despite the efforts of the last decade. Little is known of the ecophysiology of complex microbial communities, and research is still in developmental stage.\n\nSection::::Environmental constraints.:Oxidation potential.\n", "Edible oils may be extracted for culinary purposes. Non-edible oils can be used in the manufacture of soaps, paints and varnishes, or as fuel for oil lamps. Important feed stocks include soybeans, rapeseed (canola), sunflower seeds, cottonseed, and maize (corn), as well as peanuts, olives, various nuts, sesame seeds, safflower, grape seeds and flaxseed (linseed). Palm oil is extracted from the pulp of the oil palm fruit, palm kernel oil from the kernel of the oil palm, and coconut oil from the kernel of the coconut. \n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Olive oil extraction\n\nSection::::References.\n", "The organic portion of oil shale consists largely of a pre-bitumen bituminous groundmass, such as remains of algae, spores, pollen, plant cuticles and corky fragments of herbaceous and woody plants, and cellular debris from other lacustrine, marine, and land plants. While terrestrial oil shales contain resins, spores, waxy cuticles, and corky tissues of roots and stems of vascular terrestrial plants, lacustrine oil shales include lipid-rich organic matter derived from algae. Marine oil shales are composed of marine algae, acritarchs, and marine dinoflagellates. Organic matter in oil shale also contains organic sulfur (about 1.8% on average) and a lower proportion of nitrogen. \n", "Section::::Biotic (microbial) hydrocarbons.:Biomarker chemicals.\n\nCertain chemicals found in naturally occurring petroleum contain chemical and structural similarities to compounds found within many living organisms. These include terpenoids, terpenes, pristane, phytane, cholestane, chlorins and porphyrins, which are large, chelating molecules in the same family as heme and chlorophyll. Materials which suggest certain biological processes include \n", "Such oils have been part of human culture for millennia. Poppy seed, rapeseed, linseed, almond oil, sesame seed, safflower, and cottonseed were used since at least the bronze age throughout the Middle East and Central Asia. In 1780, Carl Wilhelm Scheele demonstrated that fats were derived from glycerol. Thirty years later Michel Eugène Chevreul deduced that these fats were esters of fatty acids and glycerol.\n", "Section::::Carrier.:Sources.\n\nThe earliest and still most commonly used vehicle is linseed oil, pressed from the seed of the flax plant. Modern processes use heat or steam to produce refined varieties of oil with fewer impurities, but many artists prefer cold-pressed oils. Other vegetable oils such as hemp, poppy seed, walnut, sunflower, safflower, and soybean oils may be used as alternatives to linseed oil for a variety of reasons. For example, safflower and poppy oils are paler than linseed oil and allow for more vibrant whites straight from the tube.\n\nSection::::Carrier.:Extraction methods and processing.\n", "The presence of these chemicals in crude oil is a result of the inclusion of biological material in the oil; these chemicals are released by kerogen during the production of hydrocarbon oils, as these are chemicals highly resistant to degradation and plausible chemical paths have been studied. Abiotic defenders state that biomarkers get into oil during its way up as it gets in touch with ancient fossils. However a more plausible explanation is that biomarkers are traces of biological molecules from bacteria (archaea) that feed on primordial hydrocarbons and die in that environment. For example, hopanoids are just parts of the bacterial cell wall present in oil as contaminant.\n", "First attested in English 1176, the word \"oil\" comes from Old French \"oile\", from Latin \"oleum\", which in turn comes from the Greek (\"elaion\"), \"olive oil, oil\" and that from (\"elaia\"), \"olive tree\", \"olive fruit\". The earliest attested forms of the word are the Mycenaean Greek , \"e-ra-wo\" and , \"e-rai-wo\", written in the Linear B syllabic script.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nSection::::Types.:Organic oils.\n", "However, after the discovery of highly aliphatic biopolymers in algae, and that oil generating kerogen essentially represent concentrates of such materials, no theoretical problem exists anymore. Also, the millions of source rock samples that have been analyzed for petroleum yield by the petroleum industry have confirmed the large quantities of petroleum found in sedimentary basins.\n\nSection::::Empirical evidence.\n", "In its day - prior to the drilling of oilwells to tap reservoirs of crude oil- the pyrolysis of mined solid organic-rich deposits was the conventional method of producing mineral oils. Historically, petroleum was already being produced on an industrial scale in the United Kingdom and the United States by dry distillation of cannel coal or oil shale in the first half of the 19th Century. Yields of oil from simple pyrolysis, however, are limited by the composition of the material being pyrolysed, and modern 'oil-from-coal' processes aim for a much higher yield of organic liquids, brought about by chemical reaction with the solid feedstuff.\n", "In other cases, some microorganisms can thrive in nutrient deficient environments (oligotrophy) such as deep granitic and basaltic aquifers. Other microbes, living in sediments, may utilise available organic compounds (heterotrophy). Organic matter and metabolic products between geological formations can diffuse and support microbial growth in distant environments.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.\n\nUnderstanding MEOR mechanism is still far from being clear. Although a variety of explanations has been given in isolated experiments, it is unclear if they were carried out trying to mimic oil reservoirs conditions.\n", "In modern vegetable oil production, oils are usually extracted chemically, using a solvent such as hexane. Chemical extraction is cheaper and more efficient than mechanical extraction, at a large scale, leaving only 0.5–0.7% of the oil in the plant solids, as compared to 6–14% for mechanical extraction.\n\nSection::::Macerated oils.\n\nMacerated or infused oils are oils to which other matter has been added, such as herbs or flowers. Typically, the oil used is a food-grade fat-type oil.\n\nSection::::Essential oils.\n", "Section::::Origins of petroleum.:The Deep Hot Biosphere.\n", "Some abiogenic hypotheses have proposed that oil and gas did not originate from fossil deposits, but have instead originated from deep carbon deposits, present since the formation of the Earth. Additionally, it has been suggested that hydrocarbons may have arrived on Earth from solid bodies such as comets and asteroids from the late formation of the Solar System, carrying hydrocarbons with them.\n", "Section::::Biotic (microbial) hydrocarbons.:Trace metals.\n\nNickel (Ni), vanadium (V), lead (Pb), arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg) and others metals frequently occur in oils. Some heavy crude oils, such as Venezuelan heavy crude have up to 45% vanadium pentoxide content in their ash, high enough that it is a commercial source for vanadium. Abiotic supporters argue that these metals are common in Earth's mantle, but relatively high contents of nickel, vanadium, lead and arsenic can be usually found in almost all marine sediments.\n" ]	[ "Supplies of oil should be limited because it is ancient organic matter.", "If oil is ancient organic matter then there should not be so much available. " ]	[ "There are ample supplies of due to millions of years of swamps turning carbon from the atmosphere into fossil fuels.", "Due to so much time passing, much oil was able to be created." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Supplies of oil should be limited because it is ancient organic matter.", "If oil is ancient organic matter then there should not be so much available. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "There are ample supplies of due to millions of years of swamps turning carbon from the atmosphere into fossil fuels.", "Due to so much time passing, much oil was able to be created." ]
2018-13389	Why does average life expectancy vary greatly among nations?	The main thing that affects life expectancy is infant mortality. Babies and young children are particularly vulnerable, and if lots of people die during their early years then that will bring the average life expectancy down. When you hear things like life expectancy used to only be 40 something in the middle ages, it's not that it was rare to live to past 40, it was that it was very common for young children to die from disease. Once you reached adulthood you had a decent chance of living to old age. In the end it does come down to things like healthcare, hygiene, lifestyle, diet and so on. If you move to a country where those things are better then you will increase your chances of living longer. But if you're already an adult it won't make as big a difference as it would if you moved as a baby. And of course it depends on what you have access to. I imagine a rich person in India will have access to decent healthcare, clean drinking water and plenty of food so will have a higher life expectancy than a poor person who doesn't have as much access to those things.	[ "Economic circumstances also affect life expectancy. For example, in the United Kingdom, life expectancy in the wealthiest and richest areas is several years higher than in the poorest areas. This may reflect factors such as diet and lifestyle, as well as access to medical care. It may also reflect a selective effect: people with chronic life-threatening illnesses are less likely to become wealthy or to reside in affluent areas. In Glasgow, the disparity is amongst the highest in the world: life expectancy for males in the heavily deprived Calton area stands at 54, which is 28 years less than in the affluent area of Lenzie, which is only 8 km away.\n", "Disparities in life expectancy are often cited as demonstrating the need for better medical care or increased social support. A strongly associated indirect measure is income inequality. For the top 21 industrialized countries, if each person is counted equally, life expectancy is lower in more unequal countries (r = −0.907). There is a similar relationship among states in the US (r = −0.620).\n\nSection::::Life expectancy vs. maximum life span.\n", "Various factors contribute to an individual's longevity. Significant factors in life expectancy include gender, genetics, access to health care, hygiene, diet and nutrition, exercise, lifestyle, and crime rates. Below is a list of life expectancies in different types of countries:\n\nBULLET::::- Developed countries: 77–90 years (e.g. Canada: 81.29 years, 2010 est.)\n\nBULLET::::- Developing countries: 32–80 years (e.g. Mozambique: 41.37 years, 2010 est.)\n\nPopulation longevities are increasing as life expectancies around the world grow:\n\nBULLET::::- Australia: 80 years in 2002, 81.72 years in 2010\n\nBULLET::::- France: 79.05 years in 2002, 81.09 years in 2010\n", "Outline of statistics\n\nThis is a collection of lists of countries by average life expectancy at birth.\n\nSection::::Methodology.\n\nLife expectancy equals the average number of years a person born in a given country is expected to live if mortality rates at each age were to remain steady in the future. The life expectancy is shown separately for males and females, as well as a combined figure. Several non-sovereign entities are also included in this list.\n\nThe figures reflect the quality of healthcare in the countries listed as well as other factors including ongoing wars, obesity, and HIV infections.\n", "The figures reflect the quality of healthcare in the countries listed as well as other factors including ongoing wars, obesity, and HIV infections.\n", "Note that the crude death rate as defined above and applied to a whole population can give a misleading impression. For example, the number of deaths per 1,000 people can be higher for developed nations than in less-developed countries, despite standards of health being better in developed countries. This is because developed countries have proportionally more older people, who are more likely to die in a given year, so that the overall mortality rate can be higher even if the mortality rate at any given age is lower. A more complete picture of mortality is given by a life table, which summarizes mortality separately at each age. A life table is necessary to give a good estimate of life expectancy.\n", "Perhaps the clearest example of health inequalities can be seen in life expectancy. The difference between life expectancy at birth can vary by over a decade between European Union member states. For example, in 2012 the life expectancy at birth for Swedish males is 81 years, whereas in Lithuania a baby born could expect to only live until 68.4. In terms of healthy life years (years of life lived without disability) the gap is even greater, with Estonian males born in 2012 predicted to have 18.4 fewer healthy life years than their Maltese counterparts. These disparities in life expectancy don’t just exist at the macro scale, but can be seen right down to the neighbourhood level; with differences reaching into the decades. Such disparities are found worldwide, with a whole area of research looking at demographics and improving life expectancy.\n", "Of 17 high-income countries studied by the National Institutes of Health in 2013, the United States ranked at or near the top in obesity rate, frequency of automobile use and accidents, homicides, infant mortality rate, incidence of heart and lung disease, sexually transmitted infections, adolescent pregnancies, recreational drug or alcohol deaths, injuries, and rates of disability. Together, such lifestyle and societal factors place the U.S. at the bottom of that list for life expectancy. On average, a U.S. male can be expected to live almost four fewer years than those in the top-ranked country, though Americans who reach age 75 live longer than those who reach that age in peer nations. One consumption choice causing several of the maladies described above are cigarettes. Americans smoked 258 billion cigarettes in 2016. Cigarettes cost the United States $326 billion each year in direct healthcare costs ($170 billion) and lost productivity ($156 billion).\n", "Life tables that relate to maternal deaths and infant moralities are important, as they help form family planning programs that work with particular populations. They also help compare a country's average life expectancy with other countries. Comparing life expectancy globally helps countries understand why one country's life expectancy is rising substantially by looking at each other's healthcare, and adopting ideas to their own systems.\n\nSection::::Insurance applications.\n", "An international comparison of present-day economies shows that average income and health are closely related, not only in poor countries, but also among rich countries, where life expectancy seems to have reached its biological ceiling (see Angus Deaton, 2013 for a detailed discussion).\n", "List of countries by life expectancy\n\nThis is a collection of lists of countries by average life expectancy at birth.\n\nSection::::Methodology.\n\nLife expectancy equals the average number of years a person born in a given country is expected to live if mortality rates at each age were to remain steady in the future. The life expectancy is shown separately for males and females, as well as a combined figure. Several non-sovereign entities are also included in this list.\n", "Cities also experience a wide range of life expectancy based on neighborhood breakdowns. This is largely due to economic clustering and poverty conditions that tend to associate based on geographic location. Multi-generational poverty found in struggling neighborhoods also contributes. In United States cities such as Cincinnati, the life expectancy gap between low income and high income neighborhoods touches 20 years.\n\nSection::::Human patterns.:Economic circumstances.\n", "Priorities do not go towards having the greatest impact on health. Outcomes of national systems are of lower quality. Modern technology is less available under national systems. Prescription drugs are less available under national systems.\n\nThe authors contend that the United States' high infant mortality and mediocre life expectancy are not indicative of the quality of health care. In the latter case, they note that while Japan has a longer life expectancy, Japanese Americans enjoy the same long life expectancy. Similarly, infant mortality among Asians is low in Asian countries and in the US.\n", "There are great variations in life expectancy between different parts of the world, mostly caused by differences in public health, medical care, and diet. The impact of AIDS on life expectancy is particularly notable in many African countries. According to projections made by the United Nations (UN) in 2002, the life expectancy at birth for 2010–2015 (if HIV/AIDS did not exist) would have been:\n\nBULLET::::- 70.7 years instead of 31.6 years, Botswana\n\nBULLET::::- 69.9 years instead of 41.5 years, South Africa\n\nBULLET::::- 70.5 years instead of 31.8 years, Zimbabwe\n", "Section::::Policy uses.\n\nLife expectancy is one of the factors in measuring the Human Development Index (HDI) of each nation along with adult literacy, education, and standard of living.\n\nLife expectancy is also used in describing the physical quality of life of an area or, for an individual when the value of a life settlement is determined a life insurance policy sold for a cash asset.\n", "Which particular nation an impoverished person lives in deeply affects health outcomes. This can be attributed to governmental, environmental, geographical, and cultural factors. Using life expectancy as a measure of health indicates a difference between countries in likeliness of living to a certain age. Where people are born dramatically impacts their life chances. High-income countries like Japan or Sweden have a life expectancy of 80 years, Brazil-72, India-63. The WHO cites that for rich countries, only 56 (Iceland) to 107 (US) of 1000 adults between 15 and 60 years old will die each year, while Western and Central African countries have adult mortality rates exceeding 300 and 400 of every 1000. The rates are even higher in African nations suffering the AIDS epidemic, such as Zimbabwe where 772 of 1000 adults die each year (WHO 2010). Also, the type of health affliction varies by countries for populations in poverty. Over 80% of cardiovascular disease deaths, that totaled 17.5 million people globally in 2005, occur in low- and middle-income countries. According to the WHO,13500 people die from smoking every day, and soon it will become the leading cause of death in developing countries, just as in high income countries. (Mathers & Loncar, 2005).\n", "Section::::International health inequalities.\n", "Social determinants (i.e. location, housing, education, employment, income, crime, social cohesion) have been shown to significantly influence health. However, at present, population health receives only five percent of national health budgets. By comparison, 95 percent is spent on direct medical care services, yet medical care only accounts for only 10-15 percent of preventable mortality in the United States. Genetics, social circumstances, environmental exposures, and behavioral patterns comprise the bulk of health determinants of health outcomes, which is increasingly considered when creating health policy.\n", "Studies show that in many parts of the world life expectancy rates are higher in urban areas than in rural areas. There is some evidence to suggest that the gap may be widening in these countries as economic conditions and health education has improved in urban areas.\n", "Marmot and Bell of the University College London found that in wealthy countries, income and mortality are correlated as a marker of relative position within society, and this relative position is related to social conditions that are important for health including good early childhood development, access to high quality education, rewarding work with some degree of autonomy, decent housing, and a clean and safe living environment. The social condition of autonomy, control, and empowerment turns are important influences on health and disease, and individuals who lack social participation and control over their lives are at a greater risk for heart disease and mental illness.\n", "Between one third and one half of the life expectancy gap may be explained by differences in the social determinants of health. They affect the health of people and can also influence how a person interacts with health and other services. For example, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults are less likely to smoke if they have completed Year 12, are employed and if they have higher incomes. Additionally, higher levels of education are associated with healthier lifestyle choices and improved health literacy.\n\nSection::::Mitigation efforts.\n", "The countries with the lowest overall life expectancies per the WHO are Sierra Leone, the Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Guinea-Bissau, Lesotho, Somalia, Eswatini, Angola, Chad, Mali, Burundi, Cameroon, and Mozambique. Of those countries, only Lesotho, Eswatini, and Mozambique in 2011 were suffering from an HIV prevalence rate of greater than 12 percent in the 15–49 age group.\n\nComparing life expectancies from birth across countries can be problematic. There are differing definitions of live birth vs stillbirth even among more developed countries and less developed countries often have poor reporting.\n", "A study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association in 2016 concluded that income was a major component of the difference in life expectancy in states, counties, races, and regions of the U.S. Men in the richest one percent of the population lived 15 years longer than men in the poorest one percent of the population and women in the richest one percent of the population lived 10 years longer. \n\nCounties with small populations (and therefore small numbers of deaths) have a larger margin of error in determining life expectancy than counties with larger populations. \n", "Moreover, even people of the same culture and race but of different socioeconomic status could live different number of healthy life years. People of different socioeconomic status can afford different living expenses. For example, consider a poor family that could only afford living in a poor neighborhood where the underground water pipes have very high exposure to lead and where their house lies beside a canal where industries spit their toxic emissions. The members of this family are, according to health science, expected to suffer from health issues earlier in their lives because their lifestyle according to their socioeconomic status forces them to be exposed daily to toxic substances in their environment and to drink water that has high levels of lead. Both of these life circumstance are factors known to cause high blood pressure, kidney failures, etc. With these adverse health effects, these people would have limited ability or in other words are not considered as healthy as members of a family from their same race who live in a wealthy town where their water pipes are tested every now and then. \n", "While the relationship between income and life expectancy is log linear on average, any one individual country can lie above or below curve. Those below the curve, such as South Africa or Zimbabwe, have life expectancy levels that are lower than would be predicted based on per capita income alone. Countries above the curve, such as Tajikistan, have life expectancies that are exceptionally high given their level of economic development. In 2000, the USA lay just below the curve, indicating that it had a slightly lower life expectancy than other rich countries.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-12388	Why do storms always look more menacing before it rains?	You are seeing the mass of water that prevents light from passing through it, making it look dark from afar. Once "inside" the storm, and it's raining all around you, light passes through better, because you are inside this area, as opposed to looking at it from the outside in from a distance, and the particles of water seem far more dispersed, therefore letting light in/through.	[ "Numerous pentimenti suggest that Heade altered the composition over time; for example, the hills on the horizon were originally larger and more jagged. Records suggest that \"Approaching Thunder Storm\" was exhibited at the National Academy of Design in 1860. In 1868, Heade painted \"Thunder Storm on Narragansett Bay\", a similar composition.\n", "In areas where these thunderstorms form in isolation and horizontal visibility is good, pilots can evade these storms rather easily. In more moist atmospheres which become hazy, pilots navigate above the haze layer in order to get a better vantage point of these storms. Flying under the anvil of thunderstorms is not advised, as hail is more likely to fall in such areas outside the thunderstorm's main rain shaft. When an outflow boundary forms due to a shallow layer of rain-cooled air spreading out near ground level from the parent thunderstorm, both speed and directional wind shear can result at the leading edge of the three-dimensional boundary. The stronger the outflow boundary is, the stronger the resultant vertical wind shear will become.\n", "One of a series of paintings by Heade of coastal landscapes, this work was based on a sketch that Heade made of an approaching storm on Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island. Here, a fisherman sits by the shore watching the storm approach; there is a faint red bolt of lightning in the left part of the sky. To his left are a dog, an iron kettle, and a spread-out boat sail. Another fisherman is rowing toward the shore, having left his sailboat out on the bay. His placement in the composition helps provide a sense of distance and a narrative for the scene. \n", "Along with pressure tendency, the condition of the sky is one of the more important parameters used to forecast weather in mountainous areas. Thickening of cloud cover or the invasion of a higher cloud deck is indicative of rain in the near future. High thin cirrostratus clouds can create halos around the sun or moon, which indicates an approach of a warm front and its associated rain. Morning fog portends fair conditions, as rainy conditions are preceded by wind or clouds that prevent fog formation. The approach of a line of thunderstorms could indicate the approach of a cold front. Cloud-free skies are indicative of fair weather for the near future. A bar can indicate a coming tropical cyclone. The use of sky cover in weather prediction has led to various weather lore over the centuries.\n", "\"There struck the worst of dust storms that ever filled the sky.\n\n\"You could see that dust storm comin', the cloud looked deathlike black,\n\n\"And through our mighty nation, it left a dreadful track.\n\n\"From Oklahoma City to the Arizona line,\n\n\"Dakota and Nebraska to the lazy Rio Grande,\n\n\"It fell across our city like a curtain of black rolled down,\n\n\"We thought it was our judgement, we thought it was our doom.\n", "Advancing technology since the mid-2000s led to chasers more commonly targeting less amenable areas (i.e. hilly or forested) that were previously eschewed when continuous wide visibility was critical. These advancements, particularly in-vehicle weather data such as radar, also led to an increase in chasing after nightfall. Most chasing remains during daylight hours with active storm intercepting peaking from mid-late afternoon through early-to-mid evening. This is dictated by a chaser's schedule (availability to chase) and by when storms form, which usually is around peak heating during the mid-to-late afternoon but on some days occurs in early afternoon or even in the morning. An additional advantage of later season storms is that days are considerably longer than in early spring. Morning or early afternoon storms tend to be associated with stronger wind shear and thus most often happen earlier in the spring season or later during the fall season.\n", "Upon his travels to Holland, he took note of the familiar large rolling waves of the English seashore transforming into the sharper, choppy waves of a Dutch storm. A characteristic example of Turner's dramatic seascape is \"The Slave Ship\" of 1840. Aivazovsky left several thousand turbulent canvases in which he increasingly eliminated human figures and historical background to focus on such essential elements as light, sea, and sky. His grandiose \"Ninth Wave\" (1850) is an ode to human daring in the face of the elements.\n\nSection::::Notable storms in art and culture.:In motion pictures.\n", "The painting is fairly conventional for its time, but the scene is hardly picturesque. Strazdes suggests that \"Heade, by refusing to prettify his scenery by association, was attempting to inject into his artistic vision a serious, monumental simplicity it had not previously possessed.\" The composition is very open, as if seen through a wide-angle lens, and relatively empty. The swathes of dark color are novel for a landscape work. The long horizon is an influence from Heade's contemporary, Frederic Edwin Church, as in paintings such as \"Niagara\".\n", "Section::::Reliability.:Sayings which may be locally accurate.:When Clouds Look Like Black Smoke.\n\nThick, moisture laden storm clouds absorb sunlight. It gives them an appearance that somewhat resembles black smoke.\n\nSection::::Reliability.:Sayings which may be locally accurate.:Red sky at night.\n", "Dust kicked up by the winds of the parent thunderstorm, heavy rain and hail, and the darkness of night are all factors which can reduce the visibility of tornadoes. Tornadoes occurring in these conditions are especially dangerous, since only weather radar observations, or possibly the sound of an approaching tornado, serve as any warning to those in the storm's path. Most significant tornadoes form under the storm's \"updraft base\", which is rain-free, making them visible. Also, most tornadoes occur in the late afternoon, when the bright sun can penetrate even the thickest clouds. Night-time tornadoes are often illuminated by frequent lightning.\n", "Approaching Thunder Storm\n\nApproaching Thunder Storm is an 1859 painting by American painter Martin Johnson Heade. Done in oil on canvas, the work depicts an approaching thunderstorm. It was his largest painting to date. The painting is in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. It is praised for its dramatic depiction of the threatening mood of blackening skies and eerily illuminated terrain prior to the storm itself.\n", "Tropical Storm Erin of 2007 is an example of the effect, when the storm intensified over central Texas, eventually forming an eye over Oklahoma. Tropical Storm Erin gained even more traction as it travelled across the plains, a rare feat as most tropical storms weaken as they go farther inland. Andersen states \"Until events like Erin in 2007, there was not much focus on post-landfall tropical cyclones unless they transitioned. Erin really brought attention to the inland intensification of tropical cyclones.\"\n", "Within 36 hours of the passage of a tropical cyclone's center, the pressure begins to fall and a veil of white cirrus clouds approaches from the cyclone's direction. Within 24 hours of the closest approach to the center, low clouds begin to move in, also known as the bar of a tropical cyclone, as the barometric pressure begins to fall more rapidly and the winds begin to increase. Within 18 hours of the center's approach, squally weather is common, with sudden increases in wind accompanied by rain showers or thunderstorms. Within six hours of the center's arrival, rain becomes continuous. Within an hour of the center, the rain becomes very heavy and the highest winds within the tropical cyclone are experienced. When the center arrives with a strong tropical cyclone, weather conditions improve and the sun becomes visible as the eye moves overhead. Once the system departs, winds reverse and, along with the rain, suddenly increase. One day after the center's passage, the low overcast is replaced with a higher overcast, and the rain becomes intermittent. By 36 hours after the center's passage, the high overcast breaks and the pressure begins to level off.\n", "Section::::Storm overview.:After sunset.\n", "Along with pressure tendency, the condition of the sky is one of the more important parameters used to forecast weather in mountainous areas. Thickening of cloud cover or the invasion of a higher cloud deck is indicative of rain in the near future. At night, high thin cirrostratus clouds can lead to halos around the moon, which indicate the approach of a warm front and its associated rain. Morning fog portends fair conditions and can be associated with a marine layer, an indication of a stable atmosphere. Rainy conditions are preceded by wind or clouds which prevent fog formation. The approach of a line of thunderstorms could indicate the approach of a cold front. Cloud-free skies are indicative of fair weather for the near future. The use of sky cover in weather prediction has led to various weather lore over the centuries.\n", "\"The curtain rises to reveal a high, windy bluff over the Mississippi River. It is called Lover's Leap. On its verge are two old trees whose leafless branches have been grotesquely twisted by the winds. At first the scene has a mellow quality, the sky flooded with deep amber light from the sunset. But as it progresses, it changes to one of stormy violence to form a dramatic contrast between Heavenly's scene and Hertha's. The atmospheric change is caused by the approach of the spring storm which breaks at the scene's culmination.\"\n", "One possible case in the southern hemisphere is Tropical Cyclone Kelvin in 2018. Shortly after making landfall over Western Australia, Kelvin developed a clear eye and continued strengthening despite moving over the Great Sandy Desert, where most tropical cyclones rapidly weaken.\n\nTropical Storm Alberto of 2018 is another example of the brown ocean effect. The storm sustained its strength as a Tropical Depression after landfall, lasting for an additional three days after its landfall. Alberto became one of only eleven cyclones to reach Lake Huron as a tropical depression.\n", "Section::::Storm Hawks.:Junko.\n", "A widespread misconception in the world of soaring is that the updrafts associated with an incoming thunderstorm are almost always very strong and turbulent,\n\n\"which is most of the time incorrect\". If one believes this myth, then he would consider it safe (from thunderstorms, at least) to fly in an area with plentiful weak to moderate updrafts, since the updrafts associated with thunderstorms are always supposed to be strong and turbulent.\n", "Section::::Equipment.:Current.\n", "The background of Christ Carrying the Cross is an overwhelming storm: lightning, thunder, and possible rain. The clouds gather in dark hues to darken the mood and narration of the piece. Usually, storms are associated with feelings of fear and unease: both feelings that are highly applicable to the human nature of this portrait. The storm clouds also have breaks of light, allowing the viewer to understand Christ's acceptance of his sacrifice as he communicates and reflects with the heavens.\n", "The vertical wind shear in a tropical cyclone's environment is very important. When the wind shear is weak, the storms that are part of the cyclone grow vertically, and the latent heat from condensation is released into the air directly above the storm, aiding in development. When there is stronger wind shear, this means that the storms become more slanted and the latent heat release is dispersed over a much larger area.\n\nSection::::Vertical component.:Effects on thunderstorms and severe weather.\n", "Until the nor'easter passes, thick, dark, low-level clouds often block out the sun. Temperatures usually fall significantly due to the presence of the cooler air from winds that typically come from a northeasterly direction. During a single storm, the precipitation can range from a torrential downpour to a fine mist. All precipitation types can occur in a nor'easter. High wind gusts, which can reach hurricane strength, are also associated with a nor'easter. On very rare occasions, such as in the nor'easter in 1978, North American blizzard of 2006, and January 2018 North American blizzard, the center of the storm can take on the circular shape more typical of a hurricane and have a small \"dry slot\" near the center, which can be mistaken for an eye, although it is not an eye.\n", "Section::::Meteorological history.\n", "While typical mature storms have eyes that are a few dozen miles across, rapidly intensifying storms can develop an extremely small, clear, and circular eye, sometimes referred to as a \"pinhole eye\". Storms with pinhole eyes are prone to large fluctuations in intensity, and provide difficulties and frustrations for forecasters.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01202	Why pointing lasers at planes is so dangerous and therefore a criminal offence?	You might blind the pilot(s), and thus cause, or contribute to, an accodent that can kill potentially hundreds of people.	[ "On 2 November 2009, Dana Christian Welch of Southern California was sentenced to 2.5 years in a federal prison after being found guilty of shining a hand-held laser light into the eyes of two pilots landing Boeing jets at John Wayne Airport.\n\nSection::::Regulations and misuse.:United States.:Michigan.\n", "Then in late 2004 and early 2005 came a significant increase in reported incidents linked to laser pointers. The wave of incidents may have been triggered in part by \"copycats\" who read press accounts of laser pointer incidents. In one case, David Banach of New Jersey was charged under federal Patriot Act anti-terrorism laws, after he allegedly shone a laser pointer at aircraft.\n", "There have been many incidents regarding, in particular, aircraft, and the authorities in many countries take them extremely serious. Many people have been convicted and sentenced, sometimes to several years' imprisonment.\n\nSection::::Regulations and misuse.:Australia.\n", "New regulations controlling the importation and sale of laser pointers (portable, battery-powered) have been established in Canada in 2011 and are governed by Health Canada using the Consumer Protection Act for the prohibition of sale of Class 3B (IEC) or higher power lasers to \"consumers\" as defined in the Consumer Protection Act . Canadian federal regulation follows FDA (US Food & Drug Administration) CDRH, and IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission) hazard classification methods where manufacturers comply with the Radiation Emitting Devices Act. As of July 2011 three people had been charged under the federal \"Aeronautics Act\", which carries a maximum penalty of $100,000 and five years in prison, for attempting to dazzle a pilot with a laser. Other charges that could be laid include mischief and assault.\n", "Pointing a laser at an aircraft can be hazardous to pilots, and has resulted in arrests, trials and jail sentences. It also results in calls to license or ban laser pointers. Some jurisdictions such as New South Wales, Australia have restricted laser pointers as a result of multiple incidents.\n\nSection::::Lasers and bright lights.\n\nIn addition to lasers, other bright directional lights such as searchlights and spotlights can have the same dazzling, distracting, and flashblinding effects.\n\nSection::::Lasers in airspace.\n", "On February 2016 a Virgin Atlantic flight from Heathrow to New York JFK Airport was forced to turn back when a laser beam was shone into the cockpit. The incident led the British Airline Pilots' Association to call for lasers to be classified as offensive weapons.\n\nIn the first seven months of 2018, United States Armed Forces pilots were targeted with laser points in multiple regions, but particularly in the Middle East.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Dazzler (weapon)\n\nBULLET::::- Laser safety\n\nBULLET::::- Laser pointer\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Since 2010, it is an offence in the UK to shine a light at an aircraft in flight so as to dazzle the pilot, whether intentionally or not, with a maximum penalty of a level 4 fine (currently £2500). It is also an offence to negligently or recklessly endanger an aircraft, with a maximum penalty of five years imprisonment and/or an unlimited fine.\n", "In late 2004 and early 2005, came a significant increase in reported incidents linked to laser pointers – see Lasers and aviation safety. The wave of incidents may have been triggered in part by \"copycats\" who read press accounts of laser pointer incidents. In one case, David Banach of New Jersey was charged under federal Patriot Act anti-terrorism laws, after he allegedly shone a laser pointer at aircraft.\n", "To give another example, of a more powerful laser—the type that might be used in an outdoor laser show: a 6-watt green (532 nm) laser with a 1.1 milliradian beam divergence is an eye hazard to about , can cause flash blindness to about 8,200 feet (1.5 mi/2.5 km), causes veiling glare to about 36,800 feet (), and is a distraction to about 368,000 feet ().\n\nSection::::Reducing the hazard.\n\nThere are a number of ways that laser users, regulators and pilots reduce the potential hazard from outdoor laser use. These measures include:\n\nSection::::Reducing the hazard.:Police enforcement.\n", "Under certain conditions, laser light or other bright lights (spotlights, searchlights) directed at aircraft can be a hazard. The most likely scenario is when a bright visible laser light causes distraction or temporary flash blindness to a pilot, during a critical phase of flight such as landing or takeoff. It is far less likely, though still possible, that a visible or invisible beam could cause permanent harm to a pilot's eyes. Although laser weapons are under development by armed forces, these are so specialized, expensive and controlled that it is improbable for non-military lasers to cause structural damage to an aircraft.\n", "BULLET::::- Restricting the sale or use of laser devices. This is done in some jurisdictions. For example, in April 2008 New South Wales, Australia banned laser pointer possession, except by special permit, in an effort to reduce the number of laser illuminations of aircraft. In October 1997 in the United Kingdom, administrative steps were taken to restrict the sale of laser pointers 1 milliwatt output, for similar reasons (although the purchase, importation and use of such pointers in the UK remains lawful). In the U.S., the Congressional Research Service notes that a ban could \"pose significant challenges because these devices are widely available at low cost and are used in a variety of applications such as laser pointers, laser levels and laser gun sights.\"\n", "On March 28, 2008, a coordinated attack took place using four green laser pointers aimed at six aircraft landing at Sydney airport in New South Wales, Australia. As a result of this attack plus others, a law was proposed in mid-April 2008 in New South Wales to ban possession of handheld lasers, including low-power classroom pointers. The Australian state of Victoria has had a similar ban since 1998, but press reports state that it is easy to buy lasers without a permit.\n", "Until the early 1990s, laser and bright light aviation incidents were sporadic. In the U.S., NASA's Aviation Safety Reporting System showed only one or two incidents per year. The SAE G-10T subcommittee began meeting around 1993 as the number of incidents grew. Almost all of the incidents were known or suspected to be due to outdoor laser displays. Almost all of the concern was over potential eye damage; at the time visual effects were felt to be a minor consequence.\n", "Also, the weaker effects are part of any stronger effect. Even if a laser does not cause eye damage at 25 feet, it can still cause flash blindness, glare and a distraction.\n\nFor any given laser, the relative distances shown here may change. For example, an infrared laser can be an eye hazard for hundreds of feet, but presents no flash blindness, glare or distraction hazard. Because of this, each laser must be analyzed individually.\n", "BULLET::::- Requiring review or approval of outdoor laser uses. This is discussed in the Regulation and control section below.\n\nBULLET::::- Amending existing laws, or enacting new ones, to try to discourage irresponsible laser use. One U.S. federal effort in this direction is the \"Securing Airplane Cockpits Against Lasers Act of 2005\", discussed in the History section below.\n\nBULLET::::- Following a series of accidents caused by lasers, Arizona state passed Bill 2164 (2014) that making it a Class One misdemeanor to point a laser at an aircraft.\n\nSection::::Reducing the hazard.:Pilot/aircrew hazard reduction measures.\n", "On 30 April 2010, Clint Jason Brenner, 36, of Prescott, Arizona, was found guilty of two counts of endangerment, each a class 6 felony, and it was also found that each was a dangerous offense, for shining a handheld laser pointer at an Arizona Department of Public Safety helicopter in December 2009. He was given a sentence of two years in prison for each count, to run concurrently.\n", "Section::::Primary hazards of lasers and bright lights.\n", "Chapter 170 of the Acts of 2004, Section 140 of the General Laws, section 131J states: \"No person shall possess a portable device or weapon from which an electric current, impulse, wave or beam may be directed, which current, impulse, wave or beam is designed to incapacitate temporarily, injure or kill, except ... Whoever violates this section shall be punished by a fine of not less than $500 nor more than $1,000 or by imprisonment in the house of correction for not less than 6 months nor more than 2 1/2 years, or by both such fine and imprisonment.\"\n", "On February 22, 2009, a dozen planes were targeted with green laser beams at Seattle-Tacoma International Airport. An FAA spokeswoman said there were 148 laser attacks on aircraft in the U.S. from January 1, 2009 to February 23, 2009.\n\nDuring the July 2013 protests against the presidency of Mohamed Morsi in Egypt and later celebration of his removal, thousands of protesters and revelers aimed laser pointers at government helicopters.\n", "In the United Kingdom, CAP 736 is the \"Guide for the Operation of Lasers, Searchlights and Fireworks in United Kingdom Airspace.\" \n\nFor all laser users, the ANSI Z136.6 document gives guidance for the safe use of outdoor lasers. While this document is copyrighted by ANSI and is relatively costly, a flavor of its recommendations can be seen in NASA's Use Policy for Outdoor Lasers.\n\nSection::::Regulation and control.:Airspace zones.\n\nThe U.S. FAA has established airspace zones. These protect the area around airports and other sensitive airspace from the hazards of safe-but-too-bright visible laser light exposure:\n", "The United States Coast Guard requires their aircrews to return to base if a green laser is pointed at them, and have their eyes examined for eye damage. People have been given up to five years in jail for aiming a green laser at an aircraft.\n\nSection::::Colors and wavelengths.:Blue.\n", "In 1998, an audience member shone a laser at Kiss drummer Peter Criss's eyes while the band was performing \"Beth\". After performing the song, Criss nearly stormed off the stage, and lead singer Paul Stanley challenged whoever shone the laser to fight him on stage: \n\nIn January 2005 a New Jersey man named David Banach was arrested for pointing a green laser pointer at a small jet flying overhead.\n", "Lasers in this class are mostly dangerous in combination with optical instruments which change the beam diameter or power density, though even without optical instrument enhancement direct contact with the eye for over two minutes may cause serious damage to the retina. Output power does not exceed 5 mW. Beam power density may not exceed 2.5 mW/cm if the device is not labeled with a \"caution\" warning label, otherwise a \"danger\" warning label is required. Many laser sights for firearms and laser pointers commonly used for presentations are in this category.\n\nSection::::Classification.:Old system.:Class IIIb.\n", "In the period from 1999 to 2016, increasing attention has been paid to the risks posed by so-called laser pointers and laser pens. Typically, the sale of laser pointers is restricted to either class 3A (<5 mW) or class 2 (<1 mW), depending on local regulations. For example, in the US, Canada and the UK, class 3A is the maximum permitted, unless a key actuated control or other safety features are provided. In Australia, class 2 is the maximum allowed class. However, because enforcement is often not very strict, laser pointers of class 2 and above are often available for sale even in countries where they are not allowed.\n", "Within the SAE G-10T subcommittee, there was some consideration about cutting back or banning laser shows. However, it became apparent that there were a large number of non-entertainment laser users as well. The focus shifted to control of known laser users, whether shows or industry/research. New policies and procedures were developed, such as the FAA 7200 Chapter 29, and Advisory Circular 70-1. Although incidents continued to occur (from January 1996 to July 1999, the FAA's Western-Pacific Region identified more than 150 incidents in which low-flying aircraft were illuminated by lasers), the situation seemed under control.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-11844	In space, what opposing force keeps orbiting entities, like planets/satellites, orbiting against the constant pull of gravity?	There is no opposing force. Orbiting is when something is falling due to gravity, but it continually misses its target. > but how can it go on forever It doesn't because nothing goes on forever. In the context of the universe at large, it's very important to make the distinction between "Forever" and "For an unthinkably long time". > without some force compensating for slowly decreasing speed due to pull of gravity? And why would it slowly decrease? There's no friction in space. There's nothing in space.	[ "Asimov lists tug-of-war ratio for 32 satellites (then known in 1963) of the Solar System. The list below shows one example from each planet.\n\nSection::::The special case of the Moon.\n\nUnlike other satellites of the solar system, the solar attraction on the Moon is more than that of its primary. According to Asimov, the Moon is a planet moving around the Sun in careful step with the Earth.\n", "Tug of war (astronomy)\n\nThe tug of war in astronomy is the ratio of planetary and solar attractions on a natural satellite. The term was coined by Isaac Asimov in \"The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction\" in 1963.\n\nSection::::Law of universal gravitation.\n\nAccording to Isaac Newton's law of universal gravitation\n\nIn this equation \n\nThe two main attraction forces on a satellite are the attraction of the Sun and the satellite's primary (the planet the satellite orbits). Therefore, the two forces are \n", "A geostationary satellite is of special interest in this context. Unlike other objects in the sky which rise and set, an object in a geostationary orbit appears motionless in the sky, apparently defying gravity. In fact, it is in a circular equatorial orbit with a period of one day.\n\nSection::::Weightlessness in Newtonian mechanics.:Relativity.\n", "In typical free-fall, the acceleration of gravity acts along the direction of an object's velocity, linearly increasing its speed as it falls toward the Earth, or slowing it down if it is moving away from the Earth. In the case of an orbiting spacecraft, which has a velocity vector largely \"perpendicular\" to the force of gravity, gravitational acceleration does not produce a net change in the object's speed, but instead acts centripetally, to constantly \"turn\" the spacecraft's velocity as it moves around the Earth. Because the acceleration vector turns along with the velocity vector, they remain perpendicular to each other. Without this change in the direction of its velocity vector, the spacecraft would move in a straight line, leaving the Earth altogether.\n", "To a modern physicist working with Einstein's general theory of relativity, the situation is even more complicated than is suggested above. Einstein's theory suggests that it actually is valid to consider that objects in inertial motion (such as falling in an elevator, or in a parabola in an airplane, or orbiting a planet) can indeed be considered to experience a local loss of the gravitational field in their rest frame. Thus, in the point of view (or frame) of the astronaut or orbiting ship, there actually is nearly-zero proper acceleration (the acceleration felt locally), just as would be the case far out in space, away from any mass. It is thus valid to consider that most of the gravitational field in such situations is actually absent from the point of view of the falling observer, just as the colloquial view suggests (see equivalence principle for a fuller explanation of this point). However, this loss of gravity for the falling or orbiting observer, in Einstein's theory, is due to the falling motion itself, and (again as in Newton's theory) not due to increased distance from the Earth. However, the gravity nevertheless is considered to be absent. In fact, Einstein's realization that a pure gravitational interaction cannot be felt, if all other forces are removed, was the key insight to leading him to the view that the gravitational \"force\" can in some ways be viewed as non-existent. Rather, objects tend to follow geodesic paths in curved space-time, and this is \"explained\" as a force, by \"Newtonian\" observers who assume that space-time is \"flat,\" and thus do not have a reason for curved paths (i.e., the \"falling motion\" of an object near a gravitational source).\n", "Section::::Technology used to compensate for the negative effects.:Artificial gravity.\n\nArtificial gravity (AG) is the increase or decrease of gravitational force on an object or person by artificial means. Different types of forces, including linear acceleration and centripetal force, can be used to generate this artificial gravitational force.\n", "BULLET::::- Because the force of gravity decreases with distance, objects with non-zero size will be subjected to a tidal force, or a differential pull, between the ends of the object nearest and furthest from the Earth. (An extreme version of this effect is spaghettification.) In a spacecraft in low Earth orbit (LEO), the centrifugal force is also greater on the side of the spacecraft furthest from the Earth. At a 400 km LEO altitude, the overall differential in g-force is approximately 0.384 μ\"g\"/m.\n", "The Hill sphere (gravitational sphere of influence) of the Earth is about 1,500,000 kilometers (0.01 AU) in radius, or approximately four times the average distance to the Moon. This is the maximal distance at which the Earth's gravitational influence is stronger than the more distant Sun and planets. Objects orbiting the Earth must be within this radius, otherwise they can become unbound by the gravitational perturbation of the Sun.\n", "Section::::Technology used to compensate for the negative effects.:Pharmacologic therapy.\n", "Instead of rotating end for end, tethers can also be kept straight by the slight difference in the strength of gravity over their length.\n", "Some theories suggest that gravitational capture is the origin of Neptune's major moon Triton, the moons of Mars, and Saturn's moon Phoebe. Some scientists have put forward extended atmospheres around young planets as a mechanism for slowing the movement of a passing objects to aid in capture. The hypothesis has been put forward to explain the irregular satellite orbits of Jupiter and Saturn, for example. A tell-tale sign of capture is a retrograde orbit, which can result from an object approaching the side of the planet which it is rotating towards. Capture has even been proposed as the origin of Earth's Moon. In the case of the latter, however, virtually identical isotope ratios found in samples of the Earth and Moon cannot be explained easily by this theory.\n", "Although the forces balance at these points, the first three points (the ones on the line between a certain large mass, e.g. a star, and a smaller, orbiting mass, e.g. a planet) are not stable equilibrium points. If a spacecraft placed at the Earth–Moon point is given even a slight nudge away from the equilibrium point, the spacecraft's trajectory will diverge away from the point. The entire system is in motion, so the spacecraft will not actually hit the Moon, but will travel in a winding path, off into space. There is, however, a semi-stable orbit around each of these points, called a halo orbit. The orbits for two of the points, and , are stable, but the halo orbits for through are stable only on the order of months.\n", "BULLET::::1. In an inertial frame of reference, an object either remains at rest or continues to move at constant velocity, unless acted upon by a force.\n\nBULLET::::2. In an inertial reference frame, the vector sum of the forces F on an object is equal to the mass m of that object multiplied by the acceleration a of the object: F = ma. (It is assumed here that the mass m is constant)\n", "Linear acceleration, even at a low level, can provide sufficient g-force to provide useful benefits. A spacecraft under constant acceleration in a straight line would give the appearance of a gravitational pull in the direction opposite of the acceleration. This \"pull\" that would cause a loose object to \"fall\" towards the hull of the spacecraft is actually a manifestation of the inertia of the objects inside the spacecraft, in accordance with Newton's first law. \n", "A common conception about spacecraft orbiting the earth is that they are operating in a gravity free environment. Although there is a way of making sense of this within the physics of Einstein's general relativity, within Newtonian physics, this is technically inaccurate .\n", "The force of gravity on the surface of the Earth, normally denoted \"g\", has remained constant in both direction and magnitude since the formation of the planet. As a result, both plant and animal life have evolved to rely upon and cope with it in various ways.\n\nSection::::Gravity and life on Earth.:Plant use of gravity.\n", "At a distance relatively close to Earth (less than 3000 km), gravity is only slightly reduced. As an object orbits a body such as the Earth, gravity is still attracting objects towards the Earth and the object is accelerated downward at almost 1g. Because the objects are typically moving laterally with respect to the surface at such immense speeds, the object will not lose altitude because of the curvature of the Earth. When viewed from an orbiting observer, other close objects in space appear to be floating because everything is being pulled towards Earth at the same speed, but also moving forward as the Earth's surface \"falls\" away below. All these objects are in free fall, not zero gravity.\n", "The weight of an object on Earth's surface is the downwards force on that object, given by Newton's second law of motion, or (). Gravitational acceleration contributes to the total gravity acceleration, but other factors, such as the rotation of Earth, also contribute, and, therefore, affect the weight of the object.\n\nGravity does not normally include the gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun, which are accounted for in terms of tidal effects.\n\nIt is a vector (physics) quantity, whose direction coincides with a plumb bob.\n\nSection::::Variation in magnitude.\n", "In the theory of general relativity, the only gravity which remains for the observer following a falling path or \"inertial\" path near a gravitating body, is that which is due to non-uniformities which remain in the gravitational field, even for the falling observer. This non-uniformity, which is a simple tidal effect in Newtonian dynamics, constitutes the \"microgravity\" which is felt by all spacially-extended objects falling in any natural gravitational field that originates from a compact mass. The reason for these tidal effects is that such a field will have its origin in a centralized place (the compact mass), and thus will diverge, and vary slightly in strength, according to distance from the mass. It will thus vary across the width of the falling or orbiting object. Thus, the term \"microgravity,\" an overly technical term from the Newtonian view, is a valid and descriptive term in the general relativistic (Einsteinian) view.\n", "BULLET::::- A line drawn from the planet to the satellite sweeps out \"equal areas in equal times\" no matter which portion of the orbit is measured.\n\nBULLET::::- The square of a satellite's orbital period is proportional to the cube of its average distance from the planet.\n\nBULLET::::- Without applying force (such as firing a rocket engine), the period and shape of the satellite's orbit won't change.\n", "BULLET::::1. no resultant force acts on the object\n\nBULLET::::2. uniform gravity acts solely by itself.\n", "Another example is of a pendulum. When the pendulum is not swinging all the forces acting on the pendulum are in equilibrium. The force due to gravity and the mass of the object at the end of the pendulum is equal to the tension in the string holding that object up. When a pendulum is put in motion the place of equilibrium is at the bottom of the swing, the place where the pendulum rests. When the pendulum is at the top of its swing the force bringing the pendulum back down to this midpoint is gravity. As a result gravity can be seen as the restoring force in this.\n", "Aryabhata (476–550) first identified the force which explains why the Earth's rotation does not cause objects to spin away from it, and developed a geocentric solar system of gravitation. This features an eccentric elliptical model of the planets, where the planets spin on their axes and follow elliptical orbits, the Sun and the Moon revolving around the Earth in epicycles. Indian astronomer and mathematician Brahmagupta (c. 598–c. 668) described gravity as an attractive force and used the term \"gurutvākarṣaṇam (गुरुत्वाकर्षणम्)\" to describe it.\n\nAl Hamdānī and Al Biruni quote Brahmagupta as saying:\n", "In the 4th century BC, the Greek philosopher Aristotle believed that there is no effect or motion without a cause. The cause of the downward motion of heavy bodies, such as the element earth, was related to their nature, which caused them to move downward toward the center of the universe, which was their natural place. Conversely, light bodies such as the element fire, move by their nature upward toward the inner surface of the sphere of the Moon. Thus in Aristotle's system heavy bodies are not attracted to the Earth by an external force of gravity, but tend toward the center of the universe because of an inner \"gravitas\" or heaviness.\n", "Section::::Orbital perturbations.:Multiple gravitating bodies.\n\nThe effects of other gravitating bodies can be significant. For example, the orbit of the Moon cannot be accurately described without allowing for the action of the Sun's gravity as well as the Earth's. One approximate result is that bodies will usually have reasonably stable orbits around a heavier planet or moon, in spite of these perturbations, provided they are orbiting well within the heavier body's Hill sphere.\n" ]	[ "An opposing force keeps planets and satellites orbiting against the pull of gravity." ]	[ "There is no opposing force." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "An opposing force keeps planets and satellites orbiting against the pull of gravity.", "An opposing force keeps planets and satellites orbiting against the pull of gravity." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "There is no opposing force.", "There is no opposing force." ]
2018-03018	Does the chance of getting Heads in a coin toss increase as I get more Tails?	No, the chance of getting head is the same with every throw. The throws are independent and are therefore 50/50 every time. However, the chances of throwing 3 heads in a row is 1 in 8. This is because 1/2 X 1/2 X 1/2 is 1/8. You can see that each throw is still 50/50, the odds simply stack up. The chances are the same every time, however, getting the same result multiple times in a row is much less likely.	[ "Now the same coin is reused and you are asked to bet on the outcome again.\n\nIf the first flip was tails, there is a 100% chance you are dealing with a fair coin, so the next flip has a 50% chance of heads and 50% chance of tails.\n", "Bernoulli came across expected utility by playing the St Petersburg paradox. This paradox involves you flipping a coin until you get to heads. The number of times it took you to get to heads is what you put as an exponent to 2 and receive that in dollar amounts. This game helped to understand what people were willing to pay versus what people were expected to gain from this game.\n", "Tim assumes that the stranger picked the coin randomly – i.e., assumes a prior probability distribution in which each coin had a 1/3 chance of being the one picked. Applying Bayesian inference, Tim then calculates an 80% probability that the result of three consecutive heads was achieved by using the unfair coin, because each of the fair coins had a 1/8 chance of giving three straight heads, while the unfair coin had an 8/8 chance; out of 24 equally likely possibilities for what could happen, 8 out of the 10 that agree with the observations came from the unfair coin. If more flips are conducted, each further head increases the probability that the coin is the unfair one. If no tail ever appears, this probability converges to 1. But if a tail ever occurs, the probability that the coin is unfair immediately goes to 0 and stays at 0 permanently.\n", "When tossing a coin one usually assumes that Head or Tail will occur, so that formula_32. The open-world assumption is that the coin can be stolen in mid-air, disappear, break apart or otherwise fall sideways so that neither Head nor Tail occurs, so that the power set of {Head,Tail} is considered and there is a decomposition of the overall probability (i.e. 1) of the following form:\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Dempster–Shafer theory\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- Smets Ph. (1988) \"Belief function\". In: \"Non Standard Logics for Automated Reasoning\", ed. Smets Ph., Mamdani A, Dubois D. and Prade H. Academic Press, London\n", "As for the slim prospect of getting ten out of ten heads from a fair coin—the outcome that made the coin appear biased—many may be surprised to learn that the chance of any sequence of heads or tails is equally unlikely (e.g. H-H-T-T-H-T-H-H-H-T) and yet it occurs in \"every\" trial of ten tosses. That means \"all\" results for ten tosses have the same probability as getting ten out of ten heads, which is 0.000976. If one records the heads-tails sequences, for whatever result, that exact sequence had a chance of 0.000976.\n", "After a consistent tendency towards tails, a gambler may also decide that tails has become a more likely outcome. This is a rational and Bayesian conclusion, bearing in mind the possibility that the coin may not be fair; it is not a fallacy. Believing the odds to favor tails, the gambler sees no reason to change to heads. However it is a fallacy that a sequence of trials carries a memory of past results which tend to favor or disfavor future outcomes.\n", "Ask a man whether he had sex with a prostitute this month. Before he answers ask him to flip a coin. Instruct him to answer \"yes\" if the coin comes up tails, and truthfully, if it comes up heads. Only he knows whether his answer reflects the toss of the coin or his true experience. It is very important to assume that people who get heads will answer truthfully, otherwise the surveyor is not able to speculate.\n", "BULLET::::- For the Even player, the expected payoff when playing Heads is formula_1 and when playing Tails formula_2, and these must be equal, so formula_3.\n\nBULLET::::- For the Odd player, the expected payoff when playing Heads is formula_4 and when playing Tails formula_5, and these must be equal, so formula_6.\n\nNote that formula_7 is the Heads-probability of \"Odd\" and formula_8 is the Heads-probability of \"Even\". So the change in Even's payoff affects Odd's strategy and not his own strategy.\n\nSection::::Laboratory experiments.\n", "For example, if the \"a priori\" probability of a biased coin is say 1%, and assuming that such a biased coin would come down heads say 60% of the time, then after 21 heads the probability of a biased coin has increased to about 32%.\n\nThe opening scene of the play \"Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead\" by Tom Stoppard discusses these issues as one man continually flips heads and the other considers various possible explanations.\n\nSection::::Non-examples.:Changing probabilities.\n", "If after tossing four heads in a row, the next coin toss also came up heads, it would complete a run of five successive heads. Since the probability of a run of five successive heads is (one in thirty-two), a person might believe that the next flip would be more likely to come up tails rather than heads again. This is incorrect and is an example of the gambler's fallacy. The event \"5 heads in a row\" and the event \"first 4 heads, then a tails\" are equally likely, each having probability . Since the first four tosses turn up heads, the probability that the next toss is a head is:\n", "It is known that in a statistical experiment such as tossing a fair coin and counting the occurrences of heads and tails, the numbers of heads and tails after a great many throws will differ by only a tiny percentage, while after only a few throws outcomes with a significant excess of heads over tails or vice versa are common; if an experiment with a few throws is repeated over and over, the outcomes will fluctuate a lot. It can be proven that the relative fluctuations reduce as the reciprocal square root of the number of throws, a result valid for all statistical fluctuations, including shot noise.\n", "Section::::Examples.:Why the probability is 1/2 for a fair coin.\n\nIf a fair coin is flipped 21 times, the probability of 21 heads is 1 in 2,097,152. The probability of flipping a head after having already flipped 20 heads in a row is . This is an application of Bayes' theorem.\n\nThis can also be shown without knowing that 20 heads have occurred, and without applying Bayes' theorem. Assuming a fair coin:\n\nBULLET::::- The probability of 20 heads, then 1 tail is 0.5 × 0.5 = 0.5\n", "In such an instance, there not only is no reason for favoring \"heads\" or \"tails\", but everyone knows this to be the case. Tschaepe also addresses the guess made in a coin flip, contending that it merely represents an extremely limited case of guessing a random number. Tschaepe examines such guesses at greater length with the instance of guessing a number between 1 and 100, for which Tschaepe notes that the guesser \"has to look for clues that are specific to what or whom is ordering them to guess, as well as possible past scenarios that involved guessing numbers\", and once these are exhausted, \"there comes a point very early in the process wherein no other clue to an answer exists\". As an exemplary case of guessing that involves progressively more information from which to make a further guess, Tschaepe notes the game of Twenty Questions, which he describes as \"similar to guessing a number that the other person is thinking, but unlike guessing a number as a singular action... allows for combining abductive reasoning with deductive and inductive reasoning\".\n", "An important difference between these two approaches is that the first approach gives some weight to one's prior experience of tossing coins, while the second does not. The question of how much weight to give to prior experience, depending on the quality (credibility) of that experience, is discussed under credibility theory.\n\nSection::::Posterior probability density function.\n\nOne method is to calculate the posterior probability density function of Bayesian probability theory.\n", "This method may be extended by also considering sequences of four tosses. That is, if the coin is flipped twice but the results match, and the coin is flipped twice again but the results match now for the opposite side, then the first result can be used. This is because HHTT and TTHH are equally likely. This can be extended to any power of 2.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Checking whether a coin is fair\n\nBULLET::::- Coin flipping\n\nBULLET::::- Feller's coin-tossing constants\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Available from Andrew Gelman's website/a\n", "While a run of five heads has a probability of = 0.03125 (a little over 3%), the misunderstanding lies in not realizing that this is the case only before the first coin is tossed. After the first four tosses, the results are no longer unknown, so their probabilities are at that point equal to 1 (100%). The reasoning that it is more likely that a fifth toss is more likely to be tails because the previous four tosses were heads, with a run of luck in the past influencing the odds in the future, forms the basis of the fallacy.\n", "The gambler's fallacy assumes that an event for which a future likelihood can be measured had the same likelihood of happening once it has already occurred. Thus, if someone had already tossed 9 coins and each has come up heads, people tend to assume that the likelihood of a tenth toss also being heads is 1023 to 1 against (which it was before the first coin was tossed) when in fact the chance of the tenth head is 50% (assuming the coin is unbiased).\n", "The probability of obtaining \"h\" heads in \"N\" tosses of a coin with a probability of heads equal to \"r\" is given by the binomial distribution:\n\nSubstituting this into the previous formula:\n\nAnd hence the value of maximum error (E) is given by\n\nSolving for the required number of coin tosses, \"n\",\n\nSection::::Posterior probability density function.:Examples.\n\n1. If a maximum error of 0.01 is desired, how many times should the coin be tossed?\n", "The gambler's fallacy can be illustrated by considering the repeated toss of a fair coin. The outcomes in different tosses are statistically independent and the probability of getting heads on a single toss is (one in two). The probability of getting two heads in two tosses is (one in four) and the probability of getting three heads in three tosses is (one in eight). In general, if \"A\" is the event where toss \"i\" of a fair coin comes up heads, then:\n", "Section::::Physics.\n\nThe outcome of coin flipping has been studied by the mathematician and former magician Persi Diaconis and his collaborators. They have demonstrated that a mechanical coin flipper which imparts the same initial conditions for every toss has a highly predictable outcomethe phase space is fairly regular. Further, in actual flipping, people exhibit slight bias – \"coin tossing is fair to two decimals but not to three. That is, typical flips show biases such as .495 or .503.\"\n", "For instance, if there is a coin flip that on heads will create one observer, while on tails it will create two, then we have two possible worlds, the first with one observer, the second with two. These worlds are equally probable, hence the SSA probability of being the first (and only) observer in the heads world is 1/2, that of being the first observer in the tails world is 1/2 × 1/2 = 1/4, and the probability of being the second observer in the tails world is also 1/4.\n", "Two coins (small and large) are used to randomly generate numbers with equal probability. Tails on the smaller coin counts as \"0\", tails on the larger coin counts as \"1\", and heads on either coin counts as \"2\". To create numbers in the range \"1\" through \"4\", toss both coins and add their values together. To create numbers in the range \"1\" through \"3\", do the same but retoss whenever \"4\" is the result. To create numbers in the range \"1\" through \"2\", just toss the larger coin (tails is \"1\", heads is \"2\").\n", "In this case, the probability of getting 51 or more 6s on a fair die is 0.02654. If we were looking for significance at the 5% level, this result indicates that the die is loaded to give many 6s (one-tailed test).\n", "As an example that will be familiar to all, if a fair coin is tossed many times and the number of heads and tails counted, the ratio of heads to tails will be very close to 1 (about as many heads as tails); but after only a few throws, outcomes with a significant excess of heads over tails or vice versa are common; if an experiment with a few throws is repeated over and over, the outcomes will fluctuate a lot.\n", "BULLET::::- The probability of 20 heads, then 1 head is 0.5 × 0.5 = 0.5\n" ]	[ "Chance of heads increases with increasing taus runs.", "Chance of heads increases after multiple coin tosses." ]	[ "Chance of coin flip is always 50 50 for a standard coin.", "Chance of heads doesn't ever change. It is always 50/50." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Chance of heads increases with increasing taus runs.", "Chance of heads increases after multiple coin tosses." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Chance of coin flip is always 50 50 for a standard coin.", "Chance of heads doesn't ever change. It is always 50/50." ]
2018-18109	Why do feet have such a big impact on body temperature?	There are lots of blood vessels in your feet. If your feet get cold your blood cools and then returns to the body, forcing your body to warm it back up.	[ "In birds with webbed feet, retia mirabilia in the legs and feet transfer heat from the outgoing (hot) blood in the arteries to the incoming (cold) blood in the veins. The effect of this biological heat exchanger is that the internal temperature of the feet is much closer to the ambient temperature, thus reducing heat loss. Penguins have them also in the flippers and nasal passages.\n", "BULLET::::2. Increasing body size to more easily maintain core body temperature (warm-blooded animals in cold climates tend to be larger than similar species in warmer climates (see Bergmann's Rule))\n\nBULLET::::3. Having the ability to store energy as fat for metabolism\n\nBULLET::::4. Have shortened extremities\n\nBULLET::::5. Have countercurrent blood flow in extremities – this is where the warm arterial blood travelling to the limb passes the cooler venous blood from the limb and heat is exchanged warming the venous blood and cooling the arterial (e.g., Arctic wolf or penguins)\n", "Other risk factors include perspiring heavily, being in a humid or moist environment, psoriasis, wearing socks and shoes that hinder ventilation and do not absorb perspiration, going barefoot in damp public places such as swimming pools, gyms and shower rooms, having athlete's foot (tinea pedis), minor skin or nail injury, damaged nail, or other infection, and having diabetes, circulation problems, which may also lead to lower peripheral temperatures on hands and feet, or a weakened immune system.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "Given that socks directly contact the feet, their composition can affect foot odor. Synthetic materials like polyester and nylon afford less ventilation to the foot than do cotton or wool, leading to increased perspiration and odor, although they can also reduce incidence of blisters by wicking away perspiration. Many synthetic socks are treated with chemicals to help reduce odor.\n", "The smell is exacerbated by factors that increase sweating, such as wearing closed-toe shoes. Sports footwear such as sneakers is often heavily padded inside which provides a perfect environment to trap moisture and allow the bacteria to thrive. Socks can trap foot hair, especially on the toes, and may contribute to odor intensity by increasing surface area on which bacteria can thrive.\n", "The square root of the product of thermal conductivity, density, and specific heat capacity is called thermal effusivity, and tells how much heat energy the body absorbs or releases in a certain amount of time per unit area when its surface is at a certain temperature. Since the heat taken in by the cooler body must be the same as the heat given by the hotter one, the surface temperature must lie closer to the temperature of the body with the greater thermal effusivity. The bodies in question here are human feet (which mainly consist of water) and burning coals.\n", "Wearing closed-toe shoes (\"e.g.\", ballet flats or pumps) without socks leads to accumulation of sweat, dead skin cells, dirt, and oils, further contributing to bacterial growth. Momentarily slipping off shoes whenever feet start to feel \"hot\" or sweaty can help prevent odor.\n\nSection::::Odor qualities.\n\nThe quality of foot odor is often described as being thick and resembling that of cheese, malt vinegar, or ammonia.\n", "Section::::Clinical significance.\n\nDue to their position and function, feet are exposed to a variety of potential infections and injuries, including athlete's foot, bunions, ingrown toenails, Morton's neuroma, plantar fasciitis, plantar warts and stress fractures. In addition, there are several genetic disorders that can affect the shape and function of the feet, including a club foot or flat feet.\n", "One way that Arctic foxes regulate their body temperature is by utilizing a countercurrent heat exchange in the blood of their legs. Arctic foxes can constantly keep their feet above the tissue freezing point (−1 °C) when standing on cold substrates without losing mobility or feeling pain. They do this by increasing vasodilation and blood flow to a capillary rete in the pad surface, which is in direct contact with the snow rather than the entire foot. They selectively vasoconstrict blood vessels in the center of the foot pad, which conserves energy and minimizes heat loss. Arctic foxes maintain the temperature in their paws independently from the core temperature. If the core temperature drops, the pad of the foot will remain constantly above the tissue freezing point.\n", "Some careers present challenges for people with hyperhidrosis. For example, careers that require the use of a knife may not be safely performed by people with excessive sweating of the hands. The risk of dehydration can limit the ability of some to function in extremely hot (especially if also humid) conditions. Even the playing of musical instruments can be uncomfortable or difficult because of sweaty hands.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n", "In the British Army, policies were developed to help the soldiers keep their feet dry - the surest way of preventing the disease. Soldiers were told to dry their feet, and keep them dry by changing socks several times a day. After the first year of the First World War, British troops were instructed to keep at least three pairs of socks with them and to frequently change them. The use of whale oil was also successful in combating trench foot. A British battalion in front line positions could be expected to use ten gallons of whale-oil every day.\n", "Development time and lifespan show a negative correlation with temperature. Higher temperatures result in shorter development times in studies conducted on \"Heliothis\" \"virescens\" raised in a temperature controlled laboratory environment.\n", "Dogs can stand, walk and run on snow and ice for long periods of time. When a dog's footpad is exposed to the cold, heat loss is prevented by an adaptation of the blood system that recirculates heat back into the body. It brings blood from the skin surface and retains warm blood in the pad surface.\n\nSection::::Physical characteristics.:Dewclaw.\n", "Measured temperature varies according to thermometer placement, with rectal temperature being 0.3–0.6 °C (0.5–1 °F) higher than oral temperature, while axillary temperature is 0.3–0.6 °C (0.5–1 °F) lower than oral temperature. The average difference between oral and axillary temperatures of Indian children aged 6–12 was found to be only 0.1 °C (standard deviation 0.2 °C), and the mean difference in Maltese children aged 4–14 between oral and axillary temperature was 0.56 °C, while the mean difference between rectal and axillary temperature for children under 4 years old was 0.38 °C.\n\nSection::::Variation in animals.:Variations due to circadian rhythms.\n", "The main cause is foot sweat (also see focal hyperhidrosis). Sweat itself is odorless; however, it creates a beneficial environment for certain bacteria to grow, producing odorous substances. These bacteria are naturally present on our skin as part of the human flora. The front part of the foot produces the most sweat. \n", "Obviously, keeping your feet warm is a problem in high altitude climbing — but only if you have feet. While companions war-dance to keep theirs from freezing, I can stand on ice for hours. Climbing high or in a bivouac, I'm always the joker who doesn't have cold feet.\n\nCroucher concluded his article by noting that there were advantages beyond just being impervious to frozen feet: \"I need take no special precautions against hookworms, leeches and short snakes.\"\n\nSection::::Awards and motivational speaking.\n", "BULLET::::- Lobate: the anterior digits (2–4) are edged with lobes of skin. Lobes expand or contract when a bird swims. In grebes, coots, phalaropes, finfoots and some palmate-footed ducks on the hallux (1). Grebes have more webbing between the toes than coots and phalaropes.\n\nThe palmate foot is most common.\n\nSection::::Thermal regulation.\n\nSome birds like gulls, herons, ducks or geese can regulate their temperature through their feet.\n", "Another example is found in the legs of an Arctic fox treading on snow. The paws are necessarily cold, but blood can circulate to bring nutrients to the paws without losing much heat from the body. Proximity of arteries and veins in the leg results in heat exchange, so that as the blood flows down it becomes cooler, and doesn't lose much heat to the snow. As the (cold) blood flows back up from the paws through the veins, it picks up heat from the blood flowing in the opposite direction, so that it returns to the torso in a warm state, allowing the fox to maintain a comfortable temperature, without losing it to the snow. This system is so efficient that the Arctic fox does not begin to shiver until the temperature drops to .\n", "Section::::Physiology.:Thermoregulation.\n", "When ambient temperature is excessive, humans and many animals cool themselves below ambient by evaporative cooling of sweat (or other aqueous liquid; saliva in dogs, for example); this helps prevent potentially fatal hyperthermia. The effectiveness of evaporative cooling depends upon humidity. Wet-bulb temperature, which takes humidity into account, or more complex calculated quantities such as wet-bulb globe temperature (WBGT), which also takes solar radiation into account, give useful indications of the degree of heat stress and are used by several agencies as the basis for heat-stress prevention guidelines. (Wet-bulb temperature is essentially the lowest skin temperature attainable by evaporative cooling at a given ambient temperature and humidity.)\n", "Maintaining good foot hygiene is the best way to prevent foot odor as it eliminates odor causing bacteria and removes dead skin cells as well as sebum. A foot file or pumice stone can be used to remove dead skin cells. Dirty feet and dirty socks, instead of clean, dry socks changed frequently can contribute to odor. Socks that are made of synthetic materials are more prone to becoming smelly than natural or blended fabrics, such as a blend of cotton and polyester.\n", "Blood circulation transports heat throughout the body, and adjustments to this flow are an important part of thermoregulation. Increasing blood flow to the surface (e.g., during warm weather or strenuous exercise) causes warmer skin, resulting in faster heat loss. In contrast, when the external temperature is low, blood flow to the extremities and surface of the skin is reduced and to prevent heat loss and is circulated to the important organs of the body, preferentially.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Rate of blood flow.\n", "Some animals living in cold environments maintain their body temperature by preventing heat loss. Their fur grows more densely to increase the amount of insulation. Some animals are regionally heterothermic and are able to allow their less insulated extremities to cool to temperatures much lower than their core temperature—nearly to . This minimizes heat loss through less insulated body parts, like the legs, feet (or hooves), and nose.\n\nSection::::Behavioral temperature regulation.:Hibernation, estivation and daily torpor.\n", "Section::::Thermodynamics.\n\nThe ambient temperature of the body directly affects blood flow through microvasculature. Changes in temperature affect the viscosity of blood and the surface tension. Surface tension decreases with increasing temperature, decreasing the minimum flow rate (see Surface Tension). The decrease in minimum flow rate by higher temperatures allows more blood to flow and dissipate heat throughout the body. Temperature greatly affects blood flow by influencing the diameter of flow. Decreases and increases in temperature trigger vasoconstriction and vasodilation respectively.\n\nSection::::Thermodynamics.:Vasoconstriction.\n", "BULLET::::- Tachymetabolism, maintaining a high metabolic rate, particularly when at rest. This requires a fairly high and stable body temperature because of the Q effect: biochemical processes run about half as fast if an animal's temperature drops by 10 °C.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02308	Why does it cost $39 to overdraft your account, or $3 for using a "foreign" ATM? What costs does the bank incur for those transactions in order to charge that amount of money?	The charges are mostly arbitrary, as most prices you encounter are. They are a business and that is an easy way for them to make money.	[ "Section::::Charges for exceeding authorised overdraft limits.\n", "In general, the fee charged for an informal request is between £25 and £30, along with an increased rate of debit interest. The charges for cheques and Direct Debits which are refused (or \"bounced\") due to insufficient funds are usually the same as or slightly less than the general overdraft fees, and can be charged on top of them. A situation which has provoked much controversy is the bank declining a cheque/Direct Debit, levying a fee which takes the customer overdrawn and then charging them for going overdrawn. However, some banks, like Halifax, have a \"no fees on fees\" policy whereby an account that goes overdrawn solely because of an unpaid item fee will not be charged an additional fee.\n", "Two types of consumer charges exist: the surcharge and the foreign fee. The surcharge fee may be imposed by the ATM owner (the \"deployer\" or independent sales organization) and will be charged to the consumer using the machine. The foreign fee or transaction fee is a fee charged by the card issuer (financial institution, stored value provider) to the consumer for conducting a transaction outside of their network of machines in the case of a financial institution.\n\nSection::::Australia.\n", "Most banks charge interest to their customers in respect of overdrafts. It is common to charge differentially for authorised and unauthorised overdrafts, with unauthorised overdrafts often bearing an interest rate two or three times higher than authorised ones.\n\nIn order to gain customers from competitors, banks will sometimes offer introductory 0% or low interest rates on authorised overdrafts, together with generous initial overdraft limits.\n\nAs part of the development of the personal current account market in the UK, certain banks have altered their overdraft charging structure to a fixed daily charge, irrespective of the size of the overdrawn balance.\n", "Banks in the UK normally offer an overdraft facility free of charge, subject to a pre-arranged limit (formerly known as an authorized overdraft limit). Interest, fees or both would normally be charged if the facility is used but accounts may have an interest-free buffer of a few tens of pounds or a higher deliberate feature of a few hundred pounds interest free.\n", "There are third-party ATM networks such as Banco24Horas that charge fees for use. However, some banks (such as Citibank) will reimburse fees for its customers.\n\nSection::::Canada.\n\nA short description of the fee structure one experiences while using Canadian ATMs can be found at the Interac website, while the Financial Consumer Agency of Canada maintains a chart of the fees typically charged for use of ATMs in Canada.\n\nSection::::Canada.:Interac ATMs.\n", "For a foreign card, the ATM service fee is ฿150 (Aeon Bank), ฿180 or ฿200, depending on the bank. Cash withdrawals in the bank office (\"cash advance\") typically do not have any fees on top of what the issuer bank may charge.\n\nSection::::Southeast Asia.:Philippines.\n\nIn the Philippines, there is a ₱200 charge from local banks when using an international ATM card, in addition to the originating bank's charges. HSBC Bank is the only bank in the Philippines without a ₱200 fee for oversea bank cards.\n\nSection::::South Asia.\n\nSection::::South Asia.:Pakistan.\n", "In either case, the bank may choose to cover overdrawn items at their discretion and charge an overdraft fee, the amount of which may or may not be disclosed. As opposed to traditional ad hoc coverage, this decision to pay or not pay overdrawn items is automated and based on objective criteria such as the customer's average balance, the overdraft history of the account, the number of accounts the customer holds with the bank, and the length of time those accounts have been open. However, the bank does not promise to pay the overdraft even if the automated criteria are met.\n", "U.S. banks extract fees from automatic teller machine (ATM) transactions that are made at rival banks, even if the customer's home bank has no branch in a particular area (such as when the customer is on vacation). Customers are sometimes charged twice, both by the bank that owns the ATM, and again by their bank. Bank of America charges a denial fee, literally a fee for refusing service to the customer (if there are insufficient funds or a daily limit), and a fee to simply check the account balance at a \"foreign\" (other banks') ATMs.\n", "Section::::Bank-specific rules and information.:Westpac Bank Australian account holders.:Westpac cash withdrawal fee.\n\nA holder of a Westpac Australia \"everyday bank account\" or \"savings account\" may incur a A$5 fee when making a successful cash withdrawal at an ATM outside Australia. This fee does not apply to two types of savings accounts: \"eSaver\" and \"Bump Savings\". The fee is waived when using a Mastercard/Cirrus ATM of a participant in the Global ATM Alliance in the following countries:\n\nSection::::Bank-specific rules and information.:Westpac Bank Australian account holders.:Westpac Australia foreign transaction fee.\n", "An overdraft occurs when withdrawals from a bank account exceed the available balance. This gives the account a negative balance and in effect means the account provider is providing credit. If there is a prior agreement with the account provider for an overdraft facility, and the amount overdrawn is within this authorised overdraft, then interest is normally charged at the agreed rate. If the balance exceeds the agreed facility then fees may be charged and a higher interest rate might apply.\n", "In Pakistan banks usually charge a fee of up to PKR 18 for each non-user's ATM cash withdrawal. These fees are levied chiefly to offset banks' own costs at par only, without any profit margin whatsoever.\n", "Fees are not usually charged for withdrawals at a banks' own ATMs, but may be at those of other banks. For example, UBS do not charge for withdrawals at other banks whereas Credit Suisse charge 2 CHF per withdrawal. Sometimes, banks provide the cardholder with 10, 12 or 24 free withdrawals, especially if the bank is a small one, with few ATMs. Most Swiss banks hand out Maestro cards to their customers, in most cases for an annual fee of around 40 CHF, so that any ATM can be used.\n\nSection::::United States.\n", "An overdraft constitutes a loan, traditionally repayable on demand. It is a [[current account\|running account]] facility (categorising alongside revolving loans) where its on-demand nature of repayment meant immediately. A bank is only obliged to provide overdraft if the bank has expressly or impliedly agreed to do so Legally, where a client overdraws his account, the client is not in breach of contract with the bank; if it did constitute a breach, then the fees charged by the bank would be penalties and corresponding not allowed. If requesting payment when there is no money in the bank account, the customer is merely requesting an overdraft. This should be noted that this is separate and distinct from credit cards; as credit cards invariably say a client must not go over the credit limit. With overdraft requests, the bank has the option not to comply with the request, although this is rare, as the banks reputation is built upon a willingness and ability to pay on behalf of clients. Often however, the bank complies and then charges a fee to ‘create a loan'.\n", "In July, 2010 the Federal Reserve adopted regulations (revisions to Regulation E) which prohibited overdraft fees resulting from one time debit card and ATM transactions unless the bank customer had opted into overdraft protection. Consumers who opt into overdraft programs pay more than seven times as much in overdraft and NSF fees, averaging almost $260 a year, based on a recent report from the U.S. Consumer Financial Protection Bureau. Research by Moebs Services released in February, 2011 showed that as many as 90% of customers had chosen overdraft protection resulting in the projection that United States banks would post record profits from overdraft fees.\n", "In Sri Lanka banks usually charge a fee of LKR 5.00 () for the users of the bank (which provides the ATM) and LKR 15.00 () to LKR 60.00 () per non user's bank withdrawal of cash from the machine. Most ATMs are connected to the national LankaPay interbank network. If the user used their credit card to withdraw money, banks will charge from LKR 300.00 () to LKR 900.00 () per transaction.\n\nSection::::South Asia.:Bangladesh.\n", "An area of controversy with regards to overdraft fees is the order in which a bank posts transactions to a customer's account. This is controversial because largest to smallest processing tends to maximize overdraft occurrences on a customer's account. This situation can arise when the account holder makes a number of small debits for which there are sufficient funds in the account at the time of purchase. Later, the account holder makes a large debit that overdraws the account (either accidentally or intentionally). If all of the items present for payment to the account on the same day, and the bank processes the largest transaction first, multiple overdrafts can result. Another problem for the consumer can occur when a large deposit and a larger debit occur on the same day; for example, a customer with $700 in their account who deposits a $600 paycheck and later pays an $800 rent check on the same day will be charged an overdraft fee, despite having more than enough money in their account to cover the check.\n", "Additionally, Bank of America also has a special partnership with China Construction Bank to provide the same ATM fee waivers to Bank of America account holders using China Construction Bank ATMs in mainland China (excluding Hong Kong). I.e., account holders using their Bank of America ATM card or debit card at a China Construction Bank ATM in mainland China can avoid the \"non-Bank of America usage fee\" and \"ATM operator access fee\" for each withdrawal, transfer, or balance inquiry. The 3 percent \"international transaction fee\" for converting currencies will still apply.\n\nSection::::Bank-specific rules and information.:Westpac Bank Australian account holders.\n", "The following bank statement shows a customer that has over spent by one penny and as a result has generated five fees. The overspending fee used in the example is $30.00 which is typical for the banks that charge this type of fee. These fees occur when a transaction post to the account and the available balance is negative. In this example there is 5 purchases ($10.00 for gas, $35.01 for net, $15.00 for phone, $15.00 for music and $25.00 for food, total =$100.01) and a standard deposit hold period.\n\nSection::::Governance.\n\nSection::::Governance.:United States of America.\n", "When a transaction would exceed the previously agreed overdraft limit the bank can choose either to decline the transaction or to accept it as an informal request for an increase, formerly often known as an unauthorized overdraft. Charges and interest rates for informal increases will often exceed those for a formal request. There is also normally a fee per declined transaction, often subject to monthly caps. Usually, the bank sends out a letter informing the customer of the charge and requesting that the account be operated within its limits from that point onwards or informing the customer of their new limit. In a BBC \"Whistleblower\" programme on the practice, it was noted that the actual cost to the bank was less than two pounds.\n", "No major UK bank has completely dropped informal overdraft charges. Some, however, offer a \"buffer zone\", where customers will not be charged if they are over their limit by less than a certain amount. Other banks tend to charge fees regardless of the amount of the level of the overdraft, which is seen by some as unfair. In response to criticism, Lloyds Banking Group changed its fee structure; rather than a single monthly fee for an unauthorized overdraft, they now charge per day. They also allow a 'grace period' where an account holder can pay money in before 2:30pm on a weekday before any items are returned. Alliance & Leicester formerly had a buffer zone facility (marketed as a \"last few pounds\" feature of their account), but this has been withdrawn.\n", "A personal account holder at a bank may have a number of facilities associated with their accounts, such as the ability to process direct debit transactions, standing orders for regular fixed payments, and an overdraft. Banks may typically charge customers a fee of around £30 (individual banks vary) for authorising a transaction which puts a customer over their authorised overdraft limit, or for refusing payment when there are insufficient funds held in the account to meet it. Similarly, credit card issuers typically (until June 2006) charged customers a fee of around £25 for payment that is late, insufficient, or not made, and the same for exceeding their authorised credit limit.\n", "As banks' income from transaction charges declined, due to the \"free banking\" that had become the de facto standard in the UK personal current account market and the banks' income from carrying balances fell due to declining interest rates, banks sought to increase the profitability of their businesses by significantly increasing the charges levied for exceeding authorised overdraft limits, or when customers make payments (or attempt to make payments), including direct debits, cheque payments or standing orders, where no authorised overdraft limit exists. Typically banks charged in the region of £25 to £39 for transactions in breach of an authorised overdraft limit, irrespective of the size of the transaction or the degree by which the limit was exceeded.\n", "Occasionally, banks may not have enough money in their Federal Reserve accounts to fulfill their withdrawals. For example, assume Bank A has $10 million as their assets and the Federal Reserve requires 10% of their assets as their reserves, which is $1 million. If one day, Bank A needs to transfer out $1.5 million during the day, Bank A is running a daylight overdraft during that day. By the end of that particular day, Bank A has an obligation to pay back the Federal Reserve.\n\nA fee is not imposed on collateralized daylight overdrafts, but a 50-basis-point fee is taken on uncollateralized ones.\n\nSection::::Federal Reserve.:History.\n", "Section::::Canada.:The Exchange.\n\nThe Exchange is a multi-bank ATM network. It originated in the northwestern United States before expanding to Canada in 1983. As of 2017, many Canadian credit unions, along with The Alterna Bank, Alterna Savings, Canadian Western Bank, Citibank, Citizens Bank, HSBC, Manulife Bank of Canada, First Nations Bank of Canada and National Bank provide surcharge-free ATM access to members of other participating financial institutions through the network.\n\nSection::::East Asia.\n\nSeveral East Asian countries charge fees for ATM usage.\n\nSection::::East Asia.:Japan.\n" ]	[ "Banks incur some cost that they need to charge the customer when they overdraft their account." ]	[ "The fee is actually arbitrary and is just there to make the bank extra money." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Banks incur some cost that they need to charge the customer when they overdraft their account.", "Banks incur some cost that they need to charge the customer when they overdraft their account." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "The fee is actually arbitrary and is just there to make the bank extra money.", "The fee is actually arbitrary and is just there to make the bank extra money. " ]
2018-15240	Why did super gluing a cotton thread to a popsicle stick light my coffee table on fire tonight?	It's the cotton. Super Glue (at least some brands of it) spontaneously combust when in contact with cotton. Cottons have a lot of hydrogen and oxygen in the molecules, which react to the glue easily. That creates a lot of heat, and fire.	[ "The NRC fined Thermal Science Inc. $900,000. TSI rejected NRC's claims but wound up settling out of court for $300,000.\n\nThe latest iteration of Thermo-Lag related issues involving a Thermo-Lag overlay over top of existing Thermo-Lag was USNRC Information Notice 2018-09, which indicated that during the fabrication of an overlay of the existing fireproofing, on 18. March 2017, elemental carbon, from a fabric that was part of the overlay, was being cut and fabricated and as a result, debris from this fabric entered the electrical cabinet, which caused the arc flash. \n", "BULLET::::- The plastic sleeve preventing the ends of shoelaces from unraveling (called the aglet)\n\nBULLET::::- The metal sleeve which is crimped to hold the eraser in place on pencils\n\nBULLET::::- The metal band that binds the bristles or hair of a brush to its handle\n\nBULLET::::- The metal ring which holds a chisel blade's tang to the handle\n\nBULLET::::- In fiber optic terminations, glass or plastic fibers are bonded to precision ferrule connectors (FCs), also described as fiber channel connectors, and polished for splitting or connecting two fibers together\n", "Barnes, a 16-year-old apprentice carpenter, was electrocuted installing fibreglass insulation. He most likely came into contact with a metal ceiling batten which was floating at main's voltage due to contact with live electrical wiring. The wiring had been unusually placed during construction of the building, and subsequently a screw used to attach fibreboard to the batten had penetrated its sheath, creating a dangerous hazard for anyone entering the roof space with the mains power switched on. Barnes had no specific safety training, with his employer believing that his previous experience as an apprentice carpenter was adequate.\n", "Fuller, a 25-year-old qualified electrician, died on 6 December 2009. Electrocution was due to a metal staple creating an electrical contact between the metal foil insulation being installed and live 240-volt AC electrical wiring. He had been booked in to complete the \"Ceiling Installers Program\" induction course but it had been postponed due to a prior personal commitment. His employer was of the view the laying of foil insulation with metal staples was not a high risk practise for him as an electrician.\n", "Sweeney, a 22-year-old experienced insulation installer, was similarly electrocuted due to a metal staple contacting live electrical wiring. He had completed the \"Ceiling Installers Program\", which was regarded by his employer as having provided adequate safety training. After the death of Fuller, government regulations required the use of plastic staples. However Sweeney possessed his own staple gun designed for metal staples and preferred to use metal staples since he found they made installation faster.\n", "Section::::Risks and counter-measures.:In the workplace.\n\nMeans have to be provided to discharge static from carts which may carry volatile liquids, flammable gasses, or oxygen in hospitals. Even where only a small charge is produced, it can result in dust particles being attracted to the rubbed surface. In the case of textile manufacture this can lead to a permanent grimy mark where the cloth comes in contact with dust accumulations held by a static charge. Dust attraction may be reduced by treating insulating surfaces with an antistatic cleaning agent.\n\nSection::::Risks and counter-measures.:Damage to electronics.\n", "Despite exhaustive investigation it was not possible to determine when, why, or by whom, the bush at Station 143 had been flared with a conical tool, removed and then re-inserted in the bolt hole. Investigators could not imagine circumstances in which a responsible tradesman would take these actions.\n", "BULLET::::- PTFE tubing is used for Bowden tubing in 3D printers because its low friction allows the extruder stepper motor to push filament through it more easily.\n\nBULLET::::- PTFE is commonly used as an aftermarket add-on for gaming mice to reduce friction of the mouse against the mouse pad, resulting in a smoother glide.\n\nSection::::Safety.\n\nPyrolysis of PTFE is detectable at , and it evolves several fluorocarbon gases and a sublimate. An animal study conducted in 1955 concluded that it is unlikely that these products would be generated in amounts significant to health at temperatures below .\n", "The Post-It Note emerged after 3M scientist Spencer Silver produced a weak adhesive, and a colleague used it to keep bookmarks in place on a church hymnal. Silly Putty came from a failed attempt at synthetic rubber. The use of sensors to prevent automobile air bags from killing children came from a chair developed by the MIT Media Lab for a Penn and Teller magic show. Raytheon scientist Percy Spencer first patented the idea behind the microwave oven after noticing that emissions from radar equipment had melted the candy in his pocket. On a bird hunting trip, George de Mestral took a closer look at the cockleburs stuck to his pants and dog. Viewed under a microscope, each burr was covered with tiny hooks. The observation led to the invention of the Velcro hook-and-loop fastener. In San Francisco, Frank Epperson, age 11, accidentally left a mix of water and soda powder outside; the frozen result became the basis for the Popsicle.\n", "BULLET::::- Fulguration, in which a deliberate spark is generated by touching or nearly touching the sharp probe to the lesion or skin. This results in far higher temperatures at the point of contact of the spark to skin, causing very high temperatures and carbonization (eschar) of the tissue immediately at the spark-contact point, and just below it. Thus, it results in the highest effect at the point of spark contact. This is most useful for completely destroying very superficial structures, such as nevi and skin tags, which protrude above the skin surface.\n\nSection::::Targets of use.\n", "New developments in insulating link technology, that take account of the likelihood of insulating links being used in the typically dirty and wet construction industry environment, meant that the US Government introduced a new law in 2010 that mandates the use of approved insulating links in certain situations. These insulating links must be tested and approved by a Nationally Recognized Testing Laboratory to a standard such as ANSI/CPLSO-14.\n", "Inspections showed that there had not been a graphite fire, and the damage to the graphite was localised, caused by severely overheated uranium fuel assemblies nearby.\n\nSection::::Aftermath.:Board of inquiry.\n", "In 2012, Callahan along with colleagues Sam Roe and Michael Hawthorne published an investigation into the use of flame retardants in consumer products. They were named finalists for the 2013 Pulitzer Prize for Investigative Reporting \"for their exposure of manufacturers that imperil public health by continuing to use toxic fire retardants in household furniture and crib mattresses, triggering reform efforts at the state and national level.\" The series also won the 2013 Goldsmith Prize for Investigative Reporting.\n", "The fire marshall's report concluded that there was unpermitted welding occurring in a mill business, the sprinkler was not operable, and that both contributed to the fire. Mill owners planned to rebuild. \n", "Fiberglass tensioners may impart dry or wet tension depending on its location, prior to or post impregnation of the fiberglass strands.\n\nSection::::Materials.\n", "Section::::Analysis of polymers.:Oxidation.\n\nPolymers are susceptible to attack by atmospheric oxygen, especially at elevated temperatures encountered during processing to shape. Many process methods such as extrusion and injection moulding involve pumping molten polymer into tools, and the high temperatures needed for melting may result in oxidation unless precautions are taken. For example, a forearm crutch suddenly snapped and the user was severely injured in the resulting fall. The crutch had fractured across a polypropylene insert within the aluminium tube of the device, and infra-red spectroscopy of the material showed that it had oxidised, possibly as a result of poor moulding.\n", "A college professor is working on a long-term scientific experiment when a baseball comes through the window, destroying all of his glassware and spilling the fluids that the flasks and test tubes contained. The pooled fluids combine to form the chemical \"methylethylpropylbutyl,\" which then covers a large portion of the baseball. The professor soon discovers that the fluid, along with any object with which it makes contact, is repelled by wood (cf. Alexander Fleming's serendipitous discovery of penicillin).\n", "Tests performed on insulating or plastic materials intended to measure the vulnerability of the material and it's potential ignition source through Glow-Wire, Needle Flame or HB, V2, V1, V0 and 5V test\n\nBULLET::::- IP Testing\n\nTests that classify and rate the degree of protection that mechanical and electrical enclosures provide against solids and liquids as defined in IEC 60529\n\nBULLET::::- IK Testing\n\nTests that define the degree of protection provided by enclosures for electrical equipment against external mechanical impacts in accordance with IEC 62262:2002 and IEC 60068-2-75:1997\n\nBULLET::::- Energy Performance Testing\n", "Billy Bunter is glued into a chair with seccotine in The Magnet #100 (1910).\n\nIn the C.S. Lewis novel \"That Hideous Strength\" (1945) a character is described as having a cigarette \"seccotined\" to her lip.\n\nIn the E. Nesbit novel \"The Story of the Amulet\" (1906) a broken saucer would never be the same again even if bits were joined \"with Seccotine or the white of an egg.\"\n", "The melting of plastic hooks was also listed as the cause for the death of two other firefighters in the Shirley Towers fire in Southampton five years later. It was after these subsequent deaths that changes to Building Regulations was imposed, namely to BS 7671, which covers electrical installations in the UK, and apply to the use of fire resistant cables in escape routes fixed to walls and ceilings, which came into force in July 2015. The regulation was not a retrospective one, meaning that it will only be enforceable on all new builds and not refurbishments.\n\nSection::::Recent events.\n", "The investigation determined that a major explosion occurred when something disturbed the dust, creating a cloud, which ignited. The investigation was unable to determine what disturbed the dust or what ignited it, due to the extensive damage at the plant. However, it is known that the machine had suffered multiple internal fires, including one that was powerful enough to blow off the mixer door. Four other theories were developed regarding possible causes: a batch of rubber that overheated and ignited; an electrical ballast or light fixture that ignited accumulated dust; a spark caused by a possible electrical fault; or ignition of dust in a cooling air duct feeding an electric motor.\n", "Glass candle-holders are sometimes cracked by thermal shock from the candle flame, particularly when the candle burns down to the end. When burning candles in glass holders or jars, users should avoid lighting candles with chipped or cracked containers, and stop use once 1/2 inch or less of wax remains.\n", "If there occurs an emergency at night it may take some time to make a light to light a lamp. But an ingenious man devised the system of impregnating little sticks of pinewood with sulfur and storing them ready for use. At the slightest touch of fire, they burst into flame. One gets a little flame like an ear of corn. This marvelous thing was formerly called a \"light-bringing slave\", but afterward when it became an article of commerce its name was changed to 'fire inch-stick'.\n", "Utensils used with PTFE-coated pans can scratch the coating, if the utensils are harder than the coating; this can be prevented by using non-metallic (usually plastic or wood) cooking tools.\n\nSection::::PTFE (Teflon).:Health concerns.\n\nWhen pans are overheated beyond approximately 350 °C (660 °F) the PTFE coating begins to dissociate, releasing perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) which can cause polymer fume fever in humans and can be lethal to birds. Concerns have been raised over the possible negative effects of using PTFE-coated cooking pans.\n", "The release pattern of the microcapsules on cosmetotextiles is triggered by an impact, most likely friction or pressure between the body and fabric, breaking the capsules into fragments and liberating the cosmetic properties.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-18960	Does sound get louder when multiplied?	Sound waves carry energy that physically makes the air particles (or any medium that it travels through) viabrate as the sound moves. If you have more things making noise the total amount of particles viabrateing in the air is a lot more thus a louder noise.	[ "Wallach et al. did not systematically vary the intensities of the two sounds, although they cited research by Langmuir et al. which suggested that if the second-arriving sound is at least 15 dB louder than the first, the precedence effect breaks down.\n\nThe \"Haas effect\" derives from a 1951 paper by Helmut Haas.\n", "Sound absorbing structures, sound diffusing structures, and digital signal processing may be employed to compensate for boundary effects within the designated listening area.\n\nSection::::'Music power' — the real issues.\n", "Systems which guide evacuees during an emergency by the emission of pink noise to the exits are often also called \"directional sound\" systems.\n\nSection::::Basic theory.\n\nIn all wave-producing sources, the directivity of any source, at maximum, corresponds to the size of the source compared to the wavelengths it is generating: The larger the source is compared to the wavelength of the sound waves, the more directional beam results . The specific transduction method has no impact on the directivity of the resulting sound field; the analysis relies only on the aperture function of the source, per the Huygens–Fresnel principle.\n", "The distance from the sound source to the microphone is a critical element of GBF. Greater GBF is obtained with the performer closer to the microphone; an instance of the inverse-square law. If the performer reduces the distance to the microphone by half, the PAG is increased by 6 dB while the environmental sounds remain relatively the same.\n", "In air conditioning, the Coandă effect is exploited to increase the throw of a ceiling mounted diffuser. Because the Coandă effect causes air discharged from the diffuser to \"stick\" to the ceiling, it travels farther before dropping for the same discharge velocity than it would if the diffuser were mounted in free air, without the neighbouring ceiling. Lower discharge velocity means lower noise levels and, in the case of variable air volume (VAV) air conditioning systems, permits greater turndown ratios. Linear diffusers and slot diffusers that present a greater length of contact with the ceiling exhibit a greater Coandă effect.\n", "This is a field measurement which attempts to measure the sound reduction index of a material on a real completed construction (e.g. a wall between two offices, houses or cinema auditoriums). It is unable to isolate or allow for the result of alternate sound transmission routes and therefore will generally produce a lower result than the laboratory measured value.\n", "Acoustic hailing devices are acoustic devices capable of outputting highly intelligible sound at very high volumes. The distance at which acoustic hailing can be effective varies based on several factors including the sound level, directionality, and frequency of the acoustic source, the sensitivity and directionality of the receiver, and the transmission channel environment. The sound level diminishes or attenuates with distance. Consequently, as a general rule, higher source levels have greater range. \n\nAcoustic hailing devices can come in two forms;\n", "There are some limitations with this approach. Anything that interrupts the beam will prevent the ultrasound from propagating, like interrupting a spotlight's beam. For this reason, most systems are mounted overhead, like lighting.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Military.\n\nThere has been speculation about military sonic weapons that emit highly-directional high-intensity sound; however, these devices do not use ultrasound, although sometimes thought to do so. WikiLeaks has published technical specifications of such sound weapons.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Commercial advertising.\n", "Interference is the addition of two or more waves that results in a new wave pattern. Interference of sound waves can be observed when two loudspeakers transmit the same signal. At certain locations constructive interference occurs, doubling the local sound pressure. And at other locations destructive interference occurs, causing a local sound pressure of zero pascals.\n\nSection::::Wave properties.:Standing wave.\n", "Likewise, speaker proximity much less than 1/4 wavelength to one or more boundaries such as floor/walls/ceiling can increase the effective sensitivity by changing free space into half space, quarter space, or eighth space. When the distance to boundaries is 1/4 wavelength, delayed reflections can increase the perceived loudness but can also induce ambient effects such as comb filtering and reverberation that can make the frequency response uneven across a venue or make the sound diffuse and harsh, especially with smaller venues and hard reflective surfaces.\n", "BULLET::::- Sound Redirection: One of the obvious ways to reduce the received sound level of an observer is to place the observer out of the path of the highest amplitude sounds. For example, if we mark off a circle around a jet engine and make sound power level observations along that circle, we would expect that the sound is loudest directly in line with the jet's exhaust. Observations perpendicular to the exhaust would be significantly quieter.\n", "At the Vienna Festival in May, 1995, a LARES system was used outdoors to augment the Vienna Philharmonic's performance of Beethoven's Symphony No. 9 conducted by Zubin Mehta. \"This was the first time on this location with classical music that we were not criticised for spoiling the music by amplifying it. \"Alfred Toegel, Sound Department, Vienna Festival. Commenting on a performance by the Grant Park Orchestra at the Jay Pritzker Pavilion at Millennium Park Chicago IL, Senior V.P. of WFMT Radio Steve Robinson stated \"I have never in my life heard sound projected so faithfully and beautifully over such a great distance; it was an ethereal experience\"\n", "Since one of the measures of anger is loudness, the researcher can operationalize the concept of anger by measuring how loudly the subject speaks compared to his normal tone. However, this must assume that loudness is uniform measure. Some might respond verbally while other might respond physically.\n\nSection::::In the social sciences.:Economics objections.\n", "Police also used a Long Range Acoustic Device (LRAD) to remove protesters from an area after warning them several times to disperse. This was believed by city officials to be the first time that an LRAD had been used to disperse protesters within the United States. Since then, LRADs have been used to peacefully disperse crowds on several occasions.\n", "The energy density of sound waves decreases as they spread out, so that increasing the distance between the receiver and source results in a progressively lesser intensity of sound at the receiver. In a normal three-dimensional setting, with a point source and point receptor, the intensity of sound waves will be attenuated according to the inverse square of the distance from the source.\n\nSection::::Damping.\n", "The technique uses normal incident plane waves in a shaped spectrum of acoustic noise to impact directly on all exposed test article surfaces without external boundary reflections. Depending on the geometry of the test article this could produce magnitude variations on surfaces due to phasing differences between the plane waves. In the case of large surface area, low mass density test articles the phasing difference may excite primary structure modes in a different way than more conventional reverberant-field testing. This fundamental difference and its impact on the structure must be weighed against the advantages of the DFAT method.\n", "Police in San Diego, CA used an LRAD on May 27, 2016 to order anti-Trump protesters to disperse.\n\nOn October 27, 2016 police from several agencies, including North Dakota state troopers, the National Guard, and other law enforcement agencies from surrounding counties and states deployed two LRADs to clear a protest camp and blockades along Highway 1806. \"Long Range Acoustic Devices, which emit an ear-splitting whine, were used intermittently throughout the day\" one reporter wrote. An LRAD was present again on 11/20/2016 at the bridge just north of the protesters camp on highway 1806.\n", "Therefore, a decrease in box volume (i.e. , a smaller speaker cabinet ) and the same F will decrease the efficiency of the subwoofer. Similarly the F of a speaker is proportional to Fs:\n", "with a resulting expression for the signal to clutter ratio of\n\nThe implication is that when the radar is noise limited the variation of signal to noise ratio is an inverse fourth power. Halving the distance will cause the signal to noise ratio to increase (improve) by a factor of 16. When the radar is volume clutter limited, however, the variation is an inverse square law and halving the distance will cause the signal to clutter to improve by only 4 times.\n\nSince\n\nit follows that\n", "At the Vienna Festival in May, 1995, a LARES system was used outdoors to augment the Vienna Philharmonic's performance of Beethoven's Symphony No. 9 conducted by Zubin Mehta. Tens of thousands of concert-goers, for the first time, did not criticize the music as being spoiled by amplification. The sound company bought the LARES system for annual usage at the festival. In 1999, LARES was used in a similar fashion in an outdoor production of \"Turandot at the Forbidden City\" performed in China at the Imperial Shrine just outside the Forbidden City; staged by Oscar-nominated film director Zhang Yimou and again conducted by Zubin Mehta.\n", "Another common example is in the field of sound reinforcement. Consider a room with sound stations for multiple users, each station containing a microphone and a loudspeaker. Such a room might be used in a government house of parliament. The microphone in station #1 would feed the loudspeakers in every other station except station #1. In other words, station #1 receives a mix of all microphones minus the station #1 microphone. This enables all participants to hear each other clearly but minimizes problems with acoustic feedback.\n", "This is an index which is measured in field conditions, between \"real\" rooms. It is a measurement which deliberately includes effects due to flanking routes and differences in the relative size of the rooms. It attempts, however, to normalize the measured difference level to the level which would be present when the rooms are furnished by measuring the quantity of acoustic absorption in the receiving room and correcting the difference level to the level which would be expected if there was 10m Sabine absorption in the receiving room. Detailed, accurate knowledge of the dimensions of the receiving room are required.\n", "Attenuation causes the reflected wave to decrease in power as distance from the reflective material increases. As the power of the reflective wave decreases compared to the power of the incident wave, interference also decreases. And as interference decreases, so does the phase difference between sound pressure and particle velocity. At a large enough distance from the reflective material, there is no interference left anymore. At this distance one can speak of the far field.\n\nThe amount of reflection is given by the reflection coefficient which is the ratio of the reflected intensity over the incident intensity\n\nSection::::Wave properties.:Absorption.\n", "So could the movement of the container cause the disturbance? Consider the barges that bring water into Venice. When they hit an obstacle, the water rushes forward; when they speed up it will go to the back. For all this disturbance there is no need for new water and the level in the middle stays largely constant though the water there rushes backwards and forwards.\n", "Thus: \n\nBULLET::::1. The array is radiating the same amount of power (since each individual sub-aperture making the array radiates a constant amount of power whether or not it is adjacent the next aperture).\n\nBULLET::::2. It has the same power per unit area at the center of the receiving spot on the ground.\n\nBULLET::::3. The receiving spot on the ground is smaller.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00724	Why do movie studios opt for CGI when it seems like practical affects would be cheaper, easier for actors to work with, and preferred by audiences?	Because CGI generally does look better the reason alot of people think practical effects are better is because we only notice bad CGI	[ "Arguably the biggest and most \"spectacular\" use of CGI is in the creation of photo-realistic images of science-fiction/fantasy characters, settings and objects. Images can be created in a computer using the techniques of animated cartoons and model animation. \"The Last Starfighter\" (1984) used computer generated spaceships instead of physical scale models. In 1993, stop-motion animators working on the realistic dinosaurs of Steven Spielberg's \"Jurassic Park\" were retrained in the use of computer input devices. By 1995, films such as \"Toy Story\" underscored the fact that the distinction between live-action films and animated films was no longer clear. Other landmark examples include a character made up of broken pieces of a stained-glass window in \"Young Sherlock Holmes\", a shape-shifting character in \"Willow\", a tentacle formed from water in \"The Abyss\", the T-1000 Terminator in \"\", hordes and armies of robots and fantastic creatures in the \"Star Wars (prequel)\" and \"The Lord of the Rings\" trilogies, and the planet, Pandora, in \"Avatar\".\n", "As the film/television industry continues to grow, so do the capabilities of the technologies behind it. Since the debut of newer technologies, many have feared that CGI (Computer Generated Imagery) will put practical SFX makeup out of business. More can be done with CGI than can be done with makeup as some things simply aren't possible when working in reality. Many views circulate on the subject.\n", "British special effects technicians and production designers are known for creating visual effects at a far lower cost than their counterparts in the US, as seen in \"Time Bandits\" (1981) and \"Brazil\" (1985). This reputation has continued through the 1990s and into the 21st century with films such as the James Bond series, \"Gladiator\" (2000) and the Harry Potter franchise.\n", "The advent of virtual cinematography in the early 2000s (decade) has led to an explosion of movies that would have been impossible to shoot without it. Classic examples are the digital look-alikes of Neo, Smith and other characters in the Matrix sequels and the extensive use of physically impossible camera runs in The Lord of the Rings (film series) trilogy.\n", "Many of the staples of action movies are practical effects. Gunfire, bullet wounds, rain, wind, fire, and explosions can all be produced on a movie set by someone skilled in practical effects. Non-human characters and creatures produced with make-up, prosthetics, masks, and puppets – in contrast to computer-generated images – are also examples of practical effects.\n\nSection::::Practical effect techniques.\n\nBULLET::::- The use of prosthetic makeup, animatronics, puppetry, or creature suits to create the appearance of living creatures.\n\nBULLET::::- Miniature effects, which is the use of scale models which are photographed in a way that they appear full sized.\n", "BULLET::::- Computer graphics and computer-generated imagery have become ubiquitous in modern entertainment, particularly in television, cinema, advertising, animation and video games. Even films that feature no explicit CGI are usually \"filmed\" now on digital cameras, or edited or post-processed using a digital video editor.\n", "A recent and profound innovation in special effects has been the development of computer generated imagery (CGI), which has changed nearly every aspect of motion picture special effects. Digital compositing allows far more control and creative freedom than optical compositing, and does not degrade the image as with analog (optical) processes. Digital imagery has enabled technicians to create detailed models, matte \"paintings,\" and even fully realized characters with the malleability of computer software.\n", "Tom Woodruff Jr. and Alec Gillis, two experienced SFX artists from Amalgamated Dynamics near L.A., share what they see as the middle ground on the subject. In an interview, they explain that most movies use (out of necessity) a combination of practical effects and CGI. They see CGI as a tool that can be utilized in a good way or a bad way, just like practical effects. Tom Savini (an SFX artist known for his work in \"Dawn of the Dead\" and \"Creepshow\") states: \"They still use the make-up guys to design the creatures and that’s what they work from. I don’t think you’ll see make-up effects guys hanging out on corners with signs that say: \"WILL DO EFFECTS FOR FOOD\".”\n", "For more practical special effects on the set as opposed to CG, Kusama said it \"was a choice that we all sort of made organically\". She said they appreciate \"those kind of effects in older movies and [questions] sometimes how much more effective it is to use a ton of CG\" and that they \"always started with a practical effect and then moved forward from there to lay a groundwork of something that's actually physically, materially there\". They found this to be more enjoyable.\n", "The main challenge of greenscreen shooting is neither technical (though it does take forever) nor financial (it’s still less expensive than shooting in space). No, the main difficulty is in the acting. More specifically, the “black hole gaze”. Usually visual cues such as ping pong or tennis balls are used to focus the actor’ eyes on their virtual partners. But no tennis ball can do justice to the wonder, fear and humility such a spectacle should evoke. It takes a lot of discipline and imagination from the actors and absolute accuracy in the direction to pull off. The \"black hole gaze\" was the focus of many rehearsals, often up until a few seconds before shooting each of those shots.\n", "The simultaneous increase in power and affordability of computer-generated imagery in the 21st century, and the ability for CGI specialists to duplicate even hand-held camera motion (see Match moving), initially made the use of motion control photography less common. However film producers and directors have come to realise the cost-saving benefit of using motion control to achieve the effects in a reliable and realistic way. CGI still struggles to be 100% photorealistic, and the time and cost to achieve photo-realistic shots far exceeds the cost of shooting the live action itself.\n", "British special effects technicians and production designers are known for creating visual effects at a far lower cost than their counterparts in the US, as seen in \"Time Bandits\" (1981) and \"Brazil\" (1985). This reputation has continued through the 1990s and into the 21st century with films such as the James Bond series, \"Gladiator\" (2000) and the Harry Potter franchise.\n", "The success of these films, and others since, has prompted massive studio investment in effects-heavy science-fiction films. This has fueled the establishment of many independent effects houses, a tremendous degree of refinement of existing techniques, and the development of new techniques such as CGI. It has also encouraged within the industry a greater distinction between special effects and visual effects; the latter is used to characterize post-production and optical work, while \"special effects\" refers more often to on-set and mechanical effects.\n\nSection::::Developmental history.:Introduction of computer generated imagery (CGI).\n", "BULLET::::- California Graduate Institute, an independent graduate school specializing in psychology\n\nBULLET::::- Catholic Guides of Ireland, a Girl Guide association\n\nBULLET::::- Chulabhorn Graduate Institute, a private graduate institute in Thailand\n\nBULLET::::- CGI Aero or RusAir, a Russian airline\n\nBULLET::::- CGI Inc., a multinational information technology and business process services company\n\nBULLET::::- Clinton Global Initiative, a forum created by former US President Bill Clinton to discuss global problems\n\nBULLET::::- Coast Guard Intelligence, the intelligence branch of the United States Coast Guard\n\nBULLET::::- Commission for the Management and Application of Geoscience Information\n\nBULLET::::- Compagnie Générale Immobiliere, a Moroccan real-estate development company\n", "BULLET::::- 2002: \"\"* (\"Gollum\")\n\nBULLET::::- 2003: \"\"* (\"Gollum\")\n\nBULLET::::- 2004: \"Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban\" (\"Hippogriff\")\n\nBULLET::::- 2005: \"King Kong\"* (\"Kong\")\n\nBULLET::::- 2006: \"\"* (\"Davy Jones\")\n\nBULLET::::- 2007: \"\" (\"Davy Jones\")\n\nBULLET::::- 2008: \"The Curious Case of Benjamin Button\" (\"Benjamin Button\")\n\nBULLET::::- 2009: \"Avatar\"* (\"Neytiri\")\n\nBULLET::::- 2010: \"Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1\" (\"Dobby\")\n\nBULLET::::- 2011: \"Rise of the Planet of the Apes\" (\"Caesar\")\n\nBULLET::::- 2012: \"Life of Pi\"* (\"Richard Parker\")\n\nBULLET::::- 2013: \"\" (\"Smaug\")\n\nBULLET::::- 2014: \"Dawn of the Planet of the Apes\" (\"Caesar\")\n\nBULLET::::- 2015: \"The Revenant\" (\"The Bear\")\n", "Cameron gave fellow directors Steven Spielberg and Peter Jackson a chance to test the new technology. Spielberg said, \"I like to think of it as digital makeup, not augmented animation ... Motion capture brings the director back to a kind of intimacy that actors and directors only know when they're working in live theater.\" Spielberg and George Lucas were also able to visit the set to watch Cameron direct with the equipment.\n", "The 1990s saw major growth in the use of computer-generated imagery to enhance both animated sequences and live-action special effects, allowing elaborate computer-animated sequences to dominate both. This new form of animation soon dominated Hollywood special effects; the films \"\" and \"Jurassic Park\" included Oscar-winning special effects sequences which made extensive use of CGI. After decades of existing as related-but-separate industries, the barrier between \"animation\" and \"special effects\" was shattered by the popularization of computerized special effects—to the point where computer enhancement of Hollywood feature films became second-nature and often went unnoticed. The Academy Award-winning \"Forrest Gump\" (1994) depended heavily on computerized special effects to create the illusion of Tom Hanks shaking hands with Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson, and to make Gary Sinise convincingly appear to be a double amputee, winning a special-effects Oscar. The film \"Titanic\" used computer effects in nearly every scene of its three-hour running time; one of the film's 11 Oscars was for special effects.\n", "BULLET::::- 2008: \"Battlestar Galactica\" - BSG Space Battle (Season 4)\n\nBULLET::::- 2009: \"Battlestar Galactica\" - \"Daybreak\"\n\nBULLET::::- 2010: \"Caprica\"\n\nBULLET::::- 2011: \"Terra Nova\"\n\nBULLET::::- 2012: \"Game of Thrones\" - \"Valar Morghulis\"\n\nBULLET::::- 2013: \"Game of Thrones\" - \"Valar Dohaeris\"\n\nBULLET::::- 2014: \"Game of Thrones\" - \"The Children\"\n\nBULLET::::- 2015: \"Game of Thrones\" - \"The Dance of Dragons\"\n\nBULLET::::- 2016: \"Game of Thrones\" - \"Battle of the Bastards\"\n\nBULLET::::- 2017: \"Game of Thrones\" - \"Beyond the Wall\"\n\nBULLET::::- 2018: \"Lost in Space\" – \"Danger, Will Robinson\"\n\nSection::::The VES List of the Most Influential Visual Effects films.\n", "The widespread use of Maya in the film industry is usually associated with its development on the film \"Dinosaur\", released by Disney in 2000. In 2003, when the company received an Academy Award for technical achievement, it was noted to be used in films such as \"\", \"Spider-Man\" (2002), \"Ice Age\", and \"\". By 2015, VentureBeat Magazine stated that all ten films in consideration for the Best Visual Effects Academy Award had used Maya Autodesk and that it had been \"used on every winning film since 1997.\"\n\nSection::::Overview.\n", "While modern computer-generated imagery (CGI) technology is considered by many stunt professionals to potentially be curtailing the industry to but a shadow of its former self, the costs of CGI on most films and for most scenes presently far outweigh the benefits. While CGI allows directors to create stunts that would be very expensive, dangerous or simply impossible to perform with real stunt people, the backlash has resulted in a new genre of \"real\" movies marketed on the basis that the scenes are real and that no CGI has been used to create the final production.\n\nSection::::Awards.\n", "There were, however, some positive reviews. Gary Goldstein of the \"Los Angeles Times\" stated that \"As mindless entertainment goes, it's a pretty watchable time-passer.\", and Ben Kenigsberg of \"The New York Times\" said \"It's hard to escape the sense that 'Plastic' is itself a cheap knockoff, but the point is not to look too closely\".\n", "Due to the complexity of human body functions, emotions and interactions, movies with important roles for fully 3D-animated realistic-looking human characters have been rare. The more realistic a CG character becomes, the more difficult it is to create the nuances and details of a living person, and the greater the likelihood of the character falling into the uncanny valley. Films that have attempted to create realistic-looking humans include \"\" in 2001, \"\" in 2005, \"The Polar Express\" in 2004, \"Beowulf\" in 2007 and \"\" in 2009. \n", "The largest example of CGI is Tony Jaa's dramatic leap from the top of a building to attack Madame Rose with a double knee attack. While the background was blue screen with the Australian backdrop added in post production, the long fall shown on screen was real as Jaa and a stuntperson pulled the scene off, landing on large mats below. Even in scenes like this with blue screen, normally a stunt double would be called in for the lead actor, but Jaa once again made sure he did the stunt himself.\n\nSection::::Production.:Fighting styles.\n", "Producer Barbara Muschietti stated that \"It\" would use computer-generated imagery as a support tool in every circumstance; never as an element standing on its own in regard to its relationship with practical effects, to which she stated, \"In every film, in this day and age, there is some CG, but we will use it as little as possible.\" Andy Muschietti spoke of \"It\" containing a small amount of CGI, with much of Pennywise being Skarsgård and his face: \"The rest ... it's a shape-shifting monster, and I wanted to bring that to the screen, when he's basically trying to throw everything he has at them.\", while signifying the importance of design and execution in the eternal discussion of practical versus CG.\n", "From the 1990s to the present day, there has been a progressive movement from traditional film opticals to an integrated digital film environment, with special effects, cutting, colour grading, and other post-production tasks all sharing the same all-digital infrastructure. The London-based visual effects company Framestore, with Tim Webber the visual effects supervisor, have worked on some of the most technically and artistically challenging projects, including, \"The Dark Knight\" (2008) and \"Gravity\" (2013), with new techniques involved in \"Gravity\" realized by Webber and the Framestore team taking three years to complete.\n" ]	[ "Practical effects would be more effecient to use for movie studios than CGI." ]	[ "CGI overall looks much better than practical effects, therefore despite the cost effectiveness of practical effects. CGI is the better choice." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Practical effects would be more effecient to use for movie studios than CGI.", "Practical effects would be more effecient to use for movie studios than CGI." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "CGI overall looks much better than practical effects, therefore despite the cost effectiveness of practical effects. CGI is the better choice.", "CGI overall looks much better than practical effects, therefore despite the cost effectiveness of practical effects. CGI is the better choice." ]
2018-00473	how do chameleons change their colors?	Firstly, i just want to say that it's a common misconception that they do this to camouflage themselves against a background. In fact, chameleons mostly change color to regulate their temperatures or to signal their intentions to other chameleons. Now to the actual ELI5: The outermost layer of a chameleons skin is transparent, below that layer there are several layers of skin that contain specialized cells called Chromatophores, the Chromatophores at each level is filled with sacs of different pigments. The deepest layer contains melanophores, which are filled with brown melanin (the same pigment that gives human skin its many shades). Atop that layer are cells called iridophores, which have a blue pigment that reflects blue and white light. Layered on top of those cells are the xanthophores and erythrophores, which contain yellow and red pigments, respectively. Normally, the pigments are locked away inside tiny sacs within the cells. But when a chameleon experiences changes in body temperature or mood, its nervous system tells specific chromatophores to expand or contract. This changes the color of the cell. By varying the activity of the different chromatophores in all the layers of the skin, the chameleon can produce a whole variety of colors and patterns. For instance, an excited chameleon might turn red by fully expanding all his erythrophores, blocking out the other colors beneath them. A calm chameleon, on the other hand, might turn green by contracting his erythrophores and allowing some of the blue-reflected light from his iridophores to mix with his layer of somewhat contracted yellow xanthophores. With these layers of cells, some chameleons are capable of producing a dazzling array of reds, pinks, yellows, blues, greens, and browns. These bold statements won't help them blend into the background, but they will allow them to get their message across to other chameleons loud and clear.	[ "Section::::Behavior and ecology.\n\nIt is a common misconception that chameleons of any kind can change color to match any color of their environments. All chameleons have a natural color range with which they are born, and is dictated by their species. It is affected by temperature, mood, and light. If, for example, the color purple is not within the range of colors to which their particular species can change, then they will never turn purple.\n", "Section::::Principles.:Crypsis.:Changeable skin coloration.\n\nAnimals such as chameleon, frog, flatfish such as the peacock flounder, squid and octopus actively change their skin patterns and colours using special chromatophore cells to resemble their current background, or, as in most chameleons, for signalling. However, Smith's dwarf chameleon does use active colour change for camouflage.\n", "Some chameleon and anole species are able to voluntarily change their skin colours. Different chameleon species are able to change different colours which can include pink, blue, red, orange, green, black, brown, light blue, yellow, turquoise and purple. Some species, such as Smith's dwarf chameleon, adjust their colours for camouflage in accordance with the vision of the specific predator species (bird or snake) that they are being threatened by.\n", "Section::::Mechanisms of color production in animals.:Variable coloration by chromatophores.\n", "Colour change in chameleons has functions in camouflage, but most commonly in social signaling and in reactions to temperature and other conditions. The relative importance of these functions varies with the circumstances, as well as the species. Colour change signals a chameleon's physiological condition and intentions to other chameleons. Chameleons tend to show brighter colours when displaying aggression to other chameleons, and darker colours when they submit or \"give up\". Some species, particularly those of Madagascar and some African genera in rainforest habitats, have blue fluorescence in their skull tubercles, deriving from bones and possibly serving a signaling role.\n", "For a long time it was thought that chameleons change colour by dispersion of pigment-containing organelles within their skin. However, research conducted in 2014 on panther chameleons has shown that pigment movement only represents part of the mechanism.\n", "Some species, such as Smith's dwarf chameleon, adjust their colours for camouflage in accordance with the vision of the specific predator species (bird or snake) by which they are being threatened.\n\nThe desert-dwelling Namaqua chameleon also uses colour change as an aid to thermoregulation, becoming black in the cooler morning to absorb heat more efficiently, then a lighter grey colour to reflect light during the heat of the day. It may show both colors at the same time, neatly separated left from right by the spine.\n\nSection::::Change of color.:Mechanism of color change.\n", "Chapters alternate between the stories of the changeling and its various lives over decades; of Russ's attempts to decipher the artifact; and of the chameleon, whose story begins in Eurasia in the Pre-Christian Era. The chameleon \"was always a man, and usually a brute.\" He can change his looks in a moment (unlike the changeling, who needs several minutes and suffers while doing so). The chameleon has often been a soldier, fighting for example with Alexander the Great and as a Masai warrior, though he also lived as farmers and butchers, among others; he suffers as a slave brought from West Africa to the new America, but in later decades makes a vast fortune.\n", "Some animals change color in changing environments seasonally, as in ermine and snowshoe hare, or far more rapidly with chromatophores in their integuments, as in chameleon and cephalopods such as squid.\n", "Section::::Mechanisms of color production in animals.:Coloration by pigments.\n", "There is quite a degree of colour variation, which is probably the main reason for the confusion over species. Some males having orange cheeks, which is why \"orange cheek Pleco\" is another common name found in circulation. This is not made any easier by the fact that the fish will gradually darken if left in a tank with a darker substrate and lighten when kept on a lighter substrate. These changes take some time (hours or days) to effect, they do not happen quickly, so there is no real \"chameleon\" effect here, but no doubt it is a useful survival mechanism.\n", "It's known that animals use their color patterns to warn off predators, however it has been observed that a sponge pigment mimicked a chemical which involved the regulation of moulting of an amphipod that was known to prey on sponges. So whenever that amphipod eats the sponge, the chemical pigments prevents the moulting, and the amphipod eventually dies.\n\nSection::::Pigments in animals.:Pigments in marine animals.:Environmental influence on color.\n", "When gravid, or carrying eggs, females turn dark brown or black with orange striping to signify to males they have no intention of mating. The exact coloration and pattern of gravid females varies depending on the color phase of the chameleon. This provides a way to distinguish between locales.\n", "Section::::Description.\n", "According to the story, Dave the Chameleon learns a number of 'sneaky' skills in PR, making him a master of spin. He changes his name to the more informal 'Dave' and learns that, as a Chameleon, he can change his colours at will. As the narrator says:\n\n\"And Dave the Chameleon changed into every colour of the rainbow, as he told everyone just what he 'thought' they wanted to hear. But underneath it all he was still true blue, through and through.\"\n", "Section::::Reception.:Looking back (after 2000).\n\nPeter Forbes, in his book \"Dazzled and Deceived\", wrote that\n\nOver 60 years after its publication, \"Adaptive Coloration in Animals\" remains a core reference on the subject. Sören Nylin and colleagues observe in a 2001 paper that\n", "Section::::Mechanisms of color production in animals.:Structural coloration.\n", "Each chromatophore contains pigment of only one colour. In fish and frogs, colour change is mediated by the type of chromatophores known as melanophores that contain dark pigment. A melanophore is star-shaped; it contains many small pigmented organelles which can be dispersed throughout the cell, or aggregated near its centre. When the pigmented organelles are dispersed, the cell makes a patch of the animal's skin appear dark; when they are aggregated, most of the cell, and the animal's skin, appears light. In frogs, the change is controlled relatively slowly, mainly by hormones. In fish, the change is controlled by the brain, which sends signals directly to the chromatophores, as well as producing hormones.\n", "Section::::Behaviour.:Reproduction and lifespan.\n", "BULLET::::- Camouflage is the theme running throughout the chapters on the changeling and the chameleon; one of the first things Jack says about himself is that he wears an admiral's uniform for \"protective coloration.\" Unafraid to hide his secrets in plain sight, he talks about extraterrestrials, calls himself a \"total barbarian\" and likes steaks so rare they're blue inside, a hint of his predatory nature, but Russ and Jan, who admit they find him intimidating, are fooled. The changeling, hoping to find others like itself, spends years in a circus and in universities, and investigates humans with biological oddities.\n", "The Namaqua chameleon has evolved several adaptations to cope with desert conditions: they excrete salt from nasal glands to conserve water and dig holes to aid in thermoregulation. They also use their ability to change colour to aid in controlling temperature, becoming black in the cooler morning to absorb heat more efficiently, then a lighter grey color to reflect light during the heat of the day — or showing both colours at the same time, neatly separated left from right by the spine.\n\nSection::::Interspecific relationships.\n\nSection::::Interspecific relationships.:Prey.\n", "A version of Chameleon appeared in \"Friendly Neighborhood Spider-Man\". He has the powers of physically changing into any shape or form after accessing their DNA. This usually involves sampling their blood after killing the subject, although less lethal methods are possible; he was able to change into Sandman after an accidental ingestion of some of his sand.\n", "A recent study using through PCR analysis of genes OPN1SW, OPN1LW, and PDE6C determined that all mammals in the order Xenarthra (representing sloths, anteaters and armadillos) developed rod monochromany through a stem ancestor.\n", "Their colour also differs between species, between genders, and according to mood; for example, a dominant male in display mode is far brighter than when it has been caught, beaten by another male, or otherwise alarmed. Females tend to be less colourful than the males of the species. \n", "Colour varies from brown to green and can be changed like many other kinds of lizards, but anoles are closely related to iguanas and are not true chameleons. Although \"A. carolinensis\" is sometimes called an 'American chameleon', true chameleons do not naturally occur in the Americas, and \"A. carolinensis\" is not the only lizard currently in its area of distribution capable of changing colour. In contrast, many species of true chameleons display a greater range of color adaptation, though some can hardly change color at all.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-09562	How can two consecutive days with visually similar weather conditions (sunny and blue skies) have such different temperatures? (e.g. Monday sunny/25°c, Tuesday sunny/13°c)	Weather doesn't just depend on the cloud cover in a given location. Air movement is important because the air has a temperature, meaning if the wind brings warm air over to you then the weather will be warmer regardless of how sunny it is.	[ "The variation in temperature that occurs from the highs of the day to the cool of nights is called diurnal temperature variation. Temperature ranges can also be based on periods of a month, or a year. \n\nThe size of ground-level atmospheric temperature ranges depends on several factors, such as:\n\nBULLET::::- The average temperature\n\nBULLET::::- The average humidity\n\nBULLET::::- The regime of winds (intensity, duration, variation, temperature, etc.)\n\nBULLET::::- The proximity to large bodies of water, such as the sea\n", "In the absence of such extreme air-mass changes, diurnal temperature variations typically range from 10 or fewer degrees in humid, tropical areas, to 40-50 degrees in higher-elevation, arid to semi-arid areas, such as parts of the U.S. Western states' Intermountain Plateau areas, for example Elko, Nevada, Ashton, Idaho and Burns, Oregon. The higher the humidity is, the lower the diurnal temperature variation is.\n\nSection::::Viticulture.\n", "Some of the places with this climate are indeed uniformly and monotonously wet throughout the year (e.g., the northwest Pacific coast of South and Central America, from Ecuador to Costa Rica; see, for instance, Andagoya, Colombia), but in many cases, the period of higher sun and longer days is distinctly wettest (as at Palembang, Indonesia) or the time of lower sun and shorter days may have more rain (as at Sitiawan, Malaysia).\n", "As solar energy strikes the Earth's surface each morning, a shallow layer of air directly above the ground is heated by conduction. Heat exchange between this shallow layer of warm air and the cooler air above is very inefficient. On a warm summer's day, for example, air temperatures may vary by from just above the ground to waist height. Incoming solar radiation exceeds outgoing heat energy for many hours after noon and equilibrium is usually reached from 3–5 p.m. but this may be affected by a variety of different things such as large bodies of water, soil type and cover, wind, cloud cover/water vapor, and moisture on the ground.\n", "Clearly, the temperature gradient may change substantially in time, as a result of diurnal or seasonal heating and cooling for instance. This most likely happens during an inversion. For instance, during the day the temperature at ground level may be cold while it's warmer up in the atmosphere. As the day shifts over to night the temperature might drop rapidly while at other places on the land stay warmer or cooler at the same elevation. This happens on the West Coast of the United States sometimes due to geography.\n\nSection::::Physical processes.:Weathering.\n", "Diurnal temperature variation\n\nIn meteorology, diurnal temperature variation is the variation between a high temperature and a low temperature that occurs during the same day.\n\nSection::::Temperature lag.\n\nTemperature lag is an important factor in diurnal temperature variation: peak daily temperature generally occurs \"after\" noon, as air keeps net absorbing heat even after noon, and similarly minimum daily temperature generally occurs substantially after midnight, indeed occurring during early morning in the hour around dawn, since heat is lost all night long. The analogous annual phenomenon is seasonal lag.\n", "The first weather derivative deal was in July 1996 when Aquila Energy structured a dual-commodity hedge for Consolidated Edison (ConEd). The transaction involved ConEd's purchase of electric power from Aquila for the month of August. The price of the power was agreed, and a weather clause was embedded into the contract. This clause stipulated that Aquila would pay ConEd a rebate if August turned out to be cooler than expected. The measurement of this was referenced to Cooling Degree Days (CDDs) measured at New York City's Central Park weather station. If total CDDs were from 0 to 10% below the expected 320, the company received no discount to the power price, but if total CDDs were 11 to 20% below normal, ConEd would receive a $16,000 discount. Other discounted levels were worked in for even greater departures from normal.\n", "BULLET::::- polar-continental air masses, cold and dry in winter, hot and dry in summer; arisen from east and northeast;\n\nBULLET::::- arctic-maritime air masses pervade from North Atlantic Ocean, within the pale of polar circulation. Determine frosty weather and relatively wet in winter, and in spring and autumn frosts;\n\nBULLET::::- tropical-maritime air masses, that pervade from the south and southwest, determine during the winter mists and heavy snow falls, and in summer determine atmospheric instability;\n", "However, if failures occur mostly on weekends, many uniform-distribution tests such as K-S and Kuiper would miss this, since weekends are spread throughout the year. This inability to distinguish distributions with a comb-like shape from continuous uniform distributions is a key problem with all statistics based on a variant of the K-S test. Kuiper's test, applied to the event times modulo one week, is able to detect such a pattern. Using event times that have been modulated with the K-S test can result in different results depending on how the data is phased. In this example, the K-S test may detect the non-uniformity the data is set to start the week on Saturday, but fail to detect the non-uniformity if the week starts on Wednesday.\n", "The UHI can be defined as either the air temperature difference (the canopy UHI) or the surface temperature difference (surface UHI) between the urban and the rural area. These two show slightly different diurnal and seasonal variability and have different causes \n\nSection::::Diurnal behavior.\n", "BULLET::::- Sofia, Bulgaria\n\nBULLET::::- Springfield, Oregon (Willamette Valley)\n\nBULLET::::- Sydney, Australia\n\nBULLET::::- Tabriz, Iran\n\nBULLET::::- Vancouver, Canada\n\nBULLET::::- Venice, Italy\n\nBULLET::::- Vienna, Austria\n\nBULLET::::- Wilsonville, Oregon, United States (Willamette Valley)\n\nBULLET::::- Woodburn, Oregon, United States (Willamette Valley)\n", "In the United States, a simplified method is used to calculate both heating and cooling degree days. The mean (that is, ) daily temperature in Fahrenheit and a nominal temperature of are used. If the mean daily temperature is 65 °F, no degree days are counted. If the mean daily temperature is below 65 °F, the mean degrees Fahrenheit below 65 °F are counted as the heating degree day. If the mean daily temperature is above 65 °F, the mean degrees Fahrenheit above 65 °F are counted as the cooling degree day. The heating and cooling degree days are tallied separately to calculate monthly, seasonal, and yearly total heating and cooling degree days. Heating and cooling degree days closely correlate with heating and cooling demand.\n", "BULLET::::- McMinnville, Oregon, United States (Willamette Valley)\n\nBULLET::::- Medford, Oregon, United States (Rogue Valley)\n\nBULLET::::- Meridian, Idaho, United States\n\nBULLET::::- Ogden, Utah, United States\n\nBULLET::::- Oslo, Norway\n\nBULLET::::- Phoenix, United States\n\nBULLET::::- Portland, Oregon, United States (Willamette Valley)\n\nBULLET::::- Prague, Czech Republic\n\nBULLET::::- Preston, Idaho, United States (Cache Valley)\n\nBULLET::::- Provo, Utah, United States (Utah Valley)\n\nBULLET::::- Rapid City, United States\n\nBULLET::::- Roseburg, Oregon, United States Umpqua River Valley\n\nBULLET::::- Salem, Oregon, United States (Willamette Valley)\n\nBULLET::::- Salt Lake City, Utah, United States (Salt Lake Valley)\n\nBULLET::::- Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina\n\nBULLET::::- Seattle, United States\n\nBULLET::::- Skopje, Republic of Macedonia\n", "By looking at the difference time series, the year-to-year variability of the climate is removed, as well as regional climatic trends. In such a difference time series, a clear and persistent jump of, for example 1 °C, can easily be detected and can only be due to changes in the measurement conditions.\n", "Section::::Mesoscale features.:Sea and land breeze fronts.\n\nSea breeze fronts occur on sunny days when the landmass warms the air above it to a temperature above the water temperature. Similar boundaries from downwind on lakes and rivers during the day, as well as offshore landmasses at night. Since the specific heat of water is so high, there is little diurnal temperature change in bodies of water, even on the sunniest days. The water temperature varies less than . By contrast, the land, with a lower specific heat, can vary several degrees in a matter of hours.\n", "BULLET::::- Corvallis, Oregon, United States (Willamette Valley)\n\nBULLET::::- Decatur, Alabama, United States (Tennessee River Valley)\n\nBULLET::::- Denver, United States\n\nBULLET::::- Donora, Pennsylvania\n\nBULLET::::- Dunedin, New Zealand\n\nBULLET::::- Eugene, Oregon, United States (Willamette Valley)\n\nBULLET::::- Fairbanks, Alaska, United States\n\nBULLET::::- Grants Pass, Oregon, United States (Rogue Valley)\n\nBULLET::::- Hillsboro, Oregon, United States (Willamette Valley)\n\nBULLET::::- Hoover, Alabama, United States\n\nBULLET::::- Huntsville, Alabama, United States (Tennessee River Valley)\n\nBULLET::::- Keizer, Oregon, United States (Willamette Valley)\n\nBULLET::::- Launceston, Tasmania, Australia\n\nBULLET::::- Ljubljana, Slovenia\n\nBULLET::::- Logan, Utah, United States (Cache Valley)\n\nBULLET::::- Maggie Valley, North Carolina, United States\n", "Sometimes \"As\" is used in place of \"Aw\" if the dry season occurs during the time of higher sun and longer days (during summer). This is the case in parts of Hawaii, northwestern Dominican Republic, East Africa, and the Brazilian Northeastern Coast. In most places that have tropical wet and dry climates, however, the dry season occurs during the time of lower sun and shorter days because of rain shadow effects during the 'high-sun' part of the year.\n\nExamples\n\nBULLET::::- Lihue, Hawaii, United States (\"As\")\n\nBULLET::::- Lanai City, Hawaii, United States (\"As\")\n\nBULLET::::- Monte Cristi, Dominican Republic (\"As\")\n", "Antecedent moisture conditions are highly affected by preceding rainfall levels. However, preceding rainfall is not the only condition that affects antecedent moisture, and many other variables in the hydrologic process can have a significant impact. For example, air temperature, wind speed, and humidity levels affect evaporation rates, which can significantly change antecedent moisture conditions. Additional effects may include evapotranspiration, presence or absence of tree canopy, and snow and ice melting effects.\n\nSection::::Traditional analysis approaches.\n", "Differences in air temperature between different locations are critical in weather forecasting and climate. The absorption of solar light at or near the planetary surface increases the temperature gradient and may result in convection (a major process of cloud formation, often associated with precipitation). \n\nMeteorological fronts are regions where the horizontal temperature gradient may reach relatively high values, as these are boundaries between air masses with rather distinct properties.\n", "In Campinas, for example, the daily temperature range in July (the coolest month of the year) may vary between typically 10 and 24 degrees Celsius (range of 14), while in January, it may range between 20 and 30 degrees Celsius (range of 10).\n", "A cyclostationary process can be viewed as multiple interleaved stationary processes. For example, the maximum daily temperature in New York City can be modeled as a cyclostationary process: the maximum temperature on July 21 is statistically different from the temperature on December 20; however, it is a reasonable approximation that the temperature on December 20 of different years has identical statistics. Thus, we can view the random process composed of daily maximum temperatures as 365 interleaved stationary processes, each of which takes on a new value once per year.\n\nSection::::Definition.\n", "Other climate factors such as wind, humidity, atmospheric pressure, sunlight as well as diurnal temperature variations which can define different climate categories, can also have pronounced influences on the viticulture of an area.\n\nSection::::Mediterranean climates.\n", "For many years insects and weeds were simply assumed to emerge in the early spring based on only average temperatures of the different areas. If unseasonable temperatures occurred especially extended winter conditions and/or snow the emergence of either would vary considerably. Each weed or insect, is based on studies of how many warm days they need to emerge so each month a total of 50 degree days are totaled and compared to how many are needed for each.\n", "A study at Brown University found accentuation effects happened when participants were asked to estimate average temperatures in days throughout the year. Typically, four days in a month were used, i.e., September 2, 10, 18, and 28, and the average high and low temperatures were estimated for each day. Results of this study found that when estimating the temperature, there was more of a jump in temperature estimates between months as opposed to estimates within months. Even though the temperature rises and falls fairly steadily with each passing day through the year, participants assume there is more of a drop in temperature, for example, between August 25 and September 2 than there is between September 2 and September 10, based entirely on the idea that August is warmer than September. .\n", "In addition to temperature, the amount of rainfall (and the need for supplemental irrigation) is another defining characteristics. On average, a grapevine needs around of water for sustenance during the growing season, not all of which may be provided by natural rain fall. In Mediterranean and many continental climates, the climate during the growing season may be quite dry and require additional irrigation. In contrast, maritime climates often suffer the opposite extreme of having too much rainfall during the growing season which poses its own viticultural hazards.\n" ]	[ "Temperature depends mostly on visual weather conditions. " ]	[ "Temperature depends on air movement more than cloud cover." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Temperature depends mostly on visual weather conditions. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Temperature depends on air movement more than cloud cover." ]
2018-06536	What happens to dust particles that get in to the eyes and lungs?	If they truly get deep into your lungs, they may become trapped there, but that's a relatively hard place to reach. Most are caught before then in mucus lining your airways. Tiny moving cilia work in concert to gradually move this mucus towards your throat, where you either swallow it or cough it out. Dust in your eyes is flushed out with tears, either onto the face if the irritation (And the crying) is great enough, or by draining into your nasolacrimal duct into the back of your nose/throat.	[ "Acute incidence rates for nasal, eye, and throat irritation, and coughing and breathlessness were found to be associated with increased exposure levels of both exposure indices. Steeper exposure-response slopes were seen when short term exposure concentrations were used. Results from multivariate logistic regression analysis suggest that current smokers tended to be less sensitive to the exposure to airborne sodium borate dust.\n\nSeveral actions can be taken to prevent eye irritation—\n", "Respiratory function may worsen to the point where hypoxia occurs, and damage to the airways may lead to non-cardiogenic pulmonary edema one to three days post exposure.\n\nLaboratory investigations may show a raised white cell (and specifically neutrophil) count, while a chest X-ray is often normal or shows minimal interstitial infiltration.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Section::::Production.\n", "Presently, AIDS presents a problem. Although it is difficult to contract it by a single puncture incident (the overall personal risk has been estimated to be 0.11%), at least one case has been reported among pathologists.\n\nThe continuous respiratory exposure to formaldehyde, used to preserve cadavers, is also an occupational risk of prosectors as well as medical students, anatomists and pathologists. Inhaled formaldehyde can irritate the eyes and mucous membranes, resulting in watery eyes, headache, a burning sensation in the throat, and difficulty breathing. Formaldehyde is listed as a potential human carcinogen.\n\nSection::::Famous prosectors.\n\nBULLET::::- Jean Zuléma Amussat\n", "Social realist artist Noel Counihan depicted men who worked in industrial mines in Australia in the 1940s dying of silicosis in his series of six prints, 'The miners' (1947 linocuts).\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.:Desert lung disease.\n", "Section::::Release and reception.\n", "Particles which precipitate in the vicinity of the mouth and eyes, and get into the organism, are defined as the inhalable fraction, that is total dust. Smaller fractions, penetrating into the non-cartilage respiratory tract, are defined as respirable dust. Dust emitted in the wood industry is characterized by the dimensional disintegration of particles up to 5 μm, and that\n\nis why they precipitate mostly in the nasal cavity, increasing the risk of cancer of the upper respiratory tract.\n\nSection::::Health hazards.:Exposure.\n", "Prolonged and unprotected exposure of the respiratory system in a dust storm can also cause silicosis, which, if left untreated, will lead to asphyxiation; silicosis is an incurable condition that may also lead to lung cancer. There is also the danger of keratoconjunctivitis sicca (\"dry eyes\") which, in severe cases without immediate and proper treatment, can lead to blindness.\n\nSection::::Physical and environmental effects.:Economic impact.\n", "Various dust sampling methods exist that are internationally recognised. Inhalable dust is determined using the modern equivalent of the Institute of Occupational Medicine (IOM) MRE 113A monitor (see section on workplace exposure, measurement & modelling). Inhalable dust is considered to be dust of less than 100 micrometers aerodynamic equivalent diameter (AED) that enters through the nose and or mouth. See Lungs\n", "During various mining processes in which rock/minerals are broken up and collected for processing, mineral dusts are created and become airborne. Inhalation of these dusts can lead to various respiratory illnesses, depending on the dust type (e.g. coal, silica, etc.), size of the dust particulates, and exposure duration.\n\nSection::::Occupations and Dust Hazards.:Forestry.\n", "When small silica dust particles are inhaled, they can embed themselves deeply into the tiny alveolar sacs and ducts in the lungs, where oxygen and carbon dioxide gases are exchanged. There, the lungs cannot clear out the dust by mucous or coughing.\n", "Section::::Later recordings.:1930s–1950s.:The Platters version.\n", "Ferrovanadium dust is a mild irritant that affects the eyes when touched by contaminated skin and the respiratory tract when inhaled. The dust caused chronic bronchitis and pneumonitis in animals exposed to high concentration (1000–2000 mg/m) at intervals for two months. However, no such long-term effects have been observed in humans.\n\nSection::::Toxicology.:Occupational Exposure.\n", "The prognosis for the casualties depends on the degree of the pulmonary damage. All exposed individuals should be kept under observation for 8 hours. Most affected individuals recover within several days, with some symptoms persisting for up to 1–2 weeks. Severe cases can suffer of reduced pulmonary function for some months, the worst cases developing marked dyspnea and cyanosis leading to death.\n\nRespirators are required for people coming into contact with the zinc chloride smoke.\n\nSection::::Chemicals used.:Chlorosulfuric acid.\n", "Prediction of the location of particle deposition into the respiratory tract depends on the size and type of particle. Coarse particles, originating from natural sources such as dust, sand and gravel, tend to deposit in the nasal-pharyngeal region. Fine particles, derived from anthropogenic sources such as fossil fuels and smoking, typically deposit in the pulmonary region. Most gas exchange occurs in the pulmonary region due to the alveoli, which contain a large surface area.\n\nSection::::Health impacts of particulate pollutants.\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.\n\nDiagnosis is first done through the inspection of the swollen mucosa in the mouth and visible airways. Any inspection of the lung stays nonetheless unapparent.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nThe illness is generally self-limiting. Management on the whole is preventive, by limiting exposure to mouldy environments with ventilation, or by wearing respiratory protection such as facemasks.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Dust pneumonia\n\nDust pneumonia describes disorders caused by excessive exposure to dust storms, particularly during the Dust Bowl in the United States. A form of pneumonia, dust pneumonia results when the lungs are filled with dust, inflaming the alveoli. \n\nSymptoms of dust pneumonia include high fever, chest pain, difficulty in breathing, and coughing. With dust pneumonia, dust settles all the way into the alveoli of the lungs, stopping the cilia from moving and preventing the lungs from ever clearing themselves.\n", "In a study conducted by UCLA, the frequency of reported symptoms in industrial buildings was investigated. The study's results were that eye irritation was the most frequent symptom in industrial building spaces, at 81%. Modern office work with use of office equipment has raised concerns about possible adverse health effects. Since the 1970s, reports have linked mucosal, skin, and general symptoms to work with self-copying paper. Emission of various particulate and volatile substances has been suggested as specific causes. These symptoms have been related to sick building syndrome (SBS), which involves symptoms such as irritation to the eyes, skin, and upper airways, headache and fatigue.\n", "The vascular disease in cats that occurs when the L larvae invade the pulmonary arteries is more severe than in dogs. A syndrome related to this inflammatory reaction has been identified in cats: heartworm-associated respiratory disease, which can occur three to four months after the initial infection, and is caused by the presence of the L larvae in the vessels. The subsequent inflammation of the pulmonary vasculature and lungs can be easily misdiagnosed as feline asthma or allergic bronchitis.\n", "For skin or eye exposure, the affected area is flushed with saline. For inhalation, oxygen is administered, bronchodilators may be administered, and if there are signs of methemoglobinemia, a condition that arises when nitrogen-based compounds affect the hemoglobin in red blood cells, methylene blue may be administered.\n\nIt is classified as an extremely hazardous substance in the United States as defined in Section 302 of the U.S. Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (42 U.S.C. 11002), and it is subject to strict reporting requirements by facilities which produce, store, or use it in significant quantities.\n\nSection::::Health effects of exposure.\n", "In analogy, the inhalable dust fraction is the fraction of dust entering nose and mouth which may be deposited anywhere in the respiratory tract. The thoracic fraction is the fraction that enters the thorax and is deposited within the lung's airways. The respirable fraction is what is deposited in the gas exchange regions (alveoli).\n", "Inhalation exposure is the most common route of exposure to airborne particles in the workplace. The deposition of nanoparticles in the respiratory tract is determined by the shape and size of particles or their agglomerates, and they are deposited in the alveolar compartment to a greater extent than larger respirable particles. Based on animal studies, nanoparticles may enter the bloodstream from the lungs and translocate to other organs, including the brain. The inhalation risk is affected by the dustiness of the material, the tendency of particles to become airborne in response to a stimulus. Dust generation is affected by the particle shape, size, bulk density, and inherent electrostatic forces, and whether the nanomaterial is a dry powder or incorporated into a slurry or liquid suspension.\n", "The deposition of particulate pollutants into the lungs is necessary before the particles can travel through the mucus into the lung tissue. There are four mechanisms of deposition: interception, impaction, gravitational settling, and Brownian diffusion. Interception happens when a particle is removed after brushing up against an obstacle. Impaction happens when the particle collides into the surface of the respiratory tract due to the high inertia. Gravitational settling is influenced by the force of gravity which causes the particle to settle on the respiratory tract. Brownian motion causes the random collision of gas molecules against the particle, until the particle goes into the respiratory tract.\n", "Respirable dust is sampled using a cyclone dust sampler design to sample for a specific fraction of dust AED at a set flow rate. The respirable dust fraction is dust that enters the 'deep lung' and is considered to be less than 10 micrometers AED.\n", "Protective measures such as respirators have brought a steady decline in death rates due to silicosis in Western countries. However, this is not true of less developed countries where work conditions are poor and respiratory equipment is seldom used. For instance, life expectancy for silver miners in Potosí, Bolivia is around 40 years due to silicosis.\n\nRecently, silicosis in Turkish denim sandblasters was detected as a new cause of silicosis due to recurring, poor working conditions.\n\nSilicosis is seen in horses associated with inhalation of dust from certain cristobalite-containing soils in California.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-05704	Why diesel engine cannot run on petrol?	Diesel engines ignite the fuel with a different process than petrol. In a diesel engine, it's the compression of the fuel above a certain pressure that causes a spontaneous ignition. Normal petrol is formulated to resist that effect, because engines designed for it use spark plugs to create electrical arcs that ignite the fuel. Putting one into the other would cause either nothing to happen (diesel would not even start), or would potentially damage the engine because the fuel would ignite when it's not supposed to.	[ "The viscosity requirement of diesel fuel is usually specified at 40 °C. A disadvantage of diesel as a vehicle fuel in cold climates is that its viscosity increases as the temperature decreases, changing it into a gel (see Compression Ignition – Gelling) that cannot flow in fuel systems. Special low-temperature diesel contains additives to keep it liquid at lower temperatures, but starting a diesel engine in very cold weather may still pose considerable difficulties. Another disadvantage of diesel engines compared to petrol/gasoline engines is the possibility of diesel engine runaway failure. Since diesel engines do not need spark ignition, they can run as long as diesel fuel is supplied. Fuel is typically supplied via a fuel pump. If the pump breaks down in an open position, the supply of fuel will be unrestricted, and the engine will run away and risk terminal failure.\n", "Diesel–electric propulsion has been tried on some military vehicles, such as tanks. The prototype TOG1 and TOG2 super heavy tanks of the Second World War used twin generators driven by V12 diesel engines. More recent prototypes include the SEP modular armoured vehicle and T95e. Future tanks may use diesel–electric drives to improve fuel efficiency while reducing the size, weight and noise of the power plant. Attempts with diesel–electric drives on wheeled military vehicles include the unsuccessful ACEC Cobra, MGV, and XM1219 Armed Robotic Vehicle.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Petrol-electric transmission\n\nBULLET::::- Turbine-electric transmission\n\nBULLET::::- DC distribution system (ship propulsion)\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "In more rural situations, or for low load factor plant, diesel fuel derived from crude oil is a common fuel; it is less likely to freeze than heavier oils. Endurance will be limited by tank size. Diesel engines can work with the full spectrum of crude oil distillates, from natural gas, alcohols, gasoline, wood gas to the \"fuel oils\" from diesel oil to cheaper residual fuels that are like lard at room temperature, and must be heated to enable them to flow down a fuel line. \n", "BULLET::::- Biodiesel is an easily synthesised, non-petroleum-based fuel (through transesterification) which can run directly in many diesel engines, while gasoline engines either need adaptation to run synthetic fuels or else use them as an additive to gasoline (e.g., ethanol added to gasohol).\n", "Gasoline engines that are much smaller than the typical automotive engine are usually carbureted for economic and engineering reasons. Dieseling can occur in such engines. These engines include those installed in small generators, mopeds, scooters, small motorcycles, all-terrain vehicles, and most lawn and garden power tools.\n\nSection::::Potential causes.\n\nDieseling can occur for several reasons:\n", "Section::::Uses.:Military vehicles.\n\nArmored fighting vehicles use diesel because of its lower flammability risks and the engines' higher provision of torque and lower likelihood of stalling.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Cars.\n", "Unlike gasoline and liquefied petroleum gas engines, diesel engines do not use high-voltage spark ignition (spark plugs). An engine running on diesel compresses the air inside the cylinder to high pressures and temperatures (compression ratios from 14:1 to 18:1 are common in current diesel engines); the engine generally injects the diesel fuel directly into the cylinder, starting a few degrees before top dead center (TDC) and continuing during the combustion event. The high temperatures inside the cylinder cause the diesel fuel to react with the oxygen in the mix (burn or oxidize), heating and expanding the burning mixture to convert the thermal/pressure difference into mechanical work, i.e., to move the piston. Engines have glow plugs and grid heaters to help start the engine by preheating the cylinders to a minimum operating temperature. Diesel engines are lean burn engines, burning the fuel in more air than is needed for the chemical reaction. They thus use less fuel than rich burn spark ignition engines which use a stoichiometric air-fuel ratio (just enough air to react with the fuel). As Professor Harvey of the University of Toronto notes, \"due to the absence of throttling [constant amount of air admitted, per unit fuel, with no user-determined variation], and the high compression ratio and lean fuel mixture, diesel engines are substantially more efficient than spark-ignited engines\", generally; Harvey cites the side-by-side comparisons of Schipper et al. and the estimates of 20% lower fuel use and (given differences in energy content between fuel types) 15% lower energy use. Gas turbine and some other types of internal combustion engines, and external combustion engine, both can also be designed to take diesel fuel.\n", "Larger engines (from about 3 MWe to 30 MWe) sometimes use heavy oils, essentially tars, derived from the end of the refining process. The slight added complexity of keeping the fuel oil heated to enable it to flow, whilst mitigating the fire risks that come from over-heating fuel, make these fuels unpopular for smaller, often unmanned, generating stations.\n\nOther possible fuels include: biodiesel, straight vegetable oil, animal fats and tallows, glycerine, and coal-water slurry. These should be used with caution and due to the composistion, normally have a detrimental effect on engine life.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Diesel engines can accept super- or turbocharging pressure without any natural limit, constrained only by the design and operating limits of engine components, such as pressure, speed and load. This is unlike petrol engines, which inevitably suffer detonation at higher pressure if engine tuning and/or fuel octane adjustments are not made to compensate.\n\nSection::::Fuel injection.\n", "Conventional diesel flash points vary between 52 and 96 °C, which makes it safer than petrol and unsuitable for spark-ignition engines. Unlike petrol, the flash point of a diesel fuel has no relation to its performance in an engine nor to its auto ignition qualities.\n\nSection::::Hazards.\n\nSection::::Hazards.:NO.\n", "In Turkey, Diesel vehicles are usually not converted to LPG because of unsuccessful applications in the past. For that reason, installations are often not made to light and heavy weight trucks, tractors, bus and mini-buses and motorcycles, because the owners of conversion workshops are fearful of the risks.\n", "Section::::Causes of infeasibility.\n", "Dieseling is not nearly as common as it once was, because it most commonly occurs in engines equipped with carburetors. The vast majority of vehicles manufactured after 1987 are fuel-injected: the injectors and high-pressure fuel pump immediately cease supplying fuel to the cylinders when the ignition is switched off. If the injector is damaged or dirty, a small amount of fuel can enter the chamber and be ignited, causing a sputter or two after the engine is switched off.\n", "Some carbureted engines have low-pressure fuel pumps: they are typically designed only to overcome a loss of suction in the fuel line near the engine due to fuel evaporation in hot weather, to supply sufficient fuel to maintain stoichiometric combustion under heavy load with wide-open throttle, or a combination of the two. Fuel demand is low at idle and there is more than enough manifold vacuum to draw sufficient fuel for combustion, even if the fuel pump is switched off.\n", "The full load limit of a diesel engine in normal service is defined by the \"black smoke limit\", beyond which point the fuel cannot be completely burned. As the \"black smoke limit\" is still considerably lean of stoichiometric, it is possible to obtain more power by exceeding it, but the resultant inefficient combustion means that the extra power comes at the price of reduced combustion efficiency, high fuel consumption and dense clouds of smoke. This is only done in high performance applications where these disadvantages are of little concern.\n", "BULLET::::- Diffusion flame: At combustion, oxygen first has to defuse into the flame, rather than having oxygen and fuel already mixed before combustion, which would result in a premixed flame.\n\nBULLET::::- Fuel with high ignition performance: As diesel engines solely rely on compression ignition, fuel with high ignition performance (cetane rating) is ideal for proper engine operation, fuel with a good knocking resistance (octane rating), e.g. petrol, is suboptimal for diesel engines.\n\nSection::::Operating principle.:Cycle of the diesel engine.\n", "Hybrid motors suffer two major drawbacks. The first, shared with solid rocket motors, is that the casing around the fuel grain must be built to withstand full combustion pressure and often extreme temperatures as well. However, modern composite structures handle this problem well, and when used with nitrous oxide and a solid rubber propellant (HTPB), relatively small percentage of fuel is needed anyway, so the combustion chamber is not especially large.\n", "Section::::Fuel and fluid characteristics.:Fuel types.\n\nIn his 1893 work \"Theory and Construction of a Rational Heat Motor\", Rudolf Diesel considers using coal dust as fuel for the diesel engine. However, Diesel just \"considered\" using coal dust (as well as liquid fuels and gas); his actual engine was designed to operate on petroleum, which was soon replaced with regular petrol and kerosine for further testing purposes, as petroleum proved to be too viscous. In addition to kerosine and petrol, Diesel's engine could also operate on ligroin.\n", "In North America, diesel engines are primarily used in large trucks, where the low-stress, high-efficiency cycle leads to much longer engine life and lower operational costs. These advantages also make the diesel engine ideal for use in the heavy-haul railroad and earthmoving environments.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Other internal combustion engines without spark plugs.\n\nMany model airplanes use very simple \"glow\" and \"diesel\" engines. Glow engines use glow plugs. \"Diesel\" model airplane engines have variable compression ratios. Both types depend on special fuels.\n", "The picture is of a prototype motorcycle.\n\nSection::::Production vehicles.:Royal Enfield.\n", "BULLET::::- They have no high voltage electrical ignition system, resulting in high reliability and easy adaptation to damp environments. The absence of coils, spark plug wires, etc., also eliminates a source of radio frequency emissions which can interfere with navigation and communication equipment, which is especially important in marine and aircraft applications, and for preventing interference with radio telescopes. (For this reason, only diesel-powered vehicles are allowed in parts of the American National Radio Quiet Zone.)\n", "The world's largest diesel engines put in service are 14-cylinder, two-stroke watercraft diesel engines; they produce a peak power of almost 100 MW each.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Diesel's idea.\n", "With traditional gasoline and diesel engines the energy density of the air-fuel mixture is limited because the liquid fuels do not mix well in the cylinder. Further, gasoline and diesel auto-ignite at temperatures and pressures relevant to engine design. An important part of traditional engine design is designing the cylinders, compression ratios, and fuel injectors such that pre-ignition is avoided, but at the same time as much fuel as possible can be injected, become well mixed, and still have time to complete the combustion process during the power stroke.\n", "Compared with a Diesel engine, a regular petrol engine has a lower thermal efficiency. However, in the 1960s, the petrol engine advantages of lower mass, fewer vibrations and less noise emissions, all of which are important for passenger cars, were still prevailing. Low mass and smooth engine operation are also characteristics of the Wankel engine – combining Wankel design with Diesel characteristics would result in an efficient engine with low mass and few vibrations. Making a Wankel engine that can burn Diesel engine fuel, but which does not use the Diesel principle, can be useful if Diesel engine fuel is less expensive than petrol. In a 1974 study conducted for the EPA, it was attempted to determine whether or not a Wankel Diesel engine has a better exhaust behaviour than a regular Otto cycle petrol engine.\n", "Section::::Safety.\n\nSection::::Safety.:Fuel flammability.\n\nDiesel fuel is less flammable than petrol, because its flash point is 55 °C, leading to a lower risk of fire caused by fuel in a vehicle equipped with a diesel engine.\n\nDiesel fuel can create an explosive air/vapour mix under the right conditions. However, compared with petrol, it is less prone due to its lower vapour pressure, which is an indication of evaporation rate. The Material Safety Data Sheet for ultra-low sulfur diesel fuel indicates a vapour explosion hazard for diesel fuel indoors, outdoors, or in sewers.\n\nSection::::Safety.:Cancer.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-17027	How do saves work in video games?	Imagine I had a box that I wanted to be able to use at any time. Due to physical limitations, I can't take the box with me everywhere I go, but, everywhere I go has a 3d printer. If I know the dimensions of the box, I don't need the original, I can just print another one when I get to my destination. The save file is like the dimensions of the box. It contains the parameters necessary to recreate the game as saved.	[ "A video game may allow the user to save at any point of the game, any time, though using it too much may be seen by some as cheating and in such a context referred to as save scumming. There are modified versions of this, too. For example, in the GameCube game \"Eternal Darkness\", the player can save almost anytime, if an enemy is not in the room. To make gaming more engaging, some video games may impose a limit on the number of times a player saves the game. For instance, \"\" allows only a handful of saves in each mission; \"\" imposes this restriction on the highest level of difficulty.\n", "\"Outcast\" uses a unique way to save games, integrated with the game world. At the start of the game, the player receives an object called a \"Gaamsaav\". He is instructed that the Gaamsaav is able to \"capture his essence\", so that it may later be restored. To save a game, the player equips the Gaamsaav and \"squeezes\" it, making it glow and emit a sound. The sound can be heard by enemies and they will investigate, so that the player must take the situation into account before saving a game. After a few seconds, the game pauses and a menu overlay appears.\n", "Section::::Power-Saves.\n\nPower-Saves by Action Replay are a related series of video-game cheat devices. Unlike the main Action Replay series, which cheats by modifying the game code itself, Power-Saves store the game saves created by Datel, allowing users to cheat without modifying the game code being executed. \n\nPower-Saves are available for game systems such as the Wii on an SD card and the Nintendo 3DS.\n\nSection::::Versions for computers.\n\nBULLET::::- Commodore 64\n\nBULLET::::- Action Replay\n\nBULLET::::- Action Replay MK II\n\nBULLET::::- Action Replay MK III\n\nBULLET::::- Action Replay MK IV (1988)\n\nBULLET::::- Action Replay MK V (1989)\n", "BULLET::::- Some PC games and most Xbox games do not record player achievements if they are attained while cheat mode is activated. For example, \"\" turns this barrier into a continuing obstacle if a player saves the game with cheats activated: The game will record that fact in the save file and automatically cause subsequent reloads from the relevant save file to reactivate cheat mode.\n", "Some games employ limits to saving in order to prevent players from using them as a primary means of succeeding in the game. In \"Tomb Raider\" save points are consumed upon use, \"\" charges two banana coins to use a save point more than once, and in \"Resident Evil\" the player must find and expend an ink ribbon for each save.\n", "Checkpoints might be visible or invisible to the player. Visible checkpoints might give a player a sense of security when activated, but in turn sacrifice some immersion, as checkpoints are intrinsically \"gamey\" and might even need an explanation of how they work. Invisible checkpoints do not break immersion but make players unsure of where they will respawn. Usually, if a player does get a game over, then their progress will be lost, and the player would lose all of their checkpoints. \n\nSection::::Types of saved games.:Quick saving.\n", "Some games only permit suspend saves in which the game is automatically saved upon exiting and reloaded upon restarting. The aim of a suspend save is only to allow the gameplay to be temporarily interrupted; as such, suspend saves are erased when the player resumes the game. The act of copying and reusing suspend save files is a form of cheating.\n\nSection::::Types of saved games.:Checkpoints.\n", "Using cover helps the player avoid enemy fire or recover health after taking significant damage. Similar to \"Call of Duty 2\", the edges of the screen turn red and the character's heartbeat will increase in volume, indicating that the player's health is low; it can be replenished through an automatic recovery system when the character is not taking fire.\n\nSection::::Gameplay.:Campaign.\n", "Although save points are typically seen as boons, some games have traps which use this tendency to fool the player. In \"Chrono Trigger\", attempting to use fake save point in Magus's castle can actually bring the party into battle. In \"I Wanna Be The Guy\", one save point is actually an enemy in disguise.\n", "Section::::Modification of runtime game data.:Saved game editors.\n\nEditing a saved game offers an indirect way to modify game data. By modifying a file in persistent storage, it is possible to effectively modify the runtime game data that will be restored when the game attempts to load the save game.\n", "Section::::Save sharing.\n", "BULLET::::- A sin-eater may spend plasm in a 1:1 ratio to negate damage taken. The type and source of damage are irrelevant. Damage negated in this fashion is marked in the health box as a dot. At the end of the scene all dots are converted to bashing. If new damage is taken before the end of the scene, that damage replaces the dots, rather than moving them down. (Note: This is only if the new damage is not negated in the same fashion.) There cannot be more dots than health boxes. If all health boxes have dots in them, any new damage cannot be negated and replaces the dots.\n", "In baseball statistics, the term save is used to indicate the successful maintenance of a lead by a relief pitcher, usually the closer, until the end of the game. A save is a statistic credited to a relief pitcher, as set forth in Rule 9.19 of the Official Rules of Major League Baseball. That rule states the official scorer shall credit a pitcher with a save when such pitcher meets all four of the following conditions:\n\nBULLET::::1. He is the finishing pitcher in a game won by his team;\n\nBULLET::::2. He is not the winning pitcher;\n", "Some games use a hybrid system where both save anywhere and save points are used. For example, \"Final Fantasy VII\" permits saving anywhere when the player is traveling on the world map, but once the player enters a location (e.g. town, cavern or forest), saving is only possible at save points. Additionally, there is one location (called the Northern Crater) in which the player is allowed to deploy one save point in a spot of their choice.\n\nSection::::Types of saved games.\n\nSection::::Types of saved games.:Autosave.\n", "Save (goaltender)\n\nIn several sports with goalkeepers or goaltenders protecting nets or goals, a save is credited to a goaltender that stops the playing object from entering the goal. These sports include football, ice hockey, and lacrosse, among others.\n", "The game also has a so-called \"hero bar\", which will be reduced every second and when it ends, the mission also ends. It can be reduced more quickly when the player gets hurt, but in some missions there are items (such as stars) or conditions to be met to restore the bar.\n\nAfter fulfilling certain requirements, players will unlock a mask. There are 32 masks in all, each one with appearances and status different from each other.\n\nSome raise the hero bar, increase strength, and have a median agility and low defense, for example.\n", "Objects that are entirely behind other opaque objects may be culled. This is a very popular mechanism to speed up the rendering of large scenes that have a moderate to high depth complexity. There are several types of occlusion culling approaches:\n\nBULLET::::- Potentially visible set (\"PVS\") rendering divides a scene into regions and pre-computes visibility for them. These visibility sets are then indexed at run-time to obtain high-quality visibility sets (accounting for complex occluder interactions) quickly.\n\nBULLET::::- Portal rendering divides a scene into cells/sectors (rooms) and portals (doors), and computes which sectors are visible by clipping them against portals.\n", "BULLET::::- Game save exploit: using select official game releases to load game saves that exploit buffer overflows in the save game handling. When these special game saves are loaded, they access an interface with scripts for installing the necessary softmod files. Disassembly of the Xbox is not required when installing most game save exploits.\n", "A large part of the game relies on a revised \"barrier spell.\" All playable characters (and enemies on higher difficulty settings) have the barrier spell available, and at the cost of magic-over-time, it renders a character invincible. Properly timed use of the barrier spell allows a player to reflect projectiles and magic (in a visual effect reminiscent of Mischief Makers' Marina Liteyears throwing a laser or lightning bolt back at its source), or stun enemies who attack in melee.\n", "Save states have started to receive mainstream usage in the early 2010s with Nintendo's Virtual Console. Some Wii U and 3DS Virtual Console titles allow players to save a restore point, which is like a quick save but has no restrictions on reloading. Although likely derived from quick saves, restore points are functionally identical to save states, and can be used for many of the same purposes.\n\nSection::::Presentation.\n", "Depending on the game, a player will have the ability to save the game either at any arbitrary point (usually when the game has been paused), after a specific task has been completed (such as at the end of a level), or at designated areas within the game known as save points.\n\nThe available ways to save a game affect gameplay, and can represent a practice of players or an explicit decision by designers to give the game a particular feel or alter its difficulty.\n\nSection::::Time and location of saving.\n", "An 8 MB removable solid state memory card can be plugged into the controller in a manner similar to that of the Dreamcast's VMU. Game saves can either be copied from the hard drive when in the Xbox dashboard's memory manager or saved during a game whenever the memory card is inserted. Most Xbox game saves can be copied to the memory unit and moved to another console but some Xbox saves are digitally signed; each console has a unique signing key, and some games (e.g. \"Ninja Gaiden\" and \"Dead or Alive Xtreme Beach Volleyball\") will not load saved games signed by a different Xbox, limiting the utility of the memory card. Some game saves can be tagged as uncopyable (like \"\") or simply padded to over 8 MB (\"\"). The signing mechanism has been reverse-engineered by the Xbox hacking community, who have developed tools to modify savegames to work in a different console, though the signing key of the recipient Xbox (the \"HDkey\") and the ramped-up title key of the game (the \"authkey\") must be known. \n", "Game designers often attempt to integrate the save points into the style of the game using skeuomorphism. \"Resident Evil\" represents save points with old fashioned typewriters (which require an ink ribbon item for each save), the \"Grand Theft Auto\" series used representations appropriate to the era of the setting: audio cassettes for the mid-1980s (\"\"), 3½-inch disks for the early-1990s (\"\"), and compact discs for the late-1990s (\"\"). Many RPGs integrate saving into the form of a journal that the characters write into, or auto-save whenever the character stays at an inn or other resting places. \"Undertale\" implements the save game feature into the story of the game, saying that the player's ability to save is based on their \"determination\".\n", "Reloading is done by shooting off screen. The end of each stage contains a boss fight, and all of the bosses have life meters as well. The game also features voice samples. Enemies usually taunt the player by saying: \"Go to Hell!\" (only in the Japanese version), \"I'll kill you!\", \"What do you think of that?!\" and \"Yah!!\". Innocent victims appear and shout: \"Help!\", \"Don't shoot!\" and \"Help me!\", while policemen say: \"Freeze!\" or \"Hands Up!\".\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "Another common method for solving the radiosity equation is \"shooting radiosity,\" which iteratively solves the radiosity equation by \"shooting\" light from the patch with the most energy at each step. After the first pass, only those patches which are in direct line of sight of a light-emitting patch will be illuminated. After the second pass, more patches will become illuminated as the light begins to bounce around the scene. The scene continues to grow brighter and eventually reaches a steady state.\n\nSection::::Mathematical formulation.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03386	When something breaks (like a piece of plastic), why can't you just stick it back together? What was holding it together in the first place?	Plastic is a polymer - at the molecular level, it's a shapeless* blob of very long molecules all clumped together. A decent analogy is a tangled skein of yarn. It's very difficult to untangle it, but if you take some scissors and cut through it, you can't put it back together. This is because the long polymer chains have been physically cut. The two sides don't generally spontaneously reconnect if you put them next to each other - it might require some outside input of energy (like melting them together). *some plastics do have semi-crystalline structures	[ "Section::::Self-healing polymers and elastomers.\n\nIn the last century, polymers became a base material in everyday life for products like plastics, rubbers, films, fibres or paints. This huge demand has forced to extend their reliability and maximum lifetime, and a new design class of polymeric materials that are able to restore their functionality after damage or fatigue was envisaged. These polymer materials can be divided into two different groups based on the approach to the self-healing mechanism: intrinsic or extrinsic.\n", "In mechanical design, most failures are due to time-varying, or dynamic, loads that are applied to a system. This phenomenon is known as fatigue failure. Fatigue is known as the weakness in a material due to variations of stress that are repeatedly applied to said material. For example, when stretching a rubber band to a certain length without breaking it (i.e. not surpassing the yield stress of the rubber band) the rubber band will return to its original form after release; however, repeatedly stretching the rubber band with the same amount of force thousands of times would create micro-cracks in the band which would lead to the rubber band being snapped. The same principle is applied to mechanical materials such as metals.\n", "Crack Growth Approach\n", "When used in materials science, it is generally applied to materials that fail when there is little or no plastic deformation before failure. One proof is to match the broken halves, which should fit exactly since no plastic deformation has occurred.\n", "In extrinsic systems, the healing chemistries are separated from the surrounding polymer in microcapsules or vascular networks, which after material damage/cracking release their content into the crack plane, reacting and allowing the restoration of material functionalities. \n", "Section::::Self-healing polymers and elastomers.:Extrinsic polymer-based systems.:Microcapsule healing.\n\nCapsule-based systems have in common that healing agents are encapsulated into suitable microstructures that rupture upon crack formation and lead to a follow up process in order to restore the materials' properties. If the walls of the capsule are created too thick, they may not fracture when the crack approaches, but if they are too thin, they may rupture prematurely. \n", "Section::::Surface preparation of plastics.:Flame treatment.\n", "Stringing is perhaps the most crucial of these effects, and is often seen on adhesive tapes. Stringing occurs when a separation of two surfaces is beginning and molecules at the interface bridge out across the gap, rather than cracking like the interface itself. The most significant consequence of this effect is the restraint of the crack. By providing the otherwise brittle interfacial bonds with some flexibility, the molecules that are stringing across the gap can stop the crack from propagating. Another way to understand this phenomenon is by comparing it to the stress concentration at the point of failure mentioned earlier. Since the stress is now spread out over some area, the stress at any given point has less of a chance of overwhelming the total adhesive force between the surfaces. If failure does occur at an interface containing a viscoelastic adhesive agent, and a crack does propagate, it happens by a gradual process called “fingering”, rather than a rapid, brittle fracture.\n", "Another highly reactive gas is chlorine, which will attack susceptible polymers such as acetal resin and polybutylene pipework. There have been many examples of such pipes and acetal fittings failing in properties in the US as a result of chlorine-induced cracking. In essence, the gas attacks sensitive parts of the chain molecules (especially secondary, tertiary, or allylic carbon atoms), oxidizing the chains and ultimately causing chain cleavage. The root cause is traces of chlorine in the water supply, added for its anti-bacterial action, attack occurring even at parts per million traces of the dissolved gas. The chlorine attacks weak parts of a product, and in the case of an acetal resin junction in a water supply system, it is the thread roots that were attacked first, causing a brittle crack to grow. Discoloration on the fracture surface was caused by deposition of carbonates from the hard water supply, so the joint had been in a critical state for many months. The problems in the US also occurred to polybutylene pipework, and led to the material being removed from that market, although it is still used elsewhere in the world.\n", "Section::::Recording and release.\n", "A more common and related problem is \"swelling\", where small molecules infiltrate the structure, reducing strength and stiffness and causing a volume change. Conversely, many polymers (notably flexible vinyl) are intentionally swelled with plasticizers, which can be leached out of the structure, causing brittleness or other undesirable changes.\n", "As known, the contact between two surfaces occurs through the interaction between asperities. If a shearing force is applied in the contact area, it may be possible to detach a small part of the weaker material, due to its adhesion to the harder surface. What is described is precisely the mechanism of the adhesive wear represented in the figure. This type of wear is very problematic, since it involves high wear speeds, but at the same time it is possible to reduce adhesion by increasing surface roughness and hardness of the surfaces involved, or by inserting layers of contaminants such as oxygen, oxides, water or oils. In conclusion, the behavior of the adhesive wear volume can be described by means of three main laws\n", "Section::::Next stage – Electronic packaging.\n\nThe resources and successes with integrated circuits, and a review of some of the drivers of field failures, subsequently motivated the reliability physics community to initiate physics of failure investigations into package-level degradation mechanisms. An extensive amount of work was performed to develop algorithms that could accurately predict the reliability of interconnects. Specific interconnects of interest resided at 1st level (wire bonds, solder bumps, die attach), 2nd level (solder joints), and 3rd level (plated through holes).\n", "BULLET::::- Silicone: The most commonly found adhesive in optical bonding processes that dates back to the 1970s as a solution. Silicone's core properties of low conductivity and chemical reactivity, thermal stability, and ability to repel water and form watertight seals make it a common solution for optical bonding. Also, because it is a soft material, it is very feasible to rework for bonds that become damaged over time. However, debris often forms around the edges of the bonds if they are rubbed during handling. To reduce this, edges of optically bonded displays should be covered or configured so that edges are not exposed.\n", "In a finished product, such a change is to be prevented or delayed. Failure of safety-critical polymer components can cause serious accidents, such as fire in the case of cracked and degraded polymer fuel lines. Chlorine-induced cracking of acetal resin plumbing joints and polybutylene pipes has caused many serious floods in domestic properties, especially in the US in the 1990s. Traces of chlorine in the water supply attacked vulnerable polymers in the plastic plumbing, a problem which occurs faster if any of the parts have been poorly extruded or injection molded. Attack of the acetal joint occurred because of faulty molding, leading to cracking along the threads of the fitting which is a serious stress concentration.\n", "BULLET::::- Once separated from the other chains, the polymers align, thus allowing embrittlement.\n\nESC generally occurs at the surface of a plastic and doesn't require the secondary chemical agent to penetrate the material significantly, which leaves the bulk properties unmodified. \n", "Billy Bunter is glued into a chair with seccotine in The Magnet #100 (1910).\n\nIn the C.S. Lewis novel \"That Hideous Strength\" (1945) a character is described as having a cigarette \"seccotined\" to her lip.\n\nIn the E. Nesbit novel \"The Story of the Amulet\" (1906) a broken saucer would never be the same again even if bits were joined \"with Seccotine or the white of an egg.\"\n", "In addition, conventional rubber undergoes a glass transition (often called a \"rubber-glass transition\"). E.g. The Space Shuttle \"Challenger\" disaster was caused by rubber O-rings that were being used well below their glass transition temperature on an unusually cold Florida morning, and thus could not flex adequately to form proper seals between sections of the two solid-fuel rocket boosters.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Materials science.:Sol-gel.\n", "One of the worst disasters caused by stress corrosion cracking was the fall of the Silver Bridge, WV in 1967, when a single brittle crack formed by rusting grew to criticality. The crack was on one of the tie bar links of one of the suspension chains, and the whole joint failed quickly by overload. The event escalated and the whole bridge disappeared in less than a minute, killing 46 drivers or passengers on the bridge at the time.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Forensic engineering\n\nBULLET::::- Environmental Stress Cracking\n\nBULLET::::- Fracture Mechanics\n\nBULLET::::- Stress Corrosion Cracking\n\nBULLET::::- Structural failure\n\nSection::::References.\n", "Cross-links are the characteristic property of thermosetting plastic materials. In most cases, cross-linking is irreversible, and the resulting thermosetting material will degrade or burn if heated, without melting. Especially in the case of commercially used plastics, once a substance is cross-linked, the product is very hard or impossible to recycle. In some cases, though, if the cross-link bonds are sufficiently different, chemically, from the bonds forming the polymers, the process can be reversed. Permanent wave solutions, for example, break and re-form naturally occurring cross-links (disulfide bonds) between protein chains in hair.\n\nSection::::Polymer chemistry.:Physical cross-links.\n", "Some types of mechanical failure mechanisms are: excessive deflection, buckling, ductile fracture, brittle fracture, impact, creep, relaxation, thermal shock, wear, corrosion, stress corrosion cracking, and various types of fatigue. Each produces a different type of fracture surface, and other indicators near the fracture surface(s). The way the product is loaded, and the loading history are also important factors which determine the outcome. Of critical importance is design geometry because stress concentrations can magnify the applied load locally to very high levels, and from which cracks usually grow.\n", "Although the most common types of self-healing materials are polymers or elastomers, self-healing covers all classes of materials, including metals, ceramics, and cementitious materials. Healing mechanisms vary from an instrinsic repair of the material to the addition of a repair agent contained in a microscopic vessel. For a material to be strictly defined as autonomously self-healing, it is necessary that the healing process occurs without human intervention. Self-healing polymers may, however, activate in response to an external stimulus (light, temperature change, etc.) to initiate the healing process.\n", "Hysteresis heating and Chain scission\n", "Brittleness\n\nA material is brittle if, when subjected to stress, it breaks without significant plastic deformation. Brittle materials absorb relatively little energy prior to fracture, even those of high strength. Breaking is often accompanied by a snapping sound. Brittle materials include most ceramics and glasses (which do not deform plastically) and some polymers, such as PMMA and polystyrene. Many steels become brittle at low temperatures (see ductile-brittle transition temperature), depending on their composition and processing.\n", "Fracture in polymers\n\nPolymer fracture is the study of the fracture surface of an already failed material to determine the method of crack formation and extension in polymers both fiber reinforced and otherwise. Failure in polymer components can occur at relatively low stress levels, far below the tensile strength because of four major reasons: long term stress or creep rupture, cyclic stresses or fatigue, the presence of structural flaws and stress-cracking agents.\n" ]	[ "Should be able to stick plastic back together.", "Once plastic is broken in half it should be able to be put back together." ]	[ "The polymer chains in the plastic have been broken and do not just recombine. It would require energy to be added. ", "When plastic is broken, the polymer chains that kept it together have been broken, therefore it cannot be put back together. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Should be able to stick plastic back together.", "Once plastic is broken in half it should be able to be put back together." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "The polymer chains in the plastic have been broken and do not just recombine. It would require energy to be added. ", "When plastic is broken, the polymer chains that kept it together have been broken, therefore it cannot be put back together. " ]
2018-23158	Why is stepping on certain material makes more sound than others?	Well, metal carries vibrations more than a simple rock. Sounds occurs when the air around your ears is vibrated. So stepping on metal (especially if it's hallow) just vibrates the air around it at a higher magnitude. But I could be wrong.	[ "BULLET::::- Chemical engineering. The chemical properties of the powder or substance to be debonded. Especially the auto adhesive properties of the powder.\n", "Though he was inspired by Drobner, Penderecki’s timbre system goes another step further, in which “it is of no importance whether metal, wood, and leather are represented by a vibrator or by an inciter, both colliding bodies being of equal weight as primary materials.” This means that “if a given body can be a sound source—that is, if it is made of one of the three materials capable of performing this function (m, w, l) --then it becomes a sound source regardless of whether it is hit, rubbed or plucked or itself hits, rubs or plucks.”\n", "Basses do not always require stoppers, being heavier and usually played in a more vertical orientation than a cello. However, bassists often use rockstops when sitting on a stool or when playing on high-glossed floors or uneven surfaces.\n\nSection::::Endpins and flooring.\n", "In reinforced concretes intact regions will sound solid whereas delaminated areas will sound hollow. Tap testing large concrete structures is carried about either with a hammer or with a chain dragging device for horizontal surfaces like bridge decks. Bridge decks in cold climate countries which use de-icing salts and chemicals are commonly subject to delamination and as such are typically scheduled for annual inspection by chain-dragging as well as subsequent patch repairs of the surface.\n\nSection::::Delamination Resistance Testing Methods.\n\nSection::::Delamination Resistance Testing Methods.:Coating Delamination Tests.\n", "BULLET::::- 112.2 Scraped Idiophones – The player causes a scraping movement directly or indirectly; a non-sonorous object moves along the notched surface of a sonorous object, to be alternately lifted off the teeth and flicked against them; or an elastic sonorous object moves along the surface of a notched non-sonorous object to cause a series of impacts (this group must not be confused with that of friction idiophone\n\nBULLET::::- 12 Plucked idiophones such as the jew's harp\n\nBULLET::::- 13 Friction idiophones such as Rub rods\n\nBULLET::::- 2 Membranophones\n", "Indirectly stuck idiophones produce sound resulting from an indirect action of the performer as opposed to the directly struck idiophones. The player himself does not go through the movement of striking; percussion results indirectly through some other movement by the player. This category is divided in two main sub-categories: shaken idiophones and scraped idiophones.\n\nSection::::Indirectly struck (112).:Shaken idiophones or rattles (112.1).\n\nThe player makes a shaking motion\n\n112.11 Suspension rattles - Perforated idiophones are mounted together, and shaken to strike against each other.\n\n112.111 Strung rattles - Rattling objects are strung in rows on a cord.\n", "The composer Alvin Lucier has written many pieces that feature interference beats as their main focus. Italian composer Giacinto Scelsi, whose style is grounded on microtonal oscillations of unisons, extensively explored the textural effects of interference beats, particularly in his late works such as the violin solos \"Xnoybis\" (1964) and \"L'âme ailée / L'âme ouverte\" (1973), which feature them prominently (note that Scelsi treated and notated each string of the instrument as a separate part, so that his violin solos are effectively quartets of one-strings, where different strings of the violin may be simultaneously playing the same note with microtonal shifts, so that the interference patterns are generated). Composer Phill Niblock's music is entirely based on beating caused by microtonal differences.\n", "Laser scanning vibrometry is an essential tool for effective NVH optimization. The vibrational characteristics of a sample is acquired full field under operational or excited conditions. The results represent the actual vibrations. No added mass is influencing the measurement, as the sensor is light itself.\n\nSection::::Investigative techniques.\n", "BULLET::::- Material: A material movement Krumpers use to show a random item to further story telling. (i.e. pouring water on the ground and slipping.)\n\nBULLET::::- Jabs: short, sharp, staccato movements when the arms extend from the chest outwards and with the same energy pulling it back.\n\nBULLET::::- Stomps: Stomping the foot to the ground in a way that they Krumpers are getting their energy from the ground itself.\n", "Waviness is included in the ISO standards ISO 4287 and ISO 16610-21 as well as the U.S. standard ASME B46.1, and it is part of the surface texture symbol used in engineering drawings.\n\nSection::::Measurement.\n", "Directly stuck idiophones produce sound resulting from a direct action of the performer as opposed to the indirectly struck idiophones. The player strikes the instrument with a direct action, either by hand or by mechanical intermediate devices, beaters, keyboards, or by pulling ropes, etc. It is definitive that the player can apply clearly defined individual strokes and that the instrument itself is equipped for this kind of percussion.\n\nThere are two main categories of directly struck idiophones, concussion idiophones (111.1) and percussion idiophones (111.2).\n\nSection::::Directly struck (111).:Concussion idiophones or clappers (111.1).\n", "Tap testing or sounding involves gently striking the material with a hammer or hard object to find delamination based on the resulting sound. In laminated composites, a clear ringing sound indicates a well bonded material whereas a duller sound indicates the presence of delamination due to the defect dampening the impact. Tap testing is well suited for finding large defects in flat panel composites with a honeycomb core whereas thin laminates may have small defects that are not discernible by sound. Using sound is also subjective and dependent on the inspector's quality of hearing as well as judgement. Any intentional variations in the part may also change the pitch of the produced sound, influencing the inspection. Some of these variations include ply overlaps, ply count change gores, core density change (if used), and geometry.\n", "BULLET::::- Rain: Rain is a little girl wearing a dress that has pigtails. Her normal action allows her to pick up and move a single marker. Rain can't move as fast when she is carrying a marker, however, the marker will grow bigger while she is carrying it. Her super action makes all the markers on the screen larger.\n", "Taps are mounted to the sole of the shoe with screws, and sometimes adhesive as well. The screws are driven into a \"soundboard\" – a thin fiberboard integrated into the sole that can be firmly \"gripped\" by the screws – to reliably attach the tap to the shoe. When no adhesive is used, the screws can be loosened or tightened to produce different sounds, whereas tonal quality is fixed when adhesive is used.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- American traditional informal freeform solo folk dancing\n\nBULLET::::- Flamenco\n\nBULLET::::- Solo dance\n\nBULLET::::- Step dance\n\nBULLET::::- Stepping (African-American)\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n", "Section::::Insoles and inserts.\n\nThe foot provides the sensory information to the central nervous system through cutaneous afferent feedback, which originates from the special mechanoreceptors within the plantar surface of the foot. This afferent feedback has a strong influence on postural stability and balance correction during standing and walking. Since sensory feedback from the foot may be influenced by the interaction of the foot with the insole surface, different types of insoles and shoe inserts have been used to try to enhance postural stability.\n\nSection::::Insoles and inserts.:Textured inserts.\n", "Tapping machine\n\nA tapping machine is a device used to test the impact sound insulation of floors, for measurements of impact noise (noise of footsteps) in the field of building acoustics.\n", "Wood floors, particularly older ones, will tend to 'squeak' in certain places. This is caused by the wood rubbing against other wood, usually at a joint of the subfloor. Firmly securing the pieces to each other with screws or nails may reduce this problem.\n", "Soft Foot\n\nSoft foot is a common term used for machine frame distortion. The distortion is caused when one or more foot of a machine differ in height from the others. This in turn may be due to differences when the machine was manufactured, a squishy footage with oil film etc. between foot and base, a bent foot, or it may be induced by a pipe to which the machine is attached (e.g. a pipe on top of a pump), which prevents the machine from touching all its feet to its base.\n", "Waviness is the measure of surface irregularities with a spacing greater than that of surface roughness. These irregularities usually occur due to warping, vibrations, or deflection during machining.\n\nSection::::Measurement.\n\nSurface finish may be measured in two ways: \"contact\" and \"non-contact\" methods. Contact methods involve dragging a measurement stylus across the surface; these instruments are called profilometers. Non-contact methods include: interferometry, confocal microscopy, focus variation, structured light, electrical capacitance, electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy and photogrammetry.\n\nSection::::Specification.\n", "The standard tapping machine has five hammers placed in a line. Each hammer is lifted and dropped in turn, creating 20 impacts per second on the floor. In the room below or adjacent, a sound level meter is used to measure the sound level created by the impacts. Because the force and frequency of the impacts is known, the impact insulation provided by the floor can be determined from the sound level.\n", "BULLET::::- Direct/ Reflection ratio: In enclosed rooms, two types of sound are arriving at a listener: The direct sound arrives at the listener's ears without being reflected at a wall. Reflected sound has been reflected at least one time at a wall before arriving at the listener. The ratio between direct sound and reflected sound can give an indication about the distance of the sound source.\n\nBULLET::::- Loudness: Distant sound sources have a lower loudness than close ones. This aspect can be evaluated especially for well-known sound sources.\n", "BULLET::::- Ear protection - Compared to other power tools, a lathe is a quiet machine. Ear protection should be used if noise is excessive, this may be due to motor (fan) noise from a shop dust collector, or the combination of wood and tool being used.\n", "Another example of the stick-slip phenomenon occurs when musical notes are played with a glass harp by rubbing a wet finger along the rim of a crystal wine glass. One animal that produces sound using stick-slip friction is the spiny lobster which rubs its antennae over smooth surfaces on its head. Another, more common example which produces sound using stick-slip friction is the grasshopper.\n\nStick-slip can also be observed on the atomic scale using a friction force microscope. In such case, the phenomenon can be interpreted using the Tomlinson model.\n", "BULLET::::2. Impact transmission - a noise source in one room results from an impact of an object onto a separating surface, such as a floor and transmits the sound to an adjacent room. A typical example would be the sound of footsteps in a room being heard in a room below. Acoustic control measures usually include attempts to isolate the source of the impact, or cushioning it. For example carpets will perform significantly better than hard floors.\n", "Textured Inserts are regular shoe inserts that have a raised textured surface on the side that acts to provide enhanced mechanical contact and pressure on the plantar surface of the feet. Providing a textured surface of the shoe insert leads to significant changes during gait in ankle joint kinematics and in EMG amplitude of ankle flexor and extensor muscles. Textured inserts mostly affect ankle motion in the sagittal plane, where plantar flexion of the foot is increased. As for muscle activity, textured inserts decrease the activation of soleus and tibialis anterior muscles during standing and walking.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]

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